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Skeletal Muscle Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress in Peripheral Arterial Disease: a Unifying Mechanism and Therapeutic Target

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Skeletal Muscle Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress in Peripheral Arterial Disease: a Unifying Mechanism and Therapeutic Target antioxidants Review Skeletal Muscle Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress in Peripheral Arterial Disease: A Unifying Mechanism and Therapeutic Target Kyoungrae Kim 1, Erik M. Anderson 2,3 , Salvatore T. Scali 2,3 and Terence E. Ryan 1,4,* 1 Department of Applied Physiology & Kinesiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; kimk1@ufl.edu 2 Division of Vascular Surgery and Endovascular Therapy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; [email protected]fl.edu (E.M.A.); [email protected]fl.edu (S.T.S.) 3 Malcom Randall Veteran Affairs Medical Center, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA 4 Center for Exercise Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA * Correspondence: ryant@ufl.edu; Tel.: +1-352-294-1700 Received: 30 November 2020; Accepted: 16 December 2020; Published: 18 December 2020 Abstract: Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is caused by atherosclerosis in the lower extremities, which leads to a spectrum of life-altering symptomatology, including claudication, ischemic rest pain, and gangrene requiring limb amputation. Current treatments for PAD are focused primarily on re-establishing blood flow to the ischemic tissue, implying that blood flow is the decisive factor that determines whether or not the tissue survives. Unfortunately, failure rates of endovascular and revascularization procedures remain unacceptably high and numerous cell- and gene-based vascular therapies have failed to demonstrate efficacy in clinical trials. The low success of vascular-focused therapies implies that non-vascular tissues, such as skeletal muscle and oxidative stress, may substantially contribute to PAD pathobiology. Clues toward the importance of skeletal muscle in PAD pathobiology stem from clinical observations that muscle function is a strong predictor of mortality. Mitochondrial impairments in muscle have been documented in PAD patients, although its potential role in clinical pathology is incompletely understood. In this review, we discuss the underlying mechanisms causing mitochondrial dysfunction in ischemic skeletal muscle, including causal evidence in rodent studies, and highlight emerging mitochondrial-targeted therapies that have potential to improve PAD outcomes. Particularly, we will analyze literature data on reactive oxygen species production and potential counteracting endogenous and exogenous antioxidants. Keywords: myopathy; peripheral vascular disease; bioenergetics; ischemia; reactive oxygen species 1. Introduction Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is a common manifestation of atherosclerosis that affects more than 200 million people worldwide and is the third leading cause of cardiovascular mortality [1]. PAD is caused by atherosclerotic narrowing or occlusion of blood vessels in the lower extremities that leads to a spectrum of life-altering symptomatology, including claudication, ischemic rest pain, and gangrene requiring limb amputation. Morbidity and mortality associated with PAD have increased over the last decade despite an increase in the number of lower extremity vascular procedures during that time. Current treatments for PAD are focused solely on re-establishing blood flow to the limb, implying that blood flow is the definitive factor that determines pathobiology. Unfortunately, failure rates of endovascular and revascularization procedures remain unacceptably high [2,3] and numerous cell- and gene-based vascular therapies have failed to demonstrate efficacy in clinical trials [4–7]. The low success of vascular-focused therapies implies that other non-vascular tissues must contribute Antioxidants 2020, 9, 1304; doi:10.3390/antiox9121304 www.mdpi.com/journal/antioxidants Antioxidants 2020, 9, 1304 2 of 23 Antioxidants 2020, 9, 1304 2 of 23 to PAD pathobiology. Although atherosclerotic PAD manifests in the vascular system, there are high [2,3] and numerous cell- and gene-based vascular therapies have failed to demonstrate efficacy significantin consequencesclinical trials [4–7]. to The skeletal low success muscle of vascular-focused that result therapies in impaired implies that muscle other non-vascular health/function and exercise intolerancetissues must [ 8contribute]. Several to large PAD clinicalpathobiology. studies Although in PAD atherosclerotic patients have PAD demonstrated manifests in the that muscle function/exercisevascular system, capacity there is are the significan strongestt consequences predictor to of skeletal morbidity muscle/ mortalitythat result in [ impaired9–15]. Previous muscle reports have documentedhealth/function evidence and ofexercise skeletal intolerance muscle [8]. myopathies Several large in PADclinical patients studies in [16 PAD,17], patients although have its potential demonstrated that muscle function/exercise capacity is the strongest predictor of morbidity/mortality role in clinical[9–15]. pathology Previous reports is not have well documented understood. evidence In thisof skeletal review, muscle we myopathies analyze the in PAD evidence patients that PAD is associated[16,17], with aalthough skeletal itsmuscle potential myopathy, role in clinical including pathology alteredis not well mitochondrial understood. In functionthis review, and we oxidative stress (Figureanalyze1); the discuss evidence the that risk PAD factors is associated that contribute with a skeletal to skeletalmuscle myopathy, muscle myopathy;including altered and review emergingmitochondrial therapeutic approachesfunction and oxidative that aim stress to mitigate (Figure 1); these discuss myopathic the risk factors symptoms that contribute and have to potential skeletal muscle myopathy; and review emerging therapeutic approaches that aim to mitigate these to improvemyopathic outcomes symptoms for PAD and patients. have potential to improve outcomes for PAD patients. Figure 1. PathogenesisFigure 1. Pathogenesis of ischemic of ischemic myopathy myopathy in peripheral in peripheral artery artery disease disease (PAD). (PAD). A A graphical graphical depiction depiction of the pathogenesis of ischemic myopathy in PAD. This figure was created with of the pathogenesisBiorender.com. of ischemic myopathy in PAD. This figure was created with Biorender.com. 2. Pathogenesis,2. Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, Diagnosis, and and Treatment Treatment of of PAD PAD Before embarkingBefore embarking upon upon an analysis an analysis of of the the rolerole of of skeletal skeletal muscle muscle in PAD in pathobiology, PAD pathobiology, a brief a brief discussiondiscussion of pathogenesis, of pathogenesis, diagnosis, diagnosis, and and treatment treatment of of PAD PAD is required. is required. The prevalence The prevalence of PAD is of PAD is estimatedestimated to be 1–4% to inbe the1–4% general in the general population; population; however, however, among among selected selected subgroups subgroups of elderly elderly patients, patients, rates exceeding 20% have been reported [18]. Due to the frequent association of PAD with rates exceedingcardiovascular 20% have risk been factors, reported such as [smoking,18]. Due diabetes, to the frequent hypertension, association dyslipidemia, of PAD and with increasing cardiovascular risk factors,age, such approximately as smoking, 200 diabetes,million patients hypertension, worldwide have dyslipidemia, some form of and PAD increasing [19]. The pathogenesis age, approximately 200 millionofpatients PAD has worldwidebeen linked to have several some causes, form includin of PADg subendothelial [19]. The pathogenesis dysfunction, aberrant of PAD platelet has been linked to severalactivity, causes, hyperlipidemia, including subendothelial tobacco exposure, dysfunction, as well as a aberrant myriad of platelet other immunologic activity, hyperlipidemia, and inflammatory factors [20–26]. The protean clinical presentation is underscored by subintimal tobacco exposure,accumulation as of well lipid asand a fibrous myriad materials of other that immunologicform a fixed arterial and stenosis inflammatory and/or occlusion. factors [20–26]. The proteanClassically, clinical lower presentation extremity atherosclerotic is underscored occlusiv bye disease subintimal involves accumulation either the aortoiliac, of lipidfemoral- and fibrous materials that form a fixed arterial stenosis and/or occlusion. Classically, lower extremity atherosclerotic occlusive disease involves either the aortoiliac, femoral-popliteal, or tibial vessels, and certain subpopulations, like diabetic patients and/or subjects with renal dysfunction, present with more distal disease [27–29]. The clinical manifestation of PAD occurs along a spectrum with some patients being asymptomatic while others describe disabling intermittent claudication (IC). Notably, 5–10% of patients have chronic limb-threatening ischemia (CLTI) and have significantly elevated risk of major limb amputation, adverse cardiac events, and mortality compared to age-matched controls [30–32]. The characterization of PAD severity is predominantly dependent upon the constellation of symptoms, Antioxidants 2020, 9, 1304 3 of 23 with non-invasive studies corroborating the presence of disease. Reproducible exertional lower extremity muscle cramping that is relieved by rest and associated with a fixed arterial stenosis/occlusion is the hallmark description of vasculogenic claudication. In contrast, CLTI may present as rest pain or tissue loss, which classically involves the forefoot. Initial evaluation includes a thorough history and physical with ankle-brachial index (ABI) assessment to confirm the diagnosis. For patients with claudication,
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