02E007I Worcester Polytechnic Institute 100 Institute Rd. Box 665 Worcester, MA 01609 2 July 2002
Señora Eugenia Solano Rain Forest Aerial Tram Calle 5-7, Avenida 7 150 metros oeste del edificio INS Apartado Postal 1959-1002 San Jose, Costa Rica
Dear Sra. Solano:
Enclosed is our report entitled Developing and Managing a Tropical Forest Regeneration Project. We began work on this report on 13 March and completed it on 2 July 2002. We conducted preliminary research in Worcester, Massachusetts before our arrival in Costa Rica. We have submitted copies to Professors Peet and Addison for evaluation. We hope this report meets your expectations and we thank you for the time you and the staff of Rain Forest Aerial Tram have given us.
Sincerely,
Jake Collins [email protected]
Cathe Ross [email protected]
Kate Youmans [email protected]
Developing and Managing a Tropical Forest Regeneration Project
Jake Collins ▪ Cathe Ross ▪ Kate Youmans
Developing and Managing a Tropical Forest Regeneration Project
Sponsor: Rain Forest Aerial Tram
Report Submitted to: Professor Creighton Peet, WPI Professor W. A. Bland Addison, WPI Eugenia Solano, Rain Forest Aerial Tram Costa Rica Project Center
Submitted by:
Jacob M. Collins ______
Catherine B. Ross ______
Katherine L. Youmans ______
Submitted on: July 2, 2002
This Interactive Qualifying Project Report is submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree requirements of Worcester Polytechnic Institute. The views and opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the positions or opinions of the Rain Forest Aerial Tram or Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
This report is the product of an educational program, and is intended to serve as partial documentation for the evaluation of academic achievement. The report should not be construed as a working document by the reader.
i ABSTRACT
Dosel S.A. operates the Rain Forest Aerial Tram, and is developing a similar ecotourist site near Jacó, the Central Pacific Aerial Tram. The Company would like to restore to secondary and primary forest the guanabana fields and dense secondary growth of the new site. After archival research, interviews, field observation, and a questionnaire for tram guides, we recommend methods and tree species for developing a tropical forest regeneration project for this site. To maintain Dosel S.A.‘s standards for ecotourism, our plan also recommends community and educational programs encouraging ecological awareness.
ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Several people have been very helpful to us during the last four months. First, we would like to thank our liaison and General Manager of the Rain Forest Aerial Tram,
Eugenia Solano, for taking time out of her busy schedule to make sure our project was a success. Carla Ramirez, Zenia Le Coz, and other staff of the San José Rain Forest Aerial
Tram office were also very helpful. We would also like to thank all the guides of Rain
Forest Aerial Tram for their contributions. Thanks to our interviewees, Margherita
Bottazzi, Fernando Cortez, Luis Sánchez, Fabián Hernández, and especially Daniel
Torres, who went out of his way to make our field trips interesting and entertaining. Last but not least, we would like to thank our advisors for their painstaking efforts to help us perfect this report.
¡Muchas Gracias!
iii AUTHORSHIP
This project is a product of the joint efforts of Jake Collins (JC), Cathe Ross (CR), and Kate Youmans (KY). We list the authors with primary responsibility for the writing of each section below.
TITLE PAGE ...... CR
ABSTRACT ...... ALL
AUTHORSHIP...... JC
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... JC, CR
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... JC
LIST OF TABLES ...... JC
LIST OF FIGURES ...... JC
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... ALL
CHAPTER 1. Introduction ...... CR
CHAPTER 2. Background Information
2.1. Natural Tropical Forests ...... CR 2.2. Reasons for Reforestation ...... KY 2.3. Barriers to Tropical Forest Regeneration ...... JC 2.4. Methods of Facilitated Regeneration ...... JC 2.5. Select Animal Species on the Pacific Side ...... JC 2.6. Landscape Ecology and Environmental Aesthetics ...... KY 2.7. Ecotourism ...... CR
CHAPTER 3. Methodology
3.1. Tropical Forest Regeneration ...... JC 3.2. Ecotourism ...... CR 3.3. Involving the Community ...... KY
CHAPTER 4. Results and Analysis
4.1. Tropical Forest Regeneration ...... JC 4.2. Ecotourism and Education ...... CR 4.3. Involving the Community ...... KY
iv CHAPTER 5. Recommendations
5.1. Strategy for Ecotourism ...... CR 5.2. Tour Guides ...... CR 5.3. Educating Tourists about Environmental Issues ...... CR 5.4. Tropical Forest Regeneration ...... JC 5.5. Nursery ...... KY 5.6. Projects and Programs ...... KY 5.7. Plans for the Future ...... CR
CHAPTER 6. Conclusion ...... KY
REFERENCES ...... JC, CR
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: Sponsor Information ...... KY
APPENDIX B: Questionnaire ...... CR, KY
APPENDIX C: Interview Protocol ...... ALL
APPENDIX D: Species Catalog...... JC
v TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ...... i
ABSTRACT ...... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii
AUTHORSHIP...... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi
LIST OF TABLES ...... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ...... x
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... xi
CHAPTER 1. Introduction ...... 1
CHAPTER 2. Background and Literature Review ...... 4
2.1. Natural Tropical Forests ...... 4 2.1.1. Visitor Expectations and First Impressions ...... 4 2.1.2. Tropical Forests of Costa Rica ...... 5 2.2. Reasons for Reforestation ...... 9 2.2.1. Rapid Deforestation ...... 9 2.2.2. Problems Caused by Deforestation...... 10 2.2.3. Necessary Deforestation ...... 12 2.2.4. The Solution of Reforestation ...... 13 2.2.5. Dangers of Reforestation ...... 15 2.2.6. Why Reforest the Central Pacific Aerial Tram Site? ...... 16 2.2.7. Conclusion ...... 16 2.3. Barriers to Tropical Forest Regeneration ...... 17 2.3.1. Why Barriers? ...... 17 2.3.2. Seed Dispersal ...... 19 2.3.3. Seed Predation and Herbivory ...... 20 2.3.4. Competition with Surrounding Vegetation ...... 20 2.3.5. Microclimate ...... 21 2.3.6. Time ...... 23 2.4. Methods of Facilitated Regeneration ...... 24 2.4.1. Bird Perches ...... 24 2.4.2. Slash Piles and Logs ...... 25 2.4.3. Shrubs ...... 25 2.4.4. Remnant Trees ...... 26 2.4.5. Seedlings ...... 26 2.4.6. Staking ...... 27 2.4.7. Patch Planting ...... 28 2.4.8. Clearing of Existing Vegetation ...... 28 2.4.9. Weeding ...... 29 2.4.10. Fertilizing Soil ...... 30 2.4.11. Animal Exclusion ...... 31
vi 2.5. Select Animal Species on the Pacific Side ...... 31 2.5.1. Reptiles and Amphibians...... 31 2.5.2. Mammals...... 33 2.5.3. Birds ...... 35 2.6. Landscape Ecology and Environmental Aesthetics ...... 36 2.6.1. Landscape Ecology ...... 36 2.6.2. Environmental Aesthetics...... 38 2.6.3. Landscape Ecology’s Relation to Environmental Aesthetics ...... 41 2.7. Ecotourism ...... 42 2.7.1. Ecotourism Defined ...... 43 2.7.2. Ecotourism in Costa Rica ...... 44 2.7.3. Costa Rica’s Tourism Industry ...... 45 2.7.4. Planning Ecotourism ...... 46 2.7.5. The Aerial Tram as an Ecotourist Attraction ...... 49
CHAPTER 3. Methodology ...... 50
3.1. Tropical Forest Regeneration ...... 50 3.1.1. Implementation ...... 50 3.1.2. Management ...... 53 3.1.3. Species ...... 54 3.2. Ecotourism ...... 55 3.2.1. Learning about Ecotourism ...... 56 3.2.2. Generating Ideas for Incorporating Education ...... 56 3.3. Involving the Community ...... 58 3.3.1. Working with the Community and the Aerial Tram ...... 58 3.3.2. Creating the Nursery ...... 59 3.3.3. Involving the Community in the Regeneration Process ...... 60
CHAPTER 4. Results and Analysis ...... 61
4.1. Tropical Forest Regeneration ...... 61 4.1.1. Site Description ...... 61 4.1.2. Implementation ...... 63 4.1.3. Management ...... 67 4.1.4. Species ...... 70 4.2. Ecotourism and Education ...... 75 4.2.1. Essentials for an Ecotourist Company ...... 75 4.2.2. Encouraging Ecological Awareness in Visitors ...... 77 4.2.3. Preparing Tour Guides to Teach Visitors ...... 80 4.2.4. Educating Visitors about Tropical Forest Regeneration ...... 81 4.2.5. Involving Neighboring Communities ...... 83 4.3. Involving the Community ...... 84 4.3.1. Central Pacific Aerial Tram Working with the Jacó Community ...... 84 4.3.2. Establishing a Nursery ...... 85 4.3.3. Greenhouse ...... 91 4.3.4. Uses of the Greenhouse and Nursery ...... 93
vii CHAPTER 5. Recommendations ...... 95
5.1. Strategy for Ecotourism ...... 95 5.2. Tour Guides ...... 96 5.3. Educating Tourists about Environmental Issues ...... 98 5.4. Tropical Forest Regeneration ...... 99 5.4.1. Implementation ...... 99 5.4.2. Management ...... 100 5.4.3. Sample Regeneration Process ...... 102 5.5. Nursery ...... 104 5.6. Projects and Programs ...... 111 5.6.1. Volunteer Programs ...... 112 5.6.2. School Programs...... 115 5.6.3. Day Camp ...... 116 5.7. Plans for the Future ...... 119
CHAPTER 6. Conclusion ...... 120
REFERENCES ...... 122
APPENDICES ...... 130
APPENDIX A: Sponsor Information
APPENDIX B: Questionnaire
APPENDIX C: Interview Protocol
APPENDIX D: Species Catalog
viii LIST OF TABLES
4-1. Comparison of possible methods of tropical forest regeneration ...... 65
4-2. A comparison of management methods for tropical forest regeneration ...... 68
4-3. Comparison of fourteen tree species for reforestation of the Central Pacific Aerial Tram site ...... 71
5-1. Sample day camp schedule ...... 117
ix LIST OF FIGURES
4-1. A guanabana field at the Central Pacific Aerial Tram ...... 62
4-2. Dense secondary growth at the Central Pacific Aerial Tram ...... 62
4-3. Methods of Tropical Forest Regeneration ...... 64
4-4. Tourist Interests ...... 77
4-5. Frequency of visitors raising issues ...... 78
4-6. Frequency of tour guides raising issues ...... 79
4-7. Likelihood of guides or tourists to raise issues ...... 79
4-8. Current guide knowledge about rain forest regeneration ...... 81
4-9. Preferred learning methods ...... 82
4-10. The compost gradient process ...... 89
5-1. An example timeline for regeneration from secondary growth ...... 103
5-2. An example timeline for regeneration from guanabana fields ...... 104
5-3. Example nursery layout ...... 106
5-4. Recommended nursery dimensions ...... 108
5-5. A greenhouse at EARTH University ...... 109
5-6. Community programs for the Central Pacific Aerial Tram ...... 112
x EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Rain Forest Aerial Tram is a for-profit ecotourist attraction whose parent company, Dosel, S.A., is deeply committed to educating visitors about tropical forests and their conservation. The Company currently operates one park on a private forest reserve just north of Braulio Carillo National Park, near Guápiles, Costa Rica. This year, construction will begin on a new tram operation, the Central Pacific Aerial Tram, located just outside of Jacó and easily reached by tour groups from cruise ships in Puntarenas.
Part of this site consists of dense secondary growth and guanabana plantations, which
Dosel, S.A. would like to convert to primary and secondary forest. This project attempts to provide the most currently researched and useful information to both restore and manage a tropical forest. In order to maintain and enhance Dosel, S.A.‘s reputation as an ecotourist company we have included recommendations for a nursery to encourage community involvement and tourist education.
To develop written recommendations for implementing and managing a tropical forest regeneration project for the Central Pacific Aerial Tram, we used direct observation of sites at FUNDECOR, EARTH University, the Rain Forest Aerial Tram, and the Central Pacific Aerial Tram site. We combined our results from our direct observations with information gained through interviews with tour guides and biologists, and archival research on methods and possible tree species to introduce in a tropical forest regeneration project. We furthered our study of ecotourism through archival research, and by distributing a questionnaire to current guides employed by the Rain
Forest Aerial Tram. To research the possibilities of community involvement and the construction of a nursery to support the goal of maintaining an ecotourist site, we
xi interviewed a variety of experts, observed nurseries run by EARTH University and
FUNDECOR, and added to our already extensive archival investigations. We based our recommendations on the research described above and on our own thoughts and opinions.
Dosel, S.A. wishes to use the new Central Pacific site to play a larger role in educating tourists to be more environmentally aware. To reach this goal, we recommend involving the guides throughout the entire regeneration process for both cost efficiency and to provide guides with better information about the regeneration process to pass on to tourists. We recommend a loop trail that presents different methods of tropical forest regeneration and provides tourists with the opportunity to plant a tree and thereby become involved with the whole process.
Tropical forest regeneration is a time-consuming process, and the establishment of suitable microhabitats by restoration of secondary forest species is crucial to the survival and growth of primary forest species. Even with extensive planning, the only way to determine if a habitat is truly suitable for the growth of any species is to try.
When making our recommendations for the regeneration process, factors taken into consideration were the methods of tropical forest regeneration and feasibility of application, the materials available to the Central Pacific Aerial Tram, labor availability, and facilities needed to implement methods of regeneration.
Concerning the regeneration process itself, we recommend a denser forest and a faster transition from secondary to primary growth, including a continuation of the planting of seedlings already begun by the caretaker at the Pacific site. Patch planting, or planting close groups of seedlings, in areas of dense growth of a variety of fast, medium, and slow growing trees will aid recovery with a minimum cost of labor, materials, and
xii management. We also recommend demonstrating the use of remnant trees with the guanabana fields currently on the site and leaving the secondary growth around the area where the tram will be alone. This will provide a comparison and contrast between natural regeneration, facilitated regeneration of secondary growth, and facilitated regeneration of a mixture of primary and secondary forest.
One of the key aspects of ecotourism is to involve the local community in the creation and operation of any tourist attraction. We have come up with several ways to involve the Jacó community in the regeneration process. Each of these projects revolves around the central theme of creating a nursery including a greenhouse at the Central
Pacific Aerial Tram site. This nursery will be a basis for reforesting the property owned by Dosel, S.A., and provide the springboard to involve the community with both volunteer and school programs. These programs include involving the community with the construction and maintenance of a nursery as well as a day camp program for local schoolchildren.
A primary issue behind our project lies in the paradox of Costa Rica‘s dependence on tourism for revenue and the damage that this same tourism often causes to the natural environment. We have combined scientific information with social research to learn about the interrelationship of technology and society as related to this issue. The importance of this project lies in developing a good example of ecotourism that will educate and fascinate both visitors and local people about tropical forests and involve them in the process of tropical forest regeneration. Dosel, S.A. is an excellent company to establish this model because of its new opportunity in the Central Pacific and its commitment to responsible, environmentally friendly, and sustainable ecotourism.
xiii 1. Introduction
The United Nations has declared the year 2002 the International Year of
Ecotourism. Now more than ever, ecotourism is essential to Costa Rica—in 1994, income from the various types of tourism rose above banana and coffee exports to become the country‘s largest source of revenue. To accommodate masses of visitors, tourism companies have caused significant environmental problems, including destroying
Costa Rican tropical forest to build hotels and attractions (Nolen, 1999). This creates a paradox because conservation efforts rely heavily on the profits of Costa Rica‘s tourism industry, while the tourism industry relies on the natural resources of the country.
The Rain Forest Aerial Tram is a for-profit ecotourist attraction whose parent company, Dosel, S.A., is deeply committed to educating visitors about tropical forests and their conservation. The Company currently operates one park on a 1,200-acre private forest reserve just north of Braulio Carillo National Park, about one hour from San José on Costa Rica‘s Atlantic side. The attraction, which opened in 1994, offers a 90-minute guided tram ride through the canopy of the rain forest, as well as guided nature trails and new overnight accommodations in the rain forest preserve.
This year, construction will begin on a new tram operation, the Central Pacific
Aerial Tram, located just outside of Jacó and easily reached from Puntarenas, a popular port for cruise ships. This park will feature attractions similar to the existing park, with an additional emphasis on tropical forest regeneration. Currently, the site is comprised of abandoned farmland and primary and secondary forest. The Rain Forest Aerial Tram sponsored this Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPI) student project to develop written
1 recommendations for implementing and managing a tropical forest regeneration project for the Central Pacific Aerial Tram. This site will educate visitors about regeneration and encourage ecological awareness while involving members of the community. Our work has led to recommendations on the biological aspects of tropical forest regeneration and suggestions for maintaining the regenerated area ecologically. We also recommend methods for educating visitors about the importance of environmental awareness and tropical forest regeneration, and for ways to improve the quality of life for nearby communities by involving local residents in the Company‘s projects.
Tropical forest regeneration is essential to the Central Pacific Aerial Tram to improve the environment at the site in order to offer a quality visit to tourists. However, regeneration is also important to the field of ecotourism. Tourists (all types of visitors) who travel to the tropical forest and learn about conservation and regeneration will be more likely to act as ecotourists (environmentally sensitive tourists) in the future. The
Central Pacific Aerial Tram‘s tropical forest regeneration project will be fundamental in providing a good model for using natural resources to make a profit while causing minimal damage to the environment. It will also serve as a valuable example of how to educate tourists about important ecological issues. The effects of this project will ideally extend beyond Dosel, S.A. to improve ecotourism and ecological awareness in Costa
Rica and environmental tourist attractions in other countries.
In order to complete this project successfully, we worked closely with people involved in opening the new park. Before arriving in Costa Rica, we conducted extensive archival research on the flora and fauna of the area, as well as interviews with experts who have worked on similar projects, and we studied various methods of reforestation.
2 While in Costa Rica, we continued our archival research with new resources available.
To further our understanding of tropical forest regeneration and ecological management, we interviewed a selection of biologists. We also spoke with several tour guides to benefit from their experience with tourists and the Rain Forest Aerial Tram. These guides and other employees of the Company also shared their opinions about social- cultural issues involved in our project, such as how to educate tourists and involve the local community in Dosel, S.A.‘s operations. We used these results and our own opinions to provide recommendations for the Central Pacific Aerial Tram Regeneration project.
A primary issue behind our project is the paradox of Costa Rica‘s dependence on tourism for revenue and the damage that this same tourism often causes to the natural environment. We have combined scientific information with social research to learn about the interrelationship of technology and society as related to this issue. The importance of this project lies in developing a good example of ecotourism that will educate and fascinate visitors about tropical forests and their regeneration. Dosel, S.A. is an excellent company to establish this model because of its already-established reputation as a leader in the ecotourism industry and its new opportunity in the Central Pacific. This model is especially important not only in Costa Rica but also in the world as a whole as we celebrate this year, the International Year of Ecotourism.
3 2. Background and Literature Review
This project began with extensive background research about the different issues surrounding the topics of natural tropical forests (section 2.1), reasons to reforest (2.2), tropical forest regeneration (2.3, 2.4), species (2.5), ecological aesthetics (2.6), and ecotourism (2.7). Some sections address controversial matters and we support them with a literature review, where we present various arguments we have encountered. All of this information gave us the background information needed to complete further research and provide recommendations for the Central Pacific Aerial Tram.
2.1. Natural Tropical Forests
Although Costa Rica has experienced staggering loss of tropical forest coverage
(see section 2.2.1), about 25% of the country—more than 2.7 million acres—is protected forest area (Beletsky, 1998). Our background research begins with a broad overview of this type of ecosystem.
2.1.1. Visitor Expectations and First Impressions
Travel brochures advertising Costa Rican vacations often display bright scarlet macaws, toucans, tree frogs, and sloths. Visitors may also expect to see colorful orchids, exotic reptiles, and strange mammals. Forsyth & Miyata (1984) begin their book by explaining a first reaction to tropical forest: awe at the surrounding green vegetation, and disappointment at not immediately spotting the biodiversity that most visitors have read about. They point out, ―Most species of plants and animals are relatively rare and most animals are occupied in not attracting attention‖ (p. xii).
4 In order to see all the vivid colors and unusual animals they expect, tourists can visit an ecological museum or zoo; however, most people prefer to witness the environment in a natural setting. (See section 2.5 for more information on this topic.)
The Rain Forest Aerial Tram allows tourists to view the canopy of the forest, rich with hanging epiphytic flowers and the birds and butterflies that pollinate them. This is perhaps a compromise between a contained area where tourists can view nocturnal animals and rare flowers and birds, and a purely natural environment.
2.1.2. Tropical Forests of Costa Rica
Most primary tropical forests have at least three distinct vertical levels of vegetation. Caufield (1991) describes how many inhabitants of the forest live primarily or exclusively in just one level, and unique types of vegetation grow at specific heights.
On the forest floor, shrubs, ferns, and saplings grow. The middle level, often called the understory, is home to epiphytes or ―air plants‖ that grow on other plants but do not harm their hosts. On the top level, or canopy, trees branch out to soak up as much light as possible. Climbers and stranglers grow quickly through all levels.
Trees in the tropical forest generally grow straight up with narrow trunks and sometimes inadequate root structures to hold them in the ground. Some species do not branch extensively until they reach the canopy, when the sun provides the necessary energy for them to send out leaves and branches. The size of the tree‘s canopy that grows depends on the size of the plant, and must be large enough to obtain enough energy from the sun to support it. Grown trees utilize several methods of seed dispersal. Some drop their seeds on the forest floor, while mammals and birds consume and transport others from the area. Once the seedlings have established themselves on the forest floor, as
5 Terborgh (1992) points out, animals often eat them while they are young and tender, but those that survive will remain saplings for years until a light-gap provides them with the energy to grow.
Falling trees create these crucial light-gaps. Terborgh (1992) continues, explaining how the massive height and relatively small width of many species of tropical forest trees can cause them to tip, ripping their superficial root structures out of the ground and bringing healthy epiphytes down with them. Fallen trees have two main benefits: they allow light to reach the forest floor, causing saplings to spring up in their place, and the fallen tree and its hangers-on (that die from lack of sunlight) provide nourishment to nearby trees whose roots use the decomposing plants for nutrition. The regrowth that takes place after a tree falls in the forest is natural regeneration, and occurs rapidly because the gap provides exposed plants with a burst of energy. Terborgh (1992) expresses the concern that loggers often rationalize their taking trees out of the tropical forest by saying that trees fall naturally, but in reality, when they remove the trees before they decompose, they are robbing the forest of scarce nutrients from the organic matter.
Light is such a valuable resource in the tropical forest that plants have developed a variety of energy-efficient characteristics. For example, as Fernando Cortez explained on our tour at the Rain Forest Aerial Tram park, some species of trees only support those branches that are reaching the most sunlight. As they grow vertically, new high branches block the sunlight to the older, lower branches, and they eventually fall to the forest floor.
This allows the tree to use more of its resources for the higher branches, and the nutrients from the fallen branches (often carrying epiphytes) are recycled through the tree‘s root system.
6 The goal of every living organism is to reproduce and spread the species. Many types of vegetation use flowers to reproduce. Forsyth & Miyata (1984) explain how flowers in the tropical forest conserve energy, and for this reason, they have limited methods of spreading pollen. Flowers in temperate forests release pollen into the wind.
This type of pollination is not as effective in tropical forests because wind does not reach ideal locations. Instead, flowers compete with flashy colors and a variety of scents for pollinators, and keep the pollen trapped inside the plant. Moths, butterflies, birds, and even bats carry pollen from plant to plant, but more importantly, to another plant of the same species so they can reproduce. Flowers rely heavily on identifying features such as smell to ―advertise‖ to certain species of pollinators. Forsyth & Miyata (1984) provide an explanation as to why tropical forests are so diverse: entire species have developed over time to feed on and disperse the pollen of only one type of flower.
Epiphytes are plants that live suspended in the air on other plants but do not harm their hosts or draw sustenance from them. Forsyth & Miyata (1984) and Caufield (1991) illustrate the survival techniques of these resourceful plants. Although they cannot put roots in the ground while clinging to the tops of trees, it is the best way for some small plants to get adequate sunlight. Wind currents are much stronger in the canopy, helping with seed dispersal, and birds and bats act as pollinators. The tropical canopy is much like a desert environment to epiphytes, which must develop water conservation adaptations to survive. Often epiphytes are cacti, or orchids with specialized leaves and flowers, to absorb water and reduce evaporation.
Some epiphytes, called tank bromeliads, have evolved to trap water in their leaves in a ―tank‖ fashion, sometimes storing gallons of water at a time. Caufield (1991)
7 confirms that these can be reliable enough to support aquatic life, including salamanders and tadpoles, and are often breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Tank bromeliads also take advantage of falling organic material from the canopy level, as Daniel Torres explained to us on a tropical forest tour. By trapping and allowing leaves, branches, and animal waste to decompose in their ―tanks,‖ they obtain the nutrients non-epiphytic plants get from their root structures in the forest floor. These highly efficient plants have found ways to have access to invaluable sunlight and water as well as nutrients and favorable wind.
Plants that live well beneath the tropical forest canopy do not have the evolutionary advantages of epiphytes for sun exposure; however, light is still one of their most important resources. Terborgh (1992) describes how the amount of direct sunlight they receive depends on the shapes of the crowns of the trees in the canopy, and the openings between them. Depending on the angles that sunlight penetrates the canopy, small plants on the forest floor get some light, but they have very necessary characteristics that help them conserve energy, enabling them to live on such a small supply of sunlight. As Forsyth & Miyata (1984) explain, tropical regions such as Costa
Rica that are closer to the equator experience regular daily amounts of sunlight; they do not have significant seasonal changes in daylight hours. In addition, the sun passes almost directly overhead, allowing light to reach much more of the forest floor than it would in temperate forest.
The tropical forest supports fantastic symbiotic relationships between plants and animals. For example, a three-toed sloth can be perfectly content with hundreds of insects living on it, and as Caufield (1991) has found, green algae growing on its fur offer
8 it protection from predators. Mutually beneficial relationships can be incredibly complex, such as those between some species of trees and ants, where scientists including
Forsyth & Miyata (1984) have found ants viciously defending a tree that provides them with food and shelter in return. Parasitic relationships are also abundant in the tropics.
As Franke (1993) warns, some species of flies lay their eggs on mosquitoes. The eggs sense the body heat of mammals such as peccaries or humans when the mosquitoes are feeding, and the maggots quickly hatch and burrow into the flesh of the unsuspecting host. Countless other interactions abound in tropical forests and forestry engineers must carefully consider them when selecting the plant and animal mixture for a regenerated tropical forest.
2.2. Reasons for Reforestation
In recent years, the world has become increasingly aware of the problems surrounding deforestation, and in an effort to repair this damage to the environment, numerous organizations have started reforestation projects. Most people believe that our efforts to recreate areas that humans have damaged are positive, yet a few scholars feel that our efforts will only interfere with natural processes. In addition, deforestation is crucial to some of Costa Rica‘s main industries. Are our efforts to minimize deforestation and maximize reforestation beneficial to the environment and the country?
2.2.1. Rapid Deforestation
Deforestation is occurring at an alarmingly high rate throughout South and
Central America. Blake & Becher (2001) estimate approximately 95,000 square miles of land are deforested each year in Latin America. Further information from Beletsky
9 (1998) claims loggers and farmers cut more than 3.9 percent of Costa Rica‘s forested area each year, ranking the country fourth in the world for the rate of deforestation according to the World Resources Institute. The damage due to deforestation is a result of
―generations of wasteful and polluting agriculture‖ (Beletsky, 1998, p. 210). The two main crops in Costa Rica, as indicated by Evans (1999), are coffee and bananas—the farming of both requires clearing large amounts of land. Costa Rica has greatly reduced its rate of deforestation in recent years through strong conservation laws and one of the best national park systems in the world, explain Forsyth & Miyata (1984). However, as
Blake & Becher (2001) point out, though Costa Rica has developed laws to conserve the environment, the government lacks the funding and staff to enforce its own legislation.
Costa Rica is a pioneer in many successful reforestation programs, yet even with the country‘s extensive efforts to conserve the environment, there is still much room for improvement.
2.2.2. Problems Caused by Deforestation
Environmental crises arise simply when tourist companies or farmers destroy ecosystems through deforestation. The first potential problem is that removing trees from an area changes the role of water and nearby areas may be negatively affected. As
Forsyth & Miyata (1984) have found, deforestation causes flooding along with lengthened dry seasons. Soil and epiphytes in a tropical forest keep heavy rains from flooding an area. When deforestation occurs, root systems no longer hold soil in place, and epiphytes are not able to trap water. Removing these protective elements produces excess water, which causes the area to flood. The lack of root systems to hold soil in place intensifies erosion of the deforested area. Forsyth & Miyata (1984) continue to
10 explain how this erosion delivers sediment to nearby rivers and streams, leading to destruction of wetlands and damage to marine ecosystems. The problem of flooding can be especially disastrous during the rainy season.
Damage caused by deforestation spreads beyond water into air surrounding the ecosystem. SGS (2001), a private air quality testing company working with Costa Rica‘s
Carbon Sink program, explains that an excessive amount of carbon dioxide in the air is becoming a greater and greater problem all over the world. Trees take carbon dioxide from the air and convert this toxic gas to usable oxygen. This process is crucial in maintaining a balance between carbon dioxide and oxygen. SGS (2001) describes the problem that arises with deforestation: ―Currently, carbon is released through deforestation leading to the combustion and decomposition of woody material when primary forest is cleared‖ (p. 1). This process produces an excess of carbon dioxide.
Second, add Forsyth & Miyata (1984), many of the plants are no longer available to convert carbon dioxide to usable oxygen.
Humans are producing more and more carbon dioxide without supporting the process by which plants convert it to usable oxygen. Margherita Bottazzi shared her concern in our interview that the rate of deforestation is much faster than the rate of reforestation in Costa Rica, leaving an even larger amount of carbon dioxide unreplaced by oxygen. Many other problem are caused by deforestation, such as the destroying of wildlife habitats and scenic value of the land, river silting, disruption of fisheries, abnormal flood/drought cycles, heavy soil compaction caused by cattle, as listed by
Evans (1999).
11 2.2.3. Necessary Deforestation
With all the problems caused by deforestation, one might wonder why it is so widespread. Deforestation is unfortunately a large part of Costa Rica‘s economy, according to Blake & Becher (2001). Farmers of Costa Rica play a large role in the process. At one time, forest covered most of Costa Rica, but in order to make a profit from the land, farmers cut and sold the timber or cleared the land to convert it to pasture or crop fields. ―As late as 1950, 90 percent of the country remained in forest cover, but by 1990 the figure had dropped to only 25 percent‖ (Evans, 1999, p. 39). Banana and coffee plantations are Costa Rica‘s second largest source of income and require cleared land in order to plant the crops. Between 1966 and 1990, deforestation for banana crops averaged 153,000 acres, 11 percent of Costa Rica‘s annual deforestation states Evans
(1999). The cattle industry is another reason for massive deforestation in Costa Rica. As explained by Evans (1999), by the 1980‘s, cattle ranchers had converted over 6,500 square miles, one third of the country, to pasture. Blake & Becher (2001) attribute part of the problem to the 1960‘s and 1970‘s when clearing land was encouraged by the United
States who provided millions of dollars in loans, to stimulate cheap beef production for fast food chains such as McDonald‘s and Burger King. Farmers and cattle ranchers have found that they can earn more money, more immediately, by clearing the land and farming it.
Forsyth & Miyata (1984) explain that in addition to farming and cattle raising, the forestry industry contributes to a large part of Costa Rica deforestation. Evans (1999) adds that the forestry industry causes larger amounts of deforestation by creating roads that provide access to previously untouched forest. Forestry pulls unique and rare
12 hardwoods from the tropical forest, which are very valuable in U.S. markets. One reason that deforestation is so popular, Fabián Hernández of FUNDECOR, an organization created to encourage framers to reforest their land, explained in our interview, is that the crops grown on clear land provide farmers with fast income. These crops are an essential part of Costa Rica‘s economy. The government of Costa Rica and several other Latin
American counties are working to find a compromise that will maintain and recreate natural habitats, while still providing income for local people.
2.2.4. The Solution of Reforestation
There are many problems with deforestation, and Costa Rica is on the forefront of counties that have established agencies such as FUNDECOR to teach the local community how to make a profit from their land without deforesting (Blake & Becher,
2001). One of the most prominent and beneficial ways of doing this is to teach farmers how to reforest their land and then use it to produce a marketable product such as crafts or fruits. Reforestation is a process with many benefits. First, we look at the biological reasons for reforesting. It is important to protect these exotic tropical forests and to help regenerate them for many reasons. Forsyth & Miyata (1984) describe the importance of tropical forest to medical advances. For example, more than 70% of anticarcinogens have their origins in the tropical forest. Scientists study these plants searching for cures for a variety of cancers. The National Cancer Institute of the United States believes that loss of tropical forest has serious negative ramifications on research for medications
(Forsyth & Miyata, 1984).
Along with holding the key to many undiscovered remedies, tropical forests may also be home to many unidentified species. ―If the tropical forest is cut down, we will
13 never know what we have lost‖ (Beletsky, 1998, p. 15). Especially in Costa Rica, the tropical forest teems with biodiversity. Studying this biodiverse habitat will allow geneticists to gain more knowledge about the functions of plants and animals, and will allow them to come up with different ways to grow crops, claim Forsyth & Miyata
(1984). Current research on tropical forests just barely scratches the surface of what these biodiverse habitats might be able to teach us. In order to continue this research, we must conserve the biodiversity of tropical forests, which we can only accomplish by reducing deforestation and increasing reforestation.
Biological diversity is not the only reason for reforestation. Increasingly, tropical forests have become a source of income for people who previously thought there was no alternative to deforesting them. Nolen (1999) states that tourism surpassed coffee and banana production in 1994 to become the largest generator of income for Costa Rica.
More and more people are learning to use natural resources for income without deforestation, which is greatly encouraged and supported by numerous organizations dedicated to reforesting Costa Rica, including Minesterio Ambiental Energia (MINAE),
The Organization for Tropical Studies (OTS), FUNDECOR, and many others. These organizations teach people how to reforest areas and profit from natural tropical forest.
Most of this profit comes from ecotourism. He continued that Costa Rica spends part of its tax income on encouraging landowners to conserve their land rather than deforest it.
One new development in earning money through reforestation is the idea of
―carbon sinks.‖ Press releases from the private air quality testing company, SGS, provided us with the following information on carbon sinks and their role in Costa Rica.
New emission standards in the United States require companies to reduce their carbon
14 dioxide waste. Many companies, in order to meet these standards without really changing any of their production processes, will purchase land in countries such as Costa
Rica where they know forest will reduce the output of carbon dioxide. Reforestation is especially important in these projects because trees that are in the growing process use more carbon dioxide than mature trees (Janzen, 1986). Therefore, sites where reforestation is occurring are more valuable to these large companies. Many companies feel that Costa Rica is one of the best places to start these projects because of its stable government dedicated to preserving the environment. They often test reforestation programs in Costa Rica, and if they work well they try them again in other countries that have problems with deforestation.
2.2.5. Dangers of Reforestation
There are, however, disadvantages and dangers associated with reforestation.
Blake & Becher (2001) believe the largest concern is that reforestation does not necessarily produce a stable economy. Costa Rica cannot always depend on profit from reforestation that comes from ecotourism, especially during the rainy season. Beletsky
(1998) does not believe that ecotourism is the ―miracle cure‖ to the problems of deforestation. The fact is the tourism industry often attracts foreigners to run large hotel or restaurant chains. Beletsky (1998) explains that the problem is the majority of the money earned from these projects often goes to a foreign country instead of the local community. Therefore, reforestation projects, in order to encourage tourism, do not do much to benefit the local community. In addition, there may be companies who wish to be ecologically friendly and reforest an area, but who do not follow ecologically friendly processes. For example, many reforestation projects have worked with non-native
15 species, which can be harmful to an area. Nevertheless, the benefits of reforestation greatly outweigh the downfalls, claim most experts.
2.2.6. Why Reforest the Central Pacific Aerial Tram Site?
What are the reasons for reforesting the Central Pacific Aerial Tram Site? Dosel,
S.A. will most likely not benefit from carbon sink programs, but they will benefit from the ecotourism industry. Luis Sánchez, former manager of social programs for the Rain
Forest Aerial Tram, told us in an interview that because Dosel, S.A. is an ecotourist company, it has an excellent opportunity to introduce tourists to the concept of reforestation and encourage them to support this crucial process. Specifically the area around the new Central Pacific Aerial Tram is important to reforest, explained
Margherita Bottazzi in another interview, because it is a rare type of forest, which maintains an unusual balance of flora and fauna. The transitional forest of the Central
Pacific is a combination of tropical and dry tropical forest.
As Sánchez pointed out, adversity from the community may cause problems with a reforestation project. Reforestation is natural, so when a large company comes in to quicken the succession of this process, some of the local community may be upset about the interference. This may cause animosity toward the project from some members of the community. Keeping this in mind, we must consider the overall benefits of reforesting the site and work with those in the community to try to avoid such conflicts.
2.2.7. Conclusion
Reforestation is an advantageous process and can be helpful to the community, but as the project begins, opposition may arise from those not wanting the interference
16 with nature. The ideal way to solve the problem of deforestation is to stop the process immediately, which is impossible, unfortunately, because so many people in Costa Rica make their living on deforested land. In order to support the growing population of Costa
Rica more land may need to be deforested. The second option for overcoming the problem is to reforest. Reforestation has many biological and social benefits, but if not done properly, can be dangerous to ecosystems. Companies may claim ecotourism but not actually be friendly to the environment. Furthermore, a reforestation project takes a large investment of time and money. If we can introduce a program for reforestation at the Central Pacific Aerial Tram, we know that Dosel, S.A. will complete it in an eco- friendly manner based on its reputation for ecological sensitivity. Nevertheless, the
Company might encounter opposition from the community in creating a reforestation program. Dosel, S.A. will be greatly benefiting Costa Rica by reforesting an increasingly rare type of forest and working to encourage reforestation through educating visitors and involving the local community.
2.3. Barriers to Tropical Forest Regeneration
2.3.1. Why Barriers?
If Dosel, S.A. decides to regenerate a tropical forest community based on the surrounding plant and animal species, it must consider several factors. ―The community you are trying to restore generally won‘t function until you have supplied all of the necessary elements, including those that nature normally provides but that you may forget about or actually be unaware of‖ (Diamond, 1987, p. 330). From this perspective,
17 it is a good idea to look at the problems of other regeneration projects as well as successful methodologies.
Tropical forest regeneration projects, or projects designed to re-grow a tropical forest ecosystem based on the natural surroundings, have only been scientifically studied recently. Because tropical forest regeneration can take anywhere from twenty to sixty years (Zimmerman et al., 2000), this application of ecological theory has only begun to generate results and must therefore be considered preliminary. Both Dr. Karen Holl of the University of California, Santa Cruz, who has worked on tropical forest regeneration projects in Costa Rica, and Doctors Zimmerman and Aide, who have worked on regeneration projects in Puerto Rico, have begun to generate preliminary results for tropical rain forests (see Bibliography for references). It is studies, such as these, of the systems of tropical forest regeneration that consider both plant and animal species as opposed to simpler studies of reforestation, or the growth of a single type of tree, that this review summarizes.
Our project does not seek to provide all the answers, but instead attempts to provide the most currently researched and useful information ―in order to restore – and manage – a [tropical forest] community‖, as Doctor Diamond so eloquently puts it (1987, p. 335). ―Communities and ecosystems, like individual organisms, have considerable powers of self-repair, so that it may well be possible to restore a community without really understanding some critical things about it‖ (Werner, 1987, p. 321). Many factors will determine the success of any regeneration project, but only those that have presented problems at other sites are discussed here.
18 2.3.2. Seed Dispersal
Seed dispersal has been identified as a major limiting factor in tropical forest regeneration of abandoned pasture and farmland (Cubiña et al., 2001; Zimmerman et al.,
2000; Holl, 1999). Wind and animal dispersion have been identified as the most common methods of seed dispersal in open landscapes. However, neither method is effective at a distance beyond about 5 to 10 meters from the forest edge (Cubiña et al., 2001; Holl,
1999; Aide et al., 1994). Although wind dispersion is inhibited by the large size of seeds, animal dispersal has been easier to facilitate with the addition of remnant trees, artificial perches, and the addition of shrubs that mature and produce fruit to attract birds (Cubiña et al., 2001; Zimmerman et al., 2000; Holl, 1999).
The recovery of the southeastern Nicaraguan rain forest after Hurricane Joan should be noted as a distinct case of successful tropical forest regeneration in the absence of typical seed dispersion. Yih et al. (1991) noted within six months of destruction, the direct regeneration of new primary tropical forest from the remnants of the old. The researchers attributed this in part to the equally massive destruction of the bird and bat populations, both of which are known to aid seed dispersal of secondary species.
Regeneration of a primary forest in this case was, therefore, helped by the lack of seed dispersal. However, also of note is the observation by Holl (2002) that areas, such as those with shrubs that attract birds, have a higher rate of seed predation. Therefore, the lack of birds and bats may have helped in the regeneration of this primary forest by both reducing the predation of seeds of primary forest species and decreasing the spread of secondary species that would normally have their seeds dispersed by these animals.
19 2.3.3. Seed Predation and Herbivory
Even before they begin to germinate, many seeds are consumed by birds and small animals in a process referred to as seed predation. Efforts made with shrubs to facilitate seed germination have met with mixed results due to increased seed predation
(Holl, 2002). Generally, seed predation is lower in open fields of grasses where animals such as birds and small mammals are less likely due to the lack of perches, cover, and the lack of seeds to consume (Aide et al., 1994).
After seeds germinate and become seedlings, they become targets of various herbivores. During the first five years, seedling mortality has been measured to be as high as 97% during non-facilitated regeneration in small forest gaps (Clark et al., 1987).
Under natural conditions, time eventually allows for one tree to fill the small gaps created by a single tree falling. However, with larger gaps, such as open fields left when a cattle pasture is abandoned, this high probability of seed and seedling predation, combined with lowered seed dispersal, proves to be problematic. As previously mentioned, seeds under shrubs are more likely to be found by small predators and therefore are safer in grassy fields. However, seedlings are safer in this area under shrubs where they are protected from herbivores by the surrounding plant, whereas a grassy field they are more exposed and more likely to be consumed.
2.3.4. Competition with Surrounding Vegetation
Competition for resources from surrounding vegetation before, during, and after germination as well as during later stages of growth has been identified as a problem in several studies (Holl, 2002; Loik et al., 2001; Zimmerman et al., 2000; Holl, 1999; De
20 Steven, 1991a; De Steven, 1991b). In particular, aggressive grasses have been found to compete with seed germination and growth (Holl, 2002). Not all grasses are this aggressive, and Aide et al. (1994) observed that the grasses at his site did not compete or inhibit germination, but aided the growth of seedlings. Yet grasses are not the only vegetation that may compete with early seedling establishment and growth. Rapidly colonizing ferns also can pose competitive problems (Holl, in press, 2002; Aide et al.,
1995). Even shrubs which have been found to aid seedling establishment have been found to compete with the seedling for resources after about 1.5 years (Loik et al., 2001;
Holl, 1998).
2.3.5. Microclimate
The term microclimate is used to describe the conditions that directly interact with an individual within an ecosystem. Microclimatic conditions include the surrounding air temperature and humidity, soil composition (both organic and mineral) and temperature, water availability, as well as light levels (Holl, in press, 2002; Holl, 1999; Loik et al.,
1999; Aide et al., 1994).
The effect of available water may or may not be important to a specific site.
Depending on the length of the dry season as well as the sensitivity of the plants to reduced moisture, water may or may not be an issue. In the event a long dry season of greater than six months is standard, a site developer would need to pick species accordingly (Holl, 1999). Secondary species suitable to colonizing a field or pasture with such harsh conditions can be found along the border of the field and forest.
Depending on the site conditions, one of the greatest limiting factors to a tropical forest regeneration project can be soil conditions. Aside from poor nutrient levels, the
21 top 5 cm of soil previously used for farmland or pasture have been found to be more compact than forest soil (Holl, 1999). Reduced water retention may be an issue in highly compacted soil. Regeneration of secondary forest or conditioning of the soil by artificial means may be required before primary forest can be successfully planted. Forests also tend to have a layer of organic material from dead leaves, plants, etc., over the top layer of soil that is lacking in old pastures and farmland.
This result is corroborated by Ewel et al. (1991). ―Two factors, organic material and roots, play key roles in nutrient retention. Both of these can be manipulated by changing vegetation composition and turnover‖ (p. 300). Secondary growth or pioneer species are not necessarily dependent on ideal soil conditions and hence prepare the land for the primary growth to follow. However, since the basic problem is known, other possible solutions may be to either provide chemical fertilizer or to transplant organic material on to the site.
Another problem found on particularly degraded soil is the lack of symbiotic fungi called mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizae associate with the roots of many plant species increasing uptake of mineral ions and ―improving water relations‖ (Miller, 1987, p. 210;
Kricher, 1989). The lack of these fungi have been found to interfere with successional stages of vegetative growth, particularly the transition from pioneering species that do not need to associate with the fungi to pioneering and secondary species that do (Miller,
1987). The absence of mycorrhyzae has also been associated with a negative effect on growth of tree seedlings (Aide et al., 1994).
Soil and water are not the only environmental variables that need to be considered. Fire is often used in slash-and-burn methods of agriculture to increase soil
22 fertility and return nutrients to the soil, yet the results have been found to be transitory.
Long term effects include a loss of soil fertility and organic matter, which in turn can have negative consequences on microorganisms, earthworms, termites, ants, and mycorrhizae, all of which contribute to the maintenance of soil fertility and plant-soil interactions (Aide et al., 1994).
The effect of light on photosynthesis and plant growth has yet to be fully researched. However, general trends have been observed and measured. The primary observation is that although different species prefer differing light intensities, planting in the shade of remnant trees has had a beneficial effect in the cases studied (Loik et al.,
1999). As in the natural process of gap filling, the small seedlings only receive a reduced amount of light compared to open fields, which is beneficial to photosynthesis. When seedling size increases, this reduced amount of light, possibly combined with competition from the existing vegetation, reduces the growth rate (Loik et al., 2001). This pattern corresponds with the natural process of tree succession in which seedlings do not mature and growth rate is reduced until a forest gap is formed allowing an increased light level to pass through the canopy (Kricher, 1989).
2.3.6. Time
Hurricane Joan destroyed in less than a week what nature had taken centuries to establish, yet in less than six months direct regeneration of primary forest with little or no change in species ratios was observed (Yih et al., 1991). Unfortunately, the regeneration of tropical forest on abandoned pasture and farmland is not as simple. In natural secondary forest regeneration, a ‗short time‘ for the biomass of a new tropical forest to become similar to that of natural tropical forest is thirty years (Zimmerman et al., 2000).
23 Particularly with secondary species and the high density of ferns that develop, the first ten years are slow. Even with facilitated regeneration methods and proper management, time will still be one of the most substantial limitations to tropical forest regeneration.
2.4. Methods of Facilitated Regeneration
Current methods of forest regeneration are still debated by researchers, but two conclusions have been reached. First, the establishment of suitable microhabitats by restoration of secondary species is crucial to the survival and growth of primary species.
Second, even with extensive planning, the only way to determine if a habitat is truly suitable for the growth of any species is to try. It is important to understand that each species is highly variable, making it difficult to predict what will thrive. However, clues can be taken from the surrounding forest.
2.4.1. Bird Perches
The importance of birds and artificial structures that attract birds have been known since the early eighties (Guevara et al., 1986). These structures draw birds to a particular place within an open field, dispersing seeds that are either attached to the body of the animal or deposited by defecation or regurgitation. Although these structures do increase seed rain compared to the natural seed rain in an open field, artificial perches of this sort are not as effective as other methods (Holl, 2002; Aide et al., 1994).
The perches themselves usually consist of a ―T‖ shape at the top as the perch and can often be baited with different fruits to attract either specific or nonspecific species.
The use of these perches is most common when remnant trees are not available (Aide et
24 al., 1994). This technique should also be combined with clearing of herbaceous ground cover and competitive grasses for effectiveness (Holl, in press, 2002).
2.4.2. Slash Piles and Logs
A more effective technique for drawing bird and animal seed dispersers to establish secondary growth is to create piles of branches and logs, commonly referred to as ―slash piles‖ from their production in slash and burn agriculture. (Holl, 2002). Similar to bird perches, these piles in the middle of a field can provide the same functions as remnant trees when there are none available (see below). These slash piles may also improve soil nutrients by increasing organic phosphorous as they decompose, making the soil more fertile for new vegetation establishment (Fernandes et. al., 1995).
2.4.3. Shrubs
Shrubs, as previously mentioned, have been used for facilitating growth of other woody species. While establishing their own root systems and contributing to the overall biomass of the area, shrubs also facilitate early seed growth by protecting seedlings and reducing direct light (Holl, in press, 2002). The use of shrubs is most effective in the establishment of secondary growth by providing foci for animals, particularly birds that disperse the seeds of secondary species (Holl, in press, 2002; Aide et al. 1995). Shrubs also shade out pasture grasses and aggressive vegetation that compete with seedlings
(Holl, 1998; Loik et. al., 2001). However, differences in seed rain and the increased competition with shrubs for both light and nutrients as the tree grows older have been used to argue against this technique (Loik et al., 2001; Holl, 1998).
25 Increased seed predation has been observed underneath shrubs. However, due to the increased seed rain in the area of a shrub, the likelihood of establishment and survival of tree species was ten times greater in shrubs than in grasses (Holl, in press, 2002).
2.4.4. Remnant Trees
Remnant trees draw both birds and bats, both of which have been previously mentioned as important seed dispersers. These trees ―provide facilities (protection, rest, food) for animals crossing a clearing while moving from one forest stand to another‖
(Guevara et al., 1986, p. 77). Remnant trees can also provide increased species diversity within a secondary succession forest, particularly if the tree is fruit bearing and attractive to a wide variety of birds and bats (Guevara et al., 1986; Fernandes et al., 1995). In the case that seed dispersal is desired, this can be an important technique for increasing the likelihood of establishing secondary growth (Zimmerman et al., 2000).
Remnant trees have also been mentioned as facilitating microclimatic conditions such as photosynthetic efficiency and soil conditions. Certain tree species planted in the shade of a remnant tree have shown increased growth, versus trees planted in an open field, due to decreased light intensity (Loik et al., 1999). Decomposition of tree litter also raises the soil nutrients to a level comparable to many tropical rain forests and increases the availability of water (Loik et al., 1999; Fernandes et al., 1995).
2.4.5. Seedlings
Up to this point, the methods of facilitating tropical forest regeneration presented here have focused on attracting animal species in order to increase seed dispersal and establish secondary species. However, it is also possible to plant seedlings directly and
26 eliminate the need for an artificial dispersal method. Seedlings planted will themselves act as remnant trees and provide foci for animals, increasing the number of secondary species around them. Above all, these seedlings will eventually define the character of the canopy and the species within it (Holl, in press, 2002).
As stated previously, it is difficult to predict what tree species will survive.
However, clues can be taken from the surrounding forest. These species of trees both thrive in the surrounding conditions and support the surrounding plants and wildlife, desirable for regenerating an ecosystem. Using native trees also prevents any problems that may result from introduction of non-native species including competition and possible adverse affects on other flora and fauna.
Regeneration projects tend to take a variety of six to twelve species that are fast growing and drought resistant (Holl, in press, 2002; see Bibliography for specific projects) for both study and production. Although direct seeding may be possible, seed predation poses a problem due to the large seed size of primary species, the few numbers of seeds produced, and the logistics of collecting enough seeds. Instead, seeds can be raised in nurseries and planted directly as seedlings.
Two main problems exist with this method. First, the collection of the seeds themselves can be difficult, since seed production is not necessarily year round or even yearly, and tropical seeds cannot usually be stored. Some tropical seeds need to be collected from the trees. Second, the exact requirements for raising trees native to a site are not always known.
Seedlings that have been planted also face the risk of competition with grasses and herbivory. Weeding can be an effective method to deal with the first problem (see
27 below), however the plant eating species, particularly leaf cutter ants, are more difficult to control.
2.4.6. Staking
Used as ―living fence posts‖ by many Costa Ricans for generations, stakes are tree branches or trunks that are planted into the ground and often resprout roots and grow into normal trees (Holl, in press, 2002; Aide et al., 1995). According to a review by Holl (in press, 2002, p. 548) preliminary work has shown that sapling trunks, but not branches, resprout when cut and planted, though this also depends on the species of tree used.
Although this techniques minimize the expenses in raising saplings from seeds including the seed collection and nursery maintenance, the impact on the surrounding forest where the seedlings are harvested should be considered.
2.4.7. Patch Planting
The process of nucleation is when ―small patches of trees and shrubs rapidly spread in abandoned pastures‖ (Holl, in press 2002). By planting small patches of trees at a time, a large area can be efficiently regenerated by both contributing to the diversity of the area as well as providing for animal movement. Each patch of trees within the field acts as a group of remnant trees, encouraging secondary growth within the immediate vicinity. With the added animal movement between patches, secondary species spread in this method can efficiently be distributed throughout the entire pasture.
2.4.8. Clearing of Existing Vegetation
Competition from surrounding vegetation, particularly aggressive grasses in old pasture can reduce the effectiveness of bird perches, remnant trees, and even patch
28 planting. These methods depend on suitable germination conditions in the soil for pioneering and secondary species to colonize. Clearing of this vegetation often improves seed germination and seedling survival (Zimmerman et al., 2000; De Steven, 1991a; De
Steven, 1991b) though not always (Holl, 2002; Zimmerman et al., 2000; Holl, 1999; Aide et al., 1994; Aide et al., 1995).
Already, two methods presented dealt with the problem of aggressive grass species that out-compete by shading out these grasses. Both shrubs and slash piles (see above) effectively clear an area for the establishment of woody species underneath the target sites. Other methods include repeated chemical treatments, the timed introduction of a small number of grazing animals, as well as burning of existing vegetation.
Chemical treatments are costly and the environmental impact is not completely known.
Grazing animals are less risky, but their introduction must be timed to seedling age and should be combined with the planting of less aggressive species of grass. Fire, although known to return many soil nutrients back into the soil, destroys the overall biomass and may cause more damage than good by destroying undergrowth bacteria, insects, and worms. At the same time, it leaves the area open to erosion. Some of these consequences may be dealt with by reseeding a less aggressive species of grass at the same time (Holl, in press, 2002; Fernandez et al., 1995; Aide et al., 1994).
2.4.9. Weeding
Selective removal of undergrowth, or weeding, may be an option in areas that have a lower density of aggressive vegetation. However, studies have shown mixed results. Holl (1999) found that removal of existing vegetation did not increase germination of the tree species she was studying, while Aide et al. (1995) reported the
29 increased establishment of woody species when the herbaceous (ferns and grasses) were selectively removed.
Part of the discrepancy may be from differing techniques. ―Selective‖ can be defined as either the partial or complete removal of surrounding vegetation, and even when defined as partial, there are varying degrees. De Steven (1991a) reported lower germination on weeded plots even when herbivores were excluded from the site.
However, she later found that seedlings that were established on weeded plots survived longer than on plots with competing vegetation. A similar result was earlier reported for shrubs (see above): the surrounding vegetation helped the seed to germinate and establish itself, but later hindered growth of the seedling through competition.
2.4.10. Fertilizing Soil
Fertilizing soil has previously been mentioned (see section 2.3) as an option to aiding recovery in areas with little secondary growth to condition the soil for the establishment of primary species. Chemical fertilizer should only be used when other methods, such as slash piles and shrubs, cannot be used, particularly due to increased growth of weedy species that may inhibit the establishment of other species (Holl, in press, 2002). As an alternative to chemical fertilizer, compost is also available (M.
Botazzii, personal communication, 2002) which, although still encouraging the growth of other secondary species that may inhibit seedling growth, is a less artificial substitute to provide nutrients that may be lacking in the present soil.
30 2.4.11. Animal Exclusion
Certain tree species may be more prone to browsing by herbivores. These tree species may grow slower or be killed early in the regeneration process if steps are not taken to keep herbivores from feeding on them. Similarly, when seeds are planted, high seed predation from small mammals may also be problematic, leading to reduced germination rates and less seedling establishment (see section 2.3.3). An exclosure fence surrounding either the plot or seedlings may help to reduce this damage. The fence should be just over half a meter high and consist of a wire mesh that will exclude larger rodents as well as deer.
Animal exclusion should be a management effort when high herbivory is observed in an area. Although certain tree species are more prone to herbivory, so are certain sites and rates may very depending on where seeds are dispersed or seedlings are planted (De Steven, 1991b).
2.5. Select Animal Species of the Pacific Side
In order to select appropriate tree species that will not only reforest the area, but regenerate the ecosystem, we have studied a few animals that are at the Rain Forest
Aerial Tram‘s Pacific site. Only a select few interactions are presented here such as food and particular places for living or breeding. This is not a review of the literature, but a summary from a few select sources.
2.5.1. Reptiles and Amphibians
The reptiles and amphibians presented here are all carnivorous and the dependencies on plants are not always clear. However, in many instances the food of
31 these creatures depend on plants and these animals in turn provide food or lower the populations of other animals. The Ameiva or Macroteiid lizards for instance feed on insects, their larvae, and pupae while at the same time this species of reptile is prey for larger predators. They populate secondary growth areas and live in low, thick vegetation
(Echternacht, 1983).
Similar to the Mactroteiid, the Skink (Sphenomorphus cherriei) is another small lizard with a similar diet and is also prey to larger predators. This lizard basks, meaning that it can be found high in trees or in small openings in the canopy where it can lay in the sunlight (Fitch, 1983). Both these lizards could easily be prey for the Boa constrictor that feeds on a wide variety of small mammals and reptiles and whose young inhabit the canopy (Greene, 1983).
The selection of snakes at the Central Pacific Aerial Tram site include the deadly
Fer-de-lance (Botrops asper) which lives in the canopy and feeds on small mammals and birds (Scott, 1983a) as well as its predator, the Musarana (Clelia clelia). This nocturnal predator also feeds on other snakes, large lizards, and a selection of mammals (Scott,
1983b).
Another predator to the snakes on this site is the Smoky Frog (Leptodactylus pentadactylus). This large amphibian inhabits rock crevices or burrows on the forest floor and also eats other frogs (Scott, 1983e). The Smoky Frog is second in size only to the Marine Toad, another inhabitant of the area which also happens to be the largest lowland toad in tropical America. The Marine Toad prefers open to semi-open areas and usually inhabits savanna or open forest, but is also frequently found near human dwellings. This nocturnal toad is extremely sensitive to low moisture and will seek
32 shelter under logs, rocks, or roots in burrows. The Marine Toad eats anything small and bite sized that moves, including wasps and other insects with vicious stings or poison
(Zug, 1983).
Other amphibians include two species of Eleutherodactylus. The Sapito
(Eleutherodactylus bransfordii) lives in forest litter and forages for ants, mites, beetles, spiders, and insect larvae during the day (Scott, 1983c). The second is the Tink Frog
(Eleutherodactylus diastema) which inhabits bromeliads or leaf trash in small trees or understory shrubs and is nocturnal, emitting a sharp ―tink‖ call at night (Scott, 1983d).
2.5.2. Mammals
There is a wide variety of mammals on Aerial Tram‘s Pacific site, including small rodents, monkeys, deer, peccaries, two and three toed sloths, anteaters, opossums, and endangered species of tropical cats. Of these, we selected a few that were not nocturnal or if they were, such as the Margay, are endangered, and chose to present them here.
The Margay (Felis wiedii) as well as its close cousin, the Ocelot (Felis pardalis), prefer trees to open country and are both endangered species. Both feed on monkeys, rodents, birds, lizards, and insects but while the Ocelot comes out during the day, the
Margay is nocturnal (Koford, 1983b). Another species of tropical cat is the Jaguar (Felis onca) which favors damp sites such as streambeds and has a tendency to scratch tree trunks. Also endangered, the Jaguar of the tropical Americas has a spotted instead of black coat and preys on monkeys, deer, fish, turtles, agoutis, birds, lizards, and other animals (Koford, 1983a).
Predators of the primates on the site have three species to choose from. The
Howler Monkey (Alouatta palliate) can be identified from the loud calls of the males.
33 These leaf eaters peruse a variety of both new and mature leaves including the new leaves of Ficus sp. also found on the site (Glander, 1983). The Spider Monkey (Ateles geoffroyi), noted for being extremely arboreal, is a frugivore, browsing fruit at moderate to extreme heights in mature forest. They are also extremely sensitive to habitat disturbances but still important dispersers of the secondary species Ficus (Eisenberg,
1983). The last species of primate on Aerial Tram‘s Pacific site is the White-faced
Capuchin (Cebus capcinus) which among others, is prey for the previously mentioned
Boa constrictor. These omnivores forage all levels of the forest, from the floor to the canopy in both mature and secondary growth. The White-faced Capuchin eats a wide variety of fruits, including those of the native spondias mombin and the dry seeds and new stem growths of bursera simaruba. Aside from plants, they also consume a variety of insects including ants, cicadas, grasshoppers and spittle bugs as well as birds eggs and young birds, nestling squirrels and small lizards (Freese, 1983).
Another mammal that can often be seen by day is the three-toed sloth which, although it feeds on a large variety of trees, is usually most easily observed in Cecropia.
These animals are host to a large variety of insects that use the sloth itself to live in and its dung to reproduce (Montgomery, 1983). The White-tailed Deer (Janzen, 1983e) has a large geographical range through the Americas and is very important prey for larger predators such as the tropical cats. They feed on dicot twigs and leaves as well as harvest fallen fruit along borders between forest and grassland, including the figs of the Ficus previously mentioned.
34 2.5.3. Birds
From the species list compiled by Fabián Hernández (see Appendix D), we know that there are over 200 species of bird that frequent the Central Pacific site. Of these, we have selected only a few. In particular, the Scarlet Macaw (Ara Macao) is one of the more sought after birds in this part of the country (Daniel Torres, personal communication, 2002; Beletsky, 1998) and is currently one of two endangered species of parrot (Beletsky, 1998). This macaw eats the seeds of the local species Hura crepitans.
They nest in tall, thick trees that can be either living or dead (Janzen, 1983a). The best viewing time is either during sunrise or sunset as the birds fly from roosts to feeding areas, then back again (Beletsky, 1998) and this macaw is almost always seen in pairs since it mates for life. Only the young birds or the old that have lost their mates are seen alone (Daniel Torres, personal communication, 2002).
Parrots are one of the two classes of bird that are generally symbolic of the tropics, the other being the Toucan (Beletsky, 1998). Eight different species of Parrot have been recorded at the Central Pacific Aerial Tram as have two species of Toucan.
The largest of the Toucans, the Chestnut-mandibled Toucan (Ramphastos swainsonii) will feed on the seeds and fruits of Cecropia and Ficus, both present at the Central Pacific site, as well as a large variety of other tree fruits (Howe, 1983). For protein, these birds also consume insects, spiders, birds eggs and nestlings, lizards or even other small animals (Beletsky, 1998; Howe, 1983).
Other recognizable families of birds observed on the Pacific site include thirteen species of Hummingbirds that feed on the nectar of flowers, five species of Trogon that feed on small frogs, lizards, and fruits, two species of Puffbird and one Jacamar, both of
35 which consume insects, as well as the Blue-crowned Motmot that mainly consumes insects though also eats spiders, small frogs, lizards, snakes and small fruits (Beletsky,
1998; see Appendix D for full list of bird species observed on the Pacific site).
2.6. Landscape Ecology and Environmental Aesthetics
To develop an ecotourist attraction, we must go beyond creating the aesthetically pleasing landscape and ensure that the site is also ecologically sustainable. This requires both landscape ecology and environmental aesthetics. The concept of landscape ecology will help us to decide where to put certain plants so they will have the best opportunity to flourish. Environmental aesthetics, on the other hand, deals with the outer shell of the environment; the way it looks. A basic understanding of the two fields can be used to create a balanced mix of ecology and aesthetics at the Central Pacific Aerial Tram.
2.6.1. Landscape Ecology
In recent years, a new field in ecology has developed: landscape ecology.
This field focuses on the influences of the location of flora in an environment on the human consciousness. Parsons (1994) describes the main thrust of the new subject as
―planning and management of environments for both aesthetics and ecological sustainability‖ (p. 240). While reforestation ecology sometimes takes into consideration environmental aesthetics, it usually concentrates on the placement of different species and how this placement will affect the environmental sustainability of an area. In particular, as stated in ―Landscape Ecology: The Effect of Pattern on Process‖ by
Monical Goigel Turner (1989, p.172) the focus is upon:
36 a) The development and dynamics of spatial heterogeneity
b) Interactions and exchanges across heterogeneous landscapes
c) The influences of spatial heterogeneity on biotic and abiotic processes
d) The management of spatial heterogeneity.
Key points to keep in mind while evaluating these concepts are the scale and characteristics of a landscape. First, the scale of the landscape that is being studied must be kept in mind. This is crucial because the only way one can compare two landscapes or a group of landscapes is if they are described on relatively the same scale. For example, if one were to conduct a study to determine the relationship between nutrients in the soil and the number of trees growing in the area, the results would not be useful unless the same size area was used to collect all data. ―Processes and parameters important at one scale may not be as important or predictive at another scale‖ describes Turner (1989, p.
174).
The characteristics of the landscape must also be taken into consideration when analyzing Turner‘s (1989) main point: ―Landscape structure must be identified and quantified in meaningful ways before the interactions between landscape patterns and ecological processes can be understood‖ (p. 174). Attempting to study a tropical forest and a temperate forest in the same way is not logical. These two forests differ greatly in their characteristic elements, so it would be difficult to draw conclusions about forests collectively by comparing the two.
Keeping in mind the characteristics and scale of the land, landscape ecologists apply this list of concepts to the study of the structure, function, and change in an environment. As Turner (1989) defines, structure has to do with the ―configurations of
37 the components,‖ function deals with the ―interactions of the spatial elements,‖ and change refers to the ―alteration in the structure and function‖ (p. 173). Each of these refers to a different element in the ecosystem that helps describe the relationships between a landscape and its ecology.
The importance of landscape ecology is still gaining respect in mainstream ecological studies. ―Results from landscape ecological studies strongly suggest that a broad scale perspective incorporating spatial relationships is a necessary part of land use planning‖ (Turner, 1989, p. 189). It is essential that we keep in mind the basic ideas of landscape ecology as we design a reforested environment; otherwise, the area is unlikely to be sustainable.
2.6.2. Environmental Aesthetics
Studies repeatedly find that natural environments have a profound effect on people‘s emotions. Parsons (1995) reports that people who view visually pleasing environments are less stressed and healthier. He has found that participants achieve higher scores on cognitive tasks after walking through a pleasant environment. Some studies have even reported that participants are calmer and have lower blood pressure after spending time in an aesthetically pleasing environment. In fact, the environment had more of an effect on participants than calming music did, claims one study on passive relaxation conditions (Parsons, 1994).
The field of environmental aesthetics, however, goes further than just claiming that outdoor environments are pleasing; it works to find out how the organization of an environment actually affects people, and what specifically pleases people about different
38 flora organization. Many overlook the importance of relating the ecological sustainability of an environment to its aesthetic quality.
Of course, there are arguments over whether or not we can characterize what is beautiful because everyone sees environments differently (Hyman, 1988). Scholars recognize that aesthetic beauty is dependent on the viewer. Keeping this in mind, they are working to find a general trend in what people see as an aesthetically pleasing environment. ―There are no simple formulas for predicting aesthetic preferences because a handful of environmental attributes cannot represent the varied and unique characteristics of natural environments, and an overall impression might not be the same as the sum of its parts‖ (Hyman, 1988, p. 117).
Several scholars have come up with theories or ideas on what should be used to study environmental aesthetics. Hyman (1998) believes when studying the aesthetics of an environment, it is important to keep in mind three elements of aesthetic quality: unity, vividness, and variety. Kaplan & Kaplan (1978) feel that the evolution of humans from apes to homo sapiens affects what people prefer in their environments and activities.
Perhaps, people prefer wild environment because it allows them to feel in touch with their ancestral roots.
It is crucial to find ways to evaluate these theories. Hyman (1988) describes
Perceived Environmental Quality Indicators (PEQIs), which give examples of ways to evaluate the aesthetic quality of an environment. Several PEQI methods include: descriptive assessments, evaluative appraisals, preferential judgments, and indirect judgment tasks. The most commonly used and most effective methods for evaluating environmental features include evaluative appraisals and preferential judgments gathered
39 through surveys and interviews. Evaluative appraisal asks people to choose which of several environments they prefer.
A quantitative approach to evaluating an environment is preferential judgments, such as landscape ranking, which ask subjects to rank environmental scenes on a number scale. ―Many of these studies have contributed to the general understanding of human aesthetic preferences and some have been useful in planning particular environments‖
(Hyman, 1988, p. 125). Conducting surveys of people viewing environments with particular characteristics is a common way to research the subject. This allows researchers to have both qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the landscape settings.
These data can then be analyzed quantitatively to come up with a group of qualitative characteristics that the majority of those sampled would prefer to see in an environment.
From these study techniques, it has been found that humans prefer environments that have a pleasant visual effect. Some of the things they like to see are as follows
(Hyman, 1988, p. 118):
Presence of unpolluted water
Majority of land undisturbed by humans
Man- made structures that blend in with the environment
Elements that do not look out of place
Presence of flowers
Visibility of all components of the landscape
Having these elements in a landscape leads to calmer participants in most studies and better scores in preferential judgments. Parsons (1995) has also found natural environments produce positive emotional responses and lower stress.
40 2.6.3. Landscape Ecology’s Relation to Environmental Aesthetics
In studying landscape ecology, the argument of how much planning and organization should be put into recreating natural environment comes up quite often. We can easily see that aesthetically pleasing environments may have a great effect on our emotions. We are also aware that landscape ecology is crucial to the sustainability of an area (Parsons, 1995). The question we must ask is how we can create an environmentally sustainable yet aesthetically pleasing environment.
From the information above, we may draw the conclusion that it is possible. We must simply plan an environment that has aesthetically pleasing properties. Sheppard‘s
(1999) theory states that people prefer to see environments that look like they have been cared for. They believe that a well cared for environment connects with humans‘ need for organization and caring. The theory also states that people generally prefer environments that show coherence and involvement. These aspects can only be achieved and maintained through an organized environment. This may contradict humans‘ want or need for an authentic untouched ecosystem, but with proper planning an environment that is natural-looking can be created.
Hyman‘s (1988) opposing argument holds the idea that ―humans need two types of environments: undisturbed wilderness which helps maintain contact with biological origins and other living things, and surroundings that meet the need of today‘s patterns of social and economic organization‖ (p. 117). Environmentally planned sites are usually much more visually restricted. This restriction may have a negative effect on our assessment of an area. ―Humans may have a biological predisposition to associate negative consequences with spatially restricted natural environments‖ (Parsons, 1995, p.
41 229), meaning people do not like organized and restricted plants. Therefore, one conclusion that we can draw is that people appreciate environments that are planned and maintained but not restricted. We must determine how to create a well-balanced site using the principles of landscape ecology and environmental aesthetics.
2.7. Ecotourism
The world population is growing exponentially, and the public is becoming increasingly aware of the destruction humans are causing the Earth. This is evidenced by the growing number of organizations dedicated to preserving the remainder of the world‘s natural habitats. The United Nations has declared the year 2002 the International
Year of Ecotourism. The goal for this year is to raise awareness about the environment and interest more people in learning about and preserving nature.
As cities become more crowded and busy, people look for ways to break the rhythm of everyday life. Vacationers are finding Costa Rica an increasingly attractive destination, expanding profits for the country‘s tourism industry. Nolen (1999) finds that
―the tourists are drawn by Costa Rica‘s phenomenal natural beauty and, even if they are not aware of it, by the country‘s progressive policy of protecting natural resources and using them to make this one of the world‘s great ecotourism destinations.‖ She goes on to suggest, however, that Costa Rica‘s tourism is ―too much of a good thing.‖ The paradox of using revenues from tourism to fund conservation efforts has sparked a debate between corporations and conservationists, with many taking a middle ground between profitable exploitation and strict protection.
42 2.7.1. Ecotourism Defined
Before arguing the pros and cons of tourism, it is important to define the terms tourism and ecotourism (Institute for Ecological Tourism, 2002). Tourism encompasses all types of activities by visitors, including ecotourism, and we use the term in this report to include positive and negative types of tourism. Ecotourism specifically refers to ecologically sensitive tourism and, by definition, cannot be a threat to the environment and must be beneficial to the local area and people. Therefore, true ecotourism cannot be an environmental problem anywhere. Nolen‘s (1999) distinction points out the real problem: ―…increasingly, the vacation industry [in Costa Rica] is far more about
‗tourists‘ and less about ‗eco.‘‖ The Institute for Ecological Tourism (2002) does not consider it ecotourism when visitors or the corporations serving them degrade their surroundings. The Ecotourism Society (Lindberg & Hawkins, 1993) agrees with a similar definition and adds, ―Ecotourism is about creating and satisfying a hunger for nature, about exploiting tourism‘s potential for conservation and development, and about averting its negative impact on ecology, culture, and aesthetics.‖
Unfortunately, companies that have found that tourists are more attracted to environmentally friendly businesses often misuse the term ecotourism. Mader (2002) gives two examples of companies that coined the term ―eco‖ as a marketing tool: The
Eco-Rent-A-Car Company, and The Eco-Parking Lots. Many organizations are now finding it more important to define ecotourism, especially in Costa Rica, which does not have a formal ecotourism organization (Mader, 2002). Because of this discrepancy, The
Costa Rican Tourism Institute ―launched a certificate along the lines of the hotel star rating system, to grade ‗the sustainability‘ of tourist accommodations, giving high
43 premium to environmentally-friendly developments‖ (Escofet, 2000). This new system is a voluntary certification program that hotels can qualify for. It will help clear up the discrepancy between tourist and ecotourist lodgings.
Another problem that arises from mistaken ecotourism is what The Ecotourism
Society (Lindberg & Hawkins, 1993) calls ―hit-and-run‖ tourism. This occurs when a newly discovered location becomes popular to tourists seeking a ―feel of the wild.‖ Once the volume of visitors makes the site an undesirable destination, it is abandoned. The first visitors to the area may have good ecotourist intentions, but once travel agencies and tourism companies begin to spread the word, less desirable forms of tourism follow.
2.7.2. Ecotourism in Costa Rica
Ecotourism in its pure form is ideal but rarely attained. Much debate occurs over whether attempts at ecotourism are actually helpful or harmful to a community. There are three main areas in evaluating ecotourism: conservation of the environment, local involvement, and business profit. Some argue that ecotourism is beneficial to communities because it saves the economy in many developing countries while still maintaining the environment. ―Proponents and some scholars believe that [ecotourism] can potentially focus the benefits of tourism on the local population and environment while minimizing negative impacts‖ (Schaller, 1996). Others feel that even ecologically sensitive tourism is actually damaging to the environment and takes away from the income of local citizens, as we discuss next.
The environment is one of the crucial concerns in ecotourism. It is difficult to maintain an attractive area for tourists while still conserving the forest. ―An ecosystem is an undisturbed equilibrium containing many kinds of living organisms in constant
44 numbers. When this system is disturbed, such as by the arrival of tourists, then this equilibrium is disrupted and the ecosystem becomes crowded‖ (Lee et al., 1999). Some, including Nolen (1999) and Kussalanant (2000), argue that the disruption of the forest is too destructive, and therefore ecotourism centers in a natural area are simply not worth the damage. Others, such as Pashby (2000b) and Mader (1990), believe that a stronger argument for ecotourism is that visitors learn about the problems involved in tourism, become educated about the environment, and make an effort to preserve the area they have just visited. Ecotourism is a great way to get people involved in conserving the existing tropical forest and regenerating other areas.
The local community is another factor to consider in the debate over ecotourism.
In most cases, it helps the nearby residents by providing jobs and income, allowing them the resources to maintain the beautiful area they call home. Many of the ecotourism companies give back to the community through grant programs or by contributing to local schools (Cespedes, 1995). Other good effects come from the income that the ecotourism companies generate, returning revenues to the community through taxes or employment.
2.7.3. Costa Rica’s Tourism Industry
Unfortunately, the tourism industry is sometimes unstable. Less than a decade ago, Lindberg & Hawkins (1993) expressed this worry: ―Few countries are willing to risk undue dependence on an industry vulnerable to a … war or a spate of hijackings‖ (p. 9).
Although tourism can bring in a large amount of income, it cannot always maintain a consistent level of support. Tourism has suffered a decline since the World Trade Center attacks of September 11, 2001, and Costa Rica is currently reporting a decline in tourist
45 visits. Now some travelers are reluctant to fly, and this uncertainty causes the entire tourism industry to be less predictable, as we discussed with Rain Forest Aerial Tram employees.
Other factors make some types of tourism harmful to the local community. For example, most of the money can go to large foreign companies, and the presence of wealthy, foreign visitors attracts thieves, prostitutes, and drug dealers to the area
(Biesanz, 1999). Biesanz also points out that the majority of tourist and ecotourist attractions and resorts are too expensive for natives, so it is unusual for them to patronize the facilities. The training of guides also poses a problem for local people who want to work in the business. Many employers hold certification classes only in the major cities, discriminating against rural dwellers.
If the number of tourists traveling to Costa Rica‘s biodiverse habitats continues to grow, as is likely, the profits available may increase along with the destruction of natural habitats. In order to prevent this, but not lose a crucial industry, Costa Rica‘s government is establishing stricter guidelines to define ecotourism. This will allow visitors to Costa
Rica to recognize the importance of sustaining the environment while enjoying it as conscientious ecotourists.
2.7.4. Planning Ecotourism
The most important component of ecotourism is not the environment itself—it is the people practicing environmental sensitivity. Thus, the most valuable step in planning ecotourism is education. The more people involved in ecotourism who are well-educated about the subject, the more successful it will be. This includes local citizens, tour guides, and tourists. Training is crucial, whether it takes place formally or informally. Tour
46 guides might be required to participate in courses or seminars, or they might simply share their experiences in the field to educate each other. Tourists and nearby residents could watch an educational film as part of a visitor experience, or they could learn solely from tour guides. As Cortez stressed during our discussion, most people learn best from experience, so an ecotourist company should involve as many people as possible in its operation.
In response to the problems of local hostility toward new large attractions in once- private areas, Margherita Bottazzi strongly believes in prevention, as we learned during our interview. From her experience, if an incoming corporation supports the local community from the start, through involvement such as employing nearby residents or selling locally made souvenirs, the community will maintain a harmonious relationship with the company. Although a large attraction suddenly introduced to an area can cause overcrowding and degradation of the environment, it raises the value of nearby land and generates a significant amount of income.
Another important concern is that organizations of Costa Rica should expand ecotourism outside of legally protected areas whenever possible, as Lindberg & Hawkins
(1993) emphasize: ―Promoting ecotourism in natural areas that have no official protection may foster effective action from local populations to conserve their surrounding natural areas and resources out of self-interest‖ (p. 13). This could be an indirect form of education by the ecotourist company—teaching by example. If a company stresses the importance of conservation for environmental reasons, or simply for profit, companies and households nearby will be likely to adopt similar principles.
47 A less obvious matter to consider when planning an ecotourist attraction is the design of facilities. Visually appealing design features will make a visitor‘s experience more enjoyable, but ecologically sensitive design will help further the goal of ecotourism.
The following issues are adapted from the recommendations of Lindberg & Hawkins
(1993). First, the company should hire local workers to construct buildings, incorporating cultural techniques whenever practical, and making sure images are congruent with the surrounding environment. For example, builders could use dried tropical leaves for roofing on the main buildings. It is important to prioritize, however.
Maintenance of ecosystems should not be sacrificed for design. The company should provide opportunities for recycling and trash removal methods should be environmentally appropriate. Including design touches such as furniture and crafts made by nearby residents to the facilities will give the local community a sense of partnership with the corporation and pride about their involvement and presence in projects that celebrate the natural beauty of their homeland.
A new tourist attraction will increase patronage of local stores simply because more foreigners will visit the area. Furthermore, as pointed out in a personal interview with Luis Sánchez, the new company can become directly involved with these activities by inviting local craftspeople to sell their items through an on-site gift shop. In addition, the company can contract these people to produce crafts with the company logo on them, tightening the relationship between the two parties even further.
As shown here, there are several actions a company can take from the very beginning of a venture to ensure that the local community is involved in a positive way to foster ecotourism in a new location. Before construction begins, the company should
48 seek the support of leaders in the neighboring population to facilitate a long-lasting, positive relationship between the company and the community.
2.7.5. The Aerial Tram as an Ecotourist Attraction
As Costa Rica becomes increasingly popular as a vacation destination, it must set and maintain standards for ecotourism. Tourism as it exists today will not sustain the biological diversity and rich natural resources that visitors find so attractive in the country. The Rain Forest Aerial Tram is an excellent example of a future-oriented attraction because it encompasses the ideals of ecotourism. The new opportunity provided by the opening of the Central Pacific Aerial Tram will allow Dosel, S.A. to further these efforts.
49 3. Methodology
To achieve our objectives for this project we used several methods including direct observation at several ecotourist sites, interviews of biologist and tour guides, a questionnaire of the tram guides and an abundance of archival research. In order to formulate recommendations we combined the knowledge gained from these methods and our personal experiences and opinions. One group member has an extensive background in biology, while another has excellent business and management skills, and the third member of the group has had much experience in developing volunteer and school programs. Combining this expertise with several scientific methods has allowed us to create a comprehensive proposal for a regeneration project at the Central Pacific Aerial tram including programs to educate tourist and involve the community.
3.1. Tropical Forest Regeneration
3.1.1. Implementation
In order to provide site specific implementation recommendations, we first used direct observation as well as the site impact report in order to study the site. Results are presented in a separate section (see 4.1.1). Results of these observations were then used in combination with the following methodology to evaluate the implementation of methods.
Implementation, as we use it here, is defined as the application of one or more methods that may be used to facilitate or help regenerate the tropical forest at the Rain
Forest Aerial Tram Pacific Site. The objective was to define both the methods of
50 regeneration available for the Aerial Tram and where resources such as materials and nurseries would be located to use each method. Factors taken into consideration were:
1. The methods of tropical forest regeneration and feasibility of application.
2. The materials available to Rain Forest Aerial Tram.
3. Labor availability.
4. Facilities needed to implement methods of regeneration.
We used the following methodology to research these factors in the implementation of a tropical forest regeneration project.
Current methods of tropical forest regeneration were researched by the collection and analysis of scientific periodicals. One author who was recognized as particularly helpful to this objective was Doctor Karen Holl of the University of California, Santa
Cruz. After reading her published articles, which included Costa Rican specific work on tropical forest regeneration, we contacted her by email. She graciously sent us a copy of an unpublished review article (Holl, in press, 2002) that proved invaluable for separating methods.
Background research was also backed by published texts found both during our time in the United States and at the University of Costa Rica. Research was based upon the site specific information in the Site Impact Report, given to us by Eugenia Solano,
General Manager of the Rain Forest Aerial Tram, as well as direct observations of the area to be regenerated (see below).
Solano provided us with the information on where she wanted regeneration on the maps in the Site Impact Report, and we observed the current vegetation in that vicinity as well as in the surrounding area. Some, though not all of the vegetation, we could identify
51 from the species list compiled by Fabián Hernández, also one of our interviewees (see below). During our second visit to the site, he guided us through the area that we intended to regenerate and provided his own insight into the vegetation and animals in the area.
In order to evaluate the methods directly, we compiled a comparison chart. This chart provided a quick assessment of the methods based on the requirements listed above as well as the type of growth that each method established and, in general, whether the time for establishment was slow, medium, or fast. This chart also included a listing of basic materials for each method. We evaluated each method using the chart, the information from the site impact report and our direct observations of the site.
Labor availability for a tropical forest regeneration project was found through interviews with Luis Sánchez, former manager of Rain Forest Aerial Tram‘s social programs, Daniel Torres, Visitor Satisfaction Supervisor of the Rain Forest Aerial Tram, and Fabián Hernández, a biologist at FUNDECOR. Although we did not get cost estimates for labor, Daniel provided us with several other ideas.
For the methods that required external facilities, specifically nurseries, we obtained cost estimates by interviewing the staff of EARTH University and from a farmer that operates a nursery outside of Guápiles. Estimates were based on the average cost of a single sapling and did not account for the costs of endangered or more labor intensive species.
The methods we recommend, though influenced by all these factors, also reflect what we as a group have come to understand about Costa Rica and both its natural and damaged environments. From a combination of our research and our experiences, we
52 believe that the methods that we present are not only for the good of the reputation of
Dosel, S.A., but beneficial to the site and the Costa Rican tropical forest in general.
3.1.2. Management
Although we are attempting to facilitate the natural process of regeneration, we must also address issues of managements of a regeneration project. ―Restored communities usually cannot be self sustaining. They‘ll have to be managed, we humans supplying the inputs that were formerly provided from beyond their boundaries‖
(Diamond, 1987, p. 332). The issue of management, or the provision of materials and labor to maintain an implemented method of tropical forest regeneration, is twofold: first, we seek to dispute Doctor Diamond and identify methods that do not require management. Second, we seek methods that do require management and present what management they require with a generic time table. We have no intention of finding species specific management guidelines since it is beyond the scope of this report.
Instead we provide an outline that may prove helpful after implementation. This is the methodology we used to identify which methods require care beyond implementation and what type of care they will need.
We described the identification of the methods themselves in the previous section.
To find management issues, we examined method descriptions and, where needed, performed further archival research. We also interviewed biologists Fabián Hernández and Margherita Bottazzi to determine what management techniques were currently in use at other tropical forest regeneration and restoration sites. Requirements were then compiled in a comparison chart similar to the one described for implementation. This chart listed whether management was required, what materials were needed and whether
53 the type of management required a minimal (min), medium (med), or maximal (max) amount of labor and the type of management.
To provide Dosel, S.A. with a complete archive of information on their project, we have researched possible methods of documentation of regeneration at the Central
Pacific site. This collection of information could be used for tourists, education of the local community, or verification of validity to the scientific community as well as Dosel,
S.A.‘s peer companies. We therefore used the following methodology to research documentation techniques.
To learn what type of documentation they already did of their sites and how they collected that information, we talked to Daniel Torres, a guide at the Rain Forest Aerial
Tram. We then wanted to compare that to how other companies document projects and so interviewed Fernando Cortez, a biologist and freelance tour guide. Information on tree and site tagging was provided by direct observation of La Selva. We were able to find what type of information to collect as well as possible methods of documentation by archival research.
3.1.3. Species
In order to give Dosel, S.A. some ideas of what types of trees they might want to include in their tropical forest regeneration project, we researched a list of animals and the flora that attracts them to an area. This does not dictate which trees should be included, but instead provides ideas for further research. None of the plant species included in this project can be guaranteed to be successful, but we included the list as a possible guide for future work. We used the following the methodology to compile this list.
54 Our first objective was to find species already present on the site, but after interviewing Fabián Hernández of FUNDECOR, we were informed that he had already done this. The list of Latin and Spanish names for the species was included in an appendix of the Site Impact Report, and the same list with English names of birds and mammals was later obtained from Sra. Solano.
From this, we identified a few animal species and used archival research methods to find both any dependencies on plant species and food sources of these species. We then matched animals to plant species on the site and compiled a list of nine major tree species that support these herbaceous mammals. We expanded the list with suggestions from biologist Margherita Bottazzi, evaluating tree species by the number of mammals, insects, and other plant species that these trees support. Where possible, we included other information such as wood quality and uses and whether the species was endangered. This part of our research was greatly helped by interviews of tour guides and Daniel Torres who guided us through our first visit to the Pacific Site, and was backed by archival research into each tree species. After compiling the list, we verified our choices with Fabián Hernández who provided further information about the trees and showed them to us on the site.
3.2. Ecotourism
One of the main objectives of this tropical forest regeneration project is to educate visitors to the Central Pacific Aerial Tram about ecological awareness so they will be less likely to cause excessive damage to the environment in the future. They may also be able to help the environment by passing this awareness on to others or by participating in conservation or regeneration projects. Visitors come from a variety of backgrounds, with
55 different expectations and learning styles, as Fernando Cortez emphasized in our interview. Some may not come with the anticipation to learn at all. It was a complicated process for us to incorporate education into this project while trying to reach as many different types of tourist interests and levels of knowledge as possible. This section focuses primarily on tourists; we will personally address Costa Rican students and local citizens in section 3.3.
3.2.1. Learning about Ecotourism
The first step we took for this project was to obtain background knowledge about tourism and ecotourism in Costa Rica, and to compare and contrast views of social scientists who have studied the subject. The majority of the work we did to learn about the subject was through archival research. There are a number of books and journal articles written on ecotourism and related topics, and the Internet offers a variety of discussions, which we incorporated into our background chapter.
3.2.2. Generating Ideas for Incorporating Education
After we had the general background information on the subject of ecotourism, we needed to apply it to the Central Pacific Aerial Tram‘s plans to include education in their programs. To do this, we needed to experience for ourselves how the Rain Forest
Aerial Tram currently operates. Using participant observation, we took our first visit to the existing tram site on the Atlantic side of the country as tourists. Our guide was unaware that we were working with the Company and treated us like tourists.
We used interviews to benefit from the ideas of others concerning ecological education. Before visiting Costa Rica, we interviewed two WPI professors in the biology
56 department for their thoughts on teaching environmental issues. Professor Phillip
Robakiewicz lived and studied ecology in Costa Rica, including specific research on the poison dart frog. He is knowledgeable about reforestation and conservation efforts.
Professor Robert Krueger also teaches biology at WPI and describes himself as a geographer. Although he has not been to Costa Rica, he has extensive experience in
Puerto Rico. These university educators of biology shared their thoughts about teaching environmental subjects and helped us form our own ideas about educating tourists.
After visiting the Rain Forest Aerial Tram as tourists, we returned to speak with other tour guides about our project and learn from their experience educating visitors.
We formally interviewed Margherita Bottazzi, a biologist currently studying management of natural resources, with a concentration in environmental sciences. She has ten years of experience as a tour guide for the Rain Forest Aerial Tram, and currently works for Costa
Rica Expeditions. She also does some consulting projects. Bottazzi explained how the first guides for the Rain Forest Aerial Tram were trained and let us know which methods were most effective in her opinion. This information was helpful because educating educators is crucial to teaching tourists.
We also spoke with another tour guide with three years of experience at the Rain
Forest Aerial Tram, Fernando Cortez. He is a biologist who has worked with butterflies for 20 years. He has also been involved with the frog trail at the existing site and is knowledgeable about complex relationships between some tropical forest species. He shared some clever ideas for educating tourists about these relationships.
It was not practical for us to personally interview many of the guides, so we created a questionnaire for them (see Appendix B). The questionnaire helped determine
57 visitor interest and guide knowledge about reforestation. This information helped us find differences that will occur between the new site and the existing site due to the Central
Pacific Aerial Tram‘s focus on reforestation. The questionnaire also asked guides to select the method of learning that they thought tourists would find most interesting.
Instead of attempting to survey tourists themselves, we obtained this type of knowledge through tour guides who had experience with a representative sampling of tourists.
3.3. Involving the Community
An important aspect of our project at the Central Pacific Aerial Tram is to incorporate the Jacó community into the regeneration processes that will be implemented in their area. A focus of our project is the environmental science that is required to regenerate an area of forest. It is crucial that we connect the community near the site to the activities of the Central Pacific Aerial Tram. The project will be more successful if
Dosel, S.A. has the support and encouragement of the local community. We have come up with several ways to involve neighboring people in the regeneration process. Each of these projects revolves around the central theme of creating a nursery at the Central
Pacific Aerial Tram. This nursery will support reforesting the property owned by Dosel,
S.A. and will facilitate the involvement of the community, specifically with volunteer and school programs.
3.3.1. Working with the Community and the Aerial Tram
Our first step was to develop a way to involve the community in the regeneration process. In order to do this we spoke with Luis Sánchez, the previous manager of the
Rain Forest Aerial Tram‘s social programs. Through talking with biologist Fabián
58 Hernández of FUNDECOR and conducting archival research, we found that a nursery, if completed, would not only be beneficial to the community but also to the reforestation process. Discussions with Eugenia Solano and Daniel Torres of the Rain Forest Aerial
Tram encouraged us to adopt the idea of a nursery because it will be consistent with
Dosel, S.A.‘s ecotourist mission.
3.3.2. Creating the Nursery
After deciding on the addition of a nursery at the Central Pacific Aerial Tram, we investigated what the key elements of the facility would be. FUNDECOR provided an excellent example of how to get the community involved while creating a nursery. The organization works with farmers to teach them how to reforest their land and still make a profit. It has also started a program to teach farmers how to create their own greenhouse to facilitate reforestation of their land. Using this example, we worked to develop a plan to build and maintain a nursery. We visited one of the nurseries set up by FUNDECOR near Sarapiquí. There, we talked to the farmer who runs the operation. We discussed with him the material and process needed to create the nursery. His operation has been running for 4 years so we gathered information from him on processes needed to grow saplings. This experience gave a very tangible example of what we want accomplish at the tram site.
A visit to EARTH University provided additional samples of greenhouses in a nursery. We toured their facilities and spoke with a student about growing trees for forestation. The explanation of their composting process was also very useful. We also discussed possible involvement of EARTH University students in the Central Pacific
Aerial Tram‘s tropical forest regeneration project.
59 We conducted several other interviews with biologists to learn the details needed to build and maintain a nursery and greenhouse. Our interview with Margherita Bottazzi gave us more insight on the seeds to use in a greenhouse and ways to create a very nutritious soil through compost. We interviewed Fernando Cortez, a tour guide for the
Rain Forest Aerial Tram, who suggested some ways to make the nursery more interesting to tourists. Along this same line, we talked to the owner of a frog garden who gave us ideas and insight on how a similar attraction might benefit the success of the nursery.
Through archival research, we were able to learn more specifics about setting up a greenhouse structure. We used the library at the Organization for Tropical Studies and the library at the University of Costa Rica to gather more information on the process of creating a successful nursery.
3.3.3. Involving the Community in the Regeneration Process
Once we completed the work necessary to recommend a design for a greenhouse and its contents, we continued to design a way to incorporate the community in the success of this reforestation process. We created a majority of these programs by drawing on our own experiences. Luis Sánchez provided the initial ideas for us to get more information on how to involve the community. We talked to Todd Forman, the
Community Service Director at Ursuline Academy in Cincinnati, Ohio, who has worked for many years organizing community service projects, including organizing the building of a Habitat for Humanity house and service trips for high school students. We also talked to Sharon Youmans who has worked as a teacher and organizer of student projects and camps for many years.
The above methodologies led us to the following results and analyses.
60 4. Results and Analysis
From the above methods we gained a series of results. This section is based on the results gained from our methodology and excludes our personal opinion. All of our results presented in this chapter are combined with our opinions and narrowed down into recommendations in the following chapter.
4.1. Tropical Forest Regeneration
Several elements of tropical forest regeneration were addressed during our research. For the regeneration itself, we looked at the types of growth already at the site, distance of any open or clear areas from the forest edge and the current animal species that enter the area. After establishing the type of growth most appropriate to focus on, we then looked in depth at the methods of tropical forest regeneration we have researched and how best to implement them at the Central Pacific Aerial Tram site. We also looked at the long-term needs of these methods in terms of management. Finally, we submit the results of our research into tree species appropriate for the site by presenting fourteen species we recommend for regeneration.
4.1.1. Site Description
The Central Pacific Aerial Tram site consists partly of old farmland, partly of secondary growth and forest, but mostly of previously existing primary and secondary forest. The area that needs to be regenerated consists largely of dense secondary growth, consisting of low growing thick vegetation, and secondary forest (see Figure 4-2) as well as two small guanabana fields (see Figure 4-1). The current caretaker has also planted several varieties of fruit tree saplings in these areas.
61 Figure 4-1. A guanabana field at the Central Pacific Aerial Tram
The tram will be moving through a lower dense area of secondary growth, into a mixture of secondary and primary forest following a ravine and stream up a mountain and through all levels of the forest. The walking trails have yet to be established, but from our explorations, they will follow a similar route, from secondary growth into secondary and primary forest, at the base of the tram along the lower gradient to the north of the buildings and tram.
In areas where there is no secondary growth but instead small fields of grasses
and guanabana trees, the grasses are
an aggressive variety, according to
Fabián Hernández of FUNDECOR
who guided us on our second visit to
the site. However, even these areas
are not cleared. We observed some
secondary growth already growing in
Figure 4-2. Dense secondary growth at the Central Pacific Aerial Tram
62 this area. Neighboring cattle fields consisting of pasture containing a few remnant trees and pioneer species would be more appropriate as the beginning point to demonstrate a full tropical forest regeneration project.
Assuming Dosel, S.A. does nothing to these areas, the presence of fruiting trees and nearness of the forest edge will naturally begin to regenerate forest within the next ten years. Already, animal species such as three toed sloths, collared peccaries and a variety of reptiles, amphibians, and insects are in this lower area. This movement of animals will also add to an increased dispersal of seeds.
Therefore, a regeneration project that focuses on establishing secondary growth should not be considered unless Dosel, S.A. will be clearing a substantial portion of this area. Instead, we decided to focus on methods for facilitating the transition from pioneering and early secondary growth to secondary and primary forests.
4.1.2. Implementation
Methods of rain forest regeneration are illustrated in Figure 4.3. These methods can be separated into two major categories: those that speed the regeneration of secondary forest and those that directly regenerate primary forest. It should be noted that methods in the latter category also regenerate secondary forest, as illustrated in the chart.
However, the species planted for the regeneration of primary forest directly define the character of the canopy and establish themselves as old growth species within the forest, while the surrounding area is colonized by secondary growth originating from seeds dropped by passing birds and animals. As the planted trees begin to produce seeds, the process of succession is increased in the surrounding area. As described previously (see section 2.3.6), under ideal conditions the time for regeneration of the canopy can be as
63 Figure 4-3. Methods of Tropical Forest Regeneration Table 4-1. Comparison of possible methods of tropical forest regeneration
Labor External Time to Growth Type Materials Hours Facilities Regeneration Established
Do nothing none none none Slow Secondary Slash Piles and Logs, Tree Min none Medium Secondary Logs Remnants Remnant Trees none Min none Medium Secondary Seedlings Seeds Max Nursery Medium Primary Staking Cuttings Min none Fast Secondary Patch Planting Seeds Max Nursery Fast Primary little as 30 years. This time frame can be lengthened or shortened depending on the species used as well as the stage of growth the area is already in.
Increased rates of regeneration are particularly apparent for patch planting, where groups of primary saplings are planted in a single area (see Section 2.4.7). Through the process of nucleation, this area of primary species ―quickly‖ spreads throughout an entire area. Seed dispersal ten feet beyond the edge of the newly planted forest no longer becomes a problem since the forest edge is extended ten feet after every cycle from seed establishment and growth to initial seed production of the new generation. Animal dispersal of secondary tree species seeds also increases due to the movement of animals through these ―islands‖ of growth. This is the reason mixtures of primary and secondary growth are regenerated.
The clearing of existing vegetation, animal exclusion, and soil fertilization are not methods in themselves to establish secondary or primary growth but aid other processes of facilitated regeneration. Hence, any process that has these requirements is appropriately shown. The process of natural forest regeneration is not shown on the chart but will eventually occur for reasons already described.
65 Table 4.1 shows a comparison of the methods of tropical forest regeneration that we determined to be most appropriate for the Central Pacific Aerial Tram. The natural process of regeneration is feasible considering the state of regeneration the site is in and should be considered a viable option. Slash piles and logs should be considered if any small areas will be cleared. This could be easily implemented by piling cut trees or branches in cleared areas as construction progresses and would encourage animal movement following the environmental disturbance.
If Dosel, S.A. decides to leave the guanabana fields relatively intact, this would be ideal for demonstrating how remnant trees work in rain forest regeneration. None of the guanabana trees would have to be cleared, though if they are, one or two should be left in approximately the middle of the cleared field (see section 2.4.4 for how remnant trees work).
Because most of the area that we were told needs to be regenerated is secondary growth or forest, we have also included methods that regenerate thicker forest and the forest canopy. These methods consist of planting saplings in the areas of secondary growth, either through individual plantings or patch plantings. For areas of low density growth, this would mean planting trees that have low light requirements as saplings.
More open areas along the forest edge would be appropriate for trees with higher light requirements or are shade intolerant, such as pioneer and secondary tree species. The dense secondary growth would also be appropriate for a demonstration of patch planting and is included in our comparison chart.
To raise seedlings for either individual plantings or patch plantings, seeds do not necessarily need to be collected from the site but can be obtained from outside sources.
66 This would reduce labor requirements at the site as well as the possible impact of workers disturbing the forest by walking outside of trails and removing large numbers of seeds from the forest. Biologists Fabián Hernández and Margherita Bottazzi recommend raising seeds or obtaining seedlings from a variety of areas in order to increase genetic diversity of each individual species.
Seedlings can also be obtained from a variety of nurseries, including those at
EARTH and FUNDECOR such as the ones we visited (see Methodology). Obtaining seedlings from facilities such as these allows for the Central Pacific Aerial Tram to immediately plant seedlings.
Unfortunately, we were unable to obtain cost estimates of materials or labor, though according to Luis Sánchez, labor in the area is inexpensive. A point emphasized by Daniel Torres is the willingness of guides to volunteer for projects. Other projects on that site were started and maintained by guides voluntarily. Events such as the monthly cataloging of bird individuals and species at the Caribbean site draw a large number of community members and guides as volunteers. He suggested that such events could be held for tree plantings and maintenance of the regeneration areas.
The materials for the regeneration would be minimal. Cost estimates for seedlings are an average of 100 colones each. Slash piles and logs could be obtained from the construction site of the Aerial Tram buildings and paths. Transportation of saplings could be an issue, but we were unable to obtain cost estimates.
4.1.3. Management
A comparison of management requirements for each forest regeneration method is shown in Table 4.2. Methods that establish secondary growth require minimal
67 Table 4-2. A comparison of management methods for tropical forest regeneration
Management Labor Materials Type of Management Required Hours
Do nothing No - - -
Slash Piles and none Min Removal of Piles at Seedling Establishment Logs Yes Herbicides / Materials for Med Removal of grasses, weeding Remnant Trees Yes Controlled Burning Seedlings Yes Water Med Watering during the dry season Staking Yes Water Med Watering during the dry season Patch Planting No - - -
management, with the removal of slash piles after seedling establishment being the only
major management requirement and even this being optional. Weeding and clearing
existing vegetation will be required for remnant trees. Careful attention should be paid to
the removal of ferns since these will impede growth of seedlings for the first ten years.
Initial removal of grasses can be done by either controlled burning of small areas around
the remnant trees or by herbicides. Repeated burning was suggested by Fabián
Hernández. However, if repeated removal is required, the area will also need to be
fertilized by chemical fertilizer or compost to restore lost nutrients. Dangers of long term
effects of herbicides should also be considered before application to the site (see section
2.4.8).
In certain areas, management will be required for planted saplings. Aggressive
vegetation may need to be cleared by either the methods suggested above or by machete.
If fire is used repeatedly in the area, fertilization will have to be considered again as well.
Another management issue for planting seedlings is animal exclusion. This should be
done on a case-by-case basis and not for entire species or areas. Exclusion should be
done as previously described (see section 2.4.11).
68 Similar to the challenge of animal exclusion is the problem of predation of saplings by leaf cutter ants. Insecticides are commonly used to prevent this; however, the impact of these chemicals needs to be carefully weighed.
Another issue relating to site management is the documentation of changes made to the site. Luis Sánchez made the point that by providing facilitated regeneration, we are altering the natural process. This point of view has been disputed by biologists
Margherita Bottazzi and Fabián Hernández who both argue that this land has already been damaged by humans and as attempt should be made to repair that damage.
Recordkeeping of changes made and their impacts will be crucial justification for interference with the natural process to both Dosel, S.A. itself and any opposition to the decision to facilitate regeneration. To this end, we have also provided our observations on documentation methods currently used by Dosel, S.A. as well as by other companies and research facilities. Techniques from the Rain Forest Aerial Tram site can be combined with more formal methods of data collection in order to provide a complete history of the project for Dosel, S.A. that can be used for either justification, educating tourists, or further research (see section 5.3).
The cataloging of animal species is already done periodically at the Rain Forest
Aerial Tram. With the voluntary participation of guides and the local community from
Guápiles, this program catalogs individuals and species of birds throughout the Rain
Forest Aerial Tram property. This technique could also be implemented at the Central
Pacific (see section 5.4.2).
We also observed useful methods of keeping track of plots and individual trees used at La Selva. The plots there were marked by thick white string. Particularly during
69 the early stages of regeneration, this method clearly, with minimal environmental impact, indicated any single area of regeneration. Plot development can be recorded by direct observation, but a method with more visual impact we found was photography. Photos of a site from the same viewpoint once a month provide a visual record of growth over time.
Also at La Selva, they keep track of individual trees within areas by tagging them with multicolored emergency tape. This cheap plastic tape does not easily degrade over time and can be removed at a later date. Tags that are not degradable are an advantage for tracking trees over periods longer than ten years.
From our archival research, we determined that data that should be recorded include age, height, foliage, seed or fruit production, disease, harmful infestations by insects or unusual growth as well as any fauna or other flora observed using the tree.
Data collected from individual trees in one area could provide information to help facilitate regeneration in another.
4.1.4. Species
Table 4-3 summarizes the species that we determined best for planting at the
Central Pacific site. In Appendix D, we also list the species recommended by Margherita
Bottazzi. Our selection was based on her recommendations as well as those of Fabián
Hernández combined with archival research into each species matching animals to these trees. While looking at our choices, Fabián Hernández commented that there is a very wide variety of trees available for regeneration and species best selected are those that provide a strong visual impact or that guides can talk about. We provide both trees that are common and interesting according to our guides throughout our stay in Costa Rica as well as those that are associated with specific animal species.
70 Table 4-3. Comparison of fourteen tree species for reforestation of the Central Pacific Aerial Tram site
Type of Speed of Areas most often Scientific Name English Name Spanish Name Animals Other Properties Growth Growth Found
Brosimum alicastrum Ojoche Medium Collared Peccary Stingless bees; White- Living Bursera simaruba Gumbo Limbo Indio Desnudo Fast faced Capuchin; Spider Fence Monkey; Collared Peccary
Three-toed Sloth; Chestnut- Cecropia Peltata Pioneer Fast mandibled Toucan; Scarlet Macaw; Other birds Bats; Hummingbirds; Light Demanding - Slow - Ceiba pentandra Kapok Tree Ceiba Secondary Opossums; Squirrels; Forest Margins and Fast Insects Riversides High density of Grasslands and Crescentia cujete Gourd Tree Jícaro Bats; Rodents; Insects epiphytes along Marsh Edges surface Enterlobium Highly Susceptible to Swamp, River, Creek Ear Fruit Guanacaste Secondary Fast Parrots; Peccaries; Tapirs cyclocarpum Water Loss Edges White-tailed Deer; Collared Medium - Peccary; Spider Monkey; Ficus sp. Higuerón Secondary Fast Chestnut-mandibled Toucan Collared Peccaries; Tapirs; Living Staggered Fruit Forest Shade not Guazumo ulmifolia Tapaculo Guácimo Fast White-tailed Deer; Agoutis; Fence Production Required Squirrels Scarlet Macaw; Other Very tall and wide; Hura crepitans Sandbox Tree Jabillo Shade Intolerant Birds Distinctive Bark Moths; Bats; Ant Associations; Hummingbirds; Butterflies; Transplanting Inga sp. Guaba Large Bees; Squirrels; Saplings usually Grasshoppers; Katydids; works well; Canopy Beetles; Monkeys; Sloths and Subcanopy trees Hawkmoths; Guácimo, Hummingbirds; Bees; Luehea candida Secondary Medium Lower Canopy Tree Molenillo Butterflies; Tapirs; Howler Monkeys; Other Monkeys; Scarlet Macaw; Other Spondius mombin Jobo Birds White-faced Capuchins; Stemmadenia donnell- Huevos de Parrots; Flycatchers; smithii Caballo Motmots; Manakins; Woodpeckers; Ants; Flies
Tabebuia ochracea Corteza Amarilla Medium Bees; Hummingbirds High quality wood
71
Ficus sp. are medium to fast growing trees that attract a wide variety of animals.
The fruit, figs, provide food for many birds including the chestnut-mandibled toucan. spider monkeys also eat the fruit from these trees while collared peccaries and white- tailed deer eat the figs that fall to the ground. Fabián Hernández also recommended this tree as a nesting site for the scarlet macaw.
A similarly common species is Cecropia peltata, referred to as ―Guarumo‖ in
Spanish. This pioneer species needs a lot of light and, like other pioneer species, is fast growing. Although it is a myth that the three-toed sloth only inhabits this tree, it is one of the easiest to observe these mammals in (Montgomery, 1983). This tree also provides food for the chestnut-mandibled toucan, among other birds.
The Guácimo (Guazumo ulmifolia) is extremely common according to Janzen
(1983d). The fruit of this tree provide sustenance to collared peccaries, tapirs, white- tailed deer, agoutis and squirrels. Trees in the same area stagger their fruit production throughout the year. This tree grows fast and can be staked, or planted as a living fence.
The maximum height is only 15 meters, but forest shade is not required and it attracts very few insects. The green fruits, bark, and leaves are also used to purify fresh sugar cane juice during rural processing.
The Guanacaste (Enterolobium cyclocarpum) or Ear Fruit tree is leguminous producing long pads of seeds that attract the Amazona parrots, collared peccaries, tapirs and rodents and is the Costa Rican national tree. This tree tends to be secondary growth, but seedlings are more susceptible to water loss, fire, and competition with grasses.
72 Particularly during the dry season, this tree needs lots of water. When planting, it should be well shaded in the presence of a remnant tree or along a stream.
Two trees that we found by species matching but did not find much more information on were Brosimum alicastrum and Spondias mombin. Brosimum alicastrum, known as ―Ojoche‖ in Spanish is a medium growth tree that, according to Sowls (1983) attracts the collared peccary. Spondias mombin is a fruiting tree known as ―Jobo‖ in
Spanish. This tree attracts both white-tailed deer and white-faced capuchin monkeys.
The Guácimo Molenillo (Luehea candida) is a medium growing lower canopy tree with flowers that attract hawkmoths, hummingbirds, and varieties of bees and butterflies. Herbivores that frequent this tree include tapirs, howler monkeys and a variety of moth larvae. Seed predators include a variety of monkeys and rodents.
Another species that is noted by Haber et al. (1983) as being more characteristic to the
Central Pacific region is L. seemannii which is found along rivers and wet bottomlands and grows to heights of 35 – 40 meters with an equal appeal to local wildlife.
The Sandbox Tree (Hura crepitans) or ―Jabillo‖ in Spanish can grow to heights of
45 meters and can have a diameter of 3 meters. This tree is shade intolerant and must be planted in a relatively open area. The tree is widely recognizable due to the variety of thorns on its bark that it uses to protect itself. Still, while at the Central Pacific site, we observed a three-toed sloth sleeping in one and the seeds are known to attract the scarlet macaw among other birds.
A wide variety of species of Guaba (Inga spp.) are available and these fruit- producing trees can attract moths, bats, hummingbirds, butterflies, squirrels and large bees. Saplings are easily transplanted, according to Koptur (1983), and depending on the
73 species can be associated with ants. Inga are canopy and subcanopy trees that attract herbivores such as grasshoppers, katydids, beetles, monkeys, sloths, leaf cutter ants, wasps and caterpillars. When ants are not associated with the tree, there is usually a high insect predation of the young leaves, sometimes making it difficult to grow seedlings.
The Ceiba (Ceiba pentandra) or Kapok tree is a very large and distinct canopy member that is light-demanding but can be extremely slow growing according to Fabián
Hernández. However, Bottazzi (personal communication, 2002) and Baker (1983) list this tree as a fast-growing pioneer species that can grow as fast as 4 meters per year.
Usually pollinated by bats, it also attracts hummingbirds, bees, wasps, and beetles.
Opossums and squirrels also frequent this tree. Humans also used the fibers of the Kapok tree that surround the seeds as stuffing for cushions, mattresses, life preservers, upholstery and saddles while using the seeds themselves in soap making and lighting.
Jícaro (Crescentia cujete) or the Gourd Tree is a short shrub-like tree that is pollinated by bats and fed on by insects and rodents. It is usually found in grasslands and along marsh edges and is host to a large density of epiphytes along its surface (Janzen,
1983b). The gourds of this fast growing tree are also used by locals as canteens (F.
Hernández, personal communication, 2002).
Another species that can be used as a living fence is the Indio Desnudo (Bursera simaruba). This tree is distinctive due to its orange bark and large amounts of flowers that attract stingless bees. Herbivores attracted to this tree include the white-faced capuchin, spider monkey, and collared peccary. This tree also provides a nesting site for a species of wasp.
74 Another tree with highly attractive flowers (F. Hernández, personal communication, 2002) is the Corteza Amarilla (Tabebuia ochracea). The flowers themselves attract a large variety of bees and hummingbirds and the wood produced is of extremely high quality. One of the hardest and heaviest woods of the neotropics, it is exceptionally durable and is used for high quality furniture and utensils (Gentry, 1983).
Our last selection is Huevos de Caballo (Stemmadenia donnell-smithii) that is a medium grower attracting parrots, white-faced capuchins, motmots, honeycreepers, manakins and woodpeckers. It only grows to about 20 meters but is common to the
Pacific side of Costa Rica and can support insectivorous birds late in the dry season when insect populations tend to fall (Foster et al., 1983).
4.2. Ecotourism and Education
Through the interviews, questionnaire, and observations we conducted for this project, we have received an assortment of creative ideas for the Central Pacific Aerial
Tram‘s tropical forest regeneration project, which we present here.
4.2.1. Essentials for an Ecotourist Company
Dosel, S.A. wants to establish and maintain an ecotourist operation, so it is essential to cause minimal environmental damage and even reverse it where possible, while educating visitors about ways they can help preserve and restore the world‘s tropical forests. Of course, the people of the Jacó area must also be involved in a positive way so they will contribute to and benefit from the new park. We learned that tour guides would be excellent vehicles not only for educating and encouraging ecological
75 awareness in visitors, but also for fulfilling all of our project‘s objectives, including assisting with the actual forest regeneration process.
Margherita Bottazzi, a biologist with ten years of experience as a freelance guide for the Rain Forest Aerial Tram, was the first to explain to us how Dosel, S.A. started the tour guide program for the opening of the park in 1994. Originally, ten biologists were contracted to train the new guides, who also learned to speak English. Some of these biologists stayed on to work as guides in their spare time. Due to the seasonal fluctuation of the tourist business, the Rain Forest Aerial Tram needs fewer guides during the rainy season, and in the past, these guides have done other work for the Company, including planting a flower garden to attract butterflies and designing a favorable habitat for rain forest frogs.
Bottazzi‘s explanation was very interesting to us. If Rain Forest Aerial Tram guides can design a habitat for specific species, and some of them have already had previous experience as biologists, could they possibly assist in the regeneration project in the Pacific? Bottazzi responded enthusiastically that participation is indeed the best way for guides to learn about a project. She feels that guides who are involved with Dosel,
S.A. from the first development of a new location will have good feelings about the
Company and make good long-term employees. She also stressed that new guides hired from the local area at the beginning of the project should be given preferential support throughout their careers with the Central Pacific Aerial Tram, particularly in the low season when they will be looking for extra work. This will help the relationship between
Dosel, S.A. and the community.
76 Luis Sánchez, who formally managed social programs for the Rain Forest Aerial
Tram, stresses the importance of developing a strategy for ecotourism. In his opinion, the
Central Pacific Aerial Tram needs to create a written plan describing how it will maintain an ecologically sensitive operation. This plan should contain specific goals for the various dimensions of ecotourism.
4.2.2. Encouraging Ecological Awareness in Visitors
A questionnaire item asked guides to rank topics about which they thought tourists would be most interested in learning. We averaged the ranks given to each topic and present them in Figure 4-4. Sixty percent of the guides who responded to the questionnaire ranked the item ―species information‖ most interesting to tourists. They ranked the other three items, which are more important to those concerned about environmental conservation, consistently lower. The fact that tourists may be less
Tourist Interests
17% 32% Species Information Conservation Efforts 22% Reforestation Deforestation
29%
Figure 4-4. Tourist Interests
77 interested in these topics means that guides may need to make a conscious effort to raise these subjects with them on tours.
Another questionnaire item also examined this matter by determining how often visitors to the Rain Forest Aerial Tram ask about issues such as deforestation or forest regeneration (Figure 4-5), and how often guides share this type of information without being asked (Figure 4-6). Also interesting is whether the guides felt they themselves or tourists raised these subjects more frequently (Figure 4-7).
Frequency of visitors asking about deforestation or forest regeneration according to tour guides
4%
36% 28% Never or almost never Occasionally Regularly Frequently
32%
Figure 4-5. Frequency of visitors raising issues
According to the responses displayed in Figure 4-5, only about one third of the tour guides feel that visitors to the Rain Forest Aerial Tram frequently ask about deforestation or forest regeneration. Most of the other guides feel that tourists raise these issues regularly or occasionally. In order to ensure that all tourists receive some information about crucial environmental issues, guides will need to initiate these conversations with every group of tourists.
78 Frequency of tour guides sharing information about deforestation or forest regeneration without being asked
20% Never or almost never 44% Occasionally Regularly Frequently 36%
Figure 4-6. Frequency of tour guides raising issues
Currently, as shown in Figure 4-6, almost half of the tour guides responded that they frequently raise these issues on their own, and no tour guides responded that they never or almost never approach the subjects. This information leads us to believe that it will not be difficult to increase these figures until every guide discusses deforestation and
Frequency of guides or tourists to raise the subjects of deforestation or forest regeneration
Guides and tourists equally 69% likely to raise the subjects Guides more likely to raise 48% 52% the subjects Tourists more likely to raise 31% the subjects
Figure 4-7. Likelihood of guides or tourists to raise issues
79 forest regeneration with every group. We are sure that using the guides to increase the likelihood of tourists learning ecological sensitivity is the best approach because
(excluding the guides who felt that tourists and themselves were equally likely to raise the subjects) 69% of the guides indicated that they were more likely to raise the subject than tourists (as shown in Figure 4-7).
4.2.3. Preparing Tour Guides to Teach Visitors
Since we believe tour guides are the best means to convey information about ecological issues such as deforestation, conservation, or forest regeneration, they will need to be prepared to address basic technical aspects of these subjects. Fernando Cortez explained the preparation he went through when he became a tour guide for the Rain
Forest Aerial Tram. He started with twenty years of experience as a biologist and extensive knowledge about the rain forest, so he did not go through any formal education process before he began guiding tours. Instead, he joined an experienced guide for several standard tours, and the two guides exchanged information about topics they discussed with tourists. Cortez emphasized that this was a great learning experience, and we feel that Dosel, S.A. should arrange for regular joint-guided tours when economically practical (for example, on a day when more tour guides are working than necessary to meet the number of visitors).
The material that guides are required to know for tours will be slightly different for the Central Pacific Aerial Tram due to its additional emphasis on tropical forest regeneration. In order to get an idea about how much additional information about regeneration the current guides will need to train new guides for the Pacific site, we included an item in the questionnaire asking how comfortable the guides were with their
80 knowledge of rain forest regeneration (Figure 4-8). We found that most guides will need to add some supplemental information to their current knowledge of the subject.
Comfort of tour guides with their level of knowledge about rain forest regeneration
4% 24% Not sure how to explain the process Enough knowledge to answer some questions Confident in knowledge of rain forest regeneration 72%
Figure 4-8: Current guide knowledge about rain forest regeneration
As mentioned in section 4.2.1, Bottazzi believes that tour guides should be involved in the entire project from the beginning in order to learn about the process of tropical forest regeneration. When combined with Cortez‘s idea of tour guides learning from each other, we have an effective method for training guides. During the low season, when construction begins, current Rain Forest Aerial Tram guides will be able to join newly hired guides in the Pacific to work on the regeneration process. By working together, they will learn about the process as well as gain knowledge from each other.
4.2.4. Educating Visitors about Tropical Forest Regeneration
While hiking at the existing Rain Forest Aerial Tram park, Cortez shared some of his ideas for educating visitors about the rain forest. He explained that, with a little human intervention, biologists could make forests more accessible to tourists. After all,
81 the tram itself is a human creation that brings visitors closer to parts of the forest they could not see on their own. Cortez suggested, for example, attaching half a coconut to a fence post or a tree. After a rain, the coconut will be a perfect place for some species of frogs to raise their tadpoles. While frogs might otherwise choose tank bromeliads (which can be transplanted closer to the rain forest floor for hikers to see close up) for their tadpoles, they are often hard to observe in these plants. By using coconut shells instead, and thus making a slight alteration to the natural environment, viewing the tadpoles would be much easier without disrupting the lives of the frogs.
To find effective methods of conveying environmental information to tourists, we asked guides at the Rain Forest Aerial Tram their opinions, as educators, about how visitors would most like to learn. Figure 4-9 shows that a majority of guides believe that tourists would learn best from ―hands-on‖ activities. Thus, at the Central Pacific Aerial
Tram, interested tourists could perform simple tasks that would contribute to the forest
Preferred learning methods of tourists according to current guides
18% Audio/Visual, such as a short video Visual, similar to a museum display 59% 23% "Hands-on" activities
Figure 4-9: Preferred learning methods
82 regeneration process. For example, when seedlings from the nursery are ready to plant, tourists might physically place them in the ground, thus becoming part of the whole process.
4.2.5. Involving Neighboring Communities
The arrival of a large tourist attraction in Costa Rica will raise nearby property values and bring to the area more foreigners who are likely to patronize local shops.
However, the increased traffic can also bring pollution and other problems. The key is to minimize the harm while maximizing the benefits. To reduce damage caused by visitors, the Rain Forest Aerial Tram will work to educate them about environmental problems and solutions, as described section 4.2.2, and work with the local community to help avoid the problems related to increased tourist traffic.
Our initial ideas about raising the quality of life in areas neighboring the Central
Pacific Aerial Tram came out of our interview with Sánchez, who stressed developing a public relations strategy and keeping the community involved with the planning from the start. We discussed the fact that a for-profit company might hesitate to incorporate social programs that do not directly contribute earnings to its business. As Sánchez points out, marketing is the indirect benefit of non-profit social programs. If customers have positive feelings about a company, derived from their perception of the company‘s contributions to the community, they will be more likely to return or recommend the visit to friends. In addition, well-known social programs enhance ecotourist visibility.
One of our ideas for the new site combines school programs (see sections 4.3.1 and 5.6) with marketing: a children‘s mural. Students will be able to conclude their visit to the Central Pacific Aerial Tram by painting their impressions of the tropical forest on a
83 wall in or outside of one of the main buildings. The painting can be a way to show visitors that Dosel, S.A. is involved with school programs without actually seeing the students. Since the tourism industry in Costa Rica is so greatly affected by the seasons, the rainy months are a great time to promote visitation from schools. This way, non- profit programs will not detract from profit-making tours.
4.3. Involving the Community
4.3.1. Central Pacific Aerial Tram Working with the Jacó Community
One goal of ecotourism is to create a better standard of living for the community around the tourist site; creating a higher standard of living offers greater means to protect the local environment. To maintain Dosel, S.A.‘s commitment to ecotourist ideals we recommend involving the community in their upcoming regeneration project. One basic step in the process of regeneration is getting small saplings for the reforestation site, according to Fabián Hernández. He told us there were two possible ways of starting the reforestation process at the Pacific site: either by buying saplings from nurseries in the
Jacó area or by creating a nursery on site with which to grow the saplings. Fabián recommended that to initiate the project, it would be best to go to nurseries in the Jacó area and once established expand the project into a greenhouse and nursery at the future site. This way Dosel, S.A. can start the regeneration process immediately, and expand on it once they have been successful.
Luis Sánchez recommended that we use the nursery to incorporate the community of Jacó. Daniel Torres and Eugenia Solano agree that building a nursery is a good way to involve the community and a good way to start the project. Torres suggests that the
84 caretaker of the property at the Central Pacific Aerial Tram might be a good person to manage the greenhouse. Both Solano and Torres reminded us of the mission of the Tram which is to create a natural atmosphere that does not feel like a theme park. They recommended we keep this in mind when developing a plan for a greenhouse and nursery.
4.3.2. Establishing a Nursery
There are many ways to raise trees successfully. Finding the best way to do this depends largely on the species of plants and the methods of the nursery caretaker. There are several key elements in setting up a nursery, including the site, the seeds, the planting process, and the care. This section provides an overview of what we discovered during out interviews and research on setting up a nursery. Recommendations on the type of nursery will be included in the following chapter.
Nurseries can be constructed either as permanent structures or as temporary facilities lasting for about five years. The processes used to create each type of structure are very similar. The difference lies in the materials used to set up the greenhouse of the nursery; there are advantages and disadvantages to both types. For the purposes of Dosel,
S.A., we will focus mostly on how to create a permanent structure that can also be used as a tourist attraction.
In order to have a successful nursery it is crucial to pick a site that will allow plants to flourish. One important feature of a successful site is that it must be protected from the wind and be clear of shade. Water is another essential resource for a nursery.
There must be an adequate water supply nearby in order to facilitate enough watering of
85 the seedlings. The soil of the area is also a consideration. It is much easier to start with a moist soil that has lots of nutrients and little clay in it than to create or bring in good soil.
The first important step in creating a nursery is to obtain seeds or seedlings, according to the farmer at one of FUNDECOR‘s nursery sites. There are many places in
Costa Rica to obtain these seeds. This FUNDECOR farmer gets his seeds from Alajuela or San José. He also has people who collect seeds specifically for him. Margherita
Bottazzi suggests going to the Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica, where they have seed banks. Bottazzi and Hernández both suggested CATIE, an organization similar to OTS, as another organization where seeds can be collected. Bottazzi, Cortez, and Hernández all emphasized the importance of getting a seed collection from different areas of the country in order to represent different gene pools. This way if a disease attacks one type of tree it is less likely to kill all of the plants. Having a variety of genes also adds to the biodiversity of the reforested site.
A discussion of the types of seeds suggested to start the project is in section 4.1.
All the biologists we talked to discussed several important characteristics. These characteristics include replanting native species, choosing species that will attract birds and animals as well as species that are endangered. The FUNDECOR farmer we talked with made it very clear that each seed has a procedure for planting that is better for its survival, and the best way to learn this process is through experience. Each seed type has a specific way it must be stored, treated, and then planted. Though each specific species has a way that it grows best, Evans (1982) describes two main ways to raise seedlings.
Bare rooting is the first system we will discuss. To start the process you scatter seed into beds filled with nutrient rich soil about three inches deep. You then cover the
86 small seeds with organic matter and leave them to grow for approximately three months.
The number of seeds placed into each bed depends on the percentage of germination of that type of seed. The higher the percentage, the fewer seeds need you need to plant.
During the dry season the seeds and seedlings must be watered regularly, while during the rainy season they do not need to be watered as often. Some species may need to be shaded during this process, while others can be left in direct sunlight. Once the seeds have grown to be about ten centimeters in height, you must transplant them to larger containers. This is where the term bare rooting comes from. You should then pluck the small saplings beds and carefully transplant them to larger containers. If farmers use the process there is a very good chance that there will be damage to the root system. The
Swaziland Bed System helps solve this problem by transplanting a small amount of soil along with the seedling. These small seedlings are then placed into larger containers to grow from this point on.
The second process skips growing the small seedlings in a bed and plants the dried and pretreated seeds directly into the larger containers, used for the seedlings in the first process. This system is easier and has a much higher rate of success, thought it is not possible with some types of plants. Nursery owners in tropical climates more commonly use this type of system.
There is a large variety of containers that used in both types of planting systems.
The first type of container is made of an impervious material. It is typically metal or plastic and has holes, which let water move in and out of the plant‘s root system. Black plastic, which is about .04 mm, thick is most often used. The reason for this is that the black plastic works to prevent algae from growing on the sapling. The disadvantage of
87 this type of container is that the gardener must remove it before transplanting. This which is a slightly more time-consuming and labor-intensive process. In addition, the roots of the sapling may start to coil around in the bottom of the container if they do not have enough room to grow.
The second type of container that either process can use is semi-porous. This container is typically biodegradable and porous so that nutrients and water can easily flow in and out. Because it is often biodegradable, the container does not have to be removed before transplanting. Nurseries rarely use this type of container is rarely in the tropics, because it is more expensive, and it is more difficult to transport the seedlings.
Growers should also consider the size of the containers used. If you attempt to grow a seedling in a container that is too large it will not survive. On the other hand, if you try to grow the seedling in a container that is too small, its roots will coil and be difficult to plant. Therefore in order to grow the best sapling possible, it is suggested that you use a container that is the smallest that the species will allow.
One of the key elements, and one reason why Costa Rica is filled with so much biodiversity, is its nutrient rich soil. The soil that nurseries use in planting the small saplings must be rich in nutrients, moist, and loose. A soil scientist will have to look at the soil to decide what nutrients need to be added in order to make it most beneficial to the seedlings. One way to create soil that is excellent for producing seedlings is to create compost.
Margherita Bottazzi has suggested a process for creating excellent compost. In this process you layer soil, organic material, and netting. The first layer, found closest to the ground, is the original soil. On top of this, a layer of organic material, which could
88 include such things as coffee grounds, animal waste, and dead leaves, is placed. Above the organic layer is a layer of netting. On top of the netting is another batch of soil in which there is a wealth of California Red Worms. These red worms are the key to the composting process. They will travel down through the netting to get to the organic material, digest it, and then travel down to the first layer of soil in which they will deposit the decomposed organic material, which is rich in nutrients. Once the worms have reached the layer of soil closest to the ground, the whole pile is flipped and the process is started again. This process is diagramed below and is an excellent way of creating a high quality soil for growing seedlings.
Figure 4-10. The compost gradient process
When you use composted soil, it has an adequate supply of nutrients needed to grow the plants; therefore, there is no need to fertilize the soil. If you begin by using soil that has not been composted, some fertilizer and nutrients may need to be added. This fertilizer can be mixed in before the seeds are sown or can be applied later using a diluted solution to water the plants. It is important that seeds get nutrients either by fertilizer or from composted soil.
89 The above description gives an idea of what Dosel, S.A. would need to launch a nursery, but we must continue to introduce what maintenance would be needed once the nursery is established. The small seedlings need care and protection so that they get enough water, not too much sun and are protected from harmful things such as bugs and diseases. For best results it is suggested that the main caretaker live on the premises of the nursery in case there should be an emergency. This would also allow for ease in tending to the beds and saplings early in the morning, which is preferable.
Water and nutrients are the key element in maintaining a nursery. Caretakers must water small saplings at least three times a day during the dry season and usually twice a day during the rainy season. It is better to water them early in the morning and early in the afternoon. In planning for the greenhouse, it is essential that the site be close to a reliable water source. It would be helpful to put in an irrigation system, which cuts down on labor, but it is an expensive investment.
Weeds and overgrowth are another concern that Dosel, S.A. carefully consider in planning the nursery. Weeding can be done mechanically, but this is most often only done in very large nurseries. Hand weeding is the process most often used in the tropics and is the best type to use with small saplings. It is important to keep weeds out of the beds so there is less competition for the trees that you are actually trying to grow.
Workers should weed the beds at least two times a week; with other species it must be done more often.
In caring for small seedlings, it is important to protect them from such things as diseases and pests. This can be done in several ways. One is to maintain a clean nursery, one in which there is not an excess of water or weeds. Another way is to complete the
90 process of soil sterilization before planting the seedlings. This process is often used by large-scale operations, but is not necessarily needed at a small-scale operation such as
Dosel, S.A. wishes to create. The easiest way to maintain control of disease is to use fungicides or chemicals in areas where there are problems. This type of spot treating will allow the plant to continue growing without damaging the plants around it. In order to protect against pests Evan‘s (1982) suggests that you use soil sterilization and insecticides. Again, in small-scale operations insecticides are probably the best solution.
In order to protect against larger pests, such as animals and birds, it is suggested that there be a guard on site or a fence system.
4.3.3. Greenhouse
A greenhouse in a nursery can be a very helpful structure. Depending on its construction, it can provide shade and protection from the elements. An irrigation system can use the frame of a greenhouse for support. Because the construction of the greenhouse will take place in the tropics, it will be a tool for protection from pests unlike typical North American structures, which use greenhouses to maintain a tropical atmosphere. For this reason climate control is not a large issue. This cuts down on the cost of creating the greenhouse and also the need for maintenance. More importantly for this project, the builders should deign the greenhouse to be aesthetically pleasing. If a greenhouse is constructed, it will be an excellent means to teach tourists about different processes needed to grow saplings and about the regeneration project or to display beautiful forest plants such as orchids.
There are several types of greenhouses that Dosel, S.A. can construct; the most practical of these is the cold frame construction. This type of greenhouse requires no
91 electricity or temperature control systems. Choosing the site for the greenhouse should be similar to choosing the site for the nursery. It would need to be away from winds, unblocked by trees, and well drained. Evans (1982) suggests that these structures be no taller than 7 feet high and twelve feet long in order to support the glazing material.
The glazing material is the main portion of the greenhouse; this is the material used to enclose the structure. Often glass or PVC is used. Glass is a more expensive material but lasts much longer, and is easier to maintain. PVC is better than using thin plastic sheets and last for about ten years. PVC material can be found in both transparent and opaque varieties. Both glass and PVC would work well for the type of structure that
Dosel, S.A. wants to build. Glazing materials may also be corrugated plastic or corrugated metal. This material comes in sheets and can be alternated on the roof of a structure to provide balance between shade and sunlight. Both elements last about as long as PVC.
The material used to support the glazing is the frame of the greenhouse. This material must be able to stand up to the elements. The longer it will withstand these elements, the longer the greenhouse will last. Wood is a good frame because it works as a good insulator. If wood is used as frame, it is recommended that it be pressure treated soft wood or a wood such as redwood or cedar. Another option for the frame of a greenhouse is steel or aluminum. Steel will last the longest but must be galvanized or painted so that it does not rust. Aluminum may be expensive but this material does not need to be protected from rust. Depending on how long the company wants the greenhouse to be around will determine which type of frame to use.
92 The structure inside the greenhouse is often very simple. It usually consists of a series of benches, which have two levels. The upper level is used for plants that need more sun, while the lower level can be used for those plants that need more shade. The benches are usually made out of wood and support small plastic containers to hold the growing saplings. An irrigation system is optional but expensive; misting the plants with a hose is the easiest and most inexpensive way to water the plants.
Many suggest that there should be two thermometers in the greenhouse in order to monitor the temperature. One of these should be placed in a shady area and the second one should be placed in direct sunlight. To adjust the temperature inside the greenhouse, experts use shading and ventilation. If the temperature is too high nurseries will use netting, such as zaran, to shade the area, and ventilation. In order to keep the temperature high at night gardeners recommend that the glazing be closed in the late afternoon, so that it stores the afternoon heat until the morning.
4.3.4. Uses of the Greenhouse and Nursery
The possible uses of the greenhouse and nursery go beyond helping the forest regeneration process and extend to activities with the community and tourism. Simple changes in the construction and design of the greenhouse can make it into a tourist attraction. Possible extensions to the greenhouse are a butterfly or frog garden or a place to display canopy plant like orchids. As explained in section 4.2 this will help educate the tourist further about the need for reforestation and the process needed to complete it.
More importantly, in maintaining the idea of ecotourism, we must work to better the standard of living of the local community near of Jacó. There are many ways that a greenhouse or nursery can be helpful in doing this. One idea is school programs. For
93 example, Dosel, S.A. could work with local schools to teach children about the process of reforestation. We discuss several of these processes in the following section. We also found out from Fernando Cortez, one of the biologists we interviewed, that students who are in universities must complete 300 hours of community service. Dosel, S.A. may be able to offer programs in which students can participate and work towards earning their
300 hours.
We discussed the necessities of setting a volunteer project up with community service director Todd Forman of Ursuline Academy located in Cincinnati Ohio. He has years of experience as a volunteer coordinator and shared what he has learned from these.
First people have to be excited about working on the project. It is helpful to ―engage the potential volunteers by helping them to understand what you are doing and whit it is important.‖ It is important for volunteers for fell that they what they are doing is valuable. One way to do this is to recognize and reward those who have done outstanding work towards the project.
Like any other project, a volunteer project also needs publicity. ―People like to work towards a grand vision, they like to be part of something big; put your vision into words, pictures, or other forms of communication that can help convey your dream.‖
These programs will require energy, enthusiasm, and lots of work. It will be important to find key people, with a passion for the project, who are leaders in the community to bring groups of people. With these ideas in mind, Dosel, S.A. should be able to develop an excellent volunteer program.
94 5. Recommendations
Data collection and analysis has led us to the following recommendations. As
Dosel, S.A. works to open a new location in Costa Rica, they should develop a comprehensive strategy for ecotourism (section 5.1) and maintain it throughout their operations. Tour guides (5.2) will be the primary tool for educating visitors (5.3). An emphasis of the Central Pacific Aerial Tram will be tropical forest regeneration (5.4), and we recommend a nursery (5.5) to facilitate the regeneration project and help teach visitors about the process. We also suggest special programs (5.6) to involve the community in the project. Finally, we recommend future goals that Dosel, S.A. may want to pursue
(5.7).
5.1. Strategy for Ecotourism
The first task the Central Pacific Aerial Tram should accomplish, even before hiring employees or beginning construction, is to create a comprehensive strategy for ecotourism, including a written plan with the following specific goals:
1. Patronize area businesses whenever practical,
2. Consistently represent the local people,
3. Educate tourists about ways they can help the environment, and
4. Use any available resources to conserve and repair the environment.
Ways to accomplish these goals are:
1. Contract with local builders to construct Central Pacific Aerial Tram
facilities,
95 2. Employ a staff of nearby residents, purchase items from local craftspeople,
and hire local interior designers to decorate visitor areas,
3. Incorporate educational programs into every tourist experience, and
4. Make information about the tropical forest regeneration program available
to non-profit organizations interested in conducting similar projects.
5.2. Tour Guides
Tour guides will be an essential component of the Central Pacific Aerial Tram.
They can also be an integral part of the tropical forest regeneration project, and, of course, the main connection between Dosel, S.A. and its customers. As an ecotourist operation, the Central Pacific Aerial Tram should hire guides from the local Jacó region, and support them throughout their employment.
The guides should start working before the park opens if the Rain Forest Aerial
Tram offers them the opportunity to help with the tropical forest regeneration project in the Central Pacific. Both experienced and new guides will learn from each other and simultaneously learn about tropical forest regeneration through their involvement in the project. If the two groups of guides work on the start-up of the new location during the low season for tourists, Dosel, S.A. will be able to hire fewer short-term employees for the construction period.
After the park is open and employs a full staff of guides from the area, Dosel,
S.A. should still encourage shared learning among them. When the park is over-staffed with guides on low-volume days, they should share tours and exchange information while educating tourists at the same time. This will increase the quality of future tours and enhance visitor experience.
96 Dosel, S.A. should consider offering employment or payment options during the low season in order to support a full staff of tour guides year-round. During the dry season in Costa Rica, the park will be predictably full with cruise ship passengers participating in package tours, and most guides will be working full-time. However, during the rainy season, visits from tourists will be lower, and the volume will not sustain a full staff of guides.
Other types of employment should be available for motivated guides who do not wish to seek work with other companies during the low season. Tour guides often have specialized knowledge about forest ecology and may be able to help with other projects during the rainy season. For example, building a frog trail and a butterfly garden similar to those at the Rain Forest Aerial Tram would provide good alternative work for guides in the Central Pacific. These projects will benefit the Company during its next busy season by providing extra activities for tourists waiting for their ride on the tram. They would also benefit individual guides by providing them with a paycheck and additional learning. Dosel, S.A. could also offer them preferred scheduling during the busy season to reward them for their services.
If Central Pacific Aerial Tram tour guides do not have the background necessary to contribute to one of these specialized projects and do not anticipate being reliably employed elsewhere during the rainy season, they should be able to select a year-round payment option. This choice, common among seasonal jobs in other industries, would allow them to have a portion of each paycheck set aside during their term of full-time employment and paid back to them during the season when they are out of work.
97 5.3. Educating Tourists about Environmental Issues
One of the goals listed in section 5.1 for an ecotourism strategy is to educate tourists about ways they can help the environment. Most people are vaguely aware of the damage that we are all causing the world‘s natural ecosystems, particularly tropical forests. However, many people may believe that nothing they can do will make a significant difference. The main environmental message that the Central Pacific Aerial
Tram needs to convey to tourists during their visit is that there are ways every person can help the environment. The best learning method is participating in activities, so planting a tree from the on-site nursery could be an effective technique to get visitors involved in a specific way they can help the environment. Participating in a conversation about damage humans have done to the ecology of the Earth and learning about efforts to reverse this damage will help tourists remember what they have learned. Once they come to understand how the rate of deforestation dramatically exceeds the rate of reforestation, they will realize how difficult it is to remedy the situation. Other interesting factoids that they receive from their tour guides may also encourage visitors to pass this newly gained information along to their friends and family.
Educating tourists about tropical forest regeneration will clearly be a focus of the
Central Pacific Aerial Tram. Any tourist who has tried to grow a garden will already have some ideas about what forest regeneration might entail. However, visitors to the
Central Pacific Aerial Tram will learn that the process is very complex and involves many different scientific methods. We propose that the walking trails in the park show these different methods of regeneration as discussed in the following section. A loop
98 trail, for example, that leads visitors past different plots will allow them to compare and contrast each method on their own.
5.4. Tropical Forest Regeneration
5.4.1. Implementation
In order to provide a denser forest and a faster transition from secondary growth to primary and secondary forest, we recommend a continuation of the planting of seedlings already begun by the caretaker on the Pacific site with a larger variety of species, such as the ones discussed in our results (see Section 4.1.4). Patch planting a variety of fast, medium, and slow growing trees in areas of dense secondary growth will aid recovery with minimal labor, materials, and management costs. We also recommend demonstrating the use of remnant trees with the guanabana fields currently on the site and leaving the secondary growth in the area over which the tram will pass. This will provide a comparison and contrast between natural regeneration, facilitated regeneration of secondary growth, and facilitated regeneration of a mixture of primary and secondary forest.
Types of species can be evaluated from species specific recommendations obtained from CATIE and OTS. We have narrowed our own list of fourteen species down to five for each of the two types of areas that we recommend planted as saplings.
We also use these tree types to provide an example of species specific planning for a regeneration project (see below).
The tree species planted in this regeneration project, will not only eventually define the canopy, but all layers of the regenerated tropical forest. The species we
99 recommend here is only a start, and by planting a larger variety of local tree species, a more diverse variety of animal, insect, and other plant species will develop.
5.4.2. Management
The management methods that we recommend are species specific and on a case- by-case scenario. For instance, the Guanacaste tree will have to be planted near a stream or in the shade of other growth, and even then in the dry season will require watering.
Otherwise, saplings will need to be watered for an extended period to prevent desiccation, or drying out of the trees.
Instead of hiring labor for management, we recommend the use of guides, perhaps leading students or other volunteers from the local community. Involvement of the guides will give them a better understanding of the process as well as make them a part of it (see section 5.2). Involvement of students and the local community with explanations will also demonstrate the goodwill of Dosel, S.A. and teach steps that can be taken to manage a regenerated area (see section 5.6).
Eugenia Solano has informed us that this project will begin before the operation of the park and tour guides will not be present until its opening. Therefore, a site manager, present before the opening, will be needed. This person could be a hired biologist or student from EARTH University (see section 5.5) that would organize the implementation and begin the management of the site. This person would also make final decisions on the species to be planted and the method or methods that would be used, as well as how and where seedlings would be planted.
With this, we recommend guides organized to formally document the area to build an archive of information for study, display, or sharing as previously described (see
100 section 3.1.2). The first part of this documentation process that we propose is similar to the process already present at the current tram site of sharing animal sightings and documenting bird populations. The guides at the new site should record this same information to be organized by one person in a single place. As we have stated previously, this will demonstrate part of the success of the regeneration project by providing records of the increase in both individuals and species variety within the area.
The second part of this process is the photographic and tree-specific record keeping of the regeneration areas. The photography can be done once a month by a single person. A single spot from which all other pictures are taken should be defined at the same time regeneration is begun. Photography should also be combined with the methods below to provide a complete archive recording the development of individual trees.
Keeping track of these individuals within the area can be accomplished by tagging with multicolored emergency tape. This cheap plastic tape will not degrade over time, but can be removed at a later date, if needed. Not being degradable is an advantage for tracking trees over periods longer than ten years. Data that should be recorded include age, height, foliage, seed or fruit production, disease, infestations or unusual growth as well as any fauna or other flora observed using the tree. Different colors can be used to mark species, then the tags marked by identification number for individual identification.
Measurements of trees could involve students and members of the local community. Different areas could even be kept track of by different classes of a school for a year before being passed to the next year‘s class. See section 5.6 for other ways to involve the local community.
101 The regeneration process does not end at the planting of a sapling and should be closely monitored for problems. Successful care of individual trees will result in a thriving, diverse forest that Central Pacific Aerial Tram will be proud to display.
5.4.3. Sample Regeneration Process
This section will consider both areas that we previously described as suitable for regeneration (see section 4.1.1). The first is the regeneration of primary and secondary forest in the midst of the dense secondary growth along the current walking trail, while the second addresses regeneration in the guanabana fields. We selected two sets of five species from our list for each sample process.
For regeneration amid secondary growth, we chose Huevos de Caballo
(Stemmadenia donnell-smithii), Guácimo (Guazuma ulmifolia), a species of Guaba pollinated by bats (Inga sp.), Guácimo Molenillo (Luehea candida), and the pioneer species Guarumo (Cecropia peltata). Initial planting is done with only Guarumo seedlings and Guácimo stakings (living fences) at a very loose density throughout the area (one seedling every seven meters). Trees are tagged by species and marked with individual numbers. By the end of the month, guides leading tours through the area note that while a few of each species die, the others grow well. One guide takes pictures from a spot tagged in red emergency tape over three months showing the new leaf growths on the staked trees and the increase in height of Guarumos.
Because of the dense growth that provides a substantial amount of shade for saplings, the remaining three species are planted after four months allowing the first two species to grow. Seedlings are planted around the surviving Guarumo and Guácimo trees
102 Figure 5-1. An example timeline for regeneration from secondary growth
with one of each species, three trees, in a circle of about two meters around the faster growing species.
As the faster growing Cecropia and Guácimo trees shade out and reduce competition with the secondary growth, the medium growing Guácimo Molenillos and
Huevos de Caballos compete against each other for light. The presence of ferns is reduced due to the presence of the taller pioneer trees that minimize the light in the area.
Guides record a wide variety of birds frequenting the trees while collared peccaries, tapirs, agoutis and squirrels appear more often as the Guácimo stakings begin producing fruit. Figure 5-1 illustrates this process.
The second scenario uses Ficus sp., Corteza Amarilla (Tebebuia ochracea),
Guanacaste (Enterolobium cyclocarpum), Indio Desnudo (Bursera simaruba) and Jabillo
(Hura crepitans).
Jabillo is planted first in open areas since it is shade intolerant. Indio Desnudo is then staked and Ficus seedlings planted in the shade of a few remnant fruit trees left in the field. Around other remnant trees, the grasses are burned and Corteza planted in the lighter areas while Guanacaste seedlings are planted in the more shaded areas and along
103
Figure 5-2. An example timeline for regeneration from guanabana fields
the edge of the stream. As in the other example, trees are once again tagged, but for this example the project areas are also be marked with white twine.
Over time, the grasses grow back competing with the trees. The grasses are carefully burned again over a wider area. When burning is required a third time, chemical fertilizer is also be applied to keep the trees healthy. Unsuccessful stakes of
Indio Desnudo are removed, and when a distinctly open area appears where trees have not grown successfully, the stakes are piled there along with other branches and forest debris. During the dry season, the Guanacaste trees are watered once a day, just enough to wet the soil around the saplings. Photos and observations by tour guides care collected and displayed in the main building providing visitors with a sense of what the Central
Pacific Aerial tram has accomplished over the years of maintaining this project. Figure
5-2 illustrates this example process.
5.5. Nursery
Research on reforestation and ecotourism leads us to recommend that the Central
Pacific Aerial Tram build a nursery on their new site. This nursery is needed to simplify
104 the complicated process of regeneration. The nursery can also be a tourist attraction and will be an effective means of involving the local community in the new site. All of these goals, forest regeneration, ecotourist education, and involvement of local community are fundamental to Dosel, S.A.‘s larger goal of sustaining their image as an ecotourist company.
Building the nursery should be relatively simple but will require supervision from someone more experienced in the field. Several elements are crucial to creating a nursery area. The first is location. We recommend that the proposed nursery be located at the end of the small loop trails, so that visitors have the option of walking through the area or just viewing it from the trail as they hike.
The area chosen for the construction should be an area protected from strong winds, thereby avoiding damage to the structures and the plants housed within them.
Further, the area should not be obstructed by trees or prone to an excessive amount of weeds. It is appropriate to vary the amount of sun and shade, and this is easier to do by covering the seedbeds rather than by calculating the shade provided by the trees.
Keeping weeds out of the area allows the trees to grow without competition, which is important in raising young seedlings. Also important is that the area be protected from animals, preferably by a fence. To emphasize that this is an environmentally friendly project we recommend using a living fence (see staking discussed in section 2.4.6). Once experts and the executive members of Dosel S.A. agree on the area for the nursery it will be time to lay out the site. There will be five separate areas, which are diagramed below.
105
Figure 5-3. Example nursery layout.
106 The first area will be the compost area. This area requires nothing other than natural elements. The compost should be a mixture of soil, organic matter, and worms.
We recommend using the process described in the section 4.3 that involves California
Red Worms crossing over a gradient. Someone must rotate the material as soon as the worms pass through the gradient. This happens about every three months, which is also the amount of time needed to create a nutrient rich soil, excellent for planting saplings and seedlings.
The second area that needs to be constructed for the nursery is beds to sow seeds in. We recommended that these beds be about two feet wide and 4 feet long and have a height of about four inches. The location of these beds is flexible. They can be created outside on the ground or raised in a shelter such as the ones show below, which are located at EARTH University. These seedbeds are inside a screened structure covered with a roof of alternating corrugated plastic and corrugated metal.
Another important component of the nursery will be a protected greenhouse area.
This area will provide a place for certain fragile species to be protected from the natural elements. An appropriate size for the greenhouse is about 40 square meters, which would easily allow for a circular path around the entire greenhouse. A good way to set up a greenhouse with this much space is to use a center posts that is 3.5 meters high and two- side posts that are 2.5 meters high as shown below.
We recommend that the post be made of a pretreated wooden material and that the roof be made of corrugated polycarbonate sheet and corrugated metal. The alternation of the material allows for a variance of sun and shade.
107
Figure 5-4. Recommended nursery dimensions.
Inside the greenhouse, there should be enough space so that tourist can walk around a circular path and see the different activities of the growing process. The inside area must also have access to water. It is possible to create several levels of benches, which would allow for the growth of different of heights of plants. Having several levels will also make the greenhouse a more attractive display. Having double levels of shelving in the greenhouse provides another shaded layer for those plants that require shading. Below is a rough sketch of a possible greenhouse setup.
There are certain materials that need to be stored near the greenhouse. Those people who work at the greenhouse will need a place to prepare seeds and young saplings for transfer. This area is the fourth important element of the nursery: a management station. It can be open air, but we recommend that it have a roof and that it has some closed in area where materials needed for the regeneration project can be stored. The
108
Figure 5-5. A greenhouse at EARTH
materials that we recommend storing in this area are watering cans, small sponges, metal pipes, extra Zaran, buckets, and any chemicals that are needed. In the management station it will be important that there be a large washbasin, ample access to water, shelving for storage, and a large work bench. We recommend that Dosel, S.A. create this management station as an annex to the greenhouse for ease of care, but it may also be created as a separate building.
The last element of the nursery will be a place to store the seedlings before they are planted in the forest. This should be a small area that is free of weeds and can hold several rows of species. It would be more educational to visitors and easier to care for if each separate species were set in its own row and labeled. Some of these species may still need to grow in less than direct sunlight; if this is necessary then small Zaran tents can be constructed over the plots. Zaran is a black plastic mesh material that comes in a variety of densities to allow different levels of light through it. A more shaded area
109 should be created for those saplings that need to be grown in a cooler setting. Although this is an expensive material, it lasts longer than plastic and is less expensive than glass.
The material can also be repeatedly used unlike plastic. Dosel S.A. already owns some of this material.
Once the construction of the nursery is complete, the focus shifts to what we need to grow in the nursery. For this, we recommend that Dosel, S.A. collaborate with
FUNDECOR and CATIE to select and obtain species to start the greenhouse. It will be important to start with ten to fifteen different species that have a known growth process.
The seeds for these species should be selected from such places as CATIE, OTS, and
Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica – Ciudad Quesada, which all have seed banks. The seeds should all be native of the Central Pacific area, but come from different parts of the country so they have greater genetic variety. It will also be interesting for the Dosel, S.A. to experiment with several types of species whose growing processes scientist have not yet documented. Once the caretaker has obtained seeds, one of the planting processes described in section 4.3.2 should be used based on the recommendation of an expert pertaining to that particular species. After the planting process has been decided on, the manager can start the growing process using the areas created at the site.
Construction of these areas should take place under the supervision of an expert.
One option that would work out well for the company is to hire a student from EARTH
University to complete a major project at the site. The reason we recommend this four- month project, to be completed by a senior at the university, is low cost, and high expertise. The cost would be no more than the cost for the student‘s room and board for the four months of the project and would be much lower than the cost for a contracting
110 company to come in and design and construct the site. Because the student is a senior at a university, which specializes in agriculture and forestry in Costa Rica, he or she would have the qualifications needed to create the nursery. This program would also be a great way to involve younger students in the development of the new tram site.
Construction and development of the nursery could be a continuous project completed by several students. The first project would be to set up the basic needs of the nursery. The second project might have a student set up a maintenance program for the nursery and a program to teach guides about the scientific aspects of regeneration. A third project would ask the student to finalize programs and implement them in the community surrounding Jacó area. If this type of project were used to create the nursery it could greatly lower the cost without sacrificing the expertise because a research institution would be involved from the beginning.
Establishing a nursery is an excellent way to involve the community in the
Central Pacific Aerial Tram‘s regeneration project. The local community and guides should be incorporated in the construction of the nursery and continue to be involved in maintenance of the site. The nursery will also allow for programs with community and local children.
5.6. Projects and Programs
When any company goes into a community to start a project, they must encourage local people to participate. This is no different for Dosel, S.A. and its regeneration project. In order to maintain positive relationships with the community, the Central
Pacific Aerial Tram must involve them from the start of the regeneration project. This will facilitate development of the site and reinforce the company‘s reputation for
111 ecological awareness and good citizenship. This will make the project easier to finish and uphold Dosel, S.A.‘s image as an ecotourist company. The way for the Company to involve the local community is through volunteer, school and employment programs. We provide recommendations for these in the following paragraphs and the programs are outlined in the chart below.
Figure 5-6. Community programs for the Central Pacific Aerial Tram
5.6.1. Volunteer Programs
The Aerial Tram should invite the community to participate in volunteer programs that facilitate the regeneration project. These programs should be offered first to the guides who will be working for Aerial Tram, and then extended to local schools, churches, or environmental organizations in the Jacó area. It is best to first ask some guides to become involved because they have already made a commitment to the tram, and have expressed deep concern about the satisfaction of visitors. Luis Sánchez points
112 out that all communities in Costa Rica have a school, a church, and a soccer field.
Therefore, after the guides volunteer positions should be offered to high school and college students who express interest in the environment as well as environmentally active members of the community.
In each of these places, local leaders can collaborate with a staff person at the
Central Pacific Aerial Tram to coordinate the programs. Each of these leaders should be enthusiastic about the program, so that they pass this enthusiasm on to the participants.
They also should be known for their commitment to save the Earth‘s environment. We describe more about setting up volunteer programs in section 4.3.4.
Volunteers will be an integral part of completing the Central Pacific Aerial
Tram‘s regeneration project. With the voluntary involvement of the Jacó community there might be less cost to Dosel, S.A., and it would be a good marketing point for the company. Once the volunteer coordinator for the Company has identified local leaders, they will work together to implement several programs. These programs should be offered as volunteer opportunities at first, but Dosel, S.A. may need to provide some employment in order to get all the workers they need.
We suggest that these programs go hand-in-hand with the progression of the regeneration process. The first project we would recommend is one that uses local volunteers and paid worker working together to create the nursery site. For this program, volunteers could be used to construct the seedbeds and the greenhouse, organize the management station, and clear the site of weeds and brush. Much of the labor that will be needed is manual and will not require much expertise. There will need to be one expert on the staff to supervise the construction and give directions. The Central Pacific Aerial
113 Tram should offer the program on weekend mornings so that people who work during the week can be involved. It is also a good idea to start this program during the slow season when tourist communities such as Jacó generally have less to do.
Once the nursery is completed, it will be wise to involve the community in the maintenance of the nursery. This will require some training for those who do not have a background in reforestation or ecology and of course, the nursery will need an expert to be there full time to oversee it. There is a program much like this at EARTH University, where one supervisor works at the greenhouse full time, but trained student volunteers do most of the physical tasks. Responsibilities of these volunteers include weeding, watering, and planting in the nursery area. The nursery can use a variety of age groups in this process. If younger children are trained properly, they will feel a great sense of accomplishment when it is time to take the seedlings they have raised and plant them in the new tropical forest.
Finally, community volunteers and employees could work on planting the seedlings at specified sites. This is again something that is manual and can be completed by most generations and education levels. This would involve learning the process that is needed to transplant the saplings and understanding the care they need once transplanted.
If they can learn this process through the Central Pacific Aerial Tram, volunteers would be able to apply the process to other reforestation projects.
Families or students who are involved in volunteer programs from the start will be very dedicated to the project. As time passes, they might see the results and might be inspired to create their own reforestation projects. Working on the Central Pacific Aerial
Tram‘s project will have given them the knowledge necessary to start reforestation
114 projects on their own land. People, who have been involved in the project from the beginning will also have a huge sense of accomplishment and loyalty to Dosel, S.A.
5.6.2. School Programs
It would be a good idea for Dosel S.A. to involve local schools in their new tram site. The tram currently has a program that takes schoolchildren to it existing site, and we recommend expanding this program. Currently the program only brings children to the tram once, and there is little in-class instruction about what they will see at the tram. We recommend that the tram provide an ecological curriculum to schools, to be taught by the local teachers in cooperation with guides before the children visit the park. Different grades would have different lessons followed by a hands-on activity at the tram along with a tram ride.
For example, second or third grade students can learn about the different habitats of animals. In the classroom, they can study habitats of the world, such as the northern dry forests in the United States. They can also study the habitats of Costa Rica including the rain forest, dry forest, and transitional forest. The Central Pacific Aerial Tram site is an excellent location to show them because it is a transitional forest that reveals the beauty of both Costa Rica‘s rain forests and tropical dry forest. After learning about different habitats the students would take a field trip to the Central Pacific Aerial Tram site to see first-hand what an animal‘s habitat looks like. There they can ride on the tram and identify insects such as leaf cutter ants in their natural habitats.
Another program might involve fourth or fifth grade students studying different tree species and the difference between primary and secondary forests. Again, the tram is one of the best places to teach students about this difference because ride travels through
115 primary and secondary forests. A hands-on activity that could be done with these students is leaf rubbings, which is done by collecting leaves from different species, placing a piece of paper over the leaves, and rubbing the long edge of a crayon over the paper. Then the students could organize the leaf rubbings into two separate piles, for instance primary species and secondary species. This is an excellent way to discover differences in leaf styles of the two types of forest.
A coordinator at the Central Pacific Aerial Tram, possibly a student from EARTH
University, and the teachers the tram will be working with must work together to expand and particularize the programs discussed above. The actual visits to the site would happen during the rainy season, but the curriculum taught in the schools could last year round, with a guide assisting in class shortly before the tram visit. Initially the tram the programs might be organized in schools every other year. For example, one group of students gets to go to the program during third grade, and the following year the rest of the students get to participate in the program. Educating children at a young age about the importance of the rain forest means that they will be more likely to grow up ecologically responsible.
5.6.3. Day Camp
Another program that will help the community is the creation of a day camp.
Student volunteers who are high school or college students and have a desire to work with education and the environment can staff this camp. The participants of the camp may be schoolchildren from Costa Rica during the low season and the children of touring families during the high season. During the low season, the camp can be offered to the local community for a cost just above what is needed to run the camp. This cost will be
116 Table 5-1. Example day camp schedule
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Forest Ecology Reforestation Nursery Process
Tram ride in the Hike to a deforested Tram Ride through morning with a pasture to discuss the forest and an counselor to explain deforestation, why it extensive tour of primary and happens and what greenhouses and secondary forest. we can do about it. grounds.
Lesson on forest Hike back to the Lesson on how trees cycles. Central Pacific grow, what can For example: Food Aerial Tram Site to damage them. Also Chains, Seed have a lesson on the lesson on flowers Dispersion. Along process of and pollination. with a hands on reforestion. activity involving these concepts.
Lunch/ Waterfall Lunch/ Waterfall Lunch/Waterfall Trip Trip Trip Nature hike to Study of the Hands on nursery examine flora and progress of the process: have fauna in primary regeneration project students plant small and secondary areas at the Aerial Tram seeds and transplant Site larger saplings to the forest.
Tram to finish the BEACH TRIP Award Ceremony afternoon
117 relatively low since the staff is working on a volunteer basis. During the high season,
Dosel, S.A. can raise the prices to compensate for the fact that students participating in the camp will not purchase a ticket for the tram ride. The Company could market the camp as a safe and educational program that allows kids and parents to enjoy the area by themselves. Many companies offer this to parents so that they may get away by themselves for the morning. An example of a three-day camp schedule is found on the next page.
It would work well to offer this camp from nine to two, and include a lunch on the park site. The size of the camp groups depends on the amount of participants on a particular day. It is most logical to split large groups up into similar age groups.
Depending on the age of the group, it may be important to provide snacks in the morning or in the afternoon. On the second afternoon, there is a trip to Jacó Beach.
Transportation for the trip would be provided by the Aerial Tram minibuses. Program organizers should create inside activities as a backup plan in the case of excessive rain. If students participate in this camp and in school programs run by Dosel, S.A., it is likely that they will want to give something back to the company. This project is an extraordinary way to combine volunteer opportunities with school programs.
These programs provide ways in which Dosel, S.A. can involve the community in their new Central Pacific site. These recommendations would have to be developed in further detail by an employee of Dosel, S.A. and by a local community coordinator. .
Maintaining a positive community relationship is important for any company in the area; these recommendations will facilitate the opening of the new site and will enhance its reputation for ecological and social concern.
118 5.7. Plans for the Future
The Central Pacific Aerial Tram should start planning for the future before the park opens. These plans, extensions of this project, will create opportunities for tour guides to work during the rainy season, future methods for ecological management of the regenerated forest, and a system for sustaining the ecotourist focus in Dosel, S.A. The general manager of the Central Pacific site should be responsible for making sure the
Company implements these plans at the right time.
Another step Dosel, S.A. needs to take due to the expansion to the Central Pacific is to redesign its website. The new site should have a distinct section for each branch of the main company. The Central Pacific Aerial Tram‘s page should include, in addition to generic material already on the Rain Forest Aerial Tram‘s page, information about the tropical reforestation project. The website will be an excellent place to post pictures of the process and share any information learned through Dosel, S.A.‘s work.
Esta tierra pertenece a los costarricences, algunos ya han muerto, otros todavía viven, pero la mayoría aún no ha nacido. - Costa Rican saying
This land belongs to the Costa Ricans, some have already died, others are still living, but most have not even been born.
119 6. Conclusion
This project has challenged us to extend our technological education to an application that will benefit society, particularly the community near Jacó. Throughout the project we worked to prepare a plan for the development and management of a tropical forest regeneration project for the Central Pacific Aerial Tram. This report examines the first steps necessary in implementing a regeneration process, along with describing ways to make visitors more environmentally aware and involve the community from the beginning of the project.
Deforestation is a continuing concern in today‘s world. The Central Pacific
Aerial Tram will do their part to prevent further deforestation, and will work to implement a regeneration project on their property. Our proposal provides the basic recommendations for starting the regeneration project. Our proposal will have to be expanded upon by foresters and biologist who have many years of expertise beyond what we were able comprehend in our four-month study. We created these recommendations, for methods of regeneration and sample regeneration projects, from careful research, through which we discovered what plants are native to the Central Pacific coast, and which of these attracts species of birds, animals, and insects. In order to complete this project, we hope the Central Pacific Aerial Tram will find these recommendations the basis for further study.
The regeneration project will be an excellent facilitator for turning out a more ecologically aware visitor. Our project provides ways that the Company can educate visitors on the harms of deforestation and will encourage them to be more
120 environmentally aware. Through these education programs, we hope that the Central
Pacific Aerial Tram will play a role in stopping the massive deforestation that continues today in Costa Rica and other Latin American countries.
In order to make this program successful, we believe Dosel S.A must work to involve the community from the start. Involving the community from the start will help to maintain the Company‘s reputation as a front-runner in ecotourism. Recommendations for programs involving adults and students allow the community to be involved in a highly scientific process. Teaching local participants about reforestation may encourage them to start their own regeneration programs. School programs, which will involve students at a young age, may inspire them to grow up ecologically responsible.
Our work in Costa Rica focused on creating a plan to implement and manage a tropical regeneration project. In creating this plan, we provided recommendations for starting the regeneration project, encouraging environmental awareness, and involving the community. Our experiences in Costa Rica go beyond completing these recommendations. The project brought us into a different culture and taught us to live and enjoy Costa Rican traditions. We have learned the value of being ecologically minded and how difficult it is in such a consumer driven world. Working as a group of students in a foreign country whose language we did not know taught us the importance of working as a team. Costa Rican culture taught us to enjoy new foods, local traditions and ―Tico time.‖ In conclusion, our experiences here are invaluable and something that will greatly benefit as we continue with other projects both social and scholastic.
¡Pura Vida!
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129
Appendices
Appendix A: Company Mission and Organization
Mission of the Aerial Tram Company:
"To promote environmental awareness and conservation of imperiled natural resources through innovative ecological solutions, education and scientific research in order to create a world class tourist experience"
Objectives of the Company
Develop strategic relations with Governmental, Commercial, Educational and Scientific entities that will position the Company at the global leader of nature tourism To consolidate the company through excellent customer service, efficient, administrative practice and sound financial decisions. Expand company value and credibility through the diversification of nature tourism activities. Design and develop conservation activities for the benefit of imperiled natural resources. To adopt a philosophy of working as a team and pursuit of continued improvement that will be accomplished through principles of honesty, humility and honor.
Company’s Role in Conservation
By taking visitors (as well as scientists) into the previously hidden world of the tree top canopy, we help to promote a better appreciation for wildlife and the fragile interrelationships of life on the planet.
Company Programs
Scientific Research Sponsor: The Company has programs which support institutions such as The Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad. With these programs they hope to promote research that will lead to further knowledge of life in the rain forest. School Programs: The tram challenges students to create environmental projects for their local community. In return for completing the project students are offered a trip to the tram at a greatly reduced admission fee. Newsletter: The Rain Forest Gazette their online and e-mail newsletter, reaches out to conservationists, naturalists and eco-travelers worldwide
History and Background
The Rain Forest Aerial Tram Company is a tourist company founded in 1993 by
Dr. Donald Perry. The park opened in October of 1994 and currently owns 475 hectares in the Costa Rican Atlantic Watershed. The location of the park is 50 minutes from San
José on land which borders the northern limit of Braulio Carrillo National Park. The idea for creating the park the tram stemmed from the need for researchers to have access to the canopy of the rainforest. Previously this area, which contains two thirds of all rain forest species, was unreachable by tourist, and very difficult for biologist to study. By allowing visitors to ―fly through the forest‖ the Rain Forest Aerial Tram hoped to encourage conservation efforts as well as research.
The park is open Tuesday through Sunday from 6:30 till 4:30. On Mondays the park opens at 9:00 to allow for weekly maintenance. When visitors arrive at they park they are taken by minibuses from the parking lot into the rain forest at the base of the tram operation. Before visitors go on the tram ride they are introduced to the operation and its history through a short video. After this visitors board the tram for a 90 minute ride through the jungle canopy. Four or five visitors ride in a gondola with a trained tour guide who will point out the different wildlife, explain the history of the forest and make bird calls. On the tour visitor travel through 2,600 meters of primary and secondary forest. The highest point of the ride is 35 meters above ground in the exciting rain forest canopy.
Once the tram ride is over visitors are accompanied by their guide on a nature hike. The trails are easily accessible and are currently being improved. Once visitors have finished their hike they are welcome to visit the Rain Forest Aerial Tram‘s
restaurant or breakfast or lunch, or visit the souvenir shop. The entrance fee for the tram is $49.50 for adults and 24.75 for children and students with private shuttles too and from
San José to the tram it cost $78.50 for adults and $53.75.
The Rain Forest Aerial Tram recently added 10 Private rooms to their site. These rooms are available to visitors form $95.00 to $160 dollars per person. These rooms are nestled in the rainforest and have two single beds, private bathrooms with hot water and a small terrace. In order to promote conservational awareness there are no air conditioners, televisions or telephones in the room. There is 24 hour security in case of an emergency.
The company is currently involved in developing a new park near Jacó on the
Pacific side of Costa Rica; The Central Pacific Aerial Tram. This new park will have 24 gondolas holding eight people and a guide which will travel through primary and secondary growth in the transitional forest found at the site. During the 60 minute tram ride visitors will have a spectacular view of the Pacific Ocean and enjoy many small waterfalls. At the top of the tram there will be a spectacular view of the Pacific Ocean and views of small waterfalls. This site will be open the same hours as the current Rain
Forest Aerial Tram. It will have a slightly smaller parking lot, a restaurant and souvenir shop similar to the current site.
Appendix B: Questionnaire Items
How long have you been a guide for the Rain Forest Aerial Tram? ______Where do you live in Costa Rica? ______
Where do visitors to the Aerial Tram see more animals?
□ Primary forest □ Secondary forest
Where do visitors to the Aerial Tram see more birds?
□ Primary forest □ Secondary forest
How often do visitors ask about deforestation or rain forest regeneration?
□ Never or almost never □ Regularly □ Occasionally □ Frequently
How often do you share information about these subjects without being asked?
□ Never or almost never □ Regularly □ Occasionally □ Frequently
How comfortable are you with your knowledge of rain forest regeneration?
□ I am not sure how to explain the process of rain forest regeneration. □ I know enough to answer some questions about rain forest regeneration. □ I am confident in my knowledge of rain forest regeneration.
Please check two of the following subjects that you think tourists would be most interested in learning about: □ Deforestation □ Species information □ Conservation efforts □ Rain forest regeneration
How do you think visitors to the Tram would be most interested in learning within an on- site greenhouse/nursery in addition to a tour guide?
□ Audio/Visual, similar to the short video at the current Aerial Tram □ Visual, similar to a museum display □ ―Hands-on‖ activities □ I do not think visitors would be interested in touring a greenhouse/nursery.
Questionnaire Data (Responses from tour guides)
Where do visitors to the Aerial Tram see more animals?
16 Primary forest 9 Secondary forest
Where do visitors to the Aerial Tram see more birds?
3 Primary forest 22 Secondary forest
How often do visitors ask about deforestation or rain forest regeneration?
1 Never or almost never 8 Regularly 7 Occasionally 9 Frequently
How often do you share information about these subjects without being asked?
0 Never or almost never 9 Regularly 5 Occasionally 11 Frequently
How comfortable are you with your knowledge of rain forest regeneration?
1 I am not sure how to explain the process of rain forest regeneration. 18 I know enough to answer some questions about rain forest regeneration. 6 I am confident in my knowledge of rain forest regeneration.
Please check two of the following subjects that you think tourists would be most interested in learning about: (average rank) 4 Deforestation 1 Species information 2 Conservation efforts 3 Rain forest regeneration
How do you think visitors to the Tram would be most interested in learning within an on- site greenhouse/nursery in addition to a tour guide?
3 Audio/Visual, similar to the short video at the current Aerial Tram 4 Visual, similar to a museum display 10 ―Hands-on‖ activities 7 I do not think visitors would be interested in touring a greenhouse/nursery.
Appendix C: Interview Protocol
Background questions: - What organization are you with? - What is your field of expertise? - Where did you study? - What is your experience in this area? General project questions: - What are the criteria for selecting a tree species for reforestation? - What are your feelings on rain forest regeneration? Why should anyone attempt to regenerate a rain forest? - What are the most important topics related to rain forest regeneration for tourists to learn about? - How does your company involve the local community into its projects? Greenhouse/nursery questions: - What are the condition requirement for incoming woody/primary seeds? - Can you give an overview of trying to raise an unstudied species? - What are the issues involved with planting a seedling back in the forest? - Do you have any recommendations for selection of a planting site? Management questions: - Is management of a reforested site necessary? Why or why not? - What techniques are used to manage a reforested site? - Can you overview the process of each technique? - What labor/material requirements are there for management? - What training is required to manage a reforested site? - What are any cases that require special management? - How does management affect local wildlife? Documentation questions: - What is the documentation process for your company? - What training is necessary for the documentation process? - Where is it published? - Where would you recommend a project such as this be published? - How else can Aerial Tram share information with other companies or scientists in Costa Rica? Other technical questions (if applicable): - Are you familiar with the process of air rooting? ~ Can you explain it? ~ What are the requirements? ~ How successful is it? ~ How long does it take? - Are you familiar with the process of staking? ~ Do you think it is possible to find a species that could be ―staked‖? ~ What are the requirements of staking?
Appendix D: Species Catalog
Plant Species
Botanacle Family Species Common Name Sample Growth Available?
Acanthaceae Odontonema tubiforme Yes Barleria micans Yes Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Mango Astonium graveolens Ron ron Spondias mombin Jobo Anacardium exelsum Espavel Yes MG Anonaceae Guatteria Burío MG Annona muricata Guanábana Apocinaceae Aspidosperma Caretigre, costilla de myristicifolium danto Stemmadenia donnel-smithii Huevos de caballo SG Araceae Monstera spp. Mano de tigre Anthurium sp. Anturio Yes Philodendron sp. Tabacón Yes Diffenbachia sp. Sahinillo Yes Arecaceae Cocos nucitera Cocotero Synechanthus wascewiczanus Palmera Chamadorea sp. Pacaya Yes Asteraceae Vernonia Patens Tuete Yes Begoniaceae Begonia sp. Begonia Yes Bignoniaceae Tabebuia guayacan Guayacán MG Tabebuia rosea Boble sabana MG Tabebuia ochracea Corteza amarilla MG Crescetia cujeta Jicaro FG Bombacaceae MG – Bombacopsis Quinata Pochote FG Ceiba pentandra Ceibo FG Ochroma Pyramidale Balsa FG
Boraginaceae Tournefortia Yes Burseraceae Bursera simaruba Indio desnudo Yes LF Cecropiaceae Cecropia peltata Guarumo FG Chrysobalanceae Licania platypus Sonsapote Combretaceae Terminaliea amazonia Roble coral, Amrillon Yes SG Terminalia oblonga Surá, Guayabón MG Costaceae Costus sp. Caño agria Yes Cucurbitaceae Psiguria sp. Yes Cycadaceae Zamia sp. Yes Cyclanthaceae Carludovica palmata Estococa Yes Cyperaceae Rhynchospora nervosa Yes Dioscoeaceae Discorea sp. Yes Ebenaceae Diospyrus sp. Yes Euporbiaceae Acalipha sp. Yes Hura crepitans Javillo Sapium Yos, Palo de leche Yes MG Fabaceae Albizia adinocephala Chipilon, gavilán Mucuna urens Ojo de buey negro, vine Mimosa sp. Yes Samanea saman Cenízaro SG Machaeium biovulatum Siete cueros MG – Cassia grandis Carao SG MG – Schizolobuim parahybum Gallinazo SG Tamarindus indica Tamarindo MG Erythrina fusca Poro FG Lonchocarpus sp. Chaperno MG Enterolobium cyclocarpum Guanacaste Gliricidia sepium Madera negro Inga sp. Guabo Yes Bahuinia sp. Escalera de mono, vine Yes
Flacourtiaceae Xylosma intemedia Peipute Yes Heliconiaceae Heliconis sp. Platanilla Hippocrateaceae Hippocratea volubitis Lauraceae Ocotea sp. Aguacatillo Persea americana Aguacate Lytraceae Lagestroemia speciosa Orgullo de la India Yes Plomo, Amarillón, Lafoensia punicifolia Cascarillo Yes Malpighiaceae sp. Yes Malvaceae Hampea platanifolia Majagua Pavonia sp. Yes Malvaviscus arboreus Amapola Maranthaceae Calathea sp. Platnillas Meliaceae Miconia argentea Santa Maria, Santa Marta Yes Meliaceae Cedrela odorata Cedro amargo SG Moraceae Sorocea pubivena Yes Sorocea sp. Yes Dorstenia contrajerva Yes Thophis sp. Yes FG - Ficus sp. Higuerón MG Ojochillo colorado, Trophis racemosa Ramón Yes Brosimum alicastrum Ojoche Yes MG Myrsinaceae Ardisia sp. Myrtaceae Eugenia sp. Psidium sp. Yes Psidium guajava Guayaba Phytolacaceae Trichostigma sp. Yes Piperaceae Piper sp. Candelillo Polygonaceae Coccoloba sp. Tabacón Triplaris melaenodendron Hormigo Yes
Rhamnaceae Gouania sp. Rubiaceae Macrocnemum glabrescens Yes Hamelia patens Yes Hamelia sp. Yes Rutaceae Erythrochiton gymnanthus Cafesillo Citrus sinensis Naranja Sapindaceae Serjania sp. Yes Cupania glabra Cascua, Manteco Scrophulariaceae Russelia sarmentosa Yes Simaroubaceae Quasia amara Hombre grande Yes Smilacaceae Smilax sp. Zarzaparrilla Yes Sterculiaceae Guazuma ulmifolia Guácimo FG Tiliaceae Apeiba tibourbou Beine de mico MG Goethalsia meiantha Gucimo blanco Leuhea candida Molenillo, guacimo Yes MG Ulmaceae Trema micrantha Jucó FG Urticaceae Urera caracasana Yes Myriocarpa longpipes Ortiga Verbenaceae Lantana camara Cinco negritos Violaceae Rinorea sp.
Bird Species
Family Species English Name Spanish Name Abundance
Tinamidae Tinamus major Great Tinamou Tinamú Grande Uncommon Cripturellus soui Little Tinamou Tinamú Chico Common Ardeidae Bare-throated Garza Tigre Tigrisoma mexicanum Tiger Heron Cuellinuda Uncommon Ardea herodias Great Blue Heron Garzón Azulado Uncommon Casmerodius albus Great Egret Garceta Grande Uncommon Egretta caerulea Little Blue Heron Garceta Azul Common Egretta thula Snowy Egret Gerceta Nivosa Uncommon Egretta tricolor Tricolored Heron Garceta Tricolor Uncommon Egretta rufescens Reddish Egret Garceta Rojiza Rare Garcilla Bublcus ibis Cattle Egret Bueyera Abundent Garcilla Butorides striatus Striated Heron Cuelligrís Common Black-crowned Martinete Nicticorax nicticorax Night Heron Coroninegro Uncommon Yellow-crowned Martinete Nicticorax violaceus Night Heron Cabecipinto Uncommon Threskiornithidae Eudocinus albus Glossy Ibis Ibis Blanco Uncommon Roseate Espátula Ajaia ajaja Spoonbill Rosada Uncommon Ciconiidae Mycteria americana Wood Stork Cigüeñon Uncommon Cathartidae Coragyps atratus Black Vulture Zopilote Negro Abundent Zopilote Cathartes aura Turkey Vulture Cabecirrojo Abundent Sarcoramphus papa King Vulture Zopilote Rey Uncommon Pandionidae Aguila Pandion haliaetus Osprey Pescadora Uncommon Accipritidae Black-shouldered Elanio Elanus caeruleus Kite Coliblanco Common American Swallow-tailed Elanoide forficatus Kite Elanio Tijereta Uncommon Buteo nitidus Gray Hawk Gavilán Gris Common Gavilán Buteo magnirostris Roadside Hawk Chapulinero Common
Broad-winged Buteo platypterus Hawk Gavilán Aludo Common Gavilán de Buteo swainsoni Swainson's Hawk Swainson Common Falconidae Caracara Polyborus plancus Crested Caracara Cargahuesos Uncommon Yellow-headed Caracara Milvago chimachima Caracara Cabecigualdo Uncommon Herethoteres cacchinnans Laughing Falcon Guaco Uncommon Halconcito Falco sparverius American Kestral American Uncommon Halcón Falco peregrinus Peregrine Falcon Peregrino Uncommon Cracidae Gray-headed Chachalaca Ortalis cinereiceps Chachalaca Cabecigris Uncommon Crax rubra Great Curassow Pavón Grande Rare Penelope purbuascens Crested Guan Pava Crestada Uncommon Phasianidae Odonthophorus Marbled Wood- Codorniz gujanensis Quail Carirroja Uncommon Scolopacidae Tringa solitaria Common Columbidae Pale-vented Paloma Columba cayennensis Pigeon Colorada Common Short billed Paloma Columba nigrirostris Pigeon Piquicorta Common White-winged Paloma Zenaida asiatica Pigeon Aliblanca Uncommon Zenaida macroura Mourning Dove Paloma Rabuda Uncommon Tortolita Columbina inca Inca Dove Colilarga Common Common Columbina passerina Ground-Dove Tortolita Común Uncommon Ruddy Ground- Columbina talpacoti Dove Tortolita Rojiza Abundent Blue Ground- Tortolita Claravis Pretiosa Dove Azulada Common White-tipped Paloma Leptotila verreauxi Dove Coliblanca Abundent Gray-chested Paloma Azul de Leptotila cassinii Dove Suelo Abundent Psittacidae Crimson-fronted Perico Aratinga finschi Parakeet Frentirrojo Common Guacamayo Ara macao Scarlet Macaw Rojo Abundent
Orange-chinned Periquito Brotogeris jugularis Parakeet Barbinarnja Abundent Pionopsitta Brown-hooded Loro haematotis Parrot Cabecipardo Uncommon Whate-crowned Loro Bionus senilis Parrot Coroniblanco Common Amazona autumbalis Red-lored Parrot Loro Frentirojo Abundent Amazona farinosa Mealy Parrot Loro Verde Abundent Yellow-naped Lora de Nuca Amazona auropalliata Parrot Amarilla Uncommon Cuculidae Piawa cayana Squirrel Cuckoo Cuco Ardilla Abundent Tapera neavia Striped Cuckoo Common Crotophaga sulcirostris Groove-billed Ani Tijo Garrapatero Abundent Tytonidae Common Barn Lechuza Tyto alba Owl Taonera Strigidae Buho de Pulsatrix perspicillata Spectacled Owl Anteojos Uncommon Asio clamator Striped Owl Buho Listado Caprimulgidae Lesser Chodeiles acutipennis Nighthawk Añapero Menor Common Common Tapacaminos Nyctidromus albicollis Pauraque Común Common Apodidae White Collared Vencejo Streptoprocne zonaris Swift Callarejo Abundent Band-rumped Vencejo de Chaetura spinicauda Swift Rabadilla Clara Abundent Chaetura vauxi Vaux's Swift Vencejo Común Common Trochilidae Ermitaña Glaucis aenea Bronzy Hermit Bronceado Uncommon Band-tailed Ermitaña Threnetes ruckeri Barbthroat Barbudo Common Phaethornis Long-tailed Ermitaña superciliosus Hermit Colilargo Common Phaethornis longuemareus Little Hermit Ermitaña Enano Common White-necked Jacobino Florisuga mellivora Jacobin Nuquiblanco Uncommon Violet-headed Colibrí Klais guimeti Hummingbird Cabeciazul Uncommon Esmeralda Chlorostilbon assimilis Garden Emerald Rabihorcada Uncommon Violet-crowned Ninfa Thalurania colombica Woodnymph Coronivioleta Common Blue-throated Colibrí Hylocharis eliciae Goldentail Colidorado Common
Rofous-tailed Amazilia tzacatl Hummingbird Colibrí Rabirrufa Abundent Purple-crowned Colibrí Heliothryx barroti Fairy Picopunzón Common Heliomaster Long-billed Colibrí longirostris Starthroat Piquilargo Common Ruby-throated Archilochus colubris Hummingbird Colibrí Norteño Common Trogonidae Trogón Trogon bardii Baird's Trogon Ventribermejo Common Violaceous Trogon violaceus Trogon Trogón Violáceo Common Trogón Trogon elegans Elegans Trogon Elegante Rare Black-throated Trogón Trogon rufus Trogon Cabeciverde Uncommon Slaty-tailed Trogón Trogon massena Trogon Coliplomizo Common Momotidae Blue-crowned Momotus momota Motmot Momoto Común Common Alcenidae Martín Pescador Ceryle torquata Ringed Kingfisher Collarejo Abundent Amazon Martín Pescador Chloroceryle amazona Kingfisher Amazónico Common Chloroceryle Martín Pescador americana Green Kingfisher Verde Abundent American Pygmy Martín Pescador Chloroceryle aenea Kingfisher Enano Uncommon Bucconidae White-necked Bucco macrorhynchos Puffbird Buco Collarejo Uncommon Malacoptila White-whiskered panamensis Puffbird Buco Barbón Common Galbulidae Rufous-tailed Jacamar Galbula ruficauda Jacamar Rabirrufo Common Ramphastidae Fiery-billed Tucancillo Pteroclossus frantzii Aracari Piquinaranado Common Chestnut- Ramphastos mandibled Gran Curré swainsonii Toucan Negro Common Picidae Olivaceous Carpinterito Piccumus olivaceus Piculet Oliváceo Common Melanerpes Golden-naped Carpinterito chysauche Woodpecker Nuquidorado Common Melanerpes Red-crowned Carpinterito rubricaphilus Woodpecker Nuquirojo Common
Hoffmann's Carpinterito de Melanerpes hoffmanii Woodpecker Hoffmann Uncommon Red-rumped Carpinterito Veniliornis Kirkii Woodpecker Lomirrojo Rare Rufous-winged Carpinterito Piculus leucolaemus Woodpecker Alirrufo Rare Lineated Carpinterito Dryocopus lieatus Woodpecker Lineado Common Campephilus Pale-billed Carpinterito guatemalensis Woodpecker Picoplata Common Dendrocolaptidae Dendrocincla Tawny-winged Trepedor anabatina Woodpecker Alirrubio Common Deconychura Long-tailed Trepedor longicauds Woodcreeper Delgado Rare Glyphorhyncus Wedge-billed Trepadorcito spirurus Woodpecker Pico de Cuña Abundent Dendrocolaptes Barred Trepador certhia Woodcreeper Barreteado Common Butt-throated Trepador Xiphorhychus guttatus Woodpecker Gorgianteado Common Xiphorhychus Black-striped Lachrymosus Woodpecker Trepador Pinto Uncommon Xiphorhynchus Spotted Trepador erythropygius Woodpecker Manchado Uncommon Lepidocolaptes Streaded-headed Trepador souleyetii Woodcreeper Cabecirrayado Common Furnariidae Synallaxis Arquitector Synallaxis brachyura brachyura Plomizo Uncommon Striped Foliage- Trepamusgos Hyloctistes subulatus gleaner Rayado Uncommon Automolus Buff-throated Hojarasquero ochrolaemus Foliage-gleaner Gorgianteado Uncommon Sclerurus Scaly-throated Tirahojas guatemalensis Leaftosser Barbiescamado Rare Xenops minutus Plain Xenops Xenops Común Common Formicariidae Taraba major Great Antshrike Batará Grande Common Batará Thamnophilus doliatus Barred Antshrike Barreteado Common Thamnophilus Black-hooded Batará bridgesi Antshrike Negruszco Abundent Thamnistes anabatinus Russet Antshrike Batará Café Common Microrhopias Dotted-winged Hormiguerito quixensis Antwren Aliputeada Abundent Chestnut-backed Hormiguerito Myrmeciza exsul Antbird Dorsicastaño Abundent Black-faced Gallito Formicarius analis Antthrush Hormiguero Common
Tytiridae Tityra semifasciata Masked Tityra Pajaro Chancho Common Pachiramphus Cinnamon Cabezón cinnamomeus Becard Canelo Uncommon Pachiramphus White-winged Cabezón polychopterus Becard Aliblanco Common Packyramphus Rose-throated Cabezón aglaiae Aglaiae Plomizo Uncommon Cotingidae Lipaugus unirufus Rufous Piha Piha Rojiza Common Turquoise Cotinga Cotinga ridgwayi Cotinga Turquesa Uncommon Yellow-billed Cotinga Carpodectes antoniae Cotinga Piquiamarilla Uncommon Pipridae Thrushlike Schiffornis turdinus Manakin Tordo Saltarín Uncommon Orange-collard Saltarín Manacus aurantiacus Manakin Cuellinaranja Common Blue-crowned Saltarín Pipra coronata Manakin Coroniceleste Uncommon Red-capped Saltarín Pipra mentalis Manakin Cabecirrojo Uncommon Tyrannidae Mosquerito Zimmerius vilissimus Paltry Tyrannulet Cejigris Common Southern Camptostoma Beardless Mosquerito obsoletum Tyrannulet Slivador Uncommon Yellow-bellied Elainia Elaenia flavogaster Elaenia Copetona Common Ochre-bellied Mosquerito Mionectes oleagineus Flycatcher Aceitunado Common Oncostoma Piquitorcido cinereigulare Northern Bentbill Norteño Uncommon Slate-headed Espatulilla Todirostrum sylvia Tody Flycatcher Sotero Uncommon Common Tody Espatulilla Todirostrum cinereum Flycatcher Común Common Rhynchocyclus Eye-ringed Piquiplano de brevirostris Flatbill Anteojos Common Tolmomyias Yello-olive Piquiblanco sulphurences Flycatcher Azufrado Common Golden-crowned Piqiuchato Platyrichus coronatus Spadebill Coronirrufo Common Onychorhynchus Coronatus Royal Flycatcher Mosquero Real Uncommon Terenotriccus Ruddy-talled Mosquero erythrurus Flycatcher Colirrufo Uncommon Myiobius Sulphur-rumped Mosquerito sulphureipygius Flycatcher Lomiamarillo Common
Olive-side Contopus borealis Flycatcher Pibí Boreal Common Western Wood- Contopus sordidulus pewee Pibí Occidental Uncommon Contopus cinereus Tropical Pewee Pibí Tropical Common Yellow-bellied Mosquerito Empidonax flaviventris Flycatcher Vientriamarillo Uncommon Acadian Mosquerito Empidonax virescens Flycatcher Verdoso Uncommon Mosquerito de Empidonax traillii Willow Flycatcher Traill Common Bright-rumped Atila Attila spadiceus Attila Lomiamarilla Common Rhytipterna holerythra Rufous Mourner Plañidera Rojiza Common Dusky-capped Copetón Myiarchus tuberculifer Flycatcher Crestioscuro Common Great Crested Myiarchus crinitus Flycatcher Copetón Viajero Common Bienteveo Pitangus sulphuratus Great Kiskadee Grande Abundent Megarynchus Boat-billed Mosqueron pitangua Flycatcher Picudo Abundent Mosquero Myiozetetes similis Social Flycatcher Cejiblanco Common Myiozetetes Gray-capped Mosquero granadensis Flycatcher Cabecigris Uncommon Myiodynastes Sulphur-bellied Mosquero luteiventris Flycatcher Vetriazufrado Uncommon Legatus leucophaius Piratic Flycatcher Mosquero Pirata Common Tyrannus melancholicus Tropical Kingbird Tirano Tropical Abundent Scissor-tailed Tirano Tijereta Tyrannus forficatus Flycatcher Rosada Uncommon Forked-tail Tirano Tijereta Tyrannus savana Flycatcher Llianero Uncommon Hirundinidae Gray-breasted Progne chalybea Martin Martín Pechigris Common Progne subis Purple-martin Marín Purpúreo Uncommon Mangrove Golondrina Tachysineta albilinea Swallow Lomiblanca Stelgydopterix Norther Rough- Golondrina serripennes winged Swallow Norteña Common Stelgydopterix Rough-winged Golondrina ruficollis Swallow Sureña Abundent Golondrina Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow Tijereta Abundent Corvidae Urraca Calocitta formosa Magpie Jay Copetona Uncommon Cyanocorax morio Brown Jay Urraca Parda Uncommon
Throglodytidea Campylorhynchus Rufous-napped rufinucha Wren Chico Piojo Common Thryothorus Black-bellied Soterrey fasciatoventris Wren Vientrinegro Common Thryothorus Soterrey semibadius Riverside Wren Pechibarreteado Abundent Rufous-breasted Soterrey Thryothorus rutilus Wren Carimoteado Common Rufous-and-white Soterrey Thryothorus rufalbus Wren Rufiblanco Uncommon Soterrey Thryothorus modestus Plain Wren Chinchiriqui Common Soterrey Throglodytes aedon House Wren Cucarachero Common Microcerculus Nightengale philomela Wren Rare Turdidae Swainson's Zorzal de Catharus ustulatus Thrush Swainson Common Gray-cheeked Catharus minimus Thrush Zorzal Carigris Rare Zorzal del Hylocinchla Mustelina Wood Thrush Bosque Uncommon Clay-colored Turdus grayi Robin Mirlo Pardo Common Sylvidae Ramphocaenus Long-billed melanurus Gnatwren Soterillo Picudo Common Tropical Polioptila plumbea Gnatcatcher Perlita Tropical Common Vireonidae Yellow-throated Vireo Vireo flavifrons Vireo Pechiamarillo Common Philadelphia Vireo Vireo philadelphicus Vireo Amarillento Uncommon Vireo olivaceus Red-eyed Vireo Vireo Ojirrojo Common Yellow-green Vireo flavoviridis Vireo Vireo Cabecigris Common Hylophilus decurtatus Lesser Greenlet Verdillo Menudo Abundent Coerebidae Coereba flaveola Bananaquit Reinita Mielera Common Parulidae Vermivora Golden-winged Reinita chrysoptera Warbler Alidorada Uncommon Tennessee Vermivora peregrina Warbler Reinita Verdilla Common Dendroica petechia Yellow Warbler Reinita Amarilla Common Reinita de Dendroica Chestnut-sided Costado pensylvanica Warbler Castaña Abundent
Blackburnian Reinita Dendroica fusca Warbler Gorginaranja Uncommon Bay-breasted Reinita Dendroica castanea Warbler Castanea Uncommon Black-and-white Reinita Mniotilta varia Warbler Trepadora Uncommon American Candelita Setophaga ruticilla Redstart Norteña Uncommon Prothonotary Reinita Protonotoraia citrea Warbler Cabecidorada Common Seiurus Norther Reinita Acuática noveboracensis Waterthrush Norteña Uncommon Reinita Oporornis formosus Kentucky Warbler Cachetinegra Uncommon Mourning Oporornis philadelphia Warbler Reinita Enlutada Uncommon Geothlypuis Gray-crowned Antifacito poliocephala Yellowthroat Coronigrís Uncommon Reinita Wilsonia canadensis Canada Warbler Pechirrayada Uncommon Phaeothlypis Buff-rumped Reinita fulvicauda Warbler Guardaribera Uncommon Icteridae Red-winged Agelaius phoeniceus Blackbird Tordo Sargento Accidental Great-tailed Quiscalus mexicanus Grackle Zanate Grande Abundent Bolsero Icterus spurius Orchard Oriole Castaño Uncommon Icterus galbula Northern Oriole Bolsero Norteño Common Amblicercus Yellow-billed Cacique holosericeus Cacique Picoplata Uncommon Scarlet-rumped Cacique Cacicus uropygialis Cacique Lomiescarleta Common Chestnut-headed Oropendola Psarocolius wagleri Oropendola Cabecicastaña Uncommon Thraupidae Yello-crowned Eufonia Euphonia luteicapilla Euphonia Coroniamarilla Common Thick-billed Eufonia Euphonia laiirostris Euphonia Piquigruesa Common Silver-throated Tangara icterocephala Tanager Tangara Dorada Common Speckled Tangara Tangara guttata Tanager Moteada Uncommon Bay-headed Tangara Tangara gyrola Tanager Cabecicastaña Common Golden-masked Tangara Tangara larvata Tanager Capuchidorado Common Blue-gray Thraupis episcopus Tanager Tangara Azuleja Abundent Tangara Thraupis palmarum Palm Tanager Palmera Abundent
Gray-headed Tangara Eucometis penicillata Tanager Cabecigris Common White-throated Tangara Lanio leucothorax Shrike-tanager Piquiganchuda Uncommon Tachyphonus White-shouldered Tangara luctuosus Tanager Caponiblanca Uncommon Red-crowned Tangara Habia rubica Ant-tanager Coronirroja Common Tangara Piranga rubra Summer Tanager Veranera Common Tangara Piranga olivacea Scarlet Tanager Escarlata Uncommon Tangara Piranga ludoviciana Western Tanager Carirroja Uncommon Rhamphoselus Scarlet-rumped Tangara passerinii Tanager Lomiescalata Abundent Scarlet-thighed Mielero Celeste Dacnis venusta Dacnis y Negro Common Dacnis cayana Blue Dacnis Mielero Azulejo Uncommon Green Chlorophanes spiza Honeycreeper Mielero Verde Uncommon Red-legged Cyanerpes cyaneus Honeycreeper Mielero Patirrojo Common Emberizidae Buff-throated Saltator Saltator maximus Saltator Gorgianteado Common Pheucticus Rose-breasted Picogrueso ludovicianus Grosbeak Pechirrosado Common Cyanocompsa Blue-black Picogrueso cynoides Grosbeak Negro Azulado Uncommon Guiraca caerulea Blue Grosbeak Picogrueso Azul Uncommon Passerina cyanea Indigo Bunting Azulillo Norteño Uncommon Arremon Orange-billed Pinzón aurantiironstris Sparrow Piquinaranja Common Arremonops Black-striped Pinzón conirostris Sparrow Cabecilistado Common Blue-back Semillerito Volatinia jacarina Grassquit Negro Azulado Abundent Variable Espiguero Sporophila aurita Seedeater Variable Abundent White-collared Espiguero Sporophila torqueola Seedeater Collarejo Common Yellow-bellied Espiguero Sporophila nigricollis Seedeater Vientriamarillo Uncommon Thick-billed Semillero Orysoborus funereus Seed-finch Picogrueso Uncommon Yellow-faced Semillerito Tiaris olivaea Grassquit Cariamarillo Uncommon
Mammals
Family Species English Name
Didelphimorphia Didelphidae Dedelphis marsulpialis Common Opossum Edentata Myrmecophagidae Tamandua mexicana Anteater Megalonychidae Choloepus hoffmanni Hoffmann's Two-toed Sloth Bradypodidae Brown-throated Three-toed Bradypus variegatus Sloth Dasypodidae Cabassous centralis Norther Naked-Tailed Dasypus novemcinctus Nine-banded Armadillo Primates Cebidae Cebus capucinus White-faced Capuchin Alouatta palliata Howler Monkey Ateles geoffroyi Spider Monkey Rodentia Sciuridae Sciurus variegatoides Variegated Squirrel Sciurus granatensis Red-tailed Squirrel Geomydae Orthogeomys cherrieri Cerrie's Pocket Gopher Orthogeomys underwoodi Underwood's Pocket Gopher Orthogeomys cavator Chiriqui Pocket Gopher Heteromyidae Liiomys salvini Salvin's Spiny Pocket Mouse Heteromys desmarestianus Forest Spiny Pocket Mouse Erethizontidae Coendou mexicanus Mexican Porcupine Dasyproctidae Dasyprocta punctata Central American Agouti Agoutidae Agouti paca Paca Carnivora Canidae Canis latrans Coyote
Urocyon cinereoargenteus Gray Fox Procyonidae Procyon lotor Northern Raccoon Nasua narica White-nosed Coati Potos flavus Kinkajou Mustelidae Mustela frenata Long-tailed Weasel Galictis vittata Greater Grison Eira Barbara Tayra Conepatus semistriatus Striped Hognosed Skuk Lutra longicaudis Felidae Felis pardalis Ocelot Felis wiedii Margay Felis yaguarondi Jaguarundi Felis concolor Puma Felis onca Jaguar Peryssodactyla Tapiridae Tapirus bairdii Baird's Tapir Artiodactyla Tayassuidae Tayassu tajacu Collared Peccary Dicotyles pecari White-lipped Peccary Cervidae Odocoileus virginianus White-tailed Deer Mazama americana
Amphibians
Family Species English Name
Leptodactylidae Eleutherodactylus diastema Tink Frog Eleutherodactylus fitzingeri Eleutherodactylus bransfordii Leptodactylus pentadactylus Smoky Frog Bufonidae Bufo Marinus Marine Toad Hylidae Gaudy Leaf Agalychnis callidryas Frog Hyla staufferi
Reptiles
Gekkonidae Cleonyx mitratus Gonatodes albogularus Iguanidea Norops biporcatus Norops capito Norops humilis Norops oxilopus Norops limifrons Basiliscus basiliscus Teiidae Ameiva festiva Ameiva Scinidae Sphenomorphus cherriei Skink Boidae Boa Boa constrictor Constrictor Colubridae Clelia clelia Musarana Micruridae Micrurus alleni Crotalidae Botrops asper Fer-de-lance Porthidium nasutus