International Centre for development "V oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA) ICRA
Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation (EARO) Kulumsa Agricultural Research Centre (KARCp 1 C
Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau (OADB) Sinana Agricultural Research Centre (SARC)
Ethio-Italian Development co operation Arsi-Bale Rural Development Project (ABRDP)
" The shift to cereal monocropping, a threat or a blessing?” Towards sustainable agricultural production in the Highlands of Southeast Oromia, Ethiopia
ICRA 2001 Ethiopia Team
^ 7' ^V ‘7 ' W-J r j ABSTRACT
Bale Highlands that are characterised by mixed farming system with both crop and livestock components are now shifting to cereal monocropping due to many reasons. In the present report, the causes and effects behind the shift were analysed and the options for sustainable agricultural development in the bimodal rainfall areas of Bale Highlands were discussed.
The research approach followed and the tools and methods used to collect the information were explained. General description of the study area was given. In order to know the causes of this shift, the existing cropping system of both smallholder and large-scale farms was characterised. The interaction and integration of crop and livestock system was described through biological and economic flows. Cost- benefit analysis was also done to know the comparative advantage of monocropping of bread wheat over the other crops.
Stakeholders involved and their contribution to the problematique was analysed along with the existing linkages. Plausible research and development options were suggested to diversify the existing cropping system for sustainability in the Highlands. After screening and prioritisation of these options, research proposals were developed for the first four options giving focus on stakeholder collaboration. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The team would like to thank the International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA), Sinana Agricultural Research Centre (SARC) of Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau (OADB), the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation (EARO), the Arsi- Bale Rural Development Project (Ethio-Italian Development Co-operation) for funding/arranging the study.
Our appreciation is also extended to the whole staff of Sinana Agricultural Research Centre for their kind co-operation during the whole period of the study and a few names which deserve special thanks, Tafa Jobie (Centre Manger), Dr. Mulugeta Negassa (ABRDP consultant in SARC), Getnet Kebede (Head, Research and Extension Division), Solomon Bogale (Animal feeds and nutrition) and Habtamu Seboka (Agronomy) . The team would like to acknowledge the heads of BZADO, BZPDC, BZCPD, DDPC and DAs of the three districts for provision of necessary information and secondary materials. Thanks go to Dr. Amanule Gorfii (KARC), Dr. Bedada Girma (Co-ordinator, NWRP), Obbo Mohammed Hassena (KARC) and Mr. Fabio Bedini (ABRDP) for sharing their experiences and useful suggestions.
Special appreciation goes to EARO-ICRA National co-ordinator, Dr. Aberra Deressa, who helped the team with his valuable suggestions and advice. The team expresses its appreciation to Obbo Aliye Hussen of Oromia Agricultural Research Office for his kind help and interest in the study.
The team would like to thank the Non-Governmental Organisations in Robe especially Hundee-Oromia grassroots development initiative, Robe project office and credit organisation, Oromia Credit and Saving Share Company, Sinana-Dinsho District Brach office for sparing their time and expertise.
The excellent support and contribution of our reviewer, Dr. Willem Heemskerk must be acknowledged. We would like to acknowledge Dr. Driek Enserink for his effort in arranging the study and help during the preparatory phase of the team in ICRA.
Finally, the team would like to appreciate the farmers in the surveyed area who were always ready to meet with us despite the onset of the busy Ganna season. TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT j
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii LIST OF TABLES vi LIST OF FIGURES vii ACRONYMS viii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ix
1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Context of the Study 1 1.1.1 Institutional framework 1 1.1.2 Justification of the study 2 1.1.3 Objectives of the study 2 1.2 Background 3 1.2.1 General information 3 1.2.2 Role of Agriculture in Ethiopian Economy . 3 1.2.3 South-eastern Oromia and Agriculture 4 1.2.4 Bale Zone 4 1.2.5 Wheat production and marketing 6 1.2.6 The study area 7
2 METHODOLOGY 9 2.1 The research approach 9 2.1.1 Terms Of Reference (TOR) 9 2.1.2 Organising an interdisciplinary team 9 2.1.3 Clarifying the development context 10 2.1.4 Analysing the system of interest 10 2.1.5 Screening the research and development options 10 2 .1.6 Prioritising the Research and Development options 10 2.1.7 Formulating Research Proposals 10 2.2 The Research Process, Methods and Tools 12 2.2.1 Preparatory phase 12 2.2.2 Introductory Workshops 12 2.2.3 Secondary'data analysis 12 2 2.4 Stakeholder interviews 13 2.2.5 Reconnaissance survey 13 2.2.6 Site selection 13 2.2.7 In-depth study 14 2 2.8 Hypothetical Typology 15 2 2.9 Mid-term workshop 15 2 2.10 Final Typology 15 2.2.11 Screening and prioritising options 15 2 2.12 Report writing 16 2 2.13 Final workshop 16
3 CEREAL BASED FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE BALE HIGHLANDS 17 3.1 Agro-ecoiogical Zonatioo 17 3.1.1 General 17 iii v/._. 6.2 Justification 16 6 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS DEVELOPMENT AND RESEARCH 6 analysis anafysis/Comparative Cost-benefit 5.1 5.2 Constraints and opportunities of cereal monocropping cereal of opportunities and Constraints 5.2 4.2 Agricultural Knowledge and information system information and Knowledge Agricultural 4.2 5 CEREAL MONOCROPPING CEREAL 5 analysis Stakeholder 4.1 4 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS STAKEHOLDER 4 3.6 Large scale farming system farming scale Large 3.6 3.5 Livestock system Livestock system Cropping 3.5 3.4 3.3 Small-scale fanning systems fanning Small-scale 3.3 3.2 Household typology Household 3.2 6.1.3 6.2.2 6.3.1 6.2.1 6.1.2 6.1.1 5.2.2 4.2.3 5.2.1 5.1.4 5.1.3 5.2.4 5.2.3 4.2.4 5.1.2 5.1.1 4.2.2 4.2.1 4.1.3 4.1.2 4.1.1 3.6.1 3.3.4 3.3.3 3.6.2 3.3.5 3.3.2 3.3.1 3.2.4 3.2.3 3.2.1 3.2.2 Oi Ui 3.1.3 3.1.2 Screening and prioritisation of research and development options development and research of prioritisation and Screening / / v . .v . v Risk and potential of wheat production in the context of long-term market and globalisation and market long-term of context the in production wheat of potential and Risk Constraints Research options Research Development options Development Opportunities monocropping of Causes monocropping of Effects Screening R &D options &DR Screening Prioritisation of R & D options D R &of Prioritisation Comparative analysis of small holder farm and large scale farm scale large and farm holder small of analysis change Comparative yield and change price of terms in analysis Sensitivity Research and Development options Development and Research farmers holder small for analysis cost-benefit the of Result Information management Information Information sources Information stakeholders the of influence and importance Relative Problems, decisions, recommendations decisions, Problems, Indigenous knowledge Indigenous Matrix Linkage Stakeholders' Intended beneficiaries assessment beneficiaries Intended Livelihood System Livelihood Bale Agricultural Development Enterprise Development Agricultural Bale Information carriers Information Identification of Stakeholders and their Interests their and Stakeholders of Identification Trends in the farming system farming the in Trends Access to road and Market and road to Access Oxen ownership Oxen Activity Chart Activity Access and control and Access Resource flows in the farming system farming the in flows Resource Access to information and technology and information to Access Land Tenure Land Arable Land Arable ownership Land use Land 66 77 56 69 69 66 73 62 62 75 60 72 70 83 81 74 84 66 85 59 58 78 86 56 49 72 84 77 54 56 20 31 27 59 86 33 56 24 20 20 42 49 36 iv 18 18 19 19 19 19 6.3.2 Research feasibility in SARC and Possibility of research collaboration 89
7 OUTLINE OF RESEARCH PROPOSALS 92
ANNEXES 101 Annexe I The flow chart of ARD-procedure used in the study i Annexe II Terms of Reference ii Annexe III Core programme of ICRA course ix
Annexe IV List of stakeholders X Annexe V Logical Framework xi Annexe VI Work plan of ICRA-Sinana 2001 field study xiii
Annexe VII Research Plan for 2001 Ethiopia-ICRA field study in south-east Oromia XV Annexe VIII List of participants in the Workshops xix
Annexe IX Preliminary Household typology criteria XX Annexe X Crops grown in the study area xxi Annexe XI Crops grown in different seasons in the study area xxii Annexe XII Cost analysis of wheat production at the state farms -Sinana and Robe xxiii
Annexe XIII Key Stakeholders and interests identified XXV' Annexe XIV Stakeholders involved in cereal monocropping in Bale Highland xxvi Annexe XV Stakeholders contribution to cereal monocropping and diversification xxvii Annexe XVI Crop production budgeting with lower price of small holder farmer xxix
Annexe XVII Crop production budgeting with higher price of small holder farmer XXX Annexe XVTII Sensitivity analysis of crop budgeting xxxi Annexe XIX Wheat and barley production budgeting of state farms xxxiii Annexe XX Cost-benefit comparison between state farm and small holder farm xxxiii Annexe XXI Cereal production, marketable surplus and food aid in Bale zone xxxiv Annexe XXII Introduced and other problematic weeds found in the study area xxxiv Annexe XXIII SWOT analysis of small holder production system in Bale highlands xxxiv
Annexe XXIV SWOT analysis of large-scale production system in Bale Highlands XXXV
Annexe XXV Research and development options as per the target group XXXV Annexe XXVI Screening and priority setting process xxxvi Annexe XXVII Proposals xxxix Annexe XXVIII List of Documents consulted Ix
V LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Basic population and land use statistics in Bale Zone and three target Districts...... 4 Table 1.2Main crops in Bale Zone and three target districts...... 5 Table 1.3Basic livestock population data in Bale Zone and three target districts...... 6 Table 1.4 Staple food requirement and marketable surplus in 1996-2000 period...... 7 Table 2.1 Household heads and population of eight PAs selected for the study...... 14 Table 2.2 Land use system in the PAs selected for study...... 14 Table 3.1 Agro-ecological classification of the study area in Bale highlands...... 18 Table 3.2 Household typology categories...... 20 Table 3.3 Timeline of historical events related to Wheat Monocropping...... 23 Table 3.4 Division of responsibility and Decision making in MHH in different PAs visited in Agarfa, Goba and Sinana-Dinsho districts...... 32 Table 3.5 Access to and control of resources...... 34 Table 3.6 Percentage of area covered by different crops inthree districts of Bale zone in Ganna and Bona seasons averaged over five years (1996-2000)...... 37 Table 3.7 Yield of crops (q/ha) grown in Agarfa, Goba and Sinana-Dinsho districts...... 39 Table 3.8 Livestock population in the selected P A s...... 43 Table 3.9 Equine and small ruminant population in the selected PA s...... 43 Table 3.10 Time line of main events in agricultural history of Bale Zone...... 45 Table 3.11 State farms parameters...... 50 Table 3.12 The results of wheat production activity in Sinana and Robe State farm s...... 51 Table 3.13 Data about age structure of tractors and combines...... 53 Table 7.1 General information on research and development proposals...... 92 Table 7.2 Logical framework of proposal 1...... 93 Table 7.3 Logical framework of proposal II...... 95 Table 7.4 Logical framework of proposal III...... 97 Table 7.5 Logical framework of proposal IV ...... 99 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Location of SARC in southeast oromia region...... 1 Figure 1.2Average monthly rainfall for Sinana State Farm...... 5 Figure 1.3 Average monthly temperature for Sinana State farm...... 5 Figure 1.4 Map o f the study area...... 8 Figure 2.1 Rich Picture...... 11 Figure 3.1 Map of the study area with its agro-ecological classification...... 17 Figure 3.2 Schematic representation of factors related with Change in Food habit...... 21 Figure 3.3 Bio-resource flow of visited PAs in the Agarfa, Goba and Sinana-Dinsho Districts ...... 28 Figure 3.4 Economic flows in the farming system...... 30 Figure 3.5 Cropping calendar of visited PAs in Agarfa, Goba and Sinana-Dinsho...... 41 Figure 3.6 Labour need and availability for different farm activities in Agarfa, Goba and Sinana-Dinsho Districts...... 42 Figure 3.7 Number o f oxen in visited P A s...... 43 Figure 3.8 Male and female cattle by purpose in Bale Zone...... 44 Figure 3.9 Feed calendar in Bale Zone...... 46 Figure 3.10 Livestock prices in various markets of Bale Zone ...... 47 Figure 3.11 Effect of Cereal Monocropping on livestock...... 48 Figure 3.12 Organogramme of Bale Agricultural Development Enterprise...... 49 Figure 3.13 Main production characteristics of Robe and Sinana State farms...... 51 Figure 3.14 Wheat production costs in Robe and Sinana State Farm...... 52 Figure 3.15 Operations of wheat production at Sinana and Robe state farms...... 53 Figure 3.16 Problem tree of the BADE state farms...... 54 Figure 4.1 Stakeholder Influence and Importance Matrix in relation to cereal monocropping ...... 57 Figure 4.2 Stakeholder linkage m atrix...... 59 Figure 4.3 Agricultural knowledge and information system in the visited PAs...... 65 Figure 5.1 Gap of wheat price between lowland and highland in Bale Zone in February 2000 ...... 72 Figure 5.2 Problem tree of cereal monocropping...... 73 Figure 6 .1 Overall score of prioritised options...... 86 ACRONYMS
AAU Addis Ababa University ABRDP Arsi-Bale Rural Development Project ADWTC Agarfa Development Workers Training Centre AEZ Agro-ecological Zonation AISCO Agricultural Input Supply Corporation AKIS Agricultural Knowledge and Information System AMF Assela Malt Factory AMS Agricultural Mechanisation Service ARD Agricultural Research for Development ARDU Arsi Rural Development Unit ASE Agri-Service Ethiopia AU Alemaya University BADE Bale Agricultural Development Enterprise BZADO Bale Zone Agricultural Development Office BZCPD Bale Zone Co-operative Promotion Department BZPEDO Bale Zone Planning and Economic Development Office CADU Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre CSA Central Statistical Authority DA Development Agent EARO Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation ECLSU European Commission Local Food Security Unit ESE Ethiopian Seed Enterprise FMFI Farmer managed and farmer implemented FRG Farmer Research Group FEG Farmer Extension Group GRMP Grain Marketing Research Project HARC Holleta Agricultural Research Centre ICARDA International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry-land Area ICRA International Centre for development-oriented Research in Agriculture ILRI International Livestock Research Institute IRDP Integrated Rural Development Program KARC Kulumsa Agricultural Research Centre MARC Melkassa Agricultural Research Centre NWRP National Wheat Research Program OADB Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau OCSSCo Oromia Credit and Saving Share Company PA Peasant Association RMFI Researcher managed and farmer implemented RMRI Researcher managed and researcher implemented RESAL European Food Security Network RREAC Regional research and extension advisory council SARC Sinana Agricultural Research Centre SSDP Seed System Development Programme SWOT Strength, Weakness. Opportunities and Threat \v * r v * ' “ * rricuitural Development Unit "r’ -•> .4 o.T- ■ -- -- w * W WFP World Food Programme
viii i
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report is an outcome of the field study carried out by an interdisciplinary team from ICRA. This field study was conducted in the bimodal rainfall areas of Bale Highlands of Southeast Oromia. These highlands were characterised by the integrated (mixed) farming systems.
Continuous monocrops of cereals in both farm types (subsistence as well as state farms) dominate crop production in Bale Highlands. Bread wheat is a sole crop in large-scale state farms while barley and wheat dominate in subsistence farms. Currently monocropping of bread wheat is being followed extensively due to its higher productivity and ease of mechanisation as compared to barley. The increased practice of wheat monocropping and cultivation of medium-statured varieties producing less biomass have also negative impact on livestock production in terms of straw yield for feed, although straw is used for feed optimally. The increasing human population pressure also leads to reducing arable and grazing lands.
All these interrelated factors have contributed to low agricultural production in general and lack of sustainable productivity and production of mixed farming systems in particular, especially resulting in ecological, biological, economic and social risks for farmers. Keeping this in view, the field study was carried out in Bale Zone with the following main objectives:
H To characterise the wheat- barley and livestock farming systems of small holder farms and the farming system of the two state farms in the study area 0 To study the interaction and integration of the wheat-barley and livestock components in the smallholder farms. 8 To analyse the trends within the smallholder farms from a historical perspective and provide causes for the shifts that took place fl To investigate, if differences in access to farm resources affect management options of smallholders in relation to the production of cereal crops. If so, a relevant farm typology must be developed to target future R & D efforts B To assess the strengths and weaknesses of the technology development and dissemination process for cereal crops ■ To make recommendations to improve the systems compatibility of cereal technology generation and adoption in order to enhance agricultural production in a sustainable way ■ To identify options to strengthen effective interaction (in particular provision of effective feed-back mechanisms) and information flow mechanisms among agricultural stakeholders involved in cereal production
Methodology
The team used agricultural Research for Development (ARD) approach. This procedure integrates the diverse perspectives of various stakeholders utilising participatory and systems approaches. ARD aims at research that responds to the needs of clients and contributes to food security, poverty alleviation and sustainable natural resource use. The problem of “cereal monocropping" was viewed in a wider perspective involving all the stakeholders to come out with research and development options, which are screened and prioritised Out of these four options were developed into research proposals.
ix Key findings
Characteristics of farming systems
Smallholder farming systems
The farming system in the area is characterised by cereal dominant cropping system with livestock as a component. But historically, livestock based farming system was predominant in the Zone. There are two distinct seasons in the study area: Ganna (March to August) and Bona (August to January). The major crops grown are barley, wheat, emmer wheat, linseed, field pea, faba bean, teff, lentil and maize in both the seasons though the proportion varies. For example wheat is the major crop in Bona whereas barley in ganna. Oxen traction is used mainly. Farmers usually don't use the same land for both ganna and bona due to overlapping of the seasons. Currently bread wheat cultivation has increased due to the higher productivity, ease of mechanisation and availability of improved varieties. Though livestock is still found in every household, the population and production are reduced due to reduced grazing land. This is mainly attributed to the increase in human population and conversion of grazing land into arable land.
Large-scale farming system (State farms)
The two state farms of Sinana and Robe were analysed in the present study. Cereals always occupied 90-95% of the area. The main crop of these farms is wheat followed by malt barley. Emphasis was given to wheat due to its ease for mechanisation and these state farms have specialised equipment like tractors, sprayer (by specialised helicopters) and combine harvester.
Cost-benefit analysis- comparison between both the farms
Cost-benefit analysis revealed that wheat has the highest financial profitability in terms of gross monetary return and return to labour in both the price situations. At higher price level, gross monetary return was found highest for wheat followed by barley, teff, faba bean, field pea, linseed, emmer wheat and maize. Return to labour at higher price level was found maximum in wheat followed by barley, field pea, faba bean, teff, linseed, emmer wheat and maize. Whereas benefit-cost ratio was found highest for field pea followed by barley, teff, faba bean, wheat and linseed Although economic motivation was the main reason for farmers preferring to grow wheat but this analysis clearly indicated that it was not just benefit-cost ratio but farmers are considering gross monetary return and return to labour as main criteria for deciding on the crop to be grown.
Cost-benefit analysis of large-scale farms revealed that financial profitability was in a negative situation in the last years. It was found that the cost of production was high for state farms as compared to smallholder farms, which was mainly due to the poor management, high overhead costs and debts. Trends
B .Arable farming is increasing at the expense of grazing land and forest land 8 Land races and local cultivars were replaced by improved varieties from the existing cropping system resulting in biological risks. 0 Bread wheat cultivation is increasing due to high productivity at the expense of secondary crops but not barley B The use of agricultural mechanisation, particularly combine harvester has increased dramatically in the last few years B Food consumption pattern has changed from genfo to injera, mainly due to reduction in the livestock products
Typology
Based on the in-depth study, the farm households were classified into three types on the basis of the access to farm resources, technology and information as follows:
Typel > 5 ha arable land, > 2 pairs of oxen, access to information and technology Type 2 >2-5 ha arable land, 1-2 pairs of oxen and access to information Type 3 < 2 ha arable land, > 1 pair of oxen, no access to information
Constraints and opportunities
A number of driving forces (causes) were found responsible for the cereal monocropping. The most important technological constraints include lack of improved varieties of alternative crops, prevalence of diseases and pests resulting in low yields and poor mechanisation, particularly for harvesting and threshing. Weak linkage between farmer, extensionist and researcher leading to poor dissemination of information and technologies, problem of seed multiplication due to which there is a time lag between the release of a variety and its availability to the farmer are the major institutional constraints. Social constraints include shortage of arable land, low risk taking ability of farmers, labour shortage during peak periods of activity, less demand and market opportunities for alternative crops. Opportunities of both smallholder farms and large-scale farms were analysed and some of these are translated in options.
Research and Development options
Plausible options suggested were grouped into research (4), research and development (4) and development (2) options. These options were screened and prioritised with different stakeholders. Stakeholders used their own criteria for screening and prioritisation, though all these criteria fall under environmental sustainability, economic competitivity and social equity. Based on this prioritisation, the first four options were translated into proposals. The feasibility of these four options in relation to their implementation was also analysed in chapter 6 Stakeholder linkages
There are a number of stakeholders involved or concerned with the problem of cereal monocropping. Out of these, 14 were considered as ‘key stakeholders’ as they are directly involved in encouraging and supporting wheat cultivation due to the country’s food self- sufficiency strategy. These include agricultural research organisations, Zonal organisations, NGOs, Farmers and BADE. Though the linkage between the research organisations and zonal organisations, within themselves was found strong but there exists a weak linkage between farmer, researcher and extensionist, which need to be strengthened. Due to this relationship, there is limited feedback provided to researchers by extension department and limited support they get from researchers, leading to poor client-orientation of research.
Research proposals
The first four prioritised options viz., Extending varieties of alternative crops (field pea, faba bean, linseed, lentil, mustard, teff and vegetables), Improving and screening of varieties of alternative crops (barley, maize, pepper), Develop seed multiplication and dissemination scheme and Analysis of marketing mechanism and credit system were translated into research proposals involving relevant stakeholders. The details along with logical framework are given in chapter 7. These proposals also emphasised the collaboration of stakeholders and further strengthening of farmer, extensionist and researcher linkages. 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Context of the Study
1.1.1 Institutional framework
The field study was carried out as a joint activity among Sinana Agricultural Research Centre (SARC) of Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau (OADB), the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation (EARO), the Arsi-Bale Rural Development Project (Ethio-Italian Development Co-operation), and the International Centre for Development Oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA). The field study is hosted by SARC.
Sinana Agricultural Research Centre (SARC) was established in May 1986 as the main research centre in the Southeast agro-ecological zone of Ethiopia. It has a mandate to identify, characterise and prioritise agricultural production constraints with small farmers and other stakeholders to find solutions for researchable constraints and make possible interventions in collaboration with all concerned stakeholders, mainly agricultural development organisations (GOs and NGOs) and the basic clients, farmers.
Figure l.lLocation of SARC in southeast oromia region
SARC undertakes research both on-station and on-farm to alleviate major agricultural production constraints under actual farming system circumstances in areas with bimodal as well as unimodal rainfall patterns The centre has been conducting research in many highland food crops: bread, durum and emmer wheat, food and malting barley, teff, field pea, faba bean, lentil, chickpea, and in a number of oil crops (linseed, mustard), horticultural crops (Irish potato, garlic) and forage crops. The centre also collaborates with national and international (ICARDA and CIMMYT) programmes in all of these crops, except emmer wheat (sole responsibility of SARC), primarily as a means of obtaining new germplasm on a regular basis.
1.1.2 Justification of the study
Rainfed agriculture is the sole occupation in the highlands of Southeast Oromia. These highlands are characterised by integrated (mixed) farming systems. The Southeast highlands are known as the cereal belt (wheat-barley) of the country and by its large livestock population. These highlands have uni-modal, (June to December) or bimodal (March to July and August to December) rainfalls pattern and are therefore highly suitable for agriculture.
Barley and bread wheat are the major and dominating crops grown in the highlands of Bale. Emmer wheat, linseed and field peas follow in order of importance. Currently bread wheat is taking the upper hand due to its higher productivity and mechanisation potential than barley.
The growth of the current agricultural productivity and the overall production, however, varies greatly between seasons and years and does not keep pace with the ever-increasing population growth. Causes for low agricultural productivity growth are many, interrelated and very complex in the Southeast highlands.
At present, in the highlands, rainfall conditions such as the onset and end, amount, distribution, duration are highly variable. Therefore, moisture shortage becomes the first most important limiting factor in current agricultural production. Crop production management and biotic and abiotic factors are also critical constraints contributing for low productivity per unit area. Declining soil fertility, prevalence of diseases, insect pests and weeds are major production constraints.
Bale is also known for its livestock production. With the rapid expansion of crop cultivation in the highlands of Bale, the land remaining for livestock grazing has reduced. The increased practice of wheat monocropping and the cultivation of medium-short statured varieties producing less biomass have also negative impact on livestock production in terms of straw yield for feed. The increasing human population pressure is also reducing arable and grazing lands.
All these interrelated factors have contributed to low agricultural production in general, and lack of sustainable productivity and production of wheat-barley and livestock integrated farming systems in the study areas in particular
1.1.3 Objectives o f the study
The main objectives and expected outputs of the study have been formulated in the terms of reference for the study (Annexe II):
• To characterise the wheat - barley and livestock farming systems of smallholder and the farming system of the two state farms in the study area, ■ To ST- the : :n and in:izration c: the wheat'-barley and livestock components in
2 ■ To analyse the trends within the smallholder farms from a Vstoric?! -- prcvi:'? iVi shi*;* mat ^ jk place (special anenuon should be paid to the possible causes associated with the shift towards bread wheat cultivation), * To investigate, if differences in access to farm resources affect management options of smallholders in relation to the production of cereal crops. If so, a relevant farm typology must be developed to target future R & D efforts. ■ To assess the past trends and the current status (strength and weaknesses) of the technology development and dissemination process for cereal crops; ■ To study the level of technology adoption and identify constraining and enhancing factors for cereal crops; * To make recommendations to improve the systems compatibility of cereal technology generation and adoption in order to enhance agricultural production in the study area in a more sustainable way. ■ To identify options to strengthen effective interaction (in particular provision of effective feedback mechanisms) and information flow mechanisms among agricultural stakeholders involved in cereal production.
1.2 Background
1.2.1 General information
Ethiopia is situated in the eastern part of Africa. It is the second largest country in sub- Saharan Africa, covering an area of about 1.1 million square km, with an estimated population of 67 million people (projection by CSA for 2000). It is a diverse country, both culturally and agro-ecologically. Altitudes vary from 100m below sea level in the Danakli depression to 4600m above sea level on the Simien Mountain Massif. It has climatic conditions that range from desert to afro-alpine. The widely varying habitat, which includes mountains, lakes, deserts, savannahs and everything in between, hosts an astonishing richness in biodiversity.
1.2.2 Role o f Agriculture in Ethiopian Economy
Agriculture occupies an important place in the Ethiopian economy, providing over 94% of the exports, 48% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 88% employment for the total Ethiopia workforce (1995 data in NRI, 1996). Of the Agricultural Gross Domestic Product (AgGDP) about one-fifth comes from livestock and the rest from crops, with roughly one-half of the crop value added coming from coffee, which accounts for some two-thirds of export earnings (Pickett, 1991).
Of the total land area of Ethiopia an estimated 9% is cropped i.e. 11 million hectares. Major crops are in order of hectarage (FAOAVFP, 2001): teff (2 600 000 ha), maize (1 830 000 ha), sorghum (1 692 000), wheat (1 675 000 ha) and pulses (1 495 000 ha) and oil crops (300 000 ha) and many smaller crops. Coffee is the major export crop (295 000 ha in 1995).
Wheat is the fourth most important cereal crop both in area and production. Smallholders cultivate 82% of the total wheat production area, producing 76% of wheat harvested in the country. The remaining 24% is produced on state farms and producer co-operatives (Hailu Gebremariam 1991). In recent years the proportion of smallholder production has increased,
3 due to the demise of co-operatives and privatisation of state farms. A private medium to large scale farming sector is growing.
Ethiopia has a large livestock population comprised of cattle (29 450 000), sheep (21 700 000), goats (16 700 000, equines (9 580 000) and an estimated 54 000 000 chicken (FAO, 1995 inNRI, 1996).
1.2.3 South-eas/em Oromia and Agriculture
Oromia is one of the nine regional states of Ethiopia, located in the central-west Ethiopia (see Figurel.l). It is characterised by diverse ecological conditions that make the area particularly suitable for growing different crops. Its landscape includes high and rugged mountain ranges, undulating to rolling plateau, panoramic gorges and deep river valleys. Ethiopia's largest ethnic group, the Oromo, lives in this region. The Southeast Oromia includes two zones namely Arsi and Bale out of the twelve administrative zones. It is known by extensive wheat production and some times it is called ‘Wheat Belt of Ethiopia’.
1.2.4 Bale Zone
Bale Zone is the second largest zone after Borena and characterised by a wide variety of geomorphic landscapes. The land area coverage is roughly about 67330 sq. km (18.8%) of the Oromiya Regional State.
Table 1.1 Basic population and land use statistics in Bale Zone and three target Districts
Item Bale Zone Agarfa Sinana-Dinsho Goba Total area in sq km 67330 1141 2252 1796 Total population projection 2001 1445325 79051 163008 70053 Population density 2001 21 28 30 23 Rural population 2001 1271349 69204 133054 35853 Rural households 2001 259459 14123 27154 7317
Land use 1999 1999 1999 1999 Total arable land (Ha) 982974 57589 65389 23261 Total grazing land (Ha) 2631704 38377 73883 49516 Forest and parks (Ha) 1693542 15265 72100 98054 Marginal land (Ha) 666538 2851 5450 3074 Residential areas, roads etc 760795 0 8600 5500
The population of the zone is projected to be 1445325 for 2001 (Table 1 1) at a growth of 2.5% for Oromia Region (2.3% rural population growth and 4.2% urban population growth)(CSA, 1996). More than 95% of the population is dependent on agriculture and 88% lives in rural areas (BZPEDO, 1999). Rural women constitute 47.9% of the rural population in Bale Zone in 1999. while 5.2% of households are Female Headed (FHH's) (BZPEDO, 1999).
From the total area (6 733 000 ha), cultivated land accounts for 15%, grazing land 39%, forest and parks 25%, marginal waste land 10% and others residential areas, roads etc. 11%.
4 Figure rr* “ "’ - ^ ~
The rainfall is bimodal in most of the areas with 600mm in lowlands and 2,300mm in highlands, average temperatures minimum and maximum range from 0°C in forest area to 30°C in lowland area (BZADB report, 1998/99). (Figure 1.2 and 1.3). Average for 10 years (1990-2000) Based on climatic factors, particularly precipitation and temperature, and additionally altitude, Bale Zone is categorised into 8 major agro-ecologies: (Ml, M2, SM2, SH3, H2, H3, HI and SH2) and 11 sub-agro-ecologies: (SH2-7, H2-7, Ml-7, H2-7, SH2-1, M2-1, Ml-1, SMI-7, SMI-1, SH3-7 and H3-7). Figure 1.3Average monthly temperature for Sinana State farm.
The common food crops grown in Bale zone are cereals 85% of cropped area (28% wheat, 26% barley, 10% teff, 7% emmer wheat and 12% maize), 8% highland pulses (mainly faba beans and field peas), 6% highland oil crops (mainly linseed) and 1% other crops (horticultural crops and fruit crops). The percentage of cereals in the cropped land is increasing (85% in 1998) as well as the area covered by bread wheat (area coverage ranging from 28 to 33%) (BZPEDO, 1999).
Table 1.2Main crops in Bale Zone and three target districts
Cropping system Bale Zone Agarfa Sinana-Dinsho Goba Recording years 1997-1998 1996-2000 1996-2000 1996-2000 Cropped area (Ha) 324555 29078 52869 17611 Wheat area (belg+meher)Ha 92385 9341 17459 5089 Barley area (belg +meher)Ha 83790 10571 19980 8901 Other cereals (Ha) 99805 4144 8873 2388 Pulses (Ha) 20520 1895 4544 793 Oil crops (linseed) (Ha) 38883 1545 3188 441 % cereal monocropping 85% 83% 88% 93% % wheat monocropping 28% 32% 33% 29% Wheat production (qt) 841765 92349 215754 45936 Wheat yield in kq/ha 911 989 1236 903 Barley production (qt) 825980 110927 240900 98611 Barley yield in kg/ha 986 1049 1206 1108 Total cereal production (qt) 2312355 241359 55S459 165762 Cropped land/ Rural HH (ha/hh) 1,25 2,06 1,95 2,41 5 The Bale Zone Planning and Economic Development Office provides higher data for livestock population (BZPEDO, 1996, 1999) than the Central Statistics Authority (CSA, 1999) (e.g. 2 170 000 vs. 1 440 000 heads of cattle). The Zonal data have been presented in Tablel.3. Livestock density is highest in Agarfa District Table 1.3Basic livestock population data in Bale Zone and three target districts
Livestock system Bale Zone Agarfa Sinana-Dinsho Goba Recording year (s) 1996 1999 1999 1999 Cattle (= 0,9 TLSU) 2178B60 127462 74397 26677 Sheep (=0,13 TLSU) 347060 11932 18899 10688 Goat (0,13 TLSU) 347860 11010 4725 1930 Donkey (0,7 TLSU) 111000 7726 7616 2713 Horse (1,1 TLSU) 92000 3133 9263 3303 Mule (0,7 TLSU) 12000 1067 832 232 TLSU 2238614 127300 86131 31344 Livestock density (LSU/ha) 0.85 3,32 V? 0,63
1.2.5 Wheat production and marketing
Ethiopia is the largest wheat producer in sub-Saharan Africa with about 0.8 million ha of durum and bread wheat. Wheat is one of the major cereal crops in the Ethiopian highlands, which range between 6 and 16°N, 35 and 42° E, and from 1500 to 2800m. At present, wheat is produced solely under rainfed conditions (Hailu Gebremariam 1991). Major wheat production areas are located in the Arsi, Bale, Shewa, Ilubabor, Western Harerghe, Sidamo, Tigray, Northern Gonder and Gojam region (Bekele Hundie et al., 2000).
In the 89-99 period total cereal production in Ethiopia varied from 5606.3 thousand MT in 1992 to 9423 thousand MT in 1997. In the same period food aid imports varied from 254 thousand MT (1996) to 844 thousand MT (1994). In 1998 Ethiopia was expected to produce 2164.4 thousand MT of wheat out of 10000 thousand MT total cereals (FAO/WFP, 1998). It is estimated that 2348 thousand MT wheat was produced in 2000/2001 season.
According to figures of the Grain Marketing Research Project (GRMP, 1998) 31% of wheat produced by farmers is marketed. Of the total marketable surplus of wheat (550 thousand MT) only some 158 thousand MT is expected to be available for the national food security programme purchases (WFP/ECLSU, 2001).
Some 200 000 MT of wheat is required every year by the National Food Security Programme (WFP/ECLSU, 2001). The wheat market in Ethiopia is liberalised, although some market obstacles (local taxes, export markets) can still be identified. The domestic price of wheat in Ethiopia is subjective to heavy seasonal fluctuations. The domestic price has oscillated between the export parity price for wheat (EPP1) and the import parity price (IPP2), which is between 50 and 200 Birr/Quintal. The elasticity of wheat demand was found to be low in
1 Export Parity Pnce is the calculated domestic price which will allow Ethiopian wheat to compete on the world market
2 The Import Parity Pnce is the calculated domestic price of wheat at actual world market prices. 6 Ethiopia fexc^f P*''?1? " i1! change to c;hsr cereals li ihe wneai pnce becomes too high. The reverse is also true wheat demand will increase if prices are low and reduce prices in other cereals (e.g. 2000/2001 season) (RESAL/EU/LFSU, 1999). Total cereal production in the Bale Zone reached 227 thousand MT in 1998 produced on 279000 ha, which amounts to 85% cereal monocropping.
Small-scale wheat production in the Bale Highlands has expanded rapidly since 1985 (17630 ha) to 103390 ha in 1999 (29% wheat of total crops), which corresponds to 13482 MT (765 Kg/ha) and 121736 MT (1177 kg/ha), respectively. The wheat area of the Bale Zone state farms (Robe and Sinana) has decreased from 29550 ha in 1985 to 10160 ha in 1997. All Bale Zone producer co-operatives (10160 ha in 1990) have collapsed after 1991 (Bekele Hundie et al, 2000).
In 1999 Bale Highlands Zone had a total population of 1410 000. The total cereal requirement was estimated at 211 500 (150 kg per adult person). Since the total production was estimated at 158500 MT a shortfall of 53000 MT was expected. (FAO/WFP, 1998). In other years Bale Zone produces a surplus (Table 1.4). Table 1.4 Staple food requirement and marketable surplus in 1996-2000 period
Food security Bale Zone Agarfa Sinana-Dinsho Goba Total population at 150 kg/year (MT) 216799 11858 24451 10508 T otal SS rate 107% 204% 229% 158% Rural population at 150 kg/year (MT) 190702 10381 19958 5378 Marketable surplus cereals 40533 13755 35988 11198 % cereals market /farmer 18% 57% 64% 68%
The available data on food self-sufficiency (Table 1.4) shows that the three districts: Agarfa, Sinana-Dinsho and Goba are surplus producer of cereals. Even if some of districts are surplus producer of cereals, the data of the zone show only a small surplus in good years (1996-2000). Because, out of 17 districts only 8 districts are self-sufficient and the rest mostly dependent on the food aid coming from different donor organisations.
1.2.6 The study area
The field study was conducted in the bimodal rainfall areas of Bale Highlands of Oromia. Districts covered during the field study were Sinana-Dinsho, Goba and Agarfa (Figure 1.4). Within these districts the focus was on representative areas for wheat-barley and livestock integrated farming systems. In these areas, there are two distinct farm types involved in crop production, subsistent small-scale farmers, and large-scale state owned agricultural development enterprises.
The bimodal rainfall areas are found in radii of about 30-70 km from Sinana ARC. The altitude of the area varies between 2200 - 2600 masl. The current main crops in Bale highlands are continuous monocrops of small grain cereals in both farm types (subsistence as well as state farms). Bread wheat is nearly a sole crop in the large-scale state farms year after year, while both bread wheat (for cash) and barley (as a staple food) dominate in subsistence farms. Emmer wheat, linseed, field pea, faba bean and horticultural crops have a high potential, but are currently only minor or neglected crops in the current farm type. Maize and teff are also produced in some pocket areas. In addition to crops, livestock is an important component of the small-scale farm type. 7 j
]
Figure 1.4 Map of the study area 2 METHODOLOGY
2.1 The research approach
The team used the Agricultural Research for Development (ARD) approach in the present field study. ARD is the research approach that integrates the diverse perspectives of different stakeholders utilising participatory and systems approaches. It is a demand driven research that responds to the needs of clients. ARD contributes to the poverty alleviation, food security, sustainable natural resource use and competitiveness of farming enterprises.
Agricultural Research for Development Procedure
ARD procedure (Annexe I) is iterative and involves the following steps: ■ Term s of Reference ■ Organising an interdisciplinary team ■ Clarifying the developmental context ■ Analysing the System of Interest * Screening the Research and Development options ■ Prioritising the Research and Development options ■ Formulating Research Proposals
2.1.1 Terms O f Reference (TOR)
The Terms of Reference contains the problematique/-topic to be addressed by the team. It is prepared by the host institutes (in this case Sinana Agricultural Research Centre (SARC) of Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau (OADB), Kulumsa Agricultural Research Centre (KARC) of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation (EARO), the Arsi - Bale Rural Development Project (Ethio-Italian Development Co-operation) in collaboration with the International Centre For Development Oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA) and is given to the team. The TOR (Annexe II) contains a brief description of the study area, the research problem and the objectives of the study. It also contains the guiding questions to help the team in their further in-depth study.
In addition to the TOR the task force also prepared a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) specifying the roles of each stakeholder towards the successful execution of the field study and also the implementation and follow-up of the study options.
2.1.2 Organising an interdisciplinary team
A team of five members (two Ethiopians and three expatriates) experienced in various * disciplines (Agronomy, Plant Breeding, Agricultural Economics, Agricultural Mechanisation and Entomology) was constituted as per the TOR. The role of each member was defined as per his or her strengths and weaknesses. The team also made some rules and regulations for smooth and effective teamwork
9 2. J. 3 Clarifyifig the development context
The broader context of the problematique/-topic is “The shift to Cereal Monocropping, a threat or a blessing- Towards sustainable agricultural production in the Wheat-Barley and Livestock farming system in the Highlands of Southeast Oromia, Ethiopia" was discussed within the team after going through the TOR and secondary data. The team’s understanding of the research problem along with the factors/ components involved, their interrelations, the stakeholders involved and their interests were all depicted in the form of a Rich Picture (Figure 2.1) to get the development context of the problem at stake. This also includes the policy changes, markets and other research and development organisations operating in the study area.
2.1.4 Analysing the system o f interest
The system of interest is the area that the researchers and other stakeholders would like to change in order to solve the problem. In the present study, “Cereal M onocropping is the system of interest and the team would like to identify options to make agriculture more productive and sustainable in the Southeast Oromia. The constraints and opportunities of cereal monocropping were analysed and the leverage points for interventions were identified.
2.1.5 Screening the research and development options
The Research and Development options identified were screened for environmental sustainability, social equity and economic competitiveness in order to know their implications.
2. J. 6 Prioritising the Research and Development options
The screened options were prioritised to make efficient use of scarce resources available for research and development. All the stakeholders are involved in developing criteria for prioritising the screened options. Options are also assessed for their feasibility.
2.1.7 Formulating Research Proposals
The prioritised options were formulated into research proposals involving the concerned stakeholders, in this study involving the researchers, extensionists and development organisations. The research proposal contains objectives, methodology involved, expected outputs, budget and brief summary of the proposal in the form of logical framework.
10 Figure 2.1 RICHPICTDRe ! •v >y> ■ fei..-.' :'rsC£T~ 'AE RD p~_ dissemination funding research developmei
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! 2.2 The Research Process, Methods and Tools
2.2.1 Preparatory phase
The present field study is being taken up as a pan of 2001 ICRA training programme. The core programme structure is given in Annexe III. Before arriving in Ethiopia, the team spent 13 weeks in Wageningen, The Netherlands. This is split into 10 weeks of Knowledge Acquisition Phase that consisted of a series of workshops exposing the team to ARD procedure, various methods and tools. The acquired knowledge, tools and methods were put into practice in field exercises in Overijssel, The Netherlands.
The knowledge acquisition phase was followed by Field study preparation phase. During this phase TOR was given to the team along with the available secondary material. Based on the TOR and secondary data, the team clarified the development context of the present study and depicted in the rich picture (Figure 2.1). The team also identified the stakeholders involved and their interests (Annexe IV). The team tried to make a problem tree to get a better understanding of the problematique/research problem, causes and effects. Later these problems were converted into objectives in the logical framework (Annexe V). The Logical framework is the summary of the proposed field study with hierarchical objectives, verifiable indicators, means of verification and expected outputs. During this phase the whole field study was planned including activities to be carried out each week along with expected outputs (Annexe VI). The research questions to be answered, appropriate tools that could be used and expected outputs were discussed and documented (Annexe VII).
2.2.2 Introductory Workshops
After arriving in Ethiopia, a courtesy call was made by the team to the officials of EARO headquarters in Addis Ababa. The first introductory workshop was held in Kulumsa at KARC on 18th April. Another workshop was held at Bale-Robe (for SARC and other stakeholders (see Annexe VIII for list of participants) on 23rd April. The main objectives of these workshops were to present the teams understanding of the research problem and to get suggestions on the proposed field study plan as well as get commitment to the process by the various stakeholders. These workshops also served as a platform to get different perspectives of various stakeholders and their interests in relation to the problematique. In the plenary discussion participants were organised into four groups viz., researchers, development organisations, extension and administrative people Suggestions/ comments obtained were useful to get more clarity about the research problem and also helped the team to focus on some important issues.
2.2.3 Secondary data analysis
A lot of secondary data and material relevant to the study was collected during the visits to stakeholders and also from the libraries of SARC and Agarfa Development workers Training centres. The survey reports and published articles and material were referred to know the previous work done in the area and also to have a background information. Some of the most important reports include Diagnostic/ initial survey reports of Sinana-Dinsho, Goba and Agarfa mixed farming systems by SARC, Socio-economic profiles of the three Woredas of the study area by Bale Zone Planning and Economic TVveip-^*nt, ABPDP ”?perts, ETJ L'd WTF ;epc*\o, F.n.0 i c ^ n ana Research strategies by EARO.
2.2.4 Stakeholder interviews
A comprehensive list of possible stakeholders made before departing to Ethiopia was finalised in the initial workshops. This list was later prioritised into primary and secondary stakeholders, based on their role in relation to the problem at stake. Those who are directly affected (includes both positive and negative effects) or directly involved with cereal monocropping are considered as primai^ or Key stakeholders and others as secondary stakeholders.
2.2.5 Reconnaissance survey
After the workshop in Robe, the team had a reconnaissance survey of the study area to know about the actual situation. The survey helped the team to know the existing cropping systems, livestock production systems, topography, soil types, vegetation, population, research and development activities in the study area. This initial survey helped the team to have a better understanding of the research problem in actual situation. This allowed the team, to update the zonation of the area, which was verified with some key stakeholders (e.g. SARC and Extension and other NGOs).
2.2.6 Site selection
The study area includes the bimodal rainfall areas of Bale highlands of Oromia. Woredas (Districts) to be covered during the field study are Sinana-Dinsho, Goba and Agarfa. Presently though Sinana- Dinsho was considered as one woreda but the team considered them as two woredas for the convenience (and as it was before 1995). As per the TOR the team selected two Peasant Associations (PAs) in each Woreda. Thus a total of eight PAs were selected and studied in-depth. The following criteria were used for the selection of PAs.
Criteria for selection of peasant associations (PAs)
■ Rainfall pattem:-PAs in areas with a bimodal rainfall pattern (Mar- July and Aug-Dee) were selected. These areas are found in radii of about 30 -70 Km from SARC ■ Altitude:- The altitude of the PAs selected should be between 2200- 2600 masl ( as per the TOR) B PAs that are in representative areas for wheat-barley and livestock farming systems’were only considered ■ Accessibility:-It should be possible for the team to go to the PA and return to Robe on the same day
The following tables 2.1 and 2.2 show the details of the eight PAs along with the number of household heads, population and land use system.
13 Table 2.1 Household heads and population of eight PAs selected for the study
Household head Population data District Name of the PA MF Total M F Total Agarfa 2000/01 Elane-Asano 849 88 937 2818 3534 6352 Elabidu 520 64 584 964 1025 1989 Sinana 1999/00 Sambitu 584 16 600 2242 2999 5241 Gommera 398 18 416 1136 1153 2289 Dinsho 1999/00 Baressa 457 57 514 1749 1545 3294 Homma 417 22 439 1628 1369 2997 Goba 2000/01 Sinja 214 68 282 630 619 1249 Wocho Mishirgae 414 6 420 1805 1383 3188
i Table 2.2 Land use system in the PAs selected for study j
Land use system District PA Arable Potent Grass Forest Resid Others Total land ially land land ential arable area Agarfa Elane- 4699 102 1640 63 285 775 7564 Asano Elabidu 2631 - 250 120 60 30 3091 Sinana Sambitu 4206 - 1226 6 254 50 5742 Gommera 2109 - 2003 2 162 78 4354 Dinsho Baressa 1691 1844 845 87 109 382 4958 Homma 1815 520 961 267 842 169 4574 Goba Sinja 1151 105 2204 10 130 40 3640
Wocho 1800 - 1907 500 120 140 4467
2.2.7 In-depth study
After the selection of PAs the team divided into two fixed sub-teams and each sub-team studied four PAs covering two woredas. Two interpreters helped the sub-teams in the translation. Each sub-team was again divided into two groups for in-depth study (individual interviews and group discussions). Both participatory- methods and semi-structured interviews were used to gather the information from farmers’- in-groups (some women only groups were interviewed, although this was not possible in all PA's). Individual interviews were also done to collect information on specific topics-usually the groups started their information gathering using participatory methods like drawing agro-ecological maps, seasonal calendars, bioresource and economic flows. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect information on historical trends, constraints and opportunities of cereal monocropping, AKIS, access and control of resources, cost- benefit analysis Individual interviews were used to collect information on household basis and also on gender related issues.
14 2.2.8 Hypothetical Typology
After the in-depth sf.:;’y of the target groups i.e., smaii holder farms and state farms, the team tried to classify the small holder farms into homogenous groups based on the data collected, especially the socio-economic characteristics and crop management practices. Typology is mainly done in order to target research and development interventions. Thus the small holder farms are classified into different types and the options were identified as per the farm type. The criteria for this differentiation were discussed with extension (development agents) and other stakeholders.
2.2.9 Mid-term workshop
A one-day mid- term workshop was held at Robe on 25th May involving all the stakeholders. The main objectives of this workshop were:
■ To present the findings of the team (constraints, typology, AKIS, stakeholders, zonation) ■ To present research and development options ■ To get suggestions and feedback ■ To identify information gaps ■ . To plan for the next phase
After the presentation of the team findings, participants were divided into three groups with each group given a topic for discussion for one hour (see Annexe Vm for list of participants). These topics include technological opportunities, socio- economic opportunities and institutional opportunities. A plenary session was held to present the highlights of each group discussion. With these opportunities as a base the team has come up with a final list of research and development options.
2.2.10 Final Typology
After discussing the initial hypothetical typology in the mid-term workshop, it was refined and finalised. Later the typology was again verified in different PAs with farmers and also DAs. Based on this typology, the research and development options for each farm type were discussed and screened.
2.2.11 Screening and priori tisifig options
The research and development options identified for each farm type was screened with different stakeholders. Pair-wise preference ranking was used with farmers wherein the preference ranking was taken and later they were discussed to know their criteria for the preference of that particular option. This preference ranking was done with all the three types of farmers classified as per the typology. In a similar way the options were screened with other stakeholders viz., state farms, Extensionists of BADO, researchers of SARC and KARC, .ABRDP and OCSSCo. They were allowed to use their own criteria for screening and matrix scoring/ ranking was used as a tool. Extensionists and OCSSCo used environmental sustainability, social equity and economic competitiveness as criteria. Researchers used conservation of resources, productivity, researchability, acceptability, relevance, profitability, 15 time needed and accessibility as criteria for screening ABRDP used economic importance, priority for farmers, institutional capacity and innovation as criteria.
After screening and prioritising the options with different stakeholders, the team did final priority setting taking into consideration all the stakeholders ranks. The team also did prioritisation with different criteria. Four options as per the priority and feasibility were developed into research proposals involving the relevant stakeholders.
2.2.12 Report writing
After the in-depth analysis and screening of research and development options, the writing of report was divided among the team members. The outline of the report made during the preparatory phase was refined and the topics were divided among the members. The first draft was circulated among the team members. These suggestions were incorporated in the draft and it was given to the reviewer. After incorporating the suggestions of the reviewer the draft was given to few important stakeholders for their comments and suggestions. The feed back was incorporated and the final draft was taken.
2.2.13 Final workshop
Final workshop was held in Robe on 6th July. The main objectives of this workshop were ■ to present the findings of the whole field study, especially the R & D options ■ to discuss the research proposals ■ to decide on the modalities of implementation of these research proposals ■ to finalise the strategies for strengthening the collaboration of various stakeholders
A plenary discussion was held wherein the research proposals were discussed (see Annexe VIII for list of participants) and all were accepted with minor modifications.
16 3 CEREAL BASED FARMING SYSTEMS LN THE BALE HIGHLANDS
3.1 Agro-ecological Zonation
3.1.1 General
In earlier days the upper Bale, including the study area, as the name implies was classified as highland. However different organisations have developed different types of zonations in different times. The National Atlas of Ethiopia (1988) classified most of the study areas as cool and warm temperate highland. Goba, Dinsho and part of Agarfa were included in the first category while Sinana and part of Agarfa were included in the second category. GIS map developed by Ethio-Italian ABRDP (2000) by adopting map developed by IGADD Early Warning and Food Information System for Food Security (1995) classified the study area as cool sub-humid with two reliable growing periods. In 1990s Ministry of agriculture developed agro-ecological zonation (AEZ) based on temperature and length of growing period. The research system in Ethiopia has adopted this classification and research strategies were developed based on the different AEZs. According to this classification Sinana area is located in both M2-7 and SH2-7 Sub-AEZ. Dinsho and Goba are located in SH3-7 sub-AEZ while Agarfa is located in SH2-7 Sub-AEZ. These sub-agroecologies contains different features characterising each sub-AEZ. In the case of the study area, in terms of constraints and potentials these three sub-agroecologies are not as such significantly different.
Figure 3.1 Map of the study area with its agro-ecological classification
17 Table 3.1 Agro-ecological classification of the study area in Bale highlands
Area Sub-AEZ Description Problem Agarfa SH 2-7 Sub-humid tepid to cool Cereal and pulse crops diseases mountains and insects and weeds Dinsho SH3.7 Sub-humid cold to very cold No major problems of diseases, mountains insects but weeds and frost Goba SH3-7 Sub-humid cold to very cold No major problems of diseases, mountains insects but weeds and frost Sinana SH2-7 Sub-humid tepid to cool Cereal and pulse crops diseases mountains and insects and weeds M2-7 Tepid to cool moist mid Cereal and pulse crops diseases highlands and insects and weeds
3.1.2 Land use
The economic base of the three districts is predominately agriculture with almost all mixed farming system solely dependent on rainfall and traditional system of production except some farmers’ hire combine harvester for wheat. The recent land use for different agricultural activities in Agarfa, Goba and Sinana-Dinsho is mentioned in chapter one.
Out of the total area in Agarfa 50% and 33% is arable and grazing land respectively while 3% is wasteland, which is not suited for agricultural production (Table 1.1). As the district is located along the border of Arsi zone following the rugged and broken terrain of Wabe Gorge and Bale massive, some of its land is not plain enough for agricultural production. In plain area more than 2300 masl by virtue of relatively abundant rainfall, suitable soils and other agricultural potentialities Agarfa remains one of the major crop producing districts of the zone.
Sinana-Dinsho District is the 9m largest district of the zone having 29% and 33% of its area arable land and grazing land respectively. There are two state farms in this district namely Sinana and Robe farm which cover 5% of the arable area in the district. Most of the area is plain (except Dinsho area) and convenient for crop production.
Goba district is one of the sparsely populated districts and exceptionally almost half of the total population is urban population. It has also big grazing land (28%) but lesser arable land (13%). Due to climatic suitability and soil type a wide variety of crop are produced in the area.
3.1.3 Land Tenure
Land was the communal property of the local pastoralists prior to the arrival of the Shoa migrants and northern governors. This was one opportunity for the local people to acquire more livestock without any restriction to grazing ground
18 Private land holding emerged with the coming of migrants who introduced crop cultivation.
farmers through peasant association (PAs) to whichever farmer is a member. Farmers do not have ownership rights but have ngnt to use and inherit it. Grazing land in the PA owned communally and any farmer having livestock have the right to use it. Forestland is under the protection of government but farmers can use it (not the National Park) for grazing their livestock. The lack of ownership rights over land may have drawbacks in terms of investing for maintenance of soil fertility and also influence them not to follow fallow system. However, it was not found the significant influence on maintenance of soil fertility induced by uncertain land ownership during this study. But it could have more relevance along with the privatisation of state farm and increment of large-scale farm.
3.2 Household typology
.Although the fanning system in the study area was relatively homogenous in general environmental and socio-economical aspects, different household typologies were identified (Table 3.2). Typology is an important part of farm characterisation in w?hich farm households are grouped into homogenous groups so that constraints and opportunities of each type can be identified. Based on the constraints in each type development and research interventions are applied. Through discussion with villagers four criteria were identified (Annexe IX).
3.2.1 Arable land ownership
There is wide difference in arable land ownership among farmers. Land ownership dictates the land use plan. Farmers with small land area always prefer to plant crops like wheat which are important for both household consumption and market than crops such as linseed, field pea and faba bean. On the other hand farmers with large area of land though they tend to produce more cereals they include dicot crops in their field. Most of the land less farmers they go for mutual agreement or renting land and have a tendency to produce more wheat. Land size has strong correlation with crop preference, which subsequently affect the cropping pattern. Due to serious shortage of labour during harvesting farmers having more land go for combined harvester depending on the accessibility of the farm to road and town.
3.2.2 Oxen ownership
The sole source of draft power for ploughing is oxen. On average, oxen work (plough) for 6-7 hours per day. The household with no ox or having only one and dependent on other farmers for oxen (mekenajo), may not be in a position to prepare their land and plant crops at the optimum time or they may be forced to fallow or rent out their land. The availability of oxen determines the management of the field and the crop planted in the field. Farmers having more oxen can better prepare their land for cereals.
3.2.3 A ccess to road and Mar he t Access to road is an important criterion that makes difference between different households and P.As. Farmers having good access to road can easily supply their product to the market. In addition to this depending on the accessibility of the farms to combine harvesting farmers can 19
i plant more cereals (wheat) and use combined harvester during peak time of labour requirement und benefit from the sale of wheat. Farmers having good access to market can benefit from high value crops and perishable vegetables having good price
3.2.4 Access to information and technology> In addition to the above-identified criteria, farm households could be classified based on other criteria like access to information and access to technology. Farmers having access to information can benefit from any development program coming through DA, co-operative and other governmental organisations and non-governmental organisations. The access to technology also another factor which is related with access to information and helpful for easy utilisation of the technology and benefit out of it.
Table 3.2 Household typology categories
Description Type 1 > 5 ha arable land, > 2 pairs of oxen and access to information and technology Type 2 >2- 5 ha arable land, 1-2 pairs o f oxen and access to information Type3 < 2 ha arable land, < 1 pair of oxen and no access to information
3.3 Small-scale farming systems
3.3.1 Trends in the farming system
Generally, prior to Menelik's conquest most Oromo groups practised very little agriculture and that was entirely by women. As long as a woman tilled a particular piece of land, which was necessarily small since she worked without the aid of a plough, no one could take it from her (Pausewang and Verlag, 1983).
Particularly in Bale Zone arable farming is new to the area and the main agricultural activity was livestock rearing. .Arable farming started before five or six decades. Until then pastoralists who are ethnically Muslim Oromo inhabited the area. .Arable farming started with the coming of external governors (land lords) from the North and also migrants from Shoa into the area. The migrants are Christian Oromo whose mainstay was crop cultivation. Generally, there are more indigenous people (Muslims Oromo) than migrants (Christian Oromo) Today both groups practise mixed subsistence farming, dominated by the production of cereals.
In the past, the farm size per household was very small and they use landraces of barley, duaim wheat, emmer wheat and field pea They produced food mainly for consumption and ver\ little amount of field pea and durum wheat for sale
The area is known for its livestock resources Livestock are kept not only for economic purpose but also have social values A farmer with a high livestock number has a great 20 reputation and soci2J c?2tus. C’-rrentlv. !*ve?tock boldine vsnes v.r,thir! *hd svrvov area among nousehoios. u~c .0 me oi ~— :-g .. ^ . the number of livestock per household is decreasing
Food consumption trends
Food consumption pattern varies between the Christian and Muslim residents. In Christian families the staple food is injera prepared from barley, wheat, tef, sorghum or mixture of these in various proportions. Field pea is the major component of wat (stew) supplemented by lentils, cabbage, and meat stew (usually during holiday). Korso (roasted grain), shumo (boiled grain), kila (pancake) as a snack and porridge for break fast are consumed in Christian families.
Figure 3.2 Schematic representation of factors related with Change in Food habit
Fuel Wood Droblem Ease of preparation
Shortage of milk and Deforestation milk products
Lower qua lit}' of biomass/forace Animal Reduction of Cattle population Lower Pmdurfivirv Drinking water Shortage Grazing land Scarcity
Feed Establishment of shortage the Large scale More arable land farm
Higher Migration Increased pop. Pressure hirlii ralf
Still Porridge (soft and hard), usually prepared from barley/wheat, was the staple food of Muslim in the area. Dairy products (milk and butter) were the major relishes of porridge Nowadays, however, dairy products become less available (as porridge relishes), and are supplemented by linseed oil (vegetable oil). The unavailability of dairy products, mainly due to the reduction of animal feeds (pastureland), is one reason why they are forced the Muslims to change their food habit from porridge to injera, which doesn't need dairy product as relishes (Figure 3.2). Becho, burato, haph: korso, canikita. chechabsa. shakakar michera and huJluka mainly prepared from barley and wheal are me other food types consumed by the Muslim family. The other reason for change in food habit apart from shortage of dairy product is easiness of preparation of injera Shortage of fuel wood in the area also one of the major reason since preparation of porridge needs more fuel wood for a single dish. In addition, scarcities of grazing land and lack of supplementary feed in response to population growth also indirectly contribute for such change of food habit.
Crop production system trends
According to farmers perception in most of the study areas the following system trends have been observed:
Technological • Farmers’ aw-areness for improved technology especially the need for improved bread wheat variety is increasing. • The use of agricultural mechanisation is dramatically changing. Depending on the accessibility of the land farmers currently use combine harvester for bread wheat due to profitability and early on-set of Ganna rain • Landraces varieties of barley, emmer wheat, durum wheat are being pushed out of production due to introduction of improved wheat varieties. Landrace (traditional variety) diversity is in great risk. • The awareness towards using supplementary feed is increasing due to grazing and feed shortage. • Honey production by Beekeeping is decreasing in these areas due to continued use of herbicide for weed and some other chemicals for rust in the state farm.
Social • Change in family food consumption pattern from porridge (maraqa genfo) to injera. • Barley productions in Ganna are increasing due to its preference for food and less shoot fly attack. • Emmer wheat production in both seasons maintained constant since it is believed that emmer has medicinal, nutritional value and also the crop is relatively tolerant to stresses. • The concept of gender equity in decision making is improving. The participation of women in making decision in all agricultural activity is increasing.
Economic • Generally bread wheat production is increasing in response to its high yield and good market price expanding, at the expense of other crops. • The demand and the price of bread wheat is increasing in line with this the number of w'heat traders is also increasing with the exception of some years. • Field pea production in Ganna is increasing due to less aphid and disease attack and good market demand • Maize in Agarfa and Sinana-Dinsho (Sambitu PA) is increasing during Ganna season in acreage because its stalks serve as animal feed and also it can be eaten as green (fresh) during time of food shortage • The production of ahhishonka shonka (Opuntia spp) is increasing in some P.As since abhishonka shonka) is considered as fruit, used for fence and can grow with little
oo management. It is used as fence and now it is getting a market In addition the poorest part
Ecological • Arable farming is expanding at the expense of grazing land, which reduced the relative importance of livestock in the area as a result of high population pressure and decreased soil fertility due to soil exhaustion. • Wheat production in Ganna is decreasing due to poor distribution of Ganna rain and early on-set of Bona rain (during harvesting time). • Generally faba bean production is decreasing because of frost and beetle (.Blister beetle) problem. • Rainfall patterns and its distribution is becoming very erratic and lower. • Rust incidence in wheat (improved wheat varieties) is increasing due to the change in rust races and late distribution of improved varieties to farmers. ® Grassy and climbing broad weeds like galle, kumudo (resistant to herbicide), due to continuos use of 2-4-D and cereal monocropping are increasing and become out of the control of farmer.
Table 3.3 Timeline of historical events related to Wheat Monocropping
Year Events Remark
Before 3000 Introduction of Tetiaploid wheat/Emmer wheat to Ethiopia by early The first wheal vears ago immigrant of Haimites introduced to Ethiopia Before 1889 Very' little agricultural practices were carried out and that to Livestock rearing exclusively bv women Early 19?0s Introduction of cxotic hexaploid wheat germplasm Introduced from ; Europe 1939 19 physiological race S. rust and 3 race of L. rust identified for first time 1951 Introduction of 3 bread wheat varieties from Kenya Introduced to Paradiso RS 1954 3 bread wheat varieties introduced from Kenya and released for the Became popular in the production Northern part of the country 1957 Ethiopia becomes net consumer of wheat
1957 2 bread wheat varieties released to Shoa and Arsi area By Debre Zeit R S
1959 2 bread wheat varieties released in 1957 started to disseminate to To Arsi Arsi area 1970 I Wheat variety with the name Lakeich was released from Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center | 1974 End of the Fcudo-Burza Svstem Land distributed to ' peasant 1974 Enkov variety was released from Debre Zeit/Holetta 1976 High damage of rust was recorded on farmers' fields On local variety [ 1980/81 Establishment of state farm in Bale highland Mam crop - Wheat 1985 Villagisation 1 1981 ET- 13 variety was released from Holetta 1 1980s Monocropping started due to good varieties Bale highland 1986 Enkoy was supplied to peasant co-operatives Bal?"ttrghtaitd------j p 1988 Dashcn was attacked by Yellow rust (P. sin i for mis) Bale hjgtilaf/tf^1'^ '0" Early 1990s Enkov was attacked by stem rust (P. graminea) Bale hSghiafid $ "Awvvi&n j t|0jt?0s?^i [TuoijnoijSv tfido 1 1991 End of Dere regime 1 1991 Marke: Libc-r^iistvon includirip whzs. n-arkei All over the country | 1991 Collapse of producers Co-operatives j 1991/92 Sian of decline of wheat producuon by the Siaie Farm Decrease of resource and material supply 1995 Gov’t gave more emphasis for extension package of improved Demonstration of trial technology- and SG 2000 started m Bale zone dramatically increased in Bale Zone 1995 Polio’ change in Food Aid agency to purcliase grain from the local market 1997 Removal of fertiliser subsidies Higher cost of production Late 1990s More varieties B. Wheat released from KARC and SARC 1999 Closed state farm - distributed to private wheat farms Gololcha/ Gassara
3.3.2 Livelihood System
Social Structure Most of the residents are ethnically Oromos, particularly Muslim Oromo. Christian Oromos who migrated few decades ago from Shoa and Arsi exist. The other minority group is Amharas who are insignificant in number. Oromiffa is a local language of the people and it is widely spoken though some Amharic language is spoken in the town.
During the Derg regime starting from 1985. one third of the country’s rural population villigised and accordingly the rural people in ihis area have been villagised in this campaign. Currently, the majority of rural people still live in ihe villages but some of them returned to their original place. There are different social groups in these areas by which the local people are organised based on their interest for their own benefit. These include:
Edir Meredaja: is a local association organised by a group of people in a village for the purpose of helping each other during unforeseen misfortunes such as deaths. Both men and women participate in Edir Meredaja and pay the monthly cash contributions. Women prepare food and drinks, while men put together temporarily shelter (tent) for consolation gathering and serve food and drinks. It has also important role in wedding ceremony to assist each other.
Ekub: is a local credit and saving association where members (based on willingness) put together a stipulated cash as per agreed time table (monthly, fortnightly or weekly) to be utilised by members in turns with out interest. Such association is commonly seen in the Christian society and Muslims are not allowed to do so due to religious laws. In addition to the above association, Christian communities have different association called mahiber and senbete based on their interest to celebrate holiday particularly angel day or Christian worship day.
Capital and Income
The major capital items owned bv the farmers in the study area include farmland, livestock, farm tools, and stored grain Livestock mainly oxen are the main asset and play a significant role in the livelihood of smallholder Farmers are dependent on both stored grain and livestock for daily cash need Off-farm acti\ ities such as poultry, fuel wood collection and petty trade are other sources of income. Dairv products such as butter and cheese are also lnipc. .. ____ _ > . «... - u^ca... » ii „ w i-wt— •— over a year.
Poultry, vegetables and livestock products are sold in small quantities by the women as a source of cash for household needs. However the bulk of income is derived from wheat. The productivity and the market price of wheat is relatively stable and good with the exception of year 2000/01. Income from wheat products accounts for about 50% of total cash income of household.
Input market and credit system
Agricultural input supply corporation (AISCO), private companies and seed enterprise are main suppliers of agricultural input. Fertiliser, herbicide and improved seeds are the main inputs which farmers are using. They have an indirect credit agreement with banks, which is processed by the Agricultural Development Bureau of the Regional State of Oromia. The credit is distributed to the farmers’ through District Agricultural Development Office in the form of actual input (fertiliser, improved seed, and pesticides). Small proportion of farmers gets herbicide and fertiliser from local market.
Fertiliser is being provided to farmers on credit basis to solve the lack of money during planting time. However, still farmers do not take that amount of fertiliser required for their land. The main reasons according to the interviewed farmers are higher price and the inappropriate loan repayment time. Repayment is just after harvesting of Bona crops when the prices of crops are very low. The fertiliser debit coupled with other expenses, such as land tax, and other contributions, forces farmers to sell a great deal of grain from their stock which is, undoubtedly, followed by food shortage in most farm families but this is not the case in 2001. This will become more serious when the credit system will be fully privatised as is being pipeline.
Improved seeds and herbicides are the other inputs of the farmer supplied by District Agricultural Development Office. They are providing improved seed on credit bases together with their packages (herbicide and fertiliser). Rural credit institutes for supplying credits to farmers are rare. Currently, farmers have access to credit only through extension package from district agricultural development office, in farmers' co-operatives in-groups and District Oromia Credit and Saving Share Company (OCSSCo).
Marketing
Agriculture is mainly for subsistence in the target area. However, marketing of crops is also extensive. Many small markets exist in the area but the biggest market is Robe. Agricultural products, particularly crops, take the largest share in the markets. Generally wheat, barley, field pea, emmer wheat, linseed, teff, maize and lentils, as well as fruits and vegetables are some of the crops observed commonly in the markets. The main cash crops for farmers are wheat and linseed. For small ruminant farmers use Agarfa and Goba market, Ali and Robe for small ruminant, eauines and cattle while chicken and eggs are sold in all local markets
Household Surv ival Strategy Land is the major resource of the farmer on which their livelihood depends. The average farm size (cropland per rural household) of Agarfa, Sinana-Dinsho and Goba district is 2.06, 1.95 and 2.41 ha respectively (Table 12' As compared to the zone, which is 3 25ha. the three districts are relatively in a better situation However, farmers complain about that, the size of farmland currently owned is not enough to sustain their family, which on average is not true in terms of household food security. In addition to this there are also farmers without land and oxen. The complaint of landless group is more and for sustenance they have to make different mutual agreements with the other farmers having land and the same is true for those farmers which don’t have oxen. The traditional arrangements include different type, like Yegulo, Da\mla, Buyi and simple exchange. There is also such arrangement (Wafala, Debo Jigge) between farmers during peak periods in which farmers need more labour to accomplish a given agricultural activity.
Generally, the entire districts studied except Agarfa (some time the lowland seriously affected by drought) are surplus producers. Even if they are surplus producers there is a food deficit month. Especially the months between the Ganna and Bona season (July-October) are the main time of food deficit. The possible reason according to farmers: They are forced to sell their produce to pay their credit. In addition the market price for most of the produce by the time of credit payment is very low so more produce has to be sold out. Therefore no Bona harvest left in stock for the time of food deficit. The other reason is that, farmers don't have time to thresh their Ganna harvest due to early onset of rain and overlap of the two seasons activities so they pile and leave it in the field. During food shortage women and kids took some amount of harvest and thresh it for home consumption. Green corn (maize) planted in Ganna also one of the means to fill this gap. In addition green leafy vegetables also play great role in providing food in this peak time of food shortage. In some PAs in case of bad harvest abhishonka also play great role in avoiding hunger for short time.
The area was knowTi by dense forest of bamboo bui currently except some remnant of natural forest (Goba and Dinsho) and small plantation the area was cleared. Therefore farmers are forced to use Adamii/Kulkual tree {Euphorbia spp.) and Opuntia spp. as the main fencing wood in the village and farmland. In addition, Adamii/Kulkual tree is important for firewood and construction of huts in the rural area.
Infrastructure
Social infrastructure
Currently, in the zone there are only two hospitals, which are giving service for serious medical cases. In the three districts the number of health stations were 3, 8, and 5 for Goba, Sinana-Dinsho and Agarfa respectively. The existing health coverage of the three districts wras low and 42%, 51% and 66% for Goba, Sinana-Dinsho and Agarfa. respectively
There was only one secondary school in each district and the elementary school coverage was relatively good Some PA has junior school (1-8) but for student from rural area they have difficulty because of the absence of secondary school near by They have to travel lonu distance (home to school) and also they suffered from lack of cash to purchase stationary
Economic infrastructure
A single all weather road from Addis to Goba. Robe to Goro and Robe to Agarfa crosses the area It was seldom maintained and hence, vehicles move with great difficulty particularly
26 during rainy months. There was no feeder road leading to or crossing any PA except Sambitu. and Hi sue of Sir?*'* __ry„rv~ ^ ~ __ road most of the farmer use (pack animals) donkeys and horses or their own tack (women) to transport their products to market. Inefficient road network aiso makes their field not accessible for most of the PAs for combine harvester.
Agricultural infrastructure
Only one veterinary' clinic was found in Goba and Agarfa district and tw'0 veterinary clinics in Sinana-Dinsho. There w^as only one plant clinic located in Goba and serving the Zone. Irrigation activities are at low level in the three districts. According to Zonal Planning and Economic Development Office report of Goba district economic profile (1998) in Goba district about 6.5ha of land was under irrigation. About 26 farmers, who have family members of 124, were benefited from irrigation. In Agarfa and Sinana-Dinsho district nearly all the crop production w?as based on rainfed agriculture with few irrigation for perennial crops and some vegetables.
3.3.3 Resource flows in the farming system
Bio-resource flows
The resources on the farm flow from one component to another within the farm and household. Figure 3.3 presents this flow in the three districts of Bale Zone.
Barley and wheat are the main crops for household consumption. Household will consume more than 90% of barley and 25% of wheat produced. Large proportion of field pea and faba bean produced was used to make stew in the household. Some farmers also use the grain of maize for chicken raising.
The straw of barley, wheat, field pea and faba bean was stored for animal feed immediately after threshing. At least two-third of crop residue was changed to straw. The major part of this straw- was kept for the oxen, which are the sole sources of animal draught power for ploughing. The most preferred straw was that of barley and farmers make an effort to collect the straw of this crop. Small proportion of straw (< 3%) w-as also used for thatching houses, fuel w;ood and making local mattresses. The stalks of maize, wiien used green, are very important sources of feed for animals in September and October. Additionally, the dry stalks are used as fuel wood w'hen the maize was harvested for grain.
Animals graze on the stubble of small cereals and other crops after harvesting which accounts for one-third of the crop residue. Farmers do this on their own land and not on other farmers field. However the situation will change and it become temporarily communal after the stubble was exhausted from the field. Farmers in PAs near Sinana and Robe farms use the stubble of farm as communal grazing land till next ploughing.
Communal grassland w;as usually used for grazing oxen. In some occasions it was possible to find communal grassland for other animals. However mostly the other livestock will graze on cropping land, swampy areas, borders of cultivated land and in forest.
27 Dung was used for fuel and for covering the outside of hut and also to smoothen the floor of the hut. According to information obtained from farmers, out of the total source of fuel energy 3.6% was from dung. The largest proportion of dung used as manure was applied on vegetable field planted near homestead. In some cases cereal crops planted near homesiead also receive dung. Some part of the dung was deposited on stubble and grassland w'hile animals’ graze.
Perennial or intermittent rivers pass nearby villages starting from the mountains. The perennial rivers are used for livestock, washing and human drinking and occasionally for irrigation purposes. When used for irrigation the vegetables mainly produced are beetroot, cabbage, and carrot. The intermittent rivers are also used for similar purpose except for irrigation. In some of the PAs there are springs (e.g. Baressa, Homma and Elabidu) which are used for vegetable production, drinking and cooking
The trees near homestead (mainly Eucalyptus spp.) are used for fuel wood for the household, building house and fencing. Kulukal or Adami was also an important plant used for fence, house construction and fuel wood.
Figure 3.3Bio-resource flow of visited PAs in the Agarfa, Goba and Sinana-Dinsho Districts
twrw , Fas 1 wood
V N itaal MawtGOTT Mnarfkw
Economic flows The economic flow consists of both cash and non-cash components that happen in the production system. (Figure 3 4) The net balance of the inflows and outflows was keeping a
28 stable and positive situation because the farmers are adjusting their outflows according to their inflows and vice versa.
Main inflows
The main income sources of the farmers of visited PAs were crop products, animal products, vegetables, and fuel wood and off-farm activities. The general and rough income composition was shown in figure 3.4. Crop products are the most important income source in many rural households. It accounts for 73% of the total household income. The animal products include milk, processed milk products, sheep, goat, chicken and eggs. Honey was also an income source, but only some households have beehives. In Baressa, they have less than 10 households managing beekeeping activity. In Sambitu PA, the beekeeping was reduced because herbicides used for crops poisoned bees. Other PAs also faced the same problem that led to abandoning the beekeeping, thus it does not account for significant percentage in household income. The income from animal products accounts for about 9% of the household income.
Different crops had different importance in terms of income contribution. Wheat was considered as the most important crop contributing to the income of the household. Because of its higher yield comparing with other crops, this crop was considered most important regardless of its fluctuating price. 75% of its grain was going to the market. Emmer wheat was also an important source of cash income. But some farmers also grew Emmer wheat only for consumption because of its nutritional value compared to wheat. Linseed was the third important crop for generating cash for household. Field pea and faba beans were also contributing to income of the household. In Baressa, the farmers grew fenugreek as an important income source. In Wocho, barley was also considered as a source of income and they produced more barley compared to other PAs. The average proportion of barley grain product going to market was 10%. The importance of Emmer wheat in Wocho was lower than field pea and linseed. The farmers considered the family consumption and family income as the most important criteria when they decide to produce the crops on their limited land.
Selling chicken and animal products w'as for the needs of household, such as school expenses for children, for buying coffee, salt and oil. Children generate some income from sale of egg, chickens and vegetable. Women can get the income from sale of chicken, eggs, vegetables, butter and milk. Large part of the vegetables, such as tomato, carrot, potato, shallot, garlic, local cabbage, potato, beet root, green pepper were produced for marketing. But as they are highly perishable, they are produced only in short rainy season. Abhishonka (fruit of Opuntia) was also source of income in some PAs, particularly for about two months.
In Christian households, farmers also get income from some off-farm activities. In Elabidu, Agarfa, they have alcohol processing which was done mostly by women. Women also do the product selling. Petty trade was found in all the PAs. Farmers purchase and sell agricultural products from one market to another market. For example, they buy oxen or wheat from the PAs and sell it at Robe and Agarfa market. Some of the farmers purchase the grains during harvest season when the price was low and sell in lean season at higher price. W'omen buy sugarcane, onion and banana from Agarfa market and sell at Robe market where the price was • to the town, such as the farmers in Baressa, have more opportunities to get income by working in t^wn in cor,?truct’^n! ^rri sorr“ ?ther ser.'i:es 1*3 contribution to total household income was 13% (farmers' interview with participatory tools).
29 Another cash source v as credit from BZADO. co-operatives, Agricultural Development Bank, and OCSSCo. Some farmers get seeds and fertilisers on credit from Department of Agriculture. Some of the farmers are the members of co-operatives, so they could get the credit for purchasing wheat in the harvesting time and selling it in lean time. There are farmers who get the loan from Credit Share Company in Sinana District and Agarfa District. Some of them lend money to other farmers for Combine harvesting, and get the wheat in return after the harvesting at the lower price. These farmers sell the wheat at higher price and get the maximum benefit.
The local co-operation activity (Debo or Jigge) in the PA was a kind of non-cash income for the households. It was like labour saving that can get interest from others' in return
Figure 3.4 Economic flows in the farming system
10% " 1 Tax ▼ social activities
50°A
Seeds fertiliser h e rb icid e s labour oxen
'73*/4< Wheal 75%,Barley 10%,Emraa wheat 50%,
ricid pca95°o.Fabe bean95°o Iinsecdl00%,ientill00co
Source: Interview of farmers in the study area with participatory' tools.
Main outflows
The cash will be spent according to different needs of the household members. The largest proportion of household expenses was for agricultural inputs, accounting for 50% of the total expenses. This includes fertiliser, herbicides, seeds, and machinery and animal labour cost House expenditure, coffee, sugar, salt and other food, accounts 10% of expenditure Clothes, health care. tax. children going to school and social activities cost are mentioned by the farmers. For different families, they have different cash distribution within these items For example, if children in the family are in secondary or middle school, they have higher proportion of school expenses because it was much more expensive than in the primary school nearby without renting houses and other costs. The rerr^ntpcr? ~ c.;?‘v"' ■ 1. ... un enougn casn, it was not dime . the money, as they want. They can buy ihe inputs, food and ciothes in the market. But they complained that the prices of inputs are increasing and that of products are decreasing, so they have to cut off the input expenses according to their income situation. The incentives for the farmers to borrow'’ money to buy fertiliser, herbicides and improved seeds are also very low7.
In some cases, the expenses for buying oxen, horses and rebuilding the houses happened in some families after several good years' production. And payment of the credit with its interest w;as also an outflow. If they do not have enough profit to pay the credit for fertiliser, the farmers will sell their cattle. Credit for agricultural production w'as seasonal with 6% interest rate.
M arketing
Marketing w'as very important for the farmers having the smooth economic flows. It was not difficult for the farmers in the study area having the access to the markets. There are 4 market days in 6 different places in Agarfa district, 5 market days in three places in Goba district, 5 market days in 6 market places in Sinana-Dinsho District. But the problems in marketing activities are lack of storage technology of vegetables and other products, market price fluctuation of input and output and the high transport cost from the PA to the market, especially the PAs that are far away from the main road, such as Wocho. All these factors reduced the quantity and quality of inflows and outflows of the households.
3.3.4 A ctivity Chart
The responsibility to undertake farm and household activities significantly differs between men and w'omen. As a family, there are also activities shared by both gender groups. Table 3.4 presents the summary of gender based division of activities between male and female members of a household. -An informal survey result by a team of researchers from Sinana Research center in Agarfa and Goba districts however indicated that in most Muslim families women do not involve in out-door activities (Bekele et al., 1999).
Men: Mainly performs all the farming activities, involves actively in the production of wheat, barley, emmer wheat, linseed and other crops. The major activities are ploughing, weeding, harvesting, threshing and straw stacking. They also involve in honeybee production, some trading, cattle production, commanding the whole family, household decision, social interaction, and information exchange.
Women: Women are involved in farm activities like hoeing, weeding, harvesting and threshing In some PAs women are more concerned with maize, pepper and vegetable production. According to farmers from Elabidu, planting Ganna field pea. faba bean and maize was also w'ork of women. Here it was also indicated that weeding of Ganna crops was women work. Household chores like cooking, feeding, childcare, cleaning, fetching water and fuel wood collection, milking, making butter, sale of milk and other processed products are totally managed by women Women undertake cattle rearing, local alcohol making (in Christian households) and marketing. Poultry' is completely managed and marketed by women Women also participate in transporting seed for planting The activities taken up by women are so many that one farmer said “If we go on listing the activities of women. M e cannot flu sh then: in one d a y'.
Children: Generally children do livestock herding, help in weeding, collect fuel wood, help in other farm activities, poultry' management and bird scaring in Ganna barley fields
Most of the time farmers use family labour for different agricultural activities except during peak time of crop harvesting (to escape the onset of rain in the coming season) and ploughing. Hired labour was therefore major labour source. Farmers prefer other settings than hired labour to solve labour problem such as Dcbo or Jigge
Decision making
Decision making in the household is a hot issue and it differed among the PAs visited. It is also dependent on the gender group interviewed Generally female groups told that man in male-headed household makes decision on most farm activities and some household activities. 37.5% of visited PAs agreed with this conclusion while 62.5% told that decision is equally made by both male and female to a larger extent The confusion lies on separating the word decision and consultation, which were looked as similar in the case of the latter group. In Elani- Asano decision making with regard to both farm and other activities is mainly by Men. The comments/ suggestions of women may or may not be taken into consideration. In Elabidu decision making is mainiy by men with regard to both farm and other activities. Sometimes the men inform the outcome of their decision to the women The women said ‘Our ideas and comments may' not be accepted
Table 3.4 Division of responsibility and Decision making in MHH in different PAs visited in Agarfa, Goba and Sinana-Dinsho districts Man Woman Female child Male child Activity Respon Deci Respon Deci 7-13 > 14 7-14 > 14 sibility sion sibility sion Land preparation X (70) X X (30) Planting X (70) X X (10) X (20) Weeding X (40) X X (20) X (20) x (2 0 ); Harvesting X (60) X X(10) X X (30) | Threshing X (65) X X (10) X 1 X (5) X (20) Herding X (5) X X (5) X X (20) X (70) Milking " X (80) X X (20) Food preparation X (70) X X (10) Fetching water - X (60) X X(10) X (20) X(10) :1 ------Collect ins V fuel wood X(5) X (40) X X (20) X (5) X (30) Crop marketing X (50) X X (30) X X(10) X(10) Animal marketing X (60) X X (35) X X(10) X (5) Vegetable marketing X(10) X X (70) X(10) X (10) (Numbers in parenthesis are contributions to an activity in per cent) Usually men take the decision in the household with re??-'* — l/v-rf’--'-. . . . jr not accept the suggestion. 3ut regarding the s?.;e of cart'-e. :oi . • >Ya\ p^;pose me animal should be sold and agreed on the expenditure of the money. Regarding the sale of poultry, milk and milk products, women have a right to do any thing as they wish. In case of women households as there is no male head, they do as they like and decide themselves with regard to both farm and household activities (Table 3.4).
3.3.5 A ccess and control
Access to and control of resources is not same for men and women in the zone and it influences the decision making in the household. In case of male-headed households (MHH), he has access and control of all the resources whereas his wife has only access to some resources and no control over most of them. In case of female-headed households (FHH), she has access and control to all the resources as a household head as in case of male heads.
Land Land in Ethiopia is owned by the state and under the existing land tenure system peasants have usufruct rights on land inherited from the family. Inheritance of land is patrilinial. By law land cannot be rented, sold or mortgaged but in reality there is some renting and share cropping both in terms of kind and cash exchange. Though women do not routinely inherit land but in some PAs there are female-headed households who are widowed or divorced and who got some land from husband/ father. There is an acute shortage of land for distribution in all the PAs surveyed. Due to the shortage, there are many people who don't have land and even if they have it is so small that it is not sufficient to feed the family. Under such situations farmers go for land and oxen sharing arrangements.
Oxen Most of the farmers (>75%) own a pair of oxen as it is the main draught power and the whole crop production operations are entirely dependent on them. Some farmers own at least one oxen and go for sharing arrangements. It was estimated that there is some 250000 pair of oxen in the Bale zone i.e., an average of one pair/ household. In the study area this is three pair, One pair and 1.2 pair of oxen, respectively (refer to table 1.3).
Inputs No private input suppliers / traders operating in the area. Peasants get the inputs through the package scheme from DA. Only very few farmers organise themselves to purchase inputs privately from town. There are co-operatives in the zone, which also help farmers to organise themselves and help in the purchase of inputs like fertilisers and pesticides. There is an informal seed exchange among the peasants. Though there are no separate women co operatives, the FHH can become members of the co-operative operating in their PA or region. Table 3.5 Access to and control of resources
Resource Access Control Land Men and women Men Oxen Men and women Mostly men Inputs like seed, fertiliser, pesticides Men and women Men and women Crop produce (cereals and legumes) Men and Women Men Vegetables Women and female children Women Labour (family and hired) Men and women Men Credit Men and women Men Market Men and women Mostly men Cattle Men , women, male children Men Sheep and goat Men, women and male Men children Poultry7 Women and male children Women Information Men and women Men Training Men
Credit There are both formal and informal credit institutions operating in the three woredas sun/eyed. But access to credit is limited. Credit is available through extension package scheme wherein inputs like seeds, fertiliser and pesticides were distributed and as soon as they harv est the crops the repayment is to be done .As peasants do not have immovable assets (not even land) to mortgage no other institution is operating in this credit support. But in some PAs, there is an NGO called Oromia Credit and Saving Share Company (OCSSCo) which is providing credit for the purchase of inputs and encouraging the farmers to take up other on- farm and off-farm activities Though there are some FHH participating in the extension package scheme compared to men there are very few
Storage facilities Though the major storage of crop produce was done in the traditional structures (>75%) by individual farmers, storage facilities are being provided by co-operatives wherein the produce was stored safely till the prices rise high. In addition to the co-operatives, an NGO named HUNDEE (Oromia Grassroots Development Initiative) is operating in the zone (Gomorra, Homma and Baressa). They established cereal banks wherein the produce can be stored till the market price rises. This is accessible mostly for men
Social sharing arrangements Labour sharing is very common in the survey area particularly during periods of peak activities There are mainly two types of sharing labour as follows Debo Jigge- The farmer invites/ requests his neighbours or relatives to help him do a particular activity like ploughing, harvesting, threshing etc without any direct agreement. The beneficiary’ provides them with food and drinks. Wamphala- There is a sort of agreement in this type of' sharing wherein the farmer requests his neighbours and relatives to help him in a particular activity like ploughing, harvesting, threshing He provides them with food and drinks and he also goes for working/ helping them in their work Oxen and land sharing arrangement? ey»‘c? ?n v?^ - c r-
Type 1 Fanner B Fanner A Both the farmers plough their lands for equal days (known as EXCHANGE)
Ha\mg land and only one oxen Having land and only one oxen
Farmer A gives his land and oxen to farmer B and in turn takes two-third produce from total. Also takes 200 birr/ vear. known as HIRING
With land and oxen Without land and without oxen
Type 3 Farmer A ploughs the land and farmer B purchases the seed. Farmer A Fanner B Both of them incur the cost of fertiliser and both of them do other works. They share the produce equally, known as YEGUTO Farmer with oxen (labour) farmer with land (seed)
Type 4 Farmer a gives his land and Farmer A Farmer B oxen to fanner B and also purchases seed. Fanner B does all the work starting from ploughing to threshing and they share produce equally, known as YEGUTO SPECIAL TYPE Farmer with oxen and land (seed) Fanner without oxen and land
Type 5 Farmer A Farmer B Farmer B hires oxen and gives one- third produce (8q in some places), known as DAVULA
Farmer with oxen and no land fanner with land and no oxen
Type 6 Fanner A farmer B Fanner A provides oxen farmer B proxides labour. Ploughing for the first one 3 days and for the second one two days. Produce shared equally, known as BUYI
Fanner with land and oxenfanner with land and labour
35 3.4 Cropping system
The farming system in the area is a cereal based cropping system with a livestock component. Cereal crops include barley, wheat, emmer wheat and maize and some teff. Pulses include field pea, faba bean, lentil haricot bean, grass peas, chickpea, and fenugreek. Oil crops include linseed, niger (noug) and sunflower. Vegetables grown are potato, shallot, garlic, pepper, spring onions, cabbage, yabesha gomen. carrot, garlic and beetroot. Abishonka (Opuntia spp.) was the only fruit plant in the area. Annexe X present names of crops grown in the three districts and in each PA visited in Bale zone, respectively. In these districts there are two distinct seasons: Gafina and Bona. Generally in both seasons small cereals are dominant (Annexe XI). Mulugeta (1986) and Bekele (1996) reported barley and wheat as major crops dominating the Sinana-Dinsho mixed farming system Mohammed (1995) also reported that in Sinana area barley and wheat covered 71% of land under different crops. .An informal survey in Agarfa and Goba district revealed that in Agarfa barely in Ganna was leading crop while wheat was leading crop in Bona. However in Goba they reported from one-year data that barley was leading crop in both seasons (Bekele et al.. 1999).
Area under different crops in Ganna and Bona seasons fluctuates from year to year. Despite this in all the three districts there was a remarkable increase in area under different crops in 2000 cropping season. Data from five years (1996-2000) indicated that the area under different crops in Ganna was lower than that of Bona In contrast to this Mohammed (1995) reported that in Sinana area under Ganna crops exceeded that of Bona. The land planted to different crops in the two seasons was highly affected by several factors that might cause this fluctuation in proportion of area planted to Ganna and Bona crops.
Ganna
The Ganna season in normal rainfall years is a season from planting of crops in March to harvesting in August. The major crops grown in this season are barley, wheat, emmer wheat, linseed, field pea. faba bean and maize in the order of land proportion sown to each crop. This farmers' ranking was similar with the data obtained from Bale Zone Agricultural Development Office (BZADO, Table 3.6) except that in the latter case maize covers large area than linseed. In a previous survey in Sinana area barley, wheat and emmer wheat covered 49, 22 and 12% of the land in Ganna season respectively (Mohammed. 1995).
Barely is sown during Ganna for several reasons. It matures earlier and tolerates the damage by hail and heavy Bona rainfall. The seed from Ganna barley is by far preferred for planting material, for bass(X). injera and local drink making Shoot fly, smut (black head) and cutworm are less on Ganna barley. Good market value as compared to the Bona harvest also makes this crop preferable. For this crop no improved varieties are available and farmers are using the land race called Aruso (both black and white coloured). On this crop shoot fly and lodging are the major problems. However the land race has better tolerance against shoot fly (also since it is earlier than improv ed varieties). This is the major reason why farmers prefer to plant Aruso
Wheat was less than barely in area during Ganna except at Wocho Mishirge PA where it w'as nearly equal with barley in land area This crop was not produced during Ganna in large area due to several reasons No suitable Ganna varieties are available for this crop since the season has short rainy season At maturity the existing varieties are susceptible to sprouting since they mature at the onset of Bona ra-'nfai1 crop was alsc sLSCrV-ible *• •*?’ . ' n c f _• ^ ;an.
Table 3.6 Percentage of area covered by different crops in three districts of Bale zone in Ganna and Bona seasons averaged over five years (1996-2000)
Crops Goba Aearfa Sinana-Dinsho Overall Ganna Bona Ganna Bona Ganna Bona Ganna Bona Wheat 15.3 39.7 22.8 38.4 27.2 31.2 21.8 38.4 Barley 63.2 40.5 42.5 32.2 40.9 35.5 48.9 36.1 E. Wheat 17.2 10.2 9.3 8.7 14.3 13.7 13.6 10.9 Faba bean 0.7 2.7 0.7 1.9 1.8 1.5 1.9 2.0 Field pea 1.2 2.7 4.0 4.8 4.2 3.0 3.2 3.5 Lentils 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 Linseed 0.9 3.7 7.0 13.2 3.5 7.9 3.8 8.3 Maize 0.7 0.0 13.2 0.0 6.7 0.0 6.9 0 _ Teff ' - 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.1 Fenugreek - - 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 Small grain cereals* 95.7 90.3 74.6 79.3 82.4 86.5 84.3 85.4 'Others 3.6 9.7 25.4 20.7 17.6 13.5 15.5 14.6 * Do not include teff
Field pea is produced more during Gamia because of less attack by aphids. Some faba bean is produced during Ganna but it was severely affected by blister beetle, which was feeding on flowers.
Bona
During Bona wheat, barley, Emmer wheat, linseed, field peas and faba bean are major crops produced while teff, pepper, lentils are also produced in smaller proportion, according to farmers. A similar information was also obtained form BZAJDO (Table 3.6)
Wheat is the major crop during Bona. It occupies nearly 38% of land cultivated during this season according to 5-year data obtained from BZADO. In previous reports (Mohammed, 1995) the area under wheat was lower than barley indicating that after 1995 the land planted to wheat was gradually increasing to the extent that barley was no more the dominant crop in this season. This might be attributed to improved varieties reaching farmers since that time. The major improved varieties of wheat currently in production include Holandi, ET-I3, Kubsa, iVabe, Mitike, Tusie and Galama Land races currently under production are black durum wheat (Oamadii Gurachaa) and emmer wheat. Improved varieties out of production are Enkoy, Dashen, Engelize, Kenya, Lakech and Gosh Ginbar. The major yield limiting factors for this crop are rusts and weeds. Frost and moisture-stress and high level of input requirement are also affecting the production of wheat.
Faba bean performs better in Bona, as there is no moisture stress and no excess rainfall during flowering However, during this season frost, blight and chocolate spot cause sever damage to the crop Linseed is produced more during this season although bollworm attacks it more in 37 Bona. Teff is produced in Bona and is increasing in area since 8*10 years. Pepper and lentils are ilso produced during Bona. Maize is planted during the Ganna season and harvested in Bona season since it requires longer growing period. The land under this crop is increasing since 1977. Vegetable crops like cabbage, beet root, shallot, garlic and potato are produced in small proportion in both seasons.
Preferences of Crops and Crop Varieties The preference of farmers to produce a crop or variety of crop is affected by several factors: 1 Yield and Final use (household consumption, generating cash or both): Barley, bread and emmer wheat are produced for both purposes. Some crops like linseed and field pea are produced solely for generating cash. Yield is the major factor in choosing crops. For example, at Homma farmers told that the benefit of 10-qt wheat is still more than 20 qt barley. Food for the household in the survey area was totally obtained from crops produced by farmers Consequently farmers give due attention for producing cereals which are giving better yield (Table 3.7 presents actual and potential yield of different crops). 2 Nutritional quality of crops and varieties: Black durum wheat, emmer w'heat and barley are the most preferred crops for making traditional foods such as porridge, bread and injera. The black durum is better for bread because it is more elastic than bread w'heat or barley. If injera is made of the mixture of black wheat and barley, the quality is the same as from teff. Injera, which is made from barley, makes the stomach comfortable after eating. Emmer wheat, in addition to its food value it is traditionally recommended for person with broken bone and woman who gave birth in the form of soup. 3 Input requirement: Farmers with low investment capacity always go for those crops w'hich require less external input while looking for high return to labour and land. Barley, emmer wheat, field pea, linseed and some vegetables are preferred for this purpose. 4 Ease of weed management and harvesting: In this category crops like wheat, barley, emmer w'heat are preferred than crops like faba bean. Bread wheat is preferred because it is easy for management (weed control, combine harvesting). Similarly barley is easier to harvest even when it is raining and it is good for straw when harvested manually. 5 Disease and pest resistance: Farmers prefer to plant local varieties of barley because it is resistant to diseases like rusts and shoot fly. Emmer wheat is also preferred crop due to absence of serious diseases on the crop On the other hand crops like field pea and faba bean are severely affected by disease and insect pests which attributed to the small area allotted to these crops 6 Straw and stubble production: Barley, wheat, and emmer wheat are important crops for straw and stubble. The other crops are not as such preferred for this purpose. Barley is the most preferred crop for straw 7 W ater logging tolerance: Linseed is liked bv farmers for tolerating heavy water logging
In line with crop preference, Mohammed (1995) presented an interesting preference matrix of crops and crop varieties in Sinana area The criteria considered were stress tolerance, nutritional quality, frost tolerance, aphid tolerance and maturity time. The matrix however presented preference ranking for barley and wheat only
38 Table 3." Yield of crc-^> ^ grown in Agarfa, Goba and Sinana-Dinsho districts. Actual yield * Crop Potential yield Improved Farmers’ Management management Bread wheat 30-50 30 13 Bariev 25-50 23 14 E wheat 30-45 25 10 Faba bean 30-40 8 6 Field pea 25-40 6 5 Lentils 11 4 4 Linseed 13-16 5 4 Maize 70-90 19 Teff 20-28 6 5
Potato 205-300 --
Mustard 30 -- Fenugreek_—^ _ _ - __ 14 3 3 * The actual yield given here is an average from 5 years data (1996-2000) and it differed among years-due to weather conditions. Source: Homma, Baressa, Sinja and wocho Mishirge DA Offices
Farmers view towards Cereal cropping/monocropping and crop rotation
Traditionally farmers in the three districts rotate barley and both bread and emmer w'heat every year or sometimes in the two seasons. Large number of farmers does not plant two crops on one field during the two seasons. This w?as due to an overlap of the seasons which prevent timely land preparation. However some farmers especially who have a small farm size, plant Bona crop on Ganna cropped field immediately after they harvest the Ganna crop which is called Gabboo. In general except wheat and barley farmers plant small land area to dicot crops every’ year. Linseed was planted anywhere and its proportion was higher than field pea and faba bean. Field pea and faba beans are produced commonly near homestead so as to prevent human and animal (wild pig and porcupine) destruction at green stage.
According to data from BZADO (Table 3.7), bread wheat, barley and emmer wheat together account for 84.3% and 85.4% while others accounted for 15.5% and 14.6% of land area in Ganna and Bona respectively. This data compiled from 5 years clearly shows that farmers prefer io produce cereals on their land. However, one can also see that the amount of land and diversity of crops among the three districts are different. In Agarfa District crops are more diversified than the other two districts. The area under other crops other than the three dominant small grain cereals was higher in Agarfa followed by Sinana-Dinsho while this the magnitude is < 10% in Goba district. Farmers perceive alternating barley and wheat on the same field as practice that was helpful in maintaining soil fertility and reduce weed problems. They gave a comparative example of continuous wheat and barlev-w'heat rotation as justification for their argument. Accordingly they observed that on field planted with barley previous year the grass weeds were absent while on continuous wheat plot the grass weed infestation was so severe and reduced yield greatly. Farmers said that disease and insects often affected legumes. It was also mentioned that technologies like improved disease and
39 insect resistant varieties for those crops are not available Consequently this prevents them from allotting large proportion of land to these crops.
.Although farmers are weil aware of the inclusion of dicot crops in their cropping system, they still inclined to produce wheat due to its relatively high yield and good price that allows them to support the increasing family size. Despite this, they indicated that wheat was affected by diseases mainly rusts and grass weed infestation which always unpredictably reduce the yield they obtain According to farmers, wheat was classified as nutritionally poor crop. The current farmers diet was based on wheat and barley and they compared the food value of the two crops. The> said *children and youth who eat recently released bread wheat cidtivars are not strong atid foodfrom those varieties causes stomach ache ’.
Farmers consider cereal cropping as potential threat to sustainable crop production. They indicated that production was reduced due to continuous cropping. In Agarfa district farmers told that first year wheat gave 10 q/ha but after three years the yield has gone down to 2 q/ha even after using fertiliser. Soil fertility also decreased with continuous cropping as time goes on. Farmers have saying in oromiffa 'Laffti sisinni jalata' which means land itself likes change i.e.. growing a crop with an interval Farmers realise also double cropping with legumes as means to reduce the need of fertiliser. If wheat was planted next to legumes it w;as not important to apply fertiliser. The advantage obtained by rotating crops w'as therefore w?ell understood by farmers. But disease and pests restrict the dicot crops suitable for the area. Weed situation was getting worse in cereal cropping. A recently introduced weed, Galle (.Polygonum cotrvolvulus) in most of the crops is threatening crop production. The weed was introduced with improved varieties of w heat according to farmers. The weed cannot be controlled with 2,4 D. The mechanism of competition involve both nutrient and light in which the weed prevent exposure of leaves to light by creeping and bending vertically the leaves of the crop. Due to this farmers are not going to produce the improved varieties in the future. Grass w?eeds like Avena spp., Setaria spp and Phalaris spp. are also problems and no herbicide or other controlling means are available for the reason that farmers purchasing power is poor
Soil Types and Soil Fertility In most visited PAs the major soil types are Koticha (black), Dalecha (brown), and Dimma (red). At Baressa and Homma farmers have one more soil type called Charee (stony) soil. This classification of farmers can be related to the scientific classification of soils developed by Ministry' of Agriculture. Natural Resource Management and Regulatory Department (NRMRD). Unlike farmers, NRMRD’s classification and GIS map developed by ABRDP shows that most of Sinana, part of Goba and Agarfa districts have vertisol w'hile parts of Goba and Agarfa have luvisol. The description of these soils is given below.
Brown soil (luvisol): This soil has relativ e]\ low per cent of clay It is relatively drained soil The brown soil is productive soil and with tertiliser application can give high yield for all crops. Farmers plant high yield potential crops like wheat on this soil Despite the high yield obtained from this soil, the seed is not plump
Red soil (regosol): This soil as the name indicates it has red colour. The soil is common on sloppy eroded area The soil is well drained with moderate fertility level. On this soil a variety of crops can grow This soil has no potential as the brown soil however, the grain from red soil is plumper than that from brow n soil
40 Black soil (vertisol): The black soil is a common s^:i *" * ' " " so" ' '• ' ...... ____ . ii.,. . . 10 in:; n:= : swelling when ii is we: m* shrinking when it :r :’~y I'-:pending — o compos.non a range of black soil types can oe found in the study area. According to farmers the black soil is classified as poor and difficult soil due to its swelling and cracking. On this soil crops can give good yield with improved drainage and application of higher rate of fertiliser. Despite this however the grain size of crops grown on black soil is bigger.
The stony soil (regosol): It is a kind of brown, red soil or even black soil which has a lot of small stones due to erosion. The soil is very' shallow. The presence of stone in this soil makes land preparation and seed covering difficult. Additionally crop emergence and thus stand is significantly reduced. Crops growm on this soil yield poorly. Generally regardless of the soil type all common crops grown in the study area are planted in all kinds of soils despite the fact that the productivity of the soils is different.
Generally farmers observed decline in soil fertility over time. In the old times farmers exercised fallow-- since there was enough land and the soil was virgin with required nutrients for crops. The fast increase in crop production compelled farmers to abandon the fallow' practice. This coupled with continuous removal of stubble from their field increased soil fertility degradation. The introduction of input responsive high yielding varieties of bread wheat moved farmers to continuous cropping which negatively affected fertility of soil.
Cropping Calendar Average cropping calendar of the two seasons for the three districts is presented in Figure 3.5. Although the range was not as such different, the calendar slightly differs for the different PAs visited. In Goba district Wocho Mishirge generally the Ganna and Bona seasons farm activities are delayed by some 2-3 weeks. Quite frequently the cropping calendar is affected by changing weather conditions. Rainfall is the major weather parameter that compels farmers either to delay or hasten their calendar of farm activities. Figure 3.5 Cropping calendar of visited PAs in Agarfa. Goba and Sinana-Dinsho
Crop Season Jan i Feb M e A r r Ivfev Jure 1 Jui AU2 iS L Ck hbv Etc W.cas Germ E ibbbmmbbsmmi Bern Bardv Ga Beta B E 5 S EmTET Gcma Bcttu Teff Bcria Maize 'jctpk EZ Bnia Linseed
Legend Land preparation litlimJlilllltil Harvesting Planting ■ —I Threshing Weeding Mih titrHi-tttf-H
41 Labour Calendar
Labour calendar in different PAs with regard to farm activities is similar. In general according to farmers December and January' are peak months when shortage of labour is apparent. At this time harvesting and threshing of Bona crops ties the labour. Also in July and August there was labour shortage when harvesting and threshing Gatina crops and sowing of Bona crops overlap (Figure 3.6). However this is the time wfhen family labour (especially children) was released from school to help on these activities bringing down the labour shortage to second place next to Bona harvesting and threshing. Family Labour depends on the family size. The higher the family size the lower the hired labour as most of the work was covered by family. This is in fact one of the major reasons why rural households prefer to have more children. During holiday students help their family in every farm activity. The hiring of combine harvester in January some how allow to share labour for other activities.
Figure 3.6 Labour need and availability for different farm activities in Agarfa, Goba and Sinana-Dinsho Districts
------V
Jan Feb M ar A pr Mav J u n J u l A ur Scd Oct Nov Dec
( =Labour need. = Labour availability)
3.5 Livestock system
Historically, livestock based farming system was predominant in Bale Zone. Livestock played a very vital role in the rural livelihoods of the area Yillagisation and increase in the human population has reduced the grazing lands leading to the reduction in the population and productivity of livestock, thus forcing the farmers to shift to cereal based mixed farming systems. In the present situation farmers have livestock as a sub-system.
Types
The livestock species found in the three vtoredas viz., Agarfa, Sinana-Dinsho and Goba include Ox, cow, heifer, steer and calves (cattle), sheep, goats (small ruminants), horses, donkeys and mules (Equines). poultry and apiary The following tables (3.8 and 3 9) show the livestock population in the PAs selected for study Table 3.8 Livestock population in the se!^r+*d P 4 * Name of the Cattle population Others PA Oxen Steer Cow ! Heifer Calves Total Poultry Apiary Elane-asano 1840 1575 4550 | 2115 2190 12270 2160 430 Elabidu 542 83 463 I 176 324 1588 1024 58 Sambitu 1655 1635 2016 L l550 720 7576 1420 45 Gomorra 802 498 984 1 542 603 3429 312 77 Sinja 728 350 1382 1 495 812 3767 968 Wocho 1250 313 1155 | 514 325 3557 825 55 Homma 1021 216 803 | 241 137 2418 1074 41 Baressa 892 - 705 ] 293 342 1340 1611 ■
Table 3.9 Equine and small ruminant population in the selected PAs Equines Small ruminants PA Horse Donkey Mule TotaJ Sheep Goat Total Elane-asano 205 1365 109 1679 960 400 1360 Elabidu 11 348 19 378 47 161 208 Sambitu 60 820 105 985 98 60 158 Gomorra 48 93 524 665 83 504 587 Sinja 113 184 0 297 473 67 540 Wocho 300 45 155 500 758 242 1000 Homma 296 581 75 952 355 145 500 Baressa 36 344 25 405 169 - 169
Number of oxen per household and number per hectare in different PAs were shown in the figure 3.7. It was evident that there are maximum number of oxen in Wocho followed by Sambitu and Homma. Overall the number of oxen were found less in Agarfa (Elane and Elabidu) as compared to other districts. Figure 3.7 Number of oxen in visited PAs
Name of the PA
m Number of oxen per household gg Number of oxen per hectare
43 Considering the arable land in each PA it was ^!so observ ed that the numbers cf oxen per hectare were high in Wocho followed by Sinja. Homma and Baressa. Thus it could be concluded that in Agarfa (Elane and Elabidu) and Sinana (Sambitu and Gomorra) there is a shonage of oxen (assuming that one oxen could plough half hectare of land). But in other PAs in Dinsho and Goba, they have sufficient number of oxen.
Cattle
Cattle are kept mainly for draught purpose, beef, milk, source of fuel and other socio-cultural purposes. They also serve as security to fall back to in times of financial need. Figure 3.8 shows the percentage of male and female cattle by purpose in Bale zone. Draught power is mainly from oxen upon which the agricultural production is dependent. Oxen were used for land development, secondary tillage, threshing and transport. There is a fattening program in some Woredas (Sinana-Dinsho) which serves as alternative source of income.
Figure 3.8 Male and female cattle by purpose in Bale Zone
100% 100%
O) O) w c 0) c o o01 CJ CD a CL
1994/95 1997/98 1 998/99 Year Year
E3 For fraught s For Beef n F o r others £3 For Mlk E For Beef □ for others
Small Ruminants (sheep and goats)
Sheep and goats are found in almost every household Though the number is less, they are mostly kept, as a security in case of immediate cash needs for emergency purposes like death, credit repayment, marriage etc They are also used as a food source during major festive events in the year such as Easter
Equines (Donkeys, mules and horses)
Equines are used as a means of transport of both farm produce and human beings They are used for the transport of produce from farm to house and also for off-farm transport of farm produce to the markets and processing centres They too seldom serve as security in case of high cash requirements
44 Others (Poultry and Apiary■>
Poultry are an important source of income for petty expenses in all ibe households. Mainly children and women sell eggs and chickens to meet the daily needs. Mostly women do the rearing of poultry' and children were actively involved in this rearing and management. Moreover chicken is also an important source of meat especially during festivals and other functions. Apiary- (honeybee rearing) was found in all the PAs visited except in Sinja and Baressa. Mostly traditional apiaries were found and honey forms an important ingredient in all the rituals. But now due to heavy application of herbicides there was poisoning leading to the death of honeybees.
Time line
The following table 3.10 shows the historical events that affected the livestock production in the country7. These events accompanied by the increase in the human population and decrease in the grazing area due to Villagisation has resulted in a drastic reduction in the livestock population in the Country. Table 3.10 Time line of main events in agricultural history of Bale Zone Date Region Affected 1888- 92 Ethiopia Drought and spread of Rinderpest caused loss of nine-tenths of cattle and one- third of human population 1895-96 Ethiopia Minor drought, loss of livestock and human lives 1971-75 Ethiopia (Tigray Sequence of rain failures, estimated 250000 dead, 50and of and Wolle) livestock lost in Tigrav and Wolle. 1984-85 Ethiopia Famine, 8 million people affected, estimated 1 million dead,
I - _ . much livestock loss | 1985- 86 Ethiopia Villagisation initiated Source: Patrick et al ,1992
Grazing lands and their management Free range grazing is very common in the area. Throughout the year grazing was done around homesteads, fallow lands, community lands, potential cultivable land, valley bottoms, river/ stream banks and forested areas. The grazing lands for oxen and other cattle are separate and this is mainly followed to maintain oxen in good condition, as they are the main farm power source. In some P.As there is community grazing land only for oxen due to the shortage of land and conversion of grazing land to arable land. There is no grassland/ community grazing land management in the area except in case of oxen grazing lands wherein they are closed from July-October for rejuvenation of existing grass (Figure 3.9).
Livestock feed calendar There is no specific feeding management for any of the livestock in the area. There is no organised stall-feeding in the zone. It was found that there is more pressure on grazing land in Agarfa and Sinana districts as compared to Goba wherein there is maximum grazing land The following figure 3.9 shows the major activities of livestock rearing in the area Figure 3.9 Feed calendar in Bale Zone Monlh/ Activity Jan i Feb j Mar 1 Apr i May | Jun | Jui 1 Aug ! Sep i Oct ; Nov | Dec
Grassland closed v \ \ \ \ \ \ > Milking and other lllllIllltllMIIIIUKllllllll iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiini miinunm Illllll!lllll0llllllllllll!lt1llllllllilli|lllll::llll processing activities Poultrv rearina r a m *
Supplementary feeding Crop residues/ straws are usually fed to the livestock particularly cattle during lean periods. Of all the crops, barley straw was the most preferred one followed by Teff, Emmer wheat and black wheat. In some areas the straw of Emmer wheat was mixed with faba bean / field pea straw and fed to cattle. Maize was also fed both when green and dry. In only one PA surveyed, fodder oat was grown and fed to the cattle. Immediately after the harvest of crops, livestock were grazed on stubble (wherein one-third was left in the field for aftermath grazing). Linseed cake was given after extracting oil where the Linseed was grown. In some PAs residue of a local by-product called “Atela", after making alcohol was fed to oxen specifically. In PAs where there is fattening program (Elabidu and Sambitu), concentrates (linseed cake and by-products of flour factories) were bought from town and given to the ox. In addition to the concentrates, they are also fed with cereals after boiling or after making flour. There is also a local straw market and the prices of various straws are barley and teff- 25birr/q, wheat, emmer wheat and maize- 18 birr/q, faba bean and field pea- 12 birr/q. No supplementary feed was given to small ruminants but chicken was raised on various grains and most of the farmers feed them with maize
Livestock movement Previously in the Bale zone, there was movement of livestock from a feed shortage area to a feed surplus area and it is known locally as “Godantu" This was possible, as there was less human population in some places at that time and hence there was more grazing land. But with increase in the human population, the grazing land was converted to arable land. So there is no livestock movement at present in the zone
Animal health In general animals are of poor health in the zone though not so serious as in other zones. Most animals are prone to many diseases due to the shortage of feed resources. Important diseases found in the area include- Anthrax (abasenga), black leg (abagorba), pasteurollosis (Huda). Rinaer pest, .African horse sickness (duhurin), Lumpskin disease, Internal and external parasites. \ accinations are being done regularly for the control of major diseases in majoritv of the veterinary^ clinics.
Livestock marketing Livestock serve as a source of security and supplementary cash income for the household in case ot crop failure, emergency periods Preferred types for sale in decreasing order are small ruminants, calves, heiters, bulls and cows Women and children for the daily family needs sell livestock by-products like butter, cheese and milk Hides and skins of small ruminants are also in high demand and usually sold in big markeis In general livestock prices are hiahly 46 fluctuating and esoeciallv s° :r * - r j— ~i~ ...... ? yr-' decide the saie or purcnase ^specially oxen. %oner, l ... knowledge and consent of mer sell poultry milk and milk by-p:ocac.i.
A collaborative project between O.ADB and International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) on “Indigenous Farm Animal Genetic Resources survey” was initiated this year with an aim to describe, identify and classify indigenous farm animal genetic resources and to obtain reliable estimates of population size, distribution, management, socio cultural practices as employed by farmers in raising them. Data/ survey will be used to generate baseline information and to know production constraints to include in the development strategy'. Thus this is the first move by the region wherein it realised the potential of animal resources and trying to exploit them.
Figure 3.10 Livestock prices in various markets of Bale Zone
D G o a t □ Sheep B D onkey EH orse 82 C h ic k e n
Constraints oflivestock production These constraints are classified into four categories as follows: Technological constraints ■ Lack of improved breeds of cattle/ low genetic potential of local breeds ■ Lack of alternative feed sources ■ Prevalence of diseases ■ Poor animal husbandry practices 5 Poor feeding management system Social constraints ■ Less emphasis in livestock sector as compared to crops Economical constraints ■ High cost of drugs/ veterinary inputs • Poor veterinary' service and difficulty in accessing animal health facilities ■ Market fluctuations especially in a year of crop failure Ecological constraints ■ Shortage of grazing lands/ high livestock population ■ Inaccessible clean water sources especially in dry season ( PAs like Gomorra and Elane)
47
I Crop-livest ock interactior s The interactions between crop and livestock sectors are mainly in three areas in the zone, viz. .Animal traction, scii fertility management and feeding with crop residues. A unique feature of Ethiopian Agriculture is an indigenous system of ox traction and extensive use of equines for transport. In the study area, Oxen are mostly used for ploughing, threshing and transport. Crop residue particularly cereal straws provide 40-50% animal feed. Regarding the soil fertility management, cow dung is not being applied specifically for improving the soil fertility. Only in homesteads women use cow dung for growing vegetables. But the cattle were grazed in the fields on stubble immediately after harvesting and this helps in improving the fertility status of soil.
Effect of cereal monocropping on livestock In recent years there is a shift to cereal monocropping particularly bread wheat cultivation has increased due to the higher productivity, easy availability of improved seeds and other technologies which are disseminated through Development agents of respective PAs and also due to high price in the market. This continuous cropping of cereals, particularly the dwarf and improved varieties, has resulted in less biomass availability and it is of poor nutritional quality. Added to this effect is the shortage of grazing lands. This feed shortage has resulted in many adverse effects on crop- livestock interactions (Figure 3 11). Figure 3.11 Effect of Cereal Monocropping on livestock
C e re a l Monocropping
Low bioniAW Poor quality Reduced \ (l«* of t t n « grating land q uantity)
Low productivity More prone to of anim al diseases
Less m ilk Yield E xtending fre q u e n t Reduced calving Interval replacement of traction power oxen L IT Less availability of l>ess w orking m ilk & m ilk Lower animal hours.' delay In by-products population per '•eed for more field preparation household In^etioient to bin T cow /oxen
Decreased dung quantity per household Shift from Cenfo Untimely to Enfera sowing/ planting M ore cash diverted to buy oxen and lets to l,ess manure for other Inputs homestead field
Increaaed consum ption of yields In hom estead
< ontlnuom More arable growing of cereal land with crops cereals 48 As depicted in the figure, feed shortage resulted in low produ^ivifv anirn!: reduced „ -..d^;, power, exteiiocu calving intervals, frequent oxen replacement and less milk production. These all in turn caused low yields of crop affecting the sustainability of agricultural production in the zone.
3.6 Large scale farming system
The agriculture production in Highlands of Southeast Oromia is based on two types of enterprises: small scale farms (traditional type) and large-scale farms. These types have as similar production features: preference for cereals, a technology, natural conditions, varieties...) and differences (kind of equipment, management, interests...). These differences provide distinct problems and solutions and a research requirement to study large-scale farms separately. In this chapter some questions were explored: ■ Description of large scale farms ■ .Analysis of production ■ Linkages and its’ connections ■ Problems, decisions, recommendations ■ Recommendations
3.6.1 Bale Agricultural Development Enterprise Bale Agricultural Development Enterprise (BADE) is the representative of the large scale farming system in agriculture production of Highland Bale Zone. BADE was established through the production company in 1988. During its existence underwent several reorganisations. In 2000, it has become an independent enterprise (the decision of the Council of Ministers No 145/1993, 2000). At present, it has the following organogramme, (Figure 3.12). Figure 3.12 Organogramme of Bale Agricultural Development Enterprise
Supervising [Authority of Public Enterprises
BOM Board of Management The head office of BADE is placed in Robe town (444 km. from Addis Ababa). The gross area of enterprise is 16349 ha, under crops. 15956 ha. BADE is the State property enterprise and includes five state farms.
Table 3.11 State farms parameters Parameters Sinana Robe Common area 3888 Ha 2694 Ha Area under crops 3838 Ha 2554 Ha Soil Clay and partially clay loam Clay and partially loam Topography Undulating and partially Flat land and Slightly Flat land Undulating Altitude 2360-2580 meters above sea level Quantity yields 2 : Meher season and Belg season Disposal 473 km. from Addis Ababa 444 km. from Addis Ababa 43 km from Robe 14 km from Robe
The weather conditions favour cultivation of different crops and having two harvests per year (two seasons: belg {ganna) and meher {Bona). However the season belg was not used for cropping, due to the low harvest in this short season, problems with combine harvesting and due to the lack of moisture and hence fallowing is done (accumulation of moisture, weeding).
Analysis of production The main crop of Sinana and Robe state farms is wheat. Both enterprises started with wheat and now grow barley, horse bean and rape seed. The farms also planted faba bean, field pea, teff, noug and lentil. Cereals always occupied more than 90-95% of the area. The ratio between wheat and barley was around 50:50 in the eighties. But in majority cases wheat surpassed barley only. After 1997 the number of crops were reduced due to wheat and barley. After 1998 both farms crop practically only wheat (monocropping). The basic causes of “Cereal monocropping” at State farm are: ■ Stable market for wheat ■ Usually good prices ■ Fitness of climate for grain production ■ Cereals are technological crops, correspond to mechanised technologies (large scale farms haven’t enough opportunity for labour due to huge arable area) ■ Availability of specialised (cereal) technology and special equipment for growing wheat ■ Knowledge and experience of staff, directed on wheat production ■ Absence of alternative crops (with the same or more profitability than wheat), technologies and equipment for it growing and processing
From the graphs (Figure 3.13) the growth of wheat production could be seen. There was no constant rising of productivity at the same time Increase in wheat production has been due to an expansion of the wheat area at the expense of other crops.
50 Figure 3.13 Main production characteristics of Robe and Sinana State farms
Robe Sinana
T9BS isee 19BD 1 ® 1 1SEC 19S3 1S94 1SE£ 1S95 1907 1993 19GB ■EBB S B E9Q ® I Effi EGB ESS S B 'EBB ES1 EG6 ESP ♦ VYea pbb tP-EETdrg —fj— WbS paJjcknmsandQ ♦ W ihuatfhi —t—Vha praamfnartQ —A—VYua praUM^Qrt —M—arey praduch*y QprhB —A—WEtpald^Qi* —M—MypBlilfcQprti
If one closely looks of the productivity of barley (3... 17 q/ha) and wheat (0.4...24 q/ha) in considered period it’s possible to note that the productivity of both crops is low. Enterprises applied fertilisers, tillage inputs and other inputs in accordance with a packet of programs for wheat production for the available conditions. This didn’t raise the wheat productivity to the necessary level, but only the cost price of wheat. If one take into consideration that the price of wheat is also higher than cost of barley, it will be clear why both enterprises have only wheat at present.
The question of production profitability for State farms is vital now. At present farms have to survive without state subsidies and grants (although debt is not being serviced). For a better understanding of the situation with Sinana and Robe farms, it was necessary to study the economic parameters of their activities. The detail cost analysis of wheat production at the State farms Sinana and Robe in 2000 is shown in Annexe XII. The extracted main results are depicted in the Table 3.12.
Table 3.12 The results of wheat production activity in Sinana and Robe State farms *
Particulars Sinana Robe Total area, hectare 3838 2554 Cost per hectare, Birr 3018 3292 Production, Qts 53 768 43 342 Productivity, Qts per ha 14 17 Cost, Birr per Qts 215 194 * All prices are in Birr (on June 2001 the currency ratio was 1 $USA= 8,412 Ethiopian Birr)
From the table it can be seen, that wheat productivity and prices in Sinana and Robe are almost equal. The similar conditions and production technology and equipment can explain this point. The wheat grain prices are called a requirement to pay more attention to it. It’s a high cost prime for native market and BADE cover expenditure from these two farms by proceeds from other three farms.
During the study it was necessary to consider the cultivation technology, available equipment, varieties etc... for purpose to define the causes of high prices, the possibility of cost
51 decreasing, to work out proposals and recommendations in the f eld of wheat production for iflc l'u. - t - , Zc.it 1 aims.
The proceeds of State farms Sinana and Robe are from the sale of grain. It's practically the only financial source of the enterprises All assets are directed to the production activity, existent farms. The data about the operational expenditures for Sinana and Robe farms are reflected in Figure 3.14.
Figure 3.14 Wheat production costs in Robe and Sinana State Farm
Sinana Procjc* tmeofl 3% hrvwlnj 4 \ - Gamrai AOmmrttrwncr. Af Exp« Parting 1% Fmanam 2% 21* 1% Sm<3 L tt^ ln c 9% The first is “Financial Expenses'’ (Sinana - 21%, Robe - 23%) are for previous years debt servicing, when BADE wasn't independent and had to buy inputs, sell grain at fixed prices. Secondly, belongs to group expenses for the next inputs: technological operations (Sinana - 30%, Robe - 27%); chemical substances (Sinana - 19%, Robe - 19%) - fertilisers, herbicides, pesticides, seeds (Sinana - 9%, Robe - 10%). .All these expenditures are necessary for the production of wheat, it’s impossible to reduce them But some cost saving can be considered: applying modem technologies minimal tillage - replacement of several operations (ploughing, broadcasting sowing, seed covering) by one (sowing in stable), production of acclimatised high-productivity seeds for own needs themselves Thirdly -administration expenditure (Sinana - 21%, Robe - 21%) is justified At present, farms have a complicated situation (reorganisations, difficulties with market, requirement for new varieties, etc.), - in such times administration has to be strong. The main problem is not the indicated expenditures, but low crop productivity The order and duration of operations for wheat production provision at Sinana and Robe state tarms are showed in Operational Charts (Figure 3 15 ). Operative input transportation is done with tractors with trailers; for ploughing are used tractors with disc ploughs, for disking tractors with DLA for sowing and fertilising, tractors with broad-caster RDMD, for seed covering - tractor with DLA, for spraying "Hardy For draft of all implement use tractors "ZT Tractor" or "Byelorussia" For harvesting are used combines «Harvester» ES-12. ES-14 For sowing a broadcaster and DLA is used instead usual sowing equipment. Firstly it doesn't allow an optimal depth of seed planting (w h:-.: affect on size of yield) Secondly, instead one pass ot a tractor with sowing equipment it needs two with broadcaster and DLA. Probably it's time to consider minimal tillage. This The next weakness is the use of combines without straw collecting. The combines drop straw- with seeds of w>eed, weeds are one of the main problems. A combine, which can collect straw is needed in order to remove this residue from the field. Straw' is a source of feed. The Enterprise has a lot of straw, which needs to be marketed. Figure 3.15 Operations of wheat production at Sinana and Robe state farms jOperation Jan Feb Mar Apr Mav Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Input transportation inH a& iiBfla j |g j g § | Ploughing (dr.season) ■ i _ Ploughing (main) 1 JBMZ Disking (first) Disking (second) Broad-casting sowing ! Fertilising 1 - 1 Covering EH (Machine spraying Aircraft spraying i m m Harvesting i I .. 1 _ E 5 P oeration Jan Feb ( Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec [Input transponation ploughing (dr.season) 1 Ploughing (main) Disking (first) 1 Disking (second) 1 Broadcasting sowing • (Fertilising (Covering [Machine spraying [Aircraft spraying Harvesting i Combines and tractors is the basic equipment of wheat production enterprises. From the Table 3.13 we can see that practically all equipment at these farms has worked beyond its lifetime New equipment needs to be obtained before it can become a serious problem. Table 3.13 Data about age structure of tractors and combines j Point Sinana Robe j Combine E SI2 - 1980 37.5 % 64% i Combine E S I2 - 1986 37.5 % 36 % Combine E S14 - 1994 25 % - Tractor «ZT Tractor» - 1980 93 % 92 % i Tractor «Bevlorusia» - 1988 7% 8% 3.6.2 Problems, decisions, recommendations Throughout its existence the Enterprise encountered different problems, which negatively affected production results During the study data about problems w'ere collected and strategies formulated for their solution. Some groups of problems and proper strategies of solving exist at present (Figure 3.16). Figure 3.16 Problem tree of the BADE state farms. The main reasons of poor financial situation of BADE are: Low efficiency of wheat production, High debt to Ministry' of Finance (formerly AID Bank), Alone direction of enterprise activity. Low efficiency of wheat production is a consequence of high production cost, which in turn is the result of low productivity. The basic causes of low productivity related to agronomy are the following: * Low yield potential of wheat varieties, lack of improved seeds (short growing period, dry tolerance); this question has to be jointly addressed by scientists and extensionists. .An agreement with SAJIC and BZADO need to be established ■ lack of rotation and rotation crops: the same decision as previous ■ weed infestation and its' resistance to different chemicals applied; usage new herbicides - involving scientists of Sinana, usage of harvesting technology with removal of all residues (straw and weed seeds) from field ■ lack of knowledge on the status of soil fertility; inv olve scientists for development area ■ Inefficient mechanisation and technologies e g use of broadcasting seeds leading to non- uniform germination and maturing, use of combines without straw collection It's necessary to use technologv and equipment for remov al of all residues from the field) ■ soil water erosion, use of minimal tillage The following components of high production cost are ■ Production technology, to appl\ minimal tillage, because of this method not only cost of tillage decreases, but also the number of tractor movements. ■ High price of inputs, to organise own seed production; 54 ■ Inefficient mechanisation fold eoi»T'Tnent. -- - - _-■ ' *•_ iu ioivc this ^rooiern, me ^:u:.r .o; ..b making constant effons for capital budget approval by government body. ■ Inefficient management; Involving high quality specialist; ■ Absence of proper package for wheat production for good harvest, which leads to over expenditure of fertiliser per unit of grain; Involving scientists; ■ Requirement for high qualified staff, to solve the problem of skilled man, power the Enterprise continuously construct new salary scale and staff plan which reflect the labor market. High debt to M inistry of Finance Up to now BADE is an independent enterprise, but before 1991 it has been ordered to supply it's product with government fixed price which is very low in relation w;ith the production costs. Due this trend, the Enterprise has a large debt. The solution to this debt problem is to the competence of the Government (i.e. to w^aive the whole or part of the loan in order to make the Enterprise financially viable). Single enterprise activity From one side a single enterprise activity allows to specialise in business, from other side such enterprise is exposed to risk from fluctuations of the prices in the market. Now wheat prices have fallen, BADE is in poor financial situation. It's better to work out other directions, which could balance such development. Through links with specialists it is possible: ■ to spread functions of enterprise - not only produce wheat but first process produce and sale flour instead of grain, transport and market sendee ■ to organise bilateral profit joint venture with Sinana production of acclimatised high- productivity seeds not only for own consumption, but for whole district ■ to organise livestock farms - BADE has a lot of w’heat straw, it would decrease the weed problem, or simply remove and sale of wheat straw. .All highlighted problems, decisions and recommendations are related to large-scale farms, some of them are suitable for small farms. This list of problems, decisions and recommendations had to be analysed for conformity to the whole theme of study, selected and prioritised in accordance with .ARD procedure. 4 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS 4.1 Stakeholder analysis The question of “Cereal Monocropping'' is ambiguous in the recognition of different people. As well as in every exploration there are various goals of stakeholders, connections between them, directions and sizes of their influences to the research subject and each other, which have to be considered. For some actors “Cereal Monocropping” is possibly “a threat'’, for others “a blessing”. It’s very' important to correctly define which viewpoints are to be closely taken into account in the time of definition the way of the problem solving. .All decisions, options and recommendations for this issue had to be accepted after identification of stakeholders, study their interests/objectives and linkages, fulfillment of stakeholders’ analysis, and clarification of organizational linkages. In accordance with the ICRA ARD procedure the next activity had to be fulfilled in relation to the problematique: ■ Identification stakeholders and stakeholders' objectives/interests ■ Building stakeholder influence and importance matrix ■ Organizational linkage matrix 4.1.1 Identification of Stakeholders and their Interests The provisional list of potential stakeholders (Annexe IV) was prepared on the basis of TOR, secondary- data, and interview with key informants during the Field Study Planning Phase in the Netherlands. At this first step it was decided to include all possible actors without exception in order not to overlook any useful information. The groups of stakeholders who are concerned with the problem of Cereal Monocropping and their interests/objectives are showed in chapter 2 “Methodology" The list of stakeholders was discussed and renewed during initial workshops at Kulumsa and Robe/Sinana. The “key stakeholders” were identified. These stakeholders were interviewed and through iterative process the analyses was done The Table in Annexe XIII and Figure in .Annexe XIV shows the final list of key stakeholders with their interests/objectives. 4.1.2 Relative importcuice and influence o f the stakeholders The listed organisations have their own objectives, directions of activity, institutional level, opportunities and influence But practically all of them have interest for improving agricultural production, inclusion of alternative crops in southeastern highlands .Annexe XV). Study list of key stakeholders can help in identify ing actors, who are important, and those actors, who can influence the out come and the theme “Cereal monocropping" development results Importance of an actor is its priority from positions of its purpose, affinity with purposes of the project, the extent with which a stakeholder is affected by the issue or outputs Influence is the real degree of participant ability to convince, to force other players to create a decision and - or to perform an action Important stakeholders needed for promotion of exploration 56 results (they have a vital interest in it> T^u^n? c*r' tkO'd?~r - / - *,.*...... vv- ^ *•. out final and io maKe decisions coring work process. Stakeholder influence and importance matrix (Figure 4.1) helps to define participants whose opportunities, interests and contribution have to be considered and used for implementation of options. Figure 4.1 Stakeholder Influence and Importance Matrix in relation to cereal monocropping M P 0 R T A N C E The matrix show's that the key beneficiaries/stakeholders are Farmers and BADE, especially with respect to the theme of research. For them “Cereal monocropping” is not only subject of business but system of survival: it's an income for both of them, salary' for workers; for farmers it is the sole source of livelihood providing them food, clothes, facilities for families, forage for stock - in short it’s a source of income of this livelihood system. .After them in queue stay specialised suppliers (HUNDEE, .AMS, OCSSCo). They are also important stakeholders of the process, as far as have a profit from cereal production. But as well as Farmers and BADE they are not influential participants - aren't able to influence the politics on “Cereal monocropping". Traders (WBT) are even less important, but can influence on decreasing or increasing cereal production through prices of purchasing, e.g. high grain prices in 2000 have promoted more wide cereal crops cultivation in 2001 These traders are more influential and important in a place like Bale highlands where the local producers don't have easy access to big markets of Addis Ababa and Harar due to the long distance and shortage of good transport facilities So they are compelled to sell their produce in local markets. The situation for native producers are defined by absence of Market (absence of a choice, only market of towns Robe and Goba. good markets of Addis Ababa and Harar are inaccessible because of long distance disposition, absence of good roads and shortage of good transport facilities) BZCP also can influence on agriculture production politics, it’s supported by staie has strong contacts with ad T.misiratior and prosecutes authority decisions to its' members. OADB and ABRDP, scientific organis£:ions viz.. EARO, S.ARC. NWRP are placed in a separate group. Their activity is directed to the solution of agriculture production questions, particular “Cereal monocropping'’, indicating their importance They have opportunities for the address of the referred problems, they are able to influence the development at the scientific level (new technologies, varieties, equipment) as well as at political level (OADB - government structure; E.ARO - creation of recommendations on cereal production, leading to Government, other consumers). The most influential stakeholder in area is BZADO. This has the closest linkages with high government structures and can influence the agrarian politics in Bale Zone. BZPEDO plays more a statistics role. It develops plans, but the beneficiaries, the actual producers do not make use of these. The work of this establishment (Planning and Economic Development) is very important and it would be quite well to value it more. It’s necessary to value the influence of Farmers and BADE, - wheat producers. It needs to explore their linkages with other stakeholders in the process as well as linkages between other stakeholders, to define linkage gaps, which have to be closed in order to address the cereal monocropping problematique. 4.1.3 Stakeholders Linkage Matrix This matrix helps to know the existing linkages among the various stakeholders. It gives an insight about relationships between various organisations involved. These insights can lead to the development of criteria for improving linkages as well as negotiating preferred linkages between different stakeholders. Figure 4.2 shows stakeholder linkage matrix The criteria used for assessing the linkage include: ■ Type and frequency of contacts ■ Collaborative activities ■ Presence of any linkage mechanism (structural or operational) There is a good relationship between EARO. KARC, O.ADB and S.ARC. There is also structural linkage mechanism in terms of resource allocation and other technical support between E.ARO and KARC. OADB and S.ARC These organisations have weak linkage with farmers. Similarly all the organisations operating at zonal level namely, BZ.ADO. BZPEDO and BZCP have good relationship among each other. They also have good linkage with O.ADB. BZ.ADO is working in close association with farmers, particularly in extending technologies and they have good relationship with farmers But they have a moderate relationship with SARC and there is limited feedback provided to researchers and limited support they get from researchers Hence there is a need to improve this most important farmer, extensionist and researcher linkage (refer to AKJS for suggestions on improvement) .ABRDP has good linkage with S.ARC, OADB. BZADO and BZCP and they are mainly providing financial assistance by providing support for some programs for increasing agricultural production in the zone But they are not in direct contact with farmers NGOs like Hundee and OCSSCo are working directly with farmers and co- operatives operating in the study area But they do not have linkages with SARC. BZADO So there is a need to develop linkages between these sovemmer‘ w m Figure 4.2 Stakeholder linkage matrix EAROi KARC! S ARClOADB BZADO BZPEDO BZCP BADElABRDP HUNDEE AMSjOCSSCo Farmers |WBT |EARO ■ •: 1 1 KARC ■ $ Is ARC ++ -H- OADB a. + ++ BZADO + 4-t- [bZrhLXJ - BZCP _ - T J- ++ -H- [BADE - “f* ++ --- - ABRDP - ± ++ + . -H- - _ HUNDEE - - ± - -- AMS -- -- -“ ---- DCSSGo ------H- - - Fanners - - ± + + + - ++ ± - -H- -H- a. WBT --- - - . - -- -- + + Legend: (-) - no linkage, (±)- weak relationship, (+) - moderate relationship, (++)- good relationship 4.2 Agricultural Knowledge and information system The realisation that one cannot think in terms of water-tight compartments of creators, disseminators and users of agricultural knowledge has led to the development of the concept of Agricultural Knowledge and Information System (AKIS). .An AXIS can be defined as “a set of agricultural organisations and or persons, and the links and interactions between them, engaged in such processes as the generation, transformation, transmission, storage, retrieval, integration, diffusion and utilisation of knowledge and information, with the purpose of working synergically to support decision making, problem solving and innovation in a given country's agriculture or a domain thereof (Roling, 1989). The knowledge and information plays a very important role in the development of any country In agriculture access to information is even more crucial. Farmers need to know from where to get inputs like improved seeds, fertilisers, pesticides and improved management practices. They also should be able to get the information on prices and their fluctuations. Farmers are also supposed to know the technologies like improved varieties released, new methods of growing crop, mechanisation aspects etc. So the flow of information is very essentia! for a technology to be adopted by farmers or intended beneficiaries for whom the technology^ has been developed. At the same time agricultural services such as adaptive research, extension etc. need to get information from farmers in order to function properly as service delivers- institutions. 4.2.1 Indigenous bum-ledge In previous times when no organised agricultural research and extension in the country executed social networks played a very important role in the exchange of indigenous knowledge from one generation to other generation. With the establishment of agricultural 59 research and extension system the indigenous knowledge is neglected reducing the importance cf social nerworLs. /. is oni> in the recent times that the researchers realised the importance of indigenous knowledge and is now incorporating it in the research strategies. In country like Ethiopia, which is the home of many crops, there are too many indigenous knowledge with the producers of land races, which has to be explored and documented by researchers and other stakeholders. 4.2.2 Information sources In the Woredas surveyed the knowledge and information flow is as shown in figure. 4.3. There are two types of information source viz informal and formal. The most important information sources are: Informal sources Farmer to farmer informal information flow is the most important and reliable one in the community There is always sharing and exchange of information and knowledge between farmers of the same PA and also between farmers of neighbouring PAs. There is also information exchange in places of worship and other religious gatherings. The information shared include varieties being grown, availability of credit and other inputs, prices and their fluctuations in the local and neighbouring markets, impact of new technology if they are being tried by anyone in the community, policies that effect their livelihood. Female farmers get less information regarding agricultural knowledge as compared to male farmers. This is mainly due to the social structure and tradition wherein women were less involved in such discussions. Mostly they get information from their husbands and from children. They also get information at piaces of worship like church and mosque and at religious gatherings. There is also an Women representative at Zonal level and is at present actively engaged in educating and creating awareness to all women regarding some harmful social taboos and customs still existing in the society There is also informal sharing and exchange of information and knowledge in market between farmers, traders and people concerned with processing Information regarding prices, input availability and marketing strategies were shared Formal sources The Development Agent (DA) is the most important dissemination agent particularly related to new varieties and new' technologies. The extension department of BZ.ADO disseminates the new technologies through DA The extension method followed is a mixture of mass, group and individual contacts. As DA is placed in the PA itself he/she is considered as close to iarmers Farmers get an extension package (includes seeds of improved variety, fertiliser and pesticides) through him/her on credit basis and is to be repaid as soon as they harvest the crop DA visits and monitors the farmers' fields having trials and he^he gives feed back to the agricultural department But the efficiency of this modified T and V extension system is being reduced due to the inability of DA to visit and monitor all the farmers' fields The ratio of DA to farmers is 1 496 (Sinana-Dinsho). 1 363 ( Agarfa) and 1 254 in Goba 60 The basic- mci-oes eigm groups with six sub-groups of farme: o: 48 contact farmers (CFs). According to the population density, the number decreases to 24 or 10. On CFs fields, practical demonstration of the use of inputs or new practices are demonstrated. Contacts are usually weekly or fortnightly. Co-operatives are found active only in some PAs. The BZCP encourages and helps farmers to form co-operatives. They give credit to farmers for the purchase of inputs and also help them in the marketing and transport of the produce. They also provide storage facilities w'herein farmers can store their produce till there is rise in the market price. These are also the most important information providers in the woredas. Very little information and technology flow from researchers (in this case SARC). The technologies generated were disseminated through demonstrations. They are also conducting on-farm trials but only in some PAs and hence many farmers in various PAs are unaw7are of the research centres activities. At the same time researchers have not internalised the ITK of farmers in the area. State farms (two state farms present in the study area) have a good link w'ith farmers. One of the principal purposes for the establishment of BADE w'as the demonstration and extension to farmers of modem agricultural technologies. There was flow of information and also technology' transfer. State farms served as early adopters wherein the technology was tried on their farm and later disseminated to neighbouring PAs. Farmers of adjacent areas w'ere educated in the use of inputs such as improved seeds, fertiliser, chemicals, hiring mechanisation (e.g. combine harvesters). And although now' the purposes of enterprises have changed (the main aim has become profit orientation), contacts created with peasants, especially in extension and machine service, remain in force. But now there is no such transfer of information or technology. But there is an informal seed supply system operating in the area (Please see box). State farms always grow improved varieties and they do have access to the released variety earlier as compared to other beneficiaries. They give produce to their employees (lq/person/ month). This produce is given for consumption but most of these employees either give seed to their friends, relatives for sowing or they sell them to farmers in the neighbouring PAs. The Agarfa Development workers training centre (ADWTC) is at present not active but the development agents were trained in this centre before they resume their work in the PA. Thus the information related to the rural development including the agricultural related issues w?ere taught to the DAs which were later disseminated to fanners There are only few NGOs operating in the area. These include Agri-Service Ethiopia (ASE). and Oromo Grassroots Development Initiative (Hundee). There is a micro-credit providing organisation i.e., Oromia credit and saving Share Company (OCSSCo) ASE is a national NGO engaged in promoting rural development program in Ethiopia since the last three decades. Bale LRDP program (1997-2000) was implemented by this agri-service and it consisted of three major categories of activities, namely, crop and livestock extension services, social services and macro activities with integral components in three Woredas of 61 Bale Zone, namely. Gorro. Ginir and Gobbha-Gassera. The performance of the prc^am was encouraging in terms of achieving the planned target and meeting the intended objectives Though at present they are not active in this Zone but they have plan to start their program again. Hundee is operating with the aim of providing food security through establishment of village cereal banks and their networks. They provide storage facilities, help in the transport and marketing of the produce. They also provide information on market prices and other related services to farmers but on request. OCSSCo is operating in the same way as that of co-operatives and hence it is found only in those PAs wherein the co-operatives are passive. They provide credit for on-farm and off- farm activities and also encourage savings. 4.2.3 Information carriers There are various types of information carriers in the Zone, particularly in the PAs visited. These are classified as follows: ■ Oral- mass, group and individual contacts by DA, field days, farmer to farmer * Written- leaflets, recipes (inputs), posters, bulletins and books * Mass media- radio, TV The extension system uses different methods to disseminate information that includes mass, group and individual contacts. In all these methods, mostly oral communication was used. Information exchanged from farmer to farmers is generally oral in nature. SARC and BZADO also have written information carriers like leaflets in local language on improved varieties and improved agricultural practices. There are also some posters, w'hich show new crops (fodders), and new varieties that help farmers to know about them. Though the mass media is not used extensively by different stakeholders but they do have some programs on agriculture and related subjects on both radio and TV and many farmers do listen to them. 4.2.4 Information ma?iagement Technology development and delivery system will be effective only when there are good linkage strategies between researchers, extensionists and farmers, the ultimate beneficiaries. This effective linkage enables to respond to client priority needs. Keeping this in view, Ethiopian agricultural research system is trying various strategies to improve and strengthen this linkage. .As early as in 1960’s comprehensive package projects (CPPs) were launched with the support of bilateral agreements between Ethiopia and different countries The main objective was to strengthen the linkage by bringing different actors under one umbrella These include CADU, ARDU, and WADU. The first attempt to address a formal linkage was the establishment of IAR/EPID (Institute of Agricultural Research/Extension project implementation department of MOA) outreach program in 1974. The main objective was package testing and formulation of research recommendations to specific areas This program was discontinued in between and w'as reinitiated in 1980-81 as l.AR/ADD (Agricultural development department). Time constraint, budget problem and lack of efficient co-ordination made this program ineffective 62 In iate 1970s Farming systems research (FSR) was initiated w?hicn w'as strengthencG m i964 with the technical assistance from CIMMYT and finance from World Bank. The main objective of FSR w;as to identify the production constraints and to give feed back. Also includes validation of available technologies on farmer’s fields. Drawbacks of this project include excessive formulisation and simplification of FSR surveys and trivial or superficial information of these surveys. In 1985, LAR established research-extension divisions to strengthen the linkage and Subject matter specialists w'ere posted in each mandate zone. Acute shortage of workforce and lack of financial resources were the main two constraints of this division. In 1986, Research extension liaison committee (RELC) was established at both national and zonal levels with an objective to review' and approve research proposals and extension recommendations and to strengthen the linkages. The main drawbacks include irregular meetings, frequent changes in organisational structure of the MOA, too passive participation of farmers, linkage activities considered as part time activities as there was no incentive for committee members. In 1994/95, National agricultural extension intervention program was launched with the aim of attaining self-sufficiency at small holders' level. This program includes providing package, training programs for extension staff and farmers. With this program there is an improved linkage betw'een research, extension and farmers. This program also proposed linkage strategies that include the formation of councils at different levels. These include ■ Federal research and extension advisory council (FREAC) * Regional research and extension advisory council (RREAC) ■ Research centre based research extension advisory council (RCB-REAC) These councils are at federal, regional and zonal level, respectively. These councils are in operation at present and they provide a platform for all the actors operating in the area concerned with agricultural development. It also ensures the linkages and strives for strengthening of these linkages. The RCB-REAC is responsible for the overall guidance of research and extension programs and linkage management at zonal level. It is responsible to oversee linkage activities that will be undertaken by the respective institutions at zonal level. The important functions of the RCB-REAC are: ■ To review, prioritise and approve researchable problems (agendas) as identified by organisations involved in research, extension and the farming community during research review meetings. D To review the performance of executed research and extension programs in the zone as related to local production constraints/ potentials • To recommend programs of zonal significance in collaborative programs. ■ To recommend and plan collaborative programs for joint zonal agricultural departments and research centres for undertaking on-farm investigations aimed at improving the efficiency of production system and farmers resource management. 63 ■ To recommend complementary ac:i ities for :ecr.noIoty development and transfer bases on results of ex-ante and ex-post evaluations of the executed research and extension programs. ■ To ensure effective and continuous interactions among farmers, extension field staff, subject matter specialists, researchers and NGOs through joint in-service training, seminars, workshops, panel discussions, field days, farmers days and joint-field visits. ■ To submit annual workplans and budget for RREAC and report activity and annua reports to RREAC and FREAC 'The RCB-REAC has at present the following composition: Head, Bale Zone Agricultura. Development Office (Chair person). Head of the SARC Research-Extension Divisior (Secretary), SARC Centre Manager, Male and female farmer representatives, Heads of Departments of Agricultural colleges/ universities. Representatives of the ESE and AISCO, Team leader of the zonal extension team, Commodity team leaders, Head of the SARC Agricultural Economics Division, Heads of Woreda Agricultural Development Departments, Representatives of DA, Subject matter specialists' technical team. The council shall meet thrice in a year at different periods coinciding with the crop period. The first meeting will be held before the beginning of cropping season for reviewing or research programs and formulating extension recommendations. The second meeting will be in the form of joint field trips to evaluate on-going research and extension programs in the zone and assess feed back The third meeting will be held at the end of the crop season mainly to evaluate the programs during the year. Working groups/ sub-committees are need to be formed namely, a women farmers group, farmers research groups, resource management group and a farming system group. The functional framework emphasises the collaboration between researchers, extensionists and farmers and basically operational linkage mechanisms as indicated below were referred: ■ Joint problem identification and prioritisation, joint review meeting and establishment of farmers research groups • Joint technology release mechanism ■ Joint publications ■ Joint adaptation/ verification trials ■ Joint farmers technology need assessment At present the RCB-REAC is still not functioning as per the proposed plan although operating since two years (1999). The executive committee has only two members’ w'hereas officially should have five members It is not able to meet three times a year (last year only one meeting was held). Participation of both farmers and NGOs was minimum (last year only two farmers attended the meeting and no NGOs). There is also no budget allocated for the stakeholder participation (their travel costs, per diem etc). Farmer Research Groups (FRGs) are being tormed now as the budget was made available onl\ now to the research centre Recommendations for improvement in the functioning of this committee were suggested after a thorough discussion in the mid-term workshop with various stakeholders as w'ell as in relation to the functioning of other research centres i MARC, KARC) * Executive committee has to be formed with five members- Centre manager. SARC, Head, Extension Division. Head. Socio-economics division and two deputy extension heads of BZADO 64 ■ There is need to encourage the Darticination of faro*'« ■ -•— - In v o i^ D Participation of . ^ .w encouraged ■ Formation of Farmers Research groups, Women farmer group, resource management group and farming systems group as early as possible (Before the meeting in this year) ■ Need to involve commercial farmers, processors, exporters ■ Extension recommendation has to be approved by the council ■ Local language and simple terminology to be used in the meeting so that farmers can follow and give their feed back ■ Simple, possible package has to be prepared after the approval of the council * Need to make simple production guidelines ■ Frequent in-service training for farmers and DAs need to be given ■ Mobile training for farmers and DAs need to be undertaken. Figure 4.3 Agricultural knowledge and information system in the visited PAs 65 5 CEREAL MONOCROPPING 5.1 Cost-benefit analysis/Comparative analysis Farmers always have their own judgement on their production activities according to their limited physical capacity, social and natural resources. Then crop production arrangement is also following several principles within their limited lands, labours, capital, technologies and information. Financial profitability from the farmers' point of view was assumed to affect farmers crop choice. The small holder farmers may not list and calculate costs and returns of each of his enterprises. They may, however, go for crops that deserve lower cash outlay, fetch better prices, etc. Here it was assumed the relatively fixed land utilisation according to trend analysis of the study area. Then the arable land allocation for crop production was relatively independent from livestock system. Cost-benefit analysis was done for the crops only in this field study The purpose was to look for the economic reasons behind their cereal based farming system, and analyse its possible effects on farmers’ production behaviour in a dynamic environment. Two farmers were interviewed in each of 8 PAs and two groups of farmers were interviewed in Elabidu and Gommora on the costs and benefits of various crops. The result was mainly however committed from the average, although the range between farmers and seasons was very big. For example, in Wocho Mishirge, the farmer interviewed got very low yield in Gcnina season in 2000 because of the drought, while he got higher yield in Boria season in the same year. The information was collected for both Ganna and Bona seasons in 2000. All the crops had higher yield in Bona season than in Ganna season except in Wocho Mishirge wherein they preferred to produce more crops in Ganna season than other PAs. There is more materials’ input in Bona season especially in cereal crops. The analysis was done only according to the yield and input data from the Bona season but using both prices in the period after the harvesting in Bona and Gafina 5. J. 1 Result of the cost-benefit analysis for small holder farmers The costs and return analyses are presented in Annexe X\1 and Annexe XVII. Partial budgeting was used in this analysis, which meant considering only the costs and benefits that varied among the competing enterprises. The benefits were calculated by multiplying yield and price. The benefits from crop residues were considered in this analysis because straw had market value in the local market The types of the cost components were material cost, labour cost and animal cost. The farmers were using mainly their own seed or buying from other farmers, so the price of the seed here was the purchasing price between farmers, which is lower than the price in the market and from the extension package All the farmers interviewed used fertiliser for wheat and other cereal production but not for other types of crops Herbicide was used in cereal production only Wherever the farmers bought the fertiliser and herbicides, from DA or the private merchants in the market, they paid almost the same price Labour costs were mainly within ploughing- including preparation and planting, weeding, harvesting and threshing activities. While herbicides were used in cereal crops, the labour used for weeding are only for spraying The cost of oxen was for land preparation and threshing Another part of animal cost w'as for transportation from the field to homestead and from home to market 66 The significance of the cost components of the crops was evaluated by comparing the percentage share of the cost components in the total cost of production. Labour w'as the most important cost component for maize, teff and faba bean, as it accounted for 49%, 38% and 40% of their total cost of production respectively. On the other hand, fertiliser, seed and herbicides represented significant cost components for cereal crops, notably wheat. Wheal Cost-benefit issue in w'heat production with manual harvesting and combine harvesting were analysed separately. The yield difference between manual harvesting and Combine harvesting in wheat production was still existing according to farmers, although there were 1-2 q loss induced by the rapid movement of Combine. Many farmers in the study area had adopted combine harvesting because it had effects on reducing yield loses and timing of harvesting. But according to the benefit-cost ratio and gross margin, manual harvesting had better performance comparing to combine harvesting. On the other hand, the result represented the much higher return to labour in combine harvesting than in manual harvesting in both low'er and higher prices of the product situation. Connecting with the interview with the farmers, one answer for farmers’ preference of combine harvesting is that they consider return to labour more than the gross margin and benefit-cost ratio itself. The second answer is that fanners might ignore the straw benefits w'hen there is more cash income from grain. This can be seen from the Gross monetary return comparison. The wheat production with combine harvesting has the biggest gross monetary return compared to wheat production with manual harvesting and other crops. Wheat production had the highest financial profitability in terms of the gross monetary return and return to labour at the situations of two prices used. Only when the price w-ent down continuously to 70 Birr per q, the gross monetary return and return to labour would be 591 Birr and 18 Bin for Combine harvesting wheat production. Return to labour insisted on the first rank but GMR came to the fourth rank behind teff, field pea and faba bean without price change. That return to labour did not have significant sensitivity on price change is also the basic reason for the farmers selecting w'heat as the first preference within the crops. Barley Barley production had the second highest return to labour next to wheat production. Although it had not the relatively higher gross monetary return at low?er product price but it ranked the second one in terms of gross monetary return at higher product price, which w'as 1540, 1310, 1179 Bin for w'heat with manual harvesting, wheat with combine harvesting and barley production respectively. Emmer wheat The figure showed that Emmer w'heat was not financially profitable crop compared with other crops. Apan from maize, it had the lowest return to labour, w'hich were 10 Birr and 16 Bin at lower and higher product price respectively; and the lowest gross monetary return, that w'as 210 and 570 Bin at both product prices respectively. According to the previous analysis in cropping system and economic flow, Emmer w'heat was only an alternative crop for wheat when wheat had not good yield, because emmer wheat had relatively stable price in the market But the easier management, lower market risk and lower natural risk were not considered in this analysis, so the potential financial profitability of emmer wheat need to be analysed. 67 Field pea Although field pea has the highest benefit-cost ratio within all crops when the market prices are at the lower level, it has lowest gross monetary return comparing with wheat, faba bean and teff. And the return to labour is also the lower one when comparing with wheat and barley. But it is also clear that the return to labour has important meaning for the farmers, because the farmers already showed their interest to field pea when they gave their preference to crops. The disease that is mentioned in constraints explained why they did not produce field pea frequently. But there is potential possibility with new' varieties. Faba bean Faba bean had the high gross monetary return, 730 Birr, only after w'heat when the market price was lower. Its 1080 Birr gross monetary return was lower than that of wheat, barley and teff. But return to labour (13 and 18 Birr at both product market price levels respectively) showed that it had less advantage than field pea (18 and 24 Birr respectively). Linseed Linseed had not advantage in terms of all the indicators comparing with wheat, barley, field pea, faba bean and teff. But it had comparative advantage against emmer wheat and maize. The yield the team got from interviewees was very low and it had the potential. If the yield would be increased by 50and (6 qt per ha), the return to labour would be 16 Birr and still lower than wheat, field pea and teff, but the GMR would be 810 Birr and only lower than wheat. .And it w;as the best of all crops that could be used for processing and could get additional value. Maize It had the lowest return to labour. The yield per hectare 8-qt was not the lowest one within the crops. But the market price did not give sense since it w'as around 50-80 Birr/qt. Most of the farmers in the study area produce maize in their homestead where more manure was used. .And maize is more soil fertility demanding than other crops. Then if the value of manure was considered the profitability should be lower. Maize is an alternative crop for family consumption. In this study, maize yield was lower estimated. But even if both the yield and price will increase 50%, its gross return to labour, GMR, benefit-cost ratio will be 12, 710 and 1.68 respectively. Comparing with present estimated results of other crops, it won’t have comparative advantage still. Teff It seems that teff was a good alternative crop in terms of its financial profitability and low consumption (preferred with barley). But the gross monetary- return of teff is the lowest one within the crops, so the farmers do not consider it as the alternative crop at least at present. Teff has actually the highest cost per unit of grain If the cost including labour cost w'as considered, it is 118 Birr per quintal teff grain. 89% higher than that of w'heat with combine harvesting Economic motivation is obviously the main reason to arrange more land for w'heat and barley planting. But it is not simple relying on only the normal indicators that showed the financial profitability, such as gross return or benefit-cost ratio. The returns to labour and gross monetary return are the main criteria farmers are considering the first. That a benefit-cost ratio of tw'o was considered necessary' for farmers to shift crops which lose another purpose than household financial sustainability (RESAL/EU/LFSL. 1999) The result showed that it was 68 not profitable enough for continuously producing -♦•v* :— - ' price. 5.1.2 Sensitivity atia/ysis in terms o f price change and yield change The present situation described by the crop budget is potentially sensitive to the underlying assumptions. To test the robustness of these budgets, price and yield assumption were altered for the grain. The gross return to labour of wheat production with combine harvesting is much more sensitive for the product price change. When the price changed to 50% lower than the price used for estimation, the gross return to labour of wheat production with combine harvesting could become to 2 Birr, only 6% of the estimated one. For other crops with less gross return to labour in the estimated figure, they are less vulnerable to grain price swings. In terms of market risk, the crops with medium return to labour are more stable than wheat production with combine harvesting. Considering the coefficient of variation for cereal prices from August 2000 to April 2001 is almost 135%, the moderate yield and moderate cost might be the most rational. (Annexe XVIII). Simultaneous decrease of yields and prices by 25-50% would result in negative net returns for linseed, maize, emmer w'heat and wheat with Combine harvesting. The gross return for wheat with manual harvesting is less affected by variations in price and yield. For the assumption of price change in material inputs, the budgets show little sensitivity to the input price changes in general. Only the cereal crops for which the material inputs make up a large share of total costs are more sensitive to input price fluctuations. The result gives a possible direction that the benefits of crops could change in terms of marketing and production changing. But the budget would not have obvious sensitive response to the price change in decrease direction by only 25%. This also means that it is possible for farmers to continue on wheat planting even if the price will decrease by 25%, because return to labour in wheat production with both harvesting will still be the first one. Barley could be the first selection for the farmers if the price will decrease by 50% because the return to labour of barley production will become the first one. 5.1.3 Comparative analysis o f small holder farm and large scale farm Cost-benefit analysis of wheat in Sinana and Robe state farms showed that the financial profitability was in a negative situation in 1999/2000. And even from the historical data, the net returns were negative in most of the time (Annexe XIX)3. The best performance of Sinana farm was in 1997/98 when it had higher yield and relatively lower cost comparing to other years. Net return of Robe farm in 1996/97 was 1621 Birr per hectare and its benefit-cost ratio was 1.57, which showed the best benefits within 6 years. Both farms produced barley for 4 years since 1994/95. But the area of barley was much less than wheat area. The largest production area of barley was in 1994/95, which was 448 hectare and 1179 hectare and 14% and 91% of wheat production area in Sinana and Robe respectively. After that year, barley production area was only less than land and 4% of wheat production area in Sinana and Robe 3 The debt cost wTas excluded from the analysis, but weighs considerably in the total exploitation costs of the state farms. 69 respectively. Production budget for barley also shows negative returns in most years. It had positive figure only in 1997/98 in Sinana farm when both yield and cost were in good situation. In short time, the same level of high cost per hectare in both barley and wheat production pushed state farm transferring to wheat production that had higher average yield than barley. Both farms produced only wheat for the last three years. When compared small holder farmers and state farms, Serofta was selected that was not in study area but had best financial profitability within state farms in 1999/2000. Its good performance based on its relatively higher yield than other state farms. But the cost per hectare did not have significant difference between Serofta and other state farms. All the indicators showed that wheat production in small holder farmers had higher financial profitability than in state farms. Annexe XX shows the difference between them. The state farm had less land productivity comparing with the small holder farms, although they had more access to market, information and technology. The main reason was high product cost of state farm. If they wanted to get the same return as small holder farmer, they should produce more than 33 quintals per hectare with the price of 120 Birr per quintal under the present cost situation.4 Then reducing the cost per hectare of wheat production was one important option for the development of state farm, which meant the management, even the ownership of the state farm could be considered in future local resources, especially land allocation policy. 5.1.4 Risk and potential of wheat production in the context o f long-term market and globalisation Marketing fluctuation was one main risk for agricultural production; and weather condition, such as rainfall fluctuation was also a risk for farmers. Then their production decision was not only based on the market demand and their own consumption needs but also on the unpredicted loss because of those risks. So diversification of small holder farmers became an important component in their livelihood strategy. But it could not be concluded relating to other long-term risks, such as soil fertility decline loss, social co-operation loss, etc. At the same time, it is also not easy to calculate the external effects of wheat production with combine harvesting, e.g. the release of oxen may increase the livestock productivity, which could increase dairy consumption. Then when analysed the potential wheat production for the farmers in long-term, it was assumed that market price and grain market policy were the main external factors that could affect the wheat production The prices reached a very low level in 2001. This would influence the farmers’ profitability. It could be seen from the benefit-cost comparison between the market price in August 2000 and the market price in April 2001. Due to the poor connections between the farmers and the market, the farm gate prices of inputs were likely to be high and the product prices to be too low to cover the cost of intensification. Emphasising the self-sufficiency policy had put the domestic cereal market in a relatively isolating position, but the relatively lower demand and fluctuation yield was still leading the highly unstable market price. The marketable surplus of cereal products in Bale Zone is showed in .Annexe XXI. The marketable surplus could not satisfy the needs of local area, because it is not easy for the 4 Assuming that government waives the debt. 70 traders to transport the products in a difficult infrastnjr^’j-^ v —:--oi amount for Bale Z ? (A t' jxe >” T). the evai-auon of iocal purchase in 1998, there were 96,499 and 58,704 MT of wheat purchased in Robe market in 1996 and 1997, which accounts for 11% and 8% of the wheat production in that two years respectively. Then it can be seen that the food aid programme contributed to the local market to some extent. But the local procurement depends on the large enterprises that were involved. On the other hand, the relation between increase in production and decrease in price did not show the significant coefficient (especially the lower price-30% less than 2000 versus higher wheat production- 3.5% more than 2000) even in Bale Zone. There was no impact of food aid (12324 MT for Bale Zone, less than last year) on price change. But it is not easy to separate Bale Zone from the whole country to do this analysis. Food aid dispatched in 2000 (687105 MT, 75% more than 1999) was along with the higher domestic cereal production (714100 MT, only 17.6% more than last year) (FAO/WFP, 2001), food aid might play a more important role on the market price fluctuation than the production increment itself. Marketing situation is another important factor influencing the market price. On the same market, the gap between producer and consumer price is very low, the margins of wholesale and retail did not exceed 4-5 Birr per q average for each according to local market. But the difference between different markets price is very high because of the transportation expenses. In 1998, the wholesale price of wheat in Mekele was nearly twice that of Bale Robe. The transporting cost from Robe transiting Addis then to Mekele is 67 Binr per Quintal (Europe Food Security Network, 1999). And very high transport cost explained the large gap between the producer price in surplus area and the consumer price in food deficient area in Bale Zone. The price of wheat in Agarfa, Goba, Robe market was 105, 130 and 150 in February in 2000 respectively, but the price in Meda Welabu and Seweyna market place, which were the food deficient areas, was 180 Birr and 215 Birr at the same time respectively. (Figure 5.1) Market efficiency was a main objective for EU and other agencies involved in the food security programme and activities. Other aspects that were paid attention on by the donors were pushing the food needs into real market demand by the implementation of various incomes generating activities. All those endeavours could provide good incentive and benefit for the farmers who would continue to produce wheat and other cereal crops. The international price was fluctuating significantly. Nevertheless, during the last decade, IPP (Import Parity Price) had never been below the wholesale price in Addis. It meant that a risk of a very low international market price, which could endanger the Ethiopian farmers’ income and profitability, was low. But in Bale Zone, the comparative advantage in wheat trading was not so optimistic because of the high transportation expenses and low demand elasticity of wheat. Which meant that wheat production could stand by the local market and the supporting cf the internal trading between high land and low land which is food deficit area. For the competition in the wheat market, low cost and high value should have the better situation for wheat production in Bale Zone. Improvement of infrastructure of market and transportation could have positive effects on wheat production. At the same time, the researcher, extension and farmers should consider higher value and lower cost alternative crops. New varieties of linseed, field pea could have potential comparative advantage on financial profitability for the farmers compared to wheat, because their sensitivity for price change is lower and for yield change is higher. The team has not said anything on malt barley, which was considered a good cash crop for the Arsi and Bale Zone. Transport cost to Arsi (where the malt barley located) could be prohibitive for Bale malt barley considering that the competition with the international market is already tough. The IPP for world market malt barley is lower than the local prices for Arsi malt barley in some years. Only option for Bale would be to produce malt barley in the off season, i.e. Belg season, when price could be higher. Vegetable production was not included into the analysis, but limited data showed that vegetable products have potential profitability if there are appropriate varieties, storage technology and stable market price. And it is also an opportunity for female farmers’ income generating activities. It could be considered for further research. Figure 5.1 Gap of wheat price betw een lowland and highland in Bale Zone in February 2000 1 I 250 Seweyna fyfemanB arena b d tk ZD Snanana cinsho *T Gate ■) ,2 i J Bertere Nsnscfco Kokosa Mermana Nfcda Srveyna Gbssrsna Goba Dodola .Adaba Snanana arena vdabu gotoicha dn±o hlik Source: EC/Marketing sector, 2001 5.2 Constraints and opportunities of cereal monocropping 5.2.1 Constraints Based on the TOR and available secondary material, a problem tree was constructed prior to the departure to Ethiopia. After the survey and interviews with farmers, the problem tree was refined (Figure 5.2). The problem tree is constructed to know the root causes of the cereal monocropping and while doing so a systems perspective is considered. Thus all the factors related with monocroppping (including both causes and effects) were considered for both small holder farming system and large scale farming system. 72 As per the team’s perspective, it is the c '^ r ’jous r-.-'-'v--'-’— - v 1 -* *•. rea! . .. \ _.> .... . is resulted in mar.) efiecis .hat are grouped as follows. Figure 5.2 Problem tree of cereal monocropping •j _JS ) less other crops tolerant are not to abiotic input stress j IS responsive J limited j | extension j I programs on ' j other crops j limited seed enterprises not ■ multiplication of interested due to ! seed of existing limited profitability varieties 5.2.2 Effects of monocropping Technological constraints • Diseases- There is an increased incidence of yellow rust and stem rust due to continuous monocropping. There are also reports of breaking of resistance of some varieties. .? f 73 i • Weeds- Increased weed infestation as some weeds got introduced along with the improved seed (Annexe XXII). Some weeds became resistant to herbicides. • Yield reduction- Reduced yield of improved varieties with time, especially after two or three years yield was reduced Socio-economic constraints • Displacement/ disappearance of local varieties adapted to the agro-ecological zone • High prices of inputs like fertilisers, herbicides and improved seeds • High prices of combine- harvester • Poor nutritional and feed value of released wheat varieties • High fluctuation of prices in markets, especially cereals • Traders/ middlemen having high profit margins • No fallowing done due to less land availability Effect on livestock sub-system • In general decline in the livestock activities due to lower comparative advantage than wheat/ crops • Poor nutritional quality of wheat straw • Reduced livestock population and productivity • Shortage of grazing land - feed shortage • Reduced reproductive rate/ increased calving interval • Frequent replacement of oxen These effects are highly pronounced in the study area and also in other woredas like Adaba and Dodola. Due to these adverse effects the present study is being carried out. The main causes or the driving forces that are leading to this wheat monocropping are grouped. 5.2.3 Causes o f monocropping Technological constraints • Prevalence of diseases and insect pests of other/ alternative crops and there are no varieties resistant to these pests. • Lack of improved and resistant varieties of alternative crops, particularly legumes • Lack of improved varieties and technologies suitable for the zone, especially horticultural crops • Less productivity of alternative crops as compared to wheat • No mechanisation, particularly for harvesting and threshing for alternative crops • Unavailability of herbicides at cheaper prices for large scale cultivation and hence labour intensive in production • More susceptible for damage by frost as compared to wheat, barley Institutional constraints • Weak farmer- extension- researcher linkage ® Technologies/ varieties released are not reaching ... infer-."' " • Problem in sz~i r. pK. ... ^ the: i iS no organisation interested except Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE) © Time lag between the release of variety and availability of that seed for farmer's cultivation is more (4-5 years). • Limited credit system for other crops as compared to wheat Socio- economic constraints • Shortage of arable land / land scarcity for diversification of crops • As land is less, risk taking ability is too low, so farmer’s avoid planting legumes as they give low yields and low gross monetary return (Please refer to cost-benefit analysis) • Labour shortage during peak periods of activities (since only wheat can be mechanised) and poor return to labour (please refer to cost-benefit analysis) of other crops as compared to wheat • Lack of credit/ cash at critical periods like sowing, harvesting etc • Lack of irrigation facilities to grow vegetables • Lack of information about marketing of products • Less demand/ opportunities for marketing of legumes and other alternative crops After knowing the causes and effects of bread wheat monocropping, SWOT analysis was done for both small-scale bread wheat production system (Annexe XXIII) and large-scale bread wheat production system (Annexe XXIV). After doing SWOT analysis, opportunities were identified and some are translated to Research and development options. 5.2.4 Opportunities As in case of constraints, opportunities were also classified into three groups as follows: Technological opportunities • New varieties for crops alternative to wheat need to be made available • Diversification of crop production, new crops and improvement of alternative crops (e.g pest and disease resistance in case of legumes) • Development of double cropping opportunities (using the bi-modal rainfall) • Intensification of crop production. For example horticultural crops like fruits and vegetables with irrigation ® Demonstration of implements developed at Melkassa .ARC • Inclusion of socio- economic components in recommendation packages or basket of options Socio-economic opportunities • Identification of markets for new crops ( domestic and export) • Emphasis on development of high value crops ( i.e. high value per volume in order to reduce relative transport costs) • Land tenure policy development ( although more urgent for other zones than Bale) 75 M j • Credit policy improvement (in relation to repayment and also availability) i • Soil conservation policyno!;^. Institutional opportunities • Strengthening of the Research extension advisory council (REAC) with good participation of stakeholders and regular meetings ® Improved information management • Encouraging formal or informal seed supplies The opportunities under each category were discussed thoroughly involving all the stakeholders in the mid-term workshop. From these various opportunities, some are translated to options. TX i 1 i 6 tv^SlAKCh and DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS 6.1 Justification After the survey and analysis of information collected, plausible options were suggested to solve the problem of cereal monocropping for a sustainable agricultural development in the highlands of Bale zone. The options were proposed as per the target groups mentioned in the TOR that includes both smallholder farms and large-scale farms. Annexe XXV indicates the options as per the target group. Thus a total of eleven options for smallholder farms and six options for large-scale farms were thought of by the team to make agriculture more sustainable in the zone. These options were later categorised into research and development options as follows: Research options are those for which no suitable technologies exist and there is a need to do investigation. Development options are those which need policy changes or those for which technologies already exist but are absent in the region or of limited use. Research and development options are those for which some technologies do exist but for which further research is required. These options could be extended while investigations still continue. Research Options 1. Improving and screening varieties of alternative crops for different characters (for high yield, short maturity time, drought tolerance, and pest and disease resistance). For example, faba bean and field pea for pest and disease resistance, vegetables for high yielding and barley for shoot -fly resistance 2. Adaptation of conservation tillage system for Ganna and Bona seasons 3. Device feeding management strategies (Increasing the nutritional value of straw and conservation of residues, grassland management, rationing of feed) 4. Analysis of marketing mechanism(including both inputs and outputs) for major and minor crops and agricultural credit system Research and Development Options 5. Extending the varieties of alternative crops like faba bean, field pea, linseed, lentil, noug, mustard, maize, teff and pepper with their appropriate agronomic package (includes adaptation trials, locality specific fertiliser recommendations- both organic and inorganic) 6. Improvement, introduction and dissemination of varieties of legume and cereal fodder crops with their appropriate agronomic package ( includes integration of food and fodder crops) 7. Introduction of temperate fruits (Apple, Pear, Peach and Plum)/ agroforestry/ alley cropping in the highlands of Bale. 8. Introduction and testing of harvesting, threshing, transporting, planting and weeding implements for the major and minor crops grown in the area, Introduction of modern bee hives, mechanical milk churner and butter making machines Development Options 9. Dissemination of improved breeds of cattle, small ruminants and poultry 10 Develop seed multiplication and dissemination scheme for small scale farmers 77 6.1.1 Research options 1. Improving and screening varieties of alternative crops for different characters (for high yielding, short maturity time, drought tolerance, frost tolerance and pest and disease resistance). Faba bean arid field pea for pest and disease resistance, vegetables for high yielding and disease and pest resistance and barley for shoot -fly and disease resistance. One of the main causes for bread wheat monocropping is the absence of improved varieties of alternative crops like legumes, vegetables and barley suitable for the zone. So there is a need to give more impetus for the improvement of these alternative crops for diversification. Field pea and faba beans are the two most widely grown pulse crops in Bale zone. They play an important role in maintaining soil fertility, nutritionally well balanced diet, and source of income and feed sources of the area. Rust (Uromyces sp ), powdery mildew (Erysiphe pisi) in case of field pea and chocolate spot {Botrytis fabae) and rust in case of faba bean are the major constraints in the production of both these pulses. Though there exist some high yielding improved varieties released by SARC for the zone, farmers are still relying on the local cultivars. Vegetable production is dominated by potato, carrot, beetroot, cabbage, onion, shallot and tomato both in homestead and main field. Mostly it is women’s enterprise in the Bale zone. They are produced for home consumption and local market. Major problems in the production of these vegetables include ‘lack’ of improved varieties, pests and diseases, unavailability of inputs, poor road and transport facilities, highly perishable nature of the products and lack of organised market. Though these vegetables are one of the most important sources of cash all these factors are preventing the men to grow these vegetables in large- scale. Improving and developing varieties for these important vegetables need to be stressed. Barley is the second most important cereal crop grown in Bale zone, which serves both as human food and animal feed. Bale zone contributes about 5% to the national barley production (Hailu Gebre and Joop van Leur, 1996). Pests like shoot-fly {Delia arambourgi) and diseases like net blotch (Pyrenophora teres), leaf rust (Puccinia hordei) and scald {Rhynchosporium secalis) are the most important constraints of barley production in the area. Shoot-fly infestation ranged from 85- 100% in the main season and 8-15% in the off-season (Tafa Jobie, 1999). Grain yield loss due to diseases ranged from 20-35% in meher season and 25-33% in belg season (Bekele Hundie et al, 1999). These infestation levels are very high in all the improved varieties as compared to local variety “Aruso” which is an early maturing and hence farmers are compelled to grow the local variety that is a very low yielder. So there is a need to go for improving and screening of barley varieties for both pest and disease resistance Though there is improvement and screening of varieties of field pea, faba bean and barley in SARC, more emphasis needs to be given to these crops. Collaboration between SARC, EARO and ICARDA and cool season food legumes program could be strengthened to exchange germplasm And SARC could be involved in networks of the Nile Valley Regional program for exchange and sharing of information. 78 2. Adoption o f conser\>ation tillage astern for The present study is concentrating mostly on bimodal rainfall regions of Bale zone. These regions have two main rainy seasons. The first one, March to July, is a short rainy season known as ganna (belg). Ganna rain starts in late February or at the latest in the beginning of March and continues until July. The second rainy season is known as Bona {Meher) and it is from August to December. The time between Ganna {belg) harvest and Bona {Meher) planting is usually very short. Adoption of conservative tillage helps to reduce the time required for preparing field and thus the crops could be sown at appropriate time and allows double cropping. This also helps to reduce the draught power and labour requirements during the overlapping Ganna and Bona activities. Moreover in this region, farmers usually do not utilise the same land for both the seasons due to the overlapping of seasons, as they do not have time for land preparation to do the sowing in next season. Thus they are not able to fully take the advantage of two seasons and land is not being fully utilised as it is kept uncropped in one season. Adoption of conservation/ minimum tillage helps to fully utilise the land as it could be used for both Ganna and Bona seasons. Moreover the conservation tillage also helps in soil and water conservation. SARC is the potential stakeholder to take up this option along with other research centres like KARC, which is already doing some work in the same lines. 3. Device feeding management strategies (Increasing the nutritional value of straw and conservation o f residues, grassland management, rationing of feed) Increasing the nutritional value of straw' and conservation of residues Due to the steady conversion of grazing lands into crop fields, crop residues are gaining more and more importance in animal production as feed sources. Cereal straws are the major livestock feed, particularly in the dry season providing 40-50% of the total annual livestock feed requirement. In this region there are two feed shortage periods viz., Jan-Feb and May- June. So there is a need to conserve crop residues and feed them in these shortage periods. In this Zone straw / supplementary feed was given during Feb- April i.e., immediately after the Bona harvest. These straws are generally low in digestibility and protein content. So there is a need to improve the intake and digestibility of crop residues by physical and chemical treatments. If the nutritional value of straw could be improved, they serve as efficient feed sources. Thus the research efforts must be directed to develop methodologies by which this resource could be improved. Grassland management In Ethiopia natural pastures are said to provide more than 90% of the annual livestock feed requirements. However the total grazing area is decreasing over time as a result of the allocation of more and more range and forest areas to crop production to feed the ever increasing human population. The net effect of such increased pressure on land would be decreased grazing land per animal, leading to overgrazing, destruction of natural grasslands and forests and starvation of animals. Natural pastures obtained from such grazing areas are poor in quality. Moreover the grazing lands in this zone are community based wherein the PA as a whole is responsible for the maintenance of those grazing lands. So there is a need to have community range/ grassland management. This includes the opening and closing timings, reseeding and rejuvenation, improvement practices including fertilisation. 79 Rationing of feed Though this zone has highest livestock population in the country, there are no proper feed management practices being followed. One of the main reasons for this is that there is no livestock research institute in this zone. Although there are feed rations prescribed for each type of livestock, there are no specified recommendations including the local feed sources for the zone. As a result there is poor livestock productivity and poor health. There is a need to exploit these locally available feed sources These feed resources have to be characterised for efficient utilisation and identify relative potential to use as a sole diet or supplement to correct specific nutrients required by the animal for optimum performance. With these nutritional characteristics of feeds as a baseline, the feed ration could be prescribed to keep animals healthy and productive. SARC could guide the PAs and help them in the grassland management. SARC and Extensionists of BADO are the stakeholders to take up improving the nutritional value of straws and rationing o f feeds. 4. Analysis o f marketing mechanism (including both inputs arid outputs) for major and minor crops and agricultural credit system In the Bale zone, farmers get income from both agricultural and off-farm activities. Agricultural activities contribute more than 70% of the total household income. The main sources of agricultural products are bread wheat, field pea, faba bean, linseed, emmer wheat, and vegetables and livestock products. Another cash inflow of farmers is credits that contribute to both production phase and marketing phase of agricultural activities. As the smallholder farmers are dependent on agricultural products as cash sources, marketing is the important factor to influence farmers" income stability and cash flow improvement. Financial profitability is the main factor that was used by the farmers to make their production and marketing decision. Some profitability analyses had been implemented in Arsi-Bale area. But there is not specific study on marketing opportunities yet in the study area. The role and the different response of male and female farmer in marketing activities were not considered in relevant research work in Bale highlands either. The agricultural products in Bale highland have comparative disadvantage due to high transport cost in the markets (RESAL/EU/LFSU. 1999). Then the high value and low production cost could be considered as the important factor to increase the profit of products. The farmers could not produce the alternative products with comparative higher profitability so far. Wheat is still the first choice for the farmers in terms of higher return to labour and higher gross monetary return, although the net return of wheat is not good and there is large amount of storage in 2001. New varieties (high yield and diseases resistance) of alternative crops with high potential profitability are to be explored and supported by further research. On the other hand, there are not new market opportunities for the farmers due to poor market information system. For example, it is not clear for the farmers and traders about the situation of food relief market and the prices of other markets in Ethiopia at all. Farmers will not try the new enterprises if they are not sure of the benefits and risks they will face. It is important to establish a marketing information system to support farmers’ marketing activities. This analysis helps to understand the potential market of agricultural products for the farmers in Bale highland and to push market information system establishment. At the same time, analysis for the comparative advantage between different products, comparative advantage of specific products between different market will come up with the recommended products with 80 higher potential value and relatively 7: ; ^ - :;lity in highland. needs 01 creait for the higher profitable product both in production and storage, transporting will be included in the analysis. This analysis also helps in recommendation of future research emphasis on the production, processing and storage technologies of higher profitable products. Credit system relating with crop diversification, marketing information services and other market services will be recommended to relevant stakeholders. SARC, BZPEDO, BZADO, BZCPD and NGO, e.g. HUNDEE are the stakeholders to take up this option. 6.1.2 Research and Development options 5. Extending the varieties o f alternative crops like faba bean, field pea, linseed, lentil, mustard, teff arid pepper with their appropriate agronomic package (includes Adaptation trials, locality specific fertiliser recommendations- both organic and inorganic) Extending the varieties of alternative crops Since its inception in 1986, SARC is striving hard to meet the needs of clients. Situated in the wheat belt of Ethiopia, it is conducting research on diverse crops like small cereals, highland pulses and oilseeds, horticultural crops and forage crops. A total of eight varieties on diverse crops have been officially released since 1994-2000. However the ultimate goal of any agricultural research is not just generating technologies/ varieties but to see that they reach the end-users. Keeping this in view there is a need to make the ‘released’ varieties and also varieties released for/ in other areas, available to farmers, particularly small holders so that the production per unit area could be increased. SARC is conducting adaptation trials on farmers’ field to test the suitability and adaptability of the varieties. They are also having on-farm trials for dissemination of improved varieties with appropriate agronomic practices in different woredas. They also distribute seed through BADO. In spite of these efforts, the varieties are not reaching the beneficiaries. Therefore there is a need to extend the varieties of these alternative crops with more impetus and also need to collaborate with extensionists of BADO and have collaborative adaptation trials. Locality specific fertiliser recommendations In Ethiopia, there are only blanket fertiliser recommendations for any specific crop. These recommendations did not consider the soil type and nutrient status of a particular soil type and other agro-ecological conditions. Irrespective of various soil types and nutrient status farmers were advised to go for blanket application of inorganic fertilisers like DAP and urea, particularly for cereals. But now researchers and development agents and even farmers have realised the need to have locality specific fertiliser recommendations. Moreover till now' only inorganic fertilisers are being used extensively but keeping in view the environmental sustainability and soil conservation, there is need to consider organic materials like cow dung, green leaf manure etc. SARC, BADO are the potential stakeholders to take up this option. 6. Improvement, introduction and dissemination o f varieties of legume and cereal fodder crops with their appropriate agronomic package (includes integration offood and fodder crops) 81 The major constraint of livestock production in Bale highlands is shortage of feed especially during dry season (Bekele et al, 1997). A number of improved forage legumes, grasses, fodder crops and browse trees were identified for Bale highlands. However, there is no specialised effort to cultivate forage crops by small holder farmers mainly due to an increased family need for changing grazing areas to crop land (Bekele et al, 1996). But these constraints can be solved by integration of crop-livestock system. Inclusion of forage crops, particularly legumes in this farming system improves the quantity and feeding quality of poor quality roughages. Moreover it improves the grain yield of succeeding food crops by enhancing the soil fertility through nitrogen fixation. So there is a need to study the suitability of such fodder legumes, particularly for system compatibility. SARC is already doing research in these lines and they found that Vicia dasycarpa, Trifolium quartinanium, Melilotus alba and M. altisumus were found to be compatible with maize. They also found that Chloris guyarta (Rhodes grass) and Phalaris aquatica (Sirocco) suitable for this zone. Since livestock plays a very important role in the livelihoods of small holder farmers and as there is no livestock research institute in the zone, there is a need to emphasise the research on fodder crops in SARC. The livestock section of BADO also disseminates some fodder technologies. Hence these two departments could collaborate in future fodder activities. 7. Introduction of temperate fruits (apple, pear, peach and plum)/ agroforestry/ alley cropping in the highlands o f Bale Introduction of temperate fruits Bale highlands are characterised by bimodal rainfall areas and an altitude of 2300-2600masl. Rainfall is as high as 2300 mm and minimum temperature goes as low as 0°C. These climatic conditions are highly suitable for growing temperate Suits like apple, pear, plum and peach. But there are no fruits being grown in this area, as farmers are unaware of these fruit crops. Fruit crops could serve as potential source of income and useful in conserving the environment. Their growing is also relatively less labour intensive as compared to other crops. So there is a need to introduce these fruit crops from other areas of Ethiopia. Agroforestry/ alley cropping Agroforestry is nothing but growing trees of multipurpose use. These trees provide food, fodder, fuel wood and timber. These also help to improve soil fertility in addition to conservation of soil. S.ARC is doing research on trees that could be introduced/ propagated in the existing farming system and also studying their compatibility with other crops. Multiple cropping is not a new concept but instead a centuries old technique of intensive farming that has persisted in many areas of the World as a method to maximise land productivity per unit area per season. Alley cropping is one such practice wherein crops/ annuals are grown in between trees. This helps to use the land more effectively and efficiently. 82 SARC is doing some work allev vu Ii ~ »»!* in ueivvcc.* tree Juiceme. There is a need to nave similar studies with various crops to know their compatibility and adaptability. 8 Introduction and testing o f harvesting, threshing, transporting, planting and weeding implements for the major and minor crops grown in the area Implements play a very important role under existing situation of crop production in Bale Zone. This zone falls under bimodal rainfall area and there is an overlapping of both the rainy seasons. During those periods of harvesting ganna crops and sowing Bona crops and vice versa, there is an acute shortage of labour. Under these circumstances there is a need to test the feasibility and suitability of some implements for major and minor crops grown in the area so that necessary implements could be introduced. Moreover, the impact of state farms wherein there is complete mechanisation of growing wheat has resulted in the use of implements like combine harvester by small holder farmers. This encouraged some private companies to provide mechanisation services for small holder farmers in the zone. Since SARC doesn’t have either the resources or the manpower to take up this option, BZADO and NGOs could be encouraged to take up this option. Co-operatives also could be a potential stakeholder to take up this option. 6.1.3 Development options 9. Dissemination o f improved breeds o f cattle, small ruminants atid poultry Ethiopia is known for large livestock population of which 80% are raised in the highlands where intensive crop farming is also undertaken using ox traction. But the productivity of livestock is low due to local breeds, which have very low genetic potentials accompanied by management practices and shortage of feed resources. Though there was distribution of improved breeds of cattle and poultry in the zone by BZADO, there is more demand from farmers for these improved breeds. There is also an artificial insemination (AI) being done to improve breed. As there is no livestock research institute in the zone, no research is being undertaken though the zone has largest population of livestock in the Oromia region. A collaborative project between OADB and International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) on ‘indigenous Farm Animal Genetic Resources survey” was initiated this year with an aim to describe, identify and classify indigenous farm animal genetic resources. Data1 survey will be used to generate baseline information and to know production constraints to include in the development strategy. BZADO is a potential stakeholder to take up this option. 10. Develop seed multiplication arid dissemination scheme for small-scale farmers Ethiopian farmers have been practising seed selection and preservation for centuries. Even today the bulk of the national seed requirement is met through this informal system of seed production. This practise has contributed a lot for distribution of improved varieties through farmer to farmer seed exchange. One of the main constraints for growing alternative crops by small-scale farmers is the unavailability of seed of improved varieties There are no organisations/ institutions that are interested to take up the seed multiplication in the zone. Through this scheme, seeds of improved varieties along with appropriate package were given to some identified farmers and they were asked to multiply them under the inspection/ guidance of researcher. After the growing season, only the amount of seed given to them was taken back and given to other farmers. Thus the farmer could use the seed produced by them as he like; he could use it for multiplying or could use it for sale to other farmers. Under this scheme training was also given to DAs and farmers. This scheme helps to disseminate improved varieties directly to the end users which otherwise would have taken 3 or 4 years to reach them. This also helps the researchers to know the drawbacks of their technology and helps to strengthen the linkage between researcher and farmer. SARC in collaboration with BADO could take up this option. 6.2 Screening and prioritisation of research and development options 6.2.1 Screening R &D options Keeping in mind the problematic of the field study and considering the three key criteria (environmental sustainability, economic competitiveness and social equity) six stakeholders including farmers screened the ten options. Three stakeholders namely, ABRDP, SARC researchers, and BADE added additional options which they think were not considered in the 10 options which were extracted from opportunities identified during the mid-term workshop. All the three stakeholders added documentation of indigenous knowledge and biodiversity as an important option while ABRDP in addition to this, included post harvest technology as an important option. The team however agreed on to consider the original 10 options for summarising the screening activity since the additional options are not considered by majority of the stakeholders. Farmers did the screening using pair-wise preference ranking. It is important to mention however that they critically looked at each option in relation to their problem, contribution to their livelihood, and ease of application of the option and relative contribution to biodiversity. The other stakeholders used matrix ranking and weighted scoring tool in which most of them either added or developed their own criteria. In the case of ABRDP economic importance, priority for farmers, institutional capacity and innovation were used as criteria. S.ARC researchers considered conservation of resources, productivity, researchability, relevance, profitability time needed and accessibility for evaluating the different options. BADE selected productivity, profitability, and ease of mechanisation resistance to insect pests and diseases and adaptability as criteria. The team felt that most of the criteria selected by the three stakeholders are still components of the three major criteria considered. In the screening process different stakeholders ranked options differently (Annexe XXVI). Farmers were divided into three groups based on the typology developed. Each group ranked 84 the options separately and Esrh grrup considered all the tor- ranked options. Th’s indicates that those options, which are likely to be selected for further analysis or the op::or. will include the options that are preferred by most of the farmers regardless of the typology. Generally farmers gave more attention to research and development or development options rather than to pure research options. Except farmers all the stakeholders consistently ranked option 1 as an important option. On the other hand option 7 was less preferred option by all stakeholders including farmers. Options 1, and 4 were ranked in the top five preferred options by 83% of stakeholders followed by options 2, 5 and 10, which were preferred, by 67 % of stakeholders. Each actor screened the options by linking the options to its interest and objective. Therefore it is not surprising to see inconsistency in terms of the options ranked higher by the different actors. 6.2.2 Prioritisation o/R&D options Prioritisation is a process of selecting options, which require urgent research or development intervention with the use of sets of criteria. This is done due to the fact that resources are always limiting to consider all options. Following the overall ranking of screening exercise the seven most preferred options (the third include two options together) were considered in prioritisation using ranking and weighted scoring method (Annexe XXVI) These options were subjected to analysis using the following criteria: • Environmental sustainability • Economic competitiveness ® Social equity • Feasibility of the option • Time needed These criteria were selected considering their relevance to the topic of the study. The topic contains the word “sustainable agriculture” which can be environmental, economic or social sustainability. Implicitly, it is not possible to think of sustainability without considering these three entities. Therefore the first three criteria are well explained by their relevance to ecological balance, natural resource conservation and use, betterment of economy of rural household and equitable technology distribution between gender and farmer groups. Not only does the topic of the study call for feasible options that can be implemented with the existing resources such as trained manpower, facilities and budget. Therefore the fourth criterion was considered to address this issue. In addition time needed to implement the option was also taken as an important criterion as problem of cereal monocropping is a burning issue that should be addressed within the shortest possible time. Weight for each criterion was allotted based on the above indicators. The first two criteria were given equal weight (4), which is the highest. In relation to the problematique it was felt that these criteria are important than the other three. The next two (Social equity and feasibility of the option) criteria were given equal weight of 3 for each. The last criterion (time) was given the lowest weight (1) (Annexe XXVI). Scores were given ( 1-10 scale of scoring) to each option in relation to a given criterion. In relation to environmental sustainability criterion; Optionl, 2 and 3 received the highest score. In this category the lowest score was given to Option 4. In relation to economic 85 . J competitiveness criterion Option 1, 4 and 5 were given the highest score while in relation to social equity and time, option 4 and 5 were given highest score. With regard to feasibility criterion option 5 and 7 were given the highest score. The overall score of the seven options is given in Figure 6.1. The result showed that option 5, 1, 7 and 4 were given the first four best weighted scores in that order. Across criteria, the first option attained highest score in four of the criteria, the third option in three of the criteria while the second and fourth each in two of the criteria. Finally the team decided to develop four proposals one from each of the above four top options with the involvement of appropriate stakeholders. Figure 6.1 Overall score of prioritised options "5Ca 3 -i i Option 1 Option2 Option3 Option4 Option5 Option6 Option7 6.3 Feasibility of options Keeping in view the perspectives of the stakeholders, the feasibility analysis was done by the team for selected seven R & D options. The implication of feasibility in the team view includes the intended beneficiaries’ participation and acceptability, research feasibility, and the possibility of research collaboration and collaborative agreement between stakeholders. Seed multiplication and dissemination scheme and extending the improved varieties of alternative crop are considered as having the highest feasibility. Improving and screening varieties of alternative crops for different characters and marketing analysis have the higher feasibility. Feed management strategy and introduction of the implements have the lowest teasibility. Because the team involving relevant stakeholders decided to develop proposals from the first four options, feasibility analysis explained here includes only those first four options. 6.3.1 Imended beneficiaries assessment The intended beneficiaries include the smallholder farmers in mid highland in Bale Zone, mentioned in the previous chapters in the report. Here the team assumed that more the farmers are willing to participate, the higher the feasibility of implementation and follow-up, especially for the research and development and development projects. .And on the other hand, if the options need strong and long-term change of production factors, it will be difficult to implement. 86 Extending the v&rieiiw. : 7 cc» ^ps Considering the possible participation of the farmers, the emphasis will be given to those options that can involve more fanners directly, such as extending the varieties of alternative crops. The option could be introduced along with farmers’ own experience and knowledge and they could transfer to more farmers through their local communication and learning process in the agricultural production. The farmers expressed their willingness to test new varieties of pulses and vegetables. In Baressa PA the farmers mentioned that the researcher and DA selected several households to produce field pea with new variety. And they are glad and eager to see the result. If it will be good, they will produce it next year and they are willing to get to know more new technologies in this way. All the options ask for small change of the existing production system. According to the analysis of the farmers’ crops choice, the farmers will ask for it positively and accept it even there will be some changes in their production system, if they think the new technology is financially profitable in terms of return to labour and gross monetary return. Farmers had the experience accepting the varieties with recommended inputs, fertiliser, herbicides and seeds. Even though those packages were provided along with the credit, it is still not easy for the farmers to get those ‘packages’ due to several reasons. Firstly, it is limited in the amounts; secondly, it is sometimes not delivered; thirdly, the comparison of the input cost, high risk of the production and output return is not profitable for farmers. Then for those options relating to varieties and their agronomic packages, there will be strong need for the support with seed supply system. If the extend new varieties of alternative crops can provide also the local specific organic and inorganic fertiliser recommendation, it will be better address local supply situation and could have less fertiliser requirement than common recommendations for different areas. And the result of crop partial budgeting analysis shows that field pea and teff have good profitability without fertiliser input. If those new varieties of alternative crops could not get appropriate mechanisation harvesting support, it will have higher labour needs than wheat production. This is an adoption risk for the farmers who consider this factor. Another problem is the gap between the household cash situation and new inputs needed. Credit provision could be a solution for those farmers who are willing to participate. In the present situation, it is difficult for all the farmers to get credit, as they require it. In the three districts, not all farmers in each PA could get credit from the Saving Share Company. Because the credit is without collaboration for smallholder farmers, and group formation is the only way to get this credit, it is difficult to get accepted by the company. The farmers could lend money from each other but it is not sufficient for the farmer’s production. Farmers also expressed their unwillingness to get commercial credit to invest on agricultural production because of the high market and natural risk. There are still other risks for implementing the option. For example, extended varieties are not better than existing varieties or increasing dependency on other inputs; new varieties do not contribute to opening up new markets, like field pea price could further get reduced. 87 Improving and screening new varieties of alternative crops Improving new varieties is a research option will consider only the sampling farmers who will participate in sample selection, basic survey and relevant research procedure. It is not difficult to implement it but the follow-up is not sure. Farmers also complained that they could not reach those research works having been done and it is not good for them to wait for long time. If farmers are not involved right from the start then the investment is very risky. Concentration on few commodities is less risky. Seed multiplication and dissemination scheme for smallholder farmers Being an important input factor, improved seed with affordable price is needed by the farmers. The farmers are looking for the seed sources themselves and they hope to have more access to seeds with lower price. At the same time, it is not easy for them to get improved seeds of alternative crops, such as horticulture and forage crops. For example, they could not get any improved seeds of vegetables except onion and potato. They are willing to have the access to get the seeds even for field pea, faba bean and linseed. Seed multiplication needs high co-operation with enhanced input supply system especially because of its higher needs of quantity and quality outputs comparing with the grain production. But the risk in the sustainability of the seed system is that it needs guarantee for quality and appropriate price for seed produced. Contracts have to be considered. Analysis of marketing opportunities and consequences From the farmer's point of view, they could not get enough marketing information, storage capacity and have only poor trading conditions; for the credit system, the farmers were complaining the repayment time, the high risk of using credit and the problem of the credit. Farmers will hesitate to start growing new crops of diversify their cropping system or livelihood system if they are uncertain about their cash flow situation and hence the risks involved due to marketing and production problems. A detailed analysis of the market for newly proposed crops (e.g. field pea, teff, barley and maize) and consequences for farmer cash flow situation are planned in order to identify risks involved. The study will have to concentrate on a few priority commodities and analyse the whole chain from production (including input requirements, credit) to the consumer and agro-processing. The study will aim of results that will reduce the risks for farmers to undertake new crop production enterprises. The Saving Share Company provides agricultural credit to the farmers who organised themselves in several groups. Co-operative Promotion developed co-operatives group that could accept service of wheat storage and marketing. But only a small part of the farmers participated in the group. The research of marketing and credit system could improve the farmers’ participation. This marketing analysis relates with input supply system, including information services, directly. Its recommendations could be related with the improvement of input supply system. It is also not easy to have the follow-up for the farmers 88 All the options have training requirements for c2rr\^ r ire vr!!!:r*g ;o participle. This is also an obstacle for the implementation of those options, because the training supply for the farmers in Bale Zone is not sufficient according to farmers5 view. Tne mandate of extension is limited because of limited manpower and operational budget. 6.3.2 Research feasibility in SARC arid Possibility of research collaboration Considering that these options will be implemented mainly by SARC in collaboration with other relevant stakeholders, assessment of research feasibility focuses on the research experience and manpower situation, equipment and laboratory facilities, funding resources and possibility of research collaboration in SARC. There are 33 experts distributed in 9 research divisions in SARC, within who there is one PhD (Breeding and Genetics Division Consultant), 5 MSc, and 27 BSc. 9 of them are studying for their MSc in other places, and two of them are studying for their PhD. Presently, there are 6 experts working in Breeding and Genetics Division, 5 in crop protection, 3 in Animal Feeds and Nutrition, 2 in Agricultural Economics, 2 in Agronomy, 2 in Soil and Water Management, 1 in Horticulture and 1 in Research Extension. Extending the varieties of alternative crops The research and development option of extending the improved varieties of alternative crops needs the appropriate released varieties, the strong research-extension-farmers linkage, including their co-ordination and appropriate extension methods. Some demonstration program of forage legume, grass varieties, bread wheat varieties and potato varieties, and the popularisation program of field pea varieties were done by the Agricultural Research and Extension Division. But according to the researchers, it needs enhancement in terms of the linkage and extension methods. Then it is not possible to implement this option only relying on SARC. BADO and other stakeholders should be included into it. MOA have taken the Extension Package Program through the extension staff members in Zonal office, Woreda office and Development Agency for several years. The extension of the new variety is along with the distribution of seeds, fertiliser and herbicides. Then they have the experience working with farmers, but the co-operation with researchers, as described in the linkage part, is not strong enough to transfer the research result to the applicable program. From their own assessment of those options, both researchers and extensionists think that it is possible to enhance the linkage between them and extend the new variety and the appropriate technology according to farmers’ needs. ABRDP already supported some research and development work on extension system. The recommendations and practices could be applied in the implementation of this option. Improving and screening varieties of alternative crops Breeding and Genetics Division is strongest in SARC in terms of human resources, so improving and screening varieties is feasible. Screening of wheat, barley and pulse varieties for their resistance to diseases, and screening of barley, field pea and linseed for their resistance to insects were done by the crop protection division. But they are not screening other crops in terms of their characters, such as malt barley, vegetables and etc. Their specialities and experiences on cereal and pulses crops will be used for these other demands. 89 It is still difficult to improve varieties of other alternative crops, such as pepper, while there is only one expert working in the Horticulture Division, which was established only two years ago and with experience only relating to potato, garlic and shallots. So it is important for SARC to have collaboration with the Vegetable Research Program in MARC in terms of improving variety of pepper. This breeding of vegetable crops also helps in targetting research keeping in mind the female farmers. Involvement of various farmers, extension, traders in an early stage are essential. For the package relating with different crops, agronomy division has done some study on fertiliser rate, seed rate and crop rotation with different input rate. It is possible for them to accompany the improved varieties of alternative crops. Seed multiplication and dissemination scheme for smallholder farmers Seed multiplication and dissemination scheme relates to farm management directly. And SARC already co-operated with smallholder farmers in seed multiplication for field pea production. It is not difficult for SARC to implement this option even in terms of other improved varieties, due to its good relationship with PAs. But for those seeds of alternative crops, it needs more work on supervision and guidance, farmers’ selection, relevant inputs supply supporting and proper marketing and distribution. Then the co-operation between SARC, BADO, co-operatives, HUNDEE and the farmers is a very important condition to implement this option. SARC could contact SSDP directly and provide input through DA for the farmers who are selected as the participants in seed multiplication, because the input supply from DA usually has limited amount and only related to cereal, especially wheat, production. Extension staff in District Office and DA will play important role in assisting SARC supervising the seed production and post-harvesting activities, which are related with marketing and distribution for several years. Analysis of marketing issues, opportunities and consequences The socio-economic Research Division has done the profitability study on major crops. Other studies they did are relating with the adoption and on-farm evaluation of new technology. Consequently the marketing study is a new area for them. Apart from one assistant researcher and one junior researcher studying abroad, there are still two junior researchers in position. It is not very feasible to implement this but the study capacity is still there and could be supported by the research human resource from BPEDO, BZADO, ABRDP and NGOs, esp. HUNDEE. The ABRDP already had the programs that are relating with improvement of marketing infrastructure and micro-credit program especially for female smallholder farmers. And one of its objectives is supporting the research work, so it is possible for it to support SARC based on the consensus of the selected research project The Zonal Planning and Economic Development Office is doing the socio-economic survey for all woredas in Bale Zone, which relate to marketing issues to some extent, such as marketing facilities and some marketing information of different agricultural products. The limited human resources and support funding prevented it to do marketing analysis for the agricultural inputs and products. They are suppose to discuss the projects submitted by 90 different sectors, including Agricultural Sector, considering - ’ ^ ’ •" also suppose to provide recommendation to improve existing ma:.-.: .. on. It \:rc't vn:\ be a chance for BZPEDO co-operating with S.ARC and BADO (^District Office) to do this marketing mechanism analysis, it is also supporting its objectives. BZ.ADO have the mandate to collect and analyse the market data and extension should provide services for the farmers. They are doing the work within their mandate so it is very important to collaborate with them to allocate resource at a maximum extent. The Zonal Trade and Tourism Bureau is addressing market prices analysis and market information provide. Its involvement could be positive in relation to the marketing mechanism analysis. The credit system analysis could be done through the co-operation of SARC and OCSSCo that has the experience providing credit for the farmers based on the credibility of farmers’ groups only. Some suggestion and credit models could be obtained from ABRDP. Funding resources in SARC The present funding resources are from OADB (Regional Government), EARO (Federal Government) and Ethio-Italian Development Co-operation (ABRDP). The present research programs are supported by these three organisations. It is not sufficient for more research projects. If several projects could be generated from those four options and will be implemented, more funding will be asked or this is given priority over existing research programs. At the same time, there will be some co-operation with other stakeholders, so those expenses of organising, communication and implementation will be included. Then the present funding situation should be a constraint for implementing those options. These proposals should be analysed by REAC in relation with the other research activities in order to establish zonal priorities. Conclusion Although there are some disadvantages and lack of some pre-conditions or pre-resources in SARC, the possibility of research collaboration between SARC and other institutions (research, extension, NGOs etc.) is expected and the supporting of investment from outside is also considered. Then overall, in terms of the co-operation, the feasibility of implementing the options based on the conditions and constraints that could be improved. The most important condition is the involvement of the stakeholders at all stages of research and development projects. They form the basis for co-operation but there is also a constraint in this process that is the difficulty to co-operate with stakeholders with limited resources’ allocation and conflicts of relation. In term s of investment support, there are some donors interested in the agricultural research and development works for the improvement of farmer’s livelihood. It is possible for them to assist the projects developed for implementation. And the co-operation between the research institutes and within the research institute and farmers could scatter the pressure of capital needed into small parts. But the constraint here is to push the relevant stakeholders realising the ownership of the projects. 91 7 OUTLINE OF RESEARCH PROPOSALS 7.1 Introduction Four research and development proposals have been prioritised by the principle stakeholders in agricultural development in the Bale Highlands. In the present draft report only the project planning matrices (logical frameworks) for the four projects have been elaborated. Annexe XXVTII gives the details of complete proposals. Some general information on the research and development projects is presented in Table7.1 Table 7.1 General information on research and development proposals Expected outputs Target area and Main Principal inputs group collaborators Varieties of Small-scale farmers BZADO Land, labour alternative crops in Agarfa, Sinana- SARC Improved seeds extended to farmers Dinsho, Goba. Resource person Stationary Fund for fertiliser and herbicides Varieties for Bale Highland EARO and Land, labour alternative crops Large and small scale KARC Resource person identified, improved farmers SARC Germplasm and made available Stationary Laboratory funding Sustainable seed Three Districts. SSDP Land, labour, fertiliser supply system for Existing groups (co Co-operatives (farmer) alternative crops operatives?) Promotion Resource persons developed BZADO Seed and herbicide Stationary Fund for training, herbicide and stationary Market Bale Highlands BZPEDO Costs in Addis opportunities for Farmers and traders SARC Data collection costs Bale Highlands and Co-operative Data analysis costs development promotion Workshop cost consequences BZADO Information services cost analysed (test) 92 'I'able 7.2 Logical framework of proposal I Title : Pre-extension demonstration of varieties of alternative crops to small holder farmers in the Bale Highlands Narrative summary Indicators of performance Means of verification Important assumptions Goal: Central Statistical Authority (CSA) Contribution to Sustainable Agricultural Increased bio-diversity with different Report Development in Bale Highlands crops and different varieties. BZADO report Purpose: Increased number of farmers growing a CSA Report Policy supporting alternative Diversification of existing cropping different varieties of alternative crops Zonal Reports by crops (e.g. credit supply, seed system with the extension of varieties of by 30% by the end of the project (2007) Planning & Economic supply) alternative crops Development Good market prices of these (Field pea, faba bean, linseed, mustard, crops lentil, teff and vegetables) Expected outputs: Progress report of the Farmers participate / co-operate 1. Farmers involved in testing different 1. 150 farmers involved (100 male project Farmers can obtain seed and varieties of alternative crops with farmers and 50 female farmers) SARC Annual report market appropriate agronomic practices 2. One variety of each alternative crop SARC progress report New varieties give better return 2 Increased adoption of these varieties being adopted by 450 farmers SARC quarterly report 3. Farmer Extension Groups (FEGs) 3. FEGs per district formed with 20 established farmers in each FEG 4. Strengthened Extension-farmer- 4. Joint research/extension adoption researcher linkage reports for each crop 93 Activities: I FHG farmers participating by 2002 Progress report of the Funds are available timely for I Farmer Extension Groups (FEG) (initially 3 districts, later 7 districts) project continuing activities established 2. 5 varieties accepted SARC Annual reports Varieties of crops available 2. Collaborative demonstrations with 3. Trials/ demonstrations for each Adoption surveys FEGs formed are active extension and other relevant variety stakeholders (FMFI) 4. 50 farmers in each district found 3 Monitoring and evaluation, Feed- back growing these improved varieties and adjustments 5. Area under improved varieties of alternative crops increased by 15% by the end of the project (2007) 94 I'able 7.3 Logical framework of proposal II Title: Improving and Screening Varieties of Alternative Crops (Barley, Faba bean, Pepper, Maize and Noug) for Different Characters ( High yielding, Short maturity time, Drought tolerance, Pest and Disease resistance) Narrative Summary Verifiable Indicators Means of verification Important assumptions Coal • Reduce risk in crop production income • Increased production of pepper, maize, faba • CS A Report bean and barley by 20% • BZPED economic • Increased acreage of paper and maize by profile 10% and faba bean and barley by 20% after » BZADO yearly 5 years of the completion of the project report • Decreased production of wheat by 5% after • SARC farming 5 years of the completion of the project system formal • Decreased acreage of wheat by 8% after 5 survey report years of the completion of the project Purpose ® Diversifying crop production • Increased number of farmers using pepper, ® Report on the • Stable input costs enterprise (through supply of high barley, faba bean and maize as alternative adoption study of and prices of yielding, disease and pest resistant income source by 15% by the year 2011 improved produce varieties of barley, pepper, maize, and • Decreased number of farmers using wheat technology of faba bean) as income source by 10% by the year 201 1 papper, barley, faba bean and maize • Report on the comparative advantage of pepper, barley, faba bean, maize and noug with wheat 95 Expected outputs 1 Suitable alternative improved varieties 1. Different improved varieties released for • Progress reports • In puts and ci edit with resistant to biotic and a biotic the area and available for farmers • Quarter reports system available stresses released for Bale highland 2. 15kg o f improved seed supplied for • Annual reports for farmers for this 2 Basic seed supplied to seed multiplication • Publications crops multiplication scheme 3. 5 group of farmers involved in selection • Good eed 3 The comparative advantage of these 4. Enterprises more profitable than wheat multiplication and crops more than wheat 5. Farmers know about the varieties before dissemination 4, Farmers research group formed for release scheme availal fe participatory selection of varieties • Effective lit* age of the SARC and extension wot; i s Activities 1 In-depth survey and literature review 1 Report by December 2001 • SARC Progress • Continuity of iind on the research work including market 2. Five researchers trained before March 2002 reports are guaranteed analysis done on the crops 3. Four meetings with national co-ordinators • SARC Quarter • Farmers co-op- rate 2 Training on participatory plant in 2001 reports • Lab. Material' are breeding for researchers 4. Five RMR1 sites selected early 2002 • SARC Annual in place 3. Discussion with the national program 5. Six FRG formed in 2002 with 10 farmers reports co-ordinators each • SARC Publications 4 Appropriate site selection to carry out 6. Number of trials establishments the research work 7. Five field day/assessments each year in 5. Formation of farmers groups and SARC training for participatory work 8. Number of released varieties 6 Establishment of the trials(RMRI, 9. Half hectare each crop in 2006 RMFl, FMFI) 10. Six assessments done for each crop 7 Monitoring and evaluation 8 Release of the varieties 9. Basic seed production 10. Agronomic and disease data collection, economic, gender, ecological and statistical analysis and report writing 96 Table 7.4 Logical framework of proposal III Title: Seed Multiplication and Dissemination Scheme for Alternative Crops in the Cereal-Based Farming System of Agarfa, Goba and Sinana-Dinsho Districts Narrative summary Objectively Verifiable Indicators Means of verification Assumptions Goal Sustainable agricultural production in Increased and fairly distributed income, ecology CSA Publications three districts of upper Bale through maintained at equilibrium in year 2010 Survey report diversification of crops Discussion with fanners Objective To contribute to the sustainable seed 5% of farmers in the three districts will be able to Survey report Government supply of alternative crops to bread produce or supplied with improved seed of Discussion with farmers Extension program wheat alternative crops in year 2006 Monitoring and evaluation support inclusion report of alternative crops Good market for alternative crops Outputs 1 Sustainable local seed production 1.1 Quantity of seed produced Progress and annual Premium price for system developed 2.1 108 farmers, 36 DAs and 9 supervisors trained reports seed is accepted by 2. Farmers are equipped with skill of in 2002-2004 Review of achievements farmers seed production 3.1 Three farmers’ days will be conducted in each of Tour report of task force Efficient 3. Farmers, DA and supervisors Agarfa, Goba and Sinana-Dinsho districts at dissemination/distri trained on technique of seed crop maturity in 2002-2004 bution mechanism production 4.1 At least 1100 farmers in the three districts will in place 4. Farmers shared knowledge and be supplied with improved seeds of alternative skill of improved seed production crops during 2002-2004 97 1Activities 1 V I I T * 1 • V i F 1 Formation of farmer seed banks 1 Nine farmer groups in the three districts will be Proposal Suitable vaiieties for alternative crops considering established at the beginning of 2002-2004 Document of formation of are available gender 2 Report produced and strategy developed in year research group Farmers arc v i 1 ling 2. Analisis of traditional seed supply 1. Quarterly reports to participate in the mechanism 3. Training for 36 farmers from the three districts program 3. Training of farmers, DAs and will be given in each of years 2002-2004 Credit rvice Supervisors on improved seed 4. Seed will be distributed to farmers in June 2002, available for production 3 &4 farmers 4. Purchasing and distribution of 5. Five members task force from different seed to farmers on sustainable way stakeholders will follow the seed multiplication 5. Undertaking and Follow up of program during 2002-2004 routine agronomic practices 6. Frequency of rogueing for each crop. 6 Supervising rogueing and 7. 3-6 field days will be conducted in each season harvesting. during 2002-2004 in selected PAs 7 Conducting farmcr-dav on the 8 Quantity of seed distributed by farmers to seed multiplication site farmers. 8 Arrange farmer to farmer seed 9. Number of seed samples tested distribution mechanism 10. A short (5-6 page) seed production guide will be 9 Seed quality test prepared during training at the beginning of each 10. Seed production guide preparation of year, 2002-2004. 1 1. Report writing 11. Quarterly, annual and progress reports of all activities will be prepared 98 Table 7.5 Logical framework of proposal IV Title: Study on the Marketing Opportunities and Consequences for the Smallholder Farmers in the Highlands of Bale Narrative summary Verifiable Indicators Means of Important verification assumptions Goal Reduce smallholder farmers’ income Smallholder farmers’ income increased stable each year Evaluation vulnerability from 2003 report Purpose Increased access to market with different Losses induced by market price fluctuation could be Evaluation Allow farmers to realise products for smallholder farmers complemented by different products for smallholder farmers report restrictions Expected outputs 1. Analysis of market opportunities for 1. Potential demand and prices fluctuation of wheat, barley, Final Relevant stakeholders, smallholder farmers (male and female emmer wheat, field pea, faba bean, linseed, lentil, teff, Research including farmers, farmers) completed maize, pepper, potato, garlic, onion, tomato, cabbage and report SARC, BZADO and livestock products analysed for smallholder farmers in BZPADO could be Bale in 2002 involved actively 2 Preliminary system of providing 2. Follow-up action of analysing and providing information marketing information completed planned and its specific agencies and responsible divisions identified by the end of 2002 3. Analysis of profitability and advantage 3. Cost-benefit matrix, substitution analysis, credit needs of different enterprises for smallholder analysis and sensitivity analysis of farmers’ marketing farmers (male and female farmers in activities in terms of infrastructure change done for three different farmer groups) in Bale different crops and livestock products in 2003 completed 4. Recommendation for future research 4. Research work on specific products or activities, storage work and other services for marketing technologies; improved farmers’ marketing co activities of smallholder farmers operatives, credit services and information supporting formulated approach recommended by the end of 2003 09 Activities 1. Filled checklist of market price, market demand, market 1 Preparation and collect the marketing supply and market facilities and services in 2002 Progress Interviewee’s positive information Data (main markets); 2 . Price fluctuation between seasons and years; price spread report and responding; Survey of market information in Bale between areas; price discrimination between vertical final Good co-ordination Zone levels in the same market analysed by the end of 2002 report between re'cvant 2 Analysis of market price for different 3. Demand elasticity coefficient, supply elasticity involved people products cocfFicicnt, pricc elasticity coefficient of cereal crops, Financial supp >rting 3 Analysis of potential demand and supply pulses, vegetables and livestock products analysed by the should be avail ah c of different products end of 2002 4 Establishment of preliminary marketing 4. Methods and contents which should be done in MIS for information system (MIS) local people (farmers and traders) completed by 2002 5 preparation of checklist and sampling of 5. Checklist and photocopy completed; 120 farmers from the farmers to be involved three groups in 3 Woredas (80 male farmers and 40 3 survey of the farmers in terms of cost, female farmers) sampled by the end of January, 2003 benefit the farmers spend and get in 6. Survey and responded checklist of 120 farmers from different activities three groups in 3 Woredas (80 male farmers and 40 7 lincome structure in different farmers’ female farmers) completed by the end of April, 2003 groups 7 Income sources and proportions in different farmers’ 8 Analysis of profitability of different group analysed by the end of 2003 products 8. Profitability, substitution coefficient of products with 9 Analysis of credit needs for production relatively higher market potential analysed by Dec. 2003 and marketing of alternative crops 9. Credit needs for products with relatively higher market 0. Analysis of sensitivity of marketing potential analysed by the end of 2003 activities in terms of infrastructure 10. The effects of infrastructure on farmers’ marketing change activities in low land and highlands o f Bale Zone 1 1. Analysis of marketing facilities and analysed by the end of 2003 services 11 The situation of Farmers and co-operatives’ marketing 12 Analysis of research supports for activities, storage, transportation, credit services and marketing activities of smallholders information transferring channel analysed by Dec. 2003 12. Specific products and relevant technologies to be studied analysed by the end of 2003 100—J -V9 j ANNEXES Annexe I The flow chart of ARD-procedure used in the study THE PROCESS THE CONCEPT & ~i TOOLS USED i ORGANIZING AN r \ Terms of Reference i INTERDISCIPLINARY TEAM (Problematique) / f CLARIFYING THE) DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT AND IDENTIFYING STAKEHOLDERS Agro-eco and farming system analysis ANALYZING THE SYSTEM OF INTEREST AND Typology, Farm bio IDENTIFYING resources flow, SSI, DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS Seasonal calendar, Matrix scoring SCREENING DEVELOPMENT Sustainability, OPTIONS Social equity i r PRIOTIZING RESEARCH OPTIONS l V j \ FORMULATING RESEARCH PLANS v ) Annexe II Terms of Reference 1. Institutional framework The field study will be carried out as a joini activity among Sinana Agricultural Research Centre (SARC) of Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau (OADB). the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation (EARO), the Arsi-Bale Rural Development Project (Ethio-Italian Development Co-operation), and the International Centre for development oriented Research m Agriculture (ICRA). The field study is hosted bv SARC. Sinana Agricultural Research Centre (SARC) was established in May 1986 as the main research centre in the Southeast agro-ecological zone of Ethiopia. It is located at 463 km from Addis Ababa in Bale zone of Oromia Regional State. It is 33 km from the capital city of the Bale zone, Robe. The centre was originally founded to serve the state farms but recently its mandate has been reoriented to cater for the smallholder farmer. Current objectives focus on the generation and dissemination of improved agricultural technologies for sustainable crop and livestock production and on the natural resource management SARC has a mandate to identify', characterise and prioritise agricultural production constraints with small farmers and other stakeholders to find solutions for researchable constraints and make possible interventions in collaboration with all concerned stakeholders, mainly agricultural development organisations (GOs and NGOs) and the basic clients, farmers. SARC undertakes research both on-station and on-farm to alleviate major agricultural production constraints under actual farming system circumstances in areas with bimodal as well as uni-modal rainfall patterns. The centre has been conducting research in many highland food crops: bread, durum and emmer w'heat, food and malting barley, teff, field pea, faba bean, lentil, chickpea, and in a number of oil crops (linseed, mustard), horticultural crops (Irish potato, garlic) and forage crops. The centre also collaborates with national and international (1CARDA and CCMMYT) programmes in all of these crops, except emmer w'heat (sole responsibility' of Sinana), primarily as a means of obtaining new germplasm on a regular basis. This framework will help to make strong collaboration among SARC and ICRA. Because of its isolation from infrastructures (remoteness) the centre has very few senior researchers. It has a total of 39 research staff members, only 3 MSc, 21 BSc and 15 Diploma holders. 2. Period The field study will be conducted from 14 Aprii to 14 July 2001. Data collection will cover about 5-6 weeks. The rest of the period will be allocated to data processing and anaysis, scaling up of the results, organisation of workshops (for presentation and getting feedback of stakeholders on priontiscd research and development proposals) and the wiiting of draft and final reports. 3. Topic of the study______The shift to cereal monocropping, threat or blessing -Towards sustainable agricultural production in the Wheat-Barley and Livestock farming System in the Highlands of Southeast Oromia Ethiopia Justification Rainfed agriculture is the sole occupation in die higlilands of Southeast Oromia. These highlands are characterised by integrated (mixed) farming systems. Both crops and livestock are important components of the local fanning system. The Southeast highlands are known as the cereal belt (wheat-barley) of the country' and by its large livestock population. These highlands have uni-modal. (June to December) or bimodal (March to July and August to December) rainfalls pattern and are therefore highly suitable for agriculture. Common crops are wheat, barley, highland pulses, oil crops and horticultural crops. Livestock kept by the farming community are cattle, sheep, goat poultry and equines. and in some places bee keeping. Ln Bale highlands, in addition to the subsistence farms of smallholders, large-scale farms owned by the federal state occupy a substantial area of the land under cultivation. SARC is located in the area with the bimodal rainfall panem. The two seasons, belg (or ganna) and meher (or bona), receiv e more or less similar amount of rainfall This gives the center the adv antage of conducting its rescxir:;. prograrr.r.-c rvv,ce ;'-r year unier rzirSzz z:~;.z. .:.£. 7:.: J73sdir.0 J zll vSc^rt-__-•& generaticrcv can be aa\’ancea two generations each year, a condition often not existing on other research centres. This shortens the time needed to release a variety by half as compared to uni-modal rainfall areas. Barley and bread wheat are the major and dominating crops grown in the highlands of Bale. Emmer wheat linseed and field peas follow in order of importance. Recently, maize is increasingly being cultivated in the Bale highlands. The total area under crop production is expanding at a high rate. Barley used to be the first crop in both area and production. However, due to the comparative yield advantage of the recently released semi-dwarf high yielding bread wheat varieties, the area under bread wheat production is increasing at an alarming rate as compared to the area allocated to other crops. Currently bread wheat is taking the upper hand due to its higher productivity and easy for mechanisation than barley. Moreover, bread wheat is becoming fully mechanised in areas accessible to farm machinery due to its medium to short stature convenient for combine harvesting and economic advantage. The harvesting of barley, on the other hand is still manual because of its weak stem resulting in lodging. Also barley straw is an important livestock feed. The growth of the current agricultural productivity and the overall production, however, varies greatly between seasons and years and does not keep pace with the ever-increasing population growth. Causes for low agricultural productivity growth are many, interrelated and very complex in the Southeast highlands. At present, in the highlands, rainfall conditions such as the onset and end, amount, distribution, duration are highly variable. Therefore, moisture shortage becomes the first most important limiting factor in current agricultural production. Consequently, crops are frequently affected by drought and animals suffer from both w’ater and feed shortages. Under the existing natural phenomenon, food deficit may occur due to a frequent occurrence of unfavourable climatic conditions. Barley shoot fly (Delia arambourgi) is the major production constraint of barley. All improved varieties so far released in the country are susceptible to this pest. Landraces are better in tolerance/resistance leading farmers to stick to these local cultivars. These landraces are, however, susceptible to lodging and are also low yielding. These prominent shortcomings of barley cause local farmers to shift; barley7 is replaced in its original production area by bread wheat. However, barley is increasingly grown in the mountain chains (at the expense of forest and small bushy areas), and in the marginal areas (frost and less fertile lands) usually- left for grazing. Diseases, mainly leaf rust (Puccinia hordei), and net blotch (Helminthosporium spp.) are among the other important constraints of barley production in the bale highlands. Yellow rust (Puccinia striiformis) and stem rust (P.gramminea) are severely threatening bread w'heat production. The continuous monocropping of bread wheat has had short-term advantages (higher producthity), but currently rust outbreaks are becoming more frequent questioning the sustainability of wheat monocrop production Adverse effects of rust diseases, yellow and stem rust favoured by climatic changes especially in the last three years, caused breakage of resistance in existing bread w'heat varieties. As a result the life span of released bread wheat varieties is becoming very short these days, 2-5 years. In addition, infestation of persistent (and herbicide-resistant) grass and broad leaf weeds, and soil fertility decline have been the major causes for decreasing of w'heat grain yields next to shortage of rains on both small-holder and large-scale farms. Bale is also knowTi for its livestock production. With the rapid expansion of crop cultivation in the highlands of Bale, the land remaining for livestock grazing has decreased. As a result, crop residues have become an important animal feed source. As no industrial by-products are locally available, the actual animal feed sources and their quality are declining. This is aggravated by the increased practice of monocropping and the cultivationof medium-short statured varieties producing less biomass. Animals are increasingly depending on the nutrient contents of crop residues of a few food crop species as opposed to the past when they were getting nutrients from natural pasture composed to various types of plant species (legumes and grasses). Care should be taken to balance the allocation of land for crop and livestock enterprises, otherwise livestock production may be endangered. The increasing human population pressure is also reducing arable and grazing lands. Both crop production and livestock rearing are therefore expanding to marginal lands, mountain and forest areas causing high degradation of environment, deforestation and serious erosion. Livestock population and production are decreasing due to lack of grazing land and proper husbandry. Climatic changes, land degradanon and fragmentation and monocropping causing sev ere occurrence of diseases, insect pests, persistent weeds and declining of soil fertility', resulted in greater nsks for continuous cropping of cereals on arable and marginal lands, and in the decrease in grazing land for livestock production. All these inter related factors have resulted in low agricultural production and lack of sustainable productivity in the mixed farming systems of the stud}- area. Findings from the ICRA field study will therefore provide tangible information for planning and development of research and extension systems and interventions, which may contribute towards the development of sustainable agricultural production systems in the Southeast highlands of Oromia. 4. Geographical area and target population Geographical area The field study will be conducted in the bimodal rainfall areas of Bale Highlands of Oromia. Districts to be covered during the field study are Sinana-Dinsho, Goba and Agarfa. Within these district the focus will be on representative areas for ‘wheat-barley and livestock’ integrated farming systems. In these areas, there are two distinct farm types involved in crop production, subsistent small-scale farmers, and large-scale state owned agricultural development enterprises. The bimodal rainfall areas are found in radii of about 30-70 km from Sinana ARC. The altitude of the area v aries between 2200 - 2600 masl. The current main crops in Bale highlands are continuous monocrops of small cereals in both farm types (subsistence as well as state farms). Bread wheat is nearly a sole crop in the large-scale state farms year after year, while both bread wheat (for cash) and barley (as a staple food) dominate in subsistence farms. Emmer wheat, linseed, field pea, faba bean and horticultural crops have a high potential, but are currently only minor or neglected crops in the current farm type. Maize and teff are also produced in some pocket areas. In addition to crops, livestock is an important component of the small-scale farm type. Site selection The team w ill be based at the guest house of the Arsi- Bale Rural Development Project in Robe to cover selected sites within a reasonable radius from the SARC. The field study will focus on the agricultural production systems of representative peasant associations (PAs) and two state farms within the bimodal rainfall zone of the Bale highlands. During the team’s reconnaissance survey 8 PAs need to be visited viz., two in each selected w'orcda (=district); thereafter the team should select themselves a minimum of 4 PAs (alleast one in each of the selected woredas). Hence, SARC in collaboration with the Zonal Agricultural Development Office should assist the team in the first week after its arrival to select a total of atleast 8-12 representative PAs. The criteria and indicators used for the zonation and selection of villages should be documented in detail. Target group selection Small holder farms and the two state farms operating in the study area constitute the broader target (domain) groups to which one should be able to generalise the field study results. As explained before, the team will sewlect representative PAs for more detailed studies on the smallholder farm type. Depending on the team's actual assessment of the heterogenity of the subsistence farm tvpe (based on secondary data and the results of the reconnaissance survey), the team may decide to further sub-divide this farm type into more homogenous sub-categories of farmers. This categorisation into sub-farm types will be based on then- socio-economic characteristics and production practices that are expected to affect their management capacity. The choice of classification criteria will be made in close consultation with relev'ant organisations having a strong linkage with the farming community on agricultural development issues and will be documented in detail. 5. Team composition The field study team will be composed of 5 researchers; 2 Ethiopians (one from SARC and one from KARC) and 3 expatriates. The two Ethiopians are specialised in crop breeding and in field agronomy. The expatriates in the team have a different disciplinary background complementary to the selected Ethiopians. In view of the study topic, the three expatriates are specialised in the following disciplines; entomology, agricultural economics and agricultural mechanisation. Local resource persons to assist the team on livestock production and extension (farmer-researcher-extension linkage) issues may be required, depending on the teams judgement. 6. Objectives of the study and expected results ■ To characterise the wheat - barley and livestock farming systems of smallholder and the fanning system of the two state farms in the study area; ■ To study' the interaction and integration of the wheat-barley and livestock components in the smallholder farms; ■ To analyse the trends within the smallholder farms from a historical perspective and provide the causes for the shifts that took place (special attention should be paid to the possible causes associated with the shift towards bread wheat cultivation); ■ To investigate, if differences in access to farm resources affect management options of smallholders in relation to the production of cereal crops. If so, a relevant farm typology' must be developed to target future R & D efforts. ■ To assess the past trends and the current status (strength and weaknesses) of the technology development and dissemination process for cereal crops; * To study' the level of technology' adoption and identify- constraining and enhancing factors for cereal crops; • To make recommendations to improve the systems compatibility of cereal technology generation and adoption in order to enhance agricultural production in the study area in a more sustainable way. To identify options to strengthen effective interaction (in particular provision of effective feedback mechanisms) and information flow mechanisms among agricultural stakeholders involved in cereal production. In thorough discussions with smallholder farmers, the state farm enterprises, relevant research staff members, GOs and NGOs working in agricultural development and through repeated field visits, the team w'lll make a zonation of the study area. Moreover, the team will make an inventory of cereal production strategies practised by smallholders. The cereal production strategy' of the state farms will also be investigated and an inventory of the existing agricultural R & D knowledge systems promoted by different development organisations will also made. The resulta of the study' will be expected to contribute to a better shaping of agricultural research and development efforts. It will enhance a multi-disciplinary', farmer-participatory' approach with more inter- institutional collaboration to promote development-oriented and demand driven research for sustainable agricultural productioa Moreover, the results of the study and experience learned will form a benchmark for w'hether to continue with cereal monocropping or search for other options to make agriculture more productive and sustainable in the Southeast highlands of Oromia. Main guiding questions and expected outputs The main guiding questions on which the field study will focus and the related outputs that will be produced in response to these questions are presented in the following table.______Guiding questions Outputs Clarifying development context and identifying stakeholders ■ What is the broader development context of the ■ ‘‘Rich picture,?on the development context of central theme? wheat and barley production systems in Ethiopia and in the target area ■ Who are the stakeholders involved and what are ■ List of stakeholders and their interests, concerns their interventions and linkages in these systems0 and linkages " Within this broader context, what is the relevant ■ Definition of the relevant system of interest based system of interest that the team will study in on the above analysis detail? ■ Criteria and indicators for demarcation B How' can it be demarcated? ■ Justification of the definition / demarcation/criteria Analvsing the system of interest ■ What smallholder farming systems are existing in ■ Maps to compare Agro-ecology with current the target area? farming systems v ■ Is there a relationship between differences in the ■ Farming systems description and zonation map original natural emironment and differences in current farming systems? • How have these fanning systems changed'1 ■ Timelines of changes • What are the major factors influencing these ■ Analysis of factors influencing past and fun ire changes? changes ■ How are these farming systems likely to change m ■ Outlook into the future the future? • What type of large-scale state farm enterprise is • Farm enterprise description existing in the target area? ■ What cereal cropping systems are existing within ■ Description and analysis of current cereal the current smallholder farming systems0 Have croppmg systems there been any recent changes in these cereal cropping systems? Are any of these changes related to the presence of the large-scale farms*’ ■ Which of the current cereal management practices ■ Diagrams indicating the leverage points for each can be influenced or changed and can become farming system separately and showing the leverage points for R & D interventions tliat differences in leverage points between farming contribute towards a more sustainable systems management of agricultural resources9 ■ Is there a generally accepted field tvpology (used ■ Analysis and description of local field typology by farmers in relation to e.g. toposequence or land for better targeting of R & D recommendations use type) in the target area that can help to better target the R & D interventions ■ Is the relationship between the zonation and the ■ Hypothetical farm typology that describes the described farming systems strong enough to differences between farms in villages situated m identify- different farm tvpes that require different different farming system zones. R & D interventions0 Do additional differences ■ Refined farm typology (e.g. access to resources, oxen, land) between ■ Differentiation (if required) of the leverage points; farms within a particular farming system zone call for R&D interventions according to farm types for different R & D interventions0 identified • What costs and benefits are involved in the current ■ Matrix showing costs and benefits (and balance cereal cropping systems in the different identified between these) for different farm types farm types? Who pays those costs and to w hom do the benefits accrue? ■ How do these costs and benefits and their • Matrix showing the effect of objectives, and intra distribution within the household and between and inter household distribution of costs/ benefits households influence the decision making process on the decisions regarding cereal croppmg regarding sustainable cereal cropping practices? practices. Identifying, screening and pnoritismg Research & Development options ■ What do researchers and extension agents' offer to ■ List of possible solutions to be introduced to households to cope with the changing conditions? households and level of targeting Are their solutions targeted (zone and farm type specific)? * What are successful cereal technologies ■ Lists of adopted new technologies and the extent ; introduced by extension agents or researchers that to which households have benefited from them are adopted by households0 To whai extent have households benefited from these technologies0 * What are the research and development options ■ Future sustainable farm type scenarios for a more sustainable management of cereal croppmg systems in the identified farming systems and farm t\pes° ■ Checklist grid and stakeholder pav off matrix * What are their potenual effects on social equnv. ■ Matrix showing criteria, weights and values used | environmental sustainability and econonuc to rank feasibility by order of prioritv for research | competitiveness? WTiat options should ha\e the & development highest prioritv? WTiat criteria should be used to ■ Prioritised list of research and development j determine l c.-.sbilir : e:-*: •;:sr I ■ Who are me siaKenolaers necessary for • Stakeholder platform formation for monitoring implementation of these options? and actual required linkages/ joint programmes in the field for implementation Formulating research and development proposals ■ How can Bale zone Offices on Agricultural ■ R & D proposals (with logical frameworks) to Development. Planning and Economic shape and focus further collaboration Development and Co-operative promotion together with the S.ARC and K.ARC with the assistance of ABRDP start a collaborative effon to improve the contribution and effectiveness of their joint research and development efforts to increase the sustainability of local cereal cropping systems • On what prioritv- R & D issues should the collaboration focus? ■ How can the collaborative effort be best organised? i 7. Form of the final product Before leaving the country, the team will produce and liand over a report with an executive summary, an abstract and a main text of not more than 100 pages including figures and tables. This report will be submitted to the various stakeholders directly or indirectly involved in the field study and to the host institutions. 8. Other interested institutions The field study has been initiated when SARC. the only centre in Bale zone has strong research programmes both on-station and on-farm. The centre does not have sub-centre/ trial sites. The centre therefore undenakes research under actual fanners' circumstances (on-farm trials and tests) on promising researchable issues. This study will further strengthen the linkage between researcher and fanners. It will also strengthen research capabilities to better focus on the real problems of the fanning community. Research programmes to which the field study is relevant include: Bread, durum and emmer wheat improvement Food and malt barley improvement Teff and maize improvement (adaptation studies) Highland pulses (field pea. faba bean, lentil and cluck pea ) improvement Highland oil crops (linseed and mustard) improvement Horticultural crops (potato and garlic) improvement Natural resources management Forage crops (legumes and grasses) improvement Livestock improvement panicuiarly cattle, sheep, goats, poultry and bee keeping in the future ( no research work cunentiy done due to lack of facilities) Funliennore. Gos such as Baic Zone Agricultural Development Office. Agricultural Development Enterprise. Seed Enterprise. Bale Zone Planning and Economic Development. Bale Zone Co-operative Promotion etc.. and NGOs such as Agri-service Ethiopia. Bale Project. Kokosa- Hebano Integrated Rural Dev elopment Project. Gindhir-Raytu Integrated Rural Development Project. GTZ etc.. could be potential bcneficianes of the field study results. Potenualh available resources to follow up on the most promising options for action coming out of the field study are presence of continuous strong research programmes, facilities such as vehicles etc. However, these resources may be seriously affected by the shortage of qualified and experienced research personnel at S.ARC S.ARC coducts research in collaboration with national progranunes with E.ARO and regional programmes for specific agro-ecological areas. In the last decade, several technologies have been developed for food and feed crops production. Four varieties of field pea. one for faba bean, two for bread wheat anc one varietv for mustard were released for production Various legumes, fodder oats and grass varieties have also been recommended for livestock use. How ever, seed multiplication of improved varieties is very slow , and dissemination with relevant management packages to farmers is rare. How to improve this situation is one of the issues to be addressed by the field study team. Technology generation has to be followed by multiplication and timely distribution to the end users. Participatory involvement of relevant stakeholders could further strengthen the development of this programme. 9. Field study process Upon arrival in Ethiopia, the team will present (if required) its field study plan at a joint meeting of EARO Headquarters and the Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau. Introductory workshops will be held at Kulumsa/ Asella (involving Arsi-Bale RDP and KARC) and at Robe/ Sinana (involving SARC. BZADO. PEDD and CPD as well as staie farms and NGOs operating in the target area). The responsible ICRA- EARO National co-ordinator (Dr. Aberra Deressa) will assist the team in organising presentations and in the incorporation of useful comments in the field study plan. At the midterm workshop (at Robe/Sinana) involving a selected group of researchers from SARC and KARC . the ICRA reviewer and some selected representatives of EARO. Bale Zonal administration. ADO. PEDD, CPD. Slate farms and NGOs active in the zone, the team will present a brief report of its findings including the methodology it has used and \-arious options of issues on which the learn could focus in the second phase of its study. The team should also c-onsider a meeting to feedback and discuss its findings with farmers. Final results of the field study will be discussed at the final workshop (at Robe/sinana) involving a larger audience of the same stakeholders mentioned for the midterm workshop and some other invited guests from OADB. E.ARO HQ and of the ABRDP. This workshop will be held approximately 7 days before the end of the field study to allow incorporation of useful comments into the final version of the report before the team leaves Ethiopia An International expert appointed by ICRA will review the field study in two visits of approximately 10-12 days eaclL including travel. The first \isit will be after 4-5 weeks in the field to participate in the fieldw'ork and in the analysis of first findings. The second visit will be scheduled to assist the leam in organising the report and conducting the final workshop. The final report will be ready and submitted before the team leaves Ethiopia. 10. Field study responsibility Tne team is collectively responsible to SARC and KARC. OADB. .ABRDP. E.ARO and ICRA for respecting the TOR. The team will maintain regular contacts with the ICRA -EARO national Co-ordinator at Melkassa Agricultural Research Centre. Mr. Kassahun Tesfaye. one of the Ethiopian participants m the team will be the teams' liaison officer for Ethiopian institutions. Each participating client-stakeholder will appoint a contact person for the interaction with the team. The team is expected to manage its own affairs. Within the limits specified in the TOR and in the budget, the team is free to decide its own approach, methodology, tools and work programme as well as how ii makes use of resources prouded for the field stud\ important questions concerning the TOR arising during the implementation of the field study will be immediately clarified in a discussion with the ICRA-EARO nauonal Co-ordinator and other appointed contact persons 11. Means ICRA. EARO. O.ADB. S.ARC. KARC and ABRDP are responsible for providing the team with the means specified in the memorandum of understanding (MOl i In addition, these msututions will provide the team with the required secondary data, reference materials, rainfaii data and long term tnai upon request during the course of the field stud) Annexe ED Core programme of ICRA course Knowledge acquisition phase finternet-based) Europe • Workshops, group work 10 weeks • Discovery learning • Field work in Europe T Europe 3 weeks Field study preparation phase ▼ Field stud\' NARS- partner in • Interdisciplinary teamwork developing • Identification of R&.D needs with stakeholders country • Planning R&D actions 13 weeks • Workshops • Report • Research proposals T Review’ phase Europe ® Review seminar 2 weeks • Evaluation • Participant action plan Annexe IV Lisi of stakeholders No Stakeholder Interests Institutional i level 1 Farmer Self sufficient in terms of food and income Private 2 Bale Zone Agricultural Development Disseminate technologies to farmers and GO Office help in socio-economic aspects 3 Sinana RC Generate suitable technologies for farmers GO 4 Bale Zone Administration Responsible for the administration of the GO Zone 5 Kulumsa Agric. Research centre/ Generate improved wheat technologies GO NWRP 6 Arsi-Bale Rural Development project Support any development program in the Bilateral/ zone Ethio-Italian 7 Bale Zone co-operative promotion Establish farmers co-operatives based in GO interest training 8 Bale Agricultural Development Profitable cereal production Semiautonomoiis Enterprise 9 Ethiopian Seed Enterprise Profitable Improved seed multiplication Semiautonomous 10 Bale zone Planning and Economic Plan and Follow the execution development GO Development work of the Zone 11 Agricultural Development bank Direct credit to commercial fanners and GO indirect credit to small scale farmers 12 IBCR in situ Gene Bank Conserve land races GO 13 Agarfa Agricultural Development Train dev elopment workers GO workers Training Centre 14 Bale National Park Maintaining wild life and forest GO 15 Private Commercial farmers Profitable wheat farming Private 16 Agricultural Mechanisation Renting tractor and combine to farmers Private 17 Agri-service Ethiopia-Bale Project Technology transfer and development NGO 18 GTZ-Dodola Project Forest management and aforestation Bilateral/ Ethio-German 19 Kokosa-Hebano Integrated RD project Technology transfer and development NGO/ Church 20 Gindhir-Raytu Integrated RD Project Small irrigation scheme development NGO/ Church 21 Wheat and Bariev traders Make profit Private 22 Oromia Irrigation Authority Small irrigation scheme dev elopment GO 23 CIMMYT Improvement of wheat and Maize crops Autonomous 24 AISCO ( Agril. Input supply company) Supplies inputs Private 25 National Meteorological Station Records and forecasts weather data GO 26 Flour mills / Factory Purchases wheat from farmers for making Private into flour 27 Oil Processing factory (linseed ) Involved in processing of linseed Private 28 ! Ethiopian grain marketing Co- Purcliase of wheat & barley from producers GO-Pvt. ! operation 29 Global 2000 Promote dissemination of improved NGO technologv j x Annexe V’ Logical Framework Hierarchy of objectives Indicators Means of Critical assumption verification GOAL Shift from cereal Sustainable agricultural Increased income by 10% Survey & Central monocropping to mixed development with environmentally safe statistical report farming systems and socially acceptable factors by 2015 PURPOSE Strategy to address the Constraints and Survey • Policy- support for cereal monocropping opportunities identified and Joint plan improving options operationalised in production of joint plan of relevant smallholder farms stakeholders for cereal • Stability of market monocropping in Bale prices highland by 2005 • Access to market • Efficient extension svstem OUTPUT 1. multiple perspective of Interactions between Final Team report • Recommendations the linkage of difference stakeholders involved, their Workshop taken by concerned stakeholder analysed interests and existing stakeholder linkages identified by the • Resources (trained end of April’2001 personnel & 2 characterised of farming Basic features of cereal and Final team report facilities) available to system of smallholder farm Livestock integrated fanning execute the proposals system in small holder forms • Proposals executed in Bale highland as per the plan 3. constraints and The causes, effects of cereal Final team report • Proposals taken by opportunities of cereal monocropping of small the concerned monocropping holder farms in Bale research organisation highland and their analysis • Proposals are done accepted bv the 4. R & D options List of R &D options of Final team report review process of the identified/listed for cereal improving cereal cropping regional and national cropping system system for different types of research systems smallholder farms 5. options to strengthen Options to strengthen join Final team report interaction^mformation flow research and development Workshop among stakeholders efforts within Bale Zone offices on .AD. PED and CP. S.ARC. KARC and ABRDP 6. research proposal for Three- four proposals proposal cereal crop system \\ntten with not more than 10 pages by the end of field study Hierarchy of objectives Indicators Means of Critical assumption verification ACTIVITIES 1.1 To draw rich picture 1.1 Development context of Final team report Good co-operation witl in and collect secondary wheat and barley production the team, counterpart aid data systems in Bale highland, by stakeholders 18 April 1.2 To formulate the list 1.2 Stakeholders having the of stakeholders influence or importance on cereal cropping system in Bale highland, by 18 April 1.3 To organise the initial 1.3 The initial workshop on work shop 18 April 2001 2.1 To study integration and 2.1 Integration and Final team report interaction of interaction of cereal and components of the livestock components of system farming systems of small holder farms in Bale highland. 2.2 To analyse the historical 2.2 The trends and causes trends of shifts within the small holder farms for the shills to monocropping 2.3 To develop and refine 2.3 The farm types with the farm typology different characteristics in different zonation in Bale highland, by the end of Mav 3.1 To study cereal crop 3.1 cereal crop technolog} Final team report technolog}- adoption adoption by the small holder farms in Bale highland 4.1 To study the strength 4.1 The strength and Final team report and weakness of the weakness of the technology technology development development and and dissemination for dissemination for cereal crop cereal crop in Bale highland 4.2 To analyse the R&D 4.2 The R&D options of options cereal cropping system for different t}pes of small holder farms m Bale highland 5.1 To analyse further 5.1 Further collaborative Final team report collaborative effort effort within key within key stakeholders stakeholders for impro\ing local cereal cropping system in Bale highland 6.1 To write R&D proposals 6.1 R&D proposals with Proposals logical frameworks to shape and focus further ------i------collaboration AnDC5;e VI Work plan of ICRA-Sinana 2001 field study Week Dav Activity Place Participants Analysed weekly outputs Week 16.4.01 • Introductory meeting Addis Team, officials 1 (Monday) Ababa from • Banking & shopping EARO+OADB ICRA team 17.04.01 • Travel, visit to Melkassa A. A to ICRA Team (Tuesday) station, travel to Asella. \isit Melkassa to KARC and ABRD project Asella 18.4.01 • Initial workshop and KARC ICRA team + (Wednesday) information gathering officials form EARO. KARC. ABRDP, MOA and other inst. 19.04.01 • Travel to Robe and settling Asella to ICRA team (Thursday) in Robe 20.04.01 • Reconnaissance survey Sinana and ICRA team • Secondary data (Friday) surrounding • Feedback from areas participants Week 23.04.01 • Workshop to present TOR Rob^ ICRA team and 2 (Monday) and field study plan and Goba all other appointments for visit stakeholders 24.04.01 • Incorporation of feedback, Robe ICRA team (Tuesday) planning for data collection 25.04.01 • Visit to Zonal Offices (Agri, Robe/ ICRA team (Wed) Co-operation. ARDP. BADE SARC 1 26.04.01 • Site selection & target-group Robe/ ICRA team + (Thursday) selection SAJR.C officials from SARC & MOA (Dt.level) 1 27.04.01 Robe Team + • Selections & training of • Finalised TOR 1 (Friday) interpreters concerned • Finalised Field study plan1 • Planning fields visit and people • Key stakeholders preparing frame w ork for identified data collection • Appointments made for | • Data sheets formatted further meetings • Site & target groups selected • Interpreters selected & trained ® Checklist and tools & methods finalised • Data sheets filled Week 30.04.01- • Interview with farmers. Target area Team, farmers, • Farming system map 3 04 .05.01 j gather information and share for field interpreters & • Initial hypothetical : ♦ Feed back everyday =faidy other n-pology * Friday for data analysis and stakeholders • Resource flow map feed back • Social & livelihood map , • Cost-benefit analysis Week 07.05.01- j « iniemew with farmers Sinana Team, farmers, j • Farming system map 4 11.0^ 01 «, Primary data collection Agarfa interpreters \ * initial hypothetical i • Feedback everyday Dinsho typology Goba i • Resource flow map xiii • Friday for data analysis and • Social & livelihood map feed back Week 14.05.01- • Interview with state farmers Sinana I & Team, farmers, • Fanning system maj 5 15.05.01 • Meeting with external □ interpreters • Final hypothetical (Monday & reviewer typology Tuesday) • ( including state farms) • Resource flow map • Social & livelihood nap 16.05.01- • .Analysing the information & Robe Team • Comparative analvsi: of 18.05.01 sharing the information stakeholders & state (AVednesda • Listing R&D options farms y to Friday) • Planning for mid-term • Cunenl cereal workshop management practices • Constraints & opportunities • Leverage points Week 21.05.01- • Meeting with review er Sinana/ Team. • Feedback from reviewer 6 25.05.01 • Preparing for mid-term Robe Reviewer, & other stakeholders workshop Stakeholders • Team process & output • mid-term workshop assessed by external • Incorporation of feed-back reviewer from mid-term workshop • Verified & updated • Plan for next phase expenditure record • Progressive wiiting • Excursion to Rift Valiev Week 28.05.01- • Preparing outline of final Robe Team • Final draft outline 7-8 08.06.01 draft • Interview with stakeholders Goba/ Team, farmers, • Identified & prioritised & farmers for screening & Robe/ stakeholders options prioritising R&D option Sinana • Progressive writing Robe Team Week 11.06.01- • Data analysis Robe/ Team • 1 st draft of the final 9-10 22.06.01 • Report writing Sinana report • Develop research proposals • 1st draft of research with relevant stakeholders proposal SARC/KARC • Feedback meeting with Sub-teams for farmers tw’o days • Suggest the wav’ to improve linkage between stakeholders Week 25.06.01- • Circulate the report within Robe Team & • The improved draft of 11 28.06.01 team interested people external final report and research • Discussion with external reviewer proposals reviewer • Incorporate the feedback • Plan & prepare the final workshop Week • Final workshop Robe Team & • Final report 12 • Incorporate feedback stakeholders • Finalise the report • Relax Week • Submit final report A.A. Team | • Final report distributed 13 • Back to Wageiiingen I xiv .Annexe VII Research Plan for 2001 Ethiopia-JCR-4 field study in south-east Oromia Nol Research Question 1 Information needed Tools & methods Expected outputs 1- What is the broader (Factors, their interaction and Rich picture Existing fanning systems in development context o f,r jlinkage in the system Bale highlands integrated W'heat-barley 1 and livestock farming systems of Bale iiighlands"? 7 Who are the stakeholders [Names, objectives, Brainstorming List of stakeholders .their involved and what are ^responsibilities, activities. Dbjective matrix interests & linkages Lheir interventions and jperformance and linkages of [mportance- linkages? [various stakeholders mfluence matrix 3 What is the relevant Factors, their interactions, Rich picture-zoom Defined cereal monocropping system of interest? stakeholders & linkages in in in Bale highlands cereal monocropping 4. How can the boundary of Criteria and indicators of Group discussion Boundary of cereal cereal monocropping be demarcation & interview with monocropping defined Idemarcated? \ev informants 5. fWhat small holder Boundaries. Various Simple flow Vlaps of clinent farming farming systems are components/ factors in the lexisting in Bale {system, their interactions and (highlands? bows " 6. Is there a relationship Current farming systems Agro-ecosystem Comparative description of the between differences in the Natural resources and their map. transect current farming system with original natural distribution igro-ecological zones environment and differences in current farming system? 7. How have these fanning Change of climate, market Crop Si labor Time lines of changes & systems changed? prices, labor availability, calendar historical description farming activities and social 3lot of trends factors, political change, land Activity & Access- tenure etc. control profile matrix 8. What are the major List of factors Discussion Factors influencing past & factors influencing these SSI future changes changes? Analysis of Secondary data •9 How does the cereal Farm acti\ities -uture flow Future scenario of farming likely to change Non-farm activities models Cereal farming sv stem in the future? (Marketing activities (New technologies ,0 What are the Facilities (machinery) Semi-structured Farm enterprise description characteristics of large- Budget flow survey scale state farm Farm activities enterprises in Bale Personnel highland Other outputs What are the inputs semi-structured Description & analysis of " characteristics of cereal Costs/benefits survev runent cereal cropping system cropping system within Outputs the current smallholder management farming svstem 12 Are there anv recent [Technology semi-structured Changes in the existing cereal ! xv changes? Land labor survey cropping sv stems L.inkage Costs/benefits • 13 What is the role & impact Technology semi-structured Role and impact of state farm.1 j of stale farms on change Land, labor survey & on change in the cereal in the cereal Linkage secondary data monocropping monocropping9 Costs^benefits analvsis Which of the current Cereal management practices Secondary data Diagrams indicating the cereal management and analvsis leverage points for each practices can become .Associated factors Semi-structured farming system separately & I leverage points for survey differences in leverage points intervention? between farming svstems 15 Is there a generally Know w hether there is an semi-structured Analysis & description of loca accepted field typology in already defined typology in survey field typology for better Bale high land? (for R&D small-scale enterprises of Bale targeting of R&D intervention) high lands. recommendations 16 Is the relationship Farm size. capitaL semi-structured Hypothetical & refined farm between zonation & the infrastructure, on-farm & off- survey typology described farming farm activities and income, systems strong enough to production sv stems. differentiate fanning technology, land, labor, soil, types that require R&D market interventions? Do additional differences [Information on the existing Semi-structured Leverage points for R&D 17 in fanns within a conation survey interventions according to farm particular farming system 1 ypes identified zone require different R&D intervention? 18 What costs & benefits are Average vield of cereals per Costs and benefit Matrix showing involved in the cunent Ihectare analysis Costs and benefits analysis of cereal and other cropping iCost of inputs Including risk different farm types systems in different Opportunity costs + other analysis identified farm types? benefits Discussion on Who pay(s) those costs (Off farm & On farm income secondary data and to w hom do the Market prices of cereals benefits accrue? Overall production coast '19 How do the distribution Distribution of costs within the Economic flow Intra & inter household of costs and benefits household & between diagram showing distribution of costfoencfits within the household & households ultra & inter Gender role in decision making between households Distribution of benefits within household Gender role in relation to the influence the decision the household & between distribution shift making process regarding households SSI sustainable cereal Decision making process croppmg practices? Within the household 20 [What do researchers Research recommendations Discussion (SSI) List of recommendations S ARC/KARC offer to from S.ARC & KARC on with researchers (solutions) aireadv introduced households to cope with cereal farming systems [S.ARC & KARC) and those to be introduced m the shift to cereal 3ale highlands in cereal monocropping? Carmine svstems 21 [What do extension Programs & activities of Discussion (SSI) (List of extension programs & ((BZADO) offer to BZADO for cereal fanning with researchers activities aireadv introduced (households to cope with svstems of the area (SARC & KARC) knd those to be introduced in the shift to cereal i 1 1 & extension IBale Iiighlands in cereal monocropping? personnel (BADO) Carmine svstems “ iAre their solutions / Domain/Range of Discussion (SSI) Recommendations, targeted xvi (recommendations recommendations (solutions). \’iih researchers zones and farm types in the targeted to specific Zone Extension packages and their (SARC & KARC) highlands of Bale and farm type in Bale specificity’ in Bale Highlands. & extension highlands? personnel (BADO) 23 [What are the cereal Access to improved Discussion with List of adopted new technologies adopted by technologies by both farmers.B.ADE. technologies (smallholder and state smallholder farmers and state SARC/KARC and Access to new technologies farms in Bale highlands farms and list of adopted extension agents and their access to technologies (SSI) (improved technologies? Matrix rankine 1 24 [To what extent have small Type & extent of benefits of Decisions with Type and extent of benefits by bolder farms and state these technologies to both farmers.BADE. smallholder & state farms 'farms in Bale highlands hpes of farms SARC/KARC and benefited from these extension agents (technologies? (SSI) Matrix ranking 25 fWhat are the R&D Typology to distinguish farm Typology R&D options for future Options for sustainable types. (households sustainable farm types of Bale (management of cropping Characteristics of these types. classified) highlands (systems for each farm Existing cereal cropping Problem & ] bpe? systems. opportunity trees R&D options for each farm for options i tvpe 26 What are the potential R&D options and their effects Checklist grid Checklist grid and stakeholder effects of R&D options on the sustainability of the stakeholder pay- off matrix on social equity, cereal farming systems of Pay- off matrix Matrix showing criteria, emironmental highlands of Bale Matrix of criteria weights & values used to rank sustainability & economic feasibility by order of priority competitiveness9 for R&D options 27 What options should have R&D options and their effects Checklist grid Priority list of R& D options the highest priority? What on the sustainability of the stakeholder criteria determine the cereal farming systems of pay -off matrix feasibility of these highlands of Bale Matrix of criteria options? 28 Who are the stakeholders Stakeholders who are involved Stakeholder Stakeholder platform formation necessary for more & necessary for analysis for for monitoring and linkages. implementation of these implementation mplementation Joint programs needed for options in Bale implementation in the area highlands? 29 How to collaborate Bale Interests & objectives of these Matrix on R&D proposals (with logical zone offices (1.2.3.) with organizations objectives frameworks) to shape and SARC& KARC and Arsi- Existing linkages/ Stakeholder focus further collaboration Bale RDP to increase the collaboration nterest matrix sustainability of local Their future mterests & plans Stakeholder cereal cropping systems? mportance - What are the priority influence matrix R&D issues that the SSI collaborating 1 organizations should focus9 How can the collaborative effort be 5est one organized? * Include Livestock sysiem in ihe research question. .Annexe M il List of participants in the Workshops Initial workshop m Kulumsa No. Name Organization Discipline 1 Amanuel Gorfu EARO/KARC Agronomy 2 Aliye Hussen OADB Agronomy 3 Teklu Tesfave EARO/HQ Agri. Extension 4 Ketema Belete EARO/MARC B reeding/ Agronomy 5 Tezera Wolabu EARO/KARC Breeding 6 Temeseen Kebede EARO/KARC Pathologist 7 Mohammed Hassena KARC Agri. Economist 8 Fabio Bedini ABRDP Agri. Economist 9 Tefera Asamenew KARC Horticulture 10 Desalesn Debelo KARC Wheat breeding 11 Erena Aka KARC Oil crops breeding 12 Berhanu Mamo KARC Wheat breeding 13 Sintavehu Debebe KARC Bariev breeding 14 Naod Bctcsclassic KARC Wheat pathology 15 Bavisa Asefa KARC Maize breeding 16 Tafesse Gebru KARC Entomologist 17 Besliir Bulla KARC Exiensionisl 18 Solomon Gebessa KARC Agri. Economics 19 Aberra Deressa EARO Agronomist Initial workshop in Goba No. Name Organizauon 1 Genene Gezu SARC 2 Yifru Aberra SARC 3 Solomon Bogale SARC 4 Alkadi Halai Goba Woreda head 5 Shumi Worku Agarfa MOA 6 Fekadu Abebe BZPEDO 7 Mulueeta Neeassa SARC 8 Get net Kebede SARC 9 Tiegist Dejene S.ARC 10 Dereje Hailu S.ARC 11 Mengistu Ketema S.ARC 12 Sisay Kebede BZCPD 13 Yigezu Ruka Zonal MOA 14 Tcsfavc Lcta SARC Midterm workshor i-n Fob? Note Name Organization 1 ! Tesfave Leta SARC 2 Daenachew Workn S.ARC 3 Seid Kedir HUNDEE 4 Mulugeta Negassa S.ARC 5 Kebede Assefa BZCPD 6 Mohammed Hassena KARC 7 Bedada Girma KARC 8 Amanuel Gorfu KARC 9 Shimelis Kefelew B.ADE 10 Fekadu Abebe BZPEDO 11 Dereie Hailu S.ARC 12 Tafa Jobie SARC 13 Aberra Deressa EARO 14 Fabio Bcdini ABRDP 15 Eshetu Demissie ABRDP 16 Bekelech Tulla ABRDP 17 Waklola Geletu ABRDP 18 Genene Gezu SARC 19 Getnet Kebede SARC 20 Mengistu Ketema S.ARC 21 Yifru Aberra S.ARC 22 Shumi Worku Agarfa. MOA 23 Biwa Abdul-Gamal DPPD Final workshop in Robe Note Name Organization Address 1 Fekadu Abebe Planning Office P.O. Box 94. Robe 2 Kebede Asefa Co-operative promotion Dept. P.O. Box 225. Robe 3 Fevisa Bushira Sinana .ARC P.O. Box 208. Robe 4 Yilfashewa W/Amanuel Sinana-Dinsho ADO P.O. Box 104. Robe 5 Tiegist Dejene Sinana-Dinsho ADO P.O. Box 208. Robe 6 Genene Gezu Sinana-Dinsho ADO P.O. Box 208. Robe 7 Getnet Kebede Sinana-Dinsho ADO P.O. Box 208. Robe 8 Eshetu Demissie ABRDP P.O. Box 07,Asella 9 Bekelech Tolla .ABRDP P.O. Box 07.Asella 10 Fabio Bedini ABRDP P.O. Box 513,Asella 11 Seid Kedir Hundee P.O. Box.. 36, Robe 12 Hailu Arega Goba .ADO 13 Shimeles Kifelew BADE 1 P.O. Box 02. Robe L i Yifru Aberra Sinana ARC P.O. Box 208. Robe 15 Solomon Bogale Sinana ARC P.O. Box 208, Robe 16 Girma Mamo Melkassa .ARC P.O. Box 436. Nazareth 17 Sisa\ Guale BZADO P.O. Box 52, Goba — 18 Mengistu Ketema Sinana .ARC P.O. Box 208, Robe 19 Habtamu Seboka Sinana ARC P.O. Box 208. Robe 20 Dagnachew Worku Sinana .ARC— P.O. Box 208. Robe 21 Mohammed Hassena Kulumsa ARC P.O. Box 489.Asella 22 Mulugeta Negassa Sinana ARC P.O. Box 208. Robe 23 Aberra Deressa Melkassa ARC P.O. Box 436. Nazareth 24 Tafa Jobie Sinana .ARC P.O. Box 208, Robe 25 Debebe Gebre BADE P.O. Box 02. Robe 126 Mulugeta Ambaw B.ADE P.O. Box 02. Robe xix Annexe IX Preliminary Household typology criteria Question Hypothesis Criteria Variables Indicators Do farmers differ Type and Size of arable land Land preparation Frequency and in size of arable proportion of >5 ha Rotation crops time of land land they owned? crops grown 2-5 ha Fallowing preparation depends on size of < 2 ha Crop choice land Yield of crops and use Do farmers differ Type and Ownership of oxen Land preparation Frequency and in number of oxen proportion of £ 2 pairs Land management time of land they owned? crops grown 1-2 pairs Rotation of crops preparation depends on size of <1 pair Fallowing Crop choice land arrangements Yield of crops and use Time of sowing Do farmers differ Farmers who have Direct access to Type and Frequency and in access to good access to main road proportion of time of land market and road? market and road Indirect access to crops grown preparation have good access main road (road based on market Variety choice to market and only during dry demand produce high time) Use of value crops No access to road mechanization Do farmers differ Farmers who have Access to Source and types Contact with in access and use access and use of information of information extension and of technology and technology and With better access research information? information prefer Limited access Ad\ice on crop diversification preference, and rotation diversification Information flow mechanism xx Annexe X Crops grown in the study area Oromiffa name Common name Botanical name Status Garbuu Barelv Hordum vulgare Major cereal Qamadii daboo Bread wheat Triticum aestivum Major cereal Qamadii pasttaa Durum wheat Triticum durum Minor cereal Hayisaa Emmer wheat Triticum dicocum Major cereal Qonxaree Linseed Linum usitatissimum Major oil crop Antaaraa Field pea Pisum sativum Major pulse crop Baqeellaa Faba bean Vi ci afaba Minor pulse crop Misiraa Lentil f&ns esculenta Minor pulse crop Gavoo Grass pea Lathirus latirum Minor pulse crop Baaqolloo Maize Zea mavs Minor cereal crop Xaffii Tef Eragrostis tef Minor cereal crop Shumbuura Chickpea Cicer arietinum Minor pulse crop Diinichaa Potato Solanum tuberosum Minor vegetable crop Hidaa dimaa Rcd-root Beta vulgaris Major vegetable crop Kaarotii Carrot Daacus carrota Major vegetable crop Qulubii ddimaa Shallot Allium cepa Major vegetable crop Qulubii adii Garlic Allium sativum Major vegetable crop Shiqoo Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum Minor pulse Abishonka - Aputia spp. Major fruit crop Nugii Niger Guizotia abvssinica Minor oil crop Qaraa Red pepper Capsicum annum Minor vegetable Annexe XI Crops grown in different seasons in the study area Rank Ganna Bonna Barissa Homma Sinja Wocho Barissa Homma Sinja Wocho Misliirge Misliirge 1 Barley Barley Barley Wheat Bread wheat Bread wheat Bread wheat Bread wheat 2 Bread wheat Wheat Bread wheat Barley Barely Barley Bariev Barley 3 E. wheat Linseed E. wheat E. wheat E. wheat Linseed E. wheat E. wheat 4 Linseed E. wheat Linseed Field peas Linseed E. wheat Linseed Field peas 5 Field peas Field peas Field peas Linseed Field peas Field peas Field peas Linseed 6 Faba bean Faba bean Vegetables Vegetables Faba bean Faba bean Faba bean Lentil 7 Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables Annexe XI Crops grown in the study area (Cont’d) Rank Ganna Bonna Ilani Asano Elabidu Sambitu Gommora Ilani Asano Elabidu Sambitu Gommora 1 Barley Barley Barley Barley Bread wheat Bread wheat Bread wheat Bread wheat 2 Bread wheat Maize Bread wheat Wheat Barely Bariev Bariev Barley 3 E. wheat Field peas E. wheat Linseed E. wheat Teff E. wheat Linseed 4 Linseed E. wheat Maize E. wheat Teff Field peas Linseed E wheat 5 Field peas Wheat Linseed Field peas Chickpea Faba bean Field peas Field peas 6 Faba beau Linseed Field peas Faba bean Linseed E. wheat Faba bean Faba bean 7 Vegetables Fenugreek Faba bean Vegetables Linseed Lentil Vegetables 8 Maize Lentil Fenugreek Teff 9 Lentils x x ii Annexe XII Cost analysis of wheat production at the state farms -Sinana and Robe Particulars Sinana Robe I. Wage 1 Seed bed preparation 1.1. Residual disposal 243,00 80,50 1.2. Discing 1978,00 686.00 2 Planting operation 2.1. Planting 6003,16 4610,90 2 2. Fertilizing 5046,20 3438,30 2.3. Weeding 21579,00 4533,20 3 Crop protection 3 1. Herbicide 4201,50 2157,05 3 .2. Crop guarding 13145,50 8813,00 4 Harvesting operation 4.1. Harvesting 4761,64 1858.50 4.2. Bagging & weighing 0,00 28248,10 4.3. Storing 0,00 4.4. Loading & unloading 73976,43 23558,40 4.5. Grading & Curing 1220,14 4.6. Production transport 3695,87 Sub Total 130934,43 82899,96 n Materials 1. Seed & seedling 1082263,83 809491,13 2. Lnsecticide 0,00 3. Pesticide 551196,02 4. Herbicide 598473,31 811458,41 5. Fertiliser 1066229,86 712925,36 6. Harvesting material 3498,61 7. Bagging & packing 3814,10 8. Material 464203,36 Sub Total 3301661,63 2801892.36 III. Machine Operation 1. Seed bed preparation 1.1. Slashing 1.2. Ploughing 1093097,47 759498,54 1.3. Discing 175972,98 107523,76 2. Planting operation 2.1. Fertilising 56640,50 111331,61 2.2. Planting 62403,03 21166,83 2.3. Transplanting 20886.82 2.4 Input transport 96516.98 33505.66 2.5 Seed covering 245314,86 53778.89 3. Machine Spraying 3.1 Machine spraing 20606,12 7776,12 3.2 Air craft sprayine 651858.75 562096,00 4. Harvesting operation xxiii 4.1. Harvesting 458543,45 311053.61 4.2. Produce transport 297210.16 171477.69 Sub Total 3158164,30 2160095.53 IV. Farm Over Head Absorbed 1. Pest control 8716U 5 80698.48 2. Farm Administration 1601813,36 884333.39 Sub Total 1688974,61 965031.87 V. Share of General Adm. & Financial Exp. 1. General Administration Expense 922977.42 669861.86 2. Financial Expense 2382066.74 1728813,35 Sub Total 3305044.16 2398675.21 Grand Total 11584779.13 8408594.93 Total area/ hectare 3838,18 2554.30 Cost per hectare 3018.30 3291.94 Production in Qts 53767,53 43342.00 Cost per Qts 215,46 194,01 * Prices are m Birr (exchange rate: I US$ = 8,4 i2 Ethiopian Birr. June, 2001) Source: BADE. 1993 E.C. xxiv Annexe XJH Key Stakeholders and interests identified (in respect to cereal mono-cropping) Stakeholder interests/objectives Institutio nal level Ethiopian Agricultural Generate, develop and adapt profitable agricultural technologies Federal Research Organization Co-ordinate research activities of agriculture research establishments (EARO) Build up a research capacity and efficient explore system Popularise agricultural research results Kulumsa Agricultural Germplasm collection, evaluation and improvement of bread wheat Federal Research centre (KARC) Generate & disseminate unproved wheat technologies with some Regional interests Siiiana Agricultural Identification and priontisation of agricultural production constrains Regional Research Center (SARC) Recommendation of appropriate technology for farmers with strong To develop suitable soil and water management technologies zonal Validate, demonstrate, popularise and disseminate technologies Increasing agricultural production and productivity per unit area for crops and livestock Provision of food and feed sources for all time self-sufficiency and security Protection and conserv ation of natural resources in all possible systems for sustainable ecology. Oromia Agricultural Development of agricultural sector of the Region along with natural Region Development Bureau resource conservation (OADB) Bale Zone Agricultural Disseminate technologies to farmers and help in socio-economic and Zonal Development Office technical aspects in Bale Zone (BZADO) Bale Zone Planning and Advice, plans and approves budget Zonal Economic Development Provides information and assists private sector Office (BZPEDO) Follow the execution of development work of the Zone Bale Zone co-operative Establish and promote farmers co-operatives Zonal promotion (BZCP) Train people to solve their economic and social problems Bale Agricultural Profitable wheat production Zonal Development Enterprise Increase production and income from sales and decrease production (BADE) costs through effective management Improved seed for wheat and rotation crops. Modem technologies of production New equipment Highly skilled specialists Arsi-Bale Rural Development of small farmers and rural entrepreneurs to contribute Zonal Development Project to the local and national food security (Arsi + (.ABRDP) Support rural development programmes in the zone Bale Support agricultural and development research programs Zone) HUNDEE (Oromo Food security through establishment of village cereal banks and their Zonal Grassroots Development networks Initiative) Help in marketing by providing information .Agricultural Mechanisa tionj Providing mechanisation services like tractor and combine harvester Zonal Service (AMS) i to fanners Oromia credit and saving i Credit provision for poorest in rural area to alleviate poverty District share company (OCSSCo) i Advisory services on savings, income generation activities Farmers 1 Self sufficiency in terms of food and income Local ! Increasing agnculture production, the land productivity Wheat and Bariev Traders . Make profit by trading Local (WBT) XXV Annexe XJV Stakeholders involved in cereal monocropping in Bale Highland x x v i Annexe XV Contribution of stakeholders to the cereal monocropping and crop diversification in the Bale Highlands Stakeholder Cereal monocropping in Bale Crop diversification in Bale Highlands Highlands Fanners Type 1 (> 5 Barley for household food security Relatively more alternative crops, ha of land, > 2 pairs and Ganna crop, while wheat as main mainly field peas and linseed oxen) cash crop Cereals in large plots for Combined harvesting Fanners Type 2 (2-5 Both barley and wheat for household Include some field peas and linseed ha land, 1-2 pair oxen) food security and cash crops in both seasons Wheat in large plots for combine harvesting Farmers Type 3 (< 2 Food security is first priority and Relatively very small area of field ha land, < 1 pair oxen) consequently grow mainly cereals pea to supplement the household to Apparently use the same field to plant make stew cereals in Bona and Ganna Female farmers (MHH Relieved from harvesting/threshing Grow vegetables and FHH) tasks due to combined harvesting. More wheat processing and less barlev Large scale farms Wheat monocropping, since it is the All alternative crops even oil crops (B.ADE State farms) only profitable crop and suitable for (mustard) are difficult for mechanization mechanization and have poor Some malt barley still grown benefit/cost ratio Reluctant to introduce new techniques for producing alternative crops to wheat Bale Zone Agricultural Support cereal production with Unintentionally, disfavor alternative Development Office recommendation and credit package crops to wheat since seed and In the extension program included packages with credit are not usually cereals commonly given to farmers There is interest to promote alternative crops such as field pea and linseed Bale Zone Co Support cereal producing Little emphasis on alternative crop operative Promotion cooperatives since profit is basis of producing cooperatives Department survival Program to sell oil crop seed (rape seed) to fanners Bale Zone Planning Encourage the extension program and Economic implemented by BZAJDO Development Office contributing to more cereal expansion Oromia Agricultural Involved in developing strategy to Through strengthening the regional Development Bureau implement the extension package research centers, it is strengthening program focusing on cereals research on different crops which can contribute to diversification Kuiumsa Agricultural Strong national wheat research Strengthening other crops research Research Centre program involved in releasing semi specially dicot crops to avert (EARO-KARC) dwarf bread wheat varieties suitable continuous wheat problem for different agro-ecologies Developing strategy to include faba bean and mustard in wheat based croppmg sy stem Sinana Agricultural Emphasis on wheat and barley Smaller research programmes on Research Centre improvement programmes pulses, oil crops and vegetables Agricultural Interest in mechanized Do not strongly favor inclusion of Mechanisation Service harvesting/threshing of cereals dicots since they are not suitable for mechanized harvesting which in turn affect their income Hundee (Oromo For food security reasons support No grain banks for alternative crops Grassroots cereal grain banks in Bale Highlands Developement Initiative) Oromia Credit and Credit for cereals Credit for off-farm activities and Saving Share alternative crops Company (OCSSCo) Arsi-Bale Rural Supporting w heat and barley research No support to alternative crop Development Project at SARC research programmes Support to cereal production cooperatives Annexe XVI Crop production budgeting w ith lower price of small holder farmer Emmer Items wheat barley wheat Field pea Faba bean Linseed Maize Teff Mannual Combine yield (qt/ha) 15 19 12 12 5 7 4 8 6 Return of Grain (Birr/ha) 1275 1615 720 540 800 910 600 400 840 Straw (qt) 25 0 20 19 15 10 0 12 20 Return of straw (Birr/lia) 456 0 500 336 180 120 0 216 500 Gross return 1774 1615 1265 913 1007 1052 600 646 1385 Cost of seed 252 252 100 200 120 180 84 40 110 Cost of fertiliser (birr/lia) 176 176 99 68 0 0 0 0 0 Cost of herbicides (birr/lia) 46 46 46 46 0 0 0 0 0 Cost of machinery (birr) 16 266 16 16 0 0 0 0 0 labour (Person days) 70 32 62 64 48 67 50 74 76 Cost of labour (birr/lia) 245 112 217 224 168 235 175 280 266 Animal cost (birr/lia) 304 321 268 289 168 178 212 272 312 Gross cost 1028 1188 746 843 456 592 471 592 708 Gross cost (not include labor and animal cost) 490 756 261 330 120 180 84 40 130 Gross cost (not include labor) 793 1076 529 619 288 358 296 312 442 Gross margin 736 427 519 70 551 460 129 54 677 Gross margin (no labour ;uid animal cost) 1258 860 1004 583 887 872 516 606 1255 Gross margin (no labour but with animal cost) 981 539 736 294 719 694 304 334 943 Gross return to labour (no animal cost) 18 27 16 9 18 13 10 8 17 Gross return to labour (with animal cost) 14 17 12 5 15 10 6 4 12 Gross monetary return 785 875 459 210 680 730 516 360 710 Benefit-cost ratio 1,71 1,36 1,70 1,08 2,21 1,78 1,27 1,09 1.96 xxix Annexe XVII Crop production budgeting with higher price of small holder farmer Items wheat barley Eminer Field pea Faba bean Linseed Maize Tef wheat Mannual Combine yield (qt/lia) 15 19 12 12 5 7 4 8 6 Return of Grain (birr/ha) 1800 2280 1440 900 1050 1260 1000 640 1260 Straw (qt) 25 0 20 19 15 10 0 12 20 Return of straw (birr/ha) 456 0 500 336 180 120 0 216 500 Gross return 2299 2280 1985 1273 1257 1402 1000 886 1805 Cost of seed 252 252 100 200 120 180 84 40 115 Cost of fertiliser (birr/lia) 176 176 99 68 0 0 0 0 0 Cost of herbicides (birr/ha) 46 46 46 46 0 0 0 0 0 Cost of machinery' (birr) 16 266 16 16 0 0 0 0 0 labour (Person days) 70 32 62 64 48 67 50 74 7(> Cost of labour (birr/ha) 245 112 217 224 168 235 175 280 266 Animal cost (birr/ha) 304 321 268 289 168 178 212 272 312 Gross cost 1028 1188 746 843 456 592 471 592 708 Gross cost (birr, not include labor and animal cost) 490 756 261 330 120 180 84 40 130 Gross cost (birr, not include labor) 793 1076 529 619 288 358 296 312 442 Gross margin 1272 1092 1239 430 801 810 529 294 1097 Gross margin (birr, no labour and animal cost) 1810 1525 1724 943 1137 1222 916 846 1675 Gross margin (birr, no labour but with animal cost) 1506 1204 1456 654 969 1044 704 574 1363 Gross return to labour (birr, no animal cost) 26 48 28 15 24 18 18 11 22 Gross return to labour (birr, with animal cost) 22 38 23 10 20 16 14 18 Gross monetary return (birr) 1310 1540 1179 570 930 1080 916 600 1145 Benefit-cost ratio 2,24 1,92 2,66 M i 2,76 2,37 2,12 1,50 2,55 * Higher price and lower price of grains were in Robe market in August 2000 and Apiil 2001 respectively; pro|>ortion to marketing was identified by the farmers through PRA tool in the survey; straw price was from Robe straw market and farmers interviewed XXX Annexe XVIII Sensitivity analysis of crop budgeting in terms of product price and Y ield change Items Change range Wheat Wheat barley Emmer Field Faba Linseed Maize Tef | (M) (C) wheat pea bean Gross price -50% 9 2 10 5 10 6 4 5 11 return to price -25% 14 14 13 7 14 10 7 6 14! labour estimated 18 27 16 9 18 13 10 8 17] price +25% 23 39 19 11 23 16 13 9 19: price +50% 27 52 22 13 27 20 16 10 22i GMR price -50% 148 52 99 -60 280 275 216 160 305 i price -25% 467 456 279 76 480 503 366 260 515, estimated 786 860 459 211 680 730 516 360 725 price +25% 1104 1263 639 346 880 958 666 460 935 price +50% 1423 1667 819 481 1080 1185 816 560 1145; Gross price -50% 99 -381 159 -200 151 5 -171 -146 257| margin price -25% 417 23 339 -65 351 232 -21 -46 467| (with estimated 736 427 519 70 551 460 129 54 677; labor price +25% 1055 831 699 205 751 687 279 154 887! cost) price +50% 1374 1234 879 340 951 915 429 254 10971 price -50% 1,09 0,68 1,21 0,76 1.33 1,01 0,64 0,75 1,36| Benefit- price -25% 1.40 1.02 1.46 0,92 1.77 1,39 0,96 0,92 1.66 cost estimated 1,71 1,36 1.70 1,08 2,21 1,78 1,27 1,09 1,96 ratio price +25% 2,02 1.70 1,94 1.24 2.65 2,16 1,59 1,26 2.251 price +50% 2,32 2.04 2,18 1,40 3.08 2.54 1,91 1,43 2,55: xx xi Sensitivity analysis of crop budgeting in terms of product price and yield change (Cont’d) Items Change range wheat( Wheat barley Emmer Field Faba Linseed Maize Tef M) (C) wheat pea bean estimated 18 27 16 9 18 13 10 8 17 pri+25yiel+50 34 67 26 16 11 25 21 12 26 pri+25yiel+25 29 53 23 14 28 21 17 10 23 pri-25yiel+50 21 29 18 10 21 15 12 8 18 Gross pri-25yiel+25 17 22 15 9 17 12 10 7 16 return to pri-50yiel+50 14 10 13 7 14 10 7 6 14 labour pri-25viel-25 14 8 12 6 11 7 5 6 12 pri-50yiel+25 12 6 12 6 12 8 6 6 12 pri-25yiel-50 7 -1 9 4 8 5 4 10 pii-50yiel-25 7 -3 9 4 8 5 3 4 10 pri-50yiel-50 5 71 7 3 6 1 4 8 estimated 786 860 459 211 680 730 516 360 725 pri+25yiel+50 1901 2140 1089 683 1380 1526 1041 710 1445 pri+25yiel+25 1503 1701 864 514 1130 1242 854 585 1183 pri-25yiel+50 945 928 549 278 780 844 591 410 830 pri-25yiel-f-25 706 692 414 177 630 673 479 335 673 GMR pri-50yiel+50 467 323 279 76 480 503 366 260 515 pri-50yiel-25 307 187 189 8 380 389 291 210 410 pri-25yiel-25 228 219 144 -26 330 332 254 185 358 pri-50yiel-25 -11 -83 9 -127 180 161 141 110 200 pri-25yiel-50 -11 -17 9 -127 180 161 141 110 200 pri-50yiel-50 -171 -219 -81 -195 80 48 66 60 95 estimated 736 427 519 70 551 460 129 54 677 pri+50yiel+50 1852 1707 1136 542 1239 1239 644 404 1400 pri+50yiel+25 1453 1269 918 374 995 963 462 279 1144 pri-25yiel+-50 895 496 596 137 639 556 194 104 7701 pri-25yiel-*-25 862 328 537 105 495 394 87 50 634 Gross pri-50yiel+50 417 -110 326 -65 339 215 -31 -46 455 margin pri-50yiel+25 258 -245 243 -133 245 110 -101 -96 356. pri-25yieI-25 178 -213 211 -166 207 70 -129 -121 3 16j pri-25yiel-50 -61 -450 83 -268 63 -92 -236 -196 164 pri-50yiel-25 -61 -516 76 -268 57 -101 -241 -196 158, pri-50yiel-50 -220 -652 -7 -335 -37 -206 -311 -246 591 estimated 1,71 1.36 1.70 1,08 2,21 1,78 1,27 1.09 1,96 pri+50yiel+50 2,78 2,29 2,50 1,64 3,64 3,03 2,34 1,68 2.94 pri+50yiel+25 2.40 2,01 2.22 1,44 3,15 2,60 1,97 1,47 2,60 pri-25yiel+50 1,86 1,38 1,78 1,16 2,36 1,91 1,40 1.18 2.07 Benefit- pri-25yiel+25 1.63 1.21 1.62 1,04 2.07 1.66 1.18 1.05 1.87 cost pri-25yiel-25 1.46 0,86 1,42 0,87 1,46 1,12 0,72 0.82 1.48 ratio pri-50yiel+50 1,40 0,92 1,43 0.92 1.72 1.35 0.94 0.92 1.63 pri-50yiel+25 1.25 0,80 1.32 0,84 1.53 1.18 0,79 0.84 1.50 pri-25yiel-50 0.94 0.57 1,11 0,68 1,14 0,84 0.49 0.67 1.24 pri-50yiel-25 0,94 0,54 1,10 0.68 1.13 0,83 0.48 0.67 1.23 pri-50yiel-50 0.79 0,38 0.99 0,60 0.92 0,64 0,33 0.58 1.08 x x x ii Annexe XIX Wheat and barley production budgeting of state farms Sinana (wheat) 1999/2000 1998/99 1997/98 1996/97 1995/96 1994/95 Area 3838 3838 3755 3749 3679 3196 Yield 53768 33124 62920 57889 80459 53721 Per ha yield 14 9 17 15 22 17 price 102 123 128 185 124 133 Return 1428 1107 2176 2775 2728 2261 Cost 11589779 19817121 6584137 10126176 9877352 7409503 Cost per ha 3019.74 5163.40 1753,43 2701,03 2684,79 2318,37 Cost per Qt 215.55 598.27 104.64 174,92 122,76 137,93 Net return -1591.74 -4056.40 422.57 73,97 43,21 -57,37 Benefit-cost ratio 0.47 0.21 1.24 1,03 1.02 0,98 Robe (w’heat) Area 2554 2736 2473 1910 2321 1298 Yield 43342 29737 42744 45386 54125 24488 Per ha yield 17 11 17 24 23 19 price 145 149 128 185 124 128 Return 2465 1639 2176 4440 2852 2432 Cost 8408595 7225976 7217147 5384407 5781386 3684084 Cost per ha 3292,32 2641.07 2918,38 2819,06 2490.90 2838,28 Cost per Qt 194,01 243.00 168,85 118,64 106,82 150,44 Net return -827,32 -1002,07 -742,38 1620,94 361,10 -406,28 Benefit-cost ratio 0,75 0.62 0,75 1,57 1,14 0,86 Sinana (barley) Robe (barley) 1997/98 1996/97 1994/95 1997/98 1996/97 1994/95 Area 83 11 448 107 107 1179 Yield 1204 82 1534 1378 1594 11699 Per ha yield 14,51 7.45 3,42 12,88 14,90 9,92 price 126 119 111 122 119 146 Return 1827.76 887.09 380,08 1571,18 1772,77 1448,73 Cost 121385 25657 820433 282589 305809 2278775 Cost per ha 1462,47 2332,45 1831,32 2641,02 2858,03 1932,80 Cost per Qt 100,82 312.89 534,83 205,07 191,85 194,78 Net return 365,29 -1445,36 -1451,25 -1069,84 -1085,26 -484,07 Benefit-cost ratio 1,25 0.38 0,21 0,59 0,62 0,75 Annexe XX Cost-benefit comparison between state farm and small holder farm-wheat production Serofta Sinana Robe Smallholder farmer Yield (qt) 30 14 17 19 Gross return (birr) 3872 1421 1152 1615 Cost (birr/ha) 2922 3018 3292 1119 Cost per qt (birr) 96.92 215.46 194.01 58.91 Net return (birr/ha) 949.45 -1596.95 -2140.72 495,75 Benefit-cost ratio 1.32 0.47 0.35 1,44 xxxiii Annexe XXI Cereal (wheat) production, marketable surplus and food aid in Bale zone* Bale Zone 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Cereals (MT) 2146477 1693927 2159161 2699180 2988312 Wheat production 866894 718730 977936 1355963 1403677 Percentage of wheat production in cereal production in Bale (%) Marketable surplus of cereals (MT)** 573901 262289.2 -356856 -34581,8 385631,5 Marketable surplus of cereals (%) 24 12 -21 -2 14 Food aid 3467 4502 2213 16907 10838 Percentage of food aid in total cereal 0,16 0,27 0,1 0,63 0,36 production in Bale (%) ♦data source: BZADO, EC/LFSU * * Amount of consumption was estimated at 180kg per person. Annexe XXH Introduced and other problematic weeds found iu the study area S. No Local name Scientific name Tvpe of weed 1 Gale Polygonum convolvulus Broad- leafed 2 Mathanne Gallium spurium Broad-leafed 3 Hada Guizotia scabra Broad-leafed 4 Asandabo Phalans paradoxa Grass 5 Kumudo Broad-leafed 6 Ginchi Bromus pectinatus Grass 7 Satho Cyperus sp Grass 8 Sinara Avena sp Grass 9 Asandabo Phalans minor Grass 10 Migirasare Setaria pumila Grass Annexe XXIII SWOT analysis of small holder bread wheat production system in Bale highlands Strengths Opportunities • Good return to labour • Wheat processing (added value) • High Benefit/cost ratio • Diversification through rotation with other high return • Both food and cash crop crops • Storage relatively easy • New wheal technologies from research (varieties etc.) • Credit available • Food market opportunities • Less risk than other crops Weaknesses Threats • Weed sensitive • Declining world and domestic market prices • Yellow' and stem rust problem • Pressure of the credit system (sustainability') • Soil-borne diseases • Seasonality/ fluctuation of prices • Input demanding • Quality seed availability • Rotation demanding • Reduced soil fertility • Less biomass & low nutntional quality . . Source: Agarfa. Sinana-Dinsho. Gebn (ICFA. 2001) xxxiv Annexe XXTV SWOT analysis of large-scale bread wheat production system in Bale Highlands Strengths Opportunities • Access to good land & resources like • Strategic role in National Food Reserve inputs • Privatisation (EPA)(Commercial farmers and small » Assets for large scale wheat scale fanners) production • Improved output through cost reduction and yield • Policy support?? increase • Direct sale to Food Aid agencies Weaknesses Threats • High cost of debt servicing • Debts larger than assets (bankruptcy)- 298 binr • Equipment beyond working life approximately • High unit of wheat production cost • Increased land conflicts with small holder farmers (cost/ha) • Further decline in wheat prices • Not competitive with commercial and small scale farmer Source: Agarfa, Sinana-Dinsho, Goba (ICRA, 2001) Annexe XXV Research and development options as per the target group No Small-holder farms Large-scale farms 1 Improving and screening varieties of alternative Improving and screening varieties of crops for different characters (for high yielding, alternative crops for different characters (for short maturity time, drought tolerance, and pest & high yielding, short maturity time, drought disease resistance). tolerance, and pest & disease resistance). 2 Adaptation of conservation tillage system for Adaptation of conservation tillage system for Ganna and Bona seasons Ganna and Bona seasons 3 Analysis of marketing mechanism(including both inputs & outputs) for major & minor crops & agricultural credit system 4 Extending the varieties of mustard, faba bean, Extending the varieties of faba bean, field pea, field pea, linseed lentil noug, maize, teff and mustard, linseed, lentil, noug, maize, teff and pepper with their appropriate agronomic package pepper with their appropriate agronomic (includes adaptation trials, locality specific package (includes adaptation trials, locality fertiliser recommendations- both organic & specific fertiliser recommendations- both inorganic) organic & inorganic) 5 Improvement, introduction and dissemination of Improvement, introduction and dissemination varieties of legume and cereal fodder crops with of varieties of legume and cereal fodder crops their appropriate agronomic package with their appropriate agronomic package 6 Introduction of temperate fruits(apple, pear, peach Privatisation of state farms and distribution to and plum)/ agroforestrv/ alley cropping small holders. 7 Introduction and testing of harvesting, threshing, transporting, planting and weeding implements for the major & minor crops grown in the area; Introduction of modem bee-hives. mechanical milk chumer and butter making machines 8 Documentation of indigenous knowledge & conservation of biodiversity 9 Develop seed multiplication and dissemination scheme for small scale farmers 10 Dissemination of improved breeds of cattle, small ruminants & poultry 11 ! Device feeding management strategies ' (Increasing the nutritional value of straw & conservation residues, grassianu umnageiueiu, rationing of feed)______ XXXV Annexe XXVI Screening and priority setting process The following steps were followed in the screening and priority setting options for research and development: 1. Identification of options for research and development in addressing the core problem of cereal monocropping. Ten options were identified by the team, based on the field study (survey and stakeholder interviews) and on basis of stakeholder feedback during the mid-term workshop. 2. Selection of stakeholders Seven stakeholders were selected by the team and these were involved in priority setting together with the team. All stakeholders (3 from research. 2 from development and extension. 1 NGO and 2 farmer categories (large-scale and small-scale). 3. Stakeholders establish criteria as well as weight of each criterion. Although three criteria (economic, social and ecological) were kept in reserve (only used for Extension and OSCSCo) all stakeholders, except farmers, presented and weighed criteria (See Table 3). 4. Additional options were provided by stakeholders In addition to the ten options provided some stakeholders provided additional options: Indigenous technical knowledge and biodiversity studies (SARC) Post-harvest technology studies (ABRDP) Extension methods analysis (SARC) Improved road network between Bale low and highlands (KARC-SED) 5. Ranking by stakeholders of ail options using weighted criteria All stakeholders weighed their criteria and ranked the options (table 3). The farmers used pairwise ranking which was done by three peasant associations in three villages (Table 2) 6. Ranking by the ICRA team The ICRA team scored the seven best options once more using five criteria with different weight (see Table 4). 7. Feasibility study of four highest ranked options The Institutional feasibility as well as the expected benefit for small-scale farmers xxxvi Table 1 Criteria applied by different stakeholders as well as their ranking. Criteria KARC ICRA SARC ABRDP BZ OSCSCo BADE Small extension Fanners Economic 3 1 4 2 1 1 1 (Profitability, market value) Social 2 3 - - 3 3 - - (HFS. Equity) Institutional 3 3 3 5 (Researchabili ty. Capacity) Ecological 1 1 5 2 2 (NR Conservation. rotation/ sustainability) Innovative 6 3 (Innovation, relevance for diversification Farmers 2 1 2 1 (farmers priority. adaptability) Technological 6 3 (Resistance, mechanisation ! , vields) Financial 4 5 1 4 (Time needed, shortterm benefits) Table 2 Screening options with farmers in three PAs (Homma, Elabidu and Sanbitu) Options 1 2 3 All Rank New varieties of alternative crops 4 7 9 20 7 Conservation tillage 5 10 8 23 9 Feed management strategy 8 9 10 27 10 Marketing studies 5 6 6 17 5 Extending existing varieties of alternative crops 2 1 4 7 3 Feeding strategies (fodder crops) 9 4 5 18 6 Agro-forestry and temperate fruits 10 7 6 23 8 Implements for small farmers I 2 2 5 1 Extending improved breeds 5 4 3 12 4 Seed supply of alternative crops 2 3 1 6 i Type I > 5 ha land and > 2 pairs of oxen Type 2 2-5 ha land and 1 -2 pair of oxen Type 3 < 2 ha land and < 1 pair of oxen Women were represented in all categories of fanners (percentage) x x x v i i Table 3 Prioritisation of research and development options Options KARC- .ABRDP Farmers Extensi Researc NGO State Rank SED onists hers Farms Improving and screening crop 2 2 7 2 3 1 1 1 varieties for alternative crops Adoption of Conserv ation tillage 4 10 9 4 2 3 4 5 Device feed management strategy 8 6 10 3 5 8 7 8 Analysis of marketing mechanism 5 4 5 5 10 2 5 4 and credit svstem Extending varieties of alternative I 5 3 6 1 10 2 2 crops Improving fodder crops 6 3 6 7 7 9 3 7 Introduction of temperate fruit and 9 6 8 8 8 6 6 9 agroforestry Introduction and testing of farm 10 9 1 1 9 4 9 6 implements Dissemination of improved breeds 7 8 4 10 6 7 10 10 Develop seed multiplication and 3 I 2 9 4 5 8 3 dissemination scheme Table 4 Prioritising RD options drawn from screening exercise with a score (S) for different criteria with different weights (W). Option Environ Social Econo Feasi Time Total Rank mental Equity mic bility needed score Sustaina Competit bility iveness (Sum of W=4 W=3 W=4 W=3 W=1 W*S) Improving and screening 7 5 8 7 3 99 2 crop varieties for alternative crops Adoption of conservation 7 5 4 6 4 81 5 tillage Device feed management 7 3 5 5 6 78 6 strategy and improve varieties of fodder crops .Analysis of marketing 3 6 8 6 7 87 4 and credit system Extending varieties of 6 6 8 8 7 105 I alternative crops Introduction and testing 5 5 5 5 4 74 7 of farm implements Develop seed 5 6 7 8 7 97 3 multiplication and dissemination scheme . xxxviii Annexe XXVII Proposals Proposal 1 Title: Pre-extension demonstration of varieties of alternative crops (faba bean, field pea, linseed, lentil, mustard, teff and vegetables) with their appropriate agronomic package Thrust Mixed farming system of highlands of Bale zone (2200-2600masl), includes sub-agro ecological zones viz., M2-7 and SH2-7 (Sinana), SH3-7 (Goba, Dinsho), SH 2-7 (Agarfa) Category of activity Research and Development Background and Justification Sinana- ICRA 2001 field study on “The shift to cereal monocropping, a threat or a blessing"’ has revealed that there is a need for diversification of the existing cropping system for sustainable agricultural development in the Bale Zone. During the survey it was found that farmers in this Zone are growing cereals, particularly bread wheat and barley year after year, leading to the reduced soil fertility. In addition to this monocropping also makes farmers run into high risks of economic, social, ecological and biological terms. Due to this continuous monocropping there is reduction in the yields of crops. Moreover, they are not doing crop rotation or fallowing. One of the main reasons is the lack of improved varieties of alternative crops. Though SARC has released a number of varieties of these alternative crops, farmers are not aware of these varieties. There are also varieties released by other research centres which could also be grown in this zone. So there is a need to extend these varieties of alternative crops. ;CRA field study also found that out of all the alternative crops listed, field pea has highest benefit-cost ratio followed by teff. faba bean and linseed. This indicates that it is profitable to farmers to produce these crops. Additionally the soil fertility' could also be maintained leading to high yields of crops in the next season. In general the diversification reduces the risks of farmers and helps in sustainable agricultural development. Objectives ■ To create awareness of varieties of alternative crops ■ To increase the adoption of alternative crop varieties • Finally to diversify the existing cropping sy stem with the extension of varieties of alternative crops Expected Out Put, Activities and Indicators of performance or milestone Please see log-frame Literature Review SARC, since its establishment has given more emphasis to bread wheat due to the Country's strategy on food self-sufficiency. But in recent years after realising the long-term effects of growing cereals continuously through the diagnostic surveys (Mohammed Hassena, 1995 and Bekele Hundie, 1997), the centre is giving more impetus to alternative crops like field pea and faba bean in improvement and screening to develop improved varieties. The centre has alreadv released four varieties in field pea. one in faba bean and one in mustard i —. ^..w j ojioo [he ipumon aiais oi vaneues reieased from other centres and if they are adaptable to this Zone, those varieties were included in demonstrations. x x x ix Presently the centre is popularising the improved varieties of field pea (Dadimos. Hursa and Tuilu Shanene) in Sinana woreda. There are also demonstrations of potato varieties in Sinana-Dinsho woreda (Getnet kebede, 2001). Though the centre was conducting the demonstrations of improved varieties through Research- Extension division in collaboration with Baie Zone Agricultural Development Office, there is a need to emphasise here that the linkage has to be strengthened and there should be more involvement of extensionists in this particular dissemination process Farmer Extension Groups (FEGs) need to be formed on priority-basis and during this formation the contact groups of extensionists that are already- existing in each district may be involved. Addiuonally, the alternative crops will be prioritised involving these FEGs and as per the preference the demonstration of those crops/ varieties will be done in that area/ PA. Materials and Methods Site selection ■ Site for demonstration- three sites in each district of Sinana-Dinsho, Goba and Agarfa Crop/vanety selection ■ Improved vaneties of alternative crops include: field pea (4), faba bean (1), mustard (1), lentil (4), linseed ( 2), teff (2) and vegetables (potato.gariic, shallot)- as per the preference of FEGs. Package o f practices • Gross plot size for demonstration is 20 x 20 m and 0.25 ha for popularisation. ■ Seed of improved varieties at the rate of 100kg/ ha and 75kg/ha will be provided ■ Fertiliser rates 18-46 N/P and once hand weeding for field pea. Formation o f Farmer Extension Groups (FEGs) Before conducting die demonstrations. Farmer Extension groups (FEGs) will be formed, three in each district Each group consists of 20 farmers, i.e., 60 farmers in each district. In the beginning only three districts i.e., Sinana-Dinsho, Goba and Agarfa will be considered. There will be at least one demonstration for each variety invoking each FEGs i.e., a total of three sites for each demonstration in each district for each variety will be conducted. These FEGs could include the contact groups that extension is now having in each PA/ district. Methodology Improved varieties of alternative crops along with the appropriate package and local variety with farmer practices will be planted on selected fanner's field. Seed will be given free of charge by SARC. Farmers do all the activities from land preparation to harvesting under the close supervision of Research-extension Division of SARC, Development Agents (DAs) of respective sites. Data on grain yield and fanners assessment (qualitative and quantitative) of the variety will be collected and the result will be analysed using appropriate stansticai procedures. Beneficiaries Smallholder farmers (Three types as per the typology of the Sinana/ICRA field study- please refer to the report) Implementing Agency SARC and BZADO Extension head and DAs of respective sites/ PAs Location(s) Sinana-Dinsho. Goba and Agarfa Duration 5 years xl Initiator Getnet Kebede Person's Responsible Getnet K. Tiegisto, Tesfaye, L and BZADO Within Sector Linkage Puise, oil seed and vegetable programs Between Sector Linkage Extension and crop programs Financial Requirement and Sources of Finance • Three sites in each district involving three FEGs: 1 1773 EB (Operational costs) a For each variety, there will be a total of 9 sites (three districts) in each season. Total finance required = 741699 (EB) for 9crops in 7 districts (For details please see table.2). Sources of finance: At present only SARC, but need to be discussed with other stakeholders, preferably from various sources. Work Plan (List and planned duration of activities) ■ Formation of FEGs ■ Farmer selection at each site ■ Seed and fertiliser preparation ■ Planting ■ Weeding ■ Fanners day (includes farmers assessment) ■ Harvesting and threshing During all the steps, DAs will be involved except in seed and fertiliser preparation. In addition to these activities, Research-extension division of SARC will do data the collection. The activities will be the same for all die demonstrations. References/ Bibliography • Bekele Hundie, K. 1996. Initial results of informal survey Dinsho mixed farming system. Bale Zone. Division of Agricultural Economics. Sinana Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia ■ Geremew Eticha, Tilahun Geleto and Aliye Hussen. 1998. A decade o f research experience- Sinana Agricultural Research Center 1986-1997. Agricultural Research Co-ordination Service, OADB, Bulletin No.4. Ethiopia ■ Getnet Kebele. 2001. Research- Extension Division- Progress Report for Gena and Bona 200 cropping season, Sinana Agricultural Research Center. ■ Mohammed Hassena. 1995. Diagnostic survey of sinana mixed farming system area. Bale Zone. Division of Agricultural Economics, Sinana Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia Tafa Jobie. 2001.Past research Achievements and Research programs for 2001. In Oromia Regional Research Program Review. 21-22 march 2001, SARC-OADB. Ethiopia. Operating costs for on-farm demonstration trials at three sites in one district (birr) Activities Time needed Farmer BZADO ADO(district) DA Researcher 1. Formation of FEGs 3 days 3 3 3 3 2. Site selection & farmer 3 days 3 3 3 selection 3. Land preparation 1 day 1 1 1 4. Planting 3 days 3 3 3 5.Weeding 1 day 1 1 1 6.data collection 3 days 3 3 3 7.Field day 3 days 3 3 3 3 3 8. harvesting 1 day 1 1 1 1 Total number of days 18 days 18 days 3 days 7 days 18 days 18 days Farmer gets seed and fertiliser free of cost Per Diem for different stakeholders BZ.ADO ADO(District) DA Researcher Total 1.Formation of FEGs 351 210 351 2.Site selection & farmer selection 210 351 3. Land preparation 70 117 4. Planting 210 351 5. Weeding 70 117 6.data collection 210 351 7.Field day 351 351 210 351 8. harvesting 117 70 117 Total cost (Birr) 351 819 1260 2106 4536 Total costs (Birr) Researcher Extension Total Human Resources 2106 2430 4536 Kilometre 7200 450 7650 150*16*3 Miscellaneous 500 500 Total costs for one district for one crop 9806 2880 12686 Total cost for 9 crops in one district 88254 25920 114174 Total costs for 7 districts 617778 181440 799218 Total Finance needed Cost (Birr) ■ For one variety in three sites in one district 12686 ■ For 9 crops in one district 114174 ■ For 9 crops in seven districts (5 years) 799218 xlii Proposal 2 Title: Improving and Screening Varieties of Alternative Crops (Barley, Faba bean. Pepper, Noug, and Maize) for Different Characters (for High yielding, Short maturity time, Drought tolerance, and Pest and Disease resistance) General Background Information SARC is currently mandate to serve the mixed farming sy stem of highlands of Bale and inline with this the centre is conducting different on-station and on-farm research activity to address the problem of small-scaled fanners. The main focus of research by SARC is on the improvement of Small grain cereals. Highland pulses. Highland oil crops, Horticultural crops and Forage crops. The centre is released ten varieties of different food crops for the area and doing on their dissemination. However due to the lack of manpower both in quality and quantity, lower research facility, infrastructure and budget the centre couldn't provide many alternative varieties other than wheat. One of the reasons for wheat monocropping is the lack of varieties and inefficient research methodologies with a focus on on- station research and poor collaboration with other stakeholders. These resulted with in poor dissemination of the alternative crops. Therefor, SARC has to w'ork more to address the exiting problem of monocropping by supplying improved varieties of alternative crops. Barley Background and Justification Barley is one of the most important cereal food crops in Bale. Barley is produced twice annually i.e. during the main season, Bona and the short rainy season Ganna. Ganna barley is important in Sinana- Dinsho, Goba, Agarfa, Gassera-Gololcha, and some PAs in Goto. According to the Zonal Bureau of Agricultural Development Office report (1992) among the major cereals barley ranks second in area and production next to wheat Barley is used to prepare various types of traditional food and local drinks. The straw is used for animal feed and for house construction. Despite its importance, the crop (both malt and food barley) has a number of production constraints among which shoot fly is the major one. The research work on shoot fly in SARC showed that, all the released and exotic varieties are susceptible to shoot fly attack and the loss is 100% (SARC, 2001). But the studies at SARC line indicate that landraces are by far better than the released varieties and exotic lines. However, nothing is known about the basis (physical/chemical/physiological) of resistance of the iandrace/local varieties. In addition there is no detailed study' conducted on the insea species identification except some preliminary population dynamics study which has to be repeated according to the researchers view. The population distribution of shoot flies over years in different districts including the two seasons has to be conducted to better protect it. Therefore, knowing the species composition, biology, population size, its distribution over season and studying the mechanism of resistance/tolerance of the pest could have paramount importance to manage against the pest at an appropriate time. In addition most of resistant landraces are low yielding so there is a need to cross with the high yielding one. However, so far no studies are being conducted about the basis/mechanism of resistance of these iandraces/local varieties. So there is a need to know the type of resistance/tolerance of mechanism operating and also to see whether it could be transferred to other improved, high yielding varieties. Additionally, for an effective management of this pest, there is a need to do bio-ecological studies including species identification, population dynamics along with the distribution in different districts, seasonal incidences and survival strategy' of this insect. These studies simenluotansily with mechanisms of resistance will help in devising a strategy of IPM (Farmers Field Schools) for efficient management of this pest. ' - *;• . — ■ - , • *• -7 *: •* ± :. ; 1: CAT h _ ce all the vaneues of bariev could be tested at tius site for the resistance of this pest before release. x liii Objective • To study the basis/mechanisms of resistance of the landraces/local varieties • To study species diversity and their natural enemies • To study biology on both susceptible nnd resistant lines • Population dynamics along with survival strategies (build-up and carryover potential from one season to the other in the zone) • Finally, to see the feasibility of crossing the landraces and exotic lines with desirable characters. Literature Review In Ethiopia barley grows under rainfed condition predominandy in the highlands. It is better adapted than other cereals to poor soil fertility, frost and soil acidity. It is produced both in the main rainy season (Bona) and short rainy season (Ganna) (Hailu Gebre and loop van Leur, 1996, Chilot Yirga. et al, 1998). As it lias been reported many times, barley shoot fly (BSF) is the major insect pest on barley in Bale. This pest usually causes very great damage to the barley crop with the extent of complete loss on improved varieties that are proved to be susceptible (Hailu Gebre and Joop van Leur, 1996, SARC, 2000/2001, SARC Entomology Research Section report 1995,1996). Biology and population dynamics study was conducted in 1998 in both Ganna and Bona season at SARC. The result of one year trial showed that population density- was increasing in the early Ganna. In this season two population peaks, early May and mid May were observed indicating two generations in the seasons. The pest population was high even in early period of Bona as the pest can pass from ganna to bona due to short gap between the two seasons. The population peaks were seen in mid August and mid October (SARC, 1999/200). Several barley lines, EBCR collections and Aruso collection were evaluated for their resistance or tolerance to BSF in SARC in Entomology section for consecutive years (SARC, 2001). Accordingly the section was able to identify many tolerant landraces and passed to Breeding and Genetics division. However most of these lines are low yielding, susceptible to diseases and to lodging hence this merit will be incorporated to improved barley using appropriate breeding methods. Materials and Methods A susceptible barley variety (Holkr) will be planted in a 5m x 5m-plot size at different planting time starting from on-set of rainfall in Bona and Ganna with eight days interval in the successive planting. From each plot planted at different time, the following parameters will be collected: ** No. of adult barley shoot fly > No. eggs > No. of larvae > No. of pupae > Stand count at emergence and at maturity > No. eggs, larvae and pupae per ln r No. egg laid per female Fecundity, pre-oviposision, ovipostion. post-oviposinon periods > Adult description, longevity, sex ratio, and mortality rate r No. tillers/plant V Adult count per sweep V Grain Yield > BSF damage will be scored r Studies on physical characters of the plant like presence of hairs, tnchomes etc.. r Chemical analysis of the susceptible and resistant lines at different stages of crop growth (preferably from germinaaon to one month age) For insect biology study the BSF will be reared in the Lab and follow the cyclc A total of 60 fields of barley and wheat, at early dough to gram filling stage, will be inspected for 3SF distribution in Sinana-Dinsho. Ccca and Agarfa district in G r.na and 5c na. The samples w;il be identified wuh !C?. xliv are the most yield Limiting factor in Bale. In contrast to the areas potential for faba bean production the farmer are suffering from low yielding of the crop due the diseases and insect pest (pollen beetle). Chocolate spot (Botrytis fabae) is the major production problem of faba bean and the problem is national wide and is more serious in the lower altitudes. Rust (Uromyces fabae) and ascochayta blight (Ascochyta fabae) were also frequently occurs in the zone (SARC Crop Protection pulse report 1996- 99). Objective > To select resistant genotypes to major faba bean diseases > To identify field pea genotypes with desirable agronomic traits Literature Review Faba bean (Vida faba L.) is one of the important pulse crops cultivated in Ethiopia, out of the pulses it ranks first in terms of hectarage and production. However, it is a low grain yielded per unit of land. It is widely used for food and high in protein content. Due to its nitrogen fixing capacity it is used crop rotation with the nationally important cereal crops. Materials and Methods Landraces from DBCR, lines or segregating generation from HARC, KARC and ICARD will be evaluated at SARC on-station. The plot size will be 3.2m- (two rows of 40cm apart and 4m length). The experiment will be arrenged in an augmented design with local and standard check CS20DK. Fertilzer was applied at the rate of lOOkg/ha DAP al planting. Disease severity' will be rated in percentage. All materials showing best resistance will be promoted for further testing of the yield trial. The farmers will participate in selection of genotyps in the yield trial at PYT. The farmer selection criteria will be recorded and analysed. The plot size will be increased for subsequent program of selection according to the standard plot size for evaluation. Data to be collected Disease severity Grain yield Days to flower Days to maturity Pod per plant Seed per pod Plant height (cm) Thousand weight (gm) After the basic screening work with many germplasms in on-station (RMRI). the yield trials will be evaluated with farmers (Women) in on-farm (RMFI, and FMFT). Finally, statistical, economic, social (gender), adaptability analysis will be carried out with all the collected data. Beneficiaries Smallholders farmer and large scale farm Implementing Agency SARC and Bale Zonal Agricultural Development Office Location(s) SARC/'On-station Initiators) ICRA2001 Ethiopia team Plant Protection Division-SARC Breeding and Genetics Division-SARC Persons Responsible Plant Protection Division-SARC x lv i For crossing program 8 resistant barley lines and newly released barley variety will be planted in greenhouse with different pot with five plant. After the basic screening and crossing work with many germplasms in on-station (RMRI), the yield trials will be evaluated with farmers (Women) in on-farm (RMFI, and FMFI). Finally, statistical, economic, social (gender), adaptability analysis will be carried out with all the collected data. Beneficiaries Smallholders farmers and large scaled farmer Implementing Agency SARC. HARC, AAU, AU and BZADO(on-farm) Location(s) SARC (Greenhouse, On-Station and On-farm) and HARC, AAU and AU(Laboratory) Sinana-Dinsho, Goba, Agarfa, Gassera, Adaba, and Dodola Initiators) ICRA2001 Ethiopia Team Plant Protection Division-SARC Breeding and Genetics Division-SARC Persons Responsible Plant Protection Division-SARC Breeding and Genetics Division -SARC Within Sector Linkage National Barley improvement project Between Sector Linkage AMF. HARC, AAU, AU, ICP, BZADO and Fanners Work plan Activity l rt Year 2nd Year 3rd Year " 4 * -- 8*- 10*- (Bona (Bona (Bona 7*Years 9*Years 13Years and and and (Bona (Bona (Bona G anna) G anna) G anna) and and and Ganna) Ganna) Ganna) Preparatory Phase y Survey of population ✓ distribution in both season in the zone Sample identification ✓ Insect biology study y Study the resistance V mechanizm Crossing program / Evaluation of segregating ✓ materials On -farm yield tnals(PYT. 1 V RVT. W T ) Faba bean Background and justification Faba bean is me most important pulse crop growing in Bale highlands. Farmers produced it as cash crop and food crcp in spue cf its low yield. Arr.ong sc- zrai :'uc:crs for icw jie.u c.Vaoa 3eaa diseases xlv Within Sector Linkage Plant Protection Division and Breeding and Genetics Division of SARC Between Sector Linkage KARC, IBCR, Farmers (Women) and Bale Zonal Agricultural Development Office Work plan Activity 1“ Year 2 nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year 5th-9Uj (Bona and (Bona and (Bona and (Bona and Years Ganna) Ganna) Ganna) Ganna) (Bona and Ganna) Preparatory phase and introduce 7 materials Observation nursery 7 Preliminary screening nursery 7 Advanced screening nursery "7 ' ' On-farm yield trials ( PYT. 7 RVT.WT) Hot Pepper Background and Justification Hot pepper (Capsicum frutescens) is one of the most important vegetables and spices grown in Bale. It is cultivated under rain fed condition and irrigation. It is used for human consumption; local and export. Since it lias a good market value, the importance this crop is increasing in the district of Agarfa and Sinana-Dinsho. In some of the PAs in which it was not there before, it is considered as a cash crop and the acreage is increasing. Pepper is a potential high value crop which can replace wheat in the mid altitude area. However, the farmers are getting lower yield due to the use of local variety and bacterial leaf spot and powdery mildew (Godfrey-Sam-Aggrev and Bereke-Tsehai Tuku, 1987, Geremew Eticha, et al, 1998). Therefore, It is high time to conduct variety trial to look for high yielding material. Objective To observe the general performance of pepper germplasms and to identify those germplasm of good yield and disease resistant with desirable agronomic character for the next stage of evaluation Literature Review Pepper belongs to the genus Capsicum and of Perunian origin. Hot pepper is also one of the important vegetables grown in Ethiopia and used as food or spices. It has strong attachment with the traditional food of Ethiopia In Agarfa pepper is number one vegetable growing in the area and it account 2.1% of the total cropland (Bekele Hundie K, et al., 1999). In addition to variety trials, sowing date, sowing method, spacing, seed rate, fertilizer trial, harvest frequency and weed control trial conducted and good result were obtained in MARC and BARC. Currently there are different improvement programs of pepper going on in those centres. Materials and Methods 40 pepper lines introduced from BARC and MARC will be evaluated m a single plot with augmented design. The material will be sown on nursery and transplanted to permanent field. Data to be collected > Colour of the pod > Yield > Disease score > Pods size x lv ii After the basic selection and screening work with many germplasras in ADWTC (RMRI), the yield trials will be evaluated with farmers (Women) in on-farm (RMFI, and FMFT). Finally, statistical, economic, social (gender), adaptability analysis will be carried out with all the collected data. Beneficiaries Smallholders farmers in mid altitude/Agarfa Implementing Agency SARC. ADWTC and BZADO Location(s) ADWTC irrigation Field Initiator ICRA 2001 Ethiopia Team Horticulture Research Division -SARC Persons Responsible Horticulture Research Division -SARC Within Sector Linkage Horticulture Research Division -SARC and Crop Protection Research Division Betw een Sector Linkage BZADO. BARC and MARC Horticulture Research Division Work plan Activity 1“ Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4* Year 5th-9d‘ (Bona and (Bona and (Bona and (Bona and Years Ganna) Ganna) Ganna) Ganna) (Bona and Ganna) Preparatory phase and ~ r introduce materials Observation nursery V Preliminary screening /" nursery Advanced screening nursery ✓ On-farm vield trials ( PYT. RVT.WT) Adaptation trial NougBackground and justification Ethiopia is the center as well as origin of noug (Guizoua abyssimcaj It is one of the major oil crops with the highest share. In Ethiopia out of the total area under cultivation 195,220 ha of land is annually covered with noug and the annual production is estimated about 735,790 quintals. There are two ecotype of noug: Bungne and Abai Bungne noug is adapted to low lands and is much earlier than Abat (intermediate type). Abat noug. requiring a relatively longer period to mature, is adapted to higher altitude areas. In case of Bale Abat noug has potential as compared to the Bungne for these highlands. In addition noug is important crop in some pocket areas but the fanners are using the local varietv which is low yielding arc suscepubie to disease The demand for noug oil is higher since the oii quality is very high that is comparable to the food oil used in the developed countries Noug is produced mainly for market and little amount for home xlviii consumption. So that it can serve as alternative cash crop for farmers if they get relatively good varieties as compared to the locaJ one. Thus, to see the performance and adaptation of the released varieties of noug and to supply with the released variety the adaptation trial is organized. Maize Maize is one the five important crops grown and used for human consumption in Ethiopia. It is the first in yield per hectarege and total production and fourth in total area, surpassed by tef (Eragrosits tej) barley, and sorghum (National Maize Improvement Program Progress Report, 1985). According to the survey report of research team of SARC (1999) in Agarfa in ganna season maize is the second crop (19.4%) next to barley in terms of area coverage. The same is true for other district that is maize production coming up to the highland districts. However, the farmer is using the local verity, which is low yielding. Therefore this crop lias to get attention in the zone and research also has to make an effort in order to disseminate the existing verities so as to help for food self sufficiency. Objective > To see the adaptation of different varieties of Maize released from different research center > To select the best adaptable and preferred variety by farmers and go for on-farm verification with the fanner Materials and Methods Noug varieties released from HARC/EARO Kuyu, Fogera and Esete-l with local check will be planted in SARC on station. Plot size 5m x 5m and the spacing between rows will be 30cm.Fertilizer will be applied at the rate of 23/23kg/ha of N/P2O5. Seed rate will be 10kg /ha. Agronomic and Disease reaction data will be collected. Different maize varieties released from BARC, AUA. and ACA with the local check will be planted in SARC on station. Single plot 5x5 n r with seed rate 30kg/ha and spacing will be 75x20cm. Beneficiaries Smallholder farmers in Bale higlilands specially the third typology according to ICRA field Study Typology' Implementing Agency SARC and BZADO Location(s) SARC Initiator ICRA 2001 Ethiopia Team Persons Responsible Breeding and Genetics division of SARC Research and Extension Division of SARC Within Sector Linkage Research and Extension Research Division and Breeding and Genetics division of SARC Between Sector Linkage BZADO. HARC. AARC, BARC. KARC and AARC xlix W ork plan Activity l rt Year 2‘>d Year 3rd Year 4,b Year (Bona/* (Bona/* (Bona/* (Bona/* Ganna) Ganna) Ganna) Ganna) Introduce materials ✓ Evaluation of the materials ✓ On-farm evaluation(RMFI) / On-farm evaluation(FMFI) *Bona for Noug and Ganna for maize Total operating costs for Improving and Screening V arieties of Alternative Crops (birr)______Items 1st year 2od 3rd 4* 5-13* Total Year Year Year Years Literature review and 1500 discussion with the resource persons Collection of planting 600 materials Transport ( fuel and 8700 5000 5000 7000 40,000 vehicle maintenance) Labour cost 3000 3500 3500 4000 15,000 Per dimes during different 6000 4000 4000 6000 20.000 field activitv Stationary. Small 1500 2000 1500 3000 10000 Equipment and Chemicals Input cost 500 1500 1500 1500 8000 Land hire 2400 2400 2400 9000 Cost for 1500 2500 2000 1000 10000 extension(BZADO) Contingency (10%) 2330 2040 1990 2490 11200 Total 25.630 22.990 21,890 27,390 123,200 221,100 Proposal 3 Title: Seed Multiplication and Dissemination Scheme for Alternative Crops in the Cereal-Based Farming System of Agarfa, Goba and Sinana-Dinsho Districts Background and Justification In Ethiopia limited availability of improved seed of different crops has been a major problem for long time. Currently, due to government's attention to research on improved varieties of crops the problem is being addressed partially. Improved varieties of highland crops are recommended for several agro-ecologies. However, except maize and wheat for the other crops improved seeds are not yet expanded to wherever needed. This in turn affected the type of crops grown and the cropping system as a whole. In Ethiopia the mandate of seed multiplication and distribution is given to the public sector (Ethiopian Seed Enterprise. ESE) except hybrid maize that is produced, marketed and distributed by private sector. The ESE is not able to meet its objective of producing and distributing improved varieties of crops to fanners (Regassa et al.. 1998). This is apparent with multiplication and distribution of crop varieties of pulses, oil crops and vegetables, which are important in diversification. Because of this some NGOs and relief agencies are carrying out informal seed multiplication. Also currently in some research centres informal seed multiplication is under way although its sustainability is questionable (KARC, unpublished data). In the upper Bale specifically in Agarfa. Goba and Sinana-Dinsho districts no supply of improved seed of most crops probably except wheat is available. In this area the acthity of ESE is also relatively weak. The fact that the ESE lias no seed multiplication site may contribute to this weakness. Although from the Sinana Agricultural Research Centre (SARC) some varieties of alternative crops have been released, the varieties aid not make their way to the farmers due to absence of activity of ESE in the area and w'eak linkage between the research and the ESE and Extension system. Not only the supply, the distnbution of seed to fanners is probably more important tlian the production. A monitoring study (unpublished data) made by Kulumsa RC on informal seed multiplication and distribution revealed that marketing and distribution mechanism development were found more important than the seed production itself implying the complexity of the post harvest acti\ities. Due to poor seed distribution mechanism a substantial part of seed produced by the informal seed multiplication and dissemination scheme was sold for grain In fact the continuity of use of a variety as seed was also influenced by age of variety. The study concluded that the sustainability of seed production by smallholder fanners is dependent on efficient mechanism of seed collection and distribution. During the ICRA. 2001 field study in the upper Bale fanners told that except bread w'heat no improved seed of other crops are supplied to them. Further, fanners indicated tliat no organisation has approached them to solve the problem and they expressed their concern. Other stakeholders who liave connection with the farmers also put this issue as an important issue that should be addressed m the near future. Arsi-Bale Rural Dev elopment Project (.ABRDP) out of 11 research and development options, ranked the seed supply and distnbution problem first. Researchers and NGOs also chose this issue as one of the options that require urgent inten'ention. Therefore it is important to develop an inefficient and sustainable seed production and dissemination meclianism in the three districts of upper Bale with the involvement of relevant stakeholders. Objective To contribute to the seed supply of alternative crops 10 bread wheat that arc important in diversification by equippmg farmers with seed multiplication technique and developing sustainable seed dissemination mechanism Expected output. Activities, indicators For this section see the logical framework li Literarure Review Agricultural development depends on the availability of seed of improved varieties of crops (Adugna et aL 1991). This is achieved through efficient seed multiplication and dissemination mechanism In Ethiopia the earliest seed production scheme was realised in 1956 by Debre Zeit ARC. Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU) also carried out seed mulupiication scheme in the 1960s. The Ethiopian seed corporation (Currently Ethiopian Seed Enterprise), was designated as primary agency for implementing seed plan and developing a system for multiphing and distributing improved seed in 1979. After this several organisations were involved in the distribuuon of seed. Ministry of agriculture. Agricultural inputs marketing supply (AIMS), Agricultural marketing corporation (AMC) were few of them Then later Agricultural Input Supply Corporation (AISCO) was involved in the distribution of seed with close co operation with different level offices of MOA Recently ihe Ethiopian Seed Industry Agency (ESIA) is established to solve the problem with seed implying that the issue has national significance. Despite the above effort made by the government in Ethiopia large number of varieties of crops with their packages liave released by the national agricultural research system (EARO, 1999). However farmers did not fully benefited from these technologies. Bekele (1996) reported that in Dinsho mixed farming system area only improved seed of wheat wras available. On the other hand improved varieties of different crops have been released for wide adaptation including the upper Bale area in the altitude range of 2300-2600 (Geremew et al., 1998). This indicates that there is a wide gap between the number of varieties released and used by farmers. Farmers require having seed with optimum quality standard at the right time and at an acceptable price. The quality aspect has four components; physiological, physical, sanitary and genetic (Louwaars, 1994). Physiological aspects of seed quality refers to \igour and germination capacity. Physical quality involves the percentage of non-seed materials in a seed lot. The sanitary component of quality is related to diseases transmitted by seed. The last quality aspect genetic is a value given to a variety for cultivation and homogeneity' of variety in a given lot. In different countries different ways of seed muldphcauon and dissemination have been developed. These ail mechanisms have dynamic nature. Formal seed muluphcauon and diffusion mechanism in different countries is indicated as inefficient system. Because of tins several types of seed multiplication projects liave been implemented. Some of them were successful while some failed. In Ethiopia similar trend has been observed. Firew (2001) indicated that in Ethiopia the formal seed system addresses small number, accessible and resource rich farmers on the other hand local seed networks allow farmers to get diverse crops seed ai the nghi time with reasonable pnee In this system farmers can get seed in loan, purchase, gift and exchange. Materials and Methods Crops and Farmers Selection In each of Agarfa, Goba and Sinana Dinsho districts 12 farmers will be selected to produce varieties of different crops as per the suitability of the crop for the given area during Bona season for three consecutive years starting from 2003. The selection will be made at the beginning of each year through BZADO. Farmers have options to pick more than one crop depending on availability of seed. For vegetable crops female farmers will be selected The crops chosen are faba bean, lentils, potato, garlic and shallot. Since seed production reqiures extra care compared with gram production, literate farmers will be selected. The selected farmers will be trained on the teclmique of seed production in May. Area will depend on the crop management requirement and availability of seed for each crop. For faba bean since weeding is labour intensive one-fourth of a iia w ill be considered For lentil one-eighth ha. for linseed half a ha. for vegetables one-sixteenth of a ha will be considered lii Faba bean, linseed and lentils will be multiplied in all the PAs during the three years, the number of farmers who produce the seed of these CTops will be determined depending on the seed availability. Potato, Garlic and Shallot will be produced in PAs which have access to market and where the crops perform well. Supply o f inputs i-armers will get seed and herbicides on credit basis from the project budget to be returned after they sell their seed. They supply their own fertiliser as per crop recommendation. The DA will strictly supervise the farmers while applying fertiliser. Seed supply system Development To secure a continuous seed production and distnbution in the three districts, farmers will form seed bank which is fully controlled by themselves. To perform this farmers will be organised and they establish relationship with service giving organisation. In the mean time these farmers will be trained to specialise in seed productioa Beneficiaries Farmers are the first to benefit from this through improved income and diversification. Female farmers income will be raised since Garlic and shaollot are cultivated mainly by them when produced near homestead. Implementing Agency Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau (Sinana ARC, BZADO) will take the lead to implement the project. The BZADO through district offices and DAs will involve in selecting farmers, fields, supervision, arranging the local seed dissemination system and following up the process. SARC researchers will involve in selecting varieties of crops, involve in training, seed quality test and follow up. Also the two will seek partial fund from the government. EARO (Kulumsa ARC, Melkassa ARC and Debre Zeit ARC) will involve in seed supply of required crops. ABRDP, Hundee, SSDP and Bale Zone Co-operative Promotion department (BZCOPD) will involve in partial support of the project with fund. Location (s) The activity' will be executed in the three districts of upper Bale namely Agarfa, Goba and Sinana-Dinsho in altitude range of 2300-2600. In each year two PAs will be considered . The list of PAs to be addressed are given below: Year Agarfa Goba Sinana Dinsho 2002 Elabidu and Elani Sinja and Wocho Homma and Baressa Asano Mishirge 2003 Ambetu and Amigna Aloshee and Misraa Gommora and Sambitu 2004 Sabajaa and Qasso Dawee and Elassa Bahaa Henee and Horaa Bokaa Initiators): 2001 ICRA Ethiopia team Persons Responsible SARC: Extension, socio-economist, breeder and crop protectionist BZ.ADO: Extension head. Agronomist and Extensionist from zone and corresponding experts form each district and DAs of each PA under consideration liii Within Sector Linkages Sinana ARC and BZADO, District Agricultural Development Office (DADO) and DAs Between Sector Linkage Sinana ARC. EARO (Kuluinsa. Melkassa and Debre Zeit ARCs). ABRDP. Hundee and BZCOPD Financial Requirement and Sources of Finance/Budget Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau (SARC), ABRDP, Hundee and BZCOPD will contribute to the budget required. Total Budget 227873,1 birr Budget category Total Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Total Gov. Other Gov. Other Gov. Other Gov. Other Investment -Land preparation 5958 1800 1980 2178 5958 -Field equipment 5958 1800 1980 2178 5958 -Office equipment 2946 890 979 1077 2946 Operating and Maintenance -Labor 6620 2000 2200 2420 6620 -Perdiiu 44023 5000 8300 5500 9130 6050 10043 16550 27473 -Training cost 28466 4000 4600 4400 5060 4840 5566 13240 15226 -Field day expense 16000 5000 5500 5500 16000 -Fuel and 29790 3000 6000 3300 6600 3630 7260 9930 19860 lubricants -Stationary 3972 1200 1200 1200 3972 -Utilities 4965 1000 500 1100 550 1210 605 3310 1655 -Transport cost 2383 720 792 871 2383 -Field and laboratory consumables -herbicide 29790 3000 6000 3300 6600 3630 7260 9930 19860 -seed 33100 10000 11000 12100 33100 -seed dressing 13902 2100 2100 2310 2310 2541 2541 6951 6951 chemical liv Proposal 4 T itle: Study on the Marketing Opportunities and Consequences for the Smallholder Farmers in the Highlands of Bale Thrust Mixed farming system of highlands of Bale zone (2200-2600masl), includes sub-agro ecological zones viz., M2-7 and SH2-7 (Sinana), SH3-7 (Goba, Dinsho), SH 2-7 (Agarfa); Female farmers and male farmers in three types (with less oxen and land; middle; with more oxen and land) Category of activity Research Background and Justification In the highlands of Bale farmers produce agricultural products not only for family consumption but also for income generating. Farmers are trying their best to make the income stable through various enterprises. Income contribution is the important criterion farmers are using for their enterprise choice, in which wheat production (accounting for around 50% of the household cash inflow) is playing the most important role in the mid highlands of Bale. Continuously wheat production is facing the long-term negative effects on agricultural production, like soil fertility' reduction, weeds, pests and diseases problem, which are opportunity costs for the farmers. Fluctuation of wheat market is another risk for the farmers stable cash flow. Wheat products in Bale highlands liave less comparative advantage compared to other areas due to the higher transportation cost. It is very important for the farmers to allocate their limited resources for different enterprises to reduce market risks and do the crop rotation to reduce the opportunities cost of monocropping. Diversification is the important option for reducing the income vulnerability of the household. However, there are two obstacles that are preventing diversification. One is the difficult to find the higher profitability' varieties of alternative crops compared to wheat. The other one is the lack of market information, e.g. market demand and potential demand, market price situation and trend, on which farmers could rely for their production and marketing decision. Farmers will hesitate to start growing new crops of diversify their cropping system or livelihood system if they are uncertain about their cash flow situation and hence the risks involved due to marketing and production problems. A detailed analysis of the market for newly proposed crops (e.g. field pea, teff, new varieties of barley, malt barley, mustard, linseed, and pepper), livestock products and consequences for fanner cash flow situation is planned in order to identify risks involved. The study will have to concentratc on a few priority commodities and analyse the whole chain from production (including input requirements, credit) to the consumer and ago-processing. The study will aim of results tliat will reduce the risks for fanners to undertake new crop production enterprises. Some recommendation of the follow-up will be given in terms of market information analysis and sen,’ices, research work on the technologies of new agricultural products. There is not specific and deep study on marketing issues m Bale Zone so far. so this study w'ould contribute to the marketing research in this area. As this study will focus on both male and female farmers in tliree farmers’ groups, women's importance and different responses for the marketing will be einpliasised and their income generating activities will be recommended. Then paying attention on gender equity in this study is another important contribution to further research work. Infrastructure conditions have the effects on marketing opportunities and consequences; this study will analyse the sensitivity of marketing activities responding to infrastructure change which could be suggested to some development projects. Objective To analyse the market opportunities and consequences for both female and male farmers in tliree farmers' groups in Bale highlands Ivi W ork Plan Work Plan for each of years 2002-2004 Activity T im e Farmers' selection February-March Farmers' and DA training May Field selection May Seed and fertiliser purchase June Planting August - September Follow up September - December Field day November Harvesting and laboratory work December-January Seed dissemination Januarv-March Performance assessment workshop March Reporting March References Adugna Haile, Workneh Nigatu and Bisrat Retu. 1991 Technology transfer for wheat production in Ethiopia, pp. 277-299. In: Hailu Gebre-Mariam. Tanner, D.G. and Mengistu Hulluka, eds. Wheat research in Ethiopia: A historical perspective. Addis Ababa: IAR/CIMMYT. Bekele Hundie. 1996. Initial results of informal survey: Dinsho mixed farming system zone. Division of Agricultural Ecouomics, SARC. EARO. 1999. National Wheat Research Program Strategy' Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Firew Mekbib. 2001. Local bean (P. vulgaris L.) seed systems study in Eastern Ethiopia: Implication for establishment of sustainable seed system, pp. 127-140. Crop Science Society of Ethiopia (CSSE). Sebil Vol. 9 Proceedings of the Ninth Biannual Conference, 22-23 June 1999. A A., Ethiopia. Geremew Eticha, Tilahun Gleto and Aliye Hussen. 1998. A decade of research experience: Sinana Agricultural Research Center 1986-1997. Agricultural Research Co-ordination Service, Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau Bulletin No. 4. Louwaas, N.P. 1994. Integrated seed supply: a flexible approach, pp. 39-45. In: Hanson J., ed. Seed production by smalihoder farmers. Proceedings of the ILCA/ICARDA Research Planning Workshop held at ILCA, Addis ABABA, Ethiopia 13-15nJune 19(M. ELCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Regassa Ensermu. Wilfred Mwangi Hugo Verkuijl. Mohammed Hassena and Zewdie Alemayehu. 1998. Farmers wheat seed sources and seed management in Chiialo Awraja, Ethiopia. Mexico, D.F.: IAR and CIMMYT. Iv To enhance the research work on alternative profitaoie products and marketing information service for smallholder farmers and traders To increase the access to marketing with alternative agricultural products for the smallholder farmers in Bale highlands Expected Output, Activities and Indicators See the logical framework Literature Review There are a few studies on marketing efficiency at national level and some areas in Ethiopia. Improving transportation facilities, infrastructure, storage facilities and technologies, market demand were recommended by most of the studies. (European Food Security Network, 1999; ABRDP, 1999; Aleligne, 1994). Several profitability analyses were done in Bale Zone and other areas already (Mohammed, 2000; Regassa, 1995). Diversification was realized and practiced according to the profitability analyses of different crops or different technologies. Project participants involved in undertaking different economic activities had generated significant amount of income. Because of the economic benefits realized farmers tend to continue implementing and practising these activities by their own indicating a positive trend for the sustainability of the programme activities. (Agri-service Ethiopia, 2001) Access to information, access to credit and other services for fanners were analysed in Bale highlands. (Bekele, 2000) Profitability analysis for four major crops, barley, wheat, teff and linseed, in Agarfa and Adaba woreda of Bale highland was on going in SARC in 2001. (SARC, 2001) Profitability analysis for wheat, barley, emmer wheat, field pea, faba bean, linseed, maize and teff were done by ICRA 2001 field stud}7 in Sinana-Dinsho, Goba, Agarfa Woredas of Bale highlands. Result shows that wheat is still the most profitable crop in terms of its return to labour and gross monetary return But field pea and teff showed the highest potential in terms of their highest benefit-cost ratio. It is important to explore the potential market demand for those alternative crops to provide farmer enough information to have more rational crop choice. It is also essential to do research work on more profitable varieties for alternative crops. Materials and Methods This research will include three types of actions. The first one is data collection. The second one is data analysis. The third one is to test the preliminary marketing information system by collaboration of relevant stakeholders. Data collection for the analysis of marketing opportunities will include secondary data collection and marketing survey. MOA, PEDO, CSA, Co-operative Promotion, DPPC and some international organizations will be involved. Marketing survey will be implemented in Robe, Goba and 2 markets in lowland in Bale Zone, where the supply, demand and price change will be investigated from farmers, traders, retailers, wholesalers, transporters, processors and consumers. Marketing services will be included in the survey content. Survey of marketing consequences on the farmers’ production and marketing decision -will have the conditioned sampling. 120 farmers (80 male farmers and 40 male farmers) will be selected from 9 PAs in 3 woredas from three farmers’ group (poor, middle, and rich according to the typology' ICRA team made in 2001). Checklist will be prepared in advance. Marketing analysis and cost-benefit analysis will be the main methods. Relevant elasticity coefficient will be included in the marketing analysis. Total budgeting is considered for analysis of financial profitability, because the relevant analysis of advantage will be included in various costs and returns. Preliminary' marketing information system to be established will be tested by collaboration of SARC, BZPEDO, BZADO, and BZCPD. Discussion in workshops will be important for this action, including proposed implementing agencies and methods. Iv ii Beneficiaries Both male and female farmers in the highland of Bale Traders in Bale markets Researchers, NGOs and Government Organizations who are providing senices for farmers Implementing Agency Responsible institution: Sinana Agricultural Research Centre (SARC) Collaboration agencies: Bale Zone Planning and Economic Development Office (BZPEDO) Bale Zone Agricultural Development Office (BZADO) Bale Zone Co-operative Promotion (BZCP) Location(s) Highlands in Bale Zone, especially Sinana-Dinsho. Goba. Agarfa Woredas, Southeast Oromia, Ethiopia Initiator ICRA (International Center for development-oriented Research in Agricultural) 2001 Ethiopia Team and Socio-economic Division of SARC Persons Responsible Mengistu Ketema, Assafa, SARC Within Sector Linkage Socio-economic Division of SARC, BZPEDO, BZ.ADO, and BZCPD Between Sector Linkage KARC, HUNDEE, ABRDP, DPPC, CSA, BADE Financial Requirement and Sources of Finance EARO, ABRDP (?), BZPEDO (human resources9). BZADO (human resources?), BZCPD (human resources?) (birr) ______Budget Category Year 1 Year 2 Total Human resources Secondary Data collection (Addis) 820 820 Survev 3480* 7308** 10788 Technical supporting**** 560 560 1120 Vehicle Fuel and maintenance 5040 4410 9450 Per diem for driver 570 590 1160 Transportation Data collection in Addis 700 700 Office supplies Stationary*** 1000 1000 2000 Fax for data collection 100 100 Workshop 500 500 Total 12770 13868 26638 * 5 persons, 3 days. 4 markets **3 woredas, 7 days for each, 6 persons *** Cartridge for printer, floppy, paper, pen and etc **** Expert from KARC lviii Human resources supporting Year 2002 Items SARC BZPEDO BZADO BZCPD KARC Total Secondary Data 2 persons 30 1 person 10 1 person 10 1 person 10 100 person collection davs davs davs davs davs Field survey 2 persons 12 1 person 12 1 person 12 1 person 12 60 person davs davs days days davs Data analysis 2 persons 1 person 10 1 person 10 1 person 10 1 person 288 person 120 davs davs days days 8 days davs Workshop 2 persons 2 2 persons 2 2 persons 2 2 persons 2 10 person davs days davs days days Year 2003 Items SARC BZPEDO BZADO BZCPD KARC Total Field survey 2 persons 31 1 person 21 1 person 21 1 person 21 125 person days days davs days days Data analysis 2 persons 1 person 10 1 person 10 1 person 10 1 person 288 person 120 davs days davs days 8 davs davs Work plan Duration: two years • Preparation and collect marketing data (Jan-March, 2002) • Marketing survey (April-June, 2002) • Marketing analysis (July-Sept, 2002) • Preliminary MIS (Oct-Dec, 2002) • Preparation and farmers' interview (Jan-May, 2003) • Profitability and comparative advantage analysis (June-Aug, 2003) • Analysis of Marketing services, including recommended research work for small holder farmers (Sept- Nov,*2003) • Finalise the report (Dec. 2003) Reference Mohammed Hassena, Regassa Ensermu. W.Mwangi, and H. Verkuijl. 2000. A Comparative Assessment of Combine Harvesting Vis-a-vis Conventional Harvesting and Threshing in Arsi Region, Ethiopia CEMMYT and EAJRO. Regassa Ensermu and Asmare Yalew. 1995. Factors influencing crop enterprise choice by smallholders: a case study of Bahr dar and Yilmana Densa areas. Working Paper No. 14. Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Abeba. European Food Security Network, 1999, An analysis of Grain Market Integration in Ethiopia. Aleligne Kefyalew. 1994. Grain marketing in the central Rift Valley. Research Report No. 26. Institute of Agricultural Research. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Agri-service Ethiopia, Bale regional programme office. 2001. Terminal Report of 1997-2000 Bale Integrated Rural Development Programme. Bekele Hundie Korn, H. Verkuijl, W. Mwangi, and D. Tanner. 2000. Adoption of Improved Wheat technologies in Adaba and Dodola Woredas of the Bale Highlands, Ethiopia. CIMMYT and EARO. ABRDP. 1999. Brief description of the project. Project Co-operation Office. Aselia S.ARC. 2001. Profitability study on Some Major Crops in Selected Woredas of Bale Highlands (Forthcoming) lix Annexe XXVUI List of Documents consulted Abashama Lencho (comp.)(2000). Pulse pathology and barley virology' 1996-1999. Sinana Agricultural Research Centre. Crop Protection Division. Sinana, August 2000. Abashama Lencho. (2000). Research programs 2000. Sinana Agricultural Research Centre, March, 2000, Sinana. Aberra Deressa and Beyene Seboka (eds.) 1997. Research Achievements And Technology Transfer Attempts in South-eastern Ethiopia. Proceedings of the Second Technology Generation, Transfer and Gap Analysis Workshop. 9-11 July 1996, Nazret Ethiopia, v + 109 pp. ABRDP (1998). The Extension System in Bale Zone, Final Report Mission for the assessment of the Extension System in Arsi and Bale. Project Co-ordination Office. Rural Development Project in Arsi and Bale. Ethio-Italian Co-operation February, 1998. United Nations Office for Project Services, February', 1998. ABRDP (1999). Brief description of the project. Ethio-Italian Development Co-operation Rural Development project Arsi and Bale. Project Co-ordination Office, February 1999, Asella ABRDP (2000). Atlas of the Arsi-Bale Rural Development Project Area. Arsi and Bale Rural Development Project. Project Co-ordination Office. Ethio-Italian Development Co-operation. Aleligne Kefyalew. 1994. Grain marketing in the central Rift Valley. Research Report No. 26. Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Alemayehu Mamo and Steven Franzel (1987). Initial results of informal survey' Sinana mixed fanning syrstem zone. Working Paper no 1/87. Department of Agricultural Economics and Farming Systems Research. Sinana ARC, LAR, May, 1987. Aliye Hussen and Geremew Eticha (eds.) (2000). Oromiva Agricultural Research annual report, 1999/2000, Finfinne, Ethiopia. Allelign Zeni (1997). Cost estimation for agricultural implements. Technical Manual No. 10. Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa Ethiopia. ARTP. (1999). Research-extension-farmer linkage project implementation manual (revised draft) Volume I. EARO, Research-Extension-Farmer Linkage Department, February', 1999. ASE (2001). ASE's Development Activities in Bale for the period of 1987-2000. Agri-Service Ethiopia, 30 years in Rural Development Bale-Robe, February 2001. ASE (2001). Terminal report of 1997-2000 Bale Integrated Rural Development Programme, Agri-Service Ethiopia, Bale-Robe, January, 2001. Asfaw Telaye, Geletu Bejiga, Mohan C,. Saxena, Mahmoud B. Solh (eds.)(1994). Cool season Food Legumes of Ethiopia. Proceedings of the First National cool-season Food Legumes Review Conference, 16-20 December 1993, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia ICARD A/Institute of Agricultural Research. ICARD A: Aleppo, Syria Vii+440 pp. Asrat Lule (1997) Climate, Hydrology and water resources of Arsi and Bale Zones. 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I xv Annexe XXIX Legend of PA ID Name of PA ID Name of PA 1 Waltayi Wagarge* (Elani Asano) 28 W/Baressa* 2 Qaso Manso 29 Robe State Farm 3 Nagelle Kubsa 30 Hawsho 4 Oda Nagesso 31 Hora Boka 5 Makkonna Chaffe 36 Gofmgira 6 Haro Goda 46 Dinsho 02 7 Habentu 47 Gamba Dima 8 Soba Sobicho 48 Robe 9 Alio Giaffe 49 Dinsho 10 Elabidu Warra* 50 Waltai wacho 11 Ali 51 Asuhta 12 Amalama 52 Waltai Kubsa 13 Makala 52 Waltai Kubsa 14 Hebano Bulamo 53 Aloshe Tilo 15 Agarfa Masehegna 54 Ititu Sura 16 Waltai wayib 55 Waltai Tosha* (Sinjia) 17 Hisu 56 Adaba Grafacha 18 Asanabarera 57 Rira 19 Obora 58 Goba 20 Gamora* 59 Wajitu Sliabe 21 Basmana 60 Wacho Mishirge* 22 Shewede Gestwat 61 Ealsa Itaya 23 Basaso 62 Waltai Magida 24 Alage 63 Fiasel Angaso 25 Sanbitu Eilu* 64 Waltai Azira 26 SCabira temo Islamana 65 Shedem 27 Homa* Surveyed PAs Ixvi