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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of Christian education / edited by George Thomas Kurian, Mark A. Lamport. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8108-8492-2 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-8108-8493-9 (ebook) 1. Christian education—Encyclopedias. I. Kurian, George Thomas, editor. II. Lamport, Mark A., editor. BV1471.3.E53 2015 268.03—dc23 Contributor 2014021410 ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

Printed in the United States of America Contents Only Editors, Prologue and Foreword Contributors, Editorial Advisory Board, and Editorial Consultants ix Prologue by J. I. Packer xiii Foreword by Stanley Hauerwas xv Foreword by Richard J. Mouw xvii Foreword by Ronald J. Sider xix Foreword by Will Willimon Copy xxi Preface xxiii Acknowledgments xxvii Introduction xxix Volume 1: A–F 1 Volume 2: G–R 529 Volume 3: S–Z 1089 Lead-in Introductions 1427 Appendix A: World Statistics on Christian Populations 1519 Appendix B: World Listing of Christian Universities by Continent 1539 Appendix C: Entries Listed by Author 1553 Index of Names 1569 Index of Entries 1591 ContributorContributing Authors 1603

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Contributor G Only Gaebelein, Frank E. this position, Macmillan published his first book, Down Through the Ages: The Story of the King James Frank Ely Gaebelein (31 March 1899–19 January 1983) (1924). Gaebelein held three honorary doctoral degrees: was the youngest of three sons born to German immi- literature doctorate from Wheaton College (1951), doc- grants Arno and Emma (Grimm) Gaebelein. His father tor of divinity from the Reformed Theological Seminary was a noted self-made scholar, itinerate teacher, and (1951), and literature doctorate from Houghton College writer who supported Gaebelein’s desire to write, encour- (1960). aging him to write at an early age for his own magazine, Our Hope. At the age of 15, Gaebelein became a member Professional Work and Editorial Contributions of the editorial board of The Oracle, a monthly student GaebeleinCopy was the headmaster at Stony Brook School magazine for his high school in Mount Vernon, New for 41 years, after which he retired and became the co- York, and was the chief editor by the time he graduated. editor of Today until 1966. His father had (His coeditor in this later role was E. B. White, who went been one of the original editors of the Scofield Reference on to write Stuart Little and Charlotte’s Web.) Bible, and Gaebelein was one of the editors of its 1967 revision. In 1968, he served as the style editor on the Education and Early Work translation committee for the New International Ver- Gaebelein continued writing during college as the man- sion of the Bible. Gaebelein served from 1969 to 1972 as aging editor of The New York University News and writ- the director of the faculty summer seminars on faith and ing the “Message for Each Day” for his father’s devotional learning at Wheaton College. Prior to his death in 1983, magazine. He graduated in 1920 from New York Uni- he was general editor of The Expositor’s Bible Commen- versity (NYU) Bronx campus as an accomplished musi- tary, a 12-volume set that was a little more than half cian, having written for both the college yearbook and completed at the time of his death. His 20th-century newspaper and participating on the track team. His NYU writing and editing continue to be significant contribu- education was only briefly interrupted when he enlisted tions, available to and used by those in and studying for in the army’s officer training program, commissioned as ministry in the 21st century. a second lieutenant. He graduated from Harvard in 1921, having studied English and comparative literature. Like Twentieth-Century Legacy his father, he lacked any formal religious training and was According to Gangel and Benson (1983, 358),1 Gaebelein a self-taught biblical scholar, which included his knowl- was able to articulate the true distinctives of the evangeli- edge of the Greek language. Nevertheless, he was or- cal movement in his book Pattern of God’s Truth (1954). dained as a minister of the Reformed Episcopal Church. At a time when modernists saw fundamentalism and ContributorFollowing graduation, Gaebelein took a position as Evangelicalism as intellectually illiterate, he advocated organizer and founding headmaster for Stony Brook strongly for integrating faith with the academy, and School in Long Island, New York, serving from 1922 to 1963, after which he served as headmaster emeritus for 20 1. Kenneth O. Gangel and Warren S. Benson, Christian Education: Its more years until his death. Within the first two years in History and Philosophy (Chicago: Moody Press, 1983), 358.

— 529 — 530 Gallaudet, Thomas his lifelong work at Stony Brook became the model for Gallaudet, Thomas that vision. Furthermore, he understood that one of the negative consequences of the fundamentalist fight against Early Background and Education modernism in the 19th century was the belief that the Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, a pioneer in deaf education in fundamentalist view paid no attention to or often was the United States, was born on 10 December 1787 in Phila- in opposition to the movement in favor of social justice. delphia, Pennsylvania. Raised in Hartford, Connecticut, Thus, he worked to counter this view with his writing Gallaudet was an intelligent young man; he entered Yale and actions, supporting social justice as an evangelical, a University when he was 14 years old and graduated first in cause promoted in Christian Education in a Democracy, his class in 1805. After beginning a career in law, in 1808 which echoed the views of the modernist Christian move- he returned to Yale to earn his master of arts degree, and ments. He wrote more than 20 books, edited many oth- in 1814, after studying at Andover Theological Seminary, ers, and became a 20th-century American leader within he became an ordained minister at the age of 27. Evangelicalism, a Christian educator who left his mark In addition to having a keen intellect, Gallaudet de- on private Christian schools, Christian higher education, veloped an acute awareness and compassion for people and congregational instruction. In doing so, he advocated in society who were neglected. This awareness was first the importance of Christian teaching in a pluralistic soci- cultivated by his Huguenot upbringingOnly and was rein- ety and of integrating faith and academic learning. forced while he was in seminary. According to Winzer, “Andover was the first seminary to train missionaries for References and Resources foreign parts, and it was this missionary instinct, built on Daane, J. 1983. “Frank E Gaebelein, 1893–1983.” Reformed early nineteenth-century evangelical religion and fired Journal 33 (3): 3–4. by the conviction that God had ordained the middle and Douglas, J. D. 1979. “Frank Gaebelein: Striving for Excellence.” upper classes to oversee the welfare of the weak and de- Christianity Today 23 : 10–13. pendent, that guided Gallaudet’s thinking and underlay Evory, A., ed. 1981. “Frank Gaebelein.” In Contemporary his designs for deaf students and a range of philanthropic Authors, 2: 147–161. [New Revision Series]. Detroit: Gale enterprises” (1993, 105). Research. While Gallaudet worked as a legal apprentice, minister, Fawcett, Cheryl. 2003. “Frank E. Gaebelein: Integrator of Truth.” and travelingCopy salesman as a young adult, his compassion Christian Education Journal 3rd series, 1 (1): 104–120. for the neglected prompted an interest in education. This Fawcett, Cheryl L., and Jamie Thompson. n.d. “Frank E. Gae- interest grew when he first observed Alice Cogswell, the belein.” Accessed 5 February 2013. http://www2.talbot.edu/ deaf daughter of a prominent doctor, while she watched ce20/educators/view.cfm?n=frank_gaebelein. from a distance as a group of hearing children played and “Frank Gaebelein Dies at 83.” 1983. Christianity Today 27 (18 interacted with each other. Gallaudet soon began to teach February): 27–29. her, and though she learned several signs, the results were Gaebelein, F. 1982. “Evangelicals and Social Concern.” Journal limited. Gallaudet felt inadequately prepared to teach her. of the Evangelical Theological Society 25 (1): 17–22. Motivated to learn more effective methods for educating Gaebelein, F. E. 1924. Down Through the Ages: The Story of the deaf and mute students and financed by funds raised by King James Bible. New York: Macmillan, 1924. Dr. Cogswell, Gallaudet traveled to Europe to study deaf ———. 1970. “Reflections in Retrospect.” Christianity Today 14 education models. While Gallaudet visited schools in (31 July): 9–12. England and Germany, it was in Paris, France, that he Gangel, Kenneth O., and Warren S. Benson. 1983. Christian met deaf educator Laurent Clerc and was tutored in his Education: Its History and Philosophy. Chicago: Moody Press. method of sign language. Hull, Gretchen Gaebelein. 1984. “Character before Career.” Gallaudet convinced Clerc to return to the United States Christianity Today (21 September): 14–18. with him; shortly afterward they cofounded the Con- Lockerbie, D. Bruce. 1972. The Way They Should Go. New necticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf York: Oxford University Press. Persons with French. The school opened on 15 April 1817, “Memorials, Frank E. Gaebelein.” 1984. Journal of Theological the first school in the history of the United States designed Society 27 (1): 127–128. http://www.etsjets.org/files/JETS specifically for the purpose of educating children with dis- -PDFs/27/27-1/27-1-pp127-128_JETS.pdf. abilities. Gallaudet served as the principal from 1817 until Rausch,Contributor A. 1983. Arno C. Gaebelein 1861–1945: Irenic 1830, when he resigned due to ill health. Fundamentalist and Scholar. Including Conversations with Gallaudet married a graduate from the Connecticut Dr. Frank E. Gaebelein. [Studies in American Religion no. Asylum, Sophia Fowler, and together they had eight 10]. Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press. children. In addition to pioneering education for deaf —Karen L. Estep children, Gallaudet championed several other causes, Gaming 531 including the education of African Americans and the from an educational perspective. The work of such schol- publication of religious literature for children and youth. ars can be divided into three main categories: examining After suffering from poor health, Gallaudet died in Hart- the benefits and dangers of gaming, exploring what gam- ford, Connecticut, on 10 September 1851, at the age of 63. ers learn and experience through gaming, and consider- Gallaudet’s youngest son, Edward Minor Gallaudet, re- ing how to use the principles of gaming to enhance learn- ceived a charter from President Lincoln in 1864 ing experiences. The first of these focuses on how video to open a national college for deaf students in Washing- games impact the health, habits, and behavior of young ton, DC. The college was named Gallaudet College (now people. Such studies range from looking at the relation- Gallaudet University) in honor of Edward’s father. ship between gaming and poor performance in school to whether or not the content of video games influences the Significant Contributions to Christian Education beliefs and behaviors of young people.2 Gallaudet played a significant role in pioneering not only The second category of research looks at the lives of the development and use of American Sign Language, but gamers and what they are learning. Rather than focus- also the general field of special education in the United ing on the negative impact of video games, this body of States. He dismissed the traditional assumption that all literature identifies gaming as a way of learning.3 James children who were deaf were also cognitively impaired. Paul Gee, author of What Video GamesOnly Have to Teach Us He operated under the conviction that education for chil- About Learning and Literacy (2003), discovered that fre- dren with disabilities should not be granted out of charity quent gamers develop certain literacies that allow learn- or pity but because of their human value and right to an ers to transfer these skills to other environments. Players education that would provide them religious training in in massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) must addition to the acquisition of the skills and knowledge learn the often complex rules of the game, collaborate needed to give them vocational opportunities similar to with others, adjust to changing contexts within the game, those of their nondisabled peers. Quite significant for and use a variety of complex problem-solving strategies the time, the Connecticut Asylum for the Education and in order to be successful in the game. Gamers devote Instruction of Deaf Persons was funded by public grants countless hours to mastering these tasks. Then they often and private donations, thus providing a free education to switch to a completely different game, in which they children who were deaf. mustCopy learn new rules, face new problems, and learn to collaborate with a new group of individuals. Gee argues Most Notable Publications that these skills learned within gaming are a type of lit- By bringing Clerc and his French sign language methods eracy and prepare them to use similar skills in the future to the United States, Gallaudet played a significant role workplace and society.4 in the subsequent development and spread of American The third category examines the principles of engage- Sign Language. Gallaudet also authored many children’s ment that allow games to keep the attention of learners stories, including Bible Stories for the Young (1838), for extended periods of time. An example of this is the Child’s Book of the Soul (1850), and Youth’s Book of Natu- work of Clark Quinn, who points out seven common at- ral (1852). tributes of a game that can also be leveraged to improve teaching and learning: References and Resources Tabak, John. 2006. Significant Gestures: A History of American 1. Goal: There should be a clear goal that can guide the Sign Language. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. students’ actions, and it should be tied into the story “Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet.” n.d. Gallaudet University. http:// (neighborhood people must choose where to plant www.gallaudet.edu/Gallaudet_University/About_Gallaudet/ the garden and what to plant; newspaper editors DPN_Home/Thomas_Hopkins_Gallaudet.html. must get the articles ready to publish by the evening Winzer, Margret A. 1993. The History of Special Education: deadline; a family must gather proper supplies to From Isolation to Integration. Washington, DC: Gallaudet survive a trip to the Old West; etc.). University Press. 2. Challenge: If the goal is too easy or too overwhelm- —Lucinda S. Spaulding ing for learners, they will likely check out.

2. Marie Winn, The Plug-in Drug: Television, Computers, and Family Contributor Life (New York: Penguin Books, 2002). Gaming 3. Marc Prensky, “Don’t Bother Me Mom, I’m Learning!” How Computer and Video Games Are Preparing Your Kids for Twenty-first Century Success and How You Can Help! (St. Paul, MN: Paragon House, 2006). With the rapid growth of video games from the 1980s to 4. James Paul Gee, What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning the present, a number of scholars began studying gaming and Literacy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003). 532 Gang Members

3. Action-domain link: Students should be expected to learning experiences. A more traditional learning ex- make decisions (action) in the context of the story. perience may make use of letter grades, assignments, A bad example cited by Quinn is creating a game in quizzes, or tests. Some may consider it valuable to de- which students have to solve a math problem and sign faith-based learning experiences that are distinct if they do, then they get to play a game. For a good from the features of a learning context in a school. In simulation the game should be part of the simula- a traditional classroom, excellent student performance tion, not just a separate reward. is often rewarded with a letter grade or points. Within 4. Problem-learner link: The problem or simulation a game, one is often rewarded with a greater and more should match the interests of the learner. Keep in difficult challenge. Similarly, whereas traditional class- mind things like gender and age-level interests when room learning often uses the role of teacher and learner, creating or selecting an appropriate simulation. a game-based learning approach invites the teacher to 5. Active: The simulation should require the learners consider other roles, perhaps roles that reflect the types to take frequent actions, be given situations, and of challenges and opportunities in other parts of life. then have to make frequent decisions. This keeps As such, game-based learning provides Christian edu- the learners engaged on an ongoing basis. cators with strategies for using case studies, scenarios, 6. Feedback: Related to action, a good simulation and role-playing as a way to help learnersOnly understand should give the leaner clear and quick feedback on how Christian teachings apply to real-world contexts decisions. This is where much of the learning takes and situations. place in simulations. As a learner makes a choice in the story/simulation, he or she should be able to see References and Resources the consequences of the decision. Gee, James Paul. 2003. What Video Games Have to Teach Us 7. Affect: There should be some emotion created in about Learning and Literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. the simulation. Emotion is a powerful way to keep Kapp, Karl M. 2012. The Gamification of Learning and Instruc- the attention of learners, and Quinn suggests that tion: Game-based Methods and Strategies for Training and keeping things a bit unpredictable is a good way to Education. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. add interest and emotion.5 Prensky, Marc. 2006. “Don’t Bother Me Mom, I’m Learning!” HowCopy Computer and Video Games Are Preparing Your Kids Similar to Quinn’s work, others refer to gamification for Twenty-first Century Success and How You Can Help! St. as taking aspects of a game (experience points, levels, or Paul, MN: Paragon House. role-playing in an environment that is an otherwise tra- Quinn, Clark N., and Marcia L. Connor. 2005. Engaging Learn- ditional learning experience) and using them to increase ing: Designing E-learning Simulation Games. San Francisco: learner engagement, improve retention of the content, Jossey-Bass. increase motivation, or increase the amount of learning Winn, Marie. 2002. The Plug-in Drug: Television, Computers, that takes place.6 and Family Life. New York: Penguin Books. These last two areas of research on gaming constitute —Bernard Bull the majority of new research and texts on the subject, in- dicating a growing interest in lessons learned from video games from an educational perspective. Such studies do Gang Members not necessarily disregard the negative impact of gaming, but they focus their attention largely on what one can learn According to the Evangelical Dictionary of Christian from gaming culture and the design of games as a way Education, a gang can be broadly defined as “a group to better understand how to design highly engaging and who meet regularly, have a common name, and share high-impact formal and informal learning experiences. common rules, signs, colors, and/or symbols.”7 To this, Within the context of Christian education, the re- most researchers will add the fact that a distinct feature of search on educational gaming affords Christian educa- gangs, as opposed to other small groups, is that gangs ex- tors the opportunity to consider alternative perspectives ists to participate, individually or communally, in illegal on how to design significant and engaging faith-based activity. According to the most recent statistics provided Contributorby the National Gang Center, a division of the U.S. De- 5. Clark Quinn and Marsha Conner, Engaging Learning: Designing E- learning Simulation Games (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2005), 9–18. 6. Karl Kapp, The Gamification of Learning and Instruction: Game-based 7. Rick Gray, “Gangs,” in Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Educa- Methods and Strategies for Training and Education (San Francisco: Pfeiffer, tion, gen. ed. J. Anthony (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House 2012). Company, 2001), 308. Gangel, Kenneth O. 533 partment of Justice, the Unites States is currently host to of leaving a gang, members are also confronted with nearly 30,000 distinct gangs.8 the fact that the two cultures, gangs and Christianity, One of the earliest, and most influential, contributions have much in common, including the value of loyalty, to the study and research of gangs was made by Frederic commitment, identity, sacrifice, and community, which Thrasher in 1927 in his seminal book The Gang. In this ensures that participation in both circles at once is virtu- work, Thrasher studied hundreds of gangs in urban Chi- ally impossible. Understanding the culture of gangs will cago, emerging as one of the earliest voices to identify enable the church to proactively utilize its own symbols, connections and similarities between tribal codes and initiations, and rituals to enable ex-gang members to fully cultures of shame and honor found in other countries understand their new identity as they transfer into a new and the development of gangs here in America.9 community. While there are a myriad of complicated factors that contribute to the development of gangs in our modern References and Resources society, research reveals that the most common denomi- Gray, Rick. 2001. “Gangs.” In Evangelical Dictionary of Chris- nators in most environments are social stresses produced tian Education, edited by Michael J. Anthony, 445. Grand by economic, educational, and employment barriers as Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. well as the absence or breakdown of important social Hughes, Lorine. 2007. “Youth Street Gangs.”Only In Youth Violence institutions, including family, schools, and religious and Delinquency: Monsters and Myths, edited by Marilyn D. organizations. Indeed, “It has been suggested that, in McShane and Frank P. Williams III, 39–60. Westport, CT: the absence of other prosocial influences, gangs have be- Praeger Publishers. come the parenting, schooling, and policing force of the National Gang Center. n.d. “National Youth Gang Survey Anal- street.”10 Lorine Hughes agrees: “Young people form and ysis.” http://www.nationalgangcenter.gov/Survey-Analysis, become involved with gangs as compensation for deficits Tallahassee, FL. in their lives . . . gangs are found primarily in disadvan- Thrasher, Frederic. 2012. The Gang. Chicago: University of taged neighborhoods and draw the bulk of their member- Chicago Press. ship from among the most powerless groups in society, Vigil, Diego. 1996. “Gangs.” In The Encyclopedia of Cultural that is poor minorities between the ages of 12 and 24.”11 Anthropology, edited by David Levinson, 277–280. New In addition to these factors, one would be remiss to York:Copy Henry Holt. ignore the highly communal nature of gangs, in which —Stephen L. Woodworth significant weight can be placed on each gang mem- ber’s individual search for purpose and belonging as a contributing force to gang development. Joined to this Gangel, Kenneth O. is the ongoing culture of gangs, especially in urban and suburban areas, whereby young children are raised in an Kenneth Gangel (1935–2009) was an American educator environment where gang affiliation is the norm rather whose contributions include significant publications in than the exception. In these instances, simple socializa- Christian education (K–12 schools) and church leader- tion combined with a sheer lack of alternative opportuni- ship/administration. ties creates in many youth a “do or die” attitude toward joining a gang. Early Background and Education For these reasons, it is incredibly difficult to moti- A first-generation American, Kenneth O. Gangel was vate gang members to discontinue their affiliations and born 14 June 1935 in Patterson, New Jersey, the son of an particularly challenging to suggest ways in which gang Austrian father and a Swiss mother. Gangel credited his members can be persuaded to join Christianity. Regard- mother with planting the seeds of faith in him during his ing gangs and Christian education, there is a great need formative years. As a six-year-old he made a profession of to support gang members as they sever ties with their faith at summer camp. During his childhood he faced the former gang affiliations. Beyond the physical danger struggles of growing up in the streets of a tough neigh- borhood, experiencing his father’s abuse of his mother, 8. National Gang Center, National Youth Gang Survey Analysis, http:// and his father’s abandonment of the family. www.nationalgangcenter.gov/Survey-Analysis (accessed 13 July 2013). Because his mother was unable to care for him and work 9. Frederic Thrasher, The Gang (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, to earn a living, Gangel faced another character-building 2013).Contributor 10. Diego Vigil, “Gangs,” in The Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, experience—being sent to boarding school. At Stony ed. David Levinson (New York: Henry Holt, 1996), 515. Brook in Long Island, Gangel was mentored by Frank Gae- 11. Lorine Hughes, “Youth Street Gangs,” in Youth Violence and Delin- quency: Monsters and Myths, ed. Marilyn D. McShane and Frank P. Wil- belein. His spiritual development and academic training liams III (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2007), 42. continued at Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois, where 534 Gangel, Kenneth O. his mother found a as a cook. Because of his poor aca- inerrant authority of Scripture as the centerpiece for con- demic status, Gangel was required to pass a GED exam to temporary education. . . . be admitted to Taylor University in Indiana. And that leads to a second principle: The integration of As a member of a tenor quartet, Gangel traveled to faith and learning demands a recognition of the conten- Germany in the summer of 1954, where he experienced poraneity of the Bible and the Holy Spirit. . . . A third principle for the integrative process is a clear a fresh spiritual renewal while doing active ministry. understanding of the nature, source, discovery, and dis- Returning to Taylor in the fall of 1954 with a new per- semination of truth. . . . spective, Gangel dedicated himself to a double major in A fourth principle on which the integrative process is biblical studies and business and graduated in 1957. Dur- based has to do with designing a curriculum which is to- ing this same time he began his lifelong friendship with tally constructed on the centrality of special revelation. . . . Betty, and they married in 1956. A fifth principle dealing with the integration of truth in Following graduation from college, Gangel enrolled in Christian education is a demand for the development of a Grace Theological Seminary, where he earned a master of Christian world and life view. . . . divinity degree. As a full-time pastor, the young minister A sixth principle demands that bibliocentric education found his MDiv training had not provided him with the extend to all areas of student life. practical insights and skills that he needed, so he attended In addition to works in the field ofOnly Christian educa- a Winona Lake Pastor’s Conference. It was there that he met Howard Hendricks and was influenced to consider tion, Gangel has also written numerous Bible commen- Christian education. He subsequently earned a master taries. His commitments to biblical theology and his of arts in Christian education from Fuller Seminary. He ability to integrate a solid theological foundation with would later add a master’s from Concordia Seminary and his Christian education materials set him apart from his a PhD from University of Missouri at Kansas City (1969). peers (Anthony and Benson 2003, 373). In 1960, he began teaching at Calvary Bible College as chairman of the Christian Education Department. His Most Notable Publications extensive career in teaching and higher education admin- Gangel, K. 1989. Feeding & Leading. Wheaton, IL: Victor Books. istration included service as academic dean at Concordia ———. 1997. Coaching Ministry Teams: Leadership and Man- Seminary, director of the School of Christian Education agement in Christian Organizations. Nashville, TN: Word Publisher.Copy at Evangelical Divinity School, and president of Miami Christian College (1974–1979). Gangel held a ———. 2002. Called to Lead: Understanding and Fulfilling Your variety of positions at Dallas Theological Seminary, in- Role as an Educational Leader. Colorado Springs, CO: Pur- cluding professor of Christian education, vice president poseful Design. for academic affairs, and academic dean (1992–1997). Gangel, K., and W. Benson. 1983. Christian Education: Its His- Gangel’s final ministry was scholar in residence at Toccoa tory and Philosophy. Chicago: Moody Press. Falls College (1997–2009). Gangel, K., and J. Gangel. 2003. Fathering Like the Father: Becoming the Dad God Wants You to Be. Grand Rapids, MI: Significant Contributions to Christian Education Baker Books. During an impressive career of public speaking and Gangel, K., and H. Hendricks, eds. 1996. The Christian Educa- prolific writing (more than 50 books authored or ed- tor’s Handbook on Teaching. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. ited), Gangel skillfully wove together scripture, theology, educational research, and practical application into read- References and Resources able and memorable fabrics. No one could doubt he had Anthony, Michael J., and Warren S. Benson. 2003. Exploring spent valuable time alone in God’s Word or that he had the History and Philosophy of Christian Education: Principles a strong grasp of the original languages. But as he devel- for the 21st Century. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications. oped perspectives based on his studies, he was capable of Gangel, K. 1978. “Integrating Faith and Learning: Principles fashioning them into speeches and essays that assisted and Process.” W. H. Griffith Thomas Memorial Lecture at practitioners in the local church, Christian school admin- Dallas Theological Seminary. istrators and teachers, and seminarians. The following Lawson, Michael S., and C. Ash. 2013. Kenneth O. Gangel. quotes come from one of four lectures Gangel delivered Talbot School of Theology: Christian Educators. http://www in DallasContributor in 1978, entitled, “Integrating Faith and Learn- .talbot.edu/ce20/educators/view.cfm?n=kenneth_gangel. ing: Principles and Process”: Lockerbie, D. Bruce. 2007. A Passion for Learning: A History of Christian Thought on Education. Colorado Springs, CO: First, it is one thing to verbalize a commitment to the Purposeful Design. inspiration of Scripture; it is quite another to accept the —Ken Coley Generational Issues in Christian Education 535

Generational Issues in portionately with divorcing parents and the adjustment Christian Education to blended families. The rise in the emphasis on youth ministry in churches is largely due to this generation. But Generational issues have implications in at least two as churched busters grew older, many of them became areas in the educational ministry of the church. One has disillusioned with mega-churches and the evangelical to do with the impact of generational characteristics on theology of their youth. It was largely Generation X that the methods and process of Christian education, and birthed and populated the emerging church movement the other has to with the intergenerational nature of in the United States in the late 20th century. They were faith communities. the first to incorporate technology as a daily part of their For many years, social scientists have studied the personal and professional lives. characteristics of various generations. They usually make The millennials or Generation Y were born between broad generalizations about how an age-similar cohort 1985 and 2002. Millennials in the United States number will behave. These generalizations may be predictive around 70 million. They are the first generation to be de- when a generation is in its infancy, or descriptive as a fined by their technology use, being wedded to their cell generation matures and reaches adulthood. Throughout phones and tablets while creating relationships through the 20th century, these generations were given names texting and social media. They haveOnly endured helicopter to describe them as a large group. We’ve heard about parenting, and as they age into young adulthood, many the World War II or Greatest Generation and their of them who grew up in churches are leaving these propensity for self-sacrifice. Generational studies really churches, disillusioned by what they see as the church’s seemed to make their mark on popular culture and local intolerance and inauthenticity. The generation coming church ministry with the advent and maturation of the after the millennials, Generation Y or the digital genera- baby boom generation. Born from 1946 through 1964, tion, is still in childhood, and we can only speculate about this generation made up the post–World War II “baby its effects on the church and society. boom” (hence the name). Some 76 million children were While these generations all have different character- born in the United States during those years. Because istics and were shaped by different societal and cultural there were so many baby boomers, they left their mark on influences, they all meet up in the local church, where everything they touched, leaving heretofore unheard of by Copythe very definition of church they are supposed to cultural and societal changes in their wake. Because of the live together in love so others might know the love of sheer size of this age cohort, they got their way in most Jesus. Unfortunately, the 20th and early 21st centuries things, outnumbering all other cohorts. As mid-genera- have seen the church do more to separate the gen- tion baby boomers moved into adulthood in the 1970s erations than pull them together. Today when families and 1980s, visionary churches began to take note of them arrive at church, they drop their children off in the and create ministries to attract them to their churches. It children’s ministry wing; their teenagers head for the is no coincidence that the rise of the role of the children’s youth room, and the parents go to either an adult edu- pastor in church educational ministry coincides with the cation class made up of people of their own generation era when baby boomers were beginning to have children or a worship service populated only by adults. And if of their own. As adults, baby boomers became known this is a contemporary worship service, there may not for outsourcing many things in their lives and the lives be any older adults present in the room. The church of their children. Their children’s spiritual education mirrors the separation of generations or the generation was something else they were willing to outsource, and gap found in our culture, when it should be offering an the local church was more than willing to accommodate alternative vision of life together. them. Baby boomers in the church were also at the fore- Children and youth need to be exposed to adults other front of the contemporary worship movement, bringing than their parents as an important part of their spiritual their own musical preferences into the church. formation and development, so those charged with the After the baby boomers came the baby busters, so educational ministry of the church need to think seri- named because their numbers were not as large as the ously about ways to bring the generations together in the baby boom generation. Gen Xers, as they are also known, community of faith rather than develop more ways to were born between 1965 and 1984 and were the offspring pull them apart. It is important for children and youth to ofContributor younger members of the World War II generation and hear the personal stories of faith from their elders. These the first members of the baby boomers. They have been people can be models to them of what it means to live a called slackers because they often seemed not to have the life of authentic faith in God. competitive drive of the baby boomers, and they were Intergenerational relationships are important for ev- the first generation of the 20th century to deal dispro- eryone in the church. In order to create true biblical com- 536 Geneva Academy munity, generations must rub up against one another, lège Calvin) was established to provide education learn from each other, and learn to be accepting of other’s for boys in seven grades of secondary and some primary tastes and ideas. It is this kind of faith community that is education and to encourage pious living and Christian most conducive to the spiritual formation of its members discipline. Most boys, however, attended vernacular and is best at modeling to the world what Jesus meant schools (petites écoles), where they were taught reading, when He told his disciples that the world would know writing, and arithmetic. Basic vernacular instruction His love when they saw the disciples’ love for each other. was also available to some girls in certain neighbor- hoods, where they were taught to read the Bible and References and Resources sometimes reading and arithmetic. Unless a family Allen, Holly Catterton, and Christine Lawton Ross. 2012. could also afford a private tutor, girls were at least Intergenerational Christian Formation: Bringing the Whole trained in reading for learning the catechism on Sun- Church Together in Ministry, Community and Worship. days. Eventually catechetical education was expanded Westmont, IL: IVP Academic. for all children with the establishment of the Société de Howe, Neil, William Strauss, and R. J. Matson. 2000. Millennials Catéchumènes in 1736. This society distributed New Rising: The Next Great Generation. New York: Vintage Books. Testaments and catechisms to children without re- —Ivy Beckwith sources and eventually funded six catecheticalOnly ministers to teach children within the city weekly. Meanwhile, the upper school of the academy (schola publica) was Geneva Academy dedicated to equipping ministers in theology through studies in Greek and Hebrew.12 Initially, the academy When John Calvin returned to Geneva in 1541, he im- supported a total of five professors, with three teaching mediately set to work organizing the structure and order humanities, Greek, and Hebrew respectively, and two of the church in his Ecclesiastical Ordinances. Integral to teaching theology. For the latter position, Calvin and the fourfold office of the church was the role of the “doc- Beza alternated weeks of teaching while switching be- tor,” an office set aside for those called to instruct the tween Old and scripture. Theology was faithful in doctrine and defend the purity of the . not understood as a discipline separate from biblical Calvin also envisioned the establishment of a collège for exegesis.Copy Similarly, teaching was not distinguished from universal education while beginning to form future lead- church ministry, and this dynamic would continue into ers for the church and state. Though some education was the Enlightenment, even as the academy modernized its already available in Geneva, Calvin notably enhanced the curriculum to engage with emerging sciences. existing system, established higher learning, recruited At its inception, the academy’s advanced education top-notch professors, and ceaselessly advocated for the was especially needed for sending clergy to France while welfare of the academy and its professors before the Protestantism was expanding exponentially during the magistrate. This high level of clerical involvement set a 1560s. Eventually, bouts of persecution left the academy precedent that would continue through the 18th century. with an increasingly parochial student body by the end When Geneva’s city council adopted Protestantism in of the 17th century, though figures like Thomas Jefferson May 1536 before Calvin arrived, it also ruled in favor of would continue to recognize the superior education that mandatory elementary education. The Collège de Rive was offered there.13 Throughout that time, the clergy ac- was established that year, and it provided education in tively governed the academy after Calvin. They examined Latin and Greek to a certain stratum of boys. Calvin was and elected candidates to teach, and the council approved never particularly happy with that institution, because it elections, installed professors, and prescribed them to was not governed by the clergy. Disorder, turnover, and take a formal oath. This high level of clerical control was lack of money eventually resulted in its closing. By 1555, not maintained as long by universities at Leiden and Ed- Calvin’s leadership was in a position to introduce higher inburgh.14 The state became increasingly involved in the education within the city. Funds were secured through election of professors from the mid-18th century on. In the confiscation of property from Calvin’s opponents, the exiled Perrinists, and in 1558, the closure of the Lausanne 12. Karin Maag, Seminary or University? The Genevan Academy and Re- Academy ensured that the Geneva Academy would be formed Higher Education, 1560–1620 (Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1995). resourced with experienced professors from the outset. In 13. Thomas Jefferson to Wilson Nicholas, 22 November 1794, in The ContributorWritings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. H. A. Washington (Washington, DC: 1559, the Geneva Academy was inaugurated, and Theo- Taylor & Maury, 1854), 4:109. dore Beza was appointed as rector. 14. Michael Heyd, “The Genevan Academy in the Eighteenth Century: A Calvinist Seminary or a Civic University?” in The University and the City: The academy consisted of two schools. The collège From Medieval Origins to the Present, ed. Thomas Bender (Oxford: Oxford (schola privata or grand école and later called the Col- University Press, 1988), 81. Georgetown University 537 the subsequent century, Geneva’s higher education insti- of the academic institution he founded. He insisted on tution would begin to transform into a university. religious tolerance within the institution, as he did within —Jennifer Powell McNutt the wider society. His vision reflected the republican vi- sion of the framers of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, documents signed by his cousins. Georgetown University It was therefore fitting that he would be elected by his priests as the first Catholic prelate in the United States, Founding Principles rather than being chosen by the , and that he would One of the oldest universities in the United States, George- arrange to have the first Catholic cathedral in the 13 town University is the last major U.S. university founded former colonies be designed by the same architect who before the 19th century that still maintains a strong designed the U.S. Capitol. In his ministry as leader of the Christian identity and commitment. Established in 1789 fledgling in the United States—which by John Carroll, who that same year had been elected the accounted for less than 1 percent of the population— first Catholic within the newly established United Carroll emphasized Bible reading by Catholic families. States, the university’s propitious location in what was At a time when the mass was celebrated in Latin, Carroll to become the nation’s capital gave it a unique vantage made sure that the scripture readingsOnly were in English and point as the country grew. The school colors are blue and strongly advocated that the entire mass be conducted in gray, representing the coming together of the country the local languages. after the Civil War. From the beginning, John Carroll, Unlike almost every other university founded in the who had been sent by his family to study at Jesuit schools United States before the 1800s, Georgetown remains in Europe and became a Jesuit himself, was convinced of deeply connected to its Christian roots and at the same the value of putting the school at the service of the nation. time deeply inclusive. John Carroll had long dreamed Thus from the beginning it was open to all, regardless of having such an institution as Georgetown, having of their faith, but with the goal that all be formed in the conducted meetings to explore its feasibility as far back virtues and given religious education. Its first students as 1783, immediately after U.S. independence had been started in 1791, and the very first, William Gaston, went won and freedom of religion established. By 1787, he on to serve in the U.S. Congress and then as a justice of hadCopy a formal proposal for the founding of the institution the Supreme Court in his home state of North Carolina, prepared and printed. Convinced of its mission to make where he was known in part for his leadership in the area a place for faith in higher education within the nation’s of religious freedom. Georgetown achieved university capital, its religiously derived focus on religious freedom status under Patrick Healy, SJ, who upon taking office in has given it a strong commitment to embrace those of 1874 became the first person of partial African descent to other faiths as well. From the start, its Jesuit-influenced lead a university in the United States. self-understanding also gave it a faith-derived focus on the common good and the needs of the nation and the Distinguishing Features world. Georgetown’s history is thus fundamentally dif- Georgetown is counted as both the first Jesuit university ferent from that of other Catholic institutions of higher in the United States and the only one to be founded by a learning that were founded on the frontier (St. Louis bishop who was himself a Jesuit. However, at this time the University [1818], Xavier University [1831], which were Jesuit order was suppressed due to the secularizing aims sponsored by the Society of Jesus beginning in 1827 and of the leading Catholic royal families of Europe. George- 1840, respectively). It was also fundamentally differ- town was thus technically not founded by a Jesuit nor led ent from the vast majority of Catholic universities that by Jesuits. Although the leadership of the new institution were founded in the aftermath of European Catholic was drawn from priests who had been trained as Jesuits, immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. they operated as diocesan clergy. The Society of Jesus was Georgetown was founded in the heart of the eastern definitively restored as a religious order in 1814, though establishment with the goal of serving persons of all the process began as early as 1805. Throughout this time, backgrounds, but in a way that was animated by a deeply the institution benefited from lands and other assets that cultivated, civic-minded understanding springing from had been held by the Society of Jesus, since these lands Jesuit, Catholic humanism. wereContributor not taken as Jesuit lands had been by other govern- Those of all faiths were always welcome, and George- ments, due to the separation of church and state in the town, not surprisingly, has long had Protestant worship new nation. on its campus, was the first Catholic institution to hire John Carroll was notable for his impact on the Catholic a Jewish chaplain, and was the first to hire a Muslim Church in the United States, as he was for the character chaplain. As is traditional for Catholic institutions and 538 Georgia and Christian Education particularly Jesuit ones, in a tradition harkening back to assist and serve those who are in prisons or hospitals, and the first universities of the Middle Ages, the school year indeed to perform any other works of charity, according begins with a Mass of the Holy Spirit. Graduation in- to what will seem expedient for the glory of God and the cludes a baccalaureate mass, and daily mass is celebrated common good.” throughout the day in the campus chapels. Its theology department is large, with more than 30 members, includ- References and Resources ing the dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. Engage- Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities. 2010. A His- ment with other faiths is reflected in a unique doctoral tory Rooted in Mission: Jesuit Higher Education in the United program oriented to the study of religious pluralism, States. Washington, DC: Association of Jesuit Colleges and as well as in the Center for Muslim-Christian Under- Universities. standing. All undergraduates must take two courses in Curran, R. 2010. A History of Georgetown University. 3 vols. theology to graduate. Its Woodstock Theological Library Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. is one of the largest theological libraries in the United Durkin, J., SJ. 1964. Georgetown University, First in the Nation’s States. The Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate Capital. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. (CARA) is a Catholic religious research center affiliated Gallin, A., OSU. 1992. American Catholic Higher Education: Es- with the university, along with a number of Catholic- sential Documents, 1967–1990. Notre Dame,Only IN: University related ethics and other institutes. CARA has conducted of Notre Dame Press. numerous research efforts related to religious education ———. 2000. Negotiating Identity: Catholic Higher Education over the years and works closely with the United States since 1960. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. Conference of Catholic and numerous other Gleason, P. 1995. Contending with Modernity: Catholic Higher Catholic organizations. Education in the Twentieth Century. New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press. Contemporary Christian Philosophy and Mission Hunt, T. 2003. Handbook of Research on Catholic Higher Edu- The Christian philosophy and mission of Georgetown cation. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. University are nourished by its unique context and his- McFadden, W., SJ. 1990a. “‘Catechism at 4 for All the Schools’: tory as a Catholic university founded during the federalist Religious Instruction at Georgetown.” In Georgetown at period in the heart of the nation’s capital, and above all TwoCopy Hundred: Faculty Reflections on the University’s Future, by its Jesuit roots. The university is one of the world’s edited by W. McFadden, 143–168. Washington, DC: George- leading universities by various ranking systems, and a town University Press. leader among the approximately 189 Jesuit institutions ———, ed. 1990b. Georgetown at Two Hundred: Faculty Reflec- of higher education. Many Jesuits who go on to lead tions on the University’s Future. Washington, DC: George- other Jesuit universities have gained an important part town University Press. of their leadership experience at the university. Follow- Mixon, S., L. Lyon, and M. Beaty. 2004. “Secularization and ing the 34th Jesuit congregation, held in 1995, the order National Universities: The Effect of Religious Identity on has emphasized Jesuit-lay collaboration. Georgetown Academic Reputation.” Journal of Higher Education 75 (4): reflected this vision when in 2001 it became the first of 400–419. the 28 Jesuit colleges and universities in the United States Power, E. 1958. A History of Catholic Higher Education in the to have a layman, John DiGoia, serve as president. Today, United States. Milwaukee, MN: Bruce. there are approximately 50 Jesuits in residence in the Je- Wilcox, J. 2000. Enhancing Religious Identity: Best Practices suit community at Georgetown. They serve as professors, from Catholic Campuses. Washington, DC: Georgetown administrators, and in other roles, including as resident University Press. chaplains on the various floors of university dormitories. Yakikoski, R. 2010. “Catholic Higher Education: The Untold In many ways, the philosophy and mission of the So- Story.” Address to the Association of Catholic Colleges and ciety of Jesus has not changed since its founder, Ignatius Universities, Washington, DC. http://www.gonzaga.edu/aca of Loyola, described it in his 1540 introduction to the demics/graduate/graduate-student-council/Documents/Cath Constitutions, otherwise known as The Formula of the olic-HE-Docs/Catholic-Higher-Education-Untold-Story.pdf. Institute. This vision of the goals of the Society remains —Bryan T. Froehle a critical source of the underlying evangelical orientation withinContributor the Society of Jesus and its institutions: “To strive especially for the defense and propagation of the faith Georgia and Christian Education and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doc- trine . . . and the spiritual consolation of Christ’s faithful Christianity was introduced to Georgia through the Moreover . . . to reconcile the estranged, compassionately missionary efforts of St. Nino of Cappadocia during the Gergen, Kenneth J. 539 fourth century. According to historical texts, King Mirian to the development of social constructionism theory, III of Iberia called upon “Nino’s god” while hunting and which he argues is the belief that the world is formed out witnessed the power of God. The monarch established of a collective process of social relationships rather than Christianity as the state religion in AD 337. The result- the individual self in isolation. In other words, the count- ing Georgian Orthodox Church remained at the center less human choices based on societal variables shape and of religious and political life until the nation’s absorption mold the discursive processes to produce human judg- into the Soviet Union in 1921. ment. This judgment is not transhistorical, but rather Under Communist rule, religious freedom was force- socially constructed. The focus for Gergen, then, is no fully suppressed; a law separating church and state was im- longer based on a private human experience that yields plemented, Orthodox priests and monks were imprisoned a fixed understanding of knowledge, values, or reason. and killed, and hundreds of churches were destroyed or Instead, Gergen’s focus is on the interaction of human confiscated by the government. Religious tolerance started relationships that continually exist to yield a fluid, albeit to reemerge in the 1970s–1980s and was reestablished important, understanding of the world. In contrast to after the declaration of independence in 1991. The state Descartes’s Enlightenment philosophy of knowledge—“I constitution supports freedom of religion; however, some think, therefore I am”—Gergen’s social construct phi- persecution does exists against nontraditional religions. losophy of knowledge is “I am linked,Only therefore I am.” According to the 2002 Census, the majority of ethnic Georgians identify as members of the Georgian Ortho- Significant Contributions to Christian Education dox Church (83.9 percent). The remaining citizens are Kenneth J. Gergen’s life and works have contributed at Muslim 9.9 percent, Armenian-Gregorian 3.9 percent, least two insights about Christian education. However, Catholic 0.8 percent, other 0.8 percent, and none 0.7 he did not necessarily set out to convey these insights to percent. Since the disintegration of the Soviet Union, future Christian educators. Protestantism is on the rise. Represented groups include First, Gergen highlighted indirectly that Christian Baptists, Seventh-Day Adventists, the Assemblies of God, education is developed within community. No single in- and the New Apostolic Church. Since independence in dividual has formulated an educational learning theory, 1991, religious education has gained prominence. The instructional design, or pedagogical design in the class- Orthodox Church runs 4 theological seminaries, 2 acad- roomCopy that comprehensively captures the educational emies, numerous schools, and 27 church dioceses. philosophy to the satisfaction of all Christian education. Rather, through the collective efforts of social science, Reference research theories are tested to confirm or deny their ef- Anderson, J. 1994. Religion, State and Politics in the Soviet fectiveness. While Gergen would deny the transhistorical Union and Successor States. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge nature of social sciences, his emphasis on social construct University Press. does help to elaborate the discursive nature of learning —Sarita D. Gallagher that is produced within a community. Second, Gergen underscores the communal aspect of knowledge that the church has produced over centuries Gergen, Kenneth J. of internal dialogue. For instance, the formulation of the doctrine of the Trinity, although biblically represented Early Background and Education in the scriptures, was theologically formulated over a Kenneth J. Gergen (1935–) was raised in an educated four-century period. The interchange of ideas, rejection Caucasian American family. His father was the chair of heretical concepts, and assimilation of linguistic ideas of the Mathematics Department at Duke University in embedded in the Greek and Latin language aided in the Durham, North Carolina. He earned a BA from Yale articulation of the formula of God as one divine essence University and a PhD from Duke University in psychol- and three divine persons. This example should prompt ogy. He has served as professor at Harvard University Christian educators to underscore that the Body of Christ and visiting professor at the University of Heidelberg, has collectively interpreted the Bible and that no one the University of Marburg, and the Sorbonne. He is also individual is the sole repository of divine interpretation. the founding member of The Taos Institute, which is fo- cusedContributor on the social processes that are essential to human Most Notable Publications knowledge and values. His primary teaching position Gergen, Kenneth. 2000. The Saturated Self: Dilemmas of Iden- has been at Swarthmore College, where he was chair of tity in Contemporary Life. 2nd ed. New York: Basic Books. the Department of Psychology and is currently senior ——— . 2009a. An Invitation to Social Construction. 2nd ed. research professor. He is most noted for his contribution Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 540 Germany and Christian Education

———. 2009b. Relational Being: Beyond Self and Community. cal Church in Germany (EKD), in nearly equal shares. New York: Oxford University Press. The Association of Protestant Free Churches, founded —David McGee in 1926, includes Methodists, Mennonites, the Council of Free Churches, and others. The existing separation between church and state involves cooperation in vari- Germany and Christian Education ous fields, including education. Secularization, plural- ization, and individualization are main aspects of the Historical Background religious situation. The number of the unchurched in Christianity has a long history in the German context. It Germany has increased significantly throughout the last begins in the period of the Roman Empire up to the fifth few decades. century; later missionaries came from Irish-Scottish and Anglo-Saxon territories to the area of today’s Germany. Typical Means of Educating Christians in the Country Germany is also where the Reformation, which changed Approximately 80 percent of all children are baptized the church and culture tremendously, began in 1517 (set when they are young. A vivid dialogue happens between in motion by Martin Luther and others). In this period, parents and the church in preparation. More than one- education became a decisive element of Christian faith. third of all child-care facilities and kindergartensOnly are run The belief that everyone should be able to read the Bible by Christian churches or organizations. Christian educa- was a motive for Christian education in schools, but also tion occurs in these facilities, but increasingly they take in families and parishes. For the reformers, education into account the mixed population, including a growing and faith were inseparably linked as a gift of God. Martin number of Islamic children and children from noncon- Luther (1483–1546) espoused the idea of compulsory edu- fessional families. cation for all children and demanded of “the Councilmen Sunday school services are common in the parishes, of all Cities in Germany that they establish and maintain but attendance has decreased in recent decades. Only Christian schools” (1524). Luther’s Small Catechism (1529) 5–10 percent of baptized children attend these services. became a basic document of Christian education, with a New forms or strategies of educating children are estab- significant influence on its theory and practice. lished taking account of the decreasing Christian social- Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560) was active in the re- izationCopy in families. form of schools and universities and was named posthum Confirmation classes have become more important in called as the teacher of Germany (Praeceptor Germaniae). providing Christian education that previously occurred The Reformation and Counter-Reformation resulted in a in families. About 90 percent of all Protestant 14-year- plurality of confessions that compete in the struggle for olds are confirmed, totaling about 250,000 confirmands truth claims. The period of conflict ended with the Peace every year. A recent study (Schweitzer, Ilg, and Simojoki of Augsburg (1555), which accepted the existing Catholic 2010) outlines the competences (knowledge, faith, and and Protestant confessions and linked them to the con- faithful practices) that are promoted by confirmation fession of the ruling authority in each territory (cuius classes and contribute to social cohesion in civil society. regio, eius religio). In the Catholic Church, communion classes begin John Comenius (1592–1670) became a promi- when the children are eight years old. Often parents are nent educator, making a major contribution to Christian actively involved in the preparation classes, and more education in the field of universal education. His concept and more group activities are part of the preparation. The of comprehensive education (omnes-omnia-omnino) was next step is to renew their baptismal promise in the sacra- rooted in a theological argument. ment of confirmation, which happens at age 13. Learning and faith were inseparable until the 18th cen- Other areas of Christian education are youth work and tury, with the onset of the Enlightenment, during which adult education; these involve children, youth, and adults. the connection between the two began to dissolve. These activities include many self-organized events in Today Christian education is part of the church’s en- which churches provide space for meetings, bible studies, gagement with the world, and its focus is to nurture faith and other faith-based activities. in the context of shared values, beliefs, and attitudes. It Christian education also takes place in faith-based takes place in families and parishes as well as in Chris- institutions, contributing to the common good of so- tian-basedContributor public educational institutions and through a ciety. Protestant and Catholic institutions such as kin- commitment of the churches to public education policy. dergartens and schools are based on Basic Law Art. 7.4, which guarantees the right to establish private schools. Main Denominations and Institutions in the Country In Germany, more than 1,100 Protestant schools and 900 In Germany about 60 percent of the population belongs Catholic schools are part of the public education system to either the Roman Catholic Church or the Evangeli- and are attended by 435,000 students. After reunification, Gerson, Jean 541 a remarkable number of new institutions were founded, Schweitzer, Friedrich, Wolfgang Ilg, and Henrik Simojoki, mainly in eastern Germany. Most were created on the eds. 2010. Conformation Work in Europe: Empirical Results, initiative of parents who wanted to provide better educa- Experiences and Challenges; A Comparative Study in Seven tion for their children. (Protestant schools increased by Countries. Gütersloh, Germany: Gutersloher Verlagshaus. 261 between 1999 and 2007.) —Peter Schreiner A Catholic motto for schooling is “to provide a space for living in which the spirit of freedom and the love of the Gospel become lively.” Gerson, Jean Another concern of Christian education is corespon- sibility for religious education in public schools. Access Jean Gerson (1363–1429) was a French theologian, to RE is guaranteed by the German Constitution (Art church reformer, and chancellor of the University of 7.3), which establishes it as a res mixta, responsibility of Paris. Gerson lived during the turbulence of the Great both the state and the religious communities. Christian Schism (1378–1417), when two , and for a time churches contribute by providing religious education in three, claimed leadership over Rome. He was educated schools for the common good and guarantee that it is a at local schools until age 14, when he began his studies decisive part of public education. Many school laws refer in Paris. After being ordained as aOnly priest, he continued to Christian roots and base the concept of education on his education, earning a doctorate in theology, and was Christian values. appointed chancellor at the University of Paris and the head of the school of theology. Known for his integrity, The State of Religious Freedom and Freedom of Gerson was a defender of orthodoxy and sought to re- Worship and Conscience; Church-State Relations form the church and the rampant hypocrisy within the The relationship between church and state in Germany is university. According to Gerson, the university was to based on constitutional and statutory provisions as well as serve the church and produce graduates who were able to on state-church treaties. The German Constitution pro- speak to the common person. His threefold agenda was vides for religious freedom in Article 4 (freedom of faith, that students must learn theology, be formed in ethical of conscience and of creed): (1) Freedom of faith and con- character, and receive training to be effective preachers. science, and freedom of creed, religious or ideological, are PrideCopy and arrogance was recognized as a barrier that re- inviolable. (2) The undisturbed practice of religion is guar- stricted knowing God’s way of living. Therefore, preach- anteed. Freedom of religion enjoys special constitutional ers should not only speak eloquently in Latin to their protection. The German legal system guarantees religious colleagues, but also be proficient in communicating those communities autonomy to look after their own affairs (e.g., same truths clearly in the vernacular language of French ecclesiastic labor law). There is no state church (Art. 137), to the laity. Gerson frequently preached on the topics of but there are many instances of cooperation between the humility, chastity, and penance. state and the religious communities (e.g., religious educa- Gerson participated in the Council of Constance tion, theological faculties at state universities). (1414–1418), which eventually resolved the Great Problems Christian education has to face include Schism, though he did not grasp the significance of demographic developments (decrease in the number of the more radical reforms advocated by John Hus (c. Christians); religious change that means subject orien- 1372–1415), who was condemned to death at Constance tation individualization, including secularization and in 1415. While misguided in his attacks against Hus, differentiation from culturally influenced lifestyles; and Gerson’s desire for reform prefigured Luther, including change in life world and life orientation. on matters of authority, the role of human efforts and grace in the nature of salvation, and how one discerns References and Resources whether visions are from God. Kirchenamt der EKD, ed. 2013. Education from a Protestant He stressed the importance of combining the intellect Perspective: A Collection of Documents from the Evangelical and affect, reflective of Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153), Church in Germany. Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland. one of his favorite theologians, and stressed the critical role Gütersloh, Germany: Gütersloher Verl.-Haus. of love and contemplation rather than speculative philoso- Scheilke, Christoph, and Martin Schreiner. 1999. Handbuch phy in learning. He wrote more than 500 works, including ContributorEvangelischer Schulen. Gütersloh, Germany: Gütersloher the Mountain of Contemplation (1400), first written for his Verlagshaus. own sisters, which reflects his desire to address the laity. Schreiner, Peter. 2007. “Germany.” In Religious Education in Eu- Gerson insisted that unlettered laypeople were more likely rope: Situation and Current Trends in Schools, edited by Elza to experience God than overeducated priests and church Kuyk, Roger Jensen, David Lankshear, Elisabeth Löh-Manna, leaders. The range of his writings included hearing con- and Peter Schreiner, S. 81–87. Oslo: IKO—Publishing House. fessions, testing of mystical experiences and visions, and 542 Ghana and Christian Education various aspects of purity, and their depth later earned him began in the early 19th century, when missionaries ar- the title “consoling doctor.” rived from the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel Gerson was criticized for his commitment to guiding (late 1700s; Anglican Church), Basel (1828; Presbyte- young children to Jesus, which others thought was be- rian Church), Wesleyan Methodist (1835; Methodist neath the dignity of his office. In On Bringing Children Church), and Bremen (1847; Evangelical Presbyterian to Christ, Gerson developed this teaching around Jesus’s Church) (Odamtten 1978, viii), following a high in- words, “Let the little children come to me” (Matt. 19:14, cidence of death among pioneer missionaries (Ghana NRSV), and explained it both literally and allegorically. Committee 1993, 107). He insisted that there was no higher task than following Church denominations are categorized under broad the example of Jesus, who equally was misunderstood by umbrella organizations: (1) the Christian Council mem- his followers. For Gerson, the motivation was not so much ber churches, (2) the Bishop’s Conference of the Catholic the love of children, as later educators would emphasize, Church in Ghana, (3) the Conferences of the Seventh- but rather the moral concern that their souls were endan- Day Adventist church in Ghana, (4) the Ghana Pente- gered. The proper use of confession and penance was to costal Council member churches, and (5) the Mission be employed to snatch the souls of little children from Related Churches (Ghana Evangelism Committee 1993, the doors of hell and bring them to Jesus. Significantly, 108–109). Yet to be added to the listOnly are the National Gerson recognized the importance of speaking to children Council of Charismatic Churches and the Supreme at their own level. To accomplish this, he addressed them Council of Independent Churches. through poetry to make his message more understand- Sunday school or small group Bible study and sermons able and easier to retain. Gerson asserted that preaching, have been the primary avenues of imparting Christian admonition, encouragement, and most important, the religious knowledge. The constitution of Ghana allows careful and disciplined use of confession, are the best freedom of religion, and though approximately 69 per- means for bringing children to Christ. Gerson’s frequent cent of the population subscribes to Christianity, there is emphasis on the necessity of confession was due to the peaceful coexistence among diverse religious bodies. rampant cultural corruption that affected youth. Two traditional models of Christian education delivery Gerson’s legacy emphasizes the availability of the spiri- have been (1) informal education, in which “unlettered” tual life for all people, regardless of their training or back- peopleCopy are taught functional literacy and are thereby ground, and stresses the equal importance of knowledge enabled to read the scripture in their mother tongue or and devotion. His contemplative spirituality influenced in English, and (2) formal education, in which Christian not only Roman Catholics, such as the Brethren of the students are able to study and practice their faith without Common Life and Francis de Sales, but also Richard Bax- hindrance at church-related schools and universities. ter and other 17th-century Protestants. His life reminds educators of the importance of children and of forming References and Resources them both morally and biblically. Bediako, Kwame. Jesus and the Gospel in Africa: History and Experience. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Press, 2004. References and Resources Ghana Evangelism Committee. 1993. National Church Survey Cully, Kendig B. 1960. Basic Writings in Christian Education. Update. Accra: Ghana Office. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 119–132. Odamtten, S. K. 1978. The Missionary Factor in Ghana’s Devel- McGuire, Brian P. 1996. “Education, Confession and Pious opment (1820–1880). Accra, Ghana: Waterville Publishing Fraud: Jean Gerson and a Late Medieval Change.” American House. Benedictine Review 47 (3): 310–338. Pobee, J. S. Kwame Nkrumah and the Church in Ghana 1949– ———. 1998. Jean Gerson: Early Works. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist 1966. Berlin, Germany: International Academic Publishers, Press. 2000. ———. 2005. Jean Gerson and the Last Medieval Reformation. The Rise of Independent Churches in Ghana. Accra, Ghana: University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. Asempa Publishers. —Tom Schwanda —Sam Twumasi-Ankrah

ContributorGhana and Christian Education Giving as Christian Practice Roman Catholic priests accompanied Portuguese trad- Giving is an important tenet of the Christian faith. With- ers into Ghana (formerly Gold Coast) in the 15th out giving, the work of the kingdom will be very difficult century. However, enduring missionary activities only for any church. Giving is not optional. It is a command- Global Associates for Transformational Education 543 ment from God to build relationship with believers. In A New Climate for Stewardship, Wallace E. Fisher Giving begins with the tithe, which appears in the Old (1976) provides a definition for stewardship that encom- Testament in the story of Abram and Melchizedek (Gen. passes more than the giving of money: “Stewardship is a 14:17–24). The tithe was established before the Law and more contemporary term for giving that is used in many as a result is a commandment given by God. God com- churches to describe giving. Stewardship is defined as the manded that His people give one-tenth of their earnings. practice of systemic and proportional giving of time, abil- The purpose of the tithe in the was to ities and material possessions based upon the conviction provide support for the Levites and assistance to the that these are trusts from God to be used in his service for poor; in this present time, and in the New Testament, it the benefit of all mankind in grateful acknowledgement is to draw the people close to God through obedience to of Christ’s redeeming love.” Including time and talent His commandment. Tithing is still important today, as it as part of an individual’s giving is also important as the assists the believer in learning how to give, even at times volunteering of members of the congregation to assist the sacrificially in obedience to God. church in advancing kingdom work. Motivation in giving is important. How one gives to God is as important as what and when one gives. Indi- References and Resources viduals must keep in mind that they are not giving to a Christopher, J. Clif. 2008. Not Your OnlyParents’ Offering Plate. church, but are giving to God because He instructs His Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. children to give. Jesus admonished the Pharisees for their Fisher, Wallace E. 1976. A New Climate for Stewardship. Nash- public giving and their motive for giving in Matthew ville, TN: Abingdon Press. 23:23 (Fisher 1976; Jamieson and Jamieson 2009; Rice Jamieson, Janet T., and Philip D. Jamieson. 2009. Ministry and 1958). The reasons we give are as important as being obe- Money: A Practical Guide for Pastors. Louisville, KY: West- dient in the giving. When we give because we expect God minister John Knox Press. to bless us, then our motives are not what they should be, Rice, Brian. 1958. What Is Christian Giving. London: SCM because we are more interested in receiving the blessing Press. from God than we are in giving to God because we are —Candace Shields thankful for the blessings already received from Him. This is giving because of reciprocity; we give because we Copy expect something in return. This type of giving has no Global Associates for scriptural basis. Giving must always be done in a thank- Transformational Education ful atmosphere, not for what we hope that God will do, but in thankfulness for what God has already done in the Global Associates for Transformational Education giver’s life and in obedience to what He has commanded. (GATE www.gateglobal.org) originated in 2003 as a team There is an art to giving in the Christian sense, and of four collaborators: Duane Elmer, Ralph Enlow, Robert it must be taught to believers. In order for individuals, Ferris, and John Lillis. Each of these founding associates families, and congregations to understand the concept had earned advanced degrees in both biblical/theological of freely giving to advance the work in the Kingdom of studies and education. Each possessed extensive experi- God, it must be taught so that everyone understands that ence in higher education leadership and cross-cultural they are required to give. The concept of coming into ministry. Each expressed a sense of calling to provide the church with not only a tithe, but also an offering, is professional development opportunities for “Majority one that all believers and attendees should be instructed World” theological educators. As the GATE team ex- in. Children, especially, should be taught the importance plored the potential for a collaborative Majority World of giving from the moment they begin to attend Sunday professional development initiative, they convened ap- school or children’s church. In this way, giving will be- proximately 30 East European pastors and seminary come a part of their church experience and their wor- leaders in Sopron, Hungary. These leaders collectively ship. The teaching on giving should be included in the affirmed that much of current theological education instructions of the church, as people do not always give inadequately equips pastors to meet the needs of the according to what they can give unless they are provided church, address the problems of culture, or communicate with the opportunity to understand the importance of relevantly with the emerging generation. The group’s givingContributor theologically and spiritually. Moreover, teaching consensus was aptly summarized by Nik Nedelchev, then on giving is important, but there is no specific formula president of both the European Evangelical Alliance and for instructing the membership of a church on how to the Bulgarian Evangelical Theological Institute: “We give. It is best if the pastor knows his or her congregation imported the best theological education models from and can identify an acceptable means of instruction. the West and they are not doing the job of training our 544 Global Poverty pastors.” Although Nedelchev stated starkly the realities developing curricula that equip church leaders to of many East European theological schools, the GATE live, minister, and advance kingdom values in their team observed that these challenges are not regional; they contexts. Individuals and faculties reflect on short- exist throughout the Majority World. and long-term implications of curricular change. The GATE team has dedicated itself to helping fellow educators from around the world embrace educational Between 2004 and 2012, GATE conducted 33 work- principles and practices that equip church leaders in ways shops for more than 500 faculty members from 77 that are appropriately contextual, genuinely transforma- theological schools in 17 nations in Eastern Europe, tional, and biblically grounded. GATE’s strategy is to Asia, and Africa. As appreciation and demand for GATE introduce “best practice” educational models and meth- workshops has grown exponentially, the GATE team has ods and to lead Majority World educators to reflect theo- added regionally based associates to expand the team’s logically on these strategies and current practice. This is capacity and responsiveness to contextual challenges fac- accomplished through a series of workshops, which are ing ministry educators serving the global church. characterized by (1) increasing the probability of long- term sustainable change by eliciting a four-year commit- References and Resources ment from influential theological schools to participate Ferris, Robert W., Jr., ed. 1995. EstablishingOnly Ministry Training: in annual, three-day faculty development workshops; (2) A Manual for Programme Directors. Pasadena, CA: William increasing the probability of change in the institutional Carey Library. culture through participation by a critical mass of faculty Ferris, Robert W., and Ralph E. Enlow Jr. 1997. “Reassessing and administrators from each school; (3) engendering Bible College Distinctives.” Christian Education Journal (1): greater fellowship and cooperation among evangelical 5–19. theological educators through participation by multiple —Ralph E. Enlow Jr. faculties; and (4) fostering personal and institutional transformation through a workshop format that models a dynamic blend of presentation and learning tasks. Fol- Global Poverty lowing is an overview of GATE’s four-year faculty devel- opment program: WhetherCopy caused by natural disaster, lack of resources, war, disease, or political oppression, poverty has been Year 1: Theological and Philosophical Foundations for present in every civilization. In Judeo-Christian history, Transformational Education: Engages participants individuals facing poverty were protected by religious in discovering how entering students’ characteris- law and were often met with public compassion, financial tics, their cultural realities, and the nature of bibli- charity, and divine protection. The Torah encouraged cal leadership inform educational design. Biblical/ wealthy individuals to financially support the poor in theological categories as well as established educa- their communities (Deut. 15:1–11). It additionally identi- tional principles ground the workshop’s content fied the fatherless, widows, and foreigners in the land as and outcomes. those most likely to be facing poverty, and as such the Year 2: Teaching Methods for Transformational Educa- law commanded that food provisions not be kept from tion: Exposes participants to classroom methodolo- them (Deut. 24:19–22). God also declared Himself to be gies that help them go beyond delivering content to the defender of the poor (Deut. 10:17–19; Ps. 68:5–6). designing learning experiences. The wide variety As Deuteronomy 10:18–19 clearly states: “[God] defends of methods Jesus used in addition to lecture, his the cause of the fatherless and the widow, and loves the purposes for using these methods, and the transfor- foreigner residing among you [Israel], giving them food mational outcomes he realized correspond to best and clothing. And you [Israel] are to love those who are educational practices. foreigners, for you yourselves were foreigners in Egypt.” Year 3: Leadership Principles for Transformational Ed- In the New Testament, Jesus is also recorded as show- ucation: Examines the dissonance between current ing great compassion and love toward the poor. In Jesus’s institutional practices and biblical patterns of lead- teaching, the poor were described as blessed by God and ership and learning. Values undergirding leadership recipients of his kingdom (Luke 6:20; Matt. 5:3). Jesus also Contributorstyles, decision making, personnel management, noted that it was to the poor that he came to preach the and conflict resolution are examined with a view to good news (Luke 4:18–19; 7:22). He also encouraged char- appropriate personal and institutional changes. ity (Luke 18:22) and hospitality (Luke 14:12–14) toward Year 4: Curriculum Development for Transformational the poor. As the early church grew, the disciples continued Education: Leads participants through a process for Christ’s generosity to the poor. The first-century Jerusalem Global 545 church members famously shared their personal posses- Myers, Bryant. 1999. Walking with the Poor: Principles and Prac- sions with all the Christian believers in the city, leaving tices of Transformational Development. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. no one in need (Acts 2:41–45, 4:32–35). Material poverty Schottroff, Luise, and Wolfgang Stegemann. 1986. Jesus and the (Rom. 15:25–29; Gal. 2:10) and spiritual poverty (Rev. Hope of the Poor. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. 3:17), however, continued to be present in the developing Van Der Hoeven, Rolph, and Anthony Shorrocks, eds. 2003. Christian community. It was within this environment that Perspectives on Growth and Poverty. Tokyo: United Nations taught of the possibility of being materially University Press. rich but spiritually poor (2 Cor. 6:10). —Sarita D. Gallagher Since the first century, followers of Christ have con- tinued to show charity toward the poor. Individuals such as St. Francis of Assisi (1181/1182–1226), George Müller Global Theologies (1805–1898), William and Catherine Booth (1829–1912; 1829–1890), Pandita Ramabai (1858–1922), Amy Carmi- In the last decades of the 20th century, African, Asian, chael (1867–1951), and Mother Teresa (1910–1997) have and Latin American theologies emerged as different served the poor through their provision of humanitarian cultures, nations, and religions rapidly became intercon- aid, education, and heartfelt compassion. Numerous nected. Due to this process of globalization,Only Latin Ameri- Christian organizations have continued this legacy, as- can and African women emerged as the typical 21st sisting those in poverty around the world throughout century Christian, whereas white European men have the centuries. In the 21st century, examples of these historically symbolized the archetypal Christian. With charitable organizations are World Vision International, this development, the West is no longer considered to be Catholic Relief Services, Hope International Develop- the vital center of Christian theology. Thus Christians, ment Agency, World Relief, International Orthodox especially those in the West, are called to think of church Christian Charities, the Salvation Army International, life in global, localized contexts as an important factor in and Compassion International. the formulation and practice of Christian theology. Although poverty has traditionally been defined as a The Christian missionary movement laid the founda- lack of material resources, in recent decades a more ho- tion for this post-Western, global theological movement. listic definition of poverty has been identified. In Walking ForCopy nearly 2,000 years, Christian churches sent missionar- with the Poor, Bryant L. Myers (1999) notes that by de- ies across the world to evangelize, and in some instances scribing poverty simply as an absence of food, water, edu- colonize, non-Christians. In the struggle to liberate them- cation, basic skills, or knowledge of the Gospel, we often selves from colonial inculturation, Christians in the global see the poor as socially inadequate and passive receivers South realized that what was presented as transcultural dependent upon others. The author thus calls for an ex- and normative, was, in fact, a very particular Western or pansion of the term to include material, social, emotional, European contextualization of the faith. Out of this con- physical, educational, and spiritual poverty. With this text various postcolonial theological perspectives became extended definition, the power differential generated by voiced and accepted as crucial parts of the Christian whole. a top-down approach to charity is substantially reduced, Korean minjung theology and Indian dalit theology exem- and instead the poor are normalized and humanized. plify postcolonial theological perspectives. Numerous charitable organizations have redefined their The neologism “glocal” reflects the inductive and dialec- ministries accordingly, embracing means through which tical method of global theologies. This method uses partic- those in poverty can be empowered and given tools for ular empirical realities to construct localized theologies in success. With the goal of holistic restoration of commu- light of the Gospel’s universality. The best theological sym- nities, numerous organizations offer educational training bol of this paradigm is Jesus Christ, who embodies how in practical subjects such as personal finances, literacy, a particular person, who lived in a particular culture and health, and business management. Many also offer small spoke a particular language, can express a universal mes- financial loans for individuals to start microbusinesses in sage accepted by various cultures, peoples, and languages. their communities. The primary goals of this transfor- Global theologies are not easily categorized as Roman mational development approach include (1) empowering Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, or Protestant. However, local communities, (2) providing sustainable solutions, Pentecostalism, inclusively defined, is a global theo- andContributor (3) encouraging local ownership of issues. logical movement both numerically and geographi- cally. Global evangelical Protestant perspectives are also References and Resources emerging and can be found in the scholarship of Andrew Dixon, John, and David Macarov, eds. 1998. Poverty: A Persis- Walls, Lamin Sanneh, and Philip Jenkins. The election in tent Global Reality. New York: Routledge. March 2013 of from Argentina may signal 546 Global Underground Churches that the Catholic Church, even though it still regards Global Underground Churches Western Europe, and Rome in particular, as the center of the Christian movement, may be embracing a more From the dawn of Christianity in the first century, per- global theological perspective. secution has accompanied the followers of Jesus Christ. Given the increasing globalization of theology, teachers Whether it was the maltreatment of Christians by the will need to engage students with non-Western thinkers Roman Emperors during the first and second centuries by moving beyond dependency on Western-based texts or the Mongol massacres during the 14th century, Chris- toward contextually sensitive global theological trends. tian believers throughout history have faced numerous The International Council for Evangelical Theological periods of abuse and discrimination. In recent decades, Education suggests that theological education should Christianity has been suppressed by several political enti- shift from text to context. Overseas or cross-cultural ties, including atheist states such as the former USSR and immersion experiences will help students and seminar- North Korea and extremist Islamic states such as Saudi ians learn in a multiperspectival, multidisciplinary, and Arabia, Afghanistan, and Iraq. Open Doors, a Christian multicultural way in which the insights of all voices, es- organization started by the Dutch missionary Brother pecially those previously marginalized in the theological Andrew, has served the global persecuted church since conversation, are taken seriously. Theology and religion its beginning in 1955. Originally establishedOnly to facilitate teachers may also find it helpful to bring in guest speak- the smuggling of into communist countries, Open ers from non-Western backgrounds for class dialogue. Doors supports the freedom of Christians around the Another alternative is to use Skype, video clips, or other world. In monitoring the religious climate of each nation, technologies to open the classroom to various theological the organization has identified 50 of the most anti-Chris- voices. Students may want to familiarize themselves with tian states around the world. The current top 10 nations reference tools like the Global Dictionary of Theology or on the watch list are (1) North Korea, (2) Saudi Arabia, key interdisciplinary journals such as Studies in World (3) Afghanistan, (4) Iraq, (5) Somalia, (6) Maldives, (7) Christianity, Asia Journal of Theology, The Journal of Mali, (8) Iran, (9) Yemen, and (10) Eritrea. Theology for Southern Africa, the evangelically oriented The reaction of persecuted Christians throughout Journal of Latin American Theology, and the Roman history has varied depending on their circumstances. In Catholic Journal of Hispanic/Latino Theology. the faceCopy of discrimination, imprisonment, torture, and possible death, Christian believers have often responded References and Resources by escaping persecution through immigration or as Dyrness, William A., and Veli-Matti Kārkkāinen, eds. 2008. refugees, or if they’re unable to leave, by worshipping Global Dictionary of Theology. Nottingham, UK: InterVar- together in secret. Evidence of Christians worshipping in sity Press. secret churches, also known as underground churches, Gaillardetz, Richard. 2008. Ecclesiology for a Global Church: A has been preserved in Christian literature and in ancient People Called and Sent. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. archaeological sites. The now infamous catacomb tombs Greenman, Jeffrey, and Gene Green, eds. 2013. Global Theology under the streets of Rome, Italy, still bear the etchings of in Evangelical Perspective: Exploring the Contextual Nature Christian believers burying their dead during the second- of Theology and Mission. Nottingham, UK: IVP Academic. century Roman persecution. In nearby Asia Minor, the Ott, Craig, and Harold A. Netland, eds. 2006. Globalizing The- caves and underground cities carved into the volcanic ology: Belief and Practice in an Era of World Christianity. mountains of Cappadocia also mark the Roman per- Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. secution of Christians during the same period. Similar Robert, Dana L. 2000. “Shifting Southward: Global Christianity clandestine Christian gatherings have been recorded since 1945.” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 24 throughout each era of Christian persecution. (2): 50. One of the most prominent examples of the under- Schreiter, Robert. 1997. The New Catholicity: Theology between ground Christian church movement in the 21st century the Global and Local. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. is the house-church movement in the People’s Republic Tennent, Timothy. 2007. Theology in the Context of World of China. Although the government has instituted both Christianity: How the Global Church Is Influencing the Way a Protestant and a Catholic Church—the Three-Self We Think about and Discuss Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Patriotic Movement (TSPM) and the Chinese Patriotic Zondervan.ContributorCatholic Association (CCPA)—there are also numer- Yong, Amos. 2005. Poured Out on All Flesh: Pentecostalism and ous unregistered Christian gatherings throughout the the Possibility of Global Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker nation. Established initially due to the 1949 governmen- Academic. tal restrictions on unregistered religious organizations, —Robert Pennington the Chinese house-churches have continued to operate Glossolalia 547 as indigenous-led, independent expressions of Chinese described in the Book of Acts. It is here described by the Christianity. Persecution of house-church pastors and author of Acts, Luke, as a gift bestowed on humanity by congregation members has fluctuated since the 1950s, God as a new phenomenon for the . between severe abuse and minor discrimination. The Though the word glossolalia does not appear in the governmental response to Christians attending unreg- New Testament, the term glossais lalein does; it can be istered churches in China has included reeducation in translated as “speaking with tongues.” There appears to labor camps, imprisonment, and torture. be confusion with the synonymous usage of speaking Multiple international mission organizations are cur- in tongues and speaking in unknown tongues. It would rently supporting Christians around the world living appear that on the Day of Pentecost, those speaking in under religious persecution. Due to the volatile nature tongues as the Spirit gave utterance were speaking in of many of these nations, the foreign aid workers them- languages or dialects that others could understand and selves are in constant risk of deportation, imprison- interpret. This is not the same as speaking in an unknown ment, and sometimes execution. Depending on the spe- tongue, though both terms are at times used synony- cific region, foreign support is often expressed through mously. When an individual is speaking in an unknown distribution of Christian literature, financial assistance, tongue, neither the speaker nor the hearer can under- international advocacy, and prayer. In rare cases such stand what is being said. As a result,Only an interpreter needs as that of North Korea, indigenous Christian congrega- to be present to translate. When a believer is speaking tions have little known contact with the outside world. in an unknown tongue, the individual is talking to God Christian education within underground church move- and does not know what is being said in the conversa- ments is limited to the resources available. Education tion. Often this is referred to as the individual’s heavenly within the country is usually restricted to informal language and is used when praying. However, the use of education, such as mentorship by senior Christian lead- speaking in tongues today in many instances is without ers and personal and communal Bible study. Outside interpretation or understanding, in open services. the nation, formal Christian education is available via Glossolalia is considered to be one of the gifts of the foreign theological seminaries. Holy Spirit found in 1 Corinthians 14, which is where Christian education teaches is one of the places the gifts References and Resources of theCopy Spirit are given and defined. However, even there, Frend, W. H. C. 2008. Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early there is confusion associated with the use of speaking in Church. Cambridge, UK: Lutterworth Press. tongues. The apostle Paul gives directions about when it Marsh, Christopher. 2011. Religion and the State in Russia is appropriate to speak in tongues. It appears that speak- and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival. New York: ing in tongues was being used in ways that were disrupt- Continuum. ing the services and drawing attention from unbelievers. Marshall, Paul, Lela Gilbert, and Nina Shea. 2013. Persecuted: It was at that time that Paul explained that the use of The Global Assault on Christians. Nashville, TN: Thomas glossolalia or speaking in tongues, though a gift, was one Nelson. of the lesser gifts and should be used with discretion. If —Sarita D. Gallagher someone was seeking a gift, he should seek prophecy, which is considered to be a higher gift. Speaking in tongues did not benefit the unbeliever and should only Glossolalia be used when it could be interpreted or in private com- munion with God. In the Christian faith, glossolalia is a very controversial Not much was written about glossolalia or speaking term, in that there are issues surrounding its use in cor- in tongues until the 20th century. Christian education porate service and individually. Even within denomina- points to a resurgence of glossolalia then. There is still tions that believe in the use of glossolalia, there is quite as much controversy concerning how it should be used a bit of difference in how believers use or experience this and when it should be used in corporate services. Glos- gift of the Spirit. However, not all denominations are in solalia is thought to be a phenomenon that occurs when agreement with glossolalia usage today. Some denomina- revival is taking place, especially since the two most tions believe the gifts are not for the 21st century, and notable occasions were on the Day of Pentecost and the thereforeContributor there is no usage of glossolalia in corporate ser- Azusa Street revival in Los Angeles. It is a phenomenon vice or individually. Glossolalia, or speaking in tongues, mostly associated with and widely used among Pen- is a concept from the New Testament that is usually tecostals and charismatics. However, there have been associated with the Day of Pentecost. This is when the reports of glossolalia being used by a vast number of de- Holy Spirit came upon the believers in the upper room, as nominations, including Catholicism. There are groups 548 God, Adolescent Views of within the Pentecostal denomination that believe glos- Elkind (1964, 1970) found that such understanding solalia is a sign of being baptized with the Holy Spirit of religious beliefs and practices is not present in young in accordance with the Day of Pentecost and several children, but rather develops across childhood. He pro- places in the scripture at which the Holy Spirit fell and posed that there are three stages of religious development individuals began to speak in tongues. in childhood and adolescence that parallel the preop- erational, concrete operational, and formal operational References and Resources stages of cognitive development described by Piaget. Hutch, Richard A. 1980. “The Personal Ritual Glossolalia.” Fowler (1991) developed a theory of faith development Journal for Scientific Study of Religion 19 (3): 255. that, like Elkind’s theory, includes a series of stages that Stagg, Frank, E. Glenn Hinson, and Wayne E. Oates. 1967. largely follow the cognitive developmental stage theory Tongue Speaking in Biblical, Historical and Psycholgical Per- of Piaget. This theory is also strongly influenced by Erik spectives. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. Erikson’s psychosocial theory of ego identity develop- Walton, Steve. 2006. “Charismatic Glossolalia: An Empirical ment (e.g., Erikson, 1950). As defined by Fowler, faith is Theological Study.” Evangelical Quarterly (April): 177–180. “the dynamic process of construal and commitment by —Candace C. Shields which we focus our trust and loyalty, our dependence and confidence, in a center or centers of value,Only and on images and realities of power. In faith we find coherence for our God, Adolescent Views of lives through allegiance to an emerging, conscious master story or stories” (1991, 33). The adolescent period of development marks a physical Fowler’s is a life span theory, four stages of which change as the child becomes an adult, and this is matched occur in childhood and adolescence. He referred to these by a change in emotional and cognitive development. as stages of faith consciousness. The first stage (stage 0), The adolescent is likely to challenge, adapt, or adopt the primal faith, occurs during infancy. The second stage is norms of the period connected to previous childhood intuitive-projective faith (stage 1), which emerges during and the protocols of encroaching adulthood, including the preoperational stage as described by Piaget. The third concepts of God and patterns of behaving. stage of faith development is mythic-literal faith (stage 2). The meanings of religious participation and of reli- The fourthCopy stage, synthetic conventional faith (stage 3), is gious beliefs change across the course of development. a more conforming faith, which is the normative faith for Most theories of religious development have as their teenagers, regardless of their religious affiliation. foundation the cognitive developmental theory of Piaget, Oser’s theory of the development of religious judg- which focus on the structure of religious thought as it ment focuses on stages in the development of religious changes across time, rather than on the content of reli- judgment (Oser 1991). Oser defines religious judgment gious beliefs. Notable among these theories are those of as “reasoning that relates reality as experienced to some- Elkind (1964, 1970), Fowler (1991), and Oser (1991). thing beyond reality and that serves to provide meaning These theories have in common the proposal that and direction beyond learned content” (1991, 6–7). religious thinking, in conjunction with other areas of He was particularly interested in developmental thinking, moves from concrete imagery and literal be- changes in the explanations that children and adults liefs in childhood to more abstract religious thinking in have for experiences, both personal and observed, that adolescence. Thus, it is only in adolescence that religious appear to be contrary to religious beliefs. Religious judg- beliefs and values are expected to begin to take on the ments thus involve the answers that individuals find for same meanings that they have in adulthood. themselves that reconcile religious faith with reality that In adolescence and adulthood, individuals understand appears to contradict that faith. that different religions and religious denominations have Oser described five stages in the development of reli- different foundational beliefs, including different beliefs gious judgment, three of which are typically stages of rea- about the nature of God and humankind and the rela- soning reached in childhood and adolescence. The fourth tionship between the two as expressed through worship, develops in a minority of individuals in adolescence. Oser prayer, and the activities of daily life. When older adoles- developed this stage theory based on interviews with in- cents and adults report denominational affiliations, they dividuals from ages 7 through 75. are Contributornot simply identifying the church that they attend, In Stage 1, children’s views of God are highly concrete but are rather identifying a set of religious practices to and literal. which they adhere and the religious beliefs that underlie In Stage 2, older children and adolescents view God these practices. in a less punitive light. God can be influenced by an in- God as Learner 549 dividual’s good behavior, by prayers, and by adherence established with caregivers in infancy and early child- to religious rituals and practices. God’s love is seen as hood is expected to strongly affect qualitative character- evident in a healthy and happy life, God’s wrath in His istics of the relationship with God. Secure relationships failure to intervene in times of strife. At the same time, with religious parents may promote high levels of religi- God is also seen as less likely to intervene concretely and osity and belief in a loving and supportive God. Insecure directly in human affairs. relationships, particularly with religious parents, may Beginning in adolescence, Stage 3 religious judgment promote agnosticism and atheism, or belief in a God who becomes increasingly common. God is seen as more dis- is punitive and demanding. tant and apart from the world, and individuals are seen as more responsible for their own well-being. References and Resources In Stage 4, which begins to appear among a small per- Elkind, D. 1964. “Age Change and Religious Identity.” Review centage of older adolescents, individuals who maintain of Religious Research 6: 36–40. religious faith may turn again to God as the ultimate ———. 1970. “The Origins of Religion in the Child.” Review of Creator who is the source of freedom and life, and whose Religious Research 12: 35–42. existence makes life meaningful. Erikson, E. 1950. Childhood and Society. New York: W. W. Finally, it should be noted that Oser’s theory does not Norton. Only suggest that all religious judgments exhibited by an indi- Fowler, J. W. 1991. “Stages in Faith Consciousness.” In Reli- vidual will necessarily be at the same stage, nor that all gious Development in Childhood and Adolescence, edited by individuals of the same age will exhibit the same levels of F. K. Oser and W. G. Scarlett, 27–45. New Directions for religious judgment. Child Development, no. 52. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Each of the theories described thus far focuses on age- Kirkpatrick, L. A., and P. Shaver. 1997. “Attachment Theory related trends in the development of religious thinking. and Religion: Childhood Attachments, Religious Beliefs, and While acknowledging individual differences in under- Conversion.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 29: standing and reasoning, the focus is on general trends, 315–334. rather than on the causes of individual differences. Oser, F. I. 1991. “The Development of Religious Judgment.” In In contrast, the attachment-theoretical perspective of Religious Development in Childhood and Adolescence, edited Kirkpatrick (1997) is primarily focused on individual byCopy F. K. Oser and W. G. Scarlett, 5–25. New Directions for differences in religious beliefs. Kirkpatrick proposes that Child Development, no. 52. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. individuals’ religious beliefs and practices are influenced —Howard Worsley by those of their parents, but the nature of this influence is strongly affected by the quality of the parent-child attachment relationship. According to Kirkpatrick and God as Learner Shaver (1997), children whose relationships with parents are secure are likely to adopt the religious beliefs of their The question might be asked: “Where is God in the con- parents, while those whose relationships are insecure are text of change?” There is a view that says God does not likely to be less influenced by parents: change, that God lives outside of change because He is beyond and above the pressures that affect mortal people. [T]he availability and responsiveness of an attachment There is also the view that God dwells within change, figure, who serves alternately as a haven and as a secure deeply affected by the affairs of the human race. Christi- base and from whom separation would cause consider- anity offers both perspectives. able distress, is considered a fundamental dynamic un- The first perspective considers God as being un- derlying Christianity and many other theistic religions. changeable, concentrating on God existing before time. Whether that attachment figure is God, Jesus Christ, the This viewpoint says that God is the great “I am,” impas- Virgin Mary, or one of various , guardian angels, or other supernatural beings, the analogy is striking. The sive and immutable, even “the God of the ‘omnes’” (i.e., religious person proceeds with faith that God (or another the God who is omnipresent, omniscient, and omnipo- figure) will be available for protection and will comfort tent). This God is transcendent, a notion prevalent in him or her when danger threatens; at other times, the Islam and in ancient religions that use the Old Testament mere knowledge of God’s presence and accessibility al- to speak about a God who is beyond human understand- Contributorlows a person to approach the problems and difficulties ing. Obviously to speak of the God of the “omnes” is to of daily life with confidence. (1997, 117) remove God from the vagaries of the process of change and makes theology seem less relevant to current con- As with any attachment relationship established be- texts. Within liturgy this is expressed “as it was in the yond infancy, the quality of the primary relationship(s) beginning, is now and shall be forever, Amen.” 550 God as Learner

The second perspective considers God to be known learns to honor His parents when He is absent for too in time and to be perceived to change with the progress long at the age of 12. This God is seen to be learning to or painful setbacks of experience. This God is imminent. break out of His cultural norm, to be learning to reject This notion of God is particularly reflected through the the accepted rudeness to women, mothers, and strangers. Christian faith in Jesus Christ, who is understood to be To speak of God as learning is not heretical, although God living with His people as a human, known as Em- it may sound so, because learning does not imply that manuel (God with us). This is a God who weeps, who the learner is inadequate or sinful. Rather, it implies a suffers, who questions, who knows anger and tiredness, development and an improvement on a previous way of and who even dies. He is known more in liberation the- being. When a five-year-old learns how to ride a bicycle, ology and in the theologies of identification that speak this does not imply a previous state of sin when the about God as drawing alongside His people to lead them child could not ride a bicycle. Luke’s Gospel records the out. This understanding of God fits more readily into the growing up of the human Jesus: “Jesus became wiser and process of learning and change and therefore seems more stronger. He also became more pleasing to God and to relevant to the concerns of education. people” (Luke 2:52). Many people will hold an image of God that allows for This biological development of Jesus recorded in the both stability and development and will understand both shows a biological and an educationalOnly develop- aspects of permanence and change. mental notion of Christ. If this theology is to be engaged in an educational con- The incarnation of God in Jesus allows Christians to text, it will be noted that the traditional understanding see God as “one of us,” God as a learner. This does not of a transcendent and unchanging God is one who is the take away from God’s perfection, but rather enhances it. teacher. God is seen to have existed before time and needs The writer to the Hebrews speaks of God in Christ be- no education. Such a God has no need to learn, because coming perfect through His sufferings. “He has made the He already knows everything. However, such a view of One who saved them perfect because of his sufferings” God draws on biblical texts that imply that there is no (Heb. 2:10 NIRV). dialogue with God. For example, God’s response to the Because God is known as love, God is in constant suffering plight of Job is, “I am the Mighty One. Will the dynamic flow with the object of that love. Love is always man who argues with me correct me? Let him who brings flowing,Copy it is dynamic, it is changing, and it is learning charges against me answer me!” (Job 40:2). how to relate. As God flows into the future in His cre- Similarly, the prophet offers comfort to an ation, it is right and proper to say that He learns with us. exiled people, saying, “God sits on his throne above the Maybe we are also right to draw back from being too earth. Its people look like grasshoppers to him” (Isa. definite at this point, as to some extent God is beyond 40:22) or “Do you not know? Have you not heard? The language and thought. God is too high for our humble Lord is God who lives forever. He created everything on ideas, and to an extent it is foolish to attempt theology, earth. He won’t become worn out or get tired. No one will because God exists beyond our language, and we cannot know how great is His understanding” (Isa. 40:28). name Him adequately in words. However, the Old Testament also shows evidence of However, the language of education has established God changing after creating the human race, when he that in the Christian tradition, God can be discussed as decides to send the flood to wipe out humans: “The Lord one who is learning as well as one who teaches. In other was sorry that He had man on the earth. His heart was words, He can be seen as the teacher and as the learner. filled with pain” (Gen. 6:6). Three chapters later, God Another line of thought might equally say that God is says that He would never again act like this, and his revealed as the father but also as the son who is a child. promise of permanence is, “A flood will never destroy the If this reflection is applied to education and to the earth again” (Gen. 9:11). church in the 21st century, it is interesting to notice the Similarly, in the New Testament, Jesus demonstrates new areas that become open for theological reflection. the learning character of God, not only by His appear- God can be seen with the teacher as the Creator and as ance as a human but by His self-confessed ignorance of the sustainer. God can also be seen with the learner as the some things. For example, Christ is stated to have been poet and as the experimenter. unaware of the future: “No one knows about that day or hour.Contributor Not even the angels in heaven know. The Son does Reference not know. Only the Father knows” (Matt. 24:36). Hull, J. 1985. What Prevents Christian Adults from Learning? In Jesus Christ, God appears as a learning God, as a London: SCM Press. child who learns Aramaic at His mother’s knee, who —Howard Worsley God, Children’s Views of 551

God as Teacher 16:12–13). Paul writes in 1 Corinthians concerning how the Holy Spirit reveals the things of God to those who are One of the principal ways that God interacts with human- indwelt by the Spirit (1 Cor. 2:10). One of the major ways kind is as our teacher. As our Creator, and the one with all in which the Holy Spirit makes it possible for people to knowledge and wisdom, it is natural that we would look to come to know God and God’s will is through the scrip- God for guidance and to know more about ourselves, our tures, which were brought to us by the Holy Spirit’s work. purpose in this world, and how we are to live. In addition, “All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for because of our sinful fallen state, we do not always know teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in and pursue the good as we ought, and we need someone righteousness, that the man of God may be complete, to both teach us what the good is and help us learn how to equipped for every good work” (2 Tim. 3:16–17). God live it faithfully. This understanding of God as teacher is not only teaches us, but gives us the resources needed so shown in the book of Job, when Elihu proclaims, “Behold, that we might learn from Him and teach each other to God is exalted in His power; Who is a teacher like Him?” know God and obey Him. (Job 36:22, ESV), and when the Psalmist writes, “Make me Since God takes the initiative to be our teacher and know your ways, O LORD; teach me your paths. Lead me provides us with the gifts and resources to carry on min- in your truth and teach me” (Ps. 25:4–5). The good news istries of teaching within the church,Only it is critical that we is that in our need of God as our teacher, God responds, understand God’s purposes in teaching us, the content willing and eager to teach us. that He has identified as important for our learning, and Each person of the Trinity, Father, Son, and Holy the appropriate means of instruction so that our teach- Spirit, is presented in scripture as carrying out a teaching ing ministries might be consistent with God’s own. Even function for God’s people. instructed the in our own teaching efforts, the Holy Spirit is present people of Israel in His Law: “Now this is the command- to guide both teacher and learners as they interact with ment—the statutes and the rules—that the Lord your God’s Word so that genuine learning and transformation God commanded me to teach you, that you may do them can occur. Though we may carry out the tasks of teach- in the land to which you are going over” (Deut. 6:1). The ing, God continues to be the ultimate Teacher who helps Psalmist, speaking for God, says, “I will instruct you and us learn and grow. teach you in the way which you should go; I will counsel Copy you with My eye upon you” (Ps. 32:8). The prophets also References and Resources instructed and corrected Israel with the messages they re- Estep, J., M. Anthony, and G. Allinson. 2008. A Theology for ceived from God. envisioned a time when, “many Christian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. nations will come and say: ‘Come, let us go up to the Pazmiño, R. W. 2001. God Our Teacher: Theological Basics in mountain of the Lord, to the house of the God of , Christian Education. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. that he may teach us his ways and that we may walk in —Kevin E. Lawson his paths.’” (Mic. 4:2). The Father is also the one who sent the Son, Jesus Christ, “the Word,” to make God the Father more fully God, Children’s Views of known to us (John 1:18). “Rabbi” was the most common name used for Him in the Gospels, and He is frequently The Christian educator’s belief about the way children portrayed teaching the people with instruction from God view God has important implications for the religious the Father. “My teaching is not mine, but him who sent instruction of children. Psychologist Ronald Goldman me” (John 7:16). His teaching was different from the suggested that a child should not receive formal Bible teaching of others and commanded attention, because it instruction before the age of 10 or 11.15 He believed that was from God: “And he was teaching them on the Sab- before this age, children are incapable of understanding bath, and they were astonished at his teaching, for his the abstract and unique characteristics of God. Goldman word possessed authority” (Luke 4:31–32). based his views on Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive devel- God the Father also sends the Holy Spirit to continue opment and extensive interviews with children in Great the divine ministry of teaching. Just before His arrest Brittan. This perspective is explored here in greater detail and crucifixion, Jesus explained to His disciples, “I still under the anthropomorphic/cognitive view. haveContributor many things to say to you, but you cannot bear Such an approach would question if the theological them now. When the Spirit of truth comes, he will guide perspective on general revelation is applicable to a child’s you into all the truth, for he will not speak on his own authority, but whatever he hears he will speak, and he 15. R. Goldman, Religious Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence will declare to you the things that are to come” (John (New York: The Seabury Press, 1964). 552 God, Children’s Views of conception of God. The Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible in adolescence to viewing God abstractly (as reported by says of revelation: “The association of God’s revelation adults on questionnaires). with nature, by which people have an intuitive knowl- It should be noted in passing that American psycholo- edge of God’s existence, is of long standing and is a truth gist Bruner held views that sharply contrast to supported throughout Scripture, OT (Psalms 10:11; 14:1; this popular theory. He believed that any subject can be 19:1) and NT (Acts 14:17; 17:22–29; Romans 1:19–21).”16 taught effectively and in an intellectually honest form to In other words, are children equipped with an innate a child in any stage of development.21 However, he never knowledge of God? Do children develop a view of God applied his perspective to a study of the concept of God in that is based primarily on human characteristics? These children. He maintained that a spiral curriculum would and many other questions about children’s views of God allow a return to subjects at a later time when the student have great salience for religious educators. Much re- had the necessary apparatus to grow in understand- search has been done on children’s views of God, but only ing. Unlike the anthropomorphic/cognitive hypothesis, three prominent hypotheses are examined here. Bruner’s theory does not hold to inflexible and invariant stages. The Anthropomorphic/Cognitive Hypothesis The anthropomorphic/cognitive view has two signifi- During the first half of the 20th century, the Swiss psy- cant drawbacks. (1) It does not take intoOnly account God’s chologist Jean Piaget worked with children to develop an supernatural revelatory power (recall God’s call to Sam- understanding of cognitive development. He observed uel as a boy; 1 Sam. 3:1–18). (2) It is narrowly and rigidly and documented stages of cognitive development and de- defined by Piaget’s invariant stages. Strict adherence to veloped the theory of “enetic epistemology.”17 According stage levels is not always necessary or beneficial. How- to Piaget, all children pass through four invariant stages ever, the anthropomorphic/cognitive model provides a of development.18 useful reminder that children do think differently than The anthropomorphic view has applied Piaget’s devel- adults. Relating abstract concepts to concrete examples opmental stages to children’s views of God. According can be helpful when teaching children. to this view, children below age 10 or 11 cannot think abstractly and therefore must understand God through The Attachment/Relationship Hypothesis human traits. The idea is that children first understand Adult-childCopy relationships have been demonstrated to human traits, and then later understand God and other have a significant effect on children’s views of God. Stud- beings through those same human traits. Children start ies include the effects of the parent-child relationship out projecting human traits onto God, but then through and even the effect of the teacher-child relationship that maturation and theological training, they acquire ab- occurs in Christian schools. stract concepts of God. According to this view, the young In a study at Hope College, Michigan, there was clear child’s view of God can be summarized by describing evidence that children’s perceptions of parents correlate God “as a big, super-human who lives in the sky.”19 strongly to children’s perceptions of God.22 It was found Much of the support for the anthropomorphic/cogni- that when children perceive their father as nurturing, tive hypothesis comes from studies in which children God too was perceived as nurturing. Similarly, if children were asked to draw pictures of God, write letters to God, perceived their mother as powerful, they were more likely or tell stories about God. These types of responses were to perceive God as powerful. It was abundantly clear that then compared to adult responses to questionnaires, parents played a significant role in the child’s perceptions inventories, and other means of self-reporting one’s of God. beliefs.20 By comparing these two dissimilar types of In another study, almost 80 percent of children sur- responses, the theory has been maintained that children veyed received religious education at school. It should view God entirely through anthropomorphic means (a not be surprising that even though many of the children picture of a big person in the sky), and that there is a shift came from nonreligious homes, because they were taught by religiously oriented teachers, the teachers had a strong 16. W. Elwell and B. Bietzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand influence on the children’s perceptions of God. There was Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988). 17. D. Singer and T. Revenson, A Piaget Primer: How a Child Thinks (New York: Penguin Books, 1996), 8. 18. Ibid., 20–26. 21. J. Bruner, The Process of Education (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- 19.Contributor J. Barrett and R. Richert, “Anthropormorphism or Preparedness? versity Press, 1960), 33. Exploring Children’s God Concepts,” Review of Religious Research (2003): 22. J. Dickie, A. Eshleman, D. Merasco, A. Shepard, M. Vander Wilt, 300–312. and M. Johnson, “Parent-Child Relationships and Children’s Images of 20. Ibid. God,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 39 (1997): 25–43. God, Images of 553 a positive correlation between a nurturing child-teacher Four- and five-year-old children are also more likely relationship and the concept of a loving God. 23 to categorize a friend as mortal and God as immortal, Very early in scripture, it is clear that God’s intention rather than uniformly applying anthropomorphic views is not for man to live alone (Gen. 2:18). The family unit by responding that a friend and God are both mortal. is the foundational social grouping in society. Within Three-year-olds are more likely to attribute immortality the matrix of the family, God prescribed the importance to both God and a friend. Again, this shows that often of teaching children about His character and leading children’s default assumptions theologically fit with the children to love Him (Deut. 6:6–9). Consider also Ephe- attributes of God, not humans. sians 6:4: “Fathers, do not provoke your children to The preparedness hypothesis is congruent with the anger, but bring them up in the discipline and instruc- biblical teaching of an innate awareness of God. It is sup- tion of the Lord.” The significant role of parental influ- ported by a growing body of research that demonstrates ence on children can be found throughout scripture and that even from a young age, children are aware of God, is supported by empirical research. Furthermore, for understand Him as different from humans, and display religious educators these studies support adult educa- some default assumptions that are not anthropomorphic tion for parents to become more effective in their role in nature. as spiritual teachers of children. Only References and Resources The Preparedness Hypothesis Barrett, J., and R. Richert. 2003. “Anthropormorphism or Pre- Recall the earlier definition of general revelation as “in- paredness? Exploring Children’s God Concepts.” Review of tuitive knowledge of God’s existence.” The preparedness Religious Research 45: 300–312. hypothesis provides a new, emerging, and very promising Bruner, J. 1960. The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: understanding of children’s views of God. The prepared- Harvard University Press. ness hypothesis asserts that children have an innate and De Roos, S., S. Miedema, and J. Iedema. 2001. “Attachment, intuitive preparedness for acquiring God concepts.24 Working Models of Self and Others, and God Concepts in There is evidence that children can readily understand Kindergarten.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 40: some attributes of God in a nonanthropomorphic way. 607–618. At times children’s default beliefs are more closely Dickie,Copy J., A. Eshleman, D. Merasco, A. Shepard, M. Vander aligned to the characteristics of God than to characteris- Wilt, and M. Johnson. 1997. “Parent-Child Relationships tics of humans.25 and Children’s Images of God.” Journal for the Scientific In one study, children and preschoolers displayed the Study of Religion 36: 25–43. ability to discriminate between God’s knowledge and a Elwell, W., and B. Bietzel. 1988. Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible. human’s knowledge; God knows everything, even when Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. humans are fooled into incorrect assumptions. Three- Goldman, R. 1964. Religious Thinking from Childhood to Ado- year-olds tried to attribute more knowledge to humans, lescence. New York: The Seabury Press. such as their mother, than she actually possessed. This Singer, D., and T. Revenson. 1996. A Piaget Primer: How a suggests a “default” inclination toward believing in om- Child Thinks. New York: Penguin Books. niscience, pointing toward the idea that children are —Virginia Gray prepared to understand this attribute of God. Children as young as four have demonstrated an un- derstanding that God, not humans, created natural things. God, Images of This indicates that even young children understand God as Creator in a distinct way, creating things like animals, Coming from the Latin word imago, an image may be the sky, and plants. They understand that God can make described as a visual representation, a mental picture, an things that humans are incapable of creating. Children did idea, or a conception of someone or something. It also in- display confusion when asked about an artificial or toy ver- cludes the perception of someone or something held by a sion of a natural object, such as a toy cow. group. Images are not abstract thoughts, but rather paint pictures that are laden with perceptions and feelings. In 23. S. De Roos, S. Miedema, and J. Iedema, “Attachment, Working this way they differ from ideas. ModelsContributor of Self and Others, and God Concepts in Kindergarten,” Journal for Image of God refers to one’s operative and perceptive the Scientific Study of Religion 43 (2001): 607–618. insight concerning that which is supreme in our lives. An 24. Barrett and Richert, 300–312. 25. Ibid. individual may hold several images of God, which may 554 Godly Play change and develop throughout the life cycle. Common provide images of God. It is important to note that no images of God include an old man with a beard, an absent image teaches everything about God. Rather, these are God, a remote God, a judging God, an unforgiving God, a the images that God has chosen to reveal to His people. serious God, a God who loves conditionally or uncondi- tionally, a challenging God, a loving, caring, forgiving God, References and Resources and many more. Evolving through stages of psychologi- Mills, M. E. 1998. Images of God in the Old Testament. Guilford: cal development, the negotiation of life experiences and Southeastern, PA: Biddles. social factors, one’s images of God influence the manner Paterson, J., and K. Paterson. 1998. Images of God. New York: in which one relates to God, self, and the world. Images of Clarion Books. God differ from ideas about God and may be at variance Patterson, R. D., and M. D. Travers. 2008. Face to Face with with the doctrinal professions one makes about God. God. Richardson, TX: Biblical Studies Press. Whatever one’s image or images of God, it is impor- —Finola Cunnane tant that they be authentically grounded in theology. Although scripture offers a plethora of images of God, no image fully captures who God is. The variety of images Godly Play offered in scripture include God as a father full of Only and compassion, a mother who gives life and nurtures, Godly Play® is a well-defined approach to Christian a generous Creator, a judge, and ultimately Jesus Christ, education, which began in 1960 at Princeton Theological the image of the unseen God. These words and images Seminary with a question. Professor D. Campbell Wyck- used to describe God in both the Old and New Testa- off required Jerome Berryman to take a tutorial with him ments paint mental pictures (images) in the human mind instead of the required Christian education course to and challenge any false or stale images that may be held. begin the search for an answer. He assigned the writing The God presented in the Hebrew scriptures is an of a theory of Christian education for the tutorial, which adult, male God whose name is YHWH, as was revealed is still being worked on some 50 years later. in Exodus. This is a God who is a generous Creator, who blesses all of creation and enters into a covenant with The Goal His people. The Old Testament reveals many images GodlyCopy Play invites children into a spirit of playful ortho- of God—a God who, in the cool of the evening, walks doxy that combines a deep rooting in classical Christian through the Garden of Eden; a God who invites Abram to language with creative openness. This is accomplished become the father of a great nation and who, in their old by associating the Christian language system with the age, blesses Abraham and Sarah with a son; a God who creative process to make existential meaning, which has later puts Abraham to the test, telling him to sacrifice his implications for learning, which is good pedagogy, but only son, , yet stopping him before the deed is done; also has implications for knowing God personally, which a God who turns Lot’s wife into a pillar of salt, who leads is good theology. the Israelites through the desert and brings them back to Godly Play also involves children and adults in mutual their homeland, who speaks to from the burning blessing. This follows Jesus’s saying that to become spiri- bush and to Elijah in the gentle breeze; who loves Israel tually mature, one needs to become like a child. Adults more than a mother with the child at the breast, who cannot make the spiritual journey for children, so they longs to communicate divine wisdom to all who value it. need to equip them to make the journey for themselves. The God of the New Testament is revealed in the per- At the same time, by profoundly being who they are, chil- son of Jesus Christ, the image of the invisible God. He is dren teach adults to wonder again and renew the graceful the Good Shepherd, the Bread of Life, the living water, unity they had as children. the prodigal father, the one who invites people to “come, Godly Play does not attempt to force, manipulate, follow me,” to “do this in memory of me,” the one who convince, or bribe children to think and feel in a certain challenges his followers to be like the good Samaritan, the way about God. Instead, the art of how to make mean- tax collector at the back of the temple, or the poor widow ing with Christian language—sacred stories, parables, who put all she had into the box. liturgical action, and contemplative silence—is taught In sum, the authors of the Old and New Testaments so children can better cope with their existential lim- usedContributor illustrations from the created world, such as man its—death, aloneness, the threat of freedom, and the and woman, cloud, dove, eagle, fire, light, rock, wind, need for meaning. The short-term goal is for children to and water; from roles in life such as mother, father, host, enter adolescence with an inner working knowledge of visitor, and wrestler; and from such occupations as gar- the Christian language system. The long-term goal is for dener, potter, judge, king, landowner, and shepherd to them to become graceful people as adults. Godly Play 555

The Key Assumption outside of school they are taught the language of consum- Godly Play assumes that young children already have ers. To become playfully orthodox gives them the means experienced the presence of the mystery of God in an to speak Christian, which in turn helps them become undifferentiated way. This is a reasonable assumption, Christian in a rooted and yet open way. because evidence has also been accumulating in the phys- ical and social sciences that the evolution of our species The Method has been ongoing, because we are fundamentally creative Jerome Berryman’s Teaching Godly Play: How to Mentor spiritual beings. This case is summarized by David Hay’s the Spiritual Development of Children (2009b) presents Something There: The Biology of the Human Spirit and the Godly Play method. It describes what actually hap- in his biography of Sir Alister Hardy, God’s Biologist. pens in a Godly Play room: entering the space mindfully, Hardy was the Linacre Professor of Zoology in Oxford the presentation of the lesson, wondering in the commu- and a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1969, he set up the nity of the circle about the presentation, working alone Religious Experience Research Unit at Manchester Col- or in small groups to create expressive art to reflect on lege, Oxford, which has now moved to the University of the lesson or one’s life experience, gathering in the circle Wales. These books summarize the modern challenge to again for prayers and a simple “feast,” and going out with the irrational prejudice that began in the eighteenth cen- a formal good-bye. Background informationOnly tells why tury against acknowledging God’s presence in our lives. adult mentors need to make certain moves when guiding children’s spirituality. Ways to evaluate one’s practice The Theory and Practice and how to keep growing as a mentor all one’s life are Jerome W. Berryman’s Godly Play: A Way of Religious also included. Education (1991) describes how Godly Play combines developmental psychology and Montessori education The Spiral Curriculum with God’s lively presence, theology, play, and the cre- The Godly Play curriculum spirals upward and out from ative process to articulate an approach for mentoring the core lessons, to extensions, enrichment lessons, after- children’s moral and spiritual development. It discusses wards lessons, and synthesis lessons. The eight volumes the ultimate game, the importance of laughter, and of The Complete Guide to Godly Play describe this pat- the structure of a Godly Play experience. Six aspects tern.Copy Volume 8 contains an overview of the foundational of the spoken and unspoken process of Godly Play are literature for Godly Play and the most complete sum- discussed: wonder, community/ethics, the participants’ mary of the spiral curriculum to date. In general, the core existential limits, the nature of religious language, the presentations are for children from 3 to 12 years of age. importance of associating religious language with the The extension, enrichment, and afterwards lessons are creative process to make existential meaning, and how to for children from 6 to 12 years. The synthesis lessons are use the deep structure of the Holy Eucharist to guide the for older children, from 9 to 12 years. flow of the process. The core lessons are the key sacred story, liturgical ac- tion, parable, and silence lessons. An example from the The Biblical Theology sacred story genre is the creation story. The sacred sto- The biblical theology that guides Godly Play is ries follow the key events noted by Samuel Terrien’s The Terrien’s The Elusive Presence: Toward a New Biblical Elusive Presence. The liturgical action presentations gen- Theology (1978). Terrien emphasized the experience of erally follow the . The parables follow the God itself rather than theological concepts based on that loosely organized collections of parables in the Synoptic experience. This approach is more organically related to Gospels. The contemplative silence genre may be found what the child is experiencing and provides a meaningful in the way the lessons are presented, the organization story, which resonates with the child’s own story. Terrien of the room, and the whole process of Godly Play. The wrote, “When presence is ‘guaranteed’ to human senses children and their mentors are the main embodiment of or reason, it is no longer real presence. The proprietary this genre. sight of the glory destroys the vision, whether in the Extensions extend the core lessons. Enrichment lessons temple of Zion or in the eucharistic body. . . . In biblical do not extend so much as deepen the core lessons. After- faith, presence eludes but does not delude” (476). wards lessons involve events and symbols that come after ContributorChildren know this elusive presence, but they have few the biblical era. Synthesis lessons make a synthesis of the opportunities to learn an adequate language to identify, key lessons in each of the four genres. The synthesis for name, express, or gain perspective on their experience the sacred stories integrates key narratives to make a les- of God. Most of the language they learn in school is the son about the Holy Trinity. The synthesis lesson for the language of science, including the social sciences, and parables synthesizes all of the parables from the Synoptic 556 Government Officials

Gospels and the “I-Am” statements from the Gospel of rant and infallible truths of scripture). Scripture does John by asking a series of questions concerning the par- reveal how the church should behave toward govern- able corpus and what the collection means as a whole. ment officials and how to minister to them, in addition The synthesis for the liturgical action lessons draws to God’s desire for governing authorities. God’s decree together key liturgical lessons into a series of circles set is evident in that He providentially appoints political within the circle of children. The silence synthesis takes leaders. Authorities do not derive their power from place in the church. the consent of the governed; rather, civil authority is derived from God (cf. Dan. 2:21; John 19:10–11). Every The Historical Context human being is made in God’s image and has His “Law Jerome Berryman’s Children and the Theologians (2009a) written in their hearts” (Rom. 2:15, cf. 13:5). Therefore, traces the ambivalence, ambiguity, and indifference of even non-Christian lawmakers can outlaw evil without theologians to children, as well as the occasional interpre- cognizance that their criterion “for good” is derived tation of children as a . The negative aspect from God. Of course, there are rare times when Chris- of this de facto theology of childhood still unconsciously tians cannot submit to the state (e.g., Exod. 1:15–22; controls much of the thinking in today’s church, which Dan. 6; Acts 4:19–20). Christians cannot disobey what distorts innovative, well-grounded theory and practice. God has commanded, nor obey whatOnly is contrary to The Spiritual Guidance of Children: The Montessori scripture. Government officials often do not understand Tradition and Godly Play (2013) by Berryman traces the God’s sovereign decree; thus the church must educate development of Godly Play from the Montessori tradi- them with such crucial truths. tion through four generations. The book describes how God alone providentially installs leaders in the realm the process of Godly Play feels in action and how the of government, and there is divine provision available psychological, social, biological, and spiritual dimensions to government leaders. Scripture indicates that God has of the creative process come from an original unity and always desired for His people to be a witness and a light to can be renewed through integrating flow, play, love, and the nations (Isa. 49:6, 60:3; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47, 26:23). contemplation to help renew graceful people, which is God has always placed servants in positions to engage the long-term goal of Godly Play. political leaders (whether Israelite or Gentile nations). In the OldCopy Testament, God spoke to kings through proph- References and Resources ets, who would declare His word and will to them. Mes- Berryman, Jerome W. 1995. Godly Play: An Imaginative Ap- sages delivered to civil authorities were not contingent proach to Religious Education. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg. upon a positive reception, but always testified to God’s ———. 2002–2012. The Complete Guide to Godly Play. Volumes character and will (e.g., Gen., 39–41; 2 Kings 19; Neh. 1–8. Denver, CO: Morehouse Education Resources. 1–2; Dan. 4–6; Jon. 3). ———. 2009a. Children and the Theologians: Clearing the Way Jesus commissioned “the twelve” to testify of Him to for Grace. New York: Morehouse. all Israel, which was an audience including government ———. 2009b. Teaching Godly Play: How to Mentor the Spiritual officials (Matt. 10:18), and prophesied of another time Development of Children. 2nd ed. Denver, CO: Morehouse that will be an opportunity to give witness to political Education Resources. leaders (Mark 13:9). Paul was first summoned to preach ———. 2013. The Spiritual Guidance of Children: The Montes- to kings (political leaders) in Acts 9:15; thus it is not sur- sori Tradition and Godly Play. New York: Morehouse. prising that his first recorded convert was Sergius Paulus, Hay, David. 2007. Something There: The Biology of the Human the Roman governor of Cyprus (Acts 13:6–12). More- Spirit. West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Foundation Press. over, 12 of the 16 cities that Paul visited on his missionary ———. 2011. God’s Biologist. London: Darton, Longman and journeys were capitals (because these were centers where Todd. policy was controlled and boasted a sphere of influence Terrien, Samuel. 1978. The Elusive Presence: Toward a New that would help the Gospel permeate society). Even in Biblical Theology. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Paul’s final ministry venture, the Lord sent him in chains —Jerome W. Berryman testifying to Rome and Caesar (Acts 23:11, 28:14). Paul was such a prestigious prisoner that the palace guard was assigned to protect him. He was cognizant that his ContributorGovernment Officials presence was to further the spread of the Gospel (Phil. 1:12–13). One may almost discern a celebratory attitude The political environment can be (and often is) a dif- as Paul concluded his prison epistle (Phil. 4:21–22). ficult one in which the believer can provide a Christian According to 1 Timothy 2:4 (“who desires all men to education (i.e., knowledge and application of the iner- be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth”), The Great Commission 557

God desires the redemption of political leaders. God’s The Great Commission desire is for all humanity not only to be saved, but also to come to the knowledge of the truth. Elected officials can The term “Great Commission” is used to denote Christ’s receive a Christian education, and the church (both indi- command to His followers found in Matthew 28:18–20, vidually and corporately) bears responsibility to provide Mark 16:15–16, Luke 24:46–49, and John 20:21. Only in that message (Rom. 10:14–15). God’s design is also for his the past two hundred years has it become the prominent church to pray and submit to political leaders. Protestant evangelistic mandate. Throughout most of First Timothy 2:1–4 indicates that the church is to give church history, the Great Commission did not provide thanks for those in office and pray and petition God that the motivation or orchestration of the missionary effort. He will use outreach efforts to grant them repentance and It only became the dominant motivator of the mission- spiritual rebirth, and the result is a tranquil and dignified ary vision after William Carey (1761–1834) published An life under the discernment, authority, and protection of Inquiry into the Obligations of Christians to Use Means for truly born again believers who are indwelt and directed the Conversion of the Heathens in 1792, in which he made by the Holy Spirit (even more important is the eternal the argument that Christ followers should take the Gos- destiny of each leader). As the people of God seek the pel to the non-Christian world based primarily on obedi- welfare of the cities in which they live and pray to the ence to the command. This unwittinglyOnly led to a neglect Lord on their behalf, the welfare of those cities will be of the missionary role of the Holy Spirit and the whole the welfare of the church (Jer. 29:5–7; cf. 1 Pet. 2:13–15). missionary thrust of both the Old and New Testaments. As “ambassador” of Christ, the church goes into the Missionary activities are intrinsically educational, and world proclaiming an eternal message (2 Cor. 5:20), the Great Commission was a command of the risen and of course that message involves confrontation of Christ to “make disciples” and “teach” (Matt. 28:18–20), sin. Honoring and submitting to government officials with the emphasis on these two main verbs and impera- does not mean agreeing with unbiblical activities and tives rather than on to “baptize” and “go” into the entire positions (cf. Acts 4:18–20, 5:28–29; Tit. 1:6, 3:1–2), world in obedience to Christ. Both these directions are for the church is the “pillar and support of truth” (1 educational, as missionaries share the Gospel truth by Tim. 3:15), which means providing education in bibli- bringing understanding of God and the implications of cal teachings within the political sphere and all areas followingCopy Christ to different groups of people (panta ta where God provides influence. Whether policies are ethnē of Matt. 28:19). involved or a matter is addressed in public speaking, Over time various interpretations of the Great Com- officials regularly have to respond to issues that the mission have emphasized different aspects of the scrip- Bible addresses; it is thus incumbent upon the church ture, which has in turn shaped the various missionary to equip those leaders with a distinctly Christian educa- exploits. For example, in the last 30 years, there has been tion, which would involve evangelizing those who have a growing tendency to take seriously the Great Com- not yet experienced a personal relationship with Jesus mission’s requirement of teaching all that Christ com- Christ (Rom. 1:16) and establishing those who desire to manded. This emphasis requires that the truths about mature in their faith and knowledge of Scripture (Col. the nature of God as revealed in the whole of the Bible’s 2:6–7). A distinctly Christian education for government redemptive history be shared in order. This was reflected officials is not promoting Judeo-Christian morality and in Trevor McIlwain’s (1987) chronological teaching out- ethics without relating those “symptoms” directly to the line, in which the whole story was kept in view as selected Judeo-Christian God (“cause”). Morality (“symptoms”) stories were told in phases. is not the goal toward which a Christian education is Contemporary missions endeavor to fulfill the task of completed; rather, it should be a catalyst for which to the Great Commission through a variety of educational educate officials with the distinctive revelation of the means, such as preaching with its intent to persuade, one true God (“cause”). One cannot expect a govern- home fellowship groups centering on Bible study, and the ment official to adopt the principles of scripture, if that individual witness of evangelists and church planters to official rejects its Author. enhance biblical understanding, all educational methods related to the fulfillment of Jesus’s directive. Bible corre- References and Resources spondence and online courses via Bible Education by Ex- CapitolContributor Commission. http://www.capitolcom.org. tension (BEE) and Theological Education by Extension (TEE) methodology are explicitly educational in their Harmeling, James. 2012. Psalm 101: A Crown of Commitment. design and evangelistically successful in various cultures. Raleigh, NC: Capitol Commission. In countries with creative access, educational vehicles —Ron J. Bigalke have proved an effective means to share the Gospel of 558 Greece and Christian Education

Christ’s Great Commission. With the emergence of Given this socioreligious and political background, the prominence of the English language in global busi- since the establishment of the Greek state, Christian ness, science, and technology, the demand for English education has been a compulsory school subject in teachers around the world has dramatically increased. primary and secondary education, with a distinct Or- Subsequently, corresponding increases in professionally thodox Christian content that is required for all pupils. trained Christian teachers, Teaching English to Speak- Only very recently (2008) has the state permitted pupils ers of Other Languages (TESOL), have ventured into who are not willing to take the subject do so without non-Christian arenas to teach the world’s lingua franca. justifying their choice. The content of Christian educa- Development and relief workers, as well as agricultural tion in Greek schools is designed to offer an overview of scientists, also afford an educational opportunity to fulfill the teaching and moral beliefs of Orthodox Christianity the Great Commission of Christ, as do mass media via and to enhance the Christian way of living and behav- literature, radio, television, and the worldwide Internet. ing. The Greek Orthodox Church is comfortable with Modern communication methods provide educational such an arrangement because, since its establishment as instruction of the Christian truths that are used by the an official church (1833), it has heavily relied on state mission enterprise. The church also provides many op- support, both financial or functional. Such a solution portunities for education following Christ’s command, has extremely weakened one of the mostOnly important re- such as discipleship programs for the recently converted; sponsibilities of the church—namely, to educate its own catechism and baptismal classes; Sunday preaching and flock in the faith with its own instructive means, ethos, Sunday school classes for children, youth, and adults; as and spirituality. The existing Sunday schools and the well as vacation Bible schools and informal church lead- educational and recreational centers in some diocesan ership seminars and conferences for minsters and laity. parishes do not suffice to justify the official church’s Furthermore, formal theological educational institutions abstaining from taking more seriously the responsibility such as Bible schools and institutes, seminaries, colleges, to systematically introduce the Orthodox Christian faith and universities are all involved in the Great Commis- to its believers of all ages. sion, as are schools for missionary children. The criteria for selection and formation of the content of Christian religious education in schools have always Reference been Copyinfluenced by Greek theological scholarly work, McIlwain, Trevor. 1987. Guidelines for Evangelism and Teach- which is produced within the existing faculties of theol- ing Believers, Sanford, FL: New Tribes Mission. ogy in the Universities of Athens and Thessaloniki. For —Robert L. Gallagher the last 50 years, the main preoccupation of the Greek Orthodox Christian theologians has been the interpreta- tion and hermeneutics of the Byzantine patristic writings Greece and Christian Education and thought, especially of the seventh-century father Maximus the Confessor and the 11th- and 14th-century In Greece, Christianity dates back to as early as when the fathers, such as Symeon the New Theologian and Greg- mission of the apostle Paul was inaugurated on the con- ory Palamas, respectively. As a result, an experiential and tinent of Europe. Since then, Christianity has been estab- ascetic type of theological intercourse has emerged that lished and reinforced as the predominant religion of this implicitly penetrates the foundational principles of Greek part of Europe, where the Byzantine Empire flourished religious education in schools. This hermeneutic enter- from the fourth to the 15th centuries. After the collapse of prise—interwoven with modern Western philosophical the empire and its fall to the Muslim Turks, Christianity, thought and especially Christian existentialism—is the and especially the so-called branch of it, Greek Orthodox prevailing theological approach for the main themes of Christianity, continued to influence the lives and desti- the Christian faith story that is presented and interpreted nies of the inhabitants of the area. In the 19th century, the through the Christian religious education curriculum land was liberated and became a free state with the name and school textbooks. School textbooks are full of bib- “Kingdom of Greece” (1833). Since the establishment of lical, historical, and doctrinal knowledge and abstract the new state, Orthodox Christianity has been the pre- theological concepts that prevent pupils from grasping dominant religion of Greece. Orthodox Christianity pre- and understanding the meaning of the Christian message occupiesContributor almost every aspect of the private and public life and its usefulness for everyday life. of the country. As a consequence, it is hard to distinguish Today there is much need for Greek Christian religious whether there exists in Greece any kind or form of educa- education in schools to realistically adapt its principles tion that is entirely free from the burdens of the heritage and select and revive its content and method in present- and influence of Orthodox Christianity. ing the main themes of the Orthodox Christian story. Greek 559

Such an approach would enable Christian religious To know Greek, ἑλληνίζειν, meant not only to be liter- education to meet the requirements of the values of a ate but also to be cultured; this view of Greek not only democratic education and the challenges of the religious predominated in much of the ancient world but even pluralism and cultural diversity that all European socie- existed in some circles into the modern era. The learning ties confront. of Greek has often been associated with cultural revivals over the last couple of millennia.26 Unlike all other ancient References and Resources languages that influence Christian education today, only Karamouzis, P., and E. Athanassiades. 2011. “Religiosity and Greek survives—it is very much a living, not dead, lan- Education. The Views of Greek Student Teachers on the guage, having undergone several major changes in its long Religious Education Course.” Religious Education 106 (3): and storied history.27 312–331. The study of the Greek language for the purpose of Kozhuharov, V. 2006. “Being a Religious Education Teacher Christian pedagogy has its roots in the centuries before in an Orthodox Tradition.” In Religious Education and the writing of the Greek New Testament. There is defi- Christian Theologies: Some European Perspectives, edited by nite evidence that formal schools teaching Greek existed P. Schreiner, G. Pollard, and S. Sagberg, 79–91. Münster, in the fifth century BC; before that period, there is no Germany: Waxmann Verlag GmbH. evidence.28 There were also books andOnly bookshops.29 Even Perselis, E. P. 1984. “Religious Education in Greece. Its origin, by the fifth century, a formal Greek education was nec- development and future. With special reference to Religious essary for young men, though different city-states had Education in England.” Theologia 55 (2): 497–516; (3): very different strategies for language acquisition. The 810–853. format of Greek education was not that dissimilar from ———. 2007. “Religious Pluralism and Religious Education in Western education today, with elementary, middle, and Europe and Greece: Comparative Tendencies and Perspec- upper divisions for younger students, followed by higher tives.” In Visionen wahr machen: Interreligiöse Bildung auf education in either rhetoric or philosophy for young dem Prüfstand; Referate und Ergebnisse des Nürnberger adults from the upper classes. This focus on language Forums 2006, edited by J. Lähnemann, 378–386. Hamburg: and educational development surely assisted in the cul- EB-Verlag, Dr. Brandt. tural transformations in the Mediterranean in the fourth Rymarz R. 2006. “Handing on Religious Values to Young century. By the third century, the Greek language had Copy 30 Orthodox people in a Western, Secularized Society.” In In- infiltrated no less than the culture of Jerusalem. The ternational Handbook of the Religious, Moral and Spiritual growing influence of the Greek language among diaspora Dimensions in Education, Part One, edited by M. de Souza, Jews resulted in the creation of the Septuagint, the Old G. Durka, K. Engebretson, R. Jackson, and A. McGrady, Testament (and related works) translated into common 513–523. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. (koine) Greek. During this time, Greek as concept moved Tsakalidis G. 1993. “Greek Orthodoxy and Religious Educa- away from ethnicity and geography and toward language, tion: ‘Worldly’ Themes and Consideration of Other Reli- education, and culture.31 In the first century BC, a revival gions.” British Journal of Religious Education 15 (2): 28–35. sprang up among many Greek writers with the desire to Vrame A. C. 2006. “An Overview of Orthodox Christian Re- return to the Attic style of the golden age. ligious Education.” In International Handbook of the Reli- By the time of the events of the New Testament, Greek gious, Moral and Spiritual Dimensions in Education, Part was very much an acceptable—if not the expected—lan- One, edited by M. de Souza, G. Durka, K. Engebretson, R. guage of the people in the Mediterranean world, which Jackson, and A. McGrady, 277–292. Dordrecht, The Neth- included Jewish communities. Paul wrote in Greek not erlands: Springer. —Emmanuel P. Perselis 26. For example, this view was held by the early Protestant reformer Philipp Melanchthon; see Asaph Ben-Tov, Lutheran Humanists and Greek Antiquity: Melanchthonian Scholarship Between Universal History and Ped- agogy, Brill’s Studies in Intellectual History 183 (Leiden: Brill, 2009), 140. Greek 27. Margaret Alexiou, After Antiquity: Greek Language, Myth, and Metaphor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002), 20. 28. A. Missiou, “Language and Education in Antiquity,” in A History of Greek, a language of the Indo-European family, is perhaps Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity, ed. A.-F. Christidis the most important language for the study of Christian (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 1183. education. Greek is the language of the New Testament, 29. C. Coulet, Communiquer en Grèce ancienne (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, Contributor 1996), 105. many of the earliest , and the Septuagint 30. Lester L. Grabbe, A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second (the scriptures for the apostles), as well as the language Temple Period, vol. 2, The Coming of the Greeks: The Early Hellenistic Pe- riod (335–175 BCE), Library of Second Temple Studies 68 (London: T&T of the cultural milieu most important for the writing and Clark, 2008), 60. articulation of the New Testament and the early church. 31. Ibid., 142. 560 Greek Orthodox Church Christian Education only for his Gentile converts, but also because it was the and Pedagogy. Brill’s Studies in Intellectual History 183. most accessible language even among Jews. He echoes the Leiden: Brill. typical view of Greek civilization in his letters, holding Christidis, A.-F., ed. 2007. A History of Ancient Greek: From the to the educational dichotomy between wise Greek and Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge foolish barbarian (Rom. 1:14).32 Paul would have had the University Press. chance to learn Greek during his training at the school of Coulet, C. 1996. Communiquer en Grèce ancienne. Paris: Les Gamaliel.33 That Paul dictated his letters was a sign of his Belles Lettres. social status, not his weakness in Greek.34 Paul’s experi- Grabbe, Lester L. 2008. A History of the Jews and Judaism in the ence with Greek accurately reflects the near-universal Second Temple Period. Vol. 2, The Coming of the Greeks: The importance of knowing the Greek language; even the Early Hellenistic Period (335–175 BCE). Library of Second Roman Cicero famously remarked on the importance Temple Studies no. 68. London: T&T Clark. of knowing Greek language in comparison to his native Judge, Edwin Arthur. 2008. The First Christians in the Roman Latin.35 Latin may have been the language of empire, World: Augustan and New Testament Essays. Edited by but Greek was the language of culture. As Christianity James R. Harrison. WUNT 229. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. spread, it did not always include knowledge of Greek lan- Taliaferro, Charles, Paul Draper, and Philip L. Quinn, eds. guage in its missionary and educational activities, invari- 2010. A Companion to Philosophy of ReligionOnly. 2nd ed. Black- ably resulting in a more impoverished situation over the well Companions to Philosophy no. 9. Oxford: Blackwell. long term.36 During the Reformation, the study of Greek —Douglas Estes increased dramatically, and its importance for Christian education was greatly amplified.37 Today, the study of Greek falls mostly within the con- Greek Orthodox Church fines of classical and theological programs, and interest in Christian Education it among students is once again on the decline. Learning the language is often viewed as a difficult endeavor, and The Greek Orthodox Church embraces several church the waxing and waning of interest in Greek has persisted communities bound by shared historical roots and a since at least the time of Augustine. It has been said that common liturgical tradition. Alongside the two national the number of Greek grammars equals the number of autocephalousCopy churches of Greece and Cyprus, there are Greek students, emphasizing the many different ap- substantial Greek Orthodox populations in Syria, Leba- proaches students must take in order to learn the lan- non, Jordan, Palestine, and Israel, as well as notable com- guage. However, the importance of the Greek language in munities in North America, Australia, Britain, and other any educational environment fostering biblical interpre- parts of Western Europe. tation cannot be overstated—to read Greek is a “sublime For the Greek Orthodox, the ultimate purpose of luxury” (Thomas Jefferson) that brings with it a renewed Christian faith and life is corporate worship of God, most faith (Martin Luther).38 articulately expressed in the liturgical life of the church. It is in liturgy that the nature, life, and identity of the References and Resources Church become evident (Binns 2002, 42). Alexiou, Margaret. 2002. After Antiquity: Greek Language, According to Orthodox teaching, it is through the Myth, and Metaphor. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. liturgy that we encounter God immediately and directly Ben-Tov, Asaph. 2009. Lutheran Humanists and Greek Antiq- and experience the reality of His kingdom. Through the uity: Melanchthonian Scholarship Between Universal History scripture readings and hymns of the liturgy, and most particularly through the culminating Eucharistic feasts, 32. Edwin Arthur Judge, The First Christians in the Roman World: the salvation acts of Christ are experienced mystically Augustan and New Testament Essays, ed. James R. Harrison, WUNT 229 and intuitively (Tarasar 1995, 109). (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008), 712; and cf. Grabbe, History of the Jews The end purpose of liturgy, catechesis, and devo- and Judaism in the Second Temple Period, 160. 33. Judge, First Christians in the Roman World, 711. tion is union with God, the theosis of the Greek fathers 34. Ibid., 710; and cf. Grabbe, History of the Jews and Judaism in the (Stamoolis 2001, 9). Theosis does not speak of a unity of Second Temple Period, 53. 35. Cicero, Pro Archia, 10. nature, as if we might become equal to God, but rather 36. Paul Valliere, “The Christian East,” in A Companion to Philosophy of the process of becoming in tune with His “energies, op- Religion, 2nd ed., ed. Charles Taliaferro, Paul Draper, and Philip L. Quinn, erations, and acts of power” (Tarasar 1995, 90)—to think, BlackwellContributor Companions to Philosophy 9 (Oxford: Blackwell, 2010), 218. 37. Asaph Ben-Tov, Lutheran Humanists and Greek Antiquity: Mel- feel, and act in harmony with His will and purpose. anchthonian Scholarship between Universal History and Pedagogy, Brill’s The scriptures play multiple roles in the Greek Ortho- Studies in Intellectual History 183 (Leiden: Brill, 2009), 140. 38. See also Theodoret of Cyr, Commentary on the First Epistle to the dox church: liturgical and homiletical, through which Corinthians, 170–171. God’s great acts of salvation are remembered and to Greek Orthodox Church Christian Education 561 which the community of faith bear witness; catechetical, istries has been emerging. In Western countries, the through which the faithful are educated and nurtured; Orthodox dioceses have been developing an increas- devotional, in which through the prayerful reading of ing number of age-appropriate resources for catechism scripture God is able spiritually to intervene through school. These resources are distinctively Orthodox, in conviction, illumination, forgiveness, and renewal; and that they are directly related to the liturgical readings and scholarly and doctrinal, through which the unity of the prayers of the week and include substantial references to church is preserved (Stylianopoulos 2008, 26–29). the historic heritage of the saints. Women’s groups, vaca- However, from an Orthodox perspective, scripture tion church camps, the training of children in liturgical never stands alone, but works in dynamic interdepen- singing, diocesan publications, and a variety of adult dency with tradition and the contemporary life of the education options are also common. church as members of a comprehensive unity (Styli- Comparable developments have also been seen in anopoulos 2008, 21). Through the scriptures we hear the Orthodox communities of the eastern Mediterra- the representation of the story of the faith community’s nean, where engagement of religious leaders with the experience of God’s saving works. Tradition provides the social sciences has in the past tended to be limited. Ef- theological meaning that unifies the community of faith. forts at renewal have led to the formation of a variety The sacred stories of the church’s life in history, and in of children’s and youth movementsOnly (Abou Mrad 2008, particular the lives of saints, provide models and inspira- 247–248), pointing to the growing awareness of the need tion for the struggles we face in the spiritual life. And the to strengthen the faith and commitment of emerging daily life of the church as the living body of Christ forms generations. the ground from which scripture and tradition draw their strength and meaning (Tarasar 1995, 114–115). References and Resources The central aim of Orthodox religious education is to Abou Mrad, N. 2008. “The Witness of the Church in a Plural- bring the individual into the life of the church through istic World: Theological Renaissance in the Church of An- explanation of and participation in the liturgical services tioch.” In The Cambridge Companion to Orthodox Christian (Schmemann 1974, 11–13). Religious education must be Theology, edited by M. B. Cunningham and E. Theokritoff, related to the worship of the church, especially the Holy 246–260. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Liturgy, so that children and youth can play the same Assad,Copy M. 1976. Tradition and Renewal in Orthodox Education. role as adults in worship. A special emphasis is placed on Geneva: WCC. teaching and explaining the structure of the liturgy, to- Binns, J. 2002. An Introduction to the Christian Orthodox gether with the hymns, readings, and prayers (Staniloaie Churches. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 1976, 33). Boojamra, J. 1989. Foundations for Orthodox Christian Educa- Leaders in Orthodox religious education emphasize tion. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press. the need for a holistic approach to faith in which doctri- Crow, G. 1996. “The Orthodox Vision of Wholeness.” In Living nal belief, liturgical and devotional practice, and daily life Orthodoxy in the Modern World: Orthodox Christianity and in the world are interwoven in a seamless whole. Conse- Society, edited by A. Walker and C. Carras, 7–22. Crestwood, quently, the Orthodox faithful are encouraged and pro- NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press. vided with resources to engage in a variety of disciplinary Schmemann, A. 1974. Liturgy and Life: Christian Development practices. Prayer, fasting, self-sacrifice, repentance, for- Through Liturgical Experience. New York: DRE-Orthodox giveness, and acts of love are all seen as essential elements Church in America. on the path to theosis (Tarasar 1995, p. 103). Stamoolis, J. J. 2001. Eastern Orthodox Mission Theology Today. A great emphasis is placed on multisensory engage- Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. ment in the process of personal and communal spiritual Staniloaie, D. 1976. “For a Renewal of Theological Education formation. Religious experience cannot be limited to and Religious Education.” In Tradition and Renewal in Or- mere “knowledge”: the affective impact of vision and ex- thodox Education, edited by M. Assad, 18–37. Geneva: WCC. perience profoundly influences spiritual growth (Tarasar Stylianopoulos, T. G. 2008. “Scripture and Tradition in the 1995, 106). All five senses are engaged through Orthodox Church.” In The Cambridge companion to Orthodox Chris- worship, the use of incense and icons, practices of prayer, tian Theology, edited by M. B. Cunningham and E. Theokri- and the rhythm of fasting and feasting (Crow 1996). toff, 21–34. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ContributorFor much of its history, Greek Orthodox education Tarasar, C. J. 1995. “Orthodox Theology and Religious Educa- focused on catechetical instruction to young people tion.” In Theologies of Religious Education, edited by R. C. in preparation for participation in the liturgy. More Miller, 83–120. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. recently, a wider variety of intentional educational min- —Perry W. H. Shaw 562

Gregory of Nazianzus The most important works of Gregory Nazianzenus are his 45 Orations, considered rhetorical masterpieces, Gregory of Nazianzus (or Gregory Nazianzenus) was and his Poems. born around AD 330 in Arianzos near Nazianzus in a In one of the Orations, Gregory presents his definition wealthy Christian family. His father, Gregory the Elder, of education: man’s formation by word and deed. Ac- was the bishop of Nazianzus. Mother St. Nonna, a native cording to Gregory, education is the greatest good in the of the Christian family, had a decisive influence on the world: the purpose of life and of Christian education is to conversion of her husband in AD 325 and on the educa- become like Christ. Pagan literature and philosophy and tion of her son. Gregory had a sister, Gorgonia, and a pagan-derived education are needed in Christian educa- brother, Caesarius, who are venerated as saints. From an tion, since even mere human wisdom prepares one for early age, Gregory displayed a great affinity for learning. a meeting with God. From pagan knowledge, one needs He studied first at Caesarea in Cappadocia, where he met to choose what is important for the soul and for moral Basil; later Gregory and his brother went to Caesarea development, what will create and increase the intrinsic in Palestine to pursue the study of oratory and to study value of man, and reject everything that leads to demons, in the renowned school where , Pamphilus, and errors, and loss. In education, according to Gregory, it had previously studied. Thespesius was then is the example that instructs most efficiently,Only and thus the master of greatest renown, and Euzoïus was a fellow- experience is the mother of knowledge. He also empha- pupil of Gregory’s. From Palestine, Gregory went to sized that the young are sensitive to the beauty of poetry; , where Didymus filled the chair of Pantaenus, hence it should be employed in the educational process as Clement, and Origen in the famous catechetical school. a transmitter of values and wisdom. Gregory commanded Gregory pressed on to Athens (AD 352–357). Among the care of the body, but also stressed the importance of Athenian sophists of the day, none were more famous developing virtues, because the most supreme value is a than Himerius and Proaeresius, with whom Gregory virtuous life, which is acquired in the educational process. continued the study of oratory. At Athens Gregory and Therefore, from an early age, one should show children Basil met again and continued what would be a lifelong the holiness as the educational goal that is most worthy of friendship. After his return to his hometown, Gregory effort and work. In his writings, Gregory places different was baptized, and under the influence of Basil he planned requirementsCopy on teachers: they have to be well educated, to lead a monastic life by the river Iris in Pontus. How- prepared for their work, wise, just, gentle, and firm at the ever, at the request of his aging parents, Gregory left the same time; they have to teach by word and example. Such monastery and returned to Nazianzus to support them. a teacher plays a central role in his educational theory. Under pressure from his father and the ecclesial commu- Gregory points out that in the process of education, both nity, he was ordained a priest at Christmas in 361; soon punishment and reward are important. He draws atten- after that he escaped to the hermitage by the river Iris. Be- tion to the need for an individual approach to the student fore Easter 362, he returned to Nazianzus and explained and for applicability of the methods to the situation and his motivations in the speech, “Apology of My Escape.” the pupil. An important role in education is the relation- He then assisted his father with the management and pas- ship between pupil and tutor; its model is the parent-child toral work of the diocese. In 372, Gregory was ordained relation. Despite emphasizing the importance of educa- bishop by Basil for a small town, Sasima; however, he did tion, however, Gregory believed that an honest, moral life not go there, staying in Nazianzus and helping his father. means far more than all knowledge. The ultimate aim of After his father’s death in 374, Gregory worked for a year all education and the pattern of all true virtue is Christ. in an orphaned diocese and then went to Seleucia, where he led an ascetic life. In 379, Gregory was asked by the References and Resources Catholic community in Constantinople to help them in Beeley, C. A. 2008. Gregory of Nazianzus on the Trinity and the the reorganization of the church, destroyed by Arian. In Knowledge of God. Oxford Studies in Historical Theology. 380, he was officially appointed by the emperor Theodo- New York: Oxford University Press. sius I as the bishop of Constantinople, with the approval ———, ed. 2012. Re-Reading Gregory of Nazianzus: Essays of Constantinople’s Council granted in May 381, though on History, Theology, and Culture. CUA Studies in Early met with opposition from the Egyptian and Macedonian Christianity no. 5. Washington, DC: Catholic University of bishops.Contributor Faced with this situation, in June 381 Gregory America Press. resigned from office. Subsequently he went to Nazianzus, Daley, B. E. 2006. Gregory of Nazianzus. Early Church Fathers where he led the local church until the appointment of a Series. New York: Routledge. new bishop, Eulalius. He spent the last years of his life in McGuckin, J. 2001. Gregory of Nazianzus: An Intellectual Arianzos, where he died in 390. Biography. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press. Groome, Thomas 563

Portmann, F. X. 1954. Die göttliche Paidagogia bei Gregor a synthesis of Christian doctrine and is based primarily von Nazianz: Eine dogmengeschichtliche Studie. Kirchenge- on the views of Origen, but also on those of Methodius schichtliche Quellen und Studien 3. St. Ottilien, Germany: of Olympus. Eos Verlag. According to , Christian education, —Marcin Wysocki imbued with Platonism and cultural and philosophical Greek traditions, is not only the propagation of doctrine, but a conscious effort to understand the principle of the Gregory of Nyssa development of the human personality so that men may meet the highest requirements of Greek educational Gregory of Nyssa was born c. AD 335 in Caesarea in Cap- philosophy (arete). Education is the process of forma- padocia, to a wealthy Christian family. His parents were tion, which is subject to human personality. Christian the famous rhetorician St. Basil and St. Emmelia, and his education aims at the contemplation of God and ever older brother was Basil the Great. His father, his sister St. more perfect union with Him, forming an image (mor- Macrina, and Basil had great influence on his moral and phosis) of God in man on the example of Christ. Paideia intellectual formation. Gregory served for a time as a lec- is a return of the soul to God and to original human na- tor in his native town, then became a teacher of rhetoric ture and is seen as the will of God,Only by which one moves and married Teosebia. However, under the influence of closer to God and comes to resemble the divine beauty. his siblings and friends, he decided to lead a monastic life Virtues are the fruit of both the human nature and in the monastery founded by his brother Basil by the river upbringing, and to achieve them one needs God’s help. Iris. In 371, he became the bishop of Nyssa, adherent to Education is therefore the interaction of the Spirit of Basil’s metropoly, but he lacked a sense of organization God with man’s efforts, which finds its ultimate end in and did not fulfill what was expected of him. In 376 he eschatology, in the ultimate return to the good, to God was deposed by the Arian bishops, but two years later he (apokathastasis). According to Gregory, formation of a returned to Nyssa, greeted enthusiastically by the faith- Christian, his Morphosis, occurs as a result of constant ful. In 380, Gregory was elected metropolitan of Sabaste; study of the Bible. The Holy Spirit in Gregory’s peda- however, he held this office as well for only a few months. gogical system is the divine educating power, which is He was involved in the defense of the Catholic faith and everywhereCopy in the world and speaks through the people the fight against rampant heresies. In 381, together with (teachers) who are His instruments. Tutors must be Gregory of Nazianzus, he participated in the Constanti- aware of the limited cognitive capabilities of pupils and nopolitan Council, where he was called “a pillar of or- at the same time be aware that the spiritual process of thodoxy.” He also held a number of posts at the court of education is not spontaneous, but rather is a discipline Emperor Theodosius. In 385 he delivered a sermon at the requiring continual attention and commitment. Greg- funeral of the emperor’s daughter Pulcheria, then at that ory also taught that from an early age, children must get of the empress Flacylia. The last time he is mentioned in used to hard physical and intellectual work. historical documents was during a in Constanti- nople in 394, and in the absence of subsequent informa- References and Resources tion, it is assumed that Gregory died in 394. Balas, D. L. 1966. Μετουσια Θεου. Man’s Participation in God: Among his most important works are Against Euno- Perfections According to St. Gregory of Nyssa. Romae, Ger- mius, a four-volume refutation of the last phase of the many: Herder. Arian heresy; On the Work of the Six Days, his account of Coakley, S., ed. 2003. Rethinking Gregory of Nyssa. New York: the creation of the world; On the Making of Man, an ac- Routledge. count of the creation of humankind; On the Soul and the Meredith, A. 1999. Gregory of Nyssa. Early Church Fathers Se- Resurrection, a dialogue with Macrina detailing Gregory’s ries. New York: Routledge. system of eschatology; and The Great Catechism (Oratio Zachhuber, J. 1999. Human Nature in Gregory of Nyssa. Supple- Catechetica), his most important dogmatic work, of great ments to Vigiliae Christianae no. 46. Leiden: Brill. importance also for education. It was probably written —Marcin Wysocki in 383–384 as a guide of religious polemics for Christian teachers (catechists). In it he suggests various methods forContributor confronting potential adversaries (Jews, pagans, her- Groome, Thomas etics). Because they involve all the essential dogmas, he discusses the various elements of Christian doctrine: the Early Background and Education Trinity, sin, incarnation, redemption, , and the Thomas H. Groome was born in Ireland into a Roman Eucharist. The work is of a practical nature, but presents Catholic home in 1945. His father participated in the 564 Groome, Thomas

Irish Revolution and had been a candidate for president theorists in the late 20th century—was the publication of of Ireland.39 Groome earned the equivalent of a master Christian Religious Education: Sharing Our Story and Vi- of divinity degree from St. Patrick’s Seminary in Carlow, sion in 1980. No other work in Christian education was Ireland, an MA from Fordham University, and the doctor more widely read and discussed by Protestant and Catho- of education in religious education from Union Theo- lic educators than this groundbreaking book. Building logical Seminary/Columbia University. He spent much of on his early teaching experience, Groome presented the his early teaching career working in Catholic high schools educational theory and methodology for what he called and other settings with children and adolescents. The in- “shared Christian praxis.”43 spiration for his experimentation and eventual theorizing In Christian Religious Education, Groome provides about a better way to teach religion came from a Catholic the historical, biblical, philosophical, psychological, and boys’ high school class, Religion III, in which he was theological foundations for his shared praxis approach. completing a ministerial practicum during seminary. He His comprehensive explanation integrates in a thor- later taught theology and religious education at Catholic oughly coherent manner the theoretical basis and prac- University of America (1975) before joining the faculty tical implications of his teaching-learning vision. A of Boston College as an assistant professor of theology distinctive feature of his perspective is the tension he (1976). He serves as chairman of the Religious Education maintains between the resources of theOnly Christian com- and Pastoral Ministry Department and professor of the- munity (scripture, history, tradition) and learners’ pres- ology and religious education at Boston College. ent experience. He also emphasizes the essential political, Groome’s influential theory of teaching “Christian humanizing, and eschatological nature of “Christian religious education”—shared Christian praxis—began to religious education,” given the theological affirmations take shape in his early experience of teaching high school. of the Christian faith. When he noticed less than enthusiastic responses to his “Shared Christian praxis” consists of five pedagogical lectures on the part of students, he turned to them in movements: (1) Naming Present Action, (2) The Partici- “desperation, fraught with insecurity” for suggestions. He pants Stories and Visions, (3) The Christian Community abandoned his lectures and “asked for their advice as to Story and Vision, (4) Dialectical Hermeneutic Between how we should spend our time together.”40 The students the Story and Participants’ Stories, and (5) Dialectic Her- and Groome came up with a list of topics of interest to meneuticCopy Between the Vision and Participants’ Vision.44 them, and that became their curriculum. Groome began Groome’s discussion of these teaching-learning move- presenting the perspective of the Christian tradition on ments is replete with illustrations and examples of how the topics, and more questions would arise, because “the he has used them and presents educational engagement case was seldom accepted as closed.”41 He responded as essentially dialogical, dialectical, and empowering of to student skepticism with reprimands, but eventually learners to appropriate and revision their lives in light of saw the futility of that approach. Although he confessed the Christian faith and discern ways the Christian faith feeling he wasn’t doing his job with the continuing may need to grow and develop. dialogue, discussion, debate, open disagreement, and common struggle, by the end of the year he realized the Most Important Publications class had “talked about much of the curriculum.”42 When While Groome’s approach has been met with skepti- Groome’s class gained attention in the school and other cism within Catholicism and among some Protestants, teachers visited and excitedly asked what he was doing, Christian Religious Education has caused a seismic shift he realized he could not explain what was happening. His in the way all Christian educators think about teach- efforts to articulate the nature of the process in which he ing. Groome has published works dealing with Catholic and his students were engaged became the impetus for education and pastoral ministry that have been very his most important contribution to Christian education. influential, including curricula for early education for K–8 students and adolescents, but nothing else he has Significant Contributions to Christian Education written matches the impact of his “shared Christian Groome’s most important contribution to Christian edu- praxis” treatise. He has published more than 200 articles cation—making him arguably one of the most influential on religious education and pastoral ministry; presented more than a thousand lectures at various conferences and universities; and appeared on CNN, PBS, and other 39.Contributor James E. Reed and Ronnie Prevost, A History of Christian Education (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 1993), 360. major networks. Thomas Groome is one of the most 40. Thomas H. Groome, Christian Religious Education: Sharing Our Story and Vision (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1980), xii. 41. Ibid. 43. Ibid., especially 184–232. 42. Ibid. 44. Ibid., 207–223. Groote, Gerard 565 influential theorists in Christian education—Catholic or During the church ban on Groote’s preaching, institu- Protestant—of his time.45 tions of the Devotio Moderna (“New Devout” movement) came into being. His domestic arrangement, giving most References and Resources of his house to religious-minded women, was a forerunner Gangel, Kenneth O., and Warren S. Benson. 1993. Christian to the founding of the lay (not vowed) Sisters of the Com- Education: Its History and Philosophy. Chicago: Moody Press. mon Life in 1379. Sisters and the Brothers of the Common Groome, Thomas H. 1980. Christian Religious Education: Shar- Life at Deventer and Zwolle pursued a holy life outside ing Our Story and Vision. San Francisco: Harper & Row. any monastery, an unusual but not unprecedented step. Reed, James E., and Ronnie Prevost. 1993. A History of Chris- Inspired by Groote, some followers organized themselves tian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. as Augustinian Canons Regular in a new monastery down —James P. Bowers the Ijssel River at Windesheim in 1387. Some six decades after Groote’s death, Thomas à Kempis, a monk at Windesheim, wrote or compiled Imita- Groote, Gerard tion of Christ, the most compelling section of which, Book 1, is sometimes thought to derive from Groote. To Groote Gerard (Geert) Groote (1340–1384) was a Dutch cler- and the New Devout movement, a Onlyfocus on Christ’s suf- gyman, revivalist preacher, and founder of the Devotio ferings is the way toward the life to come. Because human Moderna. Groote and the movement inspired by him nature is perpetually at odds with the work of the Holy sought a return to early Christianity in a period of reli- Spirit, this world is a many-dimensioned testing ground. gious disorder. Plague and famines heightened religious Groote is sometimes called a mystic, but where mysti- sensitivity in the 14th century, while rival popes reigned cism such as that of Meister Eckhart and the Friends of at Avignon and Rome; monastic orders were discredited God, or John Rhysbroek, was contemplative and specu- and quarrelling; and enthusiastic, charismatic, or self- lative, Groote returned to New Testament and patristic abusive sects claimed to show the way forward. sources. Like the speculative mystics, his prescription Both of his parents died while Groote was young, leav- was conscious union with God by individuals. But he was ing him a significant annual income. He studied for a a practical mystic, who insisted that his followers work career in the church at St. Lebwin’s school in Deventer withCopy their hands even if they chose a monastic life. (where Erasmus studied a century later), then for 13 years Groote’s significance for Christian education is in at the University of Paris, where he earned a master’s his example and teachings, which inspired Imitation of degree and went on to study theology and canon law. By Christ; after the Bible, it is probably the most widely read 1368, Groote had been awarded stipendary positions in devotional book in the West over the past six centuries. Aix-la-Chapelle and Utrecht. Groote also left his mark through the Brethren of the Illness and personal relationships led Groote toward Common Life, whose fraternal houses and hostels for full dedication of his life to Christ in 1374. He gave Latin school students in towns in Netherlands, Flanders, up his positions and most of his family income, using and northern Germany encouraged piety in a new gen- most of his house to host religiously inclined poor eration of monks, priests, scholars, and social leaders up women. Urged by Carthusian monks to use his gift to to the Reformation era. preach, Groote began what proved to be a comet-like, three-year career. He preached in the vernacular to References and Resources enthusiastic congregations throughout the Netherlands Ā Kempis, Thomas. 1905. The Founders of the New Devotion: and Belgium; he urged higher clergy to repent and take Being the Lives of Gerard Groote, Florentius Radewin and their call to shepherd seriously. However, his calls to Their Followers. Translated by J. P. Arthur. London: Kegan end priestly cohabitation and abuse of church privileges Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. for financial gain (simony) led to the bishop of Utrecht Hyma, Albert. 1950. The Brethren of the Common Life. Grand banning preaching by deacons such as Groote. The Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ecclesiastical process to restore his authority to preach Jacob, E. F. 1952. “Gerard Groote and the Beginnings of the was still underway when Groote died of the plague at ‘New Devotion’ in the Low Countries.” Journal of Ecclesiasti- Deventer in August 1384. cal History 3 (1): 40–57. Contributor Post, Regnerus Richardus. 1968. The Modern Devotion: Con- 45. See Kenneth O. Gangel and Warren S. Benson, Christian Education: frontation with Reformation and Humanism. Leiden: Brill. Its History and Philosophy (Chicago: Moody Press, 1983), 326. Gangel and Van Engen, John H. Van. 2008. Sisters and Brothers of the Com- Benson quote D. Campbell Wyckoff’s description of Groome’s work as “the “only comparable book in the field” to George Albert Coe’s A Social Theory mon Life: The Devotio Moderna and the World of the Later of Religious Education. Middle Ages. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 566 Grosseteste, Robert

Weiler, A. G. 1999. “The Dutch Brethren of the Common Life, As bishop of Lincoln, Grosseteste was heavily in- Critical Theology, Northern Humanism and Reformation.” volved in reform efforts in the church, including ex- In Northern Humanism in European Context, 1469–1625: panding the assessment visits of his staff to monasteries From the “Adwert Academy” to Ubbo Emmius, edited by and deaneries in his diocese. Drawing on the decrees Fokke Akkerman, Arie Johan Vanderjagt, and Adrie H. of the Fourth Lateran Council, he composed a set of Laan, 307–332. Brills Studies in Intellectual History no. 94. guidelines to instruct his parish clergy. They included Leiden and Boston: Brill. the basic knowledge that every parish priest should —Ted Newell possess and what was to be taught to the people. The “curriculum” requirement included the Ten Command- ments, , seven sacraments, the creeds, Grosseteste, Robert the Lord’s Prayer, and the Hail Mary. Priests were to instruct their parishioners in these things in their com- Early Background and Education mon tongue. Regarding children, priests were to teach Robert Grosseteste, born around 1168 to a poor Anglo- them the Lord’s Prayer, the creed, the Hail Mary, and Norman family in England, was one of the outstanding the sign of the cross. For adults, the confessional was to scholastics of his era. A philosopher, scientist, mathema- become a place to check their knowledgeOnly of the faith and tician, theologian, teacher, and church leader, he served to instruct them where needed. These early educational on the faculty of Oxford, rising to the role of “master of reform efforts became models for other dioceses and the schools” at the university. He also carried out pastoral influenced educational ministry efforts in England in ministry and in 1235 was elected to the Bishopric of Lin- the following years. coln, where he served until his death in 1253. References and Resources Significant Contributions to Christian Education The Electronic Grosseteste (www.grosseteste.com) is an exten- Grosseteste’s contributions to the field of Christian educa- sive site that contains a large body of primary texts, including tion are primarily in two areas. The first was his support all texts by Grosseteste in Baur (1912), Dales (1963), Luard of the newly arrived Franciscans in their efforts to care (1861), and Goering and Westermann (2003). It also contains for the spiritual needs of laypeople and to help them learn an extensiveCopy searchable bibliography. the faith. The second was his educational reform efforts in parishes while he was bishop of Lincoln. His reforms were Baur, Ludwig, ed. 1912. Die Philosophischen Werke des Robert instrumental in strengthening the teaching ministry of the Grosseteste, Bischofs von Lincoln, Beiträge zur Geschichte der church in England in the early 13th century. Philosophie des Mittelalters, 9, Münster: Aschendorff Verlag. Grosseteste originally studied law, medicine, and natu- Dales, Richard C., ed. 1963. Roberti Grosseteste episcopi Lin- ral sciences at Oxford. He then focused his studies in colniensis commentarius in viii libros Physicorum Aristotelis, theology, earning a master of arts degree, which equipped Boulder: University of Colorado Press. him for teaching in the university. While teaching and Goering, , and Edwin J. Westermann, eds. 2003. Dicta leading at Oxford, he accepted the position of lecturer [Available online]. [A transcription of all 147 dicta as found at the newly established school for Franciscans. Arriv- in the manuscript Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Bodley 798] ing in England in 1224, the Franciscans found a strong (s.c. 2656). supporter in Grosseteste, who first aided their studies at Jeffrey, D. 1976. “Franciscan Spirituality and the Rise of Early Oxford and then their ministry of preaching and care of English Drama.” Mosaic 7 (4): 17–46. souls in his bishopric. The Franciscans, perhaps more Luard, Henry R., ed. 1861. Roberti Grosseteste Episcopi quon- than any other monastic group of the time, invested dam Lincolniensis Epistolae. Rerum Britannicarum Medii themselves in helping laypeople learn the faith. They Aevi Scriptores, Rolls Series 25. London: Longman. were noted for their creative preaching; religious poetry; McEvoy, J. 2000. Robert Grosseteste. Oxford, UK: Oxford Uni- religious drama; and development of pastoral manuals, versity Press. sermon cycles, and early catechetical materials to help Sullens, I., ed. 1983. Introduction to Handlyng Synne, by Robert parish clergy in their preaching and teaching efforts, as of Brunne Mannyng. Medieval and Renaissance Texts and well as devotional materials for lay use. Grosseteste had Studies, no. 153. Binghamton, NY: Center for Medieval and lifelongContributor close relationships with several Franciscan lead- Rennaisance Studies, State University of New York. ers, including Adam Marsh, the first Franciscan lecturer Urquhart, F. 1910. “Robert Grosseteste.” In The Catholic Ency- at Oxford, and Roger Bacon, the noted philosopher. He clopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Accessed 12 turned to this group for help with some reforms in his December 2012. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07037a diocese, including the revision and renewal of local par- .htm. ish religious drama. —Kevin E. Lawson Grundtvig, Nicolaj Frederik Severin 567

Grundtvig, Nicolaj Frederik Severin Holy Spirit at work through the ages, became a source of creativity and inspiration. The liberal arts, religion, Nicolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig (1783–1872) was and ethics were necessary components of education and a Danish theologian, writer, hymnodist, historian, and helped students resist the mechanistic view of life that statesman, a countervailing wind against the course technology threatened to impose. of classical education and its repetition of Roman cul- History textbooks used by Scandinavian Lutheran edu- tural ideas. He remains the most important figure in cators in North America often reflect Grundtvig’s educa- the history of Danish Christian and public education, tional ideas. In these short textbooks, history is intimately especially through his development of the folk high tied to biblical and Christian history; dates, names, and school (Folkehøjskole) movement, which emphasized memorization of details are less important than the the importance of local cultural heritage, brought educa- overarching connections between ideas and movements. tion to the countryside, and served as the inspiration for For Christian educators, he advocated greater attention adult nontraditional education in Europe. Like Christian to inductive biblical study than to dogmatic transmis- existentialist Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) and radical sion. Not surprisingly, Danish Lutheran schools in the Lutheran pietists Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743–1819) midwestern United States observed many of Grundtvig’s and Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788), he criticized principles. While there were someOnly similarities between Enlightenment rationalism and its constraining influ- his approach to education and that of the Norwegian ence on Christian thought. The son of a Lutheran pas- pietists, he resisted the typically stern and moralistic tor, Grundtvig studied theology at the University of ethos of pietism and advocated an environment that was Copenhagen. In 1810, he experienced a religious crisis inspiring and happy. Though some mistakenly assume after studying modernist biblical criticism, but he even- that his commitment to local culture was overly nation- tually developed a renewed commitment to a relatively alistic, Grundtvig believed that for one to be an authentic orthodox Lutheran theology. His advocacy of a biblical Christian, he or she first needed to know what it meant to but nondogmatic faith and his audacious personality led be truly human in relationship with the local community. to his being banned from the pulpit for seven years. He Only then could one be personally and spiritually fulfilled eventually took over as chaplain of his father’s parish and enough to begin to make a positive difference in the pub- served in modest ecclesial positions until he received the lic Copysphere and in international engagement. To the extent title of bishop in 1861, though he never received a call to that lifelong learning, concern for educational access for a particular diocese. members of all socioeconomic strata, and the idea that Grundtvig’s folk high school approach should not be education is more than simple communication of dead confused with American high school grades 9–12, since ideas exist, the spirit of his pedagogical vision continues it serves both young and old adults. Likewise, it is not in Christian education. identical to the vocational-technical model; while both approaches emphasize accessible, practical training, the References and Resources folk school assumes a Lutheran approach to vocation. Arden, G. Everett. 1964. Four Northern Lights: Men Who Shaped Its goal is a worldly spirituality and joyful purpose in the Scandinavian Churches. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg. community, not simply the ability to find gainful employ- Fain, E. F. 1971. “Nationalist Origins of the Folk High School: ment or technical skill. Folk school education serves rural The Romantic Visions of N. F. S. Grundtvig.” British Journal students through instruction in poetry, Nordic mythol- of Educational Studies 19 (1): 70–90. ogy, history and literature, and the great thinkers of the Grundtvig, Ν. F. S. 2008. A Life Recalled: An Anthology of past. Despite Grundtvig’s antipathy for Roman thought, Biographical Source-Text. Grundtvig in English Series, vol. 4. he valued the spirit of Greek antiquity. He thought Dan- Translated and edited by S. A. J. Bradley. Aarhus, The Neth- ish students ought to learn Icelandic and Greek, rather erlands: University of Aarhus Press. than Latin and Greek. He favored oral over written com- Hawley, Charles A. 1940. “Grundtvig and Danish Theological munication, and even discouraged students from taking Education in the Middle West.” Church History 9 (4): 299–304. notes in class. Likewise, singing hymns aloud and reciting Jensen, Niels Lyhne, ed. 1984. A Grundtvig Anthology. Cam- the Apostles’ Creed was more important than memoriza- bridge, MA: James Clarke & Co. tion of doctrinal and confessional statements. Mythology Kulich, Jindra. 1964. “The Danish Folk High School: Can It Be wasContributor more fertile than technical manuals, because like Transplanted; The Success and Failure of the Danish Folk scripture, it was supposed to be a living word, something High School at Home and Abroad.” International Review of spoken in a community. Though Grundtvig appreciated Education 10 (4): 417–430. the Enlightenment’s insistence on human dignity, he re- Lawson, Max, ed. 1991. N. F. S. Grundtvig: Selected Educational jected its cold reductionism. Historical study, when done Writings. Elsinore, Denmark: International People’s College with his unique emphasis on observing the human and and the Association of Folk High Schools. 568 Guatemala and Christian Education

———. 1993. “N. F. S. Grundtvig (1783–1872).” Prospects: The Schools International (ACSI), representing some 60,000 Quarterly Review of Comparative Education 23 (3): 613–623. students. According to ACSI, 70 percent of the evan- Malone, Kemp. 1940. “Grundtvig’s Philosophy of History.” gelical schools are only for elementary level, 25 percent Journal of the History of Ideas 1 (3): 281–298. include preschool through senior high, and 5 percent Nielsen, Ernest D. 1955. N. F. S. Grundtvig: An American Study. are only high school.46 Rock Island, IL: Augustana Press. —Jeff Mallinson Freedom of Religion and Christian Worship The Constitution gives equal rights to all confessions, but the Catholic Church is responsible for the official Guatemala and Christian Education activities of the state. Some Indian organizations have put pressure on the government to require the teach- How and When Christianity Came to the Country ing of Mayan traditions in the elementary and middle When the liberals took over the government of Guate- schools, so Christian schools have to include this to mala in 1829, dissension plagued the federation. Member qualify for accreditation. states strongly resented the Guatemalan commercial and bureaucratic elite, which had wielded power over them Distinctive/Unique Methods of EducatingOnly Christians throughout the colonial era. In addition, the elite class A large majority of the population consists of 23 In- was divided into liberal and conservative factions, which dian groups, each with its own language. Spanish is fought over government power, economic policies, and the national language, but large segments of the Indian the role of the Roman Catholic Church in society. The population know little Spanish. The first New Testa- first federal president, Manuel Jose Arce of El Salvador, ment was translated and published in an Indian language resigned in 1827 after only two years in office, as civil war (Cakchiquel) in 1931. Today there are Bibles published broke out between the opposing factions. By 1827, Guate- in nine Indian languages, and a number of New Testa- malan conservatives had seized control of both the Guate- ments. The organization Faith Comes By Hearing has put malan state and federal governments. The first missionary, many translations on CD, which are loaned to churches, a Presbyterian pastor, was invited by the president to come with excellent results. Christian radio has been vital to to Guatemala in 1882, to counterbalance the absolute au- spiritualCopy growth since 1950, with broadcasts of Bible thority that the Catholic Church had until then. reading and Bible teaching several times a day. Christian television has been used for Bible teaching, first Channel Main Denominations and Institutions in Guatemala 21, then Channel 27, with emphasis on evangelism and Beginning with the traditional groups of the Reformed spiritual growth. Because of the 30 percent illiteracy in type, adding the holiness groups, Bible churches, and Guatemala, many churches have literacy programs so now the neo-Pentecostal groups, there is a spectrum of people can learn to read the Bible. denominations in Guatemala, each structured according to its own tradition and focused on teaching the Word of Reference God. The larger denominations are Pentecostal or neo- Grossmann, Roger. 2002. “Interpreting the Development of the Pentecostal. Evangelical Church in Guatemala.” DMin diss., Southeastern There are several major institutions for the training Baptist Theological Seminary. of pastors, including the Central American Theological —Martha Saint-Berberian Seminary, the Baptist Theological Seminary, the Pen- tecostal Biblical Seminary, Mariano Galvez University School of Theology, the Nazarene Theological Seminary, Guidance as Christian Practice and the Panamerican University School of Theology. Guidance from the Christian perspective unites three Typical Means of Educating Christians in Guatemala overall themes. First is God’s intervening desire to in- Each denomination uses different means and programs teract with humans and communicate His redemptive to help people grow spiritually as well as intellectually. purposes and actions toward the ultimate end of estab- Church leaders are aware that barely 2 percent of their lishing his kingdom—the new heaven and the new earth. congregationsContributor have a university education, 20 percent have Second, God offers and directs guidance to both indi- attended middle school, 48 percent have attended elemen- viduals and communities. Biblically speaking, guidance is tary school, and about 30 percent are illiterate.

There are 660 evangelical schools in Guatemala. 46. Estuardo Salazar, interview, Director Regional para Latinoamérica About half are members of the Association of Christian Association of Christian Schools International, 25 November 2011. Guidance as Christian Practice 569 provided to enable us to align our whole lives with God’s is sensed as negative feelings of selfishness and self-focus, purposes. Third, guidance should happen in the context depletion of energy, isolation from community, and a spi- of community. ral inward that inhibits one from seeing God’s activity.47 God’s redemptive interventions happen in the context In summary, consolation is life-giving practices, attitudes, of, through, and often in spite of, humanity. Through- and postures. Desolation drains life. out God’s redemptive story, He chooses to partner with Connection to and processing in one’s community and participate in the lives of flawed men and women, is absolutely crucial for individual guidance. Trans- whether Abraham, Sarah, Samuel, Deborah, David, Ezra, parency in the context of belonging and love enlivens Nehemiah, or Mary, until ultimately, after Jesus’s tri- discernment processes. Sharing the inner movements umph over death, the proclamation and demonstration of the heart, as in Ignatian spirituality or through, for of God’s kingdom transpires through Spirit-empowered example, the Quakers’ Clearness Committees, confirms men and women. Therefore, God personally communi- individual guidance. In a Clearness Committee process, cates toward this ultimate end. This is general guidance. friends listen to the focus person express what she or he We know from scripture what God is trying to accom- knows about a decision to be made (or a problem need- plish, and therefore guidance is our lives aligned with ing resolution). After listening, friends ask open, honest, God’s purposes. “LORD, I know people’s lives are not nonleading questions without psychoanalyzingOnly or giv- their own; it is not for them to direct their steps” (Jer. ing advice. The focus person may or may not choose to 10:23 TNIV). “For we are God’s handwork, created in answer the questions. The question-and-answer pace is Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in slow, relaxed, and embracing of silence. In this process, advance for us to do” (Eph. 2:10 TNIV). the focus person and friends endeavor to notice the The individual discerns guidance as an expression movement of the Spirit in the questions and answers. of unique giftedness and basic function in the Body of Someone takes notes and provides the notes to the focus Christ. Christians are called to offer and steward God- person at the end of a two-hour period.48 given natural abilities, acquired skills, and spiritual gifts, Acts 15:1–34 provides instructive insight for guidance and these should direct primary choices for service. Peter of a whole community. We observe a process something states, “Each of you should use whatever gift you have re- like the following: ceived to serve others, as faithful stewards of God’s grace Copy in its various forms” (1 Pet. 4:10 TNIV). 1. Report (vv. 1–4) what God is doing and the dis- Often individuals experience internal burdens for agreement that has surfaced. specific needs and/or opportunities. These burdens re- 2. Listen (vv. 5, 12–13) to people’s opinions. veal guidance as well. God works in our hearts so that 3. Discuss (vv. 5, 7–11, 13–14) their implications. a vision, burden, or concern connects with a need and 4. Offer evidence (in this case, what participants have creates the conviction that something must be done. For witnessed God doing; vv. 8–9, 12) and resources (in example, the apostle Paul described his burden this way: this case, other scriptures; vv. 16–18). “So from Jerusalem all the way around to Illyricum, I 5. Express the decision (vv. 19–21). have fully proclaimed the gospel of Christ. It has always 6. Communicate the decision to all interested parties been my ambition to preach the gospel where Christ was via appropriate, trustworthy methods (in this case, not known, so that I would not be building on someone a letter delivered by representative leaders of both else’s foundation” (Rom. 15:19b, 20). Jerusalem and Antioch; vv. 22–29). Related to internal burdens, inner movements (thoughts, 7. Receive and embrace the decision (vv. 30–31). feelings, imaginings, desires, etc.), when noticed, also pro- —Dan W. Bacon and Shelley Trebesch vide guidance. In the Roman Catholic tradition, Ignatian spirituality proposes noticing two inner movements: con- 47. See Margaret Silf, Inner Compass—10th Anniversary Edition—An solation and desolation. Consolation is movement toward Invitation to Ignatian Spirituality (Chicago: Loyola Press, 2007) and “Mak- God and is sensed as energy for creativity and inspiration, ing Good Decisions,” http://www.ignatianspirituality.com/making-good -decisions/discernment-of-spirits/ (accessed 30 April 2013). a focus on community and others’ needs/concerns, and 48. See Parker J. Palmer, A Hidden Wholeness: The Journey Toward an discernmentContributor of God’s activity in others and us. Desolation Undivided Life (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2009), ch. 8. Only

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Contributor H Only Hard Sciences, Scopes over the issue of Darwinian evolution exacerbated Christian Contributions to the misguided but popular notion that the Christian faith opposed scientific inquiry.4 To be sure, there have been Christian educators may sometimes struggle to see the moments of disagreement between church and scientist contributions of previous Christians to the traditional (as the Copernicus and Galileo controversies highlight), or “hard” sciences. These disciplinary fields engage in but a long-term depiction of conflict appears problematic the empirical study, organization, and verification of as the single defining way of describing the dialogue be- natural or material phenomena through disciplines such tween science and religion.5 as physics, astronomy, geology, chemistry, and biology. Christian educators would do well to heed historian Scientists within these disciplines use various models of RodneyCopy Stark, who claims “that there is no inherent theory and research to reach varying claims about the conflict between religion and science, but that Christian nature of the universe, in its broadest and most particular theology was essential for the rise of science” (author’s sense, based on mathematical and empirical reasoning.1 emphasis).6 Many of the “natural philosophers” of the Unfortunately, much of the fog around distinctive period of the scientific revolution maintained either con- Christian contributions occurs because of previously ventional or devout ties to either Catholic or Protestant popular, but false, notions of the warfare between science faith traditions.7 Several Christians of note, from the and religion. In the later 19th century, two popular pub- Middle Ages to contemporary times, have contributed lications by Professor John William Draper (History of to scientific inquiry. As John Henry notes, “the work of the Conflict between Religion and Science, 1874) and Cor- the Royal Society, one of the first scientific institutions, nell president Andrew Dickson White (A History of the was said by its first founders to be based on the method Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, 1896) for establishing truth first developed by the Church of produced a highly anti-Catholic, antireligious view of the history of science and the church.2 These publications provided an erroneous view of history, often reducing raphy of the Scientific Revolution,” in Science and Religion: New Historical Perspectives, ed. Thomas Dixon, Geoffrey Cantor, and Stephen Pumfrey complex theological judgments to simplistic, and false, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 74–75; Lawrence M. conclusions; however, they also resonated with many in Principe, “The Warfare Thesis,” in Science and Religion (Chantilly, VA: The 3 Teaching Company, 2006). scientific circles. The early 20th-century trial of John T. 4. Edward J. Larson, Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America’s Continuing Debate over Science and Religion (New York: Basic 1. Rodney Stark, For the Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Ref- Books, 1997). ormations, Science, Witch-Hunts, and the End of Slavery (Princeton, NJ: 5. Ian G. Barbour, Religion and Science: Historic and Contemporary Princeton University Press, 2003), 124–125. Issues (San Francisco: HarperSanFranciso, 1997), 77–105; Maurice A. 2. John William Draper, History of the Conflict between Religion and Sci- Finocchiaro, “The Copernican Revolution and the Galileo Affair,” in The ence, 10th ed. (London: Henry S. King & Co., 1877); Don O’Leary, Roman Blackwell Companion to Science and Christianity, ed. J. B. Stump and Alan CatholicismContributor and Modern Science: A History (New York: Continuum Books, G. Padgett (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2012), 14–25. 2007), xiv–xv; Andrew D. White, History of the Warfare of Science with 6. Stark, For the Glory of God, 123. Theology in Christendom (New York: Macmillan, 1896). 7. Ibid., 158–162, 198–199. Even Stark’s list may prove incomplete 3. Peter Harrison, introduction to The Cambridge Companion to Science because it does not include Church of England royalist and neurologist and Religion, ed. Peter Harrison (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Thomas Willis, who is addressed in Scientific Discoveries, Impact on Theo- Press, 2010), 4–5; Margaret J. Osler, “Religion and the Changing Historiog- logical Assumptions and Pedagogical Practices.

— 571 — 572 Harris, Maria

England.”8 Notables with a Christian background (this is Dixon, Thomas, Geoffrey Cantor, and Stephen Pumfrey, eds. not an exhaustive list by any means) include astronomer 2010. Science and Religion: New Historical Perspectives. Cam- Nicholas Copernicus, science theorist Francis Bacon, bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. astronomer Johannes Kepler, mathematician René Des- Draper, John William. 1877. History of the Conflict between cartes, mathematician and physicist Blaise Pascal, math- Religion and Science. 10th ed. London: Henry S. King & Co. ematician Isaac Newton (though some of his theology Harrison, Peter, ed. 2010. The Cambridge Companion to Science would be deemed unorthodox), chemist Robert Boyle, and Religion. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. physicist Michael Faraday, geneticist Gregor Mendel, Larson, Edward J. 1997. Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and physicist William Thompson (Lord Kelvin). In addi- and America’s Continuing Debate over Science and Religion. tion, recent research has unveiled several early (17th- and New York: Basic Books. 18th-century) women scientists with Christian con- O’Leary, Don. 2007. Roman Catholicism and Modern Science: A victions, such as Margaret Cavendish, Anne Conway, History. New York: Continuum. Aphra Behn, and Mary Astell.9 Other notable Christian Pokinghorne, John. 1996. The Faith of a Physicist. Minneapolis, scientists are quantum chemist Charles Albert Coulson,10 MN: Augsburg Fortress Press. chemist and philosopher Michael Polanyi,11 physicist Principe, Lawrence M. 2006. Science and Religion. Audiobook John Polkinghorne,12 and geneticist Francis Collins.13 Lectures. Chantilly, VA: The Teaching Company.Only While the current climate in science and religion often Rupke, Nicholaas A., ed. 2009. Eminent Lives in Twentieth- makes any embrace of Christian convictions more dif- Century Science and Religion. 2nd ed. Frankfurt, Germany: ficult, Christian educators should not be distracted from Peter Lang. the rich heritage of Christian scientists who contributed, Stark, Rodney. 2003. For the Glory of God: How Monotheism and continue to provide, both research and theoretical Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-Hunts, and the End of insight in the field of science. To be sure, many Christians Slavery. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. engaged in this effort historically anchored their scien- Stump, J. B., and Alan G. Padgett, eds. 2012. The Blackwell tific practice in natural theology.14 However, Christian Companion to Science and Christianity. Oxford: Blackwell. conviction about the world as “God’s handiwork” affords Torrance, Thomas F. 2000–2001. “Michael Polanyi and the Chris- a deeper understanding of the intersections of belief and tian Faith—A Personal Report.” Tradition and Discovery: The scientific inquiry for the future.15 PolanyiCopy Society Periodical 27 (2). Accessed 8 June 2013. http:// www.missouriwestern.edu/orgs/polanyi/TAD%20WEB%20 References and Resources ARCHIVE/TAD27-2/TAD27-2-basic-pg.htm. Barbour, Ian G. 1997. Religion and Science: Historic and Con- White, Andrew D. 1896. History of the Warfare of Science with temporary Issues. San Francisco: HarperSanFranciso. Theology in Christendom. New York: Macmillan. Collins, Francis S. 2006. The Language of God: A Scientist Pres- —Dean Blevins ents Evidence for Belief. New York: Free Press.

Harris, Maria 8. John Henry, “Religion in the Scientific Revolution,” in The Cambridge Companion to Science and Religion, ed. Peter Harrison (Cambridge, UK: From the time this American religious educator pub- Cambridge University Press, 2010), 43. 9. Jacqueline Broad, “Women, Mechanical Science, and God,” in The lished her first book, Experiences in Community, co- Blackwell Companion to Science and Christianity, ed. J. B. Stump and Alan authored with Moran (New York: Herder and G. Padgett (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2012), 26–36. Herder, 1968), until her death on 1 February 2005, Maria 10. Arie Leegwater, “Charles Alfred Coulson: Mixing Methodism and Quantum Chemistry,” in Eminent Lives in Twentieth-Century Science and Harris’s work in the field has been considered both Religion, 2nd ed., ed. Nicholaas A. Rupke (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2009), prophetic and provocative. Her exploration of religious 74–103. education through the lens of the aesthetic sheds light on 11. Thomas F. Torrance, “Michael Polanyi and the Christian Faith—A Personal Report,” Tradition and Discovery: The Polanyi Society Peri- richer and holistic approaches to the work of fashioning odical 27 (2000–2001): 2, http://www.missouriwestern.edu/orgs/polanyi/ faith communities while at the same time providing a TAD%20WEB%20ARCHIVE/TAD27–2/TAD27–2–basic-pg.htm (ac- cessed 8 June 2013). prophetic voice regarding the role of women in the life of 12. John Pokinghorne, The Faith of a Physicist (Minneapolis, MN: Augs- the global community. burg Fortress Press, 1996). Born in New York City on 8 August 1932, Maria Har- 13. Francis S. Collins, The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evi- denceContributor for Belief (New York: Free Press, 2006). ris and her brother, Tom, were raised by their single 14. Jonathan R. Topham, “Natural Theology and the Sciences,” in The mother, Mary Tunney Harris, from the time of her hus- Cambridge Companion to Science and Religion, ed. Peter Harrison (Cam- bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 59–79. band’s death when Maria was eight years old. As a musi- 15. Stark, For the Glory of God, 121–197. cian and teacher, Mary Harris nurtured Maria’s aesthetic Harris, Maria 573 sensibilities and musical talents.16 Maria entered the Maria Harris’s work reflects the influences of Freire, religious order of the Sisters of St. Joseph (Brentwood, Dewey, Eisner, Moran, and her mentors, Mary Tully and NY), after her first year of college. Her experiences as a Dwayne Heubner. Between 1976 and 1981, she published classroom music teacher soon gave way to an interest in four books: The D.R.E. Book (New York: Paulist Press, religious studies and a master’s degree in theology from 1976); Parish Religious Education (New York: Paulist Manhattan College in New York City (1967). Press, 1978); The D.R.E. Reader (Winona: St. Mary’s Experiences in Community, coauthored with the man Press, 1978); and Portrait of Youth Ministry (New York: who was eventually to become her husband and partner, Paulist Press, 1980). The D.R.E. Book was instrumental Gabriel Moran, was published during the period when in both naming the emerging position and defining the she was directing programs in adult education for the work of the director of religious education in Catholic Rockville Center diocese. At the same time, Harris was parishes.19 In 1978, at Birmingham University (England), engaged in doctoral studies in the joint program at Co- her voice was among the first to be heard during the lumbia Teachers College and Union Theological Semi- founding meeting of the International Seminar on Reli- nary and teaching courses in Huntington, New York, at gious Education and Values, where she presented a paper the major seminary for the Roman Catholic dioceses of on educating for prayer and spirituality. Rockville Center and Brooklyn. In 1971, she completed Her approach to religious education can be situated Only20 her doctoral dissertation, “The Aesthetic Dimension in within the reconceptualist tradition, the goal of which Redefining Religious Education,” under the direction is to bring to light the unasked questions that will engage of Dwayne Huebner (Columbia Teachers College) and the entire community in the process of educating one Mary Tully (Union Theological Seminary).17 another religiously. Harris’s work most clearly reflects In 1973, Harris left the Sisters of St. Joseph. Invited to her aesthetic sensibilities and encourages the aesthetic join the faculty of Andover Newton Theological School in approach to religious education through the develop- Massachusetts in 1975 as their first Roman Catholic mem- ment of the organizing metaphor of the dance. For her, ber, she was granted tenure within four years and in 1983 to educate religiously is to move through the process as if was awarded the Howard Chair of Religious Education. in a dance with one’s partner (teacher/student; faith com- munity/leadership; parent/child; citizens/political lead- Major Contributions to Christian Education ers),Copy in ways that allow “openness to the unexpected.”21 Maria Harris’s Andover experience unmasked a deeper This metaphor sheds light on new possibilities and reality associated with the term religious education. She “the unexpected” in Harris’s exploration of curriculum believed her own personal experience of moving from in the church and the education of faith communities her home city (New York) and the Roman Catholic work (Fashion Me a People, Louisville, KY: Westminster John environment in which she had been immersed shed light Knox Press, 1989) and the empowerment of women on understanding the way in which the world of religion through pedagogies that reconceptualize issues of gen- and education had shifted to include the need for an der, politics, social justice, and spirituality (Women and awareness of the ecumenical dimension of both. Genuine Teaching: Themes for a Spirituality of Pedagogy, New religious education needed to begin with a conversation York: Paulist Press, 1988; Dance of the Spirit: The Seven among all religious traditions, simply because the world Steps of Women’s Spirituality, New York: Bantam Books, itself had become ecumenical.18 1989; Jubilee Time, New York: Bantam Books, 1995; and While Andover was a positive experience for her, Proclaim Jubilee, Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Harris missed New York and found a way to return. Press, 1996). She joined the faculty of Fordham University’s Gradu- Firmly rooted in the Judeo-Christian tradition, the ate School of Religion and Religious Education (Bronx, work of Maria Harris helped shape a religious way of NY). This position enabled her to continue to work with being in the world as a global citizen, shedding light on students who were engaged in education and ministry the possibilities for “genuinely religious education for and to accept speaking engagements both nationally and internationally. 19. Gabriel Moran, “In Praise of a Graceful Woman; Maria Harris’ Last Years” (unpublished manuscript, New York University, 2005), 4, www.nyu .edu/classes/gmoran/MARIA.pdf. Contributor16. Joanmarie Smith, “In Memoriam: Maria Harris 1932–2005,” Reli- 20. Kieran Scott, “Three Traditions of Religious Education,” Religious gious Education 100, no. 3 (2005): 235. Education 79, no. 3 (1984): 401. 17. Ibid., 236. 21. Margaret O’Brien, “Maria Harris,” Christian Educators of the 18. Maria Harris, “Weaving the Fabric: How My Mind Has Changed,” 20th Century, http://www.talbot.edu/ce20/educators/catholic/maria Religious Education 79, no. 1 (1984): 22. _harris/#authors. 574 Harvard University our times to be one that is by definition a conversation Notable Academic Programs among all religious traditions.”22 The university comprises 14 academic units or faculties. The following faculties oversee schools and divisions that Other Notable Publications grant academic degrees: Harvard Business School, Har- Harris, M. 1987. Teaching and Religious Imagination. San Fran- vard College, Division of Continuing Education, Harvard cisco: Harper & Row. School of Dental Medicine, Faculty of Arts & Sciences, Harris, M. 1993. “Women Teaching Girls: The Power and the Harvard Divinity School, Graduate School of Design, Danger.” Religious Education 88: 52–66. School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard Graduate School of Education, Graduate School of Arts References and Resources and Sciences, Harvard Kennedy School, Harvard Medi- Harris, Maria. 1984. “Weaving the Fabric: How My Mind Has cal School, Harvard Law School, and Harvard School for Changed.” Religious Education 79 (1): 18–23. Public Health. In addition to the 14 colleges, continuing International Seminar on Religious Education and Values. n.d. education and programs are offered through the Rad- “ISREV History.” http://www.isrev.org/History.htm. cliffe Institute for Advanced Study. While most of Har- Moran, Gabriel. 2005. “In Praise of a Graceful Woman: Maria vard’s academic programs would be considered notable, Harris’ Last Years.” New York University. www.nyu.edu/ the business and law programs consistentlyOnly enroll the classes/gmoran/MARIA.pdf. largest number of students. O’Brien, Margaret, and Maureen O’Brien. n.d. “Maria Harris.” Christian Educators of the 20th Century. http://www.talbot Philosophy of Mission and Education .edu/ce20/educators/catholic/maria_harris/#authors. Harvard University does not have a formal mission state- Scott, Kieran. 1984. “Three Traditions of Religious Education.” ment. Some point to the Charter of 1650 and reaffirm Religious Education 79 (3): 323–339. the charge to create knowledge, develop the minds of Smith, Joanmarie. 2005. “In Memoriam: Maria Harris 1932– students, and nurture students’ skills and competencies 2005.” Religious Education 100 (3): 235–239. to take the greatest advantage of their educational expe- —Sylvia McGeary rience for the advancement of society. During its early years, Harvard’s philosophy of education was based on the classicalCopy method of recitation, with little to no free Harvard University choice of courses for students. As the university grew in number of colleges and programs, so did the opportuni- Harvard was established in 1636, less than 20 years ties for students to select from a wide range of multidisci- after the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, and is located in plinary courses along with traditional offerings. Harvard Cambridge, Massachusetts. The institution began with University has more than 40 current and former faculty nine students preparing for ministry; it now boasts more members who are Nobel Laureates and one of the largest than 25,000 undergraduate, graduate, and professional library collections in the world. students enrolled in credit courses, noncredit courses, and seminars in its 12 degree-granting schools and the Resource Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study. Rudolph, F. 1990. The American College & University: A His- tory. Athens: University of Georgia Press. Historical Introduction —Peter G. Osborn Harvard holds the distinction of being the first institution of higher education in the United States. The university is named after Rev. John Harvard, who donated his per- Hauerwas, Stanley sonal library and half his estate in its early years. In the tradition of Cambridge, Harvard was founded to instill Stanley Hauerwas (b. 1940) earned his PhD in theology Puritan thought and aspiration in the New World, which from Yale University, then taught at Augustana College, would need competent civic leaders, qualified clergy, University of Notre Dame, and Duke Divinity School. and cultured civilians. Focused primarily on providing a Raised as a Methodist in Texas, he came to identify learned clergy to the colonies, it was not until the middle himself with a congregation in the Episcopal Church. of theContributor 19th century that Harvard began to take the shape Some of his main intellectual influences were Aristo- of what is often understood today as a true university. tle, Reformed theologian Karl Barth, Lutheran pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Anabaptist scholar John How- 22. Maria Harris, “Weaving the Fabric: How My Mind Has Changed,” ard Yoder, and Roman Catholic philosopher Alasdair Religious Education 79, no. 1: 22. MacIntyre. The author of over 30 books and myriad Healing as Christian Practice 575 essays, Hauerwas became one of the most influential Healing as Christian Practice Protestant theologians in the English-speaking world during his era. In 2001, Time magazine named him Healing refers to a restoration of health and whole- “America’s best theologian.” Among his most discussed ness from a prior state of sickness, including physical, writings are Character and the Christian Life (1975); emotional, and spiritual. Experiencing such evil is com- The Peaceable Kingdom (1983); Resident Aliens: Life in mon in a fallen world. Ultimate healing will come in the Christian Colony, coauthored with William Willi- the next age, when Jesus Christ conquers death (1 Cor. mon (1989); Community of Character (1991); and With 15:53–57). Yet now God still proclaims, “I am the Lord, the Grain of the Universe: The Church’s Witness and your healer” (Exod. 15:26). The Old Testament term Natural Theology (2001), which contained the presti- shalom includes within its orb of meaning the concept gious Gifford Lectures at St. Andrews in Scotland. He of health, as well as peace, completeness, harmony, and also authored Hannah’s Child: A Theologian’s Memoir fulfillment. God promises shalom to his people (Ps. (2010). His writings, at both the scholarly and popular 85:8). Fulfilling the promises of Isaiah 61:1, Jesus an- levels, often are considered to be provocative and con- nounced that He came “to proclaim . . . liberty to the troversial treatments of their subjects. He is best known captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at for his advocacy of Christian pacifism. A wide reader- liberty those who are oppressed” (LukeOnly 4:18), in which ship extended his influence across the denominational a prominent part of His ministry was healing “various spectrum. As an educator, a teacher, and mentor to a diseases and pains, those oppressed by demons, epilep- generation of students in theology and ethics, he has tics, and paralytics” (Mark 4:24). Messiah is called the shaped pastors, scholars, and teachers in a wide range “Prince of Shalom” (Isa. 9:6; Eph. 2:14). of church, university, and seminary settings. The church continues this healing ministry. “The Hauerwas addressed education, especially Christian healing miracles that Jesus performed not only helped to higher education, in essays throughout his career, establish his messianic identity, but they serve as instruc- including those found in The State of the University: tive models for the church as Jesus uses people to mediate Academic Knowledges and the Knowledge of God (2007). his dominion in the world” (Arnold 2012, 172). James He believes that all education, whether implicitly or 5:14–16 provides an important New Testament healing explicitly, is moral formation. Accordingly, “any knowl- commission.Copy “At the same time, James [5:16] makes clear edge worth having cannot help but shape who we are that the church at large is to pray for healing. . . . James and accordingly our understanding of the world.” Hau- encourages all Christians, and especially those charged erwas’s understanding of education is shaped by his with pastoral oversight [elders], to be active in prayer for commitment to approaching ethics from the standpoint healing” (Moo 2000, 238). of the cultivation and exercise of moral virtues and to seeing the church as a “community of character” called Questions about Healing to shape a distinctive people who resist the violent and In his extensive two-volume study of miracles, Craig consumerist ways of life assumed by the nation-state. Keener (2011) presents a sustained historical and theo- Hauerwas criticizes the secular university as “the great logical argument for scholars who tend toward anti- institution of legitimation in modernity whose task is supernaturalism in their study of the New Testament to convince us that the way things are is the way things miracles. Keener marshals evidence from ancient and have to be.” Thus, it forms people to be “faithful servants contemporary accounts of miracles around the globe (al- of the status quo.” Yet “if Christians are a people with an most 400 pages of accounts with citations, ch. 7–12) and alternative history of judgments about what is true and addresses the classic philosophical criticisms raised by good they cannot help but produce an alternative uni- Hume (ch. 4–6) and contemporary research bias against versity.” This kind of institution would exist “to shape supernaturalism (ch. 13–15). As an example of such bias people in the love of God.” For Hauerwas, Christianity in the church, Augustine (AD 354–430) originally held is more than a belief system. The educational task of that miracles could not occur, but then changed his mind the church should focus on learning a complex way of when miracles took place among his own congrega- life, which is more like being apprenticed to a master tion and subsequently had records kept of these (Kelsey to learn a craft (such as bricklaying or stone carving) 1973, 184–189). D. A. Carson (1987, 166) notes: “There thanContributor about processing information. It involves being is enough evidence that some form of ‘charismatic’ gifts gradually formed by the peculiar language, knowledge, continued sporadically across the centuries of church his- skills, practices, attitudes, and habits that constitute the tory that it is futile to insist on doctrinaire grounds that Christian faith. every report is spurious or the fruit of demonic activity or —Jeffrey P. Greenman psychological aberration.” In his book discussing culture 576 Healing as Christian Practice and worldview, Charles Kraft (2005), a former mission- of its two- to three-year catechumenate training prior to ary and missiology professor, mentions his own personal receiving formal church membership. “This was the logi- and academic journey from reluctance to embracing a cal time for the early church to deal with the evil spiritual biblical supernatural perspective. attachments—since the vast majority of these people Yet it is puzzling that God raises up some and does were in the process of renouncing their allegiances to not raise up others. God is the healer, not our prayer various pagan deities and magical practices to embrace alone. Although Jesus Christ inaugurated the Kingdom of the living and true God” (Arnold 2012, 169–170). God, the full measure of its features will not appear until Christ’s second coming—the kingdom is already and not Practicing Prayer for Healing yet. With confidence in God and following scripture, we John Wimber’s (1987, 199–235) five-step healing prayer pray for those who are sick, leaving the results up to God. model is one pattern often used or adapted: God may not bring healing, as illustrated with the apostle Paul. He was instructed, “My grace is sufficient for you, Step 1: Interview (“answers the question, ‘Where does for my power is made perfect in weakness” (2 Cor. 12:9). it hurt?’ ‘What do you want me to pray for?’”). God has designed healing capacities within the human Step 2: Diagnostic decision (“answers the question, body and also healing properties in medicine, ancient ‘Why does this person have thisOnly condition?’ clari- and new. Employing a balanced approach includes room fying what is the person’s root problem: physical, for varied ways that God can heal (cf. Paul’s medicinal emotional, sin/spiritual, and/or demonic”). advice to Timothy, 1 Tim. 5:23). John Wilkinson (1998, Step 3: Prayer selection (“answers the question, ‘What 292, 294), a former medical missionary, explains, “In the kind of prayer is needed to help this person?’”). modern situation it is also possible to combine the gift of Step 4: Prayer engagement (which takes the bulk of healing with training in the art and practice of medicine time) (“answers the question, ‘How effective are our . . . for all true healing comes from God.” prayers?’”). Step 5: Post-prayer directions (“answers the questions, Categories of Healing ‘What should this person do to remain healed?’ And In his classic treatment, Francis MacNutt ([1974] 1999, ‘What should this person do if he or she was not 133) identified three kinds of sickness: spiritual (personal healed?’”).Copy sin, requiring prayer for repentance), emotional (result- ing from trauma, lies embraced, and emotional wound- When Richard Foster began learning how to pray for ing from others, requiring prayer for inner healing), and healing, he employed a “principle of progression” as we physical (from disease or accident). An additional arena might with any other skill. “I began to prayer for small for healing involves prayer for deliverance from demonic things like earaches, and headaches, and colds—whatever oppression. Our need for healing can result from a com- needs arose among my family and friends. And slowly, bination of sources, involving more than one category. one step at a time, I began discovering the ways of Heal- For example, some physical sickness results from sin ing Prayer” (1992, 206). Likewise, it is helpful to join an (John 5:14, 9:3), and some involves demonic oppression experienced team of intercessors as they pray for healing, (Luke 13:10). Missiologist Charles Kraft (2004, 258) con- since, as Carson (1992, 182) observes, “Christians learn to firms this combination view and offers this analogy to pray by listening to those around them.” clarify Satan’s attraction to our sinful habits: “[D]emons are like rats and rats go for ‘garbage.’” The major problem References and Resources is not the “rats” but the “garbage.” Kraft suggests that we Arnold, Clinton. 1997. Three Crucial Questions about Spiritual first address other arenas for healing through appropriate Warfare. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. means (e.g., prayer, inner healing, repentance, medicine, ———. 2012. “The Kingdom, Miracles, Satan, and Demons.” counseling) and then turn to deliverance when needed. In The Kingdom of God, edited by Christopher Morgan and Due to contemporary skepticism regarding demons Robert Peterson, 130–153. Wheaton, IL: Crossway. and the supernatural in general, the category of demonic Carson, D. A. 1987. Showing the Spirit: Exposition of 1 Corinthi- oppression may seem incredible, yet the traditional triad ans 12–14. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. opposing the believers’ relationship with God is the ———. 1992. A Call to Spiritual Reformation. Grand Rapids, world,Contributor the flesh, and the devil (Eph. 2:1–3). “The Bible MI: Baker. clearly conceives the possibility that a Christian may Daunton-Fear, Andrew. 2009. Healing in the Early Church: The allow an evil force to have a controlling and dominating Church’s Ministry of Healing and Exorcism from the First to influence in his or her life” (Arnold 1997, 89, cf. Eph. the Fifth Century. Milton Keynes, UK: Paternoster/Eugene, 4:26–27). The early church practiced deliverance as part OR: Wipf & Stock. Health and Sexual Education 577

Flynn, Mike, and Doug Gregg. 1993. Inner Healing: A Hand- woman share together exemplifies the image of God in book for Helping Yourself and Others. Grand Rapids, MI: which they were created. InterVarsity Press. The account of the Fall records how the creation intent Foster, Richard. 1992. Prayer: Finding the Heart’s True Home. of a one-flesh union between man and woman becomes San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. distorted by the misuse of freedom and rebellion against Gaiser, Frederick J. 2010. Healing in the Bible: Theological In- God, introducing shame, fear, accusation, and enmity sight for Christian Ministry. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. between the genders. Today, cultural visions of sexuality, Keener, Craig. 2011. Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testa- made ever more salient and available through the media ment Accounts. 2 vols. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. and technology, further exploit the good gift given by the Kelsey, Morton. 1973. Healing and Christianity: In Ancient Creator, making sexuality a particularly critical domain Thought and Modern Times. New York: Harper & Row. to be addressed by Christian educators. Internationally, Kraft, Charles. 2004. Deep Wounds, Deep Healing: Discovering the emergence of the HIV/AIDS crisis as one of the most the Vital Link between Spiritual Warfare and Inner Healing. pressing humanitarian crises of our time presses issues of Ventura, CA: Vine/Regal. sexuality further into health-care concerns. ———. 2005. Christianity with Power: Your Worldview and Your Several challenges confront the Christian educator Experience of the Supernatural. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. when it comes to addressing sexuality.Only First, disagree- MacNutt, Francis. (1974) 1999. Healing. Rev. ed. Notre Dame, ment often occurs on the question about what is being IN: Ave Maria. targeted (promiscuous behavior, unwanted pregnancy, ———. 2005. The Healing Reawakening: Reclaiming Our Lost lack of social support) and what remedy is most needed Inheritance. Grand Rapids, MI: Chosen/Baker. within a given context. Condom distribution, for exam- Moo, Douglas J. 2000. The Letter of James: The Pillar New Tes- ple, has been heralded by many as essential in combating tament Commentary. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. the spread of disease, but criticized by others as providing Moreland, J. P., and Klaus Issler. 2007. In Search of a Confident sanction for immoral lifestyles. Second, the appeal one Faith: Overcoming Barriers to Trusting in God. Downers makes for moral behavior can be pitched at various levels Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. of moral reasoning. Some programs rely on scare tactics, Wilkinson, John. 1998. The Bible and Healing: A Medical and using fear of disease as a primary motivation. Others cre- Theological commentary. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ateCopy strong taboos that exclude from fellowship any who Wimber, John, with Kevin Springer. 1987. Power Healing. San breach the moral code. Still others create an ethos within Francisco: Harper & Row. a moral community that relies on relationships and ap- —Klaus Issler peals to biblical truth and on the Holy Spirit to be at work in the process of informing a person’s conscience. Third, contextualizing the message and considering age-appro- Health and Sexual Education priateness are particularly critical in determining what to emphasize and what message is redemptive. Abstinence- Historically, the close association of healing with a com- based programs may be innocuous when pitched to a prehensive view of salvation and the Kingdom of God target population in which the vast majority are already has compelled the church to be invested in health care, sexually active. Sociological and anthropological research disease prevention, and campaigns promoting wellness. can often help Christian educators “tell the truth” about The reality that God is interested not simply in the sal- current patterns of sexual involvement and provide help- vation of souls, but also in redeeming and healing all of ful interpretations of why young people make the sexual Creation, including our bodies, has inspired Christian choices that they do. Addressing particular sexual issues educators to address the physical, ethical, social, psycho- (e.g., human trafficking, rape, clitoridectomy) may also logical, emotional, and spiritual domains of life. engage Christian educators in attempts to address socio- Christians of all stripes have generally affirmed sexu- political structures. ality as a divinely bestowed gift, emphasizing at various A fairly wide array of central virtues has shaped ap- times the blessings couples share in procreating, express- proaches to sexual education in the West in recent his- ing love, and/or enjoying pleasure within the security and tory, each of which offers instructive direction for the protection of the marital bond. The Creation account Christian educator, but also requires careful discernment narratesContributor the differentiation of woman from man, but before advocating it. Purity pledges and promise rings emphasizes (even etymologically, Gen. 1:23) their com- emphasize abstinence, sometimes pointing beyond pro- monality, shared dominion over creation, and capacity hibitions and toward what is gained from the covenant for bringing forth life together. The relationality man and of marriage. Dawn Eden (2006) and Laura Winner 578 Hebrew

(2005) focus on chastity. Wendy Shalit (1999) advocates life and liturgy. The Enlightenment helped renew interest modesty. Christine Colon and Bonnie Field (2009) have in the study of the original languages of the Bible (exege- written a helpful book regarding singles that calls for re- sis). In the centuries that followed, Hebrew increasingly newed support for celibacy. Helpful in these approaches took its place as an essential part of theological training. is an emphasis on virtue that focuses Christian educators Only in recent decades has this begun to fade, as pastoral beyond behavior management and toward being people ministry has come to be defined more purely in terms of of godly character. homiletics and spiritual help, and theological training has become more heuristic and less traditionally academic. References and Resources Even when Hebrew was more rigorously required, Colon, Christine, and Bonnie Field. 2009. Singled Out: Why misinformation about the Hebrew, as well as the Greek, Celibacy Must Be Reinvented in Today’s Church. Grand Rap- language was widespread. Notions about Hebrew as ids, MI: Brazos. the first human language and the biblical languages as Eden, Dawn. 2006. The Thrill of the Chaste: Finding Fulfillment “heavenly,” unlike other normal spoken languages, were While Keeping Your Clothes On. Nashville, TN: Thomas popular. The study of language apart from insights into Nelson. linguistic realities, shared by most or all languages, led to Shalit, Wendy. 1999. Return to Modesty: Discovering the Lost some unfortunate interpretive outcomes.Only Like words in Virtue. New York: Touchstone. all languages, their meaning in Hebrew is based on cur- Winner, Lauren. 2005. Real Sex: The Naked Truth about Chas- rent historical and literary contexts. The teaching of He- tity. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos. brew in most seminaries traditionally focused on gram- —Chris Kiesling mar and syntax, but unfortunately, until recently it did not give due emphasis to philology, semantics, and text- linguistics. Basing meaning on etymology or the totality Hebrew of a word’s history of usage, however (and fortunately), is beginning to disappear from pulpits. Eventually Hebrew The incorporation of the Jewish sacred texts into the was recognized as just one of many Northwest Semitic Christian canon of scripture paved the way for church dialects and as having developed thousands of years after scholars to become Hebraists in order to translate and the firstCopy human languages. In fact, some aspects of He- interpret this “Old(er) Testament” or Hebrew Bible. At brew remain unclear, so some OT interpretations have to first, Christian students of Hebrew learned from Jewish be tentative. Advances in Hebrew vocabulary and syntax rabbis and educators. Eventually, Christian theologians have come from comparative studies with other Semitic and linguists produced their own grammars about the languages, principally Ugaritic, also of the Northwest classical or biblical language, and some learned to lec- group. Since the time of Ezra, Hebrew has employed the ture in Hebrew. The fifth president of Yale University, Aramaic script. It ceased being a living language around and its first Semitics professor, having long been a AD 200. The current trend of reducing or removing He- friend and student of a Jewish rabbi, delivered a com- brew from theological curricula is regrettable; however, mencement address in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic. computer-assisted language programs, while a tempting To the frustration of many students, he made Hebrew a crutch, are allowing a refreshing focus on its function required freshman course, and some valedictorians gave more than its mere formal mechanics. their orations in Hebrew. The official seals and the earli- The consequence for contemporary Christian educa- est curricula of a number of major universities include tors is that a working knowledge of OT Hebrew must OT Hebrew expressions. remain in the curriculum requirements for theological Hebrew, however, is not the name used for this lan- and pastoral training. The advent of widespread com- guage in the OT, where it is designated as a Canaanite di- puter use and the development of sophisticated software alect (Isa. 19:18) or as Jewish in distinction from Aramaic that morphologically and syntactically analyzes OT He- (e.g., 2 Kings 18:26; Neh. 13:24). “Hebrew” in the OT is brew texts are changing classroom pedagogy and lead- used of a tribe, not a tongue. Due to the Hellenization of ing to more online courses. There is no excuse for total the Near East when the church was born, the Greek ver- elimination of original languages to make room for more sions of the Old and then New Testaments were initially practical subjects. Mastery of the language is still the predominant.Contributor Hebrew gradually was reduced to the lan- ideal, but taking fewer credit hours in Hebrew, especially guage of scholarship and synagogue and fell out of popu- in U.S. seminaries, is the reality. However, teachers can lar use. Aramaic and Arabic took its place in the Jewish now focus more on reading the Hebrew texts and giv- world, and only a few Christian scholars focused on He- ing functional and linguistic explanations of the forms. brew, as Latin, along with Greek, dominated the church’s A preacher who can memorize and recognize a word’s Hebrew Bible and Old Testament 579 form but not explain its meaning accurately, and who The scope of the Bible is broad, capturing the bird’s- therefore cannot evaluate translations fairly, is an unde- eye view of God’s eternal plan. Individuals from nations sirable product of theological education. As hours given fulfill a universal perspective. Joseph, for instance, is to language learning decrease, sadly, we still have the the person who is used to save Israel from starvation, tools available to produce pastors or Christian educators while Israel is used to save the world through Messiah with adequate exegetical and linguistic skills. One of the (Gen. 50:20). Ruth’s foreign status serves a worldwide most notable Hebrew philologists currently is a Japanese purpose: the Davidic dynasty (Ruth 4:13–18). David Christian, Prof. Dr. T. Muraoka, English translator, edi- is Israel’s great king, whose lineage births The King of tor, and reviser of the classic Hebrew grammar in French kings (Matt. 1:1). by Paul Joüon. Theological connections begun in the Old Testament continue through to the New Testament. God’s sover- References and Resources eignty and human responsibility are both shown as true, Barr, James. 1961. The Semantics of Biblical Language. London: though the explanation is difficult. Exodus, for example, Oxford University Press. notes that God “hardened pharaoh’s heart” (7:3, 13, 14, Goldman, Shalom, ed. 1993. Hebrew and the Bible in America. 22, 8:11, 15, 22, 9:7, 34), while “pharaoh hardened his Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England. heart” (9:12, 10:1, 20, 27, 11:10, 14:4,Only 8, 17). Humans con- Sáenz-Badillos, Angel. 1993. A History of the Hebrew Language. tinue to bear responsibility for their own actions, while Translated by John Elwolde. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge at the same time God superintends all things (Acts 2:23). University Press. The synthesis of the Bible serves to encourage every- Schalit, Abraham, ed. 1972. The World History of the Jewish one within one’s own time to anticipate God’s ending of People: The Hellenistic Age. Vol. 6. New Brunswick, NJ: Rut- time (Rom. 15:4; 1 Cor. 10:1–11). Scripture constantly gers University Press. foresees those who would follow (1 Pet. 1:10–12). The na- Schramm, Gene. 1992. “Hebrew.” In The Anchor Bible Diction- ture of the Old Testament is to point forward to the New ary, ed. David Noel Freedman, IV: 203–214. New Haven, CT: Testament. The seed of sin sown in Genesis is uprooted Yale University Press. in the Gospels. Jesus teaching about Himself throughout Shanks, Hershel, ed. 1992. Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism. God’s testament to the Hebrews is explained in His testa- New York: Biblical Archeology Review Press. mentCopy to Christians (Luke 24:25–27). Passages such as 1 —W. Creighton Marlowe Peter 2:9–10 and Revelation 1:5–6 and 5:10 never lose God’s missional purpose.

Hebrew Bible and Old Testament Christian Practice for the Hebrew Bible A general overview should precede the teaching of any One Book was written by One author with one message. biblical text. The use of charts helps the parts of a passage The English reader tends to see the Bible as a series of become whole. Diagrams can create simple insights from books rather than the meaning of Bible: “The Book.” a complex narrative. Images from ancient archaeology or Compartmentalizing books within the canon results in geography can focus a learner’s awareness of detail. The the 21st-century Christian missing the continuation of big picture observation of a text prior to teaching can lead God’s story, begun in Genesis and consummated in Rev- learners to detailed interpretation and ultimately per- elation. Understanding the coherence of God’s revelation sonal application. A Bible encyclopedia search shows that to His people is crucial. Just as threads—small fibers or the 10 plagues against Egypt functioned as God’s victory strands—unite to produce one strong length of rope, so against other gods (Deut. 12:12, 26:5–9; Josh. 24:12–13), scripture’s purpose is captured in many themes through- explained well with a visual aid. out The Book. Interconnecting ideas beginning in the Old Testament should be traced. Connections to multiple concerns of Biblical Theology of the Hebrew Bible apologetics, doctrine, history, or biography can bring the and Old Testament whole focus of scripture into clarity. Correlation—find- The author of the Bible is God. The unity of the Bible is ing how passages fit together from across the Bible’s held together by its Author. Throughout biblical history, pages—reminds the reader of scripture’s scope. Finding GodContributor has established a complete view of Himself through God’s Hebrew name in Exodus 3 is translated as “I am” His words and works. When the Christian reads the makes sense to the learner when she finds out the simple Bible, she can be assured that the Author has provided a phrase was used by ancient kings as a marker of their ulti- whole, total, systemic view of what He wants His people mate status and is used by Jesus to show He is the Hebrew to know (Rom. 4:24; 1 Cor. 9:10). God (, 10, 18). 580 Hebrew Bible Interpretation

Teaching large sections of scripture lends itself to a big is imperative. Understanding the multifaceted yet whole picture view. Themes running from one part of a book to interests of the Hebrew mind-set must always be kept in another can add to understanding. The word “serve” in mind by the Christian teacher. Exodus, for instance, is the same word for “worship” ap- pearing scores of times in Exodus as “service,” “serving,” Biblical Theology of Hebrew Bible Interpretation or “servant.” Moses is called God’s servant almost 50 The Hebrew Bible focuses on knowing God over other times; the term was used by ancient Near Eastern kings knowing ( 4:6, 6:6). Knowledge always begins with for themselves, working on behalf of the deity (Josh. 1:2). God, since He is the author of all information (Isa. 40:14). The book begins by Israel serving an Egyptian pharaoh, In the West, the focus is on the five senses, what can be God taking His people out of Egypt to serve Him, and seen, whereas scripture directs attention to what cannot ends with the building of the tabernacle: the place of Is- be seen (2 Kings 6). All material things have immaterial rael’s service-worship. origins (Ps. 33:6–9; Neh. 9:6); therefore, all of life is sacred. Genealogical teaching begins in Genesis (chapters 4, 5, The concept of “secular” does not exist in the Hebrew Bible 10, 11, 25, 36, 49) and is bracketed by the final Old Testa- (Lev. 25.23; Ps. 89:11). History for pagan peoples in the Old ment book, Chronicles (chapters 1–9). To understand Je- Testament was cyclical, repeating ceaselessly. For Hebrew sus’s genealogies of Matthew 1 and Luke 3, the Christian peoples, God’s purpose was founded Onlyon a Person with must see the links beginning in Genesis 4 to Genesis 49 to purpose, best represented by a line, indicating that Israelite Ruth 4 to Romans 1:2–4. Hebrew thinking about people history had an end in sight (Mic. 4:1–6, 12; Acts 3:21). The in scripture is directly tied to ancestry. contention of the Hebrew Bible is that everything is theo- Simple teaching is the most powerful teaching and can logical: everything, every action, every person, every event be benefited by mnemonic devices. Old Testament geog- points to God (Prov. 16:1, 4, 9, 33; Isa. 46:9–11). raphy laid out on a classroom floor comes to life when participants hold up a red C for The Red Sea or pass out Biblical Philosophy of Hebrew Bible Interpretation caramels at Mt. Carmel. The book of Leviticus can be In the study of history, westerners must remember his- taught with the poem “Sacrifices, priests / Special days, tory is His Story (Gen. 12:1–3 with Gal. 3:7–9 and Rev. feasts / Law code, disease / You can’t do what you please.” 5:9–10). In the West, time is a continuum, with logic and Christian teaching should always lead to application flow, Copywhereas Eastern thinking is a point in time with from the Old Testament. Israel “trembled with fear,” is continuing results. One action in the past continues into told not to fear, and yet to fear God (Exod. 20:18–20). the future. God’s eternal nature (Ps. 90:2) reflects His How can people be afraid while being told not to fear, eternal dominion (Dan. 4:34, 35) controlling time. He yet to fear, God? It seems people cannot live with God works within time for human benefit (Ps. 31:15, 39:4–7). and cannot live without Him, either. Jesus’s disciples first God’s plan in the past will continue through the present showed fear and then refocused their fear when Jesus into eternity (Isa. 45:21, 46:9–11; Eph. 1:9–11). calmed the storm (Mark 4:35–41). Peter’s response to Learning ancient Near Eastern culture is vital for the Jesus’s knowledge of fish schools was a fearful desire to be Christian teacher. The geographical location of Israel in out of His presence (Luke 5:1–11). Ultimately Christian between ancient superpowers shows Israel’s need of faith fear (Phil. 2:14–15) should be mindful of adoration that in God. The fact that the sun and moon are not named in comes from knowing Whom to fear: what Job knew, Paul Genesis suggests that giving a name gave authority; com- knew, too (Job 42:1–6; Rom. 11:33–36). ing out of Egyptian idolatry, God wanted to culturally show that the lights of heaven were subservient to their References and Resources Creator. Historical connections should not be missed, as The English Standard Version Study Bible. 2008. Wheaton, IL: Amalek was given mercy by God over time (Gen. 14:7; Crossway. Num. 24:20). The meaning of words, starting with the Fee, Gordon D., and Douglas Stuart. 2003. How to Read the Bible language of Hebrew, connects the Passover begun in for All It’s Worth. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Exodus 12 with Jesus as the Passover Lamb (1 Cor. 5:7, —Mark Eckel 11:25). The mind-set of slavery begun in the Old Testa- ment (Exod. 21:1–32) connects immediately to doctrinal teaching in the New Testament (Rom. 6:1–15). Teaching ContributorHebrew Bible Interpretation doctrine means interpreting culture. Literary forms or genres help Christian interpretation There are general directives for the study and teaching of Hebrew scripture. Narrative, poetry, proverbs, law of any Old Testament book within the Hebrew Bible. code, genealogy, parables, and apocalyptic prophecy run Bridging gaps between Hebrew and the English reader throughout the Bible. Narrative, for instance, displays a Heidelberg Catechism 581 biography of women named, while the king of Egypt is Walton, John H., Victor H. Matthews, and Mark W. Chavalas. left unnamed (1:8, 15, 18; cf. 2:10, 22). The story’s details 2000. The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testa- suggest that ultimate authority is taken from the throne ment. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. room and placed in the nursery. The message is very spe- —Mark Eckel cific: “that the world may know” (Exod. 7:5, 17, 8:6, 18, 9:14, 29, 10:2, 14:4, 18, 16:12). Literary connections begun in the Hebrew Bible continue throughout scripture Heidelberg Catechism (1 Sam. 17:46; John 17:23). Ideas are linked with physical items in Hebrew under- Introduction standing. “Forgetting God” (Deut. 8:11–20) is not simple In the education of the church, the classical focus is often memory loss but an act of rebellion, an ethical choice threefold, that is, on the instruction of the law, on faith, to ignore. The process of “forgetting God” begins with and on prayer. To elaborate on these subjects, the Heidel- apathy, leading to pride, ultimately resulting in idolatry. berg Catechism proposes a didactic analysis of subthemes James explains to Hebrew Christians (1:25) that one an- such as the Apostles’ Creed, the sacraments, the Ten tidote to forgetfulness is activity. So, feasts (Esther 9:27– Commandments, and the Lord’s Prayer. 28), stones (Josh. 4:7), tassels (Num. 15:39–40), table tops Only (Num. 16:36–40), and repositories for scripture (Deut. The Content and Purpose of the Heidelberg Catechism 11:18) were active Hebrew reminders to remember God. The general aim of the catechism is to provide a practi- cal answer to the—in those days of uncertainty about Christian Practice of Hebrew Bible Interpretation one’s eternal salvation—urgent question: How am I to be Memory is important to every Christian generation in saved? That is indeed the first of the 129 questions posed: every culture. People deliberately forget (2 Pet. 3:5), so “What gives you your only assurance23 in life and in Christians have to be reminded (2 Pet. 1:12–15) not to death?” The answer to this question is: “That I . . . am not forget (2 Pet. 3:8), “recalling the words” (2 Pet. 3:2), get- my own, but belong to my faithful Savior Jesus Christ.”24 ting people to remember for themselves (2 Pet. 3:17). The The catechism then continues by questioning what one importance of teachers to ensure collective memory is has to know and to do in order to live and to die in the passed on, renewed by each successive generation. “Holi- joyCopy of this assurance. The reply to this inquiry is threefold day,” for instance, is a better word than “vacation” to re- and introduces the thematic arrangement of the Cat- member why people celebrate the past; the second word echism: “Three things: first, how great my sin and misery means to leave empty, while the former indicates a day are; second, how I am set free from all my sins and mis- set apart. Community commitment to the past reminds ery; third, how I am to thank God for such deliverance.”25 teachers that it is not about them but it is up to them. In- Therefore, the three parts are titled “The Misery of Man,” difference to and ignorance of history reside in the state “Man’s Deliverance,” and “Thankfulness.” In these parts, of ingratitude. Forgetting God and forgetting those who the subjects are treated in 52 numbered paragraphs, have gone before is an active rebellion against God and called “Lord’s Day,” in the form of questions and an- the preservation of His plan. The teaching of history is a swers, as was customary in the time when the Heidelberg salute to the past and a stabilizing view toward the future. Catechism was published. The purpose of this number Remembering history is an active, collective, repetitive, was to create the possibility to explain one part of the cat- and reflective process. Memory loss leads to lost motiva- echism on each Sunday of a year. In many contemporary tion. The future is always dependent upon the past. Reformed churches, an evening sermon based on one The study of the past is essential to live in the present paragraph of the Heidelberg Catechism can still be heard. and anticipate the future. The Christian teacher must en- Furthermore, the Heidelberg Catechism has always courage broadminded thinking to interpret the Hebrew been used for the education of the young members of the Bible. When the New Testament refers to “the scrip- church, the so-called catechumen. In the preface of the tures,” the emphasis is on the testament that preceded first edition, Frederick appeals to the youth of the church it (Gal. 3:22; 2 Tim. 3:15; 2 Pet. 3:16). Grounded in the principles of living established in the Hebrew Bible, the 23. The original German text asks: “Was ist dein einiger trost in leben Christian teacher can help students to interpret The Book und in sterben?” The word “trost” in those days meant “support” or “assur- and understand how The Book interprets the world. ance.” Therefore, the traditional translation “comfort,” with its connotation Contributor of consolation and sorrow, is not correct. 24. The answer to the second question of the catechism in the “2011 References and Resources Translation of the Three Reformed Standards,” Christian Reformed Church, http://www.crcna.org/welcome/beliefs/confessions/heidelberg Wilson, Marvin R. 1990. Our Father Abraham: Jewish Roots of -catechism. the Christian Faith. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. 25. Ibid. 582 Hendricks, Howard G. and the schools to thankfully accept the Heidelberg Cat- dricks was a sought-after conference speaker and consul- echism and educate themselves with the aid of the book. tant and authored numerous works related to Christian He furthermore proclaimed the expectation that the cat- education, teaching, leadership family relationships, and echism would help the preachers and the schoolmasters family ministry. teach in a consistent manner and not introduce daily changes or “nasty” doctrine. Early Life and Education Howard Hendricks was born on 5 April 1924 in Phila- Historical Background delphia, Pennsylvania, and was raised primarily by his Approximately 50 years after the Reformation began, grandparents. Initially wanting to become a doctor, Elector Frederick III of the Palatine assigned a team of Hendricks turned down a full-tuition scholarship to ministers and theologians of the Heidelberg University Northwestern University in favor of attending Wheaton to compile a catechism. Zacharius Ursinus (1534–1583) College. It was there that he was drawn to the field of and Caspar Olevianus (1536–1587) are traditionally Christian education through the influence of a profes- considered the authors of the Heidelberg Catechism. sor, Dr. Rebecca Price, and two classmates, Mary and Ursinus was then 29 and Olevianus 27 years old. How- Lois LeBar. ever, on the title page of the first edition of the book, no After graduating from Wheaton, HendricksOnly enrolled author is mentioned. Presently, Ursinus is considered in Dallas Theological Seminary (DTS), earning a mas- the author, assisted by members of the faculty: Casper ter’s degree in 1950. He then served on staff at a church Olevianus and Thomas Erastus (1524–1583), the chan- in Dallas while teaching classes at DTS. While there he cellor of the university.26 developed his Bible study methods course, which has be- In January 1563, the Heidelberg Catechism was offi- come a staple of the DTS curriculum. Hendricks eventu- cially acknowledged by a specially convened synod and ally enrolled in a PhD program at Yale University, where subsequently published. It was swiftly translated and he was given the opportunity to study under renowned spread throughout Europe. Many churches in Europe scholar Paul Vieth. However, the president of DTS, John chose this catechism as a standard of faith, especially the Walvoord, phoned Hendricks and urged him to delay Reformed Church, followed in due time by churches in doctoral studies in order to serve as a professor of theol- Africa, America, and Asia. ogy andCopy homiletics at DTS, an offer Hendricks accepted. Hendricks began teaching a course in Christian educa- References and Resources tion, which led to his teaching more courses in the field, Bakhuizen Van Den Brink, J. N. 1976. De Nederlandse Beli- bringing in numerous instructors and teaching fellows jdenisgeschriften. Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Ton Bolland. and eventually starting the Christian education depart- Courthial, P., ed. 1986. Quelle est ton unique assurance dans ment at DTS in 1958. His success in teaching earned him la vie comme la mort? Catéchisme de Heidelberg. Aix-en- the affectionate designation “Prof” from DTS students. Provence: Fondation d’Entraide Chrétienne Réformée. Hendricks brought in Gene Getz and Kenneth Gangel to Huijgen, Arnold, John V. Fesko, and Aleida Siller. 2013. Hand- teach in the Christian education program, which contin- boek Heidelbergse Catechismus. Utrecht, The Netherlands: ues to be an essential part of a DTS education. He contin- Uitgeverij Kok. ued his own education at New York University, Biblical Wierenga, Lambert. 1995. De Heidelbergse Catechismus in Ge- Seminary (now New York Theological Seminary), the woon Nederlands. Kampen, The Netherlands: Kok Voorhoeve. University at Buffalo, and the Creative Education Foun- —Metta M. Wierenga dation, among other places. Hendricks was awarded a doctor of divinity degree from Wheaton College in 1967. Hendricks was consistently involved in numerous Hendricks, Howard G. parachurch ministries, the most famous being between 1976 and 1984, when he served as chaplain to the Dallas Introduction Cowboys. He also was involved on the boards of Promise Howard G. Hendricks (1924–2013) was an American Keepers, Multnomah School of the Bible, and Naviga- pastor, educator, and author. He pursued his career at tors, among other organizations. DTS established the Dallas Theological Seminary (DTS), where he taught for Howard G. Hendricks Center for Christian Leadership overContributor 50 years and educated thousands of students. Hen- & Cultural Engagement in late 1986. Its primary goal is to study Christian leadership for the goal of reproduc- ing faithful Christian leaders for generations to come. In 26. Charles D. Gunnoe, “Auteurschap van de Heidelbergse Catechis- mus: De Rol van Erastus,” in Handboek Heidelbergse Catechismus (Utrecht: the 1990s, Hendricks authored numerous books, which Uitgeverij Kok, 2013), 80. have received wide acclaim. After many years of success- Herbart, Johann Frederich 583 ful teaching, Hendricks retired from DTS in 2010. He Hendricks, Howard G., and Jeanne W. Hendricks. 2003. Heaven passed away in 2013, at the age of 89. Howard Hendricks Help the Home Today. Colorado Springs, CO: LifeJourney. left behind a legacy of having authored numerous books, Hendricks, Howard G., and William Hendricks. 1995. As Iron but more important, having taught more than 10,000 Sharpens Iron: Building Character in a Mentoring Relation- students during his years as a professor. ship. Chicago: Moody Press. ———. 2007. Living by the Book: The Art and Science of Reading Contribution to Christian Education the Bible. Rev. and updated. ed. Chicago: Moody Press. Hendricks mentored numerous leaders in the field of Lawson, Michael, and Carisa Ash. n.d. “Howard G. Hendricks.” Christian education over a 50-year period, notably sev- Christian Educators of the 20th Century. Accessed 30 March eral current and past professors of Christian education 2013. http://www.talbot.edu/ce20/educators/protestant/ in evangelical colleges and seminaries and several well- howard_hendricks/. known pastors. He was the longest-serving Christian ed- —Benjamin D. Espinoza ucation professor in the field and taught courses not only in Christian education, but also in camping, counseling, inductive Bible study, homiletics, leadership, creativity, Herbart, Johann Frederich and many other areas. Hendricks also possessed a thriv- Only ing ministry of preaching and teaching in many confer- German philosopher and psychologist Johann Friedrich ences, churches, and radio programs. In addition, he was Herbart (4 May 1776–14 August 1841) is best known a champion of inductive Bible study, which remains a among Christian educators for his systematic study of focal point in the curriculum at DTS. Hendricks was al- pedagogy and his role in making it an academic disci- ways an ardent supporter of the academic study of Chris- pline. His schema for planning lessons significantly influ- tian education, even though the discipline has sometimes enced the rise of the Sunday school movement in the late been perceived as inferior to other theological disciplines. 19th and early 20th centuries. Though his authored works cover the broad spectrum Born in Oldenberg, Germany, Herbart was the only of church ministry and Christian thought, Hendricks au- child of his lawyer father and his brilliant and strong- thored numerous Christian education texts, many aimed willed mother. He was tutored at home under the su- at church leaders. He was imminently concerned with the pervisionCopy of his mother and entered the Gymnasium of teaching process, in works such as Mastering Teaching Oldenberg at the age of 12. He studied philosophy at the (1991), Teaching to Change Lives (1996), and The Chris- University of Jena, after which he became a tutor to the tian Educator’s Handbook on Teaching (1998). He was children of Herr von Steiger, the governor of Interlaken, also concerned with Christian family life, evidenced by his Switzerland. It was during his three years as tutor that famous “Christian Home” course at DTS, and his works his interest in education and the way children learn de- Heaven Help the Home (1993) and Husbands and Wives veloped. While in Switzerland, Herbart met and came to (1988). Hendricks was interested in mentoring, a practice know Johann Pestalozzi, the German educator involved he outlines in As Iron Sharpens Iron: Building Character in with issues of reform in the schools. Herbart received his a Mentoring Relationship (1995). Most notable, however, doctorate from Göttingen and then went to Königsberg was his devotion to inductive Bible study, which he out- in 1809 to take the position formerly held by Kant. He lined in the best-selling book Living by the Book (1991). returned to Göttingen in 1833 and remained there as a Hendricks’s life and works are evidence of a teacher who professor of philosophy until his death in 1841. was deeply concerned that the teaching ministry of the Herbart believed that it was through education that the church be holistic and grounded in biblical reality. individual developed and was able to make a contribution to society. For Herbart, pedagogy provided the means by References and Resources which individuals experienced moral development. In Dallas Theological Seminary (DTS). n.d. “The Life of Howard light of his educational theories, his followers described a G. ‘Prof’ Hendricks.” Accessed 30 March 2013. http://www five-step pedagogical process that was popular during the .dts.edu/read/howard-hendricks-prof/. mid- to late 19th century in Germany, as well as in Great Gangel, Kenneth O., and Howard G. Hendricks. 1998. The Britain and the United States: Christian Educator’s Handbook on Teaching. Grand Rapids, ContributorMI: Baker Books. 1. Preparation: In line with Herbart’s theory of apper- Hendricks, Howard G. 1983. Taking a Stand: What God Can ception, the teacher begins by relating the material Do through Ordinary You! Portland, OR: Multnomah Press. to be learned to relevant existing ideas (memories) ———. 1987. Teaching to Change Lives. Sisters, OR: Multnomah in order to prepare the student to receive the new Press. material. 584 Heresy, Response to

2. Presentation: The teacher then presents new mate- tites” (Rom. 16:18). Intentional isolation creates heretics, rial in the form of actual experience of concrete who establish patterns of self-centeredness. Examples objects or experiences. of placing self before others occurred at communion 3. Association: In the third step, comparison is made (1 Cor. 11:18–19) and teaching (1 Tim. 1:3–7). A heretic between the new idea and existing ideas in order to is characterized as “puffed up with conceit and under- find similarities and differences and thus help the standing nothing” (1 Tim. 6:4). The Christian message student grasp and remember the new idea. is not self-centered but others-centered (Mark 10:45, 4. Generalization: By using examples to illustrate the 12:30–31; Phil. 2:1–11). lesson’s core ideas, learning is taken beyond con- crete experience to abstract concepts. Biblical Theology in Response to Heresy 5. Application: Newly acquired knowledge is used so The heretical person is consistently considered next to that it becomes an integral part of the life of the the hygienic condition of doctrine (Tim. 1:9–2:1, 3:9–11); student (test students to ensure they learned the as good hygiene wards off sickness, so good hygienic new lesson). doctrine wards off doctrinal sickness. Paul’s words “I in- sist on these things” (Titus 3.8a; 1 Tim. 3:1; 2 Tim. 2.11) As Herbart’s approach to education spread within within the immediate context of theOnly passages suggest the public school system, it began to have influence on that right doctrine is inexorably linked with right deeds. Sunday schools and other forms of Christian educa- “Profitable” works (Titus 3.8) are immediately contrasted tion. Throughout the late 1800s and into the 1900s, his with “unprofitable” talk. Worthless speech (Titus 1.10; schema influenced the preparation of teachers as well as 1 Tim 1.6) does not lead to good works. Right learning the development of educational materials designed for and living of a true Christian exposes the heretic (2 Thess. Christian education. 2:11–17; 1 Tim. 4:15). The person who has right doctrine is faithful, reliable, References and Resources and trustworthy (1 Tim. 1:15, 3:1, 4:9; 2 Tim. 2:11; Titus Blyth, A. 1981. “From Individuality to Character: the Her- 3.8). The word “false” in the New Testament denotes a bartian Sociology Applied to Education.” British Journal of fabrication or production of a counterfeit (2 Cor. 4:2). Educational Studies 29: 69–79. The antithesisCopy to truth is not error but active, calculated Cross, William C. C., and Barry Trunk. 1993. From Plato to lying, deliberate deception (Rom. 1:25; Eph. 4:25; Titus Piaget: The Greatest Educational Theorists from Across the 1:4). In contrast, the word “true” (Gal. 4:16) communi- Centuries and Around the World. Lanham, MD: University cates faithfulness (Matt. 24:45; 1 Cor. 1:9), leading toward Press of America. reliability in speech and teaching (Matt. 22:16; John Herbart, Johann Friedrich. 1904. Outlines of Educational Doc- 3:33, 8:44–46). A Greek idiom explains what it means trines. Translated by Alexis F. Lange. Annotated by Charles to be wholly truthful: to “open wide” shows that one is DeGarmo. New York: Macmillan. not hiding anything, which is equivalent to the modern Ivie, Stanley D. 2007. “The Educational Legacy of Herbart and metaphor of complete truthfulness (2 Cor. 6:11). An as- Herbartianism.” Vitae Scholasticae Annual, 39+. sociation with truth-seekers suggests a strong sense of Spring, J. 2008. The American School: From the Puritans to No unity based on a clear standard of belonging in the same Child Left Behind. Boston: McGraw-Hill. way siblings are from the same family (Phil. 3:1; James —Jane E. Regan 2:15; 1 Pet. 2:17).

Biblical Philosophy in Response to Heresy Heresy, Response to A standard for trustworthiness relies not simply on ab- stract, propositional truth statements, but on the person “Choice” is the root meaning of “heretic.” In the New who is speaking (John 8:44). It is not enough that words Testament, the word was equivalent to a voluntary, per- be accurate; the speaker herself must be a truth-teller. sonal decision to turn away from belief, showing that Diotrephes is unflatteringly contrasted with Demetrius the person was never a believer in the first place (Heb. (3 John). The former speaks untruth, disassociating him- 10:26–31, 6:1–6; 2 Pet. 2:20–22; 1 John 2:18–19). Dedi- self from the church. The latter is said to embody truth, catedContributor to himself, “heretic” expanded to mean “factious,” which can be confirmed by everyone within the group, one who becomes divisive, of a diversity that destroys including the apostle John. unity (Rom. 16:17). The “heretical person” (Tim. 3.10) Defection from the faith, joining the other side, is is one who makes decisions independent of community apostasy. In the Old Testament, switching sides suggests and authority (2 Pet. 2:2). Heretics serve “their own appe- a trespass, stepping over the line. The trespasser who Hermeneutics 585 steps backward is said to be “backsliding” (Isa. 57:17; Jer. readers. Until the early 19th century, biblical hermeneu- 3:14, 22, 31:22, 49:4, 50:6). One who backslides is disloyal tics was essentially considered scientia in the traditional or faithless (Prov. 1:32; Jer. 2:19, 3:6, 8, 11, 12, 22, 5:6, 8:5, sense: a habitus that is committed to “listening” or un- 14:7; Hosea 11:7, 14:4). Israel was said to have deserted derstanding the subject matter on its own terms. It was the Lord (Jos. 22:22; 2 Chron. 29:19, 33:19; Jer. 2:19). regularly referred to as rules (regulae) for the interpre- Ultimately, apostasy is a conscious rejection of “the way tation of scripture, thus being virtually synonymous to of the Lord, the requirements of their God” (Jer. 5:5) by procedures of exegesis. It was not until the notable works “scattering favors to foreign gods” (Jer. 3:13). by Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834; Hermeneu- tics) and Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900–2002; Truth and Christian Practice in Response to Heresy Method) that biblical hermeneutics emerged as an art Christians should study the Bible and stand on its on rather than a science. The title of Gadamer’s Truth and sound doctrine. Church history should be studied to Method is somewhat of a misnomer, in that Gadamer set see how previous Christians dealt with heresy in their out to interrogate and cast serious doubt on the primacy time. Singing theologically correct hymns practices the of rationalist or mechanical “method” as a way of attain- clear teaching of Colossians 3:16. Catechizing children ing understanding and truth, urging readers to decide on in God’s Truth is the duty of every Christian parent. truth or method. However, biblicalOnly hermeneutics should Not placing too much emphasis on a single person, pre- be construed as both a science and an art. As Milton scription, or curriculum acknowledges the diversity of Terry (1974) maintains, “As a science it enunciates prin- explication of truth that gives a broader understanding ciples . . . and classifies the facts and results. As an art, in which to discern scripture. The importance of com- it teaches what application these principles should have munity, “encouraging each other with sound doctrine” . . . showing their practical value in the elucidation of (Titus 1:9), is the antidote to the person who creates fac- more difficult scriptures.” tions within Christ’s body (1 Cor. 11:19; Gal. 1:8–9, 5:20; According to Thiselton (1997), the art and science of 2 Pet. 2:1). biblical hermeneutics, as an interdisciplinary discipline, Heresy is avoided with consistent biblical preaching raises at least five strands of questions. First, it raises both and teaching. Heretics should be exposed for who they biblical and theological questions, demanding a serious di- are, not allowed to pervert the church. Church doctrine alogueCopy between synchronic and diachronic approaches to is often developed in response to heretical teaching. A biblical interpretation and theology. Second, hermeneu- compare and contrast methodology can help Christians tics broaches philosophical questions about how readers identify incorrect teaching, discerning a proper response. come to understand and on what grounds understanding Church leaders bear the responsibility of training Chris- is possible and/or legitimate. Third, it introduces literary tians to know wrong instruction when they hear it. questions about text genres and the processes of reading in relation to the literary boundaries of the text. Fourth, References and Resources biblical hermeneutics, in contradistinction to exegesis, Brown, Harold O. J. 1998. Heresies: Heresy and Orthodoxy invites social analysis and other broad sociological ques- in the History of the Church. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson tions about how a reader’s vested interests—race, gender, Publishers. class, and other sources of presuppositions—may influ- Chesterton, G. K. 2012. Heretics. 2nd ed. Nashville, TN: Sam ence how he or she reads and understands. Fifth, bibli- Torode Book Art. cal hermeneutics invites questions from linguistic and —Mark Eckel communication theories and explores the whole range of communicative actions the text performs to affect readers or a community of readers. Hermeneutics Integrated as a whole, biblical hermeneutics encom- passes the divine author, author, text, and reader (and Hermeneutics is derived from the Greek hermeneuein, community of readers). Moreover, while exegesis denotes to interpret or make intelligible, whose root stem can be the actual process of interpreting texts, hermeneutics also traced back to Hermes, as the tutelary divinity of speech, includes, as Thiselton (2009) observes, “the second-order writing, and eloquence. Hermeneutics is an interdisci- discipline of asking critically what exactly we are doing plinaryContributor discipline that explores how readers attempt to when we read, understand, or apply texts. Hermeneutics understand texts, especially those written in a different explores the conditions and criteria that operate to try to time and/or place. ensure responsible, valid, fruitful, or appropriate inter- Biblical hermeneutics examines the ways in which pretation.” In this sense, hermeneutics and theology as biblical texts are read, understood, and responded to by the fruit of the reflection of the church on the truth re- 586 Hesburgh, Theodore (1917–) vealed in the Word of God overlap a great deal, which can Vanhoozer, Kevin, Craig Bartholomew, Treier, and N. be found in recent and robust development of theological T. Wright. 2005. Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of interpretation of the Bible. the Bible. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. As a benefit, the process of hermeneutical inquiry en- Wimberly, Anne Streaty. 2005. Soul Stories: African American ables readers to listen with greater openness within the Christian Education. Rev. ed. Nashville, TN: Abingdon. bounds of the faith. Hermeneutical inquiry also opens —S. Steve Kang up the more creative dimension of genuinely under- standing the divine author of the texts, hermeneutic of retrieval, as opposed to trying to master the texts solely Hesburgh, Theodore (1917–) resorting to the more rational, cognitive, or critical dimension of explanation. Another important benefit Numbers are perhaps the best way to quickly capture the of the hermeneutical inquiry is to make explicit the pre- life and contributions of American-born Theodore M. understanding or presuppositions-in-action that read- Hesburgh, CSC. While he was president of the Univer- ers bring to the texts, and thus self-deception within the sity of Notre Dame (1952–1987), the university “doubled reader as well as within a community of readers is coun- its enrollment, added 40 buildings, grew its endowment tered through a hermeneutics of suspicion. As Thiselton from $9 million to $350 million, increasedOnly student aid via Gadamer envisions hermeneutics, its goal is to seek from $20,000 to $40 million, and upped the average wisdom, phronesis, instead of instrumental or technical faculty salary from $5,400 to $50,800” (The University knowledge, techne. of Notre Dame n.d.). Through it all, Hesburgh also led In religious education, Thomas Groome (1991) has Notre Dame down the path to a lay board of trustees consistently sought to engage with the approaches and (1967) and coeducation (1972). fruit of hermeneutics in the way he has developed and While those numbers place him among the greatest refined his theory of shared Christian praxis. Starting college presidents in American history, his accomplish- with the call for Christians to engage in critical reflec- ments were not limited to the South Bend campus. He tion on their lives, Groome’s preoccupation is to invite also served in a host of U.S. presidential appointments, Christians to engage in a hermeneutical spiral in which, such as chairing the Civil Rights Commission, and papal through the dialectics between their own story/vision appointments,Copy such as being the Vatican’s delegate to the and the Christian Story /Vision, they live a Christian life International Atomic Energy Agency. Finally, the Guin- that moves upward and is constructive for God’s reign. ness Book of World Records identifies Hesburgh as hold- In Anne Streaty Wimberly’s African American Christian ing the most honorary degrees, 150. Education, a hermeneutics of suspicion plays a key role in The numbers are staggering and arguably unprece- appropriating the hermeneutics of retrieval of the scrip- dented in many ways. Hesburgh, however, first and fore- tures in African American family life as well as Christian most viewed himself as a priest of the Congregation of the education in the African American church. Holy Cross. He was born the second of five children into a Catholic home in Syracuse, New York, in 1917. Hes- References and Resources burgh’s parents, Theodore Bernard Hesburgh and Anne Gadamer, Hans-Georg. 2004. Truth and Method. 2nd ed. New Marie Murphy, were squarely within the middle class York: Continuum. and able to provide their children with an education at Groome, Thomas. 1991. Sharing Faith. San Francisco: Harper- parish schools. Hesburgh reportedly always wanted to be Collins, 1991. a priest and made that intention public as early as age 12. Osborne, Grant. 2006. The Hermeneutical Spiral. Rev. ed. Although Hesburgh originally thought about pursuing Downers Grove, IL: IVP. ordination as a Jesuit, Father Thomas Duffy, a member Terry, Milton. 1974. Biblical Hermeneutics: A Treatise on the of the Congregation of the Holy Cross, persuaded the Interpretation of the Old and New Testaments. Grand Rapids, young man to pursue ordination as a Holy Cross priest. MI: Zondervan. In 1934, Hesburgh enrolled at the Moreau Seminary on Thiselton, Anthony. 1997. New Horizons in Hermeneutics. the campus of the University of Notre Dame. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Identified early on as a candidate for ordination with ———. 2009. Hermeneutics: An Introduction. Grand Rapids, MI: considerable promise, Hesburgh was sent to Rome to Eerdmans.Contributorcomplete his studies, which were cut short by World Treier, Daniel. 2008. Introducing Theological Interpretation of War II. Hesburgh completed those efforts at the Catholic Scripture. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. University of America and then returned to South Bend, Vanhoozer, Kevin. 2009. Is There a Meaning in This Text? where he filled a number of roles in quick succession, Anniv. ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. such as chair of the theology department and chaplain to Heutagogy 587 veterans, their spouses, and their children. Notre Dame a learner, but also of contexts in which there is a learner president Father John J. Cavanaugh then asked Hesburgh without the direct leadership or oversight of a teacher, to serve as his executive vice president. When Cavanaugh the type of learning that takes place in individuals as resigned as president, Hesburgh, at the age of 35, as- they go about their lives at work, home, church, and the sumed the position he would hold for the next three and community.27 a half decades. Heutagogy is distinct from andragogy in that it places Any understanding of Hesburgh’s life and his ac- special emphasis on learning how to learn. In other complishments is incomplete without mention of his words, the learning experience does not focus only on executive vice president, Father Edmund P. “Ned” Joyce. learning something new about a subject, but also on Where Hesburgh was often known to be liberal in developing one’s ability to learn in general. The end goal thought, Joyce was conservative. Where Hesburgh was is for the learner to develop the capacity to decide what long on large-scale thinking, Joyce expertly understood should be learned, how to learn it, and when to learn it.28 details. The two colleagues and friends worked side by Like connectivism, heutagogy emerged from the influ- side for 35 years. Given the roles Hesburgh held beyond ence of the information age and digital technologies, campus, he often left the well-being of the Notre Dame providing a growing number of individuals with access to campus in Joyce’s able hands. more information than individuals Onlyfrom past generations In many ways, Hesburgh was a university president would have had access to in an entire lifetime. Given this who saw himself as a public intellectual. When Martin growing amount of information and the increased rate Luther King Jr. led a march in downtown Chicago, Hes- of change in contemporary society, heutagogy serves to burgh drove up to the Windy City and linked arms with equip people with the skills and habits necessary to un- King. When asked what he knew about atomic energy, learn and learn new things throughout their lives. Hesburgh responded that because he studied theology Since heutagogy is a newer concept, very little work he had learned how to study the details of the created has been done on its application to Christian education. order. That mantle, the mantle of public intellectual, Nonetheless, within the context of Christian education, is one Hesburgh wore to the benefit of his nation, his heutagogy provides insights that aid in preparing indi- university, and the church. In the end, the numbers only viduals who are able to engage in lifelong, self-directed tell part of the story. growthCopy in the Christian faith. While this does not neces- sarily ignore the value of teachers and mentors, it does References and Resources offer an opportunity to explore strategies for empow- Ames, Charlotte A., comp. 1989. Theodore M. Hesburgh: A Bio- ering and equipping Christians with learning skills. Bibliography. New York: Greenwood Press. For example, principles of heutagogy might challenge Connelly, , and Howard J. Dooley. 1972. Hesburgh’s Notre Christian educators to go beyond teaching the Christian Dame: Triumph in Transition. New York: Hawthorn Books. scriptures to teaching individuals how to learn from the Hesburgh, Theodore M., with Jerry Reedy. 1999. God, Country, scriptures on their own. This is represented in Paul’s visit Notre Dame: The Autobiography of Theodore M. Hesburgh. to Berean in Acts 17:11, when the author notes that “the Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. Berean Jews were of more noble character than those in Lungren, John C. 1987. Hesburgh of Notre Dame: Priest, Educa- Thessalonica, for they received the message with great tor, Public Servant. Kansas City, MO: Sheed & Ward. eagerness and examined the Scriptures every day to see if O’Brien, Michael. 1998. Hesburgh: A Biography. Washington, what Paul said was true.” It is also illustrated in Psalm 1:2, DC: The Catholic University of America Press. when the writer describes the person as blessed “whose The University of Notre Dame. n.d. “The Notre Dame Presi- delight is in the law of the Lord, and who meditates on dent.” Accessed 15 November 2012. http://hesburgh.nd.edu/ his law day and night.” Many such concepts related to the-notre-dame-president/. reflection in heutagogy align with biblical models for —Todd C. Ream self-examination and Christian meditation. Finally, since heutagogy emphasizes the role of learner more than that of teacher, it provides Christian educators with a means Heutagogy of thinking about the role of student-centered learning environments, measuring the effectiveness of the learn- Heutagogy,Contributor often understood as an expansion of an- dragogy, is the study of self-determined or self-directed 27. Steward Hase and Chris Kenyon, “Heutagogy and Developing learning. Like andragogy, heutagogy places emphasis on Capable People and Capable Workplaces: Strategies for Dealing with Com- plexity,” http://epubs.scu.edu.au/gcm_pubs/166 (accessed 5 April 2013). the learner rather than the teacher. As such, it is not the 28. Steward Hase and Chris Kenyon, “From Andragogy to Heutagogy,” study only of learning that involves both a teacher and http://epubs.scu.edu.au/gcm_pubs/99 (accessed 5 April 2013). 588 Hidden Curriculum ing by what the student has or has not learned rather than was also used by Benson Snyder, who conducted research by the practice or actions of a teacher. at MIT and Wellesley College in the area and presented his findings in The Hidden Curriculum (1971).31 How- References and Resources ever, the concept of students being influenced by unin- Blaschke, L. M. 2012. “Heutagogy and Lifelong Learning: A tended factors was studied prior to Jackson and Snyder. Review of Heutagogical Practice and Self-determined Learn- Notably, psychologist/educator explored ing.” International Review of Research in Open and Distance this concept in Democracy and Education (1916),32 as did Learning 13 (1): 56–71. sociologist Émile Durkheim in Moral Education (1925).33 Hase, Stewart, and Chris Kenyon. n.d.-a. “From Andragogy to Within the area of Christian education, Lawrence Heutagogy.” ePublications@SCU. http://epubs.scu.edu.au/ Richards contended that hidden curriculum was the most gcm_pubs/99. powerful force within Christian education. This is seen in ———. n.d.-b. “Heutagogy and Developing Capable People his emphasis on modeling through socialization and nur- and Capable Workplaces: Strategies for Dealing with Com- ture. Modeling occurs for the Christian educator whether plexity.” ePublications@SCU. http://epubs.scu.edu.au/gcm_ it is intended or not.34 Richards defined hidden curricu- pubs/166. lum as the “elements of every setting in which believers —Bernard Bull interact and either support or inhibit the transformation 35 Only process.” This transformation process is the essence of Christian education, and every care should be taken to Hidden Curriculum ensure that it is not being inhibited by our unintentional, conflicting messages. Hidden curriculum refers to the messages and lessons A specific example of hidden curriculum in a class- taught or learned in an educational environment that room is the way in which the instructor handles ques- were not included in the stated objectives. It often in- tions from students. When a student raises his hand to cludes attitudes, norms, values, structures, and beliefs ask a question, the instructor may teach through nonver- that were not an intentional part of the educational insti- bal cues that the question is unwelcome (rolling her eyes, tution’s goals for learning. The hidden curriculum may an exasperated sigh, etc.). The instructor may also teach reinforce or contradict aspects of the explicit curriculum. that questionsCopy are welcome by giving a positive response Hidden curriculum can relate to any educational to the question and affirming the student who asked it. context, including student-teacher interaction, the class- Other students may pick up on the cues given by the room structure, or the whole organizational pattern of instructor and be influenced to either ask or withhold the educational establishment. Examples are nonverbal future questions. To apply Richards’s definition to this cues from an instructor for student questions; the values example, one might ask, “Was the transformation pro- communicated by the physical layout of a classroom or cess supported or inhibited by the interaction between learning environment; implicit sociocultural preferences student and instructor?” or prejudices, gender roles, and expectations; and how Both hidden and explicit curricula should receive at- the instructor or institution models adherence to various tention from Christian educators. Indeed, by giving both institutional policies. For instance, the style of worship in proper consideration, they may serve to complement a chapel at a Bible college may communicate acceptable rather than contradict each other. Our educational envi- and/or expected styles of worship for future ministers. ronments and the ways in which we model behavior can Elizabeth Vallance’s definition emphasizes that much of reinforce the principles and content we mean to teach. the hidden curriculum may occur outside the classroom Our interactions with students (both formal and casual) or the presence of the instructor: “[Hidden curriculum can communicate our expectations and values in both includes] those non-academic and systemic side effects of verbal and nonverbal ways. A thoughtful hidden curricu- education that are sensed but which cannot be adequately lum can deepen and reinforce the educational experience. accounted for by reference to the explicit curriculum.”29

The term “hidden curriculum” may have originated in 30 31. Benson Snyder, The Hidden Curriculum (New York: Knopf, 1971). Philip Jackson’s Life in Classrooms (1968), in which he 32. John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: Macmillan, explored education as a socialization process. This term 1916), 26. The whole of chapter 2, “Education as a Social Function,” ex- plores the social environment and meaning found within it. Contributor33. Émile Durkheim, Moral Education (New York: The Free Press, 29. Elizabeth Vallance, “Hiding the Hidden Curriculum: An Interpreta- 1925), 230–233. tion of the Language of in Nineteenth-Century Educational 34. Lawrence O. Richards, A Theology of Christian Education (Grand Reform,” Curriculum Theory Network 4 (1973–1974): 5–21. Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1975), 251–252. 30. Phillip Jackson, Life in Classrooms (New York: Teachers College 35. Lawrence O. Richards, Christian Education: Seeking to Become Like Press, 1968), 33–35. Jesus Christ (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1988), 321. Hill Museum and Manuscript Library 589

References and Resources ous monasteries to share their collections with HMML Dewey, John. 1916. Democracy and Education. New York: through microfilm. Macmillan. Its founders wanted HMML to be “a place where the Durkheim, Émile. 1925. Moral Education. New York: The Free contents of manuscripts are safe, where scholars are Press. welcomed and provided all they need for their work, and Jackson, Phillip. 1968. Life in Classrooms. New York: Teachers where anyone interested in what human beings have con- College Press. sidered to be worth writing down can learn more about Richards, Lawrence O. 1988. Christian Education: Seeking to the cultures that produced the world in which we live” Become Like Jesus Christ. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. (“Director’s Letter” 2011, 4). ———. 1975. A Theology of Christian Education. Grand Rapids, For almost 50 years, teams from HMML have been MI: Zondervan. photographing manuscript collections across Europe, Snyder, Benson. 1971. The Hidden Curriculum. New York: Ethiopia, the Middle East, and south India, making Knopf. HMML the world’s leader in photographic preservation Vallance, Elizabeth. 1973–1974. “Hiding the Hidden Cur- of manuscripts. riculum: An Interpretation of the Language of Justification The manuscript image collections of HMML are in Nineteenth-Century Educational Reform.” Curriculum divided into four large groupings,Only with several smaller Theory Network 4: 5–21. collections: (1) materials from Austria, Germany, and —James P. Bowers and Michael McMullin Switzerland; (2) the Malta collection; (3) the Ethiopian collection of over 8,000 manuscripts; and (4) a collec- tion of Syriac, Arabic, and Armenian manuscripts from Hill Museum and Manuscript Library communities threatened with violence in the Middle East and India. Smaller collections include manuscripts from The Hill Museum and Manuscript Library (HMML, often other European countries, such as Spain, Portugal, Swe- pronounced “Himmel,” the German word for “heaven”) den, England, and Ukraine. is part of the St. John University (SJU) libraries in Col- Early HMML collections came primarily from Euro- legeville, Minnesota. St. John University is a Benedictine pean monasteries. HMML now houses the world’s largest university located next to a Benedictine monastery, and repositoryCopy of Maltese archival holdings, and “it is the only the Benedictine mission deeply informs HMML’s work. place in the world that maintains an online catalogue for The “Rule” of St. Benedict enshrines a balance of work these archives” (“The Friends of the Malta Study Center” and prayer as essential to Christian life, and that bal- 2011, 6). Since 2009, HMML and its partners have also ance unfolds through HMML in a love of and desire to been digitally preserving the cultural heritage of the St. preserve the cultural heritage of Christian communities, Thomas Christians, one of the largest Syriac communi- particularly those at risk through war and disaster. ties in the world. Manuscripts are handwritten texts—generally codices HMML also holds an art collection that consists pri- (books), but also documentary material such as charters, marily of prints ranging from the 15th century to the letters, and legal records—that provide the primary and present, providing a study collection for the history of often sole access to the historic cultures that have shaped religious image printmaking in the West. the modern world. HMML’s photographic archive of Both the manuscript and art collections include pieces more than 125,000 complete manuscripts, with more that have particular contemporary interest, given re- than 40 million pages, is by far the world’s largest col- newed recognition of the challenges Christian communi- lection of material for the study of manuscripts (http:// ties face in developing religious identity in a multifaith vhmml.wordpress.com/page/2/). world. For example, HMML has one of the earliest Benedictines have been at the heart of manuscript printed editions of a Koran in Latin, with an introduction culture for more than 15 centuries, believing that the written by Martin Luther. obligation to work and to pray means that one’s spiritual HMML also has an extensive collection of materials being is as important as one’s role as an economic agent. from the St. Thomas Christian communities in southern Coupled with a passion for learning, the order bases an India. These collections include materials from early important element of its vocation in writing, copying, Christian communities that document their ability to live andContributor preserving manuscripts. in interfaith harmony in regions often known for sectar- HMML is an outgrowth of that centuries-long com- ian violence. The documents demonstrate that churches mitment to manuscript preservation, a mission that in this area employed Hindu scribes and include images took on renewed urgency in the 1960s during the Cold of Jesus depicted with features often used on images of War. Fears of a Soviet threat to Europe prompted vari- the Buddha. These communities were labeled heretical 590 Historical Criticism by the Portuguese colonial powers, who often destroyed http://chronicle.com/article/A-Monk-Saves-Threatened/ their indigenous documents. By archiving digital images 49283/. of these very fragile and fragmented manuscripts, HMML Stewart, Columba. 2012. “Technology Can Preserve World His- preserves and documents Christian cultures that are very tory.” Star Tribune, 17 September. http://www.startribune diverse (http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/epi .com/opinion/commentaries/169840226.html?refer=y. sodes/april-24-2009/ancient-christians-in-india/2754/). The museum and library’s commitment to preserving HMML. www.hmml.org cultural heritage extends to the unique intellectual prop- The Order of St. Benedict. http://www.osb.org/ erty arrangements they have with the communities with St. John’s Abbey. http://www.saintjohnsabbey.org/ which they are working. HMML provides high-quality —Mary E. Hess digital imaging and catalogs those images, making them widely accessible. Yet the original manuscripts remain in the control of the communities that own them. Scholars Historical Criticism wishing to access specific manuscripts do so within the guidelines set by the originating communities. Even the Historical criticism refers to the historical analysis of the process of digitization is carried out as much as is feasible individual writings that make up theOnly Christian canon with local archivists and communities directing it. of scripture. The term “criticism” need not be taken as In addition to preservation of manuscripts, HMML necessarily negative. Historical criticism has been used is deeply involved in seeking to support careful study of predominantly in two interrelated yet distinguishable manuscripts and the cultures in which they are produced. ways. The first seeks to shed light on a given writing Toward that end, HMML is building a “virtual HMML” by contextualizing it within the world in which it was (to be known as vHMML), which will feature a school produced. In attempting to do so, the critic recognizes a with online tutorials in paleography and manuscript certain distance between his or her own present historical studies to train a new generation of researchers in a vari- context and the ancient one of the text. The critic seeks in ety of languages. This school will include a scriptorium, part to bridge this distance by gathering relevant material an online collaborative workspace allowing scholars in from the time period of the writing as a means of better different locations to study, edit, and publish texts found understandingCopy it. One illustration of this practice may only in manuscripts. It will also feature a lexicon of be found in consideration of the current English use of manuscript-related terminology in several languages, a the label “Good Samaritan.” The term is used positively library of key reference works, and a folio collection or to identify a stranger who helps someone in need, and annotated album of illustrative manuscript images. when the parable of the good Samaritan is read with this Finally, HMML has become a vital center of calligra- connotation, its potency is lost. However, when one takes phy education and support, an element of manuscript into account first-century stories of Judean-Samarian preparation that took center stage in the production of relations, we find that there was significant hostility and the St. John’s Bible, the first fully handwritten and il- even violent interaction between the two groups (see, e.g., luminated Bible produced by a Benedictine community the ancient historian Josephus’s accounts in Antiquities in 500 years. of the Jews 18.30, 20.118–129). Thus, from a first-century Jewish perspective, the label “Good Samaritan” would References and Resources have been an oxymoron. By employing this type of his- “Codices Decoded: The History of Manuscripts.” 2010. The torical criticism, we contextualize the parable and see that Economist, 16 December. http://www.economist.com/ Jesus’s use of the Samaritan as a positive model for defin- node/17722547?story_id=17722547. ing one’s neighbor subverts a stereotype. “Director’s Letter.” 2011. Illuminations (Fall): 4. The second type of historical criticism is the analysis of “The Friends of the Malta Study Center.” 2011. Melitensia biblical passages to determine “what actually happened.” (Winter/Spring): 6. Often discrepancies in the wording and chronology of “Hill Museum & Manuscript Library.” n.d. Wikipedia. http:// parallel narratives are compared in an attempt to make en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_Museum_%26_Manuscript this determination. So, for example, in the case of the _Library. chronological placement of the Temple cleansing, one “MonasteryContributor Works to Preserve Ancient Christian Texts.” 2010. might seek to determine whether the event occurred at PBS NewsHour, 31 December. http://www.pbs.org/news the end of Jesus’s public mission (as in Mark 11:15–17; hour/bb/religion/july-dec10/sacredtexts_12–31.html. Matt. 21:12–17; and Luke 19:45–46) or near the begin- “A Monk Saves Threatened Manuscripts Using Ultra-modern ning of His public mission (as in John 2:13–22), or if a Means.” 2009. Chronicle of Higher Education, 29 November. similar incident happened twice. Examples of subsidiary History, Christian Contributions to 591 forms of criticism used to accomplish this objective are of the text. So, for example, in the book of Revelation, textual criticism (analyzing manuscripts to reconstruct appreciation of context—such as the prevalence of the the original reading of the text as closely as possible), imperial cult in western Asia Minor (cf. Rev 1:4, 11), the source criticism (identifying the sources used in a given frequent use of “Babylon” as an identification for Rome biblical writing), and redaction criticism (identifying the in literature of the period (1 Pet.; 4 Ezra; 2 Bar.; Sibylline author’s editing of the sources he used). According to the Oracles; cf. Rev. 14–18), Rome’s common identification modernist mind-set, it was often thought that one could as the “city on seven hills” (cf. Rev. 17:9), and “666” as the use these tools to pull back secondary layers of tradition numerical value for “Nero Caesar” in gematria (the prac- to arrive at an untouched historical core. However, this tice of calculating the sum of numbered Hebrew letters particular conception of historical criticism was bound in a word; cf. Rev. 13:18)—leads one to take into account up with the fallacies of naïve realism (the idea that im- the writing’s meaning to its original readers and prevents mediate experience is purely objective) and historical one from immediately jumping to futuristic interpreta- positivism (the idea that history is built up from blocks tions. (4) Finally, the inherent limitations of historical of uninterpreted facts). Indeed, history, both ancient and criticism need to be appreciated. The remains of the past modern, is by its very nature interpretive (it expresses are fragmentary. Often insufficient evidence is available a viewpoint) and representational (it attempts to pro- for drawing a probable conclusion. OnlyFor example, the am- duce not a replica but a plausible representation of real biguous reference to “the one who restrains” in 2 Thes- events). Chastened by this awareness, those who practice salonians 2:7 has given rise to no fewer than five possible historical criticism now are more likely to acknowledge referents, without one single explanation garnering the their own starting presuppositions and the role that in- support of a majority of scholars. A further limitation of terpretive fit plays in determining the allowance of an historical criticism is the necessary circularity that exists individual saying, deed, or episode in the present histo- between one’s hypothesis and the history being recon- rian’s broader narrative of the past. With these balances structed. One’s philosophical outlook and worldview in mind, the subsidiary criticisms listed above are useful will necessarily influence one’s historical hypotheses, tools in producing plausible accounts of the events that especially with regard to biblical texts. To summarize, in underlie the narratives of biblical literature. Christian education, historical criticism may be used to With regard to Christian education, the following is- confirm,Copy clarify, or challenge one’s presuppositions, and sues should be kept in mind when using historical criti- its inherent limitations should be acknowledged. cism. (1) Historical criticism can be used to support cer- tain points of Christian belief. For example, Jesus’s very References and Resources existence as a historical figure is sometimes questioned Collins, John J. 2005. The Bible after Babel: Historical Criticism on the popular level. However, against this mythicist in a Postmodern Age. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. view, the overwhelming majority of ancient historians Frampton, Travis L. 2006. Spinoza and the Rise of Historical accept Jesus’s historical existence, based on a number of Criticism of the Bible. New York, London: T&T Clark. historical criteria (e.g., the attestation of his existence in Krentz, Edgar. 1975. The Historical-Critical Method. London: multiple independent sources, unflattering characteriza- SPCK. tions of him in those sources, and incidental mention of Marshall, I. Howard. 1977. “Historical Criticism.” In New him in unbiased sources). Thus, historical criticism can Testament Interpretation: Essays on Principles and Meth- be employed against irrationally skeptical viewpoints. (2) ods, edited by I. Howard Marshall, 126–138. Exeter, UK: Conversely, historical criticism should in certain cases Paternoster. be used to guard against drawing individual conclusions —S. Brian Pounds simply because they support broader Christian presup- positions. For example, in the King James Version of the Bible, we find reference in 1 John to “the Father, the History, Christian Contributions to Word, and the Holy Ghost” being one (5:7). However, the earliest and most reliable manuscripts do not contain Among the world religions, Judaism and Christianity these words, which appear to be the interpolation of a stand out as uniquely concerned with history. Jewish medieval scribe. Other New Testament passages may faith was not primarily concerned with abstract - containContributor the seeds of Trinitarian thought (Matt. 28:19; 1 sophical theism, but with the God of Abraham, Isaac, Cor. 12:4–6; 1 Pet. 1:2), but the practice of textual criti- and Jacob. This was the God of the Exodus, the exile cism precludes the inclusion of 1 John 5:7 among them. into Babylon, and the return to the Promised Land. (3) Historical criticism may also be used to avoid false Christianity added to this the importance of a historical assumptions that might arise from a superficial reading Incarnation. Thus, St. Luke’s introduction to his Gospel 592 History, Christian Contributions to account (Luke 1:1–4) defines its purpose as a histori- lot Voisin, Sieur de la Popelinière (1541–1608). Despite cal narrative, drawn from eyewitness accounts. Luther’s his religious, colonialist, and national (French) favorit- investigations were meant to lead to a firm foundation ism, he produced an embryonic form of critical research for Christian claims. Likewise, St. Paul states that if Jesus in the Histoire de France (1581), L’Histoire des histories did not rise from the dead in actual history, Christians (1599), and L’Idee de l’histoire accomplie (1599). Lutheran should abandon their beliefs (Rom. 15:14). Christianity scholars, led by Matthias Flacius Illyricus (1520–1575), continued to emphasize the importance of history in its published a survey of Christian history called the Magde- early sermons. For example, Peter (Acts 2) and Stephen burg Centuries. Like Beza’s account, this had an obvious (Acts 7) articulate the Gospel through a narrative of his- polemic purpose; nonetheless, it encouraged interest in torical events leading up to the acts of Jesus. Likewise, history as a platform for understanding theological and the Apostles’ Creed has a narrative element: it moves political developments. Christian and critical church his- from God’s initiation of time, to the history of Jesus’s life tory did not arise until the prolific output of the German work—including reference to a historical figure, Pontius Lutheran scholar Johann Lorenz von Mosheim (1694– Pilate—to the ongoing, historically bound “communion 1753), deemed the father of modern church history. of the saints.” While such expressions do not follow the In the 19th century in America, a movement called Mer- precise historiographical methods of today, as linear ac- cersberg theology renewed interest inOnly the importance of counts of the world (differing from Hindu and Buddhist history for Christian understanding. Mercersberg scholars cyclical perspectives), they are part of an intellectual were interested in recovering the riches of the ancient and framework from which modern approaches to history Reformation churches. Chief among these was the father naturally emerged. of American church history, (1819–1893), The early church valued history. During this period, who was influenced by Hegelian belief in progress and the father of church history, Eusebius (c. AD 263–339), Reformed belief in God’s providence in specific historical produced the famous work Ecclesiastical History. Despite events. Though contemporary scholars may find fault with his obvious bias, he is an important source for historians some of his assumptions, he introduced Christian scholars of the first two centuries after the New Testament. St. to the importance of developments in Christian history. Augustine (354–430) contributed a Christian philosophy His History of the Apostolic Church (1853) and seven- of history in his monumental work City of God, which volumeCopy History of the Christian Church (1858–1890), sought to make sense of the sack of Rome in 410, in light along with other important reference works, continue to of God’s twofold engagement with history, through the be valuable references for Christian teachers. divine and human “cities.” Writings like these were more Not all Christian educators have agreed that history concerned with theological interpretation than with the ought to be taught in the critical manner. Danish educa- science of historiography, as were the accounts of saints tional reformer and Lutheran theologian N. F. S. Grundt- and martyrs, which often took the form of hagiography, vig (1783–1872) thought history could help with Chris- writings about saints that overlooked critical issues in tian theology and inspiration, and he was more interested order to focus on the miracles and spiritual lessons. in overarching themes of history than in particular names During the 16th century, scholars began to develop and dates. He saw God at work in human events, culmi- methods and approaches that resembled the sort of histo- nating in and flowing from Christ’s Incarnation. This riography valued by scholars today. During the Reforma- approach to history became popular in 19th- and early tion, both Roman Catholics and Protestants conducted 20th-century Scandinavian Lutheran school and college historical research to demonstrate the antiquity of their history curricula, which weaved the biblical narrative into respective confessions. Since heresy was connected with a survey of world history. innovation, reformers wanted to show that they were In the 20th century, neoorthodox theologian Karl simply returning to the faith of the early church; like- Barth (1886–1968), who sought to reexamine the Ref- wise, their Roman Catholic opponents tried to show the ormation-era roots of theology, stimulated an increased continuity of their apostolic tradition and the novel (or interest in church history. Confessional Lutheran and rehashed) heresies of the evangelicals. One finds the first Reformed scholars in America, whose theology sought indication of critical history in the writings of prominent to reappropriate the historic faith rather than construct Reformed scholars who began to think about historiog- new social theories, have steadily conducted histori- raphyContributor as a science rather than a rhetorical art. Theodore cal research over the last 150 years in North America. Beza (1519–1605) made some progress in this direction Today, many professional Christian historians avoid with his Histoire ecclésiastique (1580), which makes overly theological interpretations of history. Instead, good use of primary documents despite its partisan their service to the church involves providing material agenda. More objective historiography came from Lance- for Christian scholars in their attempt to trace the history Hofinger, Johannes 593 of their traditions and denominational development. If Innsbruck. Jungmann, the eminent historian, liturgist, there is a distinct quality to their historiography, it is and catechetical scholar, became the major intellectual visible when they confront secularist myths and Marxist influence on Hofinger. In 1937, Hofinger completed his materialist assumptions that theological beliefs aren’t as doctoral dissertation on the history of the catechism in important as socioeconomic factors. Thus, the most suc- Austria and Germany since the time of St. Peter Canisius. cessful Christians who are professional historians, such In the same year, he was appointed to teach at King- as George Marsden and Mark Noll, execute their disci- hsien regional seminary in China, where he produced pline as an outworking of their scholarly vocation, rather his second book, in Latin and Chinese, Our Good News than as a tool for confessional propaganda, even though (1946). In 1949, the communists took power in China, the subjects they study are influenced by their Chris- and the Jesuits decided to move their seminarians to a safe tian commitments. In particular, they resist the urge to place, choosing Manila in the Philippines. Father Hofin- read providence into historical causation or to privilege ger went with the students and continued to teach them confessional agendas over distanced scholarship. A few in an institute, where they all envisioned an early return voices from the younger generation of evangelical his- to the Chinese mission. In 1955, Father Hofinger opened torians suggest that this forced objectivity might not be what he called the Institute of Missionary Apologetics, necessary, and that it is appropriate for scholars to bring which in 1958 was renamed the CatecheticalOnly Centre and their explicit worldviews into accounts of the past. Thus, in 1961 the East Asian Pastoral Institute. The name arose one can see Christian historians who believe there is a in a conversation in September 1961 between Fr. Gomez specifically Christian story to be told, regardless of how and Fr. Brunner, two Jesuit confreres, who agreed that this plays in the broader historical profession. people didn’t understand the term “mission apologetics”; Hofinger gave the name to the new institute, which cel- References and Resources ebrated the 50th anniversary of its impressive history as a Bauman, Michael, and Martin Klauber, eds. 1995. Historians place of enculturation of the gospel in 2011. of the Christian Tradition: Their Methodology and Influence Hofinger was an ardent of Jungmann and ac- on Western Thought. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. knowledged this in a dedication in one of his many publi- Dickens, A. G., and John Tonkin. 1985. The Reformation in cations, The Art of Teaching Christian Doctrine (1961); the Historical Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University inscription reads: “To Father Josef Jungmann, S.J. Revered Copy36 Press. Teacher and Fatherly Friend.” As a scholar in his own Fea, John, Jay Green, and Eric Miller. 2010. Confessing History: right and an amazingly energetic promoter of a new ap- Explorations in Christian Faith and the Historian’s Vocation. proach to catechetics, from 1953 to 1960 Hofinger traveled Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. the globe 16 times, lecturing on the “kerygmatic approach.” Kelly, Donald. 1971. “History as a Calling: The Case of La This approach emphasized for Catholics the importance of Popelinière.” In Renaissance Studies in Honor of Hans Baron, the keryx or the good news of salvation history, which cli- edited by A. Molho and J. A. Tedeschi, 67–113. Dekalb, IL: maxed in the birth, life, ministry, death, and resurrection Northern Illinois University Press. of Jesus Christ. Together with the biblical focus, Hofinger Malone, Kemp. 1940. “Grundtvig’s Philosophy of History.” contributed insights from the liturgical theology of his Journal of the History of Ideas 1 (3): 281–298. mentor and from the nascent social sciences. Muller, Richard, and J. E. Bradley. 1995. Church History: An A prolific author, he organized a series of catechetical Introduction to Research, Reference Works, and Methods. conferences, which would have significant influence not Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. only on the teaching and learning of Catholic educa- Wells, Ronald, ed. 1998. History and the Christian Historian. tion, but also on several of the documents of Vatican II, Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. specifically “the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, the —Jeff Mallinson Decree on the Missionary Activity of the Church, and the Declaration on the Relationship to Non-Christian Religions.”37 After Vatican II, the conferences influenced Hofinger, Johannes the International Catechetical Synod in Rome in 1971, the on Evangelisation (1974) and Catechesis Born in Tyrol, Austria, on 21 March 1905, Johannes (1977), and the resulting Apostolic Exhortations of Paul HofingerContributor died in New Orleans, Louisiana, on 14 February VI, Evangelii nuntiandi (1975), and John Paul II, Cat- 1984. Entering the minor seminary at the age of 11, he studied philosophy at the Pontifical Gregorian University 36. Johannes Hofinger, The Art of Teaching Christian Doctrine (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1962). in Rome. He joined the Society of Jesus on 7 September 37. F. J. Buckley, “Hofinger, Johannes,” in New Catholic Encyclopedia 1925 and studied theology under Josef Jungmann, SJ, in (Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Publishers, 2003), 903. 594 Holiness echesi tradendae (1979). The documents of the two popes East Asian Pastoral Institute. n.d. “The EAPI Story.” http://eapi issued after the episcopal synods emphasize complemen- .admu.edu.ph/content/eapii-story. tary but distinctive approaches to the Word of God, with Hofinger, Johannes. 1962. The Art of Teaching Christian Doc- one stressing the power of promulgation and the other trine. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. catechesis. Two relatively recent documents from the Hofinger, Johannes, with William J. Reedy. 1962. The ABC’s of United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, Fulfilled Modern Catechetics. New York: William H. Sadlier. in Your Hearing (1982) and Preaching the Mystery of Markuly, Mark. n.d. “Johannes Hofinger.” Christian Educators Faith: The Sunday Homily (2012), emphasize the distinc- of the 20th Century. http://www.talbot.edu/ce20/educators/ tion and complementarity of the kerygma and catechesis, catholic/johannes_hofinger/. although they are reflecting on the role of the homily in —Michael A. Kelly the Eucharistic assembly. The International Catechetical Congresses were unique in that they took place on different continents Holiness and involved a diverse range of scholars and practitio- ners: Nijmegen (1959), Eichstätt (1960), Bangkok (1962), Holiness is the exclusive and defining characteristic of Katigondo (1964), Manila (1967), Medellin (1968), and God and distinguishes the divine fromOnly the profane and San Antonio (1969). It is no wonder that Hofinger rev- human. Its primary attributes are sinlessness, incor- eled in the self-given label the “catechetical sputnik” as ruptibility, and purity in the sense that light is free of he sought to evangelize and educate countless Christians. darkness. It is one of the characteristics that cannot be From 1977 to 1984, he was associate director of the transferred in the fullest sense to human beings, because Office of Religious Education in New Orleans. He was they are mired in space and time and corrupted by Origi- also honored by the U.S. National Catholic Education nal Sin. In Isaiah the angels cry (addressing God): “Holy, Association (NCEA) and the Religious Education As- Holy, Holy is the Lord of Hosts . . . the whole earth is full sociation (REA). of his glory.” Because holiness is built into the very nature A prolific writer, Hofinger published numerous books and essence of divinity and is part of the divine ding an and essays; according to the National Catholic Encyclo- sich, it is permanent and unaffected by time and space. pedia (2003) his major works are Nuntius Noster seu ThereCopy is a secondary holiness associated with human Themata Predicationis Nostrae (Tientsin, 1964); Der spirituality and , but it is always a journey priesterlose Gemeindegottesdienst in den Missionen, with and not a state of being. Holiness in the first sense can- J. Kellner (Schöneck, 1956); The Art of Teaching Chris- not be directly transferred to holiness in the second sense. tian Doc­trine (South Bend, 1957); Liturgische Erneurung Significantly, the English word holiness has no verb form. in der Weltmission, with J. Kellner (Innsbruck, 1957); In the New Testament, the term used for holiness is Worship: The Life of the Missions (Notre Dame, 1958); hagios, following the Septuagint usage. This is a clear The ABC’s of Modern Catechetics, with W. J. Reedy (New attempt to avoid the pagan associations of the word York, 1964); The Good News and Its Proclamation, with hieros (Greek, sacred), used widely in mystery religions. F. J. Buckley (Notre Dame, 1968); Our Message Is Christ: Rudolph Otto, in Idea of the Holy, uses the word nu- The More Outstanding Elements of the Christian Message minous as a synonym for holiness and describes it as (Notre Dame, 1974); Evangelization and Catechesis: Are an overwhelming and fascinating mystery (mysterium We Really Proclaiming the Gospel? (New York, 1976); tremdendum et fascinans). Because human beings can- You Are My Witnesses: Spirituality for Religion Teachers not conceive of divine holiness, the concept has special (Huntington, 1977); and Pastoral Life in the Power of the significance in Christian theology. Jesus Christ, strad- Spirit (New York, 1982).38 dling the boundary between the divine and the human, An annual Hofinger Conference, organized by the is the key representation of holiness that is available to Catholic Archdiocese of New Orleans, celebrates the ex- believers. Everything else is mixed, alloyed, and even traordinary contribution of Fr. Hofinger, who died one corrupt. Despite the chasm between the divine and the day before he would have become a U.S. citizen. human, human beings are capable of a longing for holi- ness, but this longing is like the candle in the wind; it References and Resources is always buffeted by the winds of worldly desires and Buckley,Contributor F. J. 2003. “Hofinger, Johannes.” In New Catholic En- burdened with the self. In Christian theology, faith is like cyclopedia, edited by Thomas Carson, Farmington Hills, MI: the lampshade that protects the flickering light. It is one Gale Publishers, 903. of the basic assumptions of Christian theology that on their own human beings can never achieve holiness, and 38. Ibid. the only holiness that is open to them is that conferred on Holistic Education 595 them through the imputed righteousness of Christ. The cluding Lancelot Andrewes, George Herbert, and Henry transfer of holiness from Christ through faith to those Vaughn. Jeremy Taylor’s Holy Living (1650) and Holy who believe in Him is one of the greatest mysteries of Dying (1651) made the term “holy” part of the vocabu- the Christian faith. Thus Hebrews 10:10 says: “We have lary of Christian spirituality. been made holy through the sacrifice of the body of Jesus The quest for holiness inspired holiness movements Christ.” Paul speaks of the church as “having no spot or that arose from 19th-century denominations, such as wrinkle or any such thing, but that it should be holy and Methodism, the Church of the Nazarene, and the Salva- blameless” (Eph. 5:27). 1 Peter 2:9 calls Christians a “cho- tion Army. The watchwords of the Methodist holiness sen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation” and Romans movement were perfection, perfect love, and entire 12:1 calls on believers to “present their bodies as a living sanctification. The phrase “Second Blessing” was used sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God.” to denote the positive work of grace. Wesley’s doctrine Holiness is primarily imputed through the righteous- blended the classic concept of Christ purging the heart ness of Christ to His followers, although human beings with pietism as an effective element in spiritual experi- try to achieve it by ascetical, mystical, and sacramental ence and the Protestant view of assured faith as the sole means. Holiness is distinguished from such human vir- means of salvation. Theologically, the holiness movement tues as piety, mysticism, spirituality, theopathy, and god- took three forms. The first was WesleyanOnly holiness, with liness. Ascetic Christianity does not equate with holiness, its emphasis on transformed inner life as propounded by although it is as close an approximation as is possible for Oswald Chambers and A. Paget Wilkes. The second was human beings. Holiness is a quality of the divine sphere Keswick holiness as taught at the Keswick Conventions, into which human beings may be drawn, but it does not with its emphasis on the higher life and self-surrender, confer any special status and is always a transient experi- and trustful, expectant, and prayerful passivity. Keswick ence. In prayer, a believer may behold the face of a holy popularized slogans such as “Let Go and Let God,” and God, but only briefly. In both the Old and the New Tes- “Stop Trying and Start Trusting.” Exponents of Keswick taments, people and things consecrated to God are called holiness include Palmer (1807–1874), W. E. holy in the secondary sense of holiness by association. Boardman (1810–1886), Robert Pearsall Smith (1827– Thus there are holy days, holy oil, and holy utensils used 1899), Hannah Whitall Smith (1832–1911), Evan H. in worship. But holiness is properly a characteristic trait HopkinsCopy (1837–1919), H. C. G. Moule (1841–1920), F. B. of committed believers, not things. There is also a popu- Meyer (1847–1929), and Andrew Murray (1828–1917). lar belief that holiness can be transmitted by proximity. The third offshoot of the holiness movement was Pen- From ancient times, people have sought the proximity of tecostalism, which equates holiness with baptism of the supposedly holy men and women as well as holy places, Spirit and gifts of the Spirit. such as temples, and material objects such as clothes and relics of saints that exude holiness. This is not the Resource absolute holiness associated with God, but the holiness Burton-Christie, D. 1993. The Word in the Desert: Scripture and of fables and folk religions. In fact, only the Holy Spirit, a the Quest for Holiness in Early Christian Monasticism. New part of the Godhead, is capable of transmitting holiness. York: Oxford University Press. He does this through a process known as sanctification. It —George Thomas Kurian must be noted that holiness is a Spirit and cannot reside in the flesh. The flesh is always corrupt and subject to death and decay. Holistic Education In the Middle Ages, many Christians attained a high degree of spirituality, piety, and mystical devotion. The Holistic education is a teaching and learning approach era was remarkable for some of the greatest devotional grounded in human spirituality. Though concerned literature ever written, such as The Cloud of Unknowing about an integrated education of the whole person, it and the Revelation of Divine Love. Later, Philip Nicolia’s is especially interested in the inner life and advances “a Mirror of Joy (1599) and Johan Arndt’s True Christian- soul-based approach to learning” (Miller 2007, 109) and ity (1605) continued the tradition. In 1675, Philip Jacob a “spiritual curriculum” (Miller 2000, 8). Spener published his Pia Diesideria, which served gen- It is not religious education; it is more accurately erationsContributor of Christians as their spiritual manual. Three described as an attempt to reimagine general schooling years later, John Bunyan wrote Pilgrim’s Progress, an from spiritual, aesthetic, mystical, and ecological view- allegorical tale of a Christian’s ascent toward holiness. points. Although not grounded in any particular religious In the same period, a number of Anglican writers and creed, holistic education seeks to foster a “reverence for theologians explored the world of personal holiness, in- life” that sees the earth as sacred and humans as “indi- 596 Holistic Education vidual expressions of a transcendent creative source that of any tradition can enhance the inner life. For example, we do not fully comprehend” (Miller 1991, 2). O’Reilley (1998, 4) describes a mélange of religious per- Holistic education serves both teachers and students. spectives enabling her to teach contemplatively: “I have It explores “how we can bring soul into our classroom a Buddhist mind. . . . I have a Catholic heart. . . . I have and schools” and “how we as teachers and administra- a Quaker backside.” Relating “more to spiritualty than tors can nurture our own souls” (Miller 2000, 4). The religion” (Miller 2000, 140), holistic education uses non- emphasis on teaching as a spiritual act leads to a more theological language to describe the soul: “Soul is a deep effective pedagogy: “If the teacher’s soul is contracted and and vital energy that gives meaning and direction to our impoverished, then there is little chance that the student’s lives” (Miller 2000, 9). Purpel (1993) argues that holistic soul will be adequately cared for” (Miller 2000, 121). education can extend its influence by making links with Holistic education thus provides teachers with practical critical theory and by drawing more explicitly on the re- classroom tools for incorporating spiritual dimensions ligious prophetic tradition. into their teaching, such as Quaker listening practices, archetypical myths, meditation, dreamwork, contempla- Holistic Christian Education tion, and soul journals. The field of Christian education has made conceptual strides toward addressing the dualismsOnly between “head Foundations knowledge” and “heart knowledge” that holistic educa- Because of its preference for inclusion, relationships, and tion addresses. Positioning her “holistic vision and pas- global interconnectedness, holistic education draws from toral approach” as moving beyond instruction and sacra- an eclectic range of disciplines. Miller (2007) outlines mentalization, Darcy-Bérubé (1995, 71) notes, “A holistic major inspirations as perennial philosophy, transper- vision of religious education would require much greater sonal psychology, and an ecological approach to society. emphasis on the contemplative dimension of Christian Indeed, the term “holistic” has inclusivity built into its life.” She believes that in curriculum design it is impor- very meaning, and advocates describe the field as “an tant to balance theological knowledge with “existential emerging paradigm in educational thinking that empha- religious literacy” (56–60). sizes wholeness and integration in the learning process, Christian educators’ increasing use of terms such as in- a nourishing and democratic community both inside the tegrationCopy, spiritual formation, transformational learning, school and without, a global and ecological perspective and whole person indicate a positive response to Darcy- on social and economic problems, and a recognition Bérubé’s concerns. It is no surprise that Darcy-Bérubé’s of the spiritual dimension of human existence” (Miller student Thomas Groome (1980, 23) has stated that “good 1993, 10). education needs to be a holistic approach to the total Holistic education is often posed as a corrective re- person—cognitive, affective, and behavioral,” and more sponse to various ills afflicting contemporary education recently that “spiritual beings need a pedagogy that en- (bureaucratization, nihilism, materialism, rationalism, gages and delves into their very souls, into the depths of anxiety), and modern schooling is described as “a grim the human spirit” (Groome 2011, 67). This understand- pastime” (Miller 2000, 4). In this regard, it can be read ing of educative growth is shared by some Christian theo- as part of a larger narrative in educational theory that logians. For example, Howard Thurman (1954, 75–76) puts forth humanistic alternatives to mechanistic stan- describes religious experience as being “alive with ‘God- dardized curricula (e.g., John Dewey’s critique of the ness,’” which he sees as a “robust affirmation of the whole school-to-factory pipeline). What distinguishes holistic spirit of the man [sic].” Thurman uses terms such as education from other humanistic approaches is its par- wholeness, integration, and creative synthesis to describe ticular interest in human spirituality: “‘Holistic” implies the link between goodness and Godness. In union with spirituality or a sense of the sacred, while ‘wholistic’ is God, there is an “altogetherness” in which all conflict is more material and biological with an emphasis on physi- resolved and all tensions merge into a single integration. cal and social interconnections. I believe Dewey argued for wholism, while Gandhi and Steiner were holistic in References and Resources their perspectives” (Miller 2007, 6). Darcy-Bérubé, F. 1995. Religious Education at a Crossroads: The field also draws on religious sources. Again, the Moving on in the Freedom of the Spirit. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist selectionContributor is broad: Buddhist language of mindfulness sits Press. alongside Christian language of sacramentality, which Groome, T. 1980. Christian Religious Education: Sharing Our sits alongside ethical language of caring, and so on. The Story and Vision. San Francisco: Harper & Row. primary concern is not with one particular faith tradi- ———. 2011. Will There Be Faith? A New Vision for Educating tion, but with how the mystical and spiritual resources and Growing Disciples. New York: HarperOne. Holy Spirit 597

Miller, J. 2000. Education and the Soul: Toward a Spiritual Cur- Wheaton, elaborated in a book he edited for the college’s riculum. Albany: State University of New York Press. 125th anniversary, The Making of a Christian Mind: A ———. 2007. The Holistic Curriculum. 2nd ed. Toronto: Univer- Christian World View and the Academic Enterprise (In- sity of Toronto Press. terVarsity Press, 1985). In this endeavor he articulated Miller, R., ed. 1991. New Directions in Education: Selections guiding principles that shaped the approach he com- from Holistic Education Review. Brandon, VT: Holistic Edu- municated to those he influenced. Among these tenets cation Press. are the perspectival approach, a pluralism that honors ———. 1993. “Vital Voices of Educational Dissent.” In Renewal various articulations of the same basic Christian perspec- of Meaning in Education: Responses to the Cultural and Eco- tive; a holistic goal (seeking the unification of all areas of logical Crisis of Our Times, edited by R. Miller, 8–26. Bran- knowledge); and the recognition that “all truth is God’s don, VT: Holistic Education Press. truth” (a phrase Holmes often repeated), so that there is O’Reilley, M. R. 1998. Radical Presence: Teaching as Contem- not a great divide or adversarial relation between secular plative Practice. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook. and sacred. Purpel, D. 1993. “Holistic Education in a Prophetic Voice.” In He was a strong advocate for Christian colleges to be Renewal of Meaning in Education: Responses to the Cultural places of Christian education in the liberal arts rather than and Ecological Crisis of Our Times, edited by R. Miller, 70–94. training schools for professions (includingOnly the ministry) or Brandon, VT: Holistic Education Press. educational facilities that merely tack on biblical studies. Thurman, Howard. 1954. The Creative Encounter. New York: Among those whom Holmes influenced are Merold Harper & Row. Westphal (Fordham) and C. Stephen Evans (Baylor). —Aaron J. Ghiloni Most Notable Publications Faith Seeks Understanding. 1971. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Holmes, Arthur All Truth Is God’s Truth. 1983. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Early History, Education, and Career Contours of a World View. 1983. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Arthur Holmes was born in 1924 in Dover, England. A The Idea of a Christian College. 1987. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids, British citizen, he enlisted and served in the RAF before MI:Copy Eerdmans. immigrating to the United States. He earned a BA in Fact, Value, and God. 1997. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. philosophy at Wheaton College (Illinois) and a PhD in Building the Christian Academy. 2001. Grand Rapids, MI: philosophy at Northwestern University in Chicago. He Eerdmans. joined the Wheaton College faculty in 1947, where he War and Christian Ethics: Classic and Contemporary Readings created and shaped the college’s philosophy department on the Morality of War. 2005. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: until his retirement in 1994. He died in 2011. Baker Academic. In the 1950s, he initiated the Wheaton College phi- Ethics: Approaching Moral Decisions. 2007. Downers Grove, IL: losophy conference, which became a significant venue for InterVarsity Press. Christian philosophers to meet and discuss philosophical —Dennis Okholm issues. He played a key role as cofounder of the Society of Christian Philosophers and its publication, Faith and Philosophy. He lectured widely and wrote several books. Holy Spirit

Significant Contributions to Christian Education In Christianity, the Holy Spirit has a vital role in the Holmes had a very significant influence on Christian believer’s life. It is the power of the Holy Spirit that gives colleges in the United States during the latter half of the the believer the strength, courage, and power to live a 20th century. He was a leader in Christian higher educa- Christian life here on Earth. Though the Holy Spirit has tion in the drive toward “faith and learning integration,” been working from creation till the present, in the Old as opposed to a mere conjunction of the two, a defensive Testament there is not as much emphasis placed on the rejection of human learning, or indoctrination of pre- Holy Spirit as there is in the New Testament. When the packaged answers. Though there are various models of Holy Spirit is referred to in the Old Testament, the He- integration,Contributor Holmes took a value-laden and confessional brew word used is ruah, meaning wind, moving air, and perspectival approach, which he articulated in one of his breath. In the Old Testament, the Holy Spirit works to early publications with the Augustinian phrase “faith assist the judges and prophets in the performance of their seeks understanding.” He also emphasized the develop- duties with Israel. While the designation “Holy Spirit” ment of a “Christian worldview,” a task he spearheaded at might not actually be used, the actions of the Holy Spirit 598 Holy Spirit as Teacher are implied in the actions of the men and women carry- Holy Spirit as Teacher ing out the work of God. The Holy Spirit is described in a variety of terms, but the description that is in line with The role of the Holy Spirit as teacher makes Christian the scriptures and Christian belief is the one that charac- education distinct from all other types of education. C. terizes the Holy Spirit as a person. The scriptures depict F. Dickason states that the Holy Spirit as the ultimate the Holy Spirit as a person as having many of the same at- teacher “makes God’s truth relevant to the persons tributes as God. The Holy Spirit is also noted to have the involved and enables application that causes life and same four divine attributes that are associated with God: growth.”39 To ignore the ministry of the Holy Spirit in omnipresence, omnipotence, omniscience, and being Christian teaching, therefore, is to discount one of the eternal. The Holy Spirit is part of the Godhead and has most essential elements of effective Christian education. his own work to carry out in the earth. In the beginning, The Spirit not only illuminates God’s Word for believers when the world was being formed, the Holy Spirit carried to facilitate proper understanding of the truths of God, out the words of God in the shaping of the world. but also empowers both teachers and students to effect In the New Testament, the Holy Spirit goes from spiritual growth and transformation. being a wind or breath to becoming the Spirit of God. The Greek word for spirit is pneuma; to associate this Dangers in Failing to Properly DiscernOnly the Spirit’s Role word with divinity, the word hagion is used with it. There in Education may or may not be an article in its usage. When Jesus One danger is to view Christian education simply as a was preparing for his crucifixion, he told his disciples human task built on educational theory, programs, and in the Gospel of John that he would leave them with a personnel, to the neglect of the work of the Holy Spirit comforter, and that comforter is the Holy Spirit. The in the process of education. This fallacy, which ignores Holy Spirit made his entrance into the world on the Day the fallen state of the human condition, “elevates man’s of Pentecost, appearing to the 120 men and women tar- creativity and methods over God’s and fails to realize rying in the upper room. The King James version of the that only the Spirit can accomplish the spiritual goals Bible describes this entrance as “a mighty rushing wind of Christian education.”40 R. Zuck posits that “Christian and cloves of fire.” The Holy Spirit was sent to Earth to education is a cooperative process, a venture involving convict the world of sin and to testify of the Son of God. both theCopy human and the divine. Human teachers com- In the Holy Spirit’s present-day activities, he is believed municate and exemplify truth; the Holy Spirit seeks to to be the person of the Godhead that is here on the earth provide guidance, power, illumination, and insight to carrying out the will of God. The apostle Paul identifies the teachers.”41 the Holy Spirit as dwelling within the believer to assist Another danger is to emphasize the role of the Holy in obeying the will of God and living a godly life here on Spirit to the neglect of the human teacher as a tool of Earth by “walking in the Spirit.” In order for the Holy God in the process of education. Since this fallacy views Spirit to assist the believer, a believer is said to be filled the Holy Spirit as the only needed teacher, any human with the Holy Spirit. The concept is that the Holy Spirit effort is viewed as both unnecessary and contaminating. dwells in the believer’s heart. It is the workings of the This anti-intellectual position suggests that education Holy Spirit that regenerate the believer and free him or is the enemy of spirituality and disregards the fact that her from sin. In the work the Holy Spirit is to carry out God utilizes human teachers as instruments in the act of on Earth, he can be grieved by the actions of individuals education (see Matt. 28:19–20; Acts 5:42, 15:35, 18:11, here, thus reinforcing the personification of the Spirit. 25, 28:31; 2 Tim. 2:2).42 Often adherents of this errone- It is the Holy Spirit that seals the believer until the Day ous view misinterpret 1 John 2:27, in which the apostle of the Lord. Therefore, the Holy Spirit is associated with warns the church to avoid the man-made gnostic teach- Christian eschatology. He gives the believer hope for the ings of the heretics who left the faith community and future and the promises of God for the end of time. whom the apostle deems to be anti-Christs (1 John

References and Resources 39. C. F. Dickason, “The Holy Spirit in Education,” in Christian Educa- Bloesch, Donald G. 2000. The Holy Spirit; Works & Gifts. tion: Foundations for the Future, ed. Robert E. Clark, Lin Johnson, and Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Allyn K. Sloat (Chicago: Moody, 1991), 121. Thompson, John. 1991. The Holy Spirit in the Theology of Karl 40. C. F. Dickason, “The Holy Spirit in Teaching,” in Introduction to ContributorBiblical Christian Education, ed. Werner Graendorf (Chicago: Moody, Barth. Allison Park, PA: Picwick Publications. 1981), 112. Torrey, R. A. 1994. The Person & Work of the Holy Spirit. 41. R. Zuck, “The Role of the Holy Spirit in Christian Teaching,” in The Christian Educator’s Handbook on Teaching, ed. Kenneth Gangel and Downers Grove, IL: Zondervan. Howard Hendricks (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker), 37. —Candace C. Shields 42. Ibid., 33. Holy Spirit, Educational Role of the 599

2:18–19; 2 John 7). Instead, the apostle argues that the Spirit in the teaching/learning process, the educational church should remain under orthodox teaching based goal of spiritual transformation cannot be accomplished.”43 on apostolic testimony (1 John 1:1–5), and that it is the Holy Spirit’s anointing that enables believers to discern References and Resources whether or not a doctrine is in keeping with God’s or- Bartel, L. 1988. “The Holy Spirit and the Teacher.” In The Holy thodox standards. Spirit in Christian Education, edited by Sylvia Lee, 103–116. Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing House. Titles Attributed to the Spirit in Teaching Dickason, C. F. 1981. “The Holy Spirit in Teaching.” In Intro- The biblical text undergirds the Holy Spirit’s role as duction to Biblical Christian Education, edited by Werner teacher by attributing to the Spirit the following minis- Graendorf, 110–125. Chicago: Moody. tries that facilitate education: ______. 1991. “The Holy Spirit in Education.” In Chris- tian Education: Foundations for the Future, edited by Robert • Paraclete: This title is literally “one who is called E. Clark, Lin Johnson, and Allyn K. Sloat, 121–36. Chicago: alongside,” and can be rendered helper, advocate, Moody. counselor, encourager, and supporter. According Esqueda, O. J. 2008. “The Holy Spirit as Teacher.” In The to John’s Gospel, the Paraclete, who was sent by the Teaching Ministry of the Church, 2ndOnly ed., edited by William Father at the Son’s request (14:6), teaches believers Yount, 74–87. Nashville, TN: B & H Academic Press. all things (14:26), reminds them about the teachings Henderlite, R. 1964. The Holy Spirit in Christian Education. of Jesus (14:26), and testifies about Christ (15:26). Philadelphia: Westminster Press. This title emphasizes the Holy Spirit as the helper Zuck, R. 1988. “The Role of the Holy Spirit in Christian Teach- who comes alongside believers to aid and assist in ing.” In The Christian Educator’s Handbook on Teaching, our understanding. edited by Kenneth Gangel and Howard Hendricks, 32–44. • Spirit of Truth: This function of the Spirit is seen Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. in the guiding of believers into truth (John 14:17, —Edward W. Watson 15:26, 16:13). Truth is an attribute of God and has its source in God. The Spirit helps believers to apply God’s truth to our lives. CopyHoly Spirit, Educational Role of the • Revealer of God: The Holy Spirit is the agent of di- vine revelation who reveals truths about God’s will, Christian education must focus on the Holy Spirit, since His person, and the deep mysteries of God. The He is its origin and meaning.44 It is the work of the Spirit apostle Paul states: “What no eye has seen, nor ear that makes Christian education distinctive, glorious, dy- heard, nor the human heart conceived—what God namic, and noble.45 Zechariah 4:6 reads: “‘Not by might has prepared for those who love him— these things nor by power, but by My Spirit,’ says the Lord.” In fact, God has revealed to us through the Spirit; for the such Spirit-directed, Christian education serves as fertile Spirit searches everything, even the depths of God” soil for the Spirit to operate in grace.46 The Holy Spirit as (1 Cor. 2:9–10). member of the Trinity perpetuates the initiative of Christ to redeem humankind and maintains Christ’s indwelling The Holy Spirit and the Gift of Teaching of human hearts (John 14:20) as predicated by the New The Bible teaches that the Holy Spirit bestows gifts Covenant (Jer. 31:33).47 The Spirit testifies of Jesus (John of grace upon believers for the spiritual edification 15:26) and satisfies the dictates of divine righteousness of the church. Teaching is mentioned as one of these (Rom. 8:4), thus liberating believers from the law (2 Cor. gifts (Rom. 12:7; 1 Cor. 12:28; Eph. 4:11). Although 3:17–18). He provides daily empowerment that super- all believers are commanded to teach (Matt. 28:20), sedes temporal dynamics, anoints believers with super- the Spirit gifts some with the special ability to explain natural understanding and discernment (1 Cor. 2:11b– God’s truths. Gifted teachers cooperate with the Holy 14), endows spiritual gifts, and releases boldness in them Spirit, who enables them to expound upon God’s Word, (Acts 4:31). The Spirit helps, inspires, and also influences helping students to understand and apply God’s truths to their lives. 43. Ibid., 37. The Holy Spirit is essential to the life and ministry of the 44. C. L. Hess, “Educating in the Spirit,” Religious Education 86, no. 3 Contributor (1991): 383–398. effective Christian educator. For teaching to be successful, 45. Zuck, “Role of the Holy Spirit in Christian Teaching,” 32–44. cooperation must exist between the teacher and student, 46. F. Rogers, “Dancing with Grace: Toward a Spirit-Centered Educa- tion,” Religious Education 89, no. 3 (Summer 1994): 377–394. who interact with God’s Word in a context in which the 47. J. I. Packer, Keep in Step with the Spirit (Leicester, UK: Inter-Varsity Holy Spirit is operating. “Without the work of the Holy Press, 1984). 600 Home and the Parents’ Role in Christian Education human utterances (John 14:26; Luke 12:12). Called the aspect of school life, including vision, management, Spirit of Truth by Christ (John 14:15), He communicates discipline, counseling, staff matters, and so forth, must God’s will to human hearts, teaches through revelations be brought under the direction of the Spirit. Increasing bringing enlightenment, and equips believers so that they intimacy, partnership, and close cooperation with God, progress in sanctification and regeneration (Gal. 5:22–23; through the agency of the Spirit, steadily grounds educa- Titus 3:5b).48 The Spirit repeatedly fills believers (Eph. tors in God’s grace and power and motivates their service 5:18), who cannot persevere or progress without Him. As to Him.57 Consequently, teachers manifest their relation- a result, they enjoy freedom from condemnation (Rom. ship with the Spirit of Christ as they love, care for, and 8:1–2) and empowerment for daily kingdom living (Eph. respond to the learner’s needs.58 3:17–19). According to the Bible, the Holy Spirit is indis- pensable to the perseverance and progress of believers. References and Resources The central task of the Spirit is to mediate the presence Gorman, J. 2001. “‘There’s Got to Be More!’ Transformational of Christ so that believers experience this presence and Learning.” Christian Education Journal 5 (NS): 23–51. fellowship.49 The Spirit’s locus of activity is the human Hess, C. L. 1991. “Educating in the Spirit.” Religious Education heart (Jer. 31:33), where He testifies of Jesus (John 15:26), 86 (3): 383–398. satisfies the dictates of divine righteousness (Rom. 8:4), Packer, J. I. 1984. Keep in Step with the SpiritOnly. Leicester, UK: and liberates believers from the law (2 Cor. 3:7–18). The Inter-Varsity Press. Spirit functions as a catalyst, transforming believers from Rogers, F. 1994. “Dancing with Grace: Toward a Spirit-Cen- carnal control into Christlikeness (Titus 3:5–7; Gal. 5:22– tered Education.” Religious Education 89 (3): 377–394. 23). The question must be asked about how Christian Wilhoit, J. C., and L. Rozema. 2005. “Anointed Teaching.” education can be “according to the Spirit.”50 Everything Christian Education Journal 2 (2): 239–255. said thus far impacts the school context. A number of Willard, D. 2002. Renovation of the Heart. Leicester, UK: Inter- Christian educators have emphasized truths concerning Varsity Press. the role of the Spirit specific to education. For example, Zuck, R. 1988. “The Role of the Holy Spirit in Christian Teach- Wilhoit and Rozema stressed the Holy Spirit’s role as ing.” In The Christian Educator’s Handbook on Teaching, principal teacher and primary initiator of truth.51 They edited by Kenneth Gangel and Howard Hendricks, 32–44. also emphasized that the Spirit related to learners as the GrandCopy Rapids, MI: Baker. paraklete or comforter, advocate, and strengthener. Zuck —James A. Swezey and Thyra Cameron emphasized the Spirit’s guidance into “all truth” (John 16:13) and inspiration of insight into “the deep things of God” (1 Cor. 2:10).52 Rogers underlined the Spirit’s Home and the Parents’ Role indwelling, empowerment, and gifting of learners to live in Christian Education a redeemed and reconciled life.53 The Holy Spirit fulfills a specific critical role in the Scripture reveals that God established an educational lives of Christian teachers as well. Such teachers need curriculum from the beginning of human history. Adam supernatural empowerment through being Spirit-filled, was created as a finite and innocent being and given the Spirit-gifted, Spirit-guided, and Spirit-inspired in terms responsibility to exercise dominion over creation (Gen. of creativity.54 The apostle Paul declared that his mes- 1:26–28, 2:19–20). The dominion mandate implies a con- sage, though communicated through human ability, tinual and necessary education from a holy and infinite was executed with inner spiritual power (1 Cor. 2:1, 4). being: God. The ability to fulfill the responsibility neces- Similarly, the Spirit enables teachers as his instruments to sitated submission to God for the purpose of learning serve in accordance with his will.55 The Spirit draws upon from Him. the Bible as the bedrock content of His curricula.56 Every The Mosaic Law was one of the most comprehensive, enduring, and influential bodies of legislation ever en- 48. D. Willard, Renovation of the Heart (Leicester, UK: Inter-Varsity acted; it addressed the ceremonial, civil, domestic, and Press, 2002). political. God’s law was enforced with somber penalties 49. Packer, Keep in Step. 50. Hess, “Educating in the Spirit,” 383. and thus regulated every aspect of Jewish life. Although 51. J. C. Wilhoit and L. Rozema, “Anointed Teaching,” Christian Educa- every Jew did not obey the Mosaic Law, it was a code of tion Journal 2, no. 2 (Fall 2005): 239–255. values that created a nation and people of remarkable 52.Contributor Zuck, “Role of the Holy Spirit,” 32–44. 53. Rogers, “Dancing with Grace,” 377–394. societal magnitude. When the nation began to neglect 54. Zuck, “Role of the Holy Spirit,” 32–44. 55. Wilhoit and Rozema, “Anointed Teaching,” 239–255. 56. J. Gorman, “‘There’s Got to Be More!’ Transformational Learning,” 57. Rogers, “Dancing with Grace,” 377–394. Christian Education Journal 5, no. NS (2001): 23–51. 58. Zuck, “Role of the Holy Spirit,” 32–44. Homeschooling 601 their divine heritage, they experienced division and strife, synagogue, and wisemen; and the focus was always on the which eventually culminated in captivity and exile. Par- child. Throughout the New Testament, the educational ents were obligated to be the primary agents of defense in curriculum was also progressively developed. The church the propagation of moral and spiritual instruction (Deut. believed in God as the source of all truth. However, the 6:4–9). Not only are parents responsible to impart God’s curriculum involved Jesus Christ, the Holy Spirit, and revelation with earnestness and long suffering, they are scripture. Responsibility for education was still inherent also obligated to model the purpose of such values. in the home (Acts 2:46; 2 Tim. 1:5). The means for com- Throughout the Old and New Testaments, the family municating the curriculum were the local church and cat- is one of the few motifs that reappear most consistently. echumenal schools. The focus still remained on the child. God instituted the family as the first and basic social The secular response to God’s educational curricu- dynamic, as evident in his presentation of Eve to Adam lum adheres to a similar structure. Human reason is (Gen. 2:18–25), who conceived and gave birth to the first the source of truth, and thus the curriculum is secular children (4:1–2). Families existed prior to Israel becom- humanism and materialism. The responsibility for edu- ing a nation and even earlier than the formation of the cation is not inherent in the home; rather, the church, church. The plethora of genealogical records in both the and then later the state, becomes the emphasis. The Old and New Testaments emphasizes the biblical priority means for accomplishing the curriculumOnly is no longer of the family (and especially in relation to the promise of the church and school; rather, it is public education and the Messiah). society. Although the focus remains on the child, the The tremendous importance of families in the edu- secular response does not involve the home, family, or cation of children is emphasized throughout the Bible God. Success with God’s educational program, which was (Exod. 12:23–28; Deut. 6:4–9; Josh. 4:4–47; Eph. 5:21–6:4; established by Adam, involves Judeo-Christian principles Col. 3:18–21; 1 Pet. 3:1–7). Parents serve as divine rep- of parental responsibility, by means of the home (not resentatives who bear the primary responsibility for the merely as a place of residence) as a relating moral and spiritual instruction of children. They may delegate their spiritual curriculum. role to other qualified individuals (Lat. in loco parentis, “in the place of a parent”). Teachers beyond the home References and Resources reinforced the moral and spiritual instruction with profi- Anthony,Copy Michael J., ed. 2001. Introducing Christian Education. ciency. Initially, the teachers were the priests—from the Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. tribe of Levi—who were divinely appointed. The priests Balswick, Jack O., and Judith K. Balswick. 1989. The Family: were devoted to the sole purpose of teaching, and thus A Christian Perspective on the Contemporary Home. Grand they were to reflect moral and spiritual integrity. Rapids, MI: Baker. Spiritual decay was rampant when the nation ne- Benson, Clarence H. 1943. A Popular History of Christian Edu- glected God’s revelation. Humanism was dominant as cation. Chicago: Moody. the nation became more apathetic, and this culminated Bryne, Herbert W. 1977. A Christian Approach to Education. in division and then exile. Subsequent to the exile, the Rev. ed. Milford, MI: Mott Media. Jewish nation appeared to have learned from the errors of Gaebelein, Frank E. 1954. The Pattern of God’s Truth. New the past. Consequently, biblical morality and spirituality York: Oxford University Press. were taught in all aspects of life, as evident in the devel- Ledbetter, J. Otis, and Kurt D. Bruner. 1996. Your Heritage. opment of Jewish schools in every community. Carefully Colorado Springs, CO: Victor. selected priests, scribes, and teachers staffed the schools. MacArthur, John, Jr. 1982. The Family. Chicago: Moody. The primary instruction of children was supplemented —Ron J. Bigalke by secondary instruction, which often occurred in the home of the rabbi, and this facilitated direct and dynamic contact with the moral and spiritual leadership of the Homeschooling time. The moral and spiritual curriculum was essential to the well-being of the nation. Homeschooling is an educational methodology con- Throughout the Old Testament, the response to God’s ducted primarily in the home as opposed to in parochial, educational curriculum was a development of the divine private, or public schooling. The homeschool move- programContributor with Adam by means of progressive revelation. ment is representative of an extensive social dynamic The source of truth was God; the curriculum was the pa- of families (primarily in Western contexts) who believe triarch, the Mosaic Law, and the prophets; the responsi- that education of children is the ultimate responsibil- bility was inherent in the home via the parents; the means ity of parents. The movement became prevalent during for accomplishing the curriculum were the priest, scribes, the last quarter of the 20th century (predominantly with 602 Homeschooling, Impact of Legal Issues on younger children), in an unexpected manner. Parents References and Resources separated themselves from generations of customs and Bauer, Susan Wise, and Jessie Wise. 2004. The Well-Trained laws to provide education to their children in their own Mind. Rev. ed. New York: W. W. Norton. homes, which of course does have a biblical foundation Berle, Adolf. 1913. The School in the Home. New York: Moffat, (Deut. 6:4–9; Prov. 1:8–9; Eph. 6:4); those traditions Yard and Company. were primarily the result of child labor laws and societal Farris, Michael P. 1997. The Future of Homeschooling: A New changes that placed more children in schools. When the Direction for Christian Home Education. Washington, DC: homeschool movement began, many of those who chose Regnery. this educational alternative were reacting against public Stevens, Mitchell L. 2001. Kingdom of Children: Culture and school curricula and environments. Consequently, as stu- Controversy in the Homeschooling Movement. Princeton, NJ: dents entered their high school years and academic de- Princeton University Press. mands became more costly and rigorous, parents would —Ron J. Bigalke often transfer their children to formal schools. The clas- sical education model greatly helped to resolve this initial deficiency. In the early 1980s, there were approximately Homeschooling, Impact of Legal Issues on 20,000 homeschool students in the United States, and Only the current estimate by the National Center for Educa- This article addresses significant legal issues that have tion Statistics is around 1.5 million. Homeschooling has shaped and may potentially affect homeschooling. Home- increased in other countries also, such as Australia, India, schoolers refer here to those who, according to the Home and the United Kingdom. School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA), are home Founders of the modern homeschooling are Dr. Ray- educated 100 percent, without ties to state-mandated mond Moore and his wife, Dorothy, who are often resources or curriculum. It is important that Christian regarded as the “grandparents” of the movement. The education leadership and those unfamiliar with home- Moores published Better Late Than Early: A New Ap- schooling accurately understand the issues in order to proach to Your Child’s Education in 1972, in which they support homeschooling. expressed the theory that children learned more effec- tively when they were developmentally prepared. They RecentCopy Examples directly opposed the perspective of public schooling, Two California homeschooled teenagers on their way contending that it is better for younger children to be home from registering for college classes were ordered educated at home in an environment of love and support. into a police car for truancy. The citation was dismissed, Another formative basis for homeschooling was the work but as of 2010 an unlawful arrest suit was pending. In of British educator Charlotte Mason, which was revital- 2006, the Loudermilk family knew their Fourth and ized by the publication of Susan Schaeffer Macaulay’s Fourteenth Amendment rights, but succumbed to threats book For the Children’s Sake: Foundations of Education of removal of their children, allowing illegal entry into for the Home and School (1984). Moore and Mason un- their home and intimidation by social workers and derstood homeschooling as an opportunity for Christian police. These are but two of thousands of examples of expression. Others, such as agrarian theorist Ralph Bor- harassment of homeschool families in the United States sodi, in Flight from the City (1933), and educator John despite the legal status of homeschooling. Holt (who established the Growing without Schooling Regardless of whether one is informed about the many magazine in August 1977), argued secularly for home- advantages of homeschooling, the inaccuracy of perpetu- schooling. Holt published Instead of Education (1976) to ated homeschooling myths, or the disadvantages of public encourage parents to abandon any efforts toward reform- education—all of which are addressed in-depth elsewhere ing the public education system and promote the notion (e.g., Ray 2004; NHERI; Klicka 1995; HSLDA)—legal of “unschooling.” issues have had a significant impact on homeschooling Homeschooling is a historic effort to maintain family families, creating a defensive and preemptive legal posture. intimacy and recover the role of parents in the education of their children. Families have regained a common pur- A Brief History pose and work through homeschooling and have become Prior to a 1923 U.S. Supreme Court decision, it was un- healthierContributor as a result (as evidenced by the fact that home- heard of for parents to seek protection of their rights to schooling families tend to have twice as many children educate their children. But U.S. compulsory attendance as other families, and they are less likely to be affected by laws in the 20th century almost quashed homeschooling divorce). Homeschooling has also resulted in reclaiming until the 1970s and the rise of modern homeschooling. and updating classical education. Most if not all of the difficulties that homeschooling Homeschooling, Impact of Legal Issues on 603 families face center on National Education Association decisions that established constitutional parental rights in and other public educational organizations’ battles over educating children (Klicka 1995, 318), derived from the state financial interests and educational philosophies. For Fourteenth Amendment, the “right to liberty.” In Pierce example, the National Association of Elementary School v. Society of Sisters (1925), the Supreme Court supported Principals (NAESP) wanted homeschooling eradicated as the Meyer decision that parents have the right to direct a form of “child abuse” (Klicka 1995, 210). State educators the religious upbringing of their children and to control ignore extensive current quantitative research, replacing the process of education. In addition, Pierce asserts that it with anecdotes, misconceptions, or ad hominem at- parents have the fundamental right to keep their children tacks accusing homeschoolers of being “zealots,” “prob- free from government standardization: “The fundamen- lems,” or “stepping backward to the seventeenth century” tal theory of liberty upon which all governments in this (Klicka 1995, 29–211). Wisconsin’s state superintendent Union repose excluded any general power of the state claimed that homeschoolers were “neglected and abused” to standardize its children by forcing them to accept in- and not being educated (212). Harassment by child pro- struction form public teachers only” (Klicka 1995, 320). tection social workers and school boards continues in Finally, Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972) upheld Pierce as the various forms, ranging from excessive unlawful require- charter of the rights of parents—“beyond debate as an ments to intimidation and threats of removing children enduring tradition”—to direct theOnly religious upbringing from the home (e.g., Calabretta v. Floyd [1995]; Kindstedt of their children by asserting that the fundamental inter- v. East Greenwich School Committee [1986]; Griswold v. est of parents, as contrasted with that of the state, was to Connecticut [1985]). In addressing these infringements guide the religious future and education of their children legally, a prominent litmus test has been the compelling (Klicka 1995, 321). interest test, though most defenses rest on the free exercise clause of the U.S. Constitution (Klicka 1995, 327). References and Resources Anthony, M., ed. 2001. Introducing Christian Education: Foun- Parental Rights dations for the Twenty-first Century. Grand Rapids, MI: Above all legal issues, the most significant and currently Baker. embattled issue is parental rights, which has even drawn Anthony, M., and W. Benson. 2003. Exploring the History and the HSLDA and Parentalrights.org into the fray (cf. United PhilosophyCopy of Christian Education: Principles for the 21st Nation’s Convention on the Rights of the Child). For ex- Century. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel. ample, in January 2010 the Romeikes were granted asylum Bell, D. 1997. The Ultimate Guide to Homeschooling. Nashville, in the United States, not to flee war or tyranny but because TN: Nelson they homeschool in Germany, where it is illegal (Moore Klicka, C. J. 1995. Homeschooling: The Right Choice. Sisters, 2010). In the United States, the right of parents to teach OR: Loyal Publishing. their children is guaranteed in the Fourteenth Amendment Moore, T. 2010. “Give Me Your Tired, Your Poor, Your Home- of the U.S. Constitution, and given that they often home- schoolers.” Time Magazine (March). www.time.com/time/ school for religious reasons, parents also have protection magazine/article/0,9171,1968099,00.html. under the First Amendment. Hence homeschooling is a Ray, B. 2002. Worldwide Guide to Homeschooling: Facts and right, not a privilege (Klicka 1995, 315)—a right being Stats on the Benefits of Home School. Nashville, TN: Broad- something imparted to us from an external source—and man & Holman. within the Judeo-Christian worldview all rights are sov- ———. 2004. Home Educated and Now Adults: Their Commu- ereignly imparted from God, in the U.S. case through the nity and Civic Involvement, Views about Homeschooling, and First and Fourteenth Amendments (Wayne 2000). Other Traits. Kearney, NE: Morris Early recognition of parents’ rights was established in the Sproul, R. C., Jr. 2004. “When You Rise Up: A Covenantal 19th century with Abington v. Schempp, in which the court Approach to Homeschooling.” Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Pub- recognized that education (private or public) was histori- lishing. cally controlled by Protestant sects, and only gradually did Wayne, I. 2000. Homeschooling from a Biblical Worldview. Co- control of education pass largely to public officials. The vert, MI: Wisdom’s Gate. Oklahoma Supreme Court, in School Board District No. 18 v. Thompson (1998), ruled that “under our form of Govern- Homeschool Legal Defense Association (HSLDA). www.hslda mentContributor . . . the home is considered the keystone of the govern- .org ment structure. In this empire, parents rule supreme during National Home Education Research Institute (NHERI). www the minority of their children” (Klicka 1995, 316–317). .nheri.org Later watershed cases have solidified parental rights in Parental Rights. www.Parentalrights.org this area. Meyer v Nebraska (1923) was the first of many —Steven R. Clark 604 Honduras and Christian Education

Honduras and Christian Education eventually grew to comprise 33 kindergartens, 110 primary schools, and 89 secondary/vocational Roman Beginnings Catholic schools,62 as well as 127 nurseries, 260 kin- Individual missionaries first brought the Gospel to Hon- dergartens, 199 primary schools, and 180 secondary duras in 1896. As the community of believers has Protestant schools.63 There are also two postsecondary grown, so have the number of local churches, orphan- Roman Catholic schools,64 three Protestant Christian ages, church-operated day care centers and schools that universities, and seven seminaries accredited by the As- provide general education, and seminaries that provide sociation of Christian Universities and Colleges in Asia professional training. and the Association for Theological Education in South East Asia, respectively.65 Main Institutions Robert Morrison, one of the first Protestants desirous Organizations such as the Association of Central Ameri- of learning Chinese, dreamed of establishing a Christian can Churches (ASIECAH), Assembly of God denomina- school in East Asia designed for European and Chinese tion, Southern Baptist Convention, Conservative Bap- students for “better understanding and training for tists, and Mennonites, as well as a large number of evangelism.”66 However, because foreigners were not al- independent and Pentecostal church organizations, cur- lowed to learn Chinese at the time, heOnly started a school in rently minister in Honduras. Malacca Malaysia in 1820, which was eventually directed by James Legge of the London Missionary Society. Later, Religious Freedom with the Nanjing Treaty opening doors for foreigners to The constitution of Honduras assures religious freedom, study Chinese67 and the cession of Hong Kong Island to reflected in the laws and policies that permit free exercise the British in 1841, Legge moved the school (Morrison of religion.59 Education Society School) from Malacca to Hong Kong in 1843, and theological courses were added.68 The Brit- Education of Christians ish government provided subsidies for schools run by The major obstacle to Christian education in Honduras missionaries and Christian educators, such as the Anglo 60 is a high degree of illiteracy (73 percent) and low educa- Chinese College of the London Missionary Society, Mor- tional levels (average 5.4 years of schooling). In churches, rison Education Society School, and St. Paul’s College of the majority of teaching is currently done through preach- Copy 69 the Church Missionary Society (Anglican Church). ing. Sunday school curricula are infrequently used in Two of Hong Kong’s first Christian tertiary education children’s classes. Formal educational institutions still rely schools grew from the roots of Protestant missions in primarily on rote memorization learning. Opportunities Mainland China. The Training School of Canton Pres- for informal education may be found in small group activi- byterian Mission, established in 1864 at Fati, Guang- ties in local churches and parachurch organizations. dong, later joined the Anglican and Methodist churches to become Canton Union Theological Seminary in 1914, Innovations which later became Chung Chi College. After Japanese Formal theological institutions are experimenting with occupation, the end of World War II, and the institu- extension programs and online courses. tion of China’s nationwide higher education reforms, —Philip Ozinga Chung Chi College was reestablished in Hong Kong and eventually, in 1968, joined the Department of Phi- losophy and Religion at the Chinese University of Hong Hong Kong and Christian Education

62. http://www.catholic.org.hk/v2/en/cdhk/a08statistics.html (accessed With the cession of Hong Kong Island, Kowloon Pen- 1 April 2013). insula and Stonecutters Island, and the New Territories 63. http://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/religion.pdf to Great Britain in 1841, 1869, and 1889, respectively, (accessed 1 March 2013). 61 64. Ibid. Christian education commenced in Hong Kong, and 65. http://www.acuca.net/member_institutions/ and http://atesea.net/ member-schools/hong-kong/ (accessed 1 March 2013). 59. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, “2010 Report on 66. Samuel H. Moffet, A in Asia, vol. II, 1500– International Religious Freedom” 17 November, http://www.state.gov/j/ 1900 (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2005), 294. drl/rls/irf/2010/148763.htm. 67. Ibid., 297. 60.Contributor Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, “International 68. Wong and Ticozzi, “Hong Kong,” 346. Religious Freedom Report 2005,” 8 November, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/ 69. Siu Lun Lau, “Converging in a Colonial Setting: The Experiences rls/irf/2005/51644.htm. of Baptist College and Chung Chi College in Hong Kong,” in Christian 61. Timothy Man-Kong Wong and Sergio Ticozzi, “Hong Kong,” in A Responses to Asian Challenges: A Glocalization View on Christian Higher Dictionary of Asian Christianity, ed. Scott W. Sunquist (Grand Rapids, MI: Education in East Asia, ed. Yuansheng Liang and Ziming Wu (Hong Kong: Eerdmans, 2001), 346. Chinese University Press, 2007), 275. Hope 605

Kong and became the Divinity School of Chung Chi because God’s love has been poured into our hearts College.70 The Christian College of China, also started through the Holy Spirit who has been given to us” (Rom. by Presbyterian missions in 1888 but in Guangzhou, 5:2–5, NRSV). later became Lingnan University, in 1927. The facilities Today we live in the space between promise and ful- and school were co-opted by the Chinese government in fillment. The anticipatory hope that grounded the early 1952 to become Sun Yat-sen University, but eventually church has given way to uncertainty, and our capacity alumni of Lingnan University restarted the university in to live with hope during this multimillennial period of Hong Kong in 1967.71 waiting seems increasingly fragile. A pervasive sense A third tertiary Christian school came on the scene in of unwellness hovers over us, and the harsh realities of the years following World War II. Hong Kong Baptist economic insecurity, social instability, environmental College was founded in 1956 with a “unique vision of degradation, wars, rumors of wars, suffering, and op- Whole Person Education.”72 In 1994 it reached university pression in myriad forms cast shadows of despair across status and was renamed Hong Kong Baptist University. the globe. Our wishes and optimistic ideations have not Other seminaries include Alliance Bible Seminary, Bethel come true, and many of our dreams remain deferred. Bible Seminary, China Graduate School of Theology, Chi- The despairing realities of life obscure hope’s melody, nese Mission Seminary, Concordia Theological Seminary, such that we can scarcely sense ourOnly own deep yearning Hong Kong Adventist College, Hong Kong Baptist Theo- for wholeness and well-being. logical Seminary, and Lutheran Theological Seminary.73 Hope calls the present into question. A personification Albeit somewhat controversial (many believe that of God’s Spirit assuring us of God’s presence, power, Christian education in Hong Kong was offered only to and fidelity, hope evokes yearning for wholeness and a select few and initiated primarily to teach English, so well-being and compels us toward just, liberating, and that British rule could succeed),74 Christian education has restorative action in the world. Hope is the spiritual tug always been highly regarded and sought after in Hong that we sense, the holy indignation that we feel, that Kong.75 Growth in Christian education will likely keep yearning for justice for all that confronts us as truth. step with the growth of the church in China. Grounded in the theological conviction that God’s Spirit —Shelley Trebesch impregnates us with intense anticipation of wholeness andCopy well-being, this image of hope echoes Paul’s letter to the Roman Church: “We know that the whole creation Hope has been groaning in labor pains until now; and not only the creation, but we ourselves, who have the first fruits of The capacity of hope to engender possibilities and evoke the Spirit, groan inwardly while we wait for adoption, the dreams that are more powerful and expansive than the redemption of our bodies. For in [by] hope we are saved” nightmarish realities of life has captured the human (Rom. 8:22–24a, NRSV). imagination for millennia, yielding a rich reservoir of The Spirit groans within us, creating anticipation insights and theological perspectives about its nature throughout all of creation and reminding us that we are and power. The early church anticipated and hoped giving birth to something new. All of creation groans; for Christ’s imminent return, grounding that hope in the earth and all of its inhabitants, sighing together so the promised resurrection of the “just and the unjust” as to challenge the too often individualized conception (Acts 25:15) and God’s ultimate revelation to creation. of God’s Spirit in our world today. This collective groan With anxious expectation, Paul and other New Testa- “cries out for righteousness and justice,” filling us with ment writers encouraged the church to remain steadfast, hope and restless anticipation of a world in which love rejoicing in suffering, “knowing that suffering produces of God, neighbor, and the earth as our shared domicile endurance, and endurance produces character, and char- might become the normative expression of human rela- acter produces hope, and hope does not put us to shame tionship.76 With hope we acknowledge the deeply divided and flawed nature of our world but will not concede that 70. http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/theology/en/introduction2.html (accessed suffering and oppression are the inevitability of our exis- 15 April 2013). 71. http://www.ln.edu.hk/info-about/history (accessed 15 April 2013). tence. Therefore we wait, not in idleness or with mourn- 72. http://buwww.hkbu.edu.hk/eng/about_hkbu/history.jsp (accessed ful hearts, but with earnest expectation that our world 15 April 2013). and we are becoming new. Contributor73. http://atesea.net/member-schools/hong-kong/ (accessed 1 May 2013). 74. Lau, “Converging in a Colonial Setting,” 274–275. 75. Kwok Nai Wang, “Hong Kong,” in Church in Asia Today: Challenges 76. Emerson B. Powery, “The Groans of ‘Brother Saul’: An Exploratory and Opportunities, ed. Saphir Athyal (Singapore: Asia Lausanne Committee Reading of Romans 8 for ‘Survival,’” Word & World 26, no. 3 (Summer for World Evangelization, 1996), 150, 153. 2004): 320–321. 606 Hospitality as Christian Practice

As Christian religious educators, our task is to nurture able. However, it goes beyond this to encompass social the capacity of human persons to sense hope’s melody and and spiritual needs. It includes a focus on welcome into give it concrete expression amid the cacophony of distor- table fellowship and, by extension, on openness of heart tion that pervades our existence; that is, to live with hope. and attentiveness to the guest. There is a focus not only In Educating Congregations: The Future of Christian Edu- on individual acts of welcome, but also on the hospitable cation, Charles Foster identifies four practices that church practices of the community toward community outsid- educators might embrace in order to nurture hope. Church ers. While the guest may be a family member, there is in education nurtures hope, Foster writes, “if it equips chil- Christian reflection a particular emphasis on welcoming dren, youth, and adults to participate in the congregation’s the marginalized and the alien. The guest is not merely vocation in the world, . . . when it creates space for people fed, but also included, respected, and listened to. As Amy to practice the transforming presence of God in the world, Oden puts it: “Hospitality requires that the host recognize . . . when it discovers clues to the content of the church’s both the need and the full humanity of the stranger. There mission in its own faith responses, . . . when it involves is a respectful balance in successful hospitality that neither the playful exercise of the imagination.”77 Here, I expand denigrates the guest’s neediness nor denies it. The other Foster’s list by adding three insights that emerge from my is fully honored as a child of God, while at the same time own exploration of hope as well as from other theological needs are addressed.”80 This means thatOnly the position of voices. Church education nurtures hope (1) when it re- the host should not entail superiority or condescension, members stories of God’s presence, power, and fidelity into but rather a willingness to risk vulnerability and to receive the present moment, including stories of forgotten voices from the guest as well as to give. Christian hospitality is in church and society; (2) by creating spaces and equipping practiced as a response to God’s welcome of us. Israel’s call persons with the tools necessary for truth-telling, reflec- to hospitality is grounded in its own experience of being tion, repentance, repair, and reconciliation; and (3) when it a stranger, and the New Testament invites Christians to incorporates communal lament, the hope-infused articula- find the face of Christ in the face of the stranger who is tion of pain and grief, and other practices of resistance and to be welcomed (Matt. 25:35). As a practice of welcoming contestation as pathways to hope and re-creation.78 As we and honoring those who are socially marginal, Christian embrace these practices, we become conduits of an “abid- hospitality has a countercultural impetus. ing hope that rises from the ground as people travel in the 79 Copy path of God’s promises and blessings.” Embrace —Veronice Miles Miroslav Volf, arguing that our embrace of others needs to be modeled on God’s embrace of us, offers an account of the elements that characterize an authentically welcoming Hospitality as Christian Practice embrace. An embrace involves opening the arms in a mo- ment of deliberate vulnerability, in which one lowers one’s Hospitality is a vital Christian practice and, given the bibli- defenses before the other. The next step is waiting for the cal emphasis on care for the orphan, widow, and stranger, other’s response; the embrace is not forced upon the other, an important theme in biblical ethics (Lev. 19:33–34; Deut. who has the freedom to refuse. The third step is a mutual 14:29; Matt. 10:40–41; Rom. 12:13). Hospitality begins closing of the arms, and during the embrace each is em- at the level of basic physical needs, involving provision bracing the other, with neither in a superior position. The of food and shelter to those who find themselves vulner- final step is opening the arms again to release the other; an embrace does not seek to possess, but allows the other to retain his or her freedom.81 77. Charles R. Foster, Educating Congregations: The Future of Christian Education (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1994), 125–126. 78. See the following for additional insights: Anne Streaty Wimberly, Hospitality as Educational Model Soul Stories: African American Christian Education (Nashville, TN: Abing- don Press, 1994); Delores S. Williams, Sisters in the Wilderness: The Chal- When applying hospitality to education, physical hospi- lenge of Womanist God-Talk (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2000); Emilie Townes, tality (combining learning with shared food and attend- Breaking the Fine Rain of Death: African American Health Issues and a ing to learners’ physical comfort) may be included, but the Womanist Ethic of Care (New York: Continuum, 1998); Rubem A. Alves, A Theology of Human Hope (New York: Corpus Publications, 1969); Walter possibilities are also broader. Various educational writers Brueggemann, “The Formfulness of Grief,” Interpretation: A Journal of have focused on the teacher’s pedagogical role as host Bible and Theology 31, no. 3 (July 1977) and “The Costly Loss of Lament,” JournalContributor for the Study of the Old Testament 36 (1986). 79. Mary Elizabeth Mullino Moore, “Walking with Children toward 80. Amy G. Oden, And You Welcomed Me: A Sourcebook on Hospitality Hope: The Long Road to Justice and Reconciliation,” in Spirituality and in Early Christianity (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 2001), 26. Ethics in Education: Philosophical, Theological and Radical Perspectives, 81. Miroslav Volf, Exclusion and Embrace: A Theological Exploration ed. Hanan Alexander (Portland, East Sussex, UK: Sussex Academic Press, of Identity, Otherness, and Reconciliation (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 2004), 97. 1996), 99–166. Hugh of Saint Victor 607 and/or on the creation of an ethos in which hospitality to Newman, Elizabeth. 2007. Untamed Hospitality: Welcoming new ideas is practiced by the learning group. Viewing the God and Other Strangers. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos. teacher as host invokes basic relational concerns (who is Nouwen, Henri. 1986. Reaching Out: The Three Movements of included in the learning group, whether newcomers and the Spiritual Life. New York: Doubleday. outsiders are welcomed, whether learners feel respected Oden, Amy G. 2001. And You Welcomed Me: A Sourcebook on and cared for while in the learning setting), but also Hospitality in Early Christianity. Nashville, TN: Abingdon broader pedagogical emphases. Hospitality implies that Press. the teacher honors students, welcomes their voices, and Pohl, Christine D. 1999. Making Room: Recovering Hospitality is open to being changed by their contributions, while as a Christian Tradition. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. still having hospitality to offer; Volf’s account of embrace Smith, David I., and Barbara Carvill. 2000. The Gift of the may suggest an alternative to both teacher-centered and Stranger: Faith, Hospitality, and Foreign Language Learning. learner-centered models of education. Henri Nouwen Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. sees the role of host as calling on the teacher to provide Volf, Miroslav. 1996. Exclusion and Embrace: A Theological a fearless space in which personal as well as intellectual Exploration of Identity, Otherness, and Reconciliation. Nash- growth can happen.82 Parker Palmer claims that three ville, TN: Abingdon Press. major characteristics of a learning space are “openness, Only—David I. Smith boundaries, and an air of hospitality,” noting that

to be inhospitable to strangers or strange ideas, however Hugh of Saint Victor unsettling they may be, is to be hostile to the possibility of truth; hospitality is not only an ethical virtue but an Early Background and Education epistemological one as well. So the classroom where truth While scholars disagree on whether Hugh of Saint Vic- is central will be a place where every stranger and every tor was French (Flemish) or German (Saxon) by birth, strange utterance is met with welcome.83 they do agree that he was born in 1096, the eldest son of Cultivation of a hospitable stance on the part of learners Conrad, Count of Blankenburg, and educated as a boy creates space for interacting respectfully with new ideas in Halberstadt. On the advice of his uncle, Reinhardt of and their proponents and remaining open to change Blankenburg,Copy the local bishop, he entered the Abbey of while retaining a sense of boundaries (the guest is not Saint Victor for his studies, probably around 1115. The invited to trash the house). founder, William of Champeaux, had left Notre Dame More specific applications of the practice of hospitality and founded Saint Victor’s outside of Paris in 1108. His to education echo the biblical focus on hospitality to the primary aim was to combine spiritual discipline and 85 marginalized and excluded. Approaching education in teaching, communal piety and scholarship. Hugh stud- terms of hospitality may involve identifying and seeking ied under the guidance and tutelage of William’s succes- ways of welcoming participants or voices that are at risk sor, Giluin, who continued Saint Victor’s reputation for of being marginalized in the educational process. Think- piety and learning. In 1133, upon the death of the abbey’s ing in terms of hospitality may also be particularly apt for then leader Thomas, Hugh was chosen to succeed him as certain curriculum areas, such as when learning foreign head of the School of Saint Victor. Under his leadership, languages and cultures is approached with an emphasis St. Victor’s gained a reputation for excellence in scholar- on learning to practice hospitality to strangers rather ship combined with virtuous living. Hugh was a popular than with an emphasis on gaining skills for personal lecturer and instructor until his death on 11 February travel and employment needs.84 1141. His life and works were influential on Victorine leaders who followed him, such as Richard of Saint Victor References and Resources and Andrew of Saint Victor. Anderson, David W. 2011. “Hospitable Classrooms: Biblical Hospitality and Inclusive Education.” Journal of Education Most Notable Publications and Christian Belief 15 (1): 13–27. Considering the time in which he lived and wrote, Hugh of Saint Victor was quite a prolific writer. His most nota- ble and influential publications are De Sacramentis (The 82. Henri Nouwen, Reaching Out: The Three Movements of the Spiritual Sacraments of the Christian Faith) and The Didascalicon LifeContributor (New York: Doubleday, 1986), 84–97. 83. Parker Palmer, To Know as We Are Known (San Francisco: Harper, 1983), 71, 74. 84. David I. Smith and Barbara Carvill, The Gift of the Stranger: Faith, 85. The fine scholarship of Paul Rorem in Hugh of Saint Victor (New Hospitality, and Foreign Language Learning (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, York: Oxford University Press, 2009) has helped in navigating the discrep- 2000). ancies about Hugh’s early life. 608 Hull, John of Hugh of Saint Victor: A Medieval Guide to the Arts. De the occupations of this life; and logical, which provides Sacramentis establishes Hugh as a theologian, because the knowledge necessary for correct speaking and clear it is the first known attempt to systematize theological argumentation. He was the first to include the pragmatic thought. Indeed, he is so well respected as a theologian skills (mechanical) in a framework of learning. For Hugh, that he has been called a second Augustine, the most in- the study of philosophy as he divided it inevitably led to a fluential theologian of the 12th century, and a forerunner way of life that included repentance and prayer, medita- to Thomas Aquinas. The Didascalicon establishes Hugh tion and contemplation, and ethical living toward others. as an exemplary teacher, because it contains a framework He placed a heavy emphasis on an attitude of humility, for curricula, suggested pedagogical practices, and an repeatedly encouraging his students to humble them- emphasis on spiritual disciplines. Lesser known are his selves in order to learn openly from the scriptures, from treatises on ’s ark, “On the Moral Interpretation of God, from their teachers, and from one another. the Ark of Noah” and “On the Mystic Interpretation of —Laurie Matthias the Ark of Noah,” both of which combine his interest in scripture—particularly the story of the flood—with his interest in moral formation. Hull, John Only Significant Contributions to Christian Education John M. Hull was born 22 April 1935 in Corryong, Vic- Christian higher education finds its roots in medieval toria, Australia. His father was a Methodist minister of universities and monasteries, and it owes much of its conservative evangelical persuasion and his mother was heritage in particular to Hugh of Saint Victor. His over- a schoolteacher. The centrality of the Bible to Christian riding goal for his students was to know God and to be faith in these formative years left an imprint on him.87 known by Him. He believed that the best way to achieve He wrote about the impact of his parents’ life on his this was to focus on creation and its restoration, both in faith in The Shadow of My Parents. At the age of 13 he terms of what a student studies as well as what he views developed cataracts in both eyes; after several operations as his own personal spiritual growth.86 Specifically, he over the years, he became blind in 1980. He has written saw no separation or distinction between the pursuit of extensively about his disability in several books, includ- knowledge or truth and the practice of virtue. In other ing TouchingCopy the Rock: An Experience of Blindness (1991), words, the fusion of one’s faith, life, and learning was On Sight and Insight: A Journey into the World of Blind- of the utmost importance to Hugh. It is difficult to view ness (1997), and In the Beginning There Was Darkness: Hugh as either theologian or pedagogue; he is consis- A Blind Person’s Conversations with the Bible (2001). He tently and concurrently both. most recent book is The Tactile Heart (2013). He and his One of Hugh of Saint Victor’s strengths was the way wife Marilyn have four children, and John has an older in which he systematized learning, both theological and daughter from a previous marriage.88 otherwise. Regarding the learning of theology, he advo- Hull earned a secondary teaching degree at the Uni- cated a specific sequence that moved the student from the versity of Melbourne in 1956. While teaching at Caufield foundation of historical facts, to a framework of doctrinal Grammar School, he completed a bachelor of education truths, to personal or spiritual appropriation or applica- degree in philosophy and psychology of education. He tion. Again, even though he is linear in his pedagogical moved to Britain to study theology at the University of approach, he views the entire learning process as involv- Cambridge from 1959 to 1962. While studying theology, ing both the body and the mind, a confluence of the inner he had a traumatic encounter with higher criticism of the and the outer that leads eventually to the restoration of Bible, which caused a crisis of faith. This crisis gave way to the whole person to what God intended him to be. a theology strongly influenced by the “new theology,” with Hugh also advocated a breadth of knowledge impres- its utilization of the language of depth psychology and its sive for its time. He encouraged his students to learn all embrace of secularity as part of God’s purposes for hu- they could about everything. Demonstrating once again manity.89 For Hull, the Bible continued to be the primary his penchant for systematic approaches, he divided phi- reference point for Christian belief, which is reflected in his losophy (which he called a love of wisdom) into four book In the Beginning There Was Darkness (2001). branches of knowledge: theoretical, which strives for the contemplation of truth; practical, which considers Contributor87. Dennis Bates, Gloria Durka, and Friedrich Schweitzer, eds., Educa- the regulation of morals; mechanical, which supervises tion, Religion and Society: Essays in Honour of John H. Hull (Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2006), 3. 88. The biographical sketch is taken from http://www.johnmhull.biz/ 86. The male pronoun is used deliberately here, since all of Hugh’s stu- about_jmh.html. dents were males in the 12th century. 89. Bates, Durka, and Schweitzer, Education, Religion and Society, 3. Hull, John 609

In 1966, he taught at Westhill College of Education man religious education over the past 25 years. From (now University of Birmingham) as a lecturer in divinity, 1971 to 1996 he was editor of the British Journal of Reli- where he trained religious education teachers. In 1969, gious Education, and he served on its UK editorial board he graduated from the University with a PhD in theol- until 2009. He served twice as president of the National ogy. For his contribution to the field of religious educa- Christian Education Council, previously the British Sun- tion, in 1989 he was awarded a personal chair as the first day School Union, founded in 1802. professor of religious education in a UK university. He He had an impact on religious education in the served in a variety of capacities for over 36 years at the United States through his research in the areas of edu- University of Birmingham, until his retirement in 2002. cational theory and practice, particularly as they relate In 2004, he was appointed Honorary Professor of Practi- to the role of theology and educational theory. In the cal Theology at the Queen’s Foundation for Ecumenical late 1960s, this was an important issue being discussed Education. He teaches courses in missions, social justice, by the Religious Education Association. He empha- and the church in the modern world for candidates in sized the value an educator may place on theology in Christian ministry. 90 educational theory. He indicated that the Christian community must decide whether theology is necessary Religious Education and Practical Theology (essential, not an option; theology mustOnly be present if ed- John Hull is an internationally known religious educator ucation is to be Christian) or sufficient (theology alone who views himself first as a Christian practical theologian can sustain education theory in the church) for religious applying his theology to the theory and practice of reli- education.93 Also, because of the separation of church gious education. He defines practical theology as “theol- and state in Britain, and his focus on interreligious dia- ogy seeking to be related to the problem and possibilities logue between both religious and nonreligious sectors, of human life both inside and outside the community of U.S. religious educators were drawn to his description faith.”91 He endeavors to bring religious education into of the nature of religious education. This is reflected in the mainstream of educational thought and practice. He New Directions in Religious Education (1982).94 Because has argued that it is necessary for Christian churches to of his influence on religious education in the United adopt the same critical, reflective approach of education States, in 1992 Hull was awarded the William Rainey to the nurturing of children in their faith. His contribu- HarperCopy Award of the Religious Education Association. tion to religious education both in church and state sec- This award is the highest award given by REA and tors is based on an overt Christian commitment that has represents an outstanding contribution to the study of made his thinking of great interest in the United King- religion and society and religious education. dom, Germany, the United States, and other countries An indicator of someone’s influence in a discipline is around the world.92 He is one of the most influential re- colleagues and former students describing the impact ligious educators in Germany, with many of his publica- that person has had on their lives and the field. This was tions translated into German. The impact of Hull’s work the case for John Hull. The influence of his approach to extends beyond religious education to include practical interreligious education and learning in public schools theology. His own traumatic experience of total blind- and his emphasis on openness, dialogue, and encounter ness has resulted in his work on a theology of disability. has been recognized by his former international col- He has written on the distorting influence of the money leagues and former students in Religious Education as culture and its impact on theology and religious belief in Encounter: A Tribute to John M. Hull (2009), and a Fest- Western societies. chrift was published to commemorate his 70th birthday: Education, Religion and Society: Essays in Honour of John Influence on Religious Education M. Hull (2005). Hull’s influence on religious education is significant. In 1978, he and John Peatling cofounded the International References and Resources Seminar on Religious Education and Values (ISREV). He Bates, Dennis, Gloria Durka, and Friedrich Schweitzer, eds. served as its general secretary from 1978 to 2010. The 2006. Education, Religion and Society: Essays in Honour of ISREV is a group of over 200 religious education research John M. Hull. Abingdon, Oxon, UK: Routledge. scholars from 25 countries. Hull’s work with the ISREV Hull, John M. 1977. “What Is Theology of Education?” Scottish hasContributor resulted in collaboration with leading figures in Ger- Journal of Theology 30: 30.

90. Ibid. and http://www.johnmhull.biz/about_jmh.html. 91. John M. Hull, Studies in Religion and Education (Lewes, Sussex: 93. John M. Hull, “What Is Theology of Education?” Scottish Journal of Falmer Press, 1984). Theology, 30 (1977): 3. 92. Bates, Durka, and Schweitzer, Education, Religion and Society, 7. 94. Bates, Durka, and Schweitzer, Education, Religion and Society, 4. 610 Human Rights

———, ed. 1982. New Directions in Religious Education. Lewes, The foundation of the very idea of human rights is Sussex, UK: Falmer Press. to be found in the tradition. The idea that ———. 1984. Studies in Religion and Education. Lewes, Sussex, there are laws of nature, universal, timeless, objective, UK: Falmer Press. and in principle knowable, is the basis for the idea that ­­­———. 1985. What Prevents Christian Adults from Learning? these laws have implications for the individual. The pre- Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International. Christian Cicero says of the natural law: “For there is a ———. 1990. Touching the Rock: An Experience of Blindness. true law: right reason. It is in conformity with nature, is London: SPCK. diffused among all men, and is immutable and eternal; ———. 1991a. A Gift to the Child. New York: Simon & Schuster. its orders summon to duty; its prohibitions turn away ———. 1991b. God Talk with Children. Valley Forge, PA: Trinity from offense.”95 Press International. Peoples are governed by statutes and customs (leges et ———. 1995. The Holy Trinity and Christian Education in a mores), partly the people’s own peculiar law and partly Pluralist World. London: National Society / Church House the common law of all humankind. That law which a Publishing. people established for itself is peculiar to it and is called ———. 1997. On Sight and Insight: A Journey into the World of ius civile (civil law), the special law of that civitas (state), Blindness. London, UK: OneWorld Publications. while the law that natural reason establishesOnly among all ———. 2001. In the Beginning There Was Darkness: A Blind humankind is followed by all peoples alike and is called Person’s Conversations with the Bible. London: SCM Press. ius gentium (law of nations, or law of the world), the law ———. 2006. Mission-Shaped Church: A Theological Response. observed by all humankind. London: SCM Press. Gaius regarded the ius gentium aspect of natural law as ———. 2013. The Tactile Heart: Blindness and Faith. London: distinguished from civil law and defined the ius gentium as SCM Press. what “natural reason has established among all peoples.”96 Miedema, Sieben, Cok Bakker, Hans-Gunter Heimbrock, and Aquinas suggested that the ius gentium was that aspect Robert Jackson, eds. 2009. Religious Education as Encounter: of positive law that was immediately derived by deduc- A Tribute to John M. Hull. Munster, Germany: Waxmann tion from the natural law and was universally applicable Verlag GmbH. across jurisdictions.97 In this sense, the force of ius gen- —Mark Maddix tium wasCopy grounded both in natural law and in the human reasoning that created the institutions that flow directly from natural law. For Aquinas, an example of this is Human Rights the norm of pacta sunt servanda (agreements are to be performed). On one level, making a contract is a social The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the convention that has developed and been given legal force European Convention on Human Rights are post–World because it has been proved to serve the common good. War II expressions of positive international law that seek Francisco Suárez and Francisco de Vitoria analyzed to enshrine basic norms for human conduct. Many have the concept of natural law and extended the idea of the regarded any objective morality or concept of natural ius gentium, highlighting the basic human rights and the right as a hopeless task. Jeremy Bentham, Friedrich Ni- natural pacts of peoples in the new world. Hugo Grotius, etzsche, and Karl Marx all had their doubts about the a Protestant thinker, and Samuel von Pufendorf sought project. Bentham regarded rights as “nonsense on stilts.” to establish a more individualistic conception. Locke and Nietzsche thought the realm of equal rights and/or uni- Hobbes outlined an idea of human rights built on a social versal suffrage was a frustration of the will to power and contract, and in the case of Hobbes on the basis of the individual greatness. Marx regarded rights as the ideas of need for survival, a far cry from the Socratic willingness the ruling class and thus irredeemable: “The ideas of the to suffer rather than do evil. For many years, the idea ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas, i.e. the of universal and timeless human rights, at least in the class which is the ruling material force of society, is at the ivory tower, came under sustained assault. World War II same time its ruling intellectual force” (Marx 1932). brought about international instruments attempting to It is against this backdrop that Christian teachers and educators must operate. These are some of the ideas that 95. Cicero, Rep. III, 22, 33. undermineContributor faith in moral objectivity. If they are correct, 96. Quod vero naturalis ratio inter omnes homines constituit . . . vocator there can be no concept of justice that binds the con- ius gentium (Digest 1.1.9); Brian Tierney, The Idea of Natural Rights (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002; orig. pub. Scholars Press, 1997), 136. science and has ramifications for the soul, a foundational 97. Fathers of the English Dominican Province, eds., Summa Theologica idea of Christianity and indeed most religions. (New York: Benziger Brothers, 1947), I–II: q. 95, a.2, 4. Human Rights Violations 611 enshrine these rights in positive international law. But al- Cicero. 1998. The Republic, the Laws. Translated by N. Rudd. though human rights in terms of divine commands might Oxford: Oxford University Press. be persuasive where all parties to the discussion shared Finnis, J. 1980. Natural Law and Natural Rights. Oxford: Clar- the same conception of the divine, in a very diverse world endon Press. those rights are not guaranteed. Billions of people are Freeman, M.D.A. 1994. Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence. not Jewish, Christian, or Islamic. Persuading people to London: Sweet and Maxwell. recognize human rights is less difficult than persuading Grotius, H. 1814. On the Law of War and Peace. London: A.C. them to accept a particular religion. Legal enactment at Campell. the national and international levels provides a far more Hobbes, Thomas. (1651) 2006. Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, secure status for practical purposes. In this way, secular & Power of a Common-Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civill. conceptions of human rights allow discussion between Mineola, NY. peoples on basic moral norms. Since World War II, the Laing, Jacqueline A., and Russell Wilcox. 2013. The Natural greatest impetus for the idea of human rights that need to Law Reader. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. be respected has been the horrors of the 20th century as Locke, J. 1690. Two Treatises of Government. (Edited by P. Las- well as the persistent assault on innocent human life the lett.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. world over by terrorism. Marx, Karl. 1932. The German Ideology:Only Critique of Modern Ger- Insisting on objectivity, universality, and timeless re- man Philosophy According to Its Representatives Feuerbach, B. alities, the natural law tradition provides a foundation for Bauer and Stirner, and of German Socialism According to Its Christian education and rational discourse across diverse Various Prophets. Vol. 5. New York: W. W. Norton & Com- worldviews. For the purposes of general education, it al- pany; 2nd Revised & enlarged edition, 1978. lows discussion between Christians and non-Christians Scott, J. B. 1934. The Spanish Origin of International Law: Fran- and those of no faith. Entrenched as it is in truth eternal, scisco de Vitoria and His Law of Nations. London: Humphrey it supplies the rational basis for all respectful discussion Milford. among peoples. Christian educators have a duty to intro- Sophocles. 2004. Antigone. Translated by R. C. Jebb. London: duce Christian doctrine to those who have no experience Duckworth. of it, in particular teaching on monogamy as distinct Suárez, Francisco. 1944. Selections from Three Works of Fran- from polygamy, mercy rather than death for apostasy or ciscoCopy Suarez. Oxford: Clarendon Press. adultery, and education and women’s dignity rather than —Jacqueline Laing child marriage. Christ kills no one, not even in self-de- fense. On the contrary, He offers himself up as a perfect and eternal sacrifice for the salvation of men. Human Rights Violations Human rights law, however, far from protecting Chris- tians, is being used to undermine their very faith and The Scope of Human Rights Violations practices. In numerous cases decided in the European Locally and globally, violations of human rights include Court of Human Rights, Christians are finding their rights those actions that oppress and deny fundamental rights, of expression increasingly limited. The institutionalization human dignity, personal freedoms, and the individual’s of Islam is rarely questioned, and in some nonjurisdic- and society’s ability to pursue independent and self- tions, millions of Christian workers have no access to any chosen, beneficial life choices. These violations consist church, much less freedom from unfair taxation, freedom of actions by governments, political groups, religiously of belief, freedom of expression, and much more. In some motivated individuals or groups, and others who op- countries, merely holding a Bible in public risks the death press or deny, by various means, those freedoms related penalty. Human rights law offers Christians few protec- to human rights. Specifically, these rights include free- tions; on the contrary, it undermines the few freedoms that dom of religion and speech; equal treatment and due, Christians have in formerly Christian areas. impartial process of law; freedom from enslavement; freedom from torture, including all forms of physical References and Resources and emotional torment; freedom from tyranny and Aquinas, T. 1920. The “Summa Theologica” of St. Thomas Aqui- from the absolute power of governmental and political nas Literally Translated by Fathers of the English Dominican bodies that interfere with the pursuit of life and liberty; ContributorProvince. London: Burns, Oates and Washbourne. and freedom to move from place to place. Augustine. 1887. Translated by Peter Holmes and Robert Er- nest Wallis. Revised by Benjamin B. Warfield. In Nicene and The Judeo-Christian Roots of Human Freedom Post-Nicene Fathers, 1st series, vol. 5, edited by Philip Schaff. The beliefs and perspectives of both individuals and Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing. groups concerning the meaning and values of human 612 Human Rights Violations rights and human rights violations will differ slightly or Jesus’s Response to Human Rights Violations significantly depending on the individuals’ or group’s The gospel of Jesus Christ includes Jesus’s response to philosophical or theological perspectives, sociological the question: “Teacher, which is the great commandment viewpoints, and cultural factors influencing those beliefs. in the Law?” (Matt. 22:36). Jesus responded by stating In a Christian context, human rights historically derive two commands that, in essence, encompass the basis for from the Judeo-Christian scriptures, most prominently human rights and avoiding violations of those rights: the Ten Commandments and the teachings of Jesus “And He said to him, ‘You shall love the Lord your Christ, rather than from philosophical, sociological, or God with all your heart, and with all your soul, political considerations, which may primarily reflect and with all your mind.’ This is the great and fore- changing secular perspectives regarding morality and most commandment. The second is like it, ‘You shall ethics. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, love your neighbor as yourself.’ On these two com- adopted by the United Nations on 10 December 1948, mandments depend the whole Law and the Prophets” reflects an understanding of human rights and the (Matt. 22: 37–40). In the Judeo-Christian context, when violations of those rights derived primarily from Judeo- God is not honored and obeyed, the immediate result is Christian origins. the negation of individual and societal actions that model respect, caring, and love for others. TheOnly habitual practice Human Rights and the Creation Narrative of actions that dishonor God results in the oppression In biblical context, the understanding of human rights and denial of human rights, leading to the moral decline begins with the Creation narrative: the scriptural con- of individuals and groups within a society, which may firmation that human persons, both male and female, ultimately lead to the downfall of an entire civilization. are created in imago Dei, in the image of God, and are endowed with the gift of free will, the ability to consider St. Paul Addresses the Principle of Natural Law various choices and make decisions based on the variety Many theologians point to St. Paul’s first two chapters of choices available in any given circumstance (Gen. 1: in his Epistle to the Roman Church as emphasizing the 26–27). The concept of human rights begins with God’s reality of natural law: the attitudes and actions of moral gift to humankind of free will: the power and individual and ethical behavior understood as inherent in or de- authority, granted by God, to make choices according to rived Copyfrom nature and accepted as justified by human individual volition. The denial to any person of the right to reason. Paul maintains that the reality of God’s exis- make individual and free choices is, biblically and histori- tence leaves humankind with no excuse for immorality: cally, a violation of the human rights given by the Creator. “For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men who sup- The Decalogue: Imperatives in Avoiding Human press the truth in unrighteousness, because that which Rights Violations is known about God is evident within them; for God The individual decrees of the Mosaic Law or the Deca- made it evident to them. For since the creation of the logue: the Ten Commandments of the Torah, constitute world His invisible attributes, His eternal power and a further and more extensive understanding of human divine nature, have been clearly seen, being understood rights and the violation of human rights (Exod. 20:1– through what has been made, so that they are without 17). One’s primary responsibilities toward God, toward excuse” (1: 18–20). The theory of natural law, as derived others, and toward oneself are enumerated as the 10 from the Judeo-Christian scriptures, is evident in the principal commands that protect the rights of others, development of Christian canon or codified ecclesial including spiritual, religious, relational, societal, and law and the accepted doctrine of various denominations economic rights. They are the basis for establishing and and groups and underlines the principles from which maintaining moral and ethical integrity in the lives of the modern understanding of human rights and human individuals, families, communities, and whole societies, rights violations are derived. encompassing the primary basis for an understanding of human rights and their violation throughout his- Christian Education and Human Rights Violations tory. Each commandment implies a free moral choice: The opportunity to pursue educational goals that enrich the right to choose what is good or what is evil. In the the experience of life and provide the knowledge, train- historicalContributor and continuing tradition of Judeo-Christian ing, and skills required to prepare for effective employ- understanding, these commandments affirm that free ment is a necessary human right. Violations of human will is possible, and one may choose to act with integrity rights in education proliferate anywhere opportunities and in loving ways, toward God and others, or choose for children and adults to engage in any level of learn- attitudes and actions that offend and dishonor God and ing are oppressed or denied due to governmental, po- violate the rights of others. litical, or religious factors, as well as racial, ethnic, and Human Trafficking 613 gender prejudices. The violation of the human right to Witte, John, Jr., and Frank S. Alexander, eds. 2010. Christianity freely choose and pursue educational goals impacts the and Human Rights: An Introduction. New York: Cambridge economic viability of individuals, families, and whole University Press. societies. Education in such difficult circumstances is —Mara Lief Crabtree rarely possible without the concerted efforts of indi- viduals and groups, both religious and secular, willing to address those human rights violations that prohibit the Human Trafficking free pursuit of educational opportunities. Historically, Christian missionary efforts devoted to establishing and As a form of modern-day slavery, human trafficking, in maintaining educational opportunities, both locally and its simplest definition, is commercial sex, servitude, or globally, have been a biblically based response to the need labor services obtained through force, fraud, or coercion, for academic progress in areas where violations exist. through the denial of basic human rights and privileges. Often these efforts to initiate and maintain educational Human trafficking preys upon those who are vulnerable, opportunities have succeeded, resulting in progress to disempowered, and poor. Followers of Jesus Christ, whose eliminate certain forms of human rights violations, even commission is to love, protect, and seek justice for those in the face of grave danger to the missioners, especially in who are unable to do so for themselves,Only find their hearts those areas were governmental, political, religious, and pricked by the injustice of this modern-day pandemic. cultural opposition to the right of education has previ- There are many avenues through which Christians ously existed or continues, on various levels, to exist. choose to respond to this travesty. Within the United States, many churches and parachurch organizations References and Resources reach out to women in the sexual entertainment indus- Amesbury, Richard, and George Newlands. 2008. Faith and try, becoming regular parts of victimized women’s lives, Human Rights: Christianity and the Global Struggle for using the avenues of encouragement and prayer support. Human Dignity. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. Others choose to use backgrounds in social justice and Adeney, Frances S., and Arvind Sharma, eds. 2007. Christian- anticrime efforts to do undercover research exploring the ity and Human Rights: Influences and Issues. Albany: State industry to bring the vulnerable in bondage to freedom University of New York Press. andCopy rehabilitation and the exploiters to justice. Other Claude, Richard Pierre, and Burns H. Weston, eds. 2006. ministries go to cross-cultural contexts and work in the Human Rights in the World Community: Issues and Action. midst of the boroughs and red-light districts. They use Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. friendship and living alongside women, children, and Donnelly, Jack. 2013. Universal Human Rights in Theory and families to bring respect, awareness, and freedom to the Practice. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. poorest and most vulnerable of the world. Hollenbach, David. 2003. The Global Face of Public Faith: Poli- Though many Christian efforts to help survivors of tics, Human Rights and Christian Ethics. Washington, DC: human trafficking revolve around evangelism, others Georgetown University Press. seek to provide a holistic ministry that disciples, counsels, Hunt, Lynn. 2008. Inventing Human Rights: A History. New and rehabilitates survivors to become not only members York: W. W. Norton. of mainstream society, but also testimonies of God’s Long, Adrian. 2009. Paul and Human Rights: A Dialogue with grace and heart for those under the bondage of traffick- the Father of the Corinthian Community. Sheffield, UK: Shef- ing. Through these ministries, survivors are exposed field Phoenix Press Ltd. to the Gospel and teachings of the Christian faith, and Maritain, Jacques. 2011. Christianity and Democracy and the sometimes minister with the organizations themselves Rights of Man and Natural Law. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. through frontline engagement or speaking tours. Practi- Marshall, Christopher D. 2002. Crowned with Glory and Honor: cally, several of these efforts seek to disciple survivors Human Rights in the Biblical Tradition. Harrisonburg, VA: through Bible study and church involvement while pro- Herald Press. viding food, medicine, shelter, basic life-skills education, Marshall, Paul, Lela Gilbert, and Nina Shea. 2013. Persecuted: and protection. The Global Assault on Christians. Nashville, TN: Thomas A primary emphasis of specific human trafficking min- Nelson. istries is simply educating churches and organizations Shepherd,Contributor Frederick M., ed. 2009. Christianity and Human about the pervasiveness of human trafficking around the Rights: Christians and the Struggle for Global Justice. Lan- globe. Many of these ministries emphasize awareness, as ham, MD: Lexington Books. combating human trafficking on the front lines is danger- Stassen, Glen H., and David P. Gushee. 2003. Kingdom Ethics: ous and tricky for people unaware of the challenges and Following Jesus in Contemporary Context. Downers Grove, lacking proper training. Thus, a thrust of many of these IL: InterVarsity Press. ministries is spreading awareness of human trafficking 614 Humanism with an eye toward influencing churches to undertake eval , Western scholars revived Greek and the task of financially supporting these ministries and/ Roman literature. Christian humanists, such as Erasmus, or encouraging people to volunteer in local ministries. established the foundation of humanism’s influence on Specifically, many of these ministries advocate prayer the Protestant Reformation. The proliferation of human- vigils, seeking the support of local and national politi- ist ideals impacted the Enlightenment and ultimately cians, supporting local law enforcement, sponsoring modern secular humanism. Humanist ideals such as the victims, refraining from consuming products tied to dignity of humanity, rationality, aesthetics, and freedom human trafficking practices, and several other responses. of conscience have indelibly marked the Western tradi- In the United States, human trafficking is pervasive, and tion and the Christian faith. organizations encourage churches to partner with local organizations and law enforcement to seek out hubs of Secular Humanism in Christian Perspective trafficking and dismantle them. Modern secular humanism, however, has forced Chris- The Christian faith affirms the dignity and worth of tian scholars to confront competing claims about the na- each individual, as all are created in the image of God ture of reality, the existence of absolutes and universals, (Gen. 1:26–27). In the Old Testament, the prophet Micah and the limits of human goodness. Secular humanism is spoke against the people of God because of their failure not identical with secularism; it emphasizesOnly the central- to live up to their calling as a chosen and set apart people. ity of human existence, achievement, and potential as The injustices present during that time were perpetuated paramount to understanding reality. Through unlimited and sustained by God’s people. Micah proclaimed to the progress, secular humanism avows a triumph of human people of his day a message from God: “He has told you, goodness and ingenuity over ignorance, disease, poverty, O man, what is good; and what does the Lord require of and suffering. Secular human has sought to elevate the you but to do justice, to love kindness, and to walk hum- dignity of humanity, effectively positioning the human bly with your God?” (Mic. 6:8). In the 21st century, Mi- being at the center of meaning. cah’s words ring boldly to Jesus’s followers: if God is one The historic Christian faith, however, has taken into who seeks out justice and protection for the least in the account the reality of human limitations such as sin, evil, community and world we live in, then Christians hold and the human need for salvation and redemption. Al- fast to the proclamation of Micah to live in such a way thoughCopy not neatly dichotomous, the Christian worldview that reflects Jesus’s hope and truth. Disciples of Christ are remains in sharp conflict with humanism in the realms to carry out justice, to love kindness, and to walk humbly of both education and scholarship. Christian institutions with God, but also to expose evil and to rescue and pro- generally stand in contrast to secular institutions in a pe- tect those who are oppressed and enslaved. rennial battle for influence over Western culture.

References and Resources Humanism versus Humanities Bales, Kevin, and Ron Soodalter. 2009. The Slave Next Door: However, scholars such as Frank Gaebelein (1968) and Human Trafficking and Slavery in America Today. Berkeley: Francis Shaeffer (1976) have made a firm distinction be- University of California Press. tween secular humanism and the study of the humanities; Batstone, David B. 2010. Not for Sale: The Return of the both scholars advocated a “renaissance” of scholarship in Global Slave Trade—and How We Can Fight It. New York: the fine arts, literature, and philosophy that ultimately HarperOne. leads to cultural influence. Participation in the con- Malarek, Victor. 2009. The Johns: Sex for Sale and the Men Who struction of culture, as inherited from the Renaissance Buy It. New York: Arcade Publishing. tradition, promotes Christianity’s “capacity to influence Shelley, Louise I. 2010. Human Trafficking: A Global Perspec- areas in which its universality [can] shine forth again” tive. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. (Nemoianu 1996, 3). Christian scholars who reject the Skinner, E. Benjamin. 2008. A Crime So Monstrous: Face-to- cultural engagement of the humanities because of a fear Face with Modern-Day Slavery. New York: Free Press. of secularity make an immediate concession that secular- —Benjamin D. Espinoza and Gina Shaner Farcas ity, in turn, constitutes the humanities (Nemoianu 1996). This has not been and need not be the case. The humanities provide the basis for Christian schol- ContributorHumanism ars to reflect universal meaning through diverse expres- sions of human values such as beauty, fear, hope, and the While the term “humanism” typically refers to the like. Consequently, Virgil Nemoianu (1996, 2) asserts modern conception of secular humanism, its roots were that Christian scholars have an opportunity to redeem in the Renaissance, when, following the era of medi- secular aesthetics and demonstrate that “no beauty, in- Hungary and Christian Education 615 telligence, or goodness is alien to Christianity.” In like several dioceses, and for centuries the Catholic Church manner, John Byl (2002, 89) declares that such Christian was responsible for catechism among the people. engagement can “recapture the cohesive unity in diver- The ideas of the Reformation reached Hungary soon sity of a genuine liberal arts education” and “above all after 1517. Students and pastors brought with them Ref- address the quintessential questions of man, the meaning ormation ideas from Germany as well as Switzerland. By of existence, and how we should live.” Both Gaebelein the end of the 16th century, as much as 90–95 percent of and Shaeffer agree. the Hungarian population was Protestant. Further, Statford Caldecott (2009, 133) argues that The majority Protestants held a Constitutional Synod Christian scholars can uniquely “glimpse the true nature in 1567 in Debrecen; this can be regarded as the founda- of humanity and in humanity the goal and purpose of tion of the Reformed Church in Hungary. Protestants felt nature.” The humanities are the consummate study of a responsibility for providing Christian education from “human experience: what can happen to people and what the earliest times of their presence in the country. Three people can do; possible ways of thinking, ways of feel- colleges were founded by the Reformed Church very ing, and ways of speaking; possible motives and possible early: in Pápa and in Sárospatak in 1531 and in Debrecen value” (Wierzbicka 2011, 36). The humanities constitute in 1538. Primary schools were founded by the Reformed a “re-living” or “re-experiencing” of the shared cultural, Church in almost all cities and villages.Only The three main moral, and spiritual experiences of the universal human colleges eventually became theological academies. The community (Dennison 2007, 36) and need not be con- college in Debrecen was granted university status in 1990. ceded to secular humanism. Instead, Christian scholars Cardinal Péter Pázmány founded a Catholic university can redeem the aesthetic values inherent in the humani- in 1635 in Nagyszombat. It started with a focus on theol- ties, influence culture, and lead human beings to recon- ogy, but other disciplines have been added to it over the ciliation with their Creator (Reichard 2011). centuries. The communist state nationalized it, splitting it up into several state universities after World War II. References and Resources However, the Catholic Church reestablished it with sev- Byl, J. 2002. “Naturalism, Theism and Objective Knowledge.” eral faculties (including theology, humanities, and law) in Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 14 (1/2): 69–90. 1992 under the name Pázmány Péter Catholic University. Caldecott, S. 2009. Beauty for Truth’s Sake: On the Re-enchant- ProtestantsCopy founded another theological academy in ment of Education. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press. Pest in 1855, and a few years later the Lutherans sepa- Dennison, W. 2007. A Christian Approach to Interdisciplinary rated, forming their own college for training pastors. The Studies: In Search of a Method and a Starting Point. Eugene, Reformed Theological Academy in Budapest was granted OR: Wipf & Stock. university status by the Hungarian Parliament in 1990. Gaebelein, F. 1968. The Pattern of God’s Truth: Problems of Its legal successor is the Károli Gáspár University of the Integration in Christian Education. Colorado Springs, CO: Reformed Church in Hungary, founded in 1993 (today Purposeful Design Publications. with four faculties: theology, humanities, law, and teach- Nemoianu, V. 1996. “Teaching .” First ers’ training). The Lutheran church owns the Lutheran Things 7 (5), http://www.firstthings.com/article/1996/05/003- Theological University, which trains pastors and teachers teaching-christian-humanism. of catechism. Reichard, J. 2011. “Humanities and Interdisciplinary Studies: Today all the main churches also own secondary, pri- Modern, Postmodern, or Christian?” Journal of Interdisci- mary, and nursery schools. The population of Hungary plinary Studies 13: 77–96. is around 10 million people; about 55–60 percent belong Schaeffer, F. 1976. How Should We Then Live? The Rise and De- to the Catholic Church, 15–20 percent to the Reformed cline of Western Culture. Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming H. Revell. Church, and 3–4 percent to the Lutheran Church. Many Wierzbicka, A. 2011. “Defining the Humanities.” Culture & other smaller denominations are also present, and most Psychology 17 (1): 31–46. of them have a theological college. Other religions are —Joshua D. Reichard present only in small percentages. The Reformed Church in Hungary owns around 30 secondary, 100 primary, and 50 nursery schools. Hungary and Christian Education After 1990, Christian catechism in state schools was Contributor organized by the churches on a voluntary basis, and it Hungarians moved to the Carpathian Basin in the ninth has been part of the compulsory curriculum in church- century AD. Their first king, St. Stephen, was crowned related schools. In 2013, the state introduced a new regu- in the year 1000. The country was Christianized in the lation: in all the state schools there will be a compulsory Western Christian tradition. King Stephen organized new subject, and students must choose between ethics 616 Hymnology and (denominational) Christian catechism. Thus, the Marilyn Kay Stulken, are notable examples. In addition schools are now the primary places of Christian educa- to these resources, numerous surveys of hymnology, tion in Hungary. references on focused subcategories of hymnology, and broad-based collections of “hymn stories” for the casual References and Resources reader have been published. The most recent educational Kovács, Ábrahám, ed. 2009. Calvinism on the Peripheries: Re- resource for hymnology is the website hymnary.org, pro- ligion and Civil Society in Europe. Budapest: L’Harmattan. duced and managed by the Christian Classics Ethereal Unghváry, Alexander Sándor. 1989. The Hungarian Protestant Library (CCEL) and the Calvin Institute of Christian Reformation in the Sixteenth Century Under the Ottoman Im- Worship of Calvin College. Contemporary hymnolo- pact: Essays and Profiles. Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press. gists include Harry Eskew, Hugh T. McElrath, David —Peter Balla W. Music, and the late William J. Reynolds. Perhaps the most noted hymnologist of the last century is the English Congregational minister Erik Routley, who produced nu- Hymnology merous hymns, hymnals, and reference volumes. Pedagogically speaking, courses in hymnology are part Hymnology is the study of hymnody through research of the core curriculum of Christian Onlyseminaries in the and analysis of its music, poetry, history, function, and Western world, particularly those that train church musi- practice, as well as its authors and composers. While cians and grant degrees in that field. Common methods hymnody is an ancient art predating the Christian era, for teaching and studying hymnody include analysis of the study of hymnody is a relatively modern discipline, both texts and music to determine form and meter, hymn finding its source in the origins of modern musicology in writing, exploration of tune-name origins, and historical early 19th-century Germany. The first significant contri- surveying. bution to hymnology research was produced by the Ger- The field of hymnology is well represented by profes- man polymath Karl Eduard Philip Wackernagle. His five- sional organizations and societies, including The Hymn volume Das deutsche Kirchenlied von der ältesten Zeit bis Society in the United States and Canada (1922), The zu Anfang des 17 Jahrhunderts (1855) documented the Hymn Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1936), Inter- history of the Lutheran chorale. nationaleCopy Arbeitsgemeinschaft fuer Hymnologie (1959), It was, however, through the work of the English eccle- and the Internationale Gesellschaft für Studien des Gre- siastical renewal known as the Oxford Movement that gorianischen Chorals (1975). These and other similar hymnology flourished. The initial contributions to the bodies promote the study and use of congregational song music component of this movement came from a num- through educational workshops, conventions, scholarly ber of translators, most notably Catherine Winkworth journals, hymnological tours of historically significant (translating German chorales), Edward Caswall (translat- sites related to hymnody, and numerous other efforts. ing the hymns of the Breviary), and John Mason Neale —Mark Bowdidge and R. Kevin Johnson (translating ancient Greek, Latin, and Russian hymns). The work of these figures and their contemporaries re- sulted in the publication of Hymns Ancient and Modern Hymns as an Educational Tool (1860). This hymnal represented a broad spectrum of worship music for congregations; tens of millions of cop- From the Greek word hymnos, meaning songs of praise, ies were printed in its initial and subsequent editions. didactic hymnody has roots in the Hebrew Bible, and Scholarly publications during this period include the hymns were sung by Jesus and the disciples (Matt. 26:30). work of the English bookseller and hymnologist Daniel Psalmody was the use of the biblical psalms in worship, Sedgwick, A Comprehensive Index of Names of Original as distinguished from hymnody, the creation and use of Authors & Translators of Psalms & Hymns, with the Dates poetic and musical compositions in worship. The distinc- of Their Various Works (1860), and the most significant tion goes back to Paul’s admonition to edify one another 19th-century resource in hymnology, A Dictionary of through the use of “psalms and hymns and spiritual Hymnology (1892) by John H. Julian. songs” (Eph. 5:19). Hymns are a means by which the Recent contributions to the canon of hymnological spiritual heritage is received and passed on to subsequent researchContributor include companion volumes for many of the generations. For centuries they have taught people about significant denominational hymnals of the late 20th cen- God and how to praise and have helped to form Christian tury. Of these, the four-volume Hymnal 1982 Compan- identity. Throughout the history of the church, hymn ion (1990), edited by Raymond F. Glover, and Hymnal singing has been a major means of building Christian Companion to the Lutheran Book of Worship (1981), by community (Hawn 1990, 44). Hymns, Early Christian 617

Protestant reformers wrote hymns to challenge some tian education, telling the backstories of why particular of the accepted theology of the day. Martin Luther hymns were written. (1483–1546) wrote hymns like “A Mighty Fortress Is Our Hawn notes, “It is natural to sing one’s faith. Sing- God.” In England, Isaac Watts (1674–1748) was a prolific ing is a holistic human activity that joins both rational hymn writer. Charles and John Wesley wrote thousands discourse (left brain) and emotional sensibility (right of hymns. These theologians knew the power of the hymn brain) into a unified expression” (1990, 44). Music ignites to teach. John Wesley wrote in the preface of his Collec- the imagination and becomes embedded in memory. tion of Hymns to be Sung by the People Called Methodists According to Don Saliers, hymn singing is the knitting that this book was “large enough to contain all the impor- together of an embodied theology (1997, 185–186). Com- tant truths of our most holy religion” (Wainwright 1980, municating Bible stories and theology through hymns is 201). Some hymnals from this era were written expressly an important task in Christian education. for children, such as Watts’s Divine Songs Attempted in Easy Language for the Use of Children (1715), John References and Resources Wesley’s Hymns for Children and Others of Riper Years Farlander, A. 1936. “The Place of the Hymn in Christian Edu- (1763), and Cecil Frances Alexander’s Hymns for Little cation.” Religious Education 31 (4): 298–301. Children (1845). Watts used concrete imagery like birds, Hawkes, M. 1984. Sing to God: Songs andOnly Hymns for Christian trees, and flowers that children would appreciate, but also Education. Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press. included severe descriptions of heaven and hell. Many of Hawn, C. M. 1990. “Hymnody and Christian Education: The these hymns for children revealed views of children that Hymnal as a Teaching Resource for Children.” Review and do not reflect what is known today about developmental Expositor 87: 43–58. psychology (Hawn 1990, 46). Negro spirituals were sung Morgan, R. J. 2003. Then Sings My Soul: 150 of the World’s by slaves who came to America, engendered by the way Greatest Hymn Stories. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. their faith buoyed the struggle for freedom. The Sunday Saliers, D. 1997. “Singing Our Lives.” In Practicing Our Faith: A school movement made use of hymns for all ages. The Way of Life for a Searching People, edited by Dorothy C. Bass, Gospel hymns of Fanny Crosby (1820–1915) were popu- 177–192. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. lar in Sunday school assemblies. Wainwright, G. 1980. Doxology: The Praise of God in Worship, Hymns contain scripture, doctrine, poetry, piety, DoctrineCopy and Life. New York: Oxford University Press. emotion, prayer, confession, stewardship, and eschato- Warren, J. 1988. O for a Thousand Tongues. Grand Rapids, MI: logical longing (Wainwright 1980, 198, 204–205). James Zondervan. A. Warren has noted, “We are what we sing. Our songs —Susan Willhauck affect our thinking, values, worldview and actions” (1988, 13). Hymns express theology and influence theo- logical thinking, but are influenced by theology as well. Hymns, Early Christian Knowing the power of language, feminist theology of the 1970s called for the need to make the language of the The earliest Christians associated “psalms, hymns and hymns more inclusive and gender neutral. Today some spiritual songs” with teaching and admonition (Col. people may object to certain theologies represented in 3:16), as well as with shared confessional praise of God as some of the old hymns. Some hymns contain imagery Holy Trinity (Eph. 5:18–21). By the fifth century, Prosper and language that many have claimed are too intense of Aquitaine’s “legem credendi lex statuat supplicandi” for children. Most Protestant denominations have made exhorted all to diligent prayer and worship, manifesting a recent revisions of their hymnals to use both traditional biblical faith. Liturgical theology has ancient foundations. and updated language and images so that hymns con- Messianic believers sang the Old Testament Psalms tinue to enhance faith rather than raise a stumbling (Greek hymnos, Latin carmen). These proclaimed whole- block. Contemporary hymn writers like Brian Wren, person love of the one true God as creator and redeemer, Ruth Duck, and Miriam Therese Winter attempt to identity in a covenant community of faith, and a living articulate the Christian faith in today’s language. Some hope anticipating the coming kingdom. Other poetic traditions have preferred the singing of choruses and pieces were utilized. For example, the Greek church drew praise music over the traditional hymns. Another de- from the Bible codex Alexandrinus (fourth century) velopmentContributor is the inclusion of hymns from many cul- nine passages as “canonical” biblical odes or canticles: tures. African American spirituals have become part of Exodus 15:1–18; Deuteronomy 32:1–43; 1 Samuel 2:1–10; denominational hymnals, as well as hymns from Latin 3:2–19; Isaiah 26:9–21; 2:2–9; Daniel America, Korea, and many other places. A genre of 3:26–45, 52–56, 57–90; and Luke 1:46–56, 68–79. The literature on hymn stories exists as a means of Chris- earliest surviving Christian hymn collection, the “Odes of 618 Hymns, Early Christian

Solomon,” was likely sung antiphonally. Its Syrian prov- which Augustine converted in AD 386. His treatise De enance anticipates later works by Ephrem. Musica was begun before baptism and was foundational Luke’s gospel preserved Zechariah’s “Benedictus,” to themes in Confessions books 9 and 10. His argu- Mary’s “Magnificat,” and Simeon’s “Nunc Dimittis.” ment in 10.33 is that music uniquely moves humans, Studies demonstrate the influence of Jewish midrash on both through the act of singing and by what is sung. these infancy narratives, presenting theological motifs When we’re captivated by the tune only, careless of the of promise, fulfillment, and praise. Hymnic elements words, there is distraction and sin. But when truth is in Paul’s letters include Ephesians 5:14; Colossians empowered through melody, our affections find proper 1:15–20; 1 Timothy 3:16; and perhaps most notably, direction, bringing us deep delight—and glory to God. Philippians 2:6–11. At the end of the first century, this Theologian and worshipper, Augustine anticipates the high Christology is echoed in the hymns of Revelation “cloud of witnesses” to come, following their Lord, sing- 4:11, 5:9–10, and 7:15–17. ing together the story. The Roman governor Pliny the Younger, in AD 112, sent to Emperor Trajan an early notice of Christian References and Resources meetings: “On a fixed day they used to meet before Charlesworth, J. 2009. The Odes of Solomon: The Earliest Chris- dawn and recite a hymn among themselves to Christ, as tian Hymnbook. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books.Only though he were a god. So far from binding themselves Church, F., et al. 1988. The Macmillan Book of Earliest Chris- by oath to commit any crime, they swore to keep from tian Hymns. New York: Macmillan. theft, robbery, adultery and breach of faith.” This link- Farris, S. 1985. The Hymns of Luke’s Infancy Narratives. Shef- ing of Christ-centered song with discipleship ethics is field, UK: JSOT. significant. By century’s end, the educator Clement of Ferguson, E. 1997. “Hymns.” In Encyclopedia of Early Christi- Alexandria’s theological primer Paedagogus closed with anity, 2nd ed. New York: Garland Press. the triumphant hymn, “Shepherd of Tender Youth.” Fontaine, J. 1992. “Hymn-Hymnology.” In Encyclopedia of the From the third century comes the traditional evening Early Church, edited by Angelo DiBernardino, 672–678. Ox- hymn-chant of the Orthodox Church, Phos Hilaron (“O ford: Oxford University Press. Gladsome Light”). Liderbach, D. 1998. Christ in the Early Christian Hymns. Mah- Rome’s fourth-century legalization of Christianity wah,Copy NJ: Paulist Press. brought debates within the church over the nature of Martin, R. 1997. Carmen Christi: Philippians 2:5–11 in Recent God. Countering Arian initiatives, the classic Te Deum, Interpretations and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship. bishop of Milan’s “O Splendor of God’s Glory Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Bright,” and poet Aurelius Prudentius’s “Of the Father’s Stapert, C. 2007. A New Song for an Old World: Musical Love Begotten” are all hymns rich in Nicene theology Thought in the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. and are remembered for their beauty. It was this faith to —James D. Smith III

Contributor I Only Iceland and Christian Education Education and training for Lutheran Church leaders is conducted for the most part by the theological faculty The Viking explorers who settled Iceland between AD of the University of Iceland. Many of the leaders of the 870 and 930 brought with them the traditional Norse smaller church bodies receive their training for ministry religion. However, in the year 981 Christian missionar- through Bible schools and seminaries in Europe and ies arrived from Germany preaching the Gospel. While North America. the settlers did not immediately convert to Christian- ity, the Icelandic parliament (the Althing) decided that References and Resources they would become Christians in the year 1000. In 1550, Aikins, Gregory. 1991. “Iceland.” In New 20th Century En- Lutheranism became the official religion of Danish- cyclopediaCopy of Religious Knowledge , edited by J. D. Douglas, controlled Iceland. 417–418. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker. An independent republic since 1944, Iceland’s popu- Einarsson, Sigurbjörn. 1981. “Church Profile: The National lation numbers just over 320,000 (January 2013). Ap- Church of Iceland Celebrates 1,000 Years of Christianity in proximately 82 percent of the population claim mem- Its Country.” Lutheran World Information, no. 41: 1–38. bership in the National and Free Lutheran Churches. University of Iceland. n.d. “Hvers vegna eru kristin fræði kennd Approximately 5 percent are registered with various í grunnskólum á Íslandi?” Accessed 10 May 2013. http:// other Christian congregations—including Roman Cath- visindavefur.hi.is/svar.php?id=5275. olics and Pentecostals. Most significant for the Christian education of young Iceland Statistics Bureau. http://www.statice.is/. people is the confirmation process, in which the major- —W. Gregory Aikins ity of Icelandic children engage. Another important education program is the Sunday school, which is also an important means of service and outreach to parish fami- Icons lies. Summer camps form another key component in the Christian education of children and youth. Icons are a distinctive feature of Eastern Christian Religious freedom is guaranteed by the Icelandic con- churches and their liturgy and spirituality. They are stitution, but Christianity has always occupied a privi- sacred images depicting Jesus Christ; the Virgin Mary leged position. For example, instruction in the basic (the in Orthodox nomenclature); one or more tenets of the Christian faith is part of the elementary saints; prophets of the Old Testament; and events in their public school curriculum. Due to increasing pluralism, lives, biblical events, and milestones in the history of the public education now includes teaching children about Church. Even when depicting a contemporary event, otherContributor religions as well. Recently there have been voices icons are created according to a style first established raised against the emphasis on Christianity, and some in the Byzantine era (AD 600–1500), although various have criticized the unrestricted access to school students styles and schools of art do exist. In addition to wall or that members of the clergy enjoy, as well as groups like panel paintings, icons are executed as frescoes, mosaics, the Gideons. embroidery, relief carvings, engravings, and more. Since

— 619 — 620 The Idea of a University the invention of photography and printing, icons are Icons are a central feature of church decoration and an photographed, printed, and mounted for use. integral part of liturgical worship. They decorate a church The role of imagery was largely unchallenged for the building according to a predetermined program. Within first seven centuries of Christian history. The iconoclas- the liturgy, icons may be carried in processions pre- tic controversy began in 726, when Emperor Leo III (r. ceded by candles and incense in and around the church. 717–741) ordered their removal from public spaces, as an Icons are also central to the devotional lives of Eastern act of religious reformation. He believed that the use of Christians. They are found in homes, places of business, icons was idolatrous and that the empire had prospered automobiles, classrooms, and other places, where they when it was under the Sign of the Cross as it had been serve as expressions of personal faith and piety, as well as under Emperor Constantine the Great. In 754 the church, defining spaces for prayer. In both churches and homes, at the Council of Hieria, officially condemned icons, or- icons are used as material for sermons and instruction. dering their destruction. As a result, only a few examples At the time of the iconoclastic controversy, many of their of icons from before this period exist. The controversy defenders called icons “books for the illiterate.” What continued until the Seventh in 787, they depict is considered equal to what can be found in held in Nicaea, organized under the reign of Empress scripture and is lifted up for people as examples for imita- Irene (regent for her son, Constantine VI, 776–797), tion in their lives. Only overturned the decisions of the 754 council and restored the icons. This proved only a temporary reprieve. In 815, References and Resources a council held at the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople Cavarnos, C. 1993. Guide to Byzantine Iconography. Vols. 1–2. overturned the 787 council and reinstated the decrees of Brookline, MA: Holy Transfiguration Monastery. 754. But in 843, a council at Constantinople, organized Pelikan, J. 1974. The Christian Tradition: A History of the Devel- under the leadership of Empress Theodora (regent for opment of Doctrine. Vol. 2, The Spirit of Eastern Christendom her son Michael III, 842–867) restored the decisions of (600–1700). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. the 787 council. To this day, the Eastern churches cel- Tradigo, A. 2006. Icons and Saints of the Eastern Orthodox ebrate this event on the first Sunday of Great Lent as the Church. Translated by S. Sartarelli. Los Angeles: Getty “Sunday of Orthodoxy.” Museum. The theological controversy pitted iconoclasts, the “de- Vrame,Copy A. 1997. The Educating Icon: Teaching Wisdom and stroyers of icons,” and iconophiles, the “friends of icons,” Holiness in the Orthodox Way. Brookline, MA: Holy Cross although the term “iconodules” is also used. While there Orthodox Press. are almost no extant iconoclast writings, the iconophile —Anton C. Vrame argument was largely framed by John of Damascus (c. AD 650–675 to 749) and Theodore (759–826) of the Stoudios Monastery in Constantinople. The controversy The Idea of a University centered around four issues: the Decalogue prohibition, whether an icon could depict the divinity and humanity John Henry Newman (1801–1890), the Anglican cleric of Christ, whether an icon was homoousios with what leader of the Tractarian or Oxford movement who later it depicted, and whether icons were being worshipped. became Roman Catholic and was appointed a cardinal in Regarding the Decalogue, iconophiles responded that 1879 by Pope Leo XIII, wrote The Idea of a University in God also created images of Himself in scripture, Christ 1852.1 In this work, Newman proposed that the university who is the “image of the invisible God” (Col. 1:15), and “is a place of teaching universal knowledge. This implies humanity itself, created in God’s “image and likeness” that its object is, on the one hand, intellectual, not moral; (Gen. 1:27). To the second point, the iconophiles argued and, on the other, that it is the diffusion and extension of that because of the incarnation, an image of Jesus was not knowledge rather than the advancement.”2 These words only acceptable but necessary to prove His historicity. reveal three important affirmations that proved influen- The icon depicted the person of Christ, in the fullness of tial in education, especially Catholic higher education. his humanity and divinity. Third, the iconophiles argued First, Newman saw university education as concerned that to call an icon homoousios with what it depicted was with “teaching” and “the diffusion and extension of preposterous; while many images of the emperor could knowledge rather than the advancement.” He argued be found,Contributor there was still only one emperor. So it was with that universities do not exist as places of research but of icons. Finally, the iconophiles argued that indeed, only God was due worship (latreia or douleia); icons were 1. James E. Reed and Ronnie Prevost, A History of Christian Education (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 1993), 276–277. venerated (proskynesis), a relative form of honor, and the 2. John Henry Newman, The Idea of a University (1852), ix, http:// honor paid to the image passed through to the prototype. newmanreader.org/works/idea/#contents (accessed 15 September 2013). Idealism 621 teaching. Second, the subject matter is to be everything be overly rationalistic and theologically problematic. As that is part of “universal knowledge,” including theology. David Kelsey has noted, The Idea of a University reflects Newman believed that true teaching and knowledge must an understanding of education that sees persons as “con- be comprehensive and give attention to all areas that templators” within an intellectual tradition who are little complete one’s full knowledge of all things conducive to affected as agents by particular social, political, cultural, intellectual excellence. Third, his statement indicates that and economic structures; thus Newman does not take he saw the goal of university studies as being a modifica- seriously the sociality of human persons or the ways tion of Greek paideia, the formation of character and in which knowledge—and one’s view of education, in virtue. University education has as its goal “intellectual, this case—is socially constructed.7 Kelsey concluded, “If not moral” knowledge or excellence. Thus, Newman sees contemplative capacities are more basic to our humanity intellectual development and excellence as the highest than are competencies for intentional action, it is not sur- ideal for human beings, as opposed to any moral or reli- prising that Newman’s idea of teaching should privilege gious vision of virtue.3 intellectual values that correlate with political, economic, Newman’s proposals in The Idea of a University were and social privilege.”8 decidedly antimodern, though shaped by the Enlighten- ment, culturally biased, and theologically problematic. References and Resources Only Concerning the purpose of university education, he Kelsey, David H. 1993. Between Athens And Berlin: The Theo- observed, “If its object were scientific and philosophi- logical Debate. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. cal discovery, I do not see why a University should have Newman, John H. 1852. The Idea of a University. Accessed 15 Sep- students; if religious training, I do not see how it can tember 2013. http://newmanreader.org/works/idea/#contents. be the seat of literature and science.”4 Again, Newman Reed, James E., and Ronnie Prevost. 1993. A History of Chris- emphasized the teaching function of university educa- tian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. tion, a priority with which many would agree in the —James P. Bowers contemporary North American context. But even though he founded a Catholic college in Ireland and defended the place of theology in university education, Newman Idealism made it clear that “religious training” is not the focus Copy of collegiate experience. In “Discourse 5: Knowledge Its Idealism has been largely considered by philosophers of Own End,” he specifically rejected any utilitarian goal for education, such as George Knight and Michael Peterson, higher education: “Knowledge is capable of being its own to be one of three traditional philosophies (the other two end. Such is the constitution of the human mind, that any being realism and neoscholasticism) that privileges the kind of knowledge, if it be really such, is its own reward.”5 mind and ideas as constitutive of reality, in contradistinc- Newman rejected any specifically professional purpose tion to the material or empirical world. While the origin or ecclesiastical concern for Christian formation as in- of idealism as a school of thought can perhaps be traced appropriate. The education he desired had very definite back to Plato (429–347 BC), its rich corpus as a whole advantages of particular cultural nature and, of course, must be considered in the context of a network of loosely presumed the leisure to pursue such benefits: interrelated systems of ideas about reality throughout history, particularly since the Enlightenment. What is What are these advantages? I repeat, they are in one word clear, however, is that without René Descartes’s notion the culture of the intellect. Robbed, oppressed, and thrust of the first item of knowledge, Cogito Ergo Sum (“I think, aside, Catholics in these islands have not been in a condi- therefore I am”), the basis of philosophical idealism could tion for centuries to attempt the sort of education which not have been ascertained. is necessary for the man of the world, the statesman, the In one sense, when contrasted to the phenomena of the landholder, or the opulent gentleman.6 material or contingent, Plato is rightly seen as an idealist. Here Newman is proposing a view of university educa- However, if idealism is allied with nominalism—a philo- tion conducive to producing a “gentleman,” obviously, sophical tradition that denies the independent existence male and with certain socioeconomic status and op- of universal essences that correspond to abstract concepts portunities. His view of human nature also turns out to or universals, which instead only exist in language or Contributor names—and against realism, such idealism would cease 3. David H. Kelsey, Between Athens and Berlin: The Theological Educa- to apply to Plato, since in a broad sense he may also be re- tion Debate (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1993), 33–34. 4. Newman, Idea of a University, ix. 5. Ibid., 103. 7. Kelsey, Between Athens and Berlin, 41–46. 6. Ibid., xv. 8. Ibid., 46. 622 Idealism garded as a realist. For Plato, the ideas obtained through but it is, by interrogating the external forces that control human sensory experience are limited and inaccurate. human beings, the human capacity to take control of Instead, ideas are not merely construals of human minds; those forces. The ultimate end of human beings, then, is they exist in a more authentic and perfect realm consist- to be able to share a common ability to reason as a willing ing of ideas or forms that are eternal and immutable, community built on a rational basis where the duty and functioning as the structure and character of the world. the self-interest of the human being coincide. Driven by Some two millennia later, the British empiricist John an extraordinary optimism, Hegel envisioned nothing Locke (1632–1704) espoused epistemological idealism, less than working toward creating a rational and harmo- wherein he argues that the empirically perceived sensory nious community that is grounded in his metaphysics, data of objects of reflection themselves constitute ideas. particularly in his concept of Geist (spirit and/or mind in Empiricism functions as the avenue through which ideas English), an overarching collective Mind/Spirit, which is of reality are construed and adjudicated, thus implying an active force throughout history, and of which all indi- its comparability with idealism. William Berkeley (1685– vidual minds are a part. Mind/Spirit, for Hegel, was the 1753), another British empiricist, advanced epistemo- ultimate reality in a monistic sense, where everything that logical idealism further, arguing that all perception took exists in the world as distinct parts is interrelated within the form of ideas, declaring, “to exist is to be perceived.” one vast, complex system, which he calledOnly the Absolute, Reality, for Berkeley, consists exclusively of minds and thus absolute idealism. However, Hegel’s identification their ideas. Seen by many as counterintuitive, his argu- of the Absolute with Mind/Spirit provoked the left-wing ment is rather strong and flexible and able to withstand young Hegelians, such as Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach most objections. Basically, in this immaterialist idealism, and Karl Marx, to reject the “mysticism” in which Hegel when human beings perceive ordinary objects, they per- enveloped his system, and to replace Spirit with material, ceive only ideas of such objects. Therefore, human beings socioeconomic forces of the community where a com- perceive only ideas. plete harmony between the interests of the individual and In response to the seemingly indefensible or un- the common interests for all exists. verifiable position of Berkeley, German philosopher Idealism as a whole is a network of loosely interrelated Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) emphasized the cognitive systems postulating varying permutations of the distinc- activity of the mind in the way human beings perceive tion betweenCopy appearance/perception and reality. While reality. Human cognition, for Kant, entails the use of proponents of idealism apprehend reality empirically, cognitive structures or categories that the mind imposes nominally, transcendentally, or absolutely, they view the in order to understand and to organize perception and world in general as rational and purposeful. Moreover, understanding. Importantly, what is postulated in Kant’s they all seem to construe human beings, in varying de- understanding of reality is the existence of reality that grees, as an interpretive community that strives toward is external and noncontingent to the mind, that is, the mutual interest. In this sense, the telos of education in “thing-in-itself”—forever unknowable. Thus his central the confines of philosophical idealism is twofold: imita- concern in the formulation of transcendental idealism tion of the Absolute and reflection of the Ideal. Imitation was the possibility of metaphysics: philosophical knowl- of the Absolute provides counterpoints or correctives to edge that transcends the constraints of experience, but human sensory experience, especially perception, which also the inevitable possibility—namely, the problem of is inevitably finite, confined, and partial, functioning as the antinomies or contradictions in constructing valid the structure and character of what the authentic reality proofs for each of the two or more conflicting positions of the world can be. Reflection of the Ideal challenges in metaphysics. human beings to strive to clarify reflexively the patterns Subsequently, Georg Wilhelm Fredrick Hegel’s (1770– of cognitive processes and live out their lives to authen- 1831) preoccupation was to situate his own idealist sys- ticate what they believe. Furthermore, reflection of the tem in the dialectic between concrete history and logic. Ideal challenges human beings to strive toward estab- Based on his key presupposition that history reveals a lishing a rational and harmonious community in which rational process of development of the historically con- everyone is committed to playing his or her distinct part ditioned nature of human thinking, Hegel argued that by within one vast, complex system. scrutinizing history, human beings could comprehend theirContributor own nature and vocation in the world. In The Phi- References and Resources losophy of History, Hegel declares, “The history of the Collinson, Diane. 2006. Fifty Major Philosophers. London: world is none other than the progress of the conscious- Routledge. ness of freedom.” Yet for Hegel, freedom is not some sort Honderich, Ted, ed. 2005. The Oxford Companion to Philoso- of individual autonomy, as John Stuart Mill conceived, phy. New ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Illiterates in a Literate Culture 623

———, ed. 2001. The Philosophers. Oxford: Oxford University suggestions for leading the retreat in personal discern- Press. ment during the 40-day period through reflection, medi- Knight, George. 2006. Philosophy & Education. 4th ed. Berrien tation, and discipline. The exercises remain a standard Springs, MI: Andrews University Press. requirement for the Jesuits today; they have been adapted Lechte, John. 2007. Fifty Key Contemporary Thinkers. London: through many iterations for personal and community Routledge. settings among the clergy and laity in Catholic circles, Peterson, Michael. 2001. With All Your Mind. Notre Dame, IN: and their use is increasing among Protestants desiring University of Notre Dame Press. growth in spiritual formation. Thiselton, Anthony. 2002. A Concise Encyclopedia of the Phi- Besides founding the Society of Jesuits, Ignatius losophy of Religion. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. founded the Roman College (now the Gregorian Uni- —S. Steve Kang versity) and the German College to prepare priests for Germany. Through his missionary zeal, Ignatius was also responsible for sending Jesuits throughout the world. Ignatius of Loyola When he died at the age of 65, 16 years after the order was formed, there were 1,000 members of the Jesuit Society. Early Background and Education Only Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556), a Spanish mystic, is the Most Notable Publications founder of the Jesuit Order and author of the Spiritual Besides writing and rewriting the Spiritual Exercises, Exercises, a manual for spiritual renewal and living a Ignatius wrote the constitutions, dictated an extensive disciplined Christian life. Recovering from a severe leg autobiography that develops his understanding of spiri- injury that he had sustained in battle, while reading the tual formation, and left behind more than 8,000 personal lives of the saints Ignatius had an epiphany and redi- letters, 7,000 of which have been published. rected his life to following Christ. He lived for a time as a hermit, studied Latin in Barcelona, and received a master Ignatius. 1974. The Autobiography of St. Ignatius Loyola, with of arts degree in Paris in 1528. In 1537, he and his six Related Documents. New York: Harper & Row. Spanish followers, who together as “friends of the Lord” Ignatius, and Louis J. Puhl. 2000. The Spiritual Exercises of St. had taken a vow of poverty and service, were ordained in Ignatius:Copy Based on Studies in the Language of the Autograph. the church. The pope granted the request of Ignatius to Vintage Spiritual Classics. New York: Vintage Books. establish the Jesuit Order in 1540, and he served as the Ignatius, and Joseph N. Tylenda. 2001. A Pilgrim’s Journey: The superior general until his death. Autobiography of Ignatius of Loyola. Rev. ed. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. Significant Contributions to Christian Education The most significant contribution of Ignatius to the field Resource of Christian education is his manual of spiritual forma- Meissner, W. W. 1992. Ignatius of Loyola: The Psychology of a tion, called the Spiritual Exercises. In his words, “the Saint. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. spiritual exercises are means to prepare and entice the —Philip Bustrum soul to separate itself from disorderly desires and then to seek and find God’s will for one’s life.” The exercises were a progressive development by Ignatius based on the Illiterates in a Literate Culture direction he gave others. The educational method of the exercises is a form An illiterate individual is distinguished by the inability of directed mentoring in which the director, under the to read and write. Illiteracy is categorized as illiterate, direction of the Holy Spirit, leads the retreatant through semi-illiterate, functionally illiterate, and hidden illiter- a series of four stages or weeks: purgation and prepara- ate (a recently added category). The functionally illiter- tion, Kingdom of Christ, meditation on the suffering of ate division is large, as the individuals in this category Christ, and finally, the resurrection of Christ and the can read and write simple words, but not well enough experience of divine love. The purpose of these stages is to handle employment qualifications or everyday liv- to understand the movements of consolation and desola- ing skills. Illiteracy is a global problem, which has poor tionContributor of the soul so as to distinguish and follow the signs life outcomes for illiterate individuals, such as poverty, of the good spirit in contrast to the evil spirit. The lasting unemployment, social exclusion, crime, and long-term value of the exercises is in the pedagogy that Ignatius illness. Poor life outcomes for illiterates are prevalent in employed. Rather than a lock-step method of instruction, developed and undeveloped countries. The problem of the manual, written for the director, gives guidance and being illiterate is more widespread among women and 624 Imagination as Christian Practice children than among men. Illiteracy leaves in its wake Imagination as Christian Practice individuals who are very unlikely to be able to change their employment and living conditions and as a result Maria Harris observes that imagination is “far too com- will remain in the same condition all of their working plex a reality to be reduced to mere definition. It is imagi- lives. Literate individuals have a better opportunity to nation’s nature not to pin down.”9 Hence, when tempted improve their standards of living because they are better to settle for just the standard definition—the capacity to able to function in the working world. It is not uncom- see in the mind what does not exist in the senses—we mon for individuals who are illiterate to be on welfare quickly grant her point. At times, for example, imagina- and receiving unemployment benefits. This results not tion attends not to fantasy but to what exists with the pur- only in low income, but also in illiterates’ struggling in pose of rendering the familiar strange again. Imagination other areas of their lives. For example, illiterates have is frequently associated with art and with aesthetic ways health issues due to not being able to read prescriptions of knowing that stir the human heart. While powerful, or understand directions give to them. The effects of aesthetic insights resist logical or empirical agendas of being illiterate are seen within the family structure, as specificity and certainty. Furthermore, imagination is illiterate parents are not able to assist their children with integral to the human capacity for self-transcendence, a homework and have lower expectations and aspirations decidedly mixed blessing, as Adam andOnly Eve discovered. for their children. Illiterate individuals are often stripped Given this ambiguity, perhaps it is inevitable that imagi- of their hope for higher education, as the inability to nation be implicated in both doxology and devilry within read or write will hinder them from attempting higher the Christian tradition. education. However, there are illiterate individuals who The Bible’s assessment of imagination holds theo- are interested in Christian education and enroll to take logical themes in tension. On the one hand, imagination classes pertaining to the Bible, church polity, and Chris- finds itself indicted for its propensity to incline humans tian living, especially within their denomination. This is to idolatry. The Bible repeatedly warns against “imaging” an opportunity for Christian educators to do their part to God out of concern for domesticating God for human strike a blow against illiteracy. The World Literacy Foun- purposes. Imagination also may prompt a kind of creativ- dation declared in 1948 that every individual has a right ity on the part of humans that is inappropriate to their to an education. Since that time, this organization has creaturelyCopy status. The capacity for transcendence may worked steadily to decrease illiteracy. Consequently, il- (wrongly) tempt human beings to usurp God’s unique literacy had begun to decline. However, with widespread creative role, even to fancy themselves as God. The physi- population increases, the World Literacy Foundation cist Robert Oppenheimer, chief architect of the atomic (WLF) has not been able to keep up with the population bomb, testified to this danger when he confessed: “The growth. The WLF believes that to rid the world of illit- physicists have known sin.”10 That humans can contem- eracy, a mind-set shift must take place in how illiteracy is plate building weapons capable of destroying all life does viewed. The WLF has given illiteracy the same status as not mean that they should so imagine, let alone indulge a disease and states that when the world views illiteracy their demonically idolatrous fantasies. as a disease, then the inhabitants of the world will treat On the other hand, the writer of Colossians imagina- illiteracy as a disease that must be eradicated, just like any tively and positively portrays Jesus as the “image” (eikon) other disease. Christian education must take a role in as- of God (1:15). Gazing upon Jesus, Christians are pro- sisting with eradicating illiteracy, not only as a means of vided a window into Holy Mystery. More than that, how- discipleship, but to help the illiterate, so that the illiterate ever, Jesus as “image” not only functions to point toward can then help themselves. God; He fully participates in the divinity He represents. Here the door is opened to the faithful use of imagination References and Resources within the Christian tradition. If flesh and blood human- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. n.d. “Adolescent ity may faithfully image the invisible God, then by anal- and School Health: Childhood Obesity Facts.” Accessed 21 ogy humans may make imaginative use of material things August 2013. www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/obesity/facts.htm. for their own iconographic purposes. Water, bread, and Cree, Anthony, Andrew Kay, and June Steward. 2012. “The Eco- wine become ingredients of sacraments. Music, drama, nomic & Social Cost of Illiteracy: A Snapshot of Illiteracy in storytelling, stained-glass windows, and other visual a ContributorGlobal Context.” Final Report, World Literacy Foundation. SIL International. n.d. “Literacy in the 90’s: The Role of SIL.” Accessed 28 July 2013. http://www-01.sil.org/literacy/lit90/ 9. Maria Harris, Teaching and the Religious Imagination: An Essay in the Theology of Teaching (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991), 8. illit.htm. 10. Quoted in Parker Palmer, To Know as We are Known (San Fran- —Candace C. Shields cisco: Harper & Row, 1983), 25. Imagination, Biblical Foundations of 625 arts proliferate for doxological purposes. Holy men and sonal and social ills, or where hope-filled transformative women are declared saints. action toward justice is “rolling down like the waters,” Of what does the Christian imagination consist, and the Christian imagination sees the Spirit at work. More what is its purpose? Minimally, it would seem to require than creatively linking God’s saving past with the present, a rich trove of images—symbols, stories, practices—that then, it also seeks to equip persons to participate in God’s display God’s history of covenant association with Israel; saving work. Christian imagination acts in anticipation of self-revelation through the life, death, and resurrection the future it imagines with hope. of Jesus Christ; and intent to build a realm consistent —Fred P. Edie with God’s creating and redeeming nature. Imaginative knowing is associative and expansive, not specifying and reductive; therefore the larger the image trove, the Imagination, Biblical Foundations of greater the possibility for faithful imagining. In addition, Christian imagination includes awareness that Christian Humanity is continually acquiring knowledge. The pro- images themselves always bear a surplus of meaning. cess begins at birth and continues for as long as one pur- When Christians use even a single symbol, story, ritual, sues it by availing oneself of all accessible means. Learning or metaphor, they speak and enact limitless possible as- characterizes one’s life when knowledgeOnly is implemented sociations. “Bread,” for example, implies companionship, in all facets of life. Life is enhanced and enriched by acting thanksgiving, abundance, feasting, trust, value, commu- based on past knowledge, by continuing to pursue greater nity, life, and also (broken) body. This plurality is entirely understanding, and by demonstrating wisdom. Knowledge appropriate when the imagination’s ultimate referent is is best acquired by actively pursuing it, and one effective a God who transcends human capacities for description. means in that pursuit is engagement of the imagination The abundance of images, coupled with their poly- in that process. Imagination is the faculty of formulat- valence, supports the Christian imagination’s capacity ing mental images of things not present. In the realm of for the prophetic task. According to Brueggemann, this epistemology, one many imagine a future state of knowing includes exposing the lies of the “managed speech” of or envision a future experience to which one aspires. The empire.11 Where empire seeks to reassure that “the state desire to gain more knowledge or to learn more regarding of the union is strong,” prophets speak God’s righteous somethingCopy involves engaging the imagination to envision anger against smoothed-over injustice. They do so imagi- the goal one hopes to achieve, and thereby using the vari- natively by juxtaposing common images in uncommon ous means of knowledge that are accessible. The nature of ways or by placing new images next to conventional imagination is such that no prerequisites are established wisdom. Through this poetic enterprise, the prophet with regard to what is possible for achieving an envisioned carves the familiar into stark relief, inviting persons into experience; it ponders the outcome that is not a compo- different perspectives and renewed truthful vision. These nent of one’s current experience and considers what would dynamics are at work when Hosea declares Israel, the be necessary to achieve it. Imagination uses the creative self-assumed bride, “whore,” or where dons a processes of the mind to seize an idea, then delineates and yoke of slavery, mocking his nation’s pretense to pro- focuses attention on whatever is within its possibility. As tected status in light of its disobedience to God. one more compellingly and conspicuously envisions the While the Christian imagination enables prophets future condition or knowledge that one desires, the pro- to see that the emperor has no clothes, it is also a con- cess for achieving that goal will be more effective, efficient, structive and creative capacity. As Dykstra observes, enjoyable, and productive. Christian imagination “sees what is ‘not yet’ and works Imagination must be distinguished from the realm of to create it.”12 It interpretively correlates the images from fantasy, wherein one functions in contradiction to reality its trove with the present fears, hopes, joys, and suffer- and ignores facts of life. The more one refines and works ings of human beings and communities. Where persons toward the vision of the future, the easier it is to formu- are yearning for or claiming identity as God’s beloved late the means for achieving that notion and to achieve a children in Christ, seeking and finding healing from per- greater condition of knowledge than previously known. Imagination is dependent upon existing knowledge for 11. See Walter Brueggemann, The Creative Word: Canon as a Model for the discovery of new meaning and perspective; it is fre- Biblical Education (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982), chapter 3. See also quently prompted by external incentives, such as through Brueggemann,Contributor The Prophetic Imagination (Philadelphia : Fortress Press, 1978). the accumulation of facts, by means of an experience, 12. Craig Dykstra, “Pastoral and Ecclesial Imagination,” in For life or by the example of someone currently or formerly re- Abundant: Practical Theology, Theological Education, and Christian Minis- try, ed. Dorothy C. Bass and Craig Dykstra (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, spected. Imagination strategizes a future condition of ex- 2008), 59. istence and knowledge that one envisions but that is not 626 Imago Dei yet realized. The more one engages the imagination to Murphy, Peter, Michael A. Peters, and Simon Marginson. 2010. strategize toward the desired goal of knowing, the more Imagination: Three Models of Imagination in the Age of the diligently and perseveringly will one perform the task of Knowledge Economy. New York: Peter Lang. acquiring the desired knowledge. Ryken, Leland, ed. 2002. The Christian Imagination. Colorado Envisioning future circumstances of a desired condition Springs, CO: WaterBrook Multnomah. for knowing something necessitates acting toward that —Ron J. Bigalke desired condition, such as in the educational process. As students imagine something not currently realized, they become productive contributors and participants in a Imago Dei manner that elicits pleasure and satisfaction. A student’s emerging imagination is obliged by envisioning a lucid and The author of Genesis sets the stage for understanding persuasive notion of his or her future and can then use the both who we are and for what we were created: knowledge that is already acquired to continue the process of gaining more knowledge in the pursuit of these envis- Then God said, “Let us make man in our image, in our aged conditions. Of course, a parent or teacher can hinder likeness, and let them rule over the fish of the sea and the the development of an active and productive imagination birds of the air, over the livestock, over all the earth, and over all the creatures that move alongOnly the ground.” So by means of disappointment and discouragement. God created man in his own image, in the image of God Believers in Jesus Christ are able to use their imagina- he created him; male and female he created them. God tion in a manner that is impossible for those who are not blessed them and said to them, “Be fruitful and increase believers (cf. 1 Cor. 2:6–16). The “surpassing greatness of in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish [Christ’s] power toward us who believe . . . [is] . . . far above of the sea and the birds of the air and over every living all rule and authority and power and dominion, and every creature that moves on the ground.” (Gen. 1:26–28) name that is named, not only in this age but also in the one to come.” Christ is “able to do far more abundantly This idyllic picture was shattered by the Fall into sin. The beyond all that we ask or think,” thus the church ought to goal of education is to lead people to become once again desire and pursue “the hope of His calling” beyond all else what they were originally created to be, to be like God. in life (Eph. 1:18–23, 3:20). The believer’s imagination is AlthoughCopy it sounds contradictory, secular education captive to an authentic and reliable authority (Deut. 8:3; shares the same goal as Christian education—to make Matt. 5:18; 2 Cor. 10:5; 2 Pet. 1:3)—having been made students become more like God—but it does so without alive together with Christ (John 3:3; Eph. 2:1–4)—and acknowledging God. In psychological terms, the goal is this rebirth results in a newness and transformation of life self-actualization. In biblical terms, the path that Adam (Rom. 6:4, 12:1–2). The believer’s future is “far beyond all and Eve took when they fell into sin resembles a radically comparison,” and thus is “an eternal weight of glory” for secular approach to education. Instead of acknowledg- stimulating the imagination (2 Cor. 4:17). ing God as the ultimate authority for their faith and life, Adam and Eve sought to determine on their own what References and Resources was right and wrong. Brahn, Eva T. H. 1991. The World of the Imagination. Lanham, The “tree of the knowledge of good and evil” from MD: Rowman & Littlefield. which Adam and Eve ate has often been misunderstood Cocking, John M. 1991. Imagination: A Study in the History of as a tree that would reveal knowledge to Adam and Eve, Ideas. London: Routledge. as if God had created them without knowledge and then Forbes, Cheryl. 1986. Imagination: Embracing a Theology of forbade them to acquire it. That cannot be a correct Wonder. Portland, OR: Multnomah. understanding. Adam and Eve were originally created Holmes, Urban T., III. 1981. Ministry and Imagination. New as moral beings with whom God could communicate York: Seabury Press. about what was right and wrong, and who would know Kearney, Richard. 1988. The Wake of Imagination. New York: that to obey God’s commands was right and to disobey Routledge. them was wrong. The Hebrew root yd’ (to know), used Kilby, Clyde S. 1985. “Into the Land of the Imagination.” Chris- in the phrase “tree of knowledge,” is better understood tian History 4: 16–18. here with the meaning that it and its cognates have in Lewis,Contributor C. S. 1964. The Discarded Image. Cambridge, UK: Cam- some contexts: opine, judge, perceive. Perhaps the best bridge University Press. parallel is Job 32:6, in which a nominal cognate is used Markman, Keith D., William M. P. Klein, and Julie A. Suhr. for the expression “to declare my opinion” (ESV; likewise 2009. Handbook of Imagination and Mental Stimulation. Job 32:10, 17). Understood in this way, the sin of Adam New York: Psychology Press. and Eve was repeated by the Israelites during the period Imitation and Christian Maturity 627 of the judges: “In those days there was no king in Israel, Horton, Ronald A. 1992. Christian Education: Its Mandate and everyone did what was right in his own eyes” (Judg. 17:6; Mission. Greenville, SC: BJU Press. 21:25). Similarly, Adam and Eve’s “eyes were opened” Jastram, Nathan. 2004. “Man as Male and Female: Created in the (Gen. 3:7, cf. 5) to perceive reality on their own, contrary Image of God.” Concordia Theological Quarterly 68 (1): 5–96. to God’s point of view. It is not that they were blind be- Knight, John A. 1976. In His Likeness: God’s Plan for a Holy fore they ate the fruit, but that they could not see in this People. Kansas City, MO: Beacon Hill Press. way. For Adam and Eve, as well as for the Israelites dur- Westermann, Claus. 1974. Genesis 1–11: A Commentary. Trans- ing the period of the judges, their fundamental sin was to lated by John Scullion. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg. 1984. set themselves up as the ultimate authority to decide what —Nathan R. Jastram was right or wrong, regardless of what God had said. Al- though it sounds contradictory, that made Adam and Eve more like God, as He Himself says (Gen. 3:22), but it did Imitation and Christian Maturity so in a radically secular way that disregarded God, so He expelled them from the garden. Margaret Miles observes that “in order to live the Chris- Christian education leads people to become more like tian life, one must first imagine such a life, must visual- God in ways that fulfill the purpose for which God cre- ize what it might look like, might feelOnly like.”13 The image ated them. It sets a framework within which all studies can of the Christian imitation (particularly the imitation of flourish without rebelling against Him. God’s revelation Christ) and its vision of Christian maturity provides one through His Word and work is treated with respect. The metaphor of the Christian life. Miles notes that imitation entire universe is studied as a work of God that reflects is probably the most frequently developed traditional His power, glory, wisdom, justice, and compassion for the metaphor, evident in the writing of Gregory of Nyssa, creatures He has created (cf. Job 38–41; Ps. 19:1–4, 97:6; Thomas à Kempis, and Francis of Assisi.14 In addition, Matt. 5:43–48; Rom. 1:18–32; Acts 14:17). While human this vision of imitation and transformation spawned a beings are the only creatures explicitly called “the image of number of movements in early Christianity, from the God,” they share with other created things the quality of Desert Fathers and Mothers (including the Benedictines), being like God. In fact, the word ’el/’elohim (god) is used to to the Franciscans and Poor Clares, to early Methodism describe mountains, hills, trees, stars, gardens, fire, angels, andCopy its emphasis on accountable discipleship.15 These and various categories of people. Wherever one searches in movements also provided varying views of Christian the universe, there he will find likenesses of God. This adds maturity, often through the lens of Christlikeness or the to the joy and excitement of discovery for both teacher and more general category of holiness.16 student in all areas of study. This particular approach to Christian discipleship Christian education, however, can never be content is anchored in an ascetical or disciplined approach to with studying God’s works in nature. It is essential to in- spiritual formation, reminiscent of athletic or military clude the study of God’s Word as well. God creates a new training.17 While adherents often place attention on the spirit in those who study His Word, a spirit that knows exercise of the will (to do the right things), Christian who the one true God is, assents to His will, and delights educators should note that true imitation is also about to live in His holiness. With this new spirit, people regain the alignment of the heart (with its attendant desires or a spiritual likeness that had been lost in the fall (cf. 2 affections) as well as engagement of the mind and imagi- Cor. 4:3–7; Eph. 4:22–24; Col. 3:9–10). In addition, God nation with the virtues and possibilities resident within begins to restore other corrupted likenesses, encourag- this approach. ing creativeness, purposefulness, the ability and desire to rule as stewards over creation according to His plan, and 13. Margaret Miles, Practicing Christianity: Critical Perspectives for an the treasuring of social relations. Every area of study in Embodied Spirituality (New York: Crossroad Publishing, 1990), 19. the humanities, sciences, or professional studies is a new 14. Ibid., 21–42. 15. Joann Wolski Conn, “Toward a Spiritual Maturity,” in Exploring arena in which students are nurtured to grow in mind, Christian Spirituality: An Ecumenical Reader, ed. Kenneth J. Collins (Grand body, and spirit so that they can represent God to others Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2000), 364–371; Robin Maas, “Wesleyan Spiritu- ality,” in Spiritual Traditions for the Contemporary Church, ed. Robin Maas and fulfill His purpose in their lives. and Gabriel O’Donnell (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1990), 303–330; Philip Sheldrake, Spirituality & History: Questions of Interpretations and References and Resources Methods, new ed. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1991, 1995), 116–140. Contributor 16. Stephen Barton, ed., Holiness Past and Present (London: T & T Crossan, John. 1959. Imago Dei: A Study of Philo and Saint Clark, 2003). Paul. Maynooth, Ireland: n.p. 17. Alister E. McGrath, Christian Spirituality: An Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell Publications, 1999), 9; Karen Marie Yust and E. Byron Anderson, Hoekema, Anthony A. 1986. Created in God’s Image. Grand Taught by God: Teaching and Spiritual Formation (St. Louis, MO: Chalice Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Press, 2006), 87–93. 628 Immigrants

As noted, the category for Christian maturity, Christ- ing integrative growth (as in growth in grace) rather than likeness or holiness, provides a very general metaphor, degradation or elitism.24 similar to the language of imitation. Douglas J. Davies Christian educators can nurture a vision of seeking notes: to imitate Christ, to follow the ministry and message of Jesus in a way that results in Christlikeness or holiness In Christianity holiness refers primarily to God as the of heart and life. As a strenuous, inspirational metaphor source of salvation, and can be pursued in the direction for Christian education, this vision enables a robust of ethics, commandments and covenants, and of worship, practice, as long as the theological theme of grace and rituals and devotion. Depending upon context, particular the presence of community serve as necessary compan- stress may be placed upon any of the three persons of the ions on the journey. Holy Trinity, on some particular church, the Bible, or some rite or leader.18 References and Resources Davies states that holiness may invoke a number of Barton, Stephen, ed. 2003. Holiness Past and Present. London: subsidiary emphases, including giftedness, embodiment, T & T Clark. ritual, vitality, action, reciprocity, , and purity.19 Conn, Joann Wolski. 2000. “Toward a Spiritual Maturity.” While Christian maturity does not always adopt the lan- In Exploring Christian Spirituality: AnOnly Ecumenical Reader, guage of holiness, the vision of Christlikeness also carries edited by Kenneth J. Collins, 355–378. Grand Rapids, MI: many of the same themes of instilling “a preoccupation Baker Books. with the life of Christ in occupations, and ultimately in Maas, Robin. 1990. “Wesleyan Spirituality.” In Spiritual Tradi- Christian lifestyle.”20 Christian maturity evokes a per- tions for the Contemporary Church, edited by Robin Maas sonal vision of participation both upon, and with, Jesus. and Gabriel O’Donnell, 189–213. Nashville, TN: Abingdon While a number of writers in spiritual formation have Press. sought to fashion guides to assist Christians in the pro- McGrath, Alister E. 1999. Christian Spirituality: An Introduc- cess, Christian educators should realize that the vision tion. Oxford: Blackwell Publications. of Christian maturity culminates in a desire to emulate Miles, Margaret. 1990. Practicing Christianity: Critical Perspec- Christ, yet adapts to surrounding circumstances so that tives for an Embodied Spirituality. New York: Crossroad particular patterns of mature practice may vary based on Publishing.Copy culture or historical location. Sheldrake, Philip. (1991) 1995. Spirituality & History: Ques- Christian educators should note the potential limi- tions of Interpretations and Methods. New ed. Maryknoll, tations of this metaphor as well as its strengths. For NY: Orbis. instance, Philip Sheldrake cautions that imitation and Yust, Karen Marie, and E. Byron Anderson. 2006. Taught maturity language, anchored in early - by God: Teaching and Spiritual Formation. St. Louis, MO: dom, often invokes an individualistic understanding of Chalice Press. discipleship and holiness, rather than embracing com- —Dean Blevins munal frameworks.21 In addition, Miles cautions against tendencies to pit souls against the physical body, operate out of a misplaced sense of fear, or become preoccupied Immigrants with suffering. In particular, Miles notes that imitation language (particularly couched in language of denial and In the Old and New Testaments, God instructs the na- denigration) can create enormous problems for women tion of Israel about its treatment of foreigners living in when they are already in positions of inequity.22 Simi- the land. In Hebrew scripture, a foreigner is defined as larly, Joann Wolski Conn notes that the biblical tradi- a person from a different racial, religious, ethnic, and/ tion situates Christian maturity within an experience of or linguistic background than the majority Israelite deep, inclusive love of the Triune God, present within population. As they have emerged from an immigrant all aspects of life, including one’s sinfulness.23 This love heritage of their own, God implores the Hebrew people results in a holistic vision of Christian maturity, includ- to remember their own suffering in Egypt as they inter- act with resident aliens (Exod. 23:9, 22:21). When the 18. Douglas J. Davies, “The Sociology of Holiness: The Power of Being law was given to Moses on Mt. Sinai, consideration was Good,” in Holiness Past and Present, ed. Stephen Barton (London: T & T made for foreigners living among the Israelites. Under Clark,Contributor 2003), 49. 19. Ibid., 48–67. the law, permanent residents were not to be oppressed or 20. Miles, Practicing Christianity, 33. mistreated (Exod. 22:21, 23:9); they were to be given a fair 21. Sheldrake, Spirituality & History, 68–70. 22. Miles, Practicing Christianity, 32–42. 23. Conn, “Toward a Spiritual Maturity,” 364. 24. Ibid., 372–376. India and Christian Education 629 wage (Deut. 24:14, 15), Sabbath rest (Exod. 20:10, 23:12; modate the specific needs of the Christian diaspora. In Lev. 25:6; Deut. 5:14), and access to surplus produce (Lev. addressing the lack of immigrant access to theological 19:10, 23:22, 14:28–29; Deut. 24:19–22). Overall, immi- education, the ETE Global Study Report on Theological grants were to be treated with the same respect as if they Education, presented at Edinburgh (2010), highlighted were native-born (Lev. 19:34). However, despite these several directives for future development. The key man- allowances in the law, foreigners were often the poorest dates were (1) the need for theological institutions to residents in Israel, along with orphans and widows (Lev. develop innovative and financially affordable models of 14:28–29; Deut. 24:19). theological education; (2) the imperative for institutions In the New Testament, non-Israelites were increas- and denominations to work with global interdenomina- ingly involved in Jesus’s ministry and the life of the tional partnerships; and (3) the need to diversify theo- church. Foreigners were listed in Jesus’s genealogy (Matt. logical education through online curriculum and the 1), present at His birth (Matt. 2:1–12), and recipients of expansion of non-English-language teaching resources, His ministry (Matt. 8:28–34; Luke 7:1–10; Mark 5:1–20; curriculum, and publications. Luke 8:28–39, 17:11–19). As Samaritans (Acts 8:4–25) and Gentiles (Acts 10) were added to the Christian References and Resources community, a new understanding of being an heir of ETE Global Study Report on TheologicalOnly Education. 2010. Abraham emerged (Gal. 3; see Gen. 12:3). The foreign- http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/ ers in the land who followed Christ were now “no longer wcc-programmes/education-and-ecumenical-formation/ foreigners and strangers, but fellow citizens with God’s ete/edinburgh-2010-study-group/report-on-edinburgh people and also members of his household” (Eph. 2:19). -2010-session-on-the-future-of-theological-edcuation-in From biblical times, immigrants, or foreigners in -the-21st-century. the land, have faced a variety of challenges. Uprooted Hanciles, Jehu J. 2009. Beyond Christendom: Globalization, Af- from their home countries, immigrants experience the rican Migration and the Transformation of the West. Mary- challenge of living without the social and physical as- knoll, NY: Orbis. sistance of extended family members and friends. Once Pew Forum Research. 2014. http://www.pewforum.org/2014/ settled in a foreign land, immigrants are often considered 04/04/global-religious-diversity/ permanent outsiders due to their diverse sociocultural Wan,Copy Enoch, ed. 2012. Diaspora Missiology: Theory, Methodol- backgrounds. In 2009, the International Organization ogy, and Practice. Portland, OR: Institute of Diaspora Studies. for Migration (IOM) recorded that there were approxi- —Sarita D. Gallagher mately 214 million immigrants worldwide. During the past decade, the primary reasons for immigration were displacement due to natural disasters, national economic India and Christian Education crisis, gender inequality in the workplace, and forced im- migration due to war or political unrest. According to tradition, Christianity was brought to India Since the first century, Christianity itself has been a in the first century by Thomas, one of Jesus’s 12 disciples. migratory religion. According to 2014 Pew Research Christian education in the modern era has been shaped statistics, approximately 105 million immigrants globally primarily by the influence of the missionary movement are Christians, equaling 49 percent of the total immigrant of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. One of the mis- population. In the United States, 72 percent of all immi- sionaries’ initiatives was to connect the Sunday school grants in 2010 self-identified as Christians, and 85 percent curriculum with the day schools associated with the mis- of immigrants to Latin America and the Caribbean were sion, emphasizing the role of the church and the influ- listed as Christians. In considering these statistics, Chris- ence of the Sunday school teacher. tian education among immigrant populations often refers More recently, Christian education has been strongly to supporting Christian communities, not evangelization. shaped by the ecumenical movement through the for- In Beyond Christendom, Jehu J. Hanciles (2009) notes the mation of regional and national conferences, which consistent pattern of mission-minded migrants spreading were begun for evangelization purposes but became the gospel throughout church history. In the world today, powerful influences for church union. This has led to some of the largest Christian churches are led by African the formation of union theological institutions. As a immigrants,Contributor including the Kingsway International Church result, Christian education is viewed from a broader Centre in London, England, and the Embassy of the perspective, with an emphasis on moral education and Blessed Kingdom of all Nations in Kiev, Ukraine. Christian character formation. Despite the extension of Christianity via immigra- In 1964, the National Council of Churches in India tion, theological education has struggled to accom- formed one national structure for theological education: 630 Indoctrination the Board of Theological Education of the Senate of Se- Indoctrination in Christian Faith Communities rampore College (SSC). There are currently 51 affiliate In Christian education, the underlying concern is the institutions, representing a broad spectrum of Christian need for integration between the theology and educa- traditions. While the SSC is attempting to update its tional philosophy of institutions. Key theological values curriculum to speak to the current issues of poverty, that have a significant impact on the indoctrination indigenization of faith, and plurality of religions, the in- discourse include belief in individual personal worth fluence of earlier missionaries is still strong, and changes before God; the call to change allegiance to an alterna- occur very slowly. tive society, the Kingdom of God; and a communitarian —Thomas Kimber perspective. Indoctrination in Christian faith communities may be deemed to occur when elements of the intentional Indoctrination processes of that community inhibit holistic edification appropriate to a participant’s stage of development:28 A Dilemma Driven by the evangelistic and discipling objectives of • Holistic edification recognizes that the goal of educa- the Christian church—to ensure that all people take their tion in Christian settings is comprehensive transfor- Only29 rightful place in the Kingdom of God—it is very easy for mation of people toward Christian maturity. Ra- leaders and educators to put pressure on students. They tional autonomy (a major outcome in school-based may claim a biblical warrant to do so (e.g., 1 Cor. 9:22) education) arising from appropriate knowledge is but fail to show due concern for allowing participants necessary, but along with changed beliefs, values, the appropriate degree of self-determination, which lies and attitudes—and this transformation depends on at the heart of the faith and theology being proclaimed. growing commitment that is voluntary, self-deter- The worthy end does not give license to allow any means, mined, and (the corollary) without coercion. which could justify the charge of indoctrination (in its • Intentional processes acknowledge that indoctrina- contemporary sense). tion may happen in evangelism, discipleship, and spiritual formation settings that are intentional Indoctrination in Educational Literature butCopy less formal and less obviously “educational” Much is written about indoctrination, usually in the con- than many church-based teaching/learning pro- text of schools and authoritarian societies, and especially grams. Corporate worship services, small groups, where there is an element of compulsory participation. and camp/retreat settings have special potential for Historically it has been a positive term, similar to some being indoctrinating. of the common meanings of education. Within religious • The word “elements” highlights the potential within settings, it has meant teaching doctrine, or instructing in both the explicit and implicit forms of educational religious belief. However, in contemporary educational curriculum for indoctrination to eventuate, con- usage indoctrination has a negative stigma, with a mean- sciously or otherwise. The dynamics and impact of ing akin to “unreasonable manipulation.” psychosocial elements of the “hidden curriculum” Indoctrination in its negative connotation has been are especially powerful. Responsibility does not described as “the teaching of any subject matter with the necessarily lie only with the educational facilitators intention that it be believed regardless of the evidence per se; a facilitator’s intention may not be to indoc- . . . [and] so defined, is morally reprehensible.”25 In trinate, but indoctrination may still be perceived to broadly religious education settings, with their assump- have resulted. tion that “faith can be proposed but not imposed,”26 in- • The phrase “appropriate to a person’s stage of devel- doctrination has been further defined as “the attempt to opment” recognizes that the indoctrinating potential impose beliefs and belief systems on others by authority of any element in the processes is dependent on how and by methods which allow little or no room for ques- it is normally responded to by different people. Cer- tioning, when the beliefs themselves more properly call tain intervention techniques may be indoctrinating for a free and critical acceptance.”27 for children but not adults, and may vary for those at different stages in their faith development. 25. Ivan A. Snook, Indoctrination and Education (London: Routledge & KeganContributor Paul, 1972), 75. 26. Graeme Rossiter, “The Need for a ‘Creative Divorce’ Between Cat- echesis and Religious Education in Catholic Schools,” Religious Education 77, no. 1 (1982): 34. 28. Allan G. Harkness, “Educational Indoctrination in Christian Faith 27. Charles F. Melchert, “Does the Church Really Want Religious Edu- Communities,” Journal of Christian Education 45, no. 3 (2002): 37–38. cation?” Religious Education 69, no. 1 (1974): 19. 29. See Education, Paul’s Concept of. Indonesia and Christian Education 631

Principles to Limit Indoctrination Here, special care needs to be taken to ensure tech- The application of four principles will lessen the likeli- niques are not used that are likely to override the per- hood of indoctrination in Christian settings: sonal autonomy of the participants in such areas as creat- ing settings that are overly charged emotionally, the style 1. Create open community: Relational and uncoercive of challenges to respond, and implicit peer pressure for settings that reflect biblical dynamics of community behavioral conformity. will minimize the potential for indoctrination. In such settings, participants will be able to probe and References and Resources evaluate their faith commitment, free to respond as Anderson, Ray. 1997. The Soul of Ministry. Louisville, KY: and when they are ready. Families—in extended or Westminster John Knox Press. nuclear form—are an especially significant setting Copley, Terence. 2005. Indoctrination, Education and God: The for such encouragement. Struggle for the Mind. London: SPCK. 2. Encourage comprehensive commitment: All the Harkness, Allan G. 2002. “Educational Indoctrination in Chris- dimensions and directions of Christian faith com- tian Faith Communities.” Journal of Christian Education 45 mitment (Luke 10:27) need to be explored, inter- (3): 33–47. nalized, and owned for effective transformation. Hill, Brian V. 1990. That They May Learn:Only Towards a Christian But as leaders and educators encourage this, they View of Education. Exeter: Paternoster Press. need to emulate the example of Jesus, who chal- Melchert, Charles F. 1974. “Does the Church Really Want Reli- lenged people to adopt God’s values and clearly gious Education?” Religious Education 69 (1): 12–22. laid down the demands of discipleship, but never Rossiter, Graham. 1982. “The Need for a ‘Creative Divorce’ forced anyone to respond to His claims (e.g., Mark Between Catechesis and Religious Education in Catholic 10:22; John 6:60, 66). Schools.” Religious Education 77 (1): 21–40. 3. Appreciate the realities of power and influence: To Snook, Ivan A. 1972. Indoctrination and Education. London: enhance uncoerced responses, those who facilitate Routledge & Kegan Paul. spiritual nurture and growth in others need to Thiessen, Elmer J. 1993. Teaching for Commitment: Liberal ensure that they do not trade on the goodwill gen- Education, Indoctrination and Christian Nurture. Montreal: erated with people to hustle them into making as- McGill-Queen’sCopy University Press. sertions or commitments they do not understand or —Allan Harkness are not yet ready for. Even in “willing-involvement” activities, a power differential will exist between the designated leaders and the participants, and the Indonesia and Christian Education leaders need to know how to handle their power appropriately.30 Christianity came to Indonesia during the invasion by 4. Recognize the limitations of participants: It is very the Portuguese and the Dutch in the 16th and 17th cen- easy to unwittingly impose emotional and spiritual turies. The Portuguese brought the Catholic faith, while pressure on persons of any age, so knowing their the Dutch introduced the Protestant religion, the fruit participants is a key for leaders to avoid indoctrina- of the Reformation. The pietistic movement in Europe tion. With children an example is recognizing their during the 18th century, which brought more mission- levels of dependence and developing autonomy; aries, also contributed to the growth of Christianity with adults, an example is encouraging open dis- throughout the area. cussion or alternative viewpoints and not forcing Numerous church organizations exist in Indonesia the sharing of personal experiences and spirituality. today, including Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed, Presbyte- rian Calvinist, Anglican and Episcopal, Mennonite, Bap- Corporate Worship: A Special Concern tist, Methodist, evangelical, Pentecostal, and charismatic, Indoctrination concerns arise especially in corporate as well as the Salvation Army. The government recog- worship services, with their inherent heightened affec- nizes the existence of Jehovah’s Witnesses, Mormons, tive component, as it is there that the development and and Christian Scientists. expression of voluntary, self-determined, and uncoerced Christian education in the local congregation in gen- commitmentContributor is most frequently challenged. eral occurs through child ministry in Sunday school pro- grams, catechism for adult baptism and youth confirma- tion, and premarital guidance. Seminars and workshops 30. Ray Anderson, The Soul of Ministry (Louisville, KY: Westminster for laypeople, training for activists and leaders, midweek John Knox Press, 1997), 191. 632 Institute for Christian Studies worship services, and small group activities are other History forms of religious education. ICS owes its establishment to Dutch immigrants con- Church-based schools and colleges provide religious vinced of the vital role of universities in providing education and extracurricular activities for the spiritual cultural and societal leadership. On the initiative of a formation of students. As an implementation of the state number of pastors and others in the Christian Reformed constitution and the law on education, religious education Church in North America, the Association for Reformed is compulsory in formal education from schools to univer- Scientific Studies was formed in 1956. This denomina- sities. Therefore, opportunities for Christian faith learning tion had long been committed to Christian day schools in many formal institutions are available, even taught by and college education (Calvin College being founded in certified teachers appointed and paid by the government. Grand Rapids, Michigan, in 1876). Unsurprisingly, Cal- Although the constitution of Indonesia and its ideol- vin College significantly influenced those who were to be- ogy, the Pancasila (the five principles), guarantee reli- come faculty at ICS, especially through Dr. H. Evan Run- gious freedom, churches have been suffering significant ner, who himself became a part-time faculty member in hindrances from fundamentalist Muslims. This situation the early days. Whereas Calvin College was an institution demands more creative strategies of congregation educa- of the CRCNA, ICS (like the VU) was established free of tion. The practices of Christian religious learning in edu- control by the church (and state), in accordanceOnly with the cational institutions in majority Muslim communities Kuyperian societal principle of sphere sovereignty. have also faced difficulties. Access for Christian teachers The institute enrolled its first students in 1967, with in government schools and universities has become lim- the appointment of Dr. Hendrik Hart. Early subsequent ited. Fortunately, in many areas local churches cooperate appointees as “senior member” (indicating the collegial to provide and support voluntary teachers to teach Chris- approach at ICS, where “junior members” work with a tianity in the nearby government schools or universities. mentor in the expectation of a particularly close academic —Binsen Samuel Sidjabat relationship) included Dr. James H. Olthuis and Dr. Cal- vin Seerveld; all three men remained at ICS until retire- ment. Dr. Bernard Zylstra served as the first principal and Institute for Christian Studies president (1978–1985); he was succeeded by Dr. Clifford Pitt (1985–1989),Copy Dr. Harry Fernhout (1989–2005), Rev. The Institute for Christian Studies (ICS), Toronto, is a Dr. John Suk (2006–2008), Mr. Chris Gort (2010–2012), research institute and graduate school of interdisciplin- and copresidents Rev. Dr. Tom Wolthuis and Mrs. Dawn ary philosophy and theology in the Reformed tradition. Wolthuis (2013–). ICS prepares students to teach in colleges and universities ICS began granting master’s-level certification in 1972. in various fields and also supports the professional devel- In 1983, the Parliament of Ontario authorized the master opment of teachers and those in other walks of life and of philosophical foundations and a program of doctoral forms of social engagement. The doctor of philosophy, studies in cooperation with the VU. In 1992, the master master of arts (philosophy), and master of worldview of worldview studies was approved; in 2004, royal assent studies programs are distinguished by their foundational, enabled ICS to mount a doctorate in its own right (with interdisciplinary, and reformational approach, the latter the conjoint degree continuing to be offered) and to term designating the philosophical tradition inspired by award the master of arts (philosophy). neo-Calvinist Dutch intellectuals. Most prominent in the As a graduate school, ICS was to be the penultimate early generations of this tradition were Abraham Kuyper, step toward a Reformed university, in cooperation with , and D. H. Th. Vollenhoven, who sister colleges. ICS affiliated with these institutions in all taught at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (VU), the 1980s in an organization known as the Reformed which Kuyper founded. University of North America, but ambitions moder- In 2010, ICS established the Centre for Philosophy, ated, and this transformed into a looser grouping, the Religion and Social Ethics, in which it has invited a Association of Reformed Institutions for Higher Educa- number of institutions to partner. The Centre also tion (renamed Association for Reformed Colleges and serves public outreach, connecting its research agenda Universities in 2012). with issues in the broader community. This is a funda- Though not a seminary, ICS is affiliated with the To- mentalContributor concern of Christian scholarship as ICS envis- ronto School of Theology at the University of Toronto. ages it: to explore the ramifications of the gospel for It is also a member of the International Association life beyond the academy, so that healing may be experi- for the Promotion of Christian Higher Education and enced throughout the world that God in Christ, by the a former affiliate of the Council for Christian Colleges power of the Spirit, has created and redeemed. and Universities. Institute for Christian Studies 633

Philosophy and Mission cant influence had been exercised by biblically informed ICS expresses its mission as that of a graduate school in philosophers such as Augustine, the medieval and mod- which “the gospel’s message of renewal shapes [its] pur- ern model for the Christian academic enterprise tended suit of wisdom” and “scholars focus on the intersection to assign prominence to the discipline of theology as of and contemporary schol- “queen of the sciences.” Reformational philosophers aver arship and society” (http://www.icscanada.edu/about/ that academic disciplines (including theology) are philo- mission). Its basis is “the Scriptures of the Old and sophically grounded in a threefold idea of the origin, di- New Testaments,” and principles founded therein are versity, and coherence of reality; this is ultimately rooted articulated in an educational creed (drafted by Runner in religious heart-commitment. The positivist project, and Vollenhoven), which affirms that “human life in its by which disciplines were to break free of religious and entirety is religion,” with the caveat that “scholarly study metaphysical beliefs to function in a value-neutral man- unfolds itself as service either of the one true God or of ner, is a failure to recognize that scientific-scholarly an idol” (VanderVennen 2008, 265–266). Scripture, as investigation is guided by faith, which furnishes presup- “integral and active divine Word or Power,” leads to “the positions about the nature of reality and the purpose Truth, which is Christ . . . the Redeemer and Renewer and meaning of life. Given the preeminence accorded to of our life in its entirety and therefore also of our theo- scripture, the academic project of ICSOnly is often described retical thought.” At “the heart of all created reality is the as an inner biblical reformation of the disciplines. ICS, covenantal communion of human beings with God in as reformational, is committed to ongoing reformation Christ”; thus, “true knowledge is made possible by true (ecclesia semper reformanda est), rather than adherence religion.” Communal scholarship is regarded as an es- to a particular (historically and culturally situated) for- sential response to the cultural mandate (Gen. 1:28) and mulation of Christian philosophy. is charged with providing an “account of the structure of The interdisciplinary character of ICS is reflected in creation” (not limited to the “natural” world but includ- its policy of appointing faculty in the foundations of ing its societal and cultural elements). Such scholarship special disciplines, as well as in systematic philosophy, is not for its own sake, however; it is to “promote a more the history of philosophy, and theological and biblical effective ordering of the everyday experience of the entire studies. These fields currently include politics and soci- community.” Such experience is considered primary; ety,Copy arts and culture, religion, and education; previously, theoretical reflection involves abstraction from it, offer- psychology, science and technology, economics, and ing crucial but only partial insight into aspects of the history were offered. The curriculum comprises courses former, which is characterized by complex interrelation- in reformational philosophy and biblical foundations, ships among concrete things (inorganic entities, plants, as well as an interdisciplinary seminar in which all avail- animals, persons, acts, events, societal structures). The able faculty participate, investigating themes such as scholarly task should therefore be service to the larger hermeneutics, truth, religion, dialogue between schools Christian community and to the world at large. Scholar- of thought, and play, or a text by authors such as Plato, ship that does not honor Christ’s sovereign rule over all Charles Taylor, Alasdair MacIntyre, Miroslav Volf, and things but looks for the source of order and meaning Nicholas Wolterstorff. within creation will tend to be ontologically and not merely methodologically reductive (thus reductionist, as References and Resources an expression of idolatry). However, insights into real- Dooyeweerd, Herman. 1969. A New Critique of Theoretical ity are not limited to Christians and are to be gratefully Thought. Translated by David H. Freeman and William S. received whatever their source, although “the central Young. Vols. I–IV. Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed. religious antithesis” forbids “the synthesis of scripturally- Seerveld, Calvin. 2011. “Thinking Deeply About Our Faith.” The directed thought with any other system of thought.” Banner http://www.thebanner.org/departments/2011/01/ Academic freedom is upheld against the constraints that thinking-deeply-about-our-faith/. other institutions might impose, and scholarship is “to be VanderVennen, Robert E. 2008. A University for the People: A undertaken in the God-given freedom of a complete and History of the Institute for Christian Studies. Sioux Center, voluntary submission to the Word of God and the divine IA: Dordt College Press. laws that govern human life.” ContributorThe original structure of ICS owed much to that of Institute for Christian Studies. www.icscanada.edu. the Centrale Interfaculteit at the VU, where most of the Institute for Christian Studies: Perspective. http://www.ics initial and subsequent faculty members earned their doc- canada.edu/perspective/. torates. Whereas in the early days of the church, signifi- —Doug Blomberg 634 Institutional Effectiveness

Institutional Effectiveness Measures of student learning and achievement pro- vide necessary metrics for analyzing and quantifying in- Institutional effectiveness in Christian higher education is stitutional effectiveness. In order to track and improve a dynamic process of organizational analysis, evaluation, educational progress and accomplishment, a systematic and strategic planning dedicated to understanding the evaluation of student learning and program learning impact of, and advancing the mission of, the educational outcomes should be implemented as part of a regular purpose of the institution. This evaluative process requires cycle of institutional assessment. Multiple measures the institution to directly address the traditional questions (formative, summative, direct, and indirect) should be concerning curriculum design, student learning outcomes, incorporated to assess the effectiveness of student learn- and student success while meaningfully addressing the ing outcomes. Assessment results should be reviewed, real-life challenges of today’s higher education landscape. goals identified, and steps determined to implement It is both the responsibility and privilege of Christian edu- changes. Institutional effectiveness metrics also include cators to discover new answers and respond to changing a regular analysis of retention rates, persistence rates, conditions in a way that reflects best efforts in providing and completion (graduation) rates. Student success a Christian higher educational experience that is relevant, rates on licensing exams, job placement rates, minis- effective, and personally transformational. try involvement (ordinations, licensures,Only chaplaincies, The first step is to clearly identify the institutional pur- supported missionaries, etc.), and other verified profes- pose in order to evaluate the institution’s effectiveness in sional employment and services can also be included as achieving it. Historically, three options surface when con- valuable sources of data. sidering the primary goal of education: the development Finally, there should be a direct links to strategic plan- of the individual, the perpetuation of society, and the need ning and budgeting. To ensure and promote institutional to change society. Along with these broader philosophical effectiveness, the institution should maintain and imple- concerns, the purpose of Christian higher education also ment a comprehensive institutional strategic plan. The embraces at least three unique domains: doctrinal (culti- plan should be based on a thorough review of internal vating faith and developing beliefs), formational (develop- and external environmental factors and be developed on ing personal and spiritual growth), and practical (practical institutional research and assessment findings. The stra- application in real-life ministry settings). An integrative tegic planCopy provides a clear path to improving institutional approach defines the purpose of Christian higher educa- effectiveness and performance through both incremental tion as personal formation that happens within a social short-term and long-range goals. The planning docu- context and that affects future social conditions. Educa- ment should include prioritized goals, action steps and tion always involves individuals and society and is rightly timetables for implementation, the required personnel, understood as being both personally and socially transfor- and the financial resources required for meeting the mative. From a Christian perspective, these overlapping goals. The strategic planning process serves as an integral themes function in a continual and dynamic interaction: part of the institution’s commitment to the ongoing eval- personal faith development, Christian activity within the uation and improvement of institutional effectiveness. community of faith, and Christian activity in society at large. These themes would be considered key indicators in References and Resources any work to evaluate institutional effectiveness of Chris- Banta, Trudy W., Elizabeth A. Jones, and Karen E. Black. 2009. tian higher education. Designing Effective Assessment: Principles and Profiles of Assessing and promoting institutional effectiveness is Good Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. accomplished through a composite analysis process in- Kramer, Gary L., and Randy L. Swing, eds. 2010. Higher Educa- corporating three major areas: (1) educational alignment tion Assessments: Leadership Matters. Lanham, MD: Row- and mission fit, (2) measures of student learning and man & Littlefield. achievement, and (3) direct links to strategic planning Middaugh, Michael F. 2010. Planning and Assessment in Higher and budgeting. Education: Demonstrating Institutional Effectiveness. San Educational alignment and mission fit refers to an Francisco: Jossey-Bass. evaluation of the level of direct coordination or the link —Gino Pasquariello among the stated mission of the institution, the institu- tionalContributor learning outcomes (to be evident in all students), and the program learning outcomes for each degree of- Institutional Mergers fered. This link should be readily apparent by tracing the institutional goals and objectives throughout each degree For over 200 years, the founding of Christian institu- program, thereby demonstrating alignment that is ap- tions of learning at the elementary, secondary, and propriate to the educational mission. higher education levels of education has been one of the Institutional Mergers 635 distinctive aspects of the U.S. educational landscape. tution and supporting students in finding another place Today thousands of institutions exist, ranging from to learn may well be the best alternative. preschool programs in local churches to complex col- leges and universities. In recent years, because of the Types of Mergers increased secularization of public education, more and Mergers are essentially the combining of two or more more churches, religious groups, and other entities are entities into a single operating unit under the supervi- engaged in creating and managing educational institu- sion of a single governing entity. Assets of the merging tions intentionally connected to and influenced by the organizations are pooled to provide both the needed Christian faith. The largest denominational entities resources as well as the centralized control required by sponsoring these schools are the Lutheran and Roman federal and state laws governing these entities. It should Catholic expressions of Christianity. In more recent be noted that usually the liabilities of the merging entities years, many evangelical Protestant denominations, but also become the responsibility of the new organization. particularly individual and often independent local The due diligence sophistication of those leading the churches, have started institutions to counteract the merger determines how well the entities can achieve their perceived post-Christian influences of contemporary new objectives using and managing both the assets and culture in public education settings. liabilities present. Only While there is a wide variation in quality, most of There are basically two distinct categories of merg- these institutions are generally effective in achieving their ers, each with unique challenges and opportunities. The stated objectives. However, the current economic chal- majority of mergers of faith-based educational institu- lenges facing society, along with the increasing costs of tions are voluntary in nature: each entity works toward a keeping these institutions functioning and competitive, common goal of preserving and expanding its individual is causing several to consider either closing or merging. mission through shared resources, constituencies, and Some observers are forecasting a significant increase in opportunities. These types of mergers are amicable, closings and mergers, while others are less convinced positive, and productive, being seen by the majority of that the majority of the institutions will face these dif- the stakeholders as a win-win for both organizations. ficult decisions. And some see the closing and merging It should be noted that there usually is some degree of of underperforming schools as a necessary and desirable angstCopy even in the best of mergers, particularly among step to ensure the quality of the education parents and those deeply invested in the institutions, such as parents, students deserve as well as to protect the reputation of faculty, alumni, and major founders/supporters. and important position held by faith-anchored educa- The second category of mergers is in many cases less tional experiences and opportunities. amicable. These mergers are often between a stronger institution and one that is failing or in the process of Drivers of Mergers closing. In these cases, even when terms like “merger” Several factors seem to be driving institutional mergers in and “consolidation” are used, the stakeholders of the both the public and private sectors of education. Not all are weaker institution usually see it as a takeover and a pain- the result of crises and institutional exigencies. Some insti- ful loss indicative of failure. Unless significant efforts are tutional mergers are motivated by the desire to better serve made by the stronger institution to preserve key aspects a broader cultural or geographic constituency, improving of the other institution’s history, mission, and tangible and expanding student access to target populations. Other assets, the merger can face considerable challenges and mergers are initiated to strengthen and expand the quality misunderstandings. In one case, a merged institutional and the quantity of the curricular, cocurricular, and extra- structure was more of a takeover, with the identity of curricular offerings available to students. the weaker, smaller institution essentially disappearing Most mergers, however, are crisis oriented, moti- within just a few years. It became clear that the acquisi- vated by and designed to address critical issues such as tion could not be supported, and the decision was made accreditation, fiscal shortfalls, deferred maintenance, to sell off the remaining assets and discontinue the rising operational costs that cannot be absorbed by the educational operations formally under that entity’s su- target populations, and other factors that are eroding the pervision. While this was a sound business decision, the quality, marketability, and viability of the organization. ramifications for public and community relations were WhateverContributor the factors contributing to a merger consid- difficult to manage. The negative impact on the former eration, the ultimate goal should be to do that which institution’s students and alumni, as well as faculty and provides the best alternatives for the parents and students staff, was substantial, despite the responsible efforts of the the institution is serving. In some cases, closing the insti- parent entity to mitigate them. 636 Institutional Mergers

Merger Strategies and Considerations stopped. If a merger endangers the viability of the new While case studies of successful mergers are limited, organization, it should not be pursued. and the formal research on such mergers is just begin- ning (see the references for available studies and other Corporate Culture resources), and while much of the literature pertains While much of the existing corporate culture of the to higher educational settings, some important uni- entities can be discerned through the mission and core versal considerations can help guide decisions about values considerations noted above, understanding how and procedures for institutional mergers in faith-based each entity is administered, and particularly the attitudes educational settings. and morale that the style of administration deployed has produced, is a critical component of successful mergers. Mission/Core Values Compatibility If one entity is more command and control in its leader- In keeping with the Bible’s exhortation about not being ship style and the other is participatory and shared gov- unequally yoked (2 Cor. 6:14), it is important that in a ernance oriented, significant challenges will be present in merger there be significant agreement on the founda- bringing together the two approaches in a new context. tional mission and core values that anchor the merging Usually employee satisfaction surveys of each entity can institutions together in a new and hopefully strengthened help identify key differences as well Onlyas similarities that vision for their Christian educational objectives. Even will need to be addressed in a merged entity. Forums when two organizations are Christian at their common with employees and the current student bodies as well core, differences in theological conviction, degree of as the parents can bring to the surface distinctive issues, commitment to historic fundamentals, lifestyle param- attitudes, concerns, and even fears that can impact the eters, beliefs about whom the institution should serve success of the combined entities. These efforts at under- (particularly the target audiences; e.g., exclusively Chris- standing the individual cultures can also identify com- tian students or a willingness to admit non- or margin- mon threads of interest, conviction, style, and mission ally Christian students), and the nature of leadership and that can be used to more quickly unite the two entities board governance are all critical components of agree- into a common purpose and process for achieving the ment for a merger to be successful. A good place to begin new mission. The governing style of each entity’s board is an examination of the institutions’ founding histories is alsoCopy an important factor to examine as the issues of and purposes, to see how the original visions might be corporate culture are addressed. connected and thus celebrated. Stakeholder Communications Due Diligence Considerations Strong mergers are driven by careful evaluation of the In corporate mergers, the process of due diligence in- fiscal and other related due diligence considerations, but volves a thorough and in-depth analysis of each entity’s often with only limited attention given to how the past financial condition, assets and liabilities, continuing and current stakeholders of the institutions are impacted. commitments in terms of mortgages, contracts and re- The current employees, as well as the students and par- lated obligations, as well as any current or potential legal ents of the organizations, often feel excluded, ignored, entanglements. This same model of assessment should and undervalued in the heady processes of merger. The be followed in Christian organizational mergers. Take alumni of the institution, and previous leadership who nothing for granted. Sometimes good faith intentions, may still be meaningfully involved, also experience a and more often assumptions, are not fully supported by considerable amount of anxiety as they see the institu- the facts and realities. Since governing boards carry the tion they were so deeply invested in go through dramatic ultimate responsibility for the merger process, and recog- change. Clear, consistent, and frequent communication nizing that it is not uncommon for these boards to have with those who are most deeply affected by the merger is only limited understanding of the current conditions important. In essence, the experiences are like those faced and future obligations of their own entity, it is advisable by blended families when a marriage brings together to utilize an outside, objective consultant to help each children from a previous relationship into a new family institution best assess the encumbrances the merged en- context. And there also is a parallel to the grief stages of tity will carry. One higher education institution had two death, which these community members face as they see differentContributor opportunities to merge with another institution their previous institution slowly change and even disap- and acquire the campus of the second. After a thorough pear. The most successful mergers pay close attention to due diligence, it was concluded that significant liabilities the human implications of change as well as the fiscal and would be part of those mergers, and the process was operational dimensions. Institutionalized and Elderly, The 637

Spiritual Nurture and Support Institutionalized and Elderly, The While it is presumed that mergers of Christian institu- tions pay sufficient attention to the spiritual needs and Defining the Institutionalized and Elderly opportunities of the process, this may not be the case. Populations defined as the criminally institutional- Most merger efforts will call for prayer from the various ized include, but are not limited to, incarcerated indi- stakeholders. However, greater attention needs to be paid viduals residing in private or regional jails and prisons, to how the constituents can be nurtured spiritually and maximum or super-maximum security facilities, spe- thus assured that their prayers are being answered. Vari- cially designed high-level supervision jails, secure-status ous means of spiritual formation—including regularly mental health hospitals, regional jails, and military in- scheduled corporate prayer and worship experiences, carceration facilities. times of fasting, periodic updates from those guiding the Institutionalized individuals may also reside in various mergers that explain how they are seeking God’s direc- types of care-giving facilities designed to provide short- tion, and evidence that they are seeing His hand—are im- term or life-term, high-level medical and/or psychologi- portant for creating a spiritual climate that can support cal care for individuals with diverse types of conditions. and sustain the merger process. In the end, the overriding The care needs may result from birth defects, including desire of all involved is to discern the will and purposes of genetically related conditions; accidentOnly or other injury; God and receive His guidance, blessings, and provisions and various forms of mental and/or emotional illness. so that the new merged entity is better equipped and po- Care institutions include, but are not limited to, high- sitioned to accomplish His purposes for the advancement level residential care facilities, including special hospitals of Christian education. for the profoundly disabled; assisted living in homes or Many factors make it necessary, as well as prudent, to other facilities; convalescent residencies; and nursing explore the opportunities for merging Christian educa- facilities. Many of these are founded, supported, and ad- tional institutions at every level—from preschools through ministrated by various Christian denominations or other colleges and universities. The need to model good stew- Christian faith-based groups. ardship, using the resources entrusted to these institutions The definition of “elderly” differs according to coun- wisely, as well as delivering on the promises of quality try, culture, and governmentally assigned categorizations educational experiences in an intentional Christian con- of Copyolder age, with the low end in some locations being text, may be achieved by combining efforts, resources, and age 50. In many Westernized countries, age 60 or 65 is vision. While mergers are often structurally complex and the beginning of the “elderly” category, due to its cor- challenging in terms of the cultural and spiritual angst relation with the usual age of retirement from one’s job produced, increasingly institutions should give serious or profession. Medically, the term “elderly” is generally consideration to how the ultimate cause of Christ-centered applied to any adult over 75 years of age. The wide range education might be strengthened and advanced through of ages used to delimit the elderly underlines the diversity more cooperative and collaborative efforts. of individuals who may fall within this group. The elderly differ significantly in overall health condition, economic References and Resources status, job or retirement status, and living conditions. Jaschik, Scott. 2008. “Will More Colleges Merge?” http://www .insidehighered.com/news/2008/08/25/mergers. Common Needs of the Institutionalized and Elderly Koontz, Kristen. 2009. “The Impact of Mergers in Higher Edu- Although groups and individuals described as institu- cation on Employees and Organizational Culture.” Research tionalized or elderly live in a variety of conditions and paper, Graduate School, University of Wisconsin–Stout. http:// situations, they do have some common challenges and www2.uwstout.edu/content/lib/thesis/2009/2009koontzk.pdf. needs. They may experience feelings of isolation due to McBain, Lesley. 2009. College and University Mergers: Recent distance from or loss of family, friends, faith communi- Trends. A Higher Education Policy Brief. Washington, ties, and the wider interaction experienced in one’s local DC: American Association of State Colleges and Universi- community. Living on the edges of mainstream society, ties. http://www.aascu.org/uploadedFiles/AASCU/Content/ the elderly face the challenge of social marginalization Root/PolicyAndAdvocacy/PolicyPublications/PM-College and a sense of disconnection from people and events that UniversityMergers.pdf. is much less common for many others. Due to isolation Skodvin,Contributor Ole-Jacob. 1999. “Mergers in Higher Education—Suc- and marginalization, the institutionalized and elderly cess or Failure?” Tertiary Education and Management 5 (1): may experience various types of depression, feelings of 65–80. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13583 worthlessness, hopelessness, and even changes in cogni- 883.1999.9966981). tive capacity and overall emotional and physical health —David Gyertson due to their isolation from the mainstream of society. 638 Institutionalized and Elderly, The

Successful Education for the Institutionalized ized and elderly. In addition, educators require knowledge and Elderly in understanding each student’s preferred type of learning The various real or perceived limitations of the institu- style. To achieve each student’s learning potential, the tionalized and the elderly should not be considered deter- teacher must determine whether auditory, visual, kines- rents to the education of individuals in these groups, but thetic, or a combination of learning approaches and other rather should be approached with an understanding that formats for receiving information will be most effective education for them is both necessary and possible. How- in teaching, training, and producing growth cognitively, ever, education for these groups requires contextualiza- emotionally, and relationally. tion to their specific needs to achieve realistic and lasting educational goals and outcomes. The Benefits of Educating the Institutionalized and Elderly Diversities and Obstacles in Meeting Individual Needs Education based on the biblical, theological, and his- and Approaches to Education torical foundations of the Christian faith emphasizes the Individuals in these groups are very diverse, ranging meaning and value of each individual life, regardless of from the profoundly physically or mentally disabled, to the human challenges or limitations existing in it. Society those with milder forms of disability or other challenges, as a whole is morally elevated when humanOnly life, in all its to those with significant cognitive, emotional, or social circumstances and conditions, from before birth to the limitations. Prejudice, lack of knowledge, and misinfor- end of earthly life, is respected and honored. Respect for mation about the abilities of the institutionalized and the institutionalized and elderly and provision for their elderly are common obstacles to the successful education educational needs allow individuals with special needs of individuals in these two groups. The lack of knowledge to contribute, often in unexpected and very significant and information concerning the very real learning abili- ways, to the common good of society. ties of people in these groups is sometimes the result of an Education improves life conditions and can serve as a initial attitude of prejudice. Prejudicial attitudes include preventative to mental and physical decline during aging. a noncompassionate view of the institutionalized and The process of learning can provide hope and prepara- elderly and an unwillingness to dedicate time, energy, tion for the future in the lives of those who are incarcer- and financial resources to educating individuals in these ated. CopyAppropriate kinds of educational opportunities groups, based on the misconception that educating the allow the profoundly disabled to feel love and a sense of institutionalized and elderly wastes resources needed for self-worth. Education for the institutionalized and elderly educating nonmarginalized members of society. ennobles educators and those whom they teach and train, witnessing to the integrity of the Gospel message, which Understanding the Educational Needs offers peace and profound meaning to every human life. of Special Individuals and Groups Successful education for the institutionalized and elderly References and Resources requires a careful understanding of the individual stu- Clark, Doris C. 2000. Feed All My Sheep: A Guide and Curricu- dent’s needs, depending on his or her specific challenges lum for Adults with Developmental Disabilities. Louisville, and conditions. Appropriate contextualization of learning KY: Geneva Press. goals and desired outcomes is essential in planning educa- Forster, William. 1998. Education Behind Bars: International tional opportunities that align well with the specific needs Comparisons. Leister, UK: National Institute of Adult Con- of the special students in both groups. Those espousing tinuing Education. a Christian theological foundation for their ministry of Hughes, Emma. 2012. Education in Prison: Studying through teaching the institutionalized or elderly require a biblical Distance Learning. Farnham, Surrey, UK: Ashgate Publishing. understanding of the inestimable worth of each individual Lambdin, Lois, with Mary Fugate. 1997. Elder Learning: New as created in the image of God. Educators for the institu- Frontier in an Aging Society. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press. tionalized and elderly must maintain a conviction of God’s Manheimer, Ronald J., Diane Moskow-McKenzie, and Denise unconditional and uncompromising love for every person. D. Snodgrass. 1995. Older Adult Education: A Guide to Re- Teachers also require an appropriate level of education and search, Programs, and Policies. Westport, CT: Greenwood. training in the special skills necessary to understand and Micheals, Bruce. 2011. College in Prison: Information and Re- adequatelyContributor mentor and train persons defined as belong- sources for Incarcerated Students. Bloomington, IN: Trafford ing to one of the two groups. Graciousness, love, patience, Publishing. respect for each student, and an overarching attitude of Saucer, Bobby Joe. 2005. Our Help in Ages Past: The Black Christian compassion for others are foremost qualities Church’s Ministry Among the Elderly. Valley Forge, PA: indispensable to the ministry of teaching the institutional- Judson Press. Integrated Education 639

Wacker, Robbyn R., and Karen Roberto. 2008. Community Re- goes for our moral systems. Morality, like technology, sources for Older Adults: Programs and Services in an Era of medicine, and jurisprudence, can either have a positive Change. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. effect on our continued success and health as a species or Zoukis, Christopher. 2012. Education Behind Bars: A Win-Win have the negative effect of causing pain and perhaps even Strategy for Maximum Security. Camp Hill, PA: Sunbury annihilation. We must therefore use the same rational Press. method for determining morality as well. In this way, —Mara Lief Crabtree instrumentalism offers what appears to be a viable way of developing a highly functioning, stable social organiza- tion that, according to Dewey, avoids the pitfalls inher- Instrumentalism and John Dewey ent in religious and ethical squabbles that do not have a rational justification.32 John Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont, in 1859. From this, one can infer the role Dewey thinks educa- He graduated from the University of Vermont and tion must play in the development of our democratic, earned a PhD from Johns Hopkins University. Dewey technologically driven society: education must be one of taught elementary and high school before accepting the chief institutions that promote the scientific method. faculty positions at the University of Michigan, the Uni- If the public education system failsOnly to foster viable versity of Chicago, Columbia University, and Columbia methods of appropriating truth, then the populace will University’s Teachers College. As a professor, he was not be able to make educated decisions, thus weakening also a prolific author. Among his most influential works democratic ideals. In Experience and Education, Dewey on education are The School and Social Progress (1907), argues that schools must promote the scientific method Democracy and Education (1916), and Experience and for the sake of progress. “The educational system must Education (1938). move one way or another, either backward to the intel- Dewey was a pragmatist who believed that truth was lectual and moral standards of a pre-scientific age or true by virtue of its usefulness to society. If a particular forward to ever greater utilization of scientific method in proposition was valuable to society, then it served some the development of the possibilities of growing, expand- end and thus was considered categorically true; however, ing experience.”33 Most Christian educators would agree if the same proposition at some point in time lost its thatCopy the scientific method is one important method of value or usefulness, it would also lose its status as truth. establishing truth. However, they would argue that the Truth is therefore relative to the needs of a society. But scientific method is not the only reliable method for ap- Dewey did not believe that this necessarily relegates truth prehending truth. to an indefinite status. He argued that certain truths were of such manifest and permanent value that they would References and Resources never be considered valueless, and therefore they had a Dewey, John. 1939. Intelligence in the Modern World: The Phi- kind of objective status. In order to place these on a stable losophy of John Dewey. Edited by Joseph Ratner. New York: footing, he offered an instrumental theory of truth that Random House. elevated the scientific method as a mode of discovering ———. 1981. The Later Works. Vol. 1, Experience and Nature. the most useful or instrumental manner to achieve the Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. goals of a democratic society. Instead of arbitrarily letting —Jonathan Eckert truth fall in and out of use based on our whims, we could thereby stabilize truth and so further develop as a civi- lized, democratic nation. This was of paramount impor- Integrated Education tance because, Dewey argued, we are, as humans, thrust into a world that is rife with problematic and precarious Lagan College, the first planned integrated secondary situations that threaten our happiness and existence; school in Northern Ireland, opened in 1981, in a scout thus we need ways of resolving these situations so that we can continue to grow and evolve as individuals and 31 32. John Dewey, Intelligence in the Modern World: The Philosophy as a society. If our notions of truth do not tend toward of John Dewey, ed. Joseph Ratner (New York: Random House, 1939), the resolution of the problematic situations, then we will 791–792. It need hardly be said that this view of truth is not unique to slowly decline as a civilization. Dewey asserted that the Dewey, nor without its logical difficulties. At some point, Dewey would Contributor be forced to admit that the universal principles democracy and human scientific method protects us from this peril. The same progress that he so assiduously espouses cannot be based on instrumental rationality and therefore are granted as axioms that are no more founded in scientific method than the metaphysical axioms of any number of 31. John Dewey, The Later Works, vol. 1, Experience and Nature (Car- religious and ethical sects. bondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1981), 37–65. 33. Ibid., 682. 640 Integrated Education hall close to the River Lagan in South Belfast. It consisted in 2006, there is a need to clarify the meaning of terms of 28 pupils, the principal, one full-time teacher, and five that have come into vogue, such as “shared education,” part-time teachers. Beginning in 1974, and through some “mixed education,” and “integrating education.” of the worst years of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, Parents choose integrated education for a variety of the pressure group All Children Together (ACT) lobbied reasons. Some are motivated by the ideal of children from for schools that would be shared by all the community. different traditions learning together. Others view the Northern Ireland has a largely divided system of edu- sector as a new chance for a pupil who, for whatever rea- cation, in which controlled, or state, schools are predomi- son, has underachieved at a primary school. Some vote nantly Protestant in management, staffing, enrollment, for an integrated school on the basis that their child has and culture, and maintained schools, usually called Cath- not attained a place in a grammar school, while others olic maintained schools, are run by the Catholic Council simply see the integrated school as their nearest school. for Maintained Schools. Both these sectors are funded For certain parents, it simply provides what they consider by the government. Added to the mix are the voluntary the best education in the area, while for others it is a sec- grammar schools, which operate a selection policy, based ond choice after the local grammar school. on examination at age 11. These schools are significantly Critics of integrated education have argued that the funded by the state. There are relatively few independent controlled system is open to all pupils,Only and therefore schools, and among them are some Christian schools. there is no requirement for integrated schools. This turns Such schools are not aided by the Department of Educa- a blind eye to a system that is largely Protestant in en- tion. Current statistics from the Department of Educa- rollment and management. Some in the Catholic sector tion demonstrate that close to half of Northern Ireland’s have viewed integrated education as a challenge to the school population are taught in schools where at least 95 Catholic faith and a dilution of the nationalist culture, percent are of the same religion. Integrated education despite the fact that integrated schools are recognized for schools, comprising grant maintained integrated schools having well-established practices and curricular initia- and controlled integrated schools, serve around 7 percent tives to promote a constructive approach to cultural and of the school population. religious diversity. The dynamic for integrated schools in Northern Ire- Integrated education, as understood by NICIE, is that land came from parents of different religious traditions. whichCopy seeks to provide an excellent education for young It was also dependent on committed teachers who were people in a school populace mainly drawn from the willing to risk their future careers to further a new vision Protestant and Catholic traditions. Integrated schools are for education in the province. Lagan College was the essentially Christian in character, while welcoming those prototype that proved to the government that the con- of all faiths or none. It should be noted, however, that the cept could work. It was also a catalyst for other groups to Christian ethos of an integrated school is often dependent develop their vision for establishing an integrated school. on the commitment of the principal and staff members. In 1988, the Education Reform (NI) Order provided Does integrated education work in Northern Ireland? for the financial support of integrated education, where Surveys over many years have shown consistently that there was a demand from Catholic and Protestant par- respondents believe integrated education is important to ents. The legislation, which came into effect in 1990, peace and reconciliation. Certainly it is not a panacea for imposed on the Department of Education in Northern all the ills of years of sectarianism, yet it can contribute Ireland (DENI) the requirement to encourage and pro- to social cohesion. As Basil McIvor, a former Stormont mote that type of education. minister of education and doughty supporter of integra- In 1991, the Northern Ireland Council for Integrated tion, said in a conversation with the author, “Integrated Education (NICIE) was core funded by DENI, to sup- education may not be the answer to the problems of port the development of planned integrated education Northern Ireland, but it is certainly not the problem.” and schools in Northern Ireland. The experience and expertise accrued by NICIE over a number of years is sig- References and Resources nificant in the growth of the movement. The Integrated Abbott, L., S. Dunn, and V. Morgan. 1999. Integrated Educa- Education Fund (IEF) was set up independently in 1992, tion in Northern Ireland: An Analytical Literature Review. to be a financial foundation for the furtherance of inte- Belfast: DENI. gratedContributor education. Signed 10 April 1998, the Good Friday Hansson, Ulf, Una O’Connor Bones, and John McCord. 2013. agreement endorsed integrated education. In subsequent “Integrated Education: A Review of Policy and Research broad policy documents, however, integrated education Evidence 1999–2012.” Report commissioned by the IEF, receives little specific mention, and since the Bain Report Belfast, January. Integration of Faith and Learning 641

Irwin, C. 1991. Education and the Development of Social Inte- tion are vast; he asks important questions about what gration in Divided Societies. Belfast: Northern Ireland Coun- the goals of Christian education should be and how they cil for Integrated Education. can be attained. Specifically, if Christian professors and Macaulay, Tony. Churches and Christian Ethos in Integrated teachers could integrate Christian practices into class- Schools. Belfast: Macaulay Associates. room liturgies, would students be more likely to love God McGlynn, C. 2008. “Integrating Education: Case Studies of and to devote their lives to being His disciples? Good Practice in Response to Cultural Diversity.” Research The Kuyers Institute for Christian Teaching and report, Queen’s University, Belfast. Learning at Calvin College in Grand Rapids, Michigan, Millward Brown Research. 2008. “Public Opinion Survey: In- has facilitated discussions about this new way of think- tegrated Education in Northern Ireland.” Belfast, Northern ing about Christian higher education. Director David Ireland Council for Integrated Education. See weblink http:// I. Smith has led conferences and summer seminars to www.agendani.com/integrating-education/ further discussions about how Christian practices can Moffat, Chris, ed. 1993. Education Together For a Change. Bel- be integrated into various disciplines. Specifically, pro- fast: Fortnight Educational Trust. fessors in Christian liberal arts colleges have examined O’Connor, F. 2002. A Shared Childhood: The Story of the Inte- and drawn from the works of Dorothy Bass and Craig grated Schools in Northern Ireland. Belfast: Blackstaff Press. Dykstra, who have been advocatingOnly the integration of —Robert Jennings Christian practices in seminary classrooms for some time.37 In addition, a volume edited by James K. A. Smith and David I. Smith gathers chapters authored by Integrating Christian Practices a variety of professors in different institutions and vari- ous academic disciplines, all of whom have attempted Discussions about and attention to the integration of to integrate Christian practices and are sharing their faith and learning in Christian higher education have experiences.38 Examples of practices that they have inte- experienced a few significant changes over the past few grated are hospitality, lectio divina, liturgical calendar, decades. An emphasis on worldview perspectives, rooted testimony, and breaking bread. How these practices are in a Reformed theology, dominated the focus from the integrated, how liturgies (regular rhythms of practices) 1960s on and is still influential. In the 1990s, both Mark areCopy established, and whether or not they impact stu- Noll and George Marsden voiced concerns that evangeli- dents are all topics of conversation and debate. cal Christians should pursue scholarship with more rigor —Laurie Matthias and intention.34 At the beginning of the 21st century, several voices from other theological perspectives rein- forced the importance of addressing the education of the Integration of Faith and Learning heart and hands as well as the head.35 The integration of Christian practices into the classrooms of Christian col- The phrase “faith and learning” is a ubiquitous moniker leges and universities is a new area of focus in Christian among evangelical Protestant colleges and universities higher education. in the United States. Perhaps the leading institution to The integration of Christian practices as a concept has both utilize and explore this term is Wheaton College in been heavily influenced by a philosophical anthropology Illinois, an evangelical interdenominational institution proposed by James K. A. Smith.36 Smith urges those in founded in 1860. Under the enormous influence of their Christian higher education to consider students as desir- late philosophy and faculty chair and author, Arthur ing or worshipping beings first before they are cognitive Holmes (who mentored countless Christian professors in beings. In other words, humans desire or love before the last and current century), the term was popularized in they think. With this perspective as a foundation, Smith his writings and teachings. It is not without its detractors, then explains how practices and liturgy influence desire. however, who believe that it restricts dialogue and discus- The implications of this discussion for Christian educa- sions of faith and learning to very dichotomous or binary ways and excludes the complexity that is nuanced in the 34. Mark Noll, The Scandal of the Evangelical Mind (Grand Rapids, MI: Roman Catholic Church and other traditions. For some, Eerdmans, 1994); and George Marsden, The Outrageous Idea of Christian Scholarship (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997). 37. Dorothy Bass, ed., Practicing Our Faith: A Way of Life for a Search- Contributor35. The most prominent example of this shift is the volume edited by ing People (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997); and Dorothy Bass and Craig Douglas Jacobsen and Rhonda H. Jacobsen, Scholarship and Christian Dykstra, eds., For Life Abundant: Practical Theology, Theological Education, Faith: Enlarging the Conversation (New York: Oxford University Press, and Christian Ministry (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2008). 2004). 38. David I. Smith and James K. A. Smith, eds., Teaching and Christian 36. James K. A. Smith, Desiring the Kingdom: Worship, Worldview, and Practices: Reshaping Faith and Learning (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, Cultural Formation (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2009). 2011). 642 Intercultural Life, Educating for the cultivation of faith and learning is a more accurate References and Resources use of the term. For others outside faith practices, espe- Burtchaell, James. 1998. The Dying of the Light: The Disen- cially scientific positivists, the term is an oxymoron: re- gagement of Colleges and Universities from Their Christian ligious faith has no role in rigorous intellectual pursuits. Churches. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. So, how does this concept purport to work? Within the Marsden, George. 1994. The Soul of the American University: two major Christian traditions, Protestant and Catholic, From Protestant Establishment to Established Non-Belief. it is framed very differently, with Protestants advocating New York: Oxford University Press. for a serious examination of scripture, as opposed to the —Louis B. Gallien Jr. Catholic tradition of the Social Gospel and the mystery of the Eucharist. For Protestants, the term is implicitly (or explicitly Intercultural Life, Educating for in some cases) used to signal the necessity of biblical literacy among members. Therefore, faith and learning Cultural diversity is an important trait of many contem- terminology is frequently restricted to the study of the porary cities, towns, and neighborhoods, and increas- Bible, with heavy emphasis on exegesis and hermeneu- ingly a characteristic of churches. When Christians tics. Discussions on the integration of faith and learning become aware of diverse cultures inOnly their midst, their are centered on the teachings and meaning of scripture. responses vary: fear, curiosity, love, anger, welcome, This is especially evident among historically Reformed resistance, openness, control. Christian education pro- and evangelical institutions. For others, the term repre- vides a set of perspectives and resources that can make sents multiple avenues for explaining the integration of it more likely that a church’s commitments to the Protestant faith and learning. Gospel will gain a priority in regarding people of other For Roman Catholics, the concept is best understood cultures. A church’s attention to cultural diversity may in the cultivation of one’s character, values, and spiritual be focused because of migration patterns and neighbor- exercises inspired by the various religious orders that hood changes, when there is increased cultural diversity founded their institutions (i.e., Jesuits, Dominicans, etc.), among friends and family members, or by visitors to and sacred habits of mind combined with social activism. worship or partnerships with other churches. These ex- It is not a sole exercise in sola scriptura that cements the periencesCopy provide opportunities for educators to shape integration of faith and learning. For sacramentalists, the learning environments that serve a church’s discern- integration that mainstream Protestants speak of may be ment about God’s call on their lives. found symbolically and literally in the liturgy and sacra- Among other tasks, educators have the responsibility ments. With the advent of the reforms of Vatican II in of guiding a church to engage biblical texts that provide the early 1960s, Catholic institutions faced a steep decline narratives and teachings concerning God’s priorities for in enrollment at their previously robust institutions, and how we relate to persons who are culturally different they still face an uncertain future. (see especially DeYoung 2009). (1) Early in his ministry, For Protestant collegiate institutions, many of their Jesus confronted the religio-cultural prejudices of His church-related colleges and universities no longer have own hometown synagogue (Luke 4:16–30). In His reflec- fiduciary responsibilities, nor do they have representative tions on how the Gospel was clarified by Isaiah, he refers dominance on their respective boards of trustees. Thus, to Old Testament stories in which God showed prefer- for all Christian denominations, the church-related col- ence for Gentiles (1 Kings 17:8–16; 2 Kings 5:1–1). The lege has been in a steady decline. anger he incited is not totally unknown in contemporary For the inter/nondenominational evangelical institu- churches. (2) The parable of the Samaritan neighbor tions, their vigor is tied to their cultural popularity in (Luke 10:29–37) can be told alongside a church’s stories the United States, as evidenced by their church numbers about the goodness that members have experienced and the steady numbers of their current student bodies, among culturally different peoples, and perhaps time though only 2 percent of their alumni base send their could be allowed for confession about behaviors that par- children to these institutions. So their current vigor is not allel the avoidance of a priest and a Levite. (3) The stun- tied to a solid base of evangelical support. ning experiences of the first postresurrection Pentecost This poses the question: Is there enough audience or celebration (Acts 2) make clear that God wants cultural clienteleContributor for Christian education to survive in an increas- boundaries to be crossed; parochial languages matter, ingly secular society? Those institutions that take the study and common life matters. (4) Acts continues to tell God’s of faith and learning seriously must demonstrate how this story as prejudices are confronted and new leaders are integration leads to lives of fulfillment, both intellectually sanctioned; see especially 6:1–7, 10:1–8, and 15:1–35. and spiritually, in order to survive the current century. (5) Pauline letters confront ethnically diverse commu- Interdisciplinary Approaches 643 nities with reconciliation (Gal. 3:28–29; Eph. 2:11–22), cific groups and leadership, niche marketing, occasional thus emphasizing intercultural life. (6) John’s Revelation celebrations of diversity, and affirmations that “we are of eschatological characteristics (Rev. 7:9–10) calls the all human”—can actually undermine genuine intercul- church to embody the traits that indicate our holiness tural life. Only through a continuing engagement of the and faithfulness. (7) In addition to the OT passages used action-reflection cycle can trust be built toward a greater by Jesus (above, in Luke), Jeremiah 29 calls an exiled Jew- experience that all God’s people are subjects rather than ish community to forgo its cultural prejudices in favor of objects, that they are full participants, valued for their “seek(ing) the shalom of the city (Babylon)”—certainly a gifts and perspectives, engaged mutually in the gospel of jarring cross-cultural call. transformation in their own lives and context. Christians and churches are seldom transformed solely by reading Bible texts; rather, a learning environ- References and Resources ment needs to include various opportunities that mix Anderson, David. 2004. Multicultural Ministry. Grand Rapids, experiences, conversations, prayer, meditation, study, MI: Zondervan. and the voices of “others,” all in service of paying atten- Branson, Mark Lau, and Juan Martínez. 2011. Churches, Cul- tion to the Spirit’s guidance so that participants then, tures and Leadership. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. perhaps tentatively, engage experiments. This is what is DeYoung, Curtiss Paul. 1997. Reconciliation:Only Our Greatest called an action-reflection cycle (see Branson and Mar- Challenge—Our Only Hope. Valley Forge, PA: Judson. tínez 2011, 39–54). Whenever possible, these activities ———. 2009. Coming Together in the 21st Century: The Bible’s need to be inclusive, including age, economic status, Message in an Age of Diversity. Valley Forge, PA: Judson. gender, and church roles. Some potential activities are Law, Eric. 1993. The Wolf Shall Dwell with the Lamb. Atlanta, writing and discussing personal cultural autobiogra- GA: Chalice. phies (including family stories of migrations and com- ———. 2002. Sacred Acts, Holy Change: Faithful Diversity and mon cultural habits of thinking and acting); personal Practical Transformation. Atlanta, GA: Chalice. stories about boundary-crossing and cross-cultural re- Rah, Soong-Chan. 2010. Many Colors: Cultural Intelligence for lationships; field trips to cultural centers, neighbor- a Changing Church. Chicago: Moody. hoods, and churches; guest speakers; movies, books on Smith, Efrem. 2012. The Post-White & Post-Black Church. San various cultural narratives, novels, and music; study of Francisco:Copy Jossey-Bass. a church’s/denomination’s cultural heritage, including Takaki, Ronald. 1998. A Larger Memory: A History of Our Di- positive and negative stories about cultural diversity; versity, with Voices. New York: Back Bay. reading or hearing a history of the region or nation Yancy, George. 2003. One Body, One Spirit. Downers Grove, IL: from perspectives other than those of the dominant InterVarsity Press. culture; engagement as listeners and partners with local —Mark Lau Branson churches with other cultures regarding activities that matter to them; and meditation and conversation that continually bring these activities to pondering scripture Interdisciplinary Approaches and what God wants for the next steps. Churches embody habits of thinking, feeling, and act- Mary Dalton observes that “one of the many convictions ing. Those habits are all shaped by culture, even though which has emerged from the theological and catecheti- such influence is often unconscious. And because change cal development of the past few years is the idea that (like intercultural life) is perceived by many as loss, religious attitudes and beliefs are intrinsically entwined churches often experience grief in the midst of educa- with the whole fiber of our existence.” She suggests that tional activities that are intended to increase faithful interdisciplinary studies in religious education have been hospitality and partnership. Churches frequently believe an outcome of this recognition (Dalton 1976, 17). If we they are welcoming even while they speak and act in ways couple this with James Fowler’s contention that faith is a that ensure others will remain less-than-full partners. structural condition of human experience by which “we Churches have their own structures, approaches to lis- construct (and therefore ‘know’) self-others-world as tening (or not listening), approaches to decision making, related to transcendence” (1981, 297), we may infer that modes of using power, priorities concerning what Bible religious commitment provides focus and coherence to textsContributor get prioritized, and expectations about the visual life and should do so for the curriculum as well. and musical environment and the visibility of diversity. Curriculum development requires the selection and New perspectives and ideas often meet deflection, denial, organization of experience (broadly conceived) for the emotional dynamics, and other forms of resistance. Some purposes of teaching and learning. The disciplinary ap- approaches to diversity—accommodation, ethnic-spe- proach to this task has ancient roots; while a liberal edu- 644 Intergenerational Learning cation was intended to be generalist, it was actually lim- Christ (Col. 1:15–20) and that life is motivated by reli- ited by the assumption that flourishing is best achieved gious commitment. This is a transdisciplinary approach, by nurturing the intellect (or the soul, of which reason inspired by a Hebraic view of knowing as personal and was the crowning feature). Because theoretical investiga- relational, rather than a Greek view of knowing as pri- tion is concerned largely with articulating the general marily rational and propositional; rooted in concrete structure of limited aspects of reality, it becomes more experience, it is a form of experiential education. and more abstracted from the latter in its complexity and contingency. As it attains greater rigor, it also assumes References and Resources less relevance to ordinary experience. The concerns of Beane, J. 1997. Curriculum Integration. New York: Teachers concrete experience are multidimensional, a “swampy College Press. lowland” remote from the “high, hard ground” of theo- Dalton, Mary A. 1976. “The Theology of Ecology: An Interdis- rizing (Schön 1983, 42). ciplinary Concept.” Religious Education 81 (1): 17–26. Interdisciplinary approaches have emerged in research Fowler, James W. 1981. Stages of Faith: The Psychology of and education to coordinate the resources of special- Human Development and the Quest for Meaning. Blackburn, ized disciplines so as to address matters that exceed Vic.: Dove Communications. the boundaries of each alone, for example, in the fields Hull, John E. 2009. “Education for Discipleship:Only A Curriculum of epidemiology and ecology. They may also be an at- Orientation for Christian Educators.” Journal of Education & tempt to redress the fragmentation and irrelevance of Christian Belief 13 (2): 155–168. the traditional curriculum that is judged to impede the Jacobs, Heidi Hayes. 1989. Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design construction of meaning. Largely under the influence and Implementation. Alexandria, VA: Association for Super- of progressivism, focusing on children’s learning rather vision and Curriculum Development. than subject matter, attention has turned to how the Null, Wesley. 2009. Why Teach Interdisciplinary Curriculum? curriculum could be shaped best to facilitate the former. Waco, TX: Baylor University. www.baylor.edu/content/ If meaning entails seeing the ways in which things are services/document.php?id=81704. related to one another, curriculum should be organized Schön, D. A. 1983. The Reflective Practitioner: How Profession- to highlight rather than obfuscate connections across do- als Think in Action. New York: Basic Books. mains. In this regard, integrated curricula have been de- Smith,Copy James K. A. 2009. Desiring the Kingdom: Worship, veloped as a way of bringing schooling closer to ordinary Worldview, and Cultural Formation, Cultural Liturgies. life, by building it around themes, cases, or problems. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. “Integrated” is an instructive term; while it may point to a Stronks, Gloria Goris, and Doug Blomberg, eds. 1993. A Vision desired integration of relatively abstract studies with con- with a Task: Christian Schooling for Responsive Discipleship. crete experience, it also indicates that disciplines rather Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. than experience remain the building blocks. Van Brummelen, Harro W. 2002. Steppingstones to Cur- A central concern for the Christian educator is how riculum: A Biblical Path. 2nd ed. Colorado Springs, CO: faith is to be integrated with other forms of knowledge Purposeful Design Publications. and experience. This has long been addressed by the —Doug Blomberg claim that theology is queen of the sciences, in which case it may be deemed sufficient to add theological and biblical studies to the secular curriculum. Increasingly, Intergenerational Learning however, the integration of faith and learning has be- come an explicit goal, though taking a variety of forms; Intergenerational learning in a church setting is some- integration that is predominantly cognitive, however, times confused with multigenerational learning; they is inadequate to a biblically holistic understanding of are not necessarily the same thing. Multigenerational religion, the person, created reality, and knowing (Smith may mean simply that all ages park in the same park- 2009). If a Christian perspective is to permeate all studies, ing lot and enter the same doors, but once there, they and faith is to give direction to life in all its dimensions, disperse to age-segregated settings such as adult worship, the goal of integrating faith and learning should be super- youth group, children’s programming, and senior adult seded by that of the integrality of faithing and living. One programs. Intergenerational, on the other hand, usually expressionContributor of the latter is the advocacy of education for means that there is intentional cross-pollination between discipleship and an integral, problem-posing curriculum the age levels. This takes place so that the generations can (Stronks and Blomberg 1993; Van Brummelen 2002; Hull learn from each other and spur each other on to deeper 2009), reflecting the conviction that all things cohere in spiritual growth. The goal in an intergenerational church International Council for Evangelical Theological Education 645 is to be a community of Christ together: to create a setting International Council for in which the old and young and babies and singles and Evangelical Theological Education families and widows and the deaf and ethnic minorities are all rubbing shoulders and sharing space and serving, History worshipping, learning, and living together. The origins of the International Council for Evangeli- To better understand the importance of intergenera- cal Theological Education (ICETE) lie in the emergence tional learning in the church setting, it may be helpful to of regional networks of evangelical theological schools take a brief look at the state of the church in 20th-century in the majority world during the late 1960s and early Western culture. The church found itself becoming age 1970s. Thus, the impetus for and development of ICETE segregated. There are numerous reasons why this hap- came from the felt needs of these constituencies, begin- pened, but it primarily came about when the post–World ning with quality assurance (accreditation) to facilitate War II church began accommodating and even com- regional and international recognition of schools belong- peting with the culture for the hearts, minds, and souls ing to a given region. Subsequently, these networks, and of youth. With increases in leisure time, discretionary ICETE, developed support services and promoted rela- income, and mobility, the culture came to value material- tionally based interdenominational collaboration. ism, individualism, entertainment, and mobility. The re- The World Evangelical AllianceOnly (WEA) Theological sult was a Western cultural church that found itself in the Commission agreed to sponsor the project, and ICETE position of accommodating these cultural values. Adding was formed in March 1980. In the years since its found- to that accommodation was the increased influence of ing, ICETE has become the established forum for dia- social sciences and secular teaching methods, also on the logue and cooperation among evangelical theological ed- rise during the 20th century. The church was influenced ucators internationally. Under its motto, “strengthening to look to these modernistic models as the proper way to evangelical theological education through international do religious education in a modernist ethos. Parachurch cooperation,” ICETE has taken a leading role in fostering ministries, which were also on the rise in postwar Amer- renewal and excellence in evangelical theological educa- ica, often competed rather than partnered with local tion globally, its membership now covering all major re- churches as a means of reaching the youth of the era with gions of the world. ICETE’s previous international direc- the Gospel message. torsCopy are Paul Bowers (1980–1982), Robert Youngblood Ralph Carmichael, a popular band leader who was (1983–1988), Roger Kemp (1989–1997), Dieumeme No- hired by the parachurch ministry Youth for Christ, elliste (2000–2006), and Paul Sanders (2006–2012). The predicted that teenagers reached with the new folk-rock international director is Riad Kassis. sound would eventually want to worship to that sound. Thus were born what has been referred to as the worship Purposes wars over musical style in worship, further segregating ICETE exists the generations.39 By the last couple of decades of the 20th century, and es- 1. to promote the enhancement of evangelical theo- pecially the turning of a new millennium, the call had gone logical education worldwide; out to the churches to bring generations back together 2. to serve as a forum for contact and collaboration again to be a community of Christ together: a call to cre- among those worldwide involved in evangelical ate a setting in which old and young, families and singles, theological education, for mutual assistance, stimu- would rub shoulders and share space and worship, serve, lation, and enrichment; and learn together what it means to be the family of God. 3. to provide networking and support services for This is the essence of intergenerational learning. regional associations of evangelical theological Early in the 21st century, multiple models and cur- schools worldwide; and ricula have been and are being created to encourage local 4. to facilitate among these bodies the enhancement congregations to come together and learn together, to of their services to evangelical theological education enrich one another’s lives with stories of faith and faith- within their regions. fulness, thus developing places of belonging with the goal of forming identity and purpose in God’s diverse and ICETE Manifesto intergenerationalContributor Kingdom. One of the major landmarks of ICETE is the “ICETE —Trevecca Okholm Manifesto on the Renewal of Evangelical Theological Education.” Its origins date back to meetings of ICETE 39. Thomas Bergler, The Juvenilization of American Christianity (Grand held at Chongoni, Malawi, in 1981. As a new body link- Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2012), 201. 646 International Council for Higher Education ing programs of evangelical theological education world- Facing Christian Higher Education across the World wide, ICETE determined to draw up such as manifesto Since its founding, ICHE has addressed wide-ranging for public consideration. After wide consultation and educational concerns by networking and partnering with several revisions, the manifesto was unanimously ad- Christian educators, specialist agencies, and institutions opted by ICETE in 1983 and was subsequently published worldwide. Through these relationships, established col- in Theological Education Today (16, no. 2: 1–6) and in leges and universities have been able to make significant Evangelical Review of Theology (8, no. 1: 136–143). The contributions to institutions, especially those in countries manifesto has also been published in Spanish, Portu- where educational opportunities are restricted, and are guese, and Russian. helping members develop sustainable and integrated The manifesto aims to articulate the broad consensus models of higher education that reflect biblical faith on renewal already existing among evangelical theological through learning and service. educators worldwide, as well as to formulate values that The aims and objectives of ICHE are could provide encouragement, guidance, and critical chal- lenge in pursuing renewal. In doing so, it is attempting to 1. to network individuals and institutions involved in encourage the community of evangelical theological edu- Christian higher education in order to pursue com- cators who recognize how much agreement already exists mon concerns in the cause of excellence;Only and to explore additional points of agreement. 2. to engage in appropriate educational programs and projects of global concern; ICETE Consultations for Theological Educators 3. to offer assistance and advice to institutions in These triennial events have functioned as the principal keeping with the highest standards of relevant international forum for professional reflection and inter- global education; action among evangelical theological educators world- 4. to offer expertise in culturally appropriate educa- wide. The triennials have been held alternatively in the tion, building communities in a real-life context; majority world and in the West, including the United 5. to specialize in both program design and delivery Kingdom, Malawi, Korea, the United States, Cyprus, for varied contexts, in both traditional as well as Germany, Thailand, Hungary, and Kenya. Several col- distance education modes (including a master’s in lections of papers from these consultations have been developmentCopy studies, master’s in leadership, and a published in an ICETE publication series, Evangelical unique master’s in nonprofit management); and Theological Education Today. 6. to offer scholarship possibilities for its members, with an open library and online forum. References and Resources Bowers, Paul. 1984. Evangelical Theological Education: An Furthermore, ICHE facilitates faculty and student International Agenda. Nairobi: Evangel Publishing House. exchange programs and research. In addition to offering ———. 2000. “International Council for Evangelical Theological program design and learning methods, ICHE provides Education?” In Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions, ed- accreditation and validation possibilities for mem- ited by A. Scott Moreau, 533–534. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. ber institutions. Membership is open to institutions, Kemp, Roger. 1994. Text and Context in Theological Education. educators, students, and agencies of higher education Springwood, Australia: ICAA. throughout the world, and those organizations whose ———. 1995. “Brief Introduction to ICAA.” Evangelical Review reputation is founded on a commitment to the mission of Theology 19 (3): 314–315. and bylaws of ICHE. Members pay a modest annual fee and are encouraged www.icete-edu.org to attend the annual and triennial international assem- —Paul R. Sanders and Riad A. Kassis blies. Recent assemblies were held in Los Angeles, Zurich, Sophia, and Manila. In 2014 the assembly was held in Nairobi. More information is available at www. iche.org. International Council —Wil Goodheer for Higher Education TheContributor International Council for Higher Education (ICHE) The International Institute for has its registered office in Zurich, Switzerland. It was Christian School Educators founded in 1997, with the distinct purpose of assisting Christian colleges and universities, by concerned Chris- Since 1971, the International Institute for Christian tian educators who joined together to address vital issues. School Educators has offered an annual summer confer- International Theological Education Network 647 ence that draws leading Christian educators from across The Institute serves a vital need for professional de- the globe. The Institute, as it is affectionately called, velopment as delegates choose from a variety of seminar began at Grace College in Winona Lake, Indiana. Bill tracks or even pursue a graduate degree specifically de- Male and Roy W. Lowrie Jr. founded the Institute to meet signed for and taught by Christian school educators and the professional and spiritual needs of Christian school administrators. No topic is more important to the Insti- educators through professional development, mutual tute’s leadership than that of a distinct Christian philoso- support, encouragement, and spiritual refreshment. The phy of education. Early in its history, the Institute served Institute began humbly, with 11 faculty members (5 with a growing number of international Christian schools and earned doctorates) and 77 participants from 21 states. played a critical role in fostering a climate of racial toler- The impressive list of faculty members included many ance within a Christian school movement that was often who would go on to serve as founding members of the accused of forming “white flight” academies. Association of Christian Schools International (ACSI) The Institute eventually moved from Grace College board or work on the ACSI executive staff. to the campus of Columbia International University An important aspect of the Institute’s unique contribu- (CIU) in South Carolina. Its influence almost came to tion to Christian education is the deep sense of camara- an end with the unexpected death of Lowrie in 1994. derie developed between faculty members and delegates. His son, Roy Leon Lowrie, and MiltOnly Uecker helped lead Lowrie’s strategic formation of rich traditions, both seri- the Institute during this time of transition, then Uecker ous and light, forged bonds of friendship that would last continued as director in 1995. Uecker eventually initi- for decades. Many of the Institute’s humorous traditions ated talks that led to cosponsorship of the Institute by were grounded in Lowrie’s experiences as director at CIU and ACSI. While the Institute has made cosmetic Camp Sankanac. But he displayed a much more serious changes over the years, it has remained true in its zeal side when it came to the spiritual traditions at the Insti- and enthusiasm for a Christian philosophy of education. tute. Time in the Word of God and prayer were central In the realm of professional development, the program to his devotional life. He expected all faculty members to has continued to progress and diversify. The Institute rise early and join him each morning for devotions. Low- continues to play an important role in the professional rie also relished singing the beloved hymns of the faith. development of Christian school administrators from At the conclusion of his messages, he would sometimes acrossCopy the country and around the world. It provides break out in song, a cappella, and encourage the audience a forum for the honing of a well-articulated Christian to join him. His all-time favorite was “Nothing but the philosophy of education and helps instill this philoso- Blood of Jesus.” He began the opening session of every phy in future generations of Christian school leaders. Institute with a complete rendition of every verse. These It gave rise to one of the only graduate programs in spiritual traditions shaped a generation of educators America specifically designed for and taught by Chris- and forged a spiritual depth that rippled throughout the tian school administrators and strengthened the rela- Christian school movement. Lowrie’s most lasting legacy tionships between the American Christian schools and may be the countless young men and women he encour- their international counterparts. The many traditions aged to pursue terminal degrees, who have since gone begun by Dr. Male and Dr. Lowrie continue each sum- on to assume positions of leadership within Christian mer at the Institute on the campus of CIU and hopefully schools and Christian higher education. will for decades to come. The Institute was singularly instrumental in the forma- —James A. Swezey tion of ACSI, serving as the catalyst that brought together the leaders of the three founding regional associations by providing a critical common bond. The environment, International Theological traditions, and memories established were instrumental Education Network in providing context for deep, abiding friendships. There were opportunities to pray together, to serve and support Beginning in the 1960s, missionaries such as Ralph Win- each other, and to simply sit together telling jokes, talk- ter and Ross Kinsler identified a growing trend in Gua- ing and laughing, and sharing a vision for future ministry temala: the leaders who needed the most biblical training together. These abiding friendships saw ACSI’s leader- (i.e., indigenous pastors) were least able to receive it shipContributor through the trying times to come, because after the due to mobility, finances, and familial commitments. euphoria of the merger subsided, many conflicts arose In response, the two men developed a decentralized and difficult decisions had to be made. ACSI went on to educational model known as “Theological Education by become one of the leading Christian school associations, Extension.” In the process, they reestablished the central impacting Christian education throughout the world. importance of theological training in missions and fur- 648 Interreligious Education ther strengthened the global church by designing a model programs that will develop mature, reproducing Chris- by which the seminary could be brought to the pastors. tian leaders from within churches among UPGs. A defin- The historical importance of such moments in missions ing aspect of ITEN’s vision is to educate and strengthen is noteworthy, because despite a handful of examples, the indigenous leaders to foster the ability of their churches majority of mission agencies continue to exist with a pri- to reach not only their own people, but ultimately other mary focus on reaching unreached people groups (UPGs) unreached peoples. through church planting programs divorced from ongo- This vision supports a larger commitment to holistic, ing theological training. This has caused some to lament, full cycle church planting, outlined in the New Testa- “sadly, mission history shows that in our rush to reach as ment model of collaboration between Paul (church many UPGs as possible, we may be creating new ones.”40 planting) and (leadership training; 1 Cor. 3:57; In response, the authors of the 2010 “Cape Town Acts 18) for continued multiplication of churches. This Commitment” committed afresh to the idea that theo- work is accomplished by ITEN’s focus on four key logical education needs to play a central role in the global areas: networking, recruiting and sending new teaching mission of the church. In doing so, they highlighted the missionaries, training and developing current field mis- belief that all theological education needs to be both in- sionaries, and forming partnerships with global educa- trinsically and intentionally missional. Its authors boldly tional organizations. Only asserted: “Those of us who lead churches and mission agencies need to acknowledge that theological education References and Resources is intrinsically missional. Those of us who provide theo- The Cape Town Commitment. 2011. London, UK: Didasko logical education need to ensure that it is intentionally Publishing. missional, since its place within the academy is not an Wells, M. David. 2010. Reaching and Teaching. Chicago: end in itself, but to serve the mission of the Church in Moody Press. the world.”41 In accordance with this belief, the ITEN was developed World Outreach: International Theological Education Net- by the Evangelical Presbyterian Church as a ministry arm work. http://www.epc.org/ministries/world-outreach/inter of World Outreach, focusing on theological and leader- national-theological-education-network-iten/. Developed by ship training for nationals around the globe. Born from BruceCopy Anderson. a conviction that the great commission includes a variety —Stephen L. Woodworth of mandates, ITEN encourages the church to embrace holistic church planting that not only seeks to evangelize and baptize new believers, but is also faithful to teach- Interreligious Education ing converts to obey all that Christ commands (Matt. 28:19–20). This great need is corroborated by M. David Interreligious education is an educational process in Well in Reaching and Teaching: “In recent years, mission which individuals and groups of differing religious agencies and missionaries have increasingly shifted away backgrounds learn from one other. It seeks a detailed from teaching and discipleship toward an emphasis on and sympathetic understanding of religious difference. evangelism and church planting—some to the exclusion Although cross-tradition learning has long occurred, of any other field activity. While evangelism and church cultural challenges such as globalization, immigration, planting are essential components of a missions program, religious illiteracy, and religious violence are the back- deep discipleship, pastoral preparation, and leadership drop against which the importance of this discipline is training must be priorities as well.”42 often established. Toward this end, ITEN’s mission is to “to develop The process of interreligious education involves the teachers among unreached peoples who will develop reciprocity of speech/silence, explaining/discovering, teachers among other unreached peoples.”43 This is ac- teaching/being taught. Accordingly, definitions com- complished by working in countries in Europe, Africa, monly pair the terms learn about and learn from. This Asia, and Latin America with the goal of growing training coupling indicates that learning should involve (a) gaining critical information about the great cumulative 40. M. David Wells, Reaching and Teaching (Chicago: Moody Press, traditions known as religions and (b) gaining personally 2010), 217. formative insight from diverse experiences of transcen- 41.Contributor Cape Town Commitment, Part 2, Section IIF, 4A. 2011. 42. Wells, Reaching and Teaching, 11. dence and faith. For example, an international group of 43. World Outreach: International Theological Education Network, scholars defines the discipline as “an interactive process http://www.epc.org/ministries/world-outreach/international-theological -education-network-iten/ (accessed 23 July 2013) (website developed by through which people learn about and learn from a Bruce Anderson). diversity of religions. It aims at the transformation of Interreligious Education 649 attitudes and behaviors that may stereotype, demonize, seminal essay, Knitter (1991, 174) associates a “multi- or view those of other religions with suspicion” (Enge- religious restructuring of theological education” with the bretson et al. 2010, v). “mainlining of an interreligious conversation into the general curriculum.” Technically speaking, however, the Background multireligious and interreligious approaches are distinct In framing the discipline bilaterally, interreligious educa- (Hermans 2003; van der Ven 1994). tion owes much to Wilfred Cantwell Smith (1916–2000), Interreligious education refers to a reciprocal transac- whose work in comparative religious studies introduced tion between faiths and implies that participants per- a range of religious traditions to the Christian West. sonally identify with at least one faith and have some Though Smith was a Christian, his scholarship balances openness to being taught by those of differing faiths. An giving information (learning about) and expressing ap- example is the Claremont Lincoln University (California) preciative understanding (learning from) of other reli- consortium, which in 2013 included member schools gious traditions. Theoretically, the need for deepened and from Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions, as well as nuanced awareness of different religious traditions lies affiliations with Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain institutions. in what Smith (1962, 126) refers to as the “transcendent In this regard, interreligious education is often linked dimension” of faith, which resists essentializing or insti- with interfaith dialogues, the ParliamentOnly of World Reli- tutionalizing. The transcendent capacity of faith leads to gions, and the ecumenical movement. the possibility of “intercommunication among religious Multireligious education refers to a more neutral communities” (177) and minimizes clear-cut dualisms comparison of faiths and does not assume that students between the perspectives of insiders and outsiders, adher- have a religious commitment. An example is outlined ents and observers. This mutuality between traditions he in the 1975 Birmingham Agreed Syllabus for Religious termed “a ‘we’ or ‘us’ kind of knowing” (1981, 81). The Education. This was “the first syllabus to abandon the possibility of interreligious partnership led Smith (1962, aim of Christian nurture and to embrace a multi-faith, 310) to remark that “one of the exciting prospects before phenomenological model of religious education; and it modern man [sic] is the new possibility of our learning to was also the first syllabus to require a systematic study of appreciate religious traditions other than our own.” non-religious ‘stances for living,’ such as Humanism, and Comparative religion posed questions so vital that forCopy such study to begin in the primary school” (Barnes Smith believed that nothing less than the fate of civilization 2008, 75). It might be said that interreligious education hinged on the ability of humans to cooperatively address occurs perpendicularly, while multireligious education them. The manner in which one could go about doing occurs parallelly. this was through active and reciprocal learning: “Unless men [sic] learn to understand and to be loyal to each other An Academic Discipline across religious frontiers, unless we can be build a world Interreligious education is a relatively new discipline. in which people profoundly of different faiths can live Norma Thompson, a participant in Jewish-Christian dia- together and work together, then the prospects for our logues, edited Religious Pluralism and Religious Education planet’s future are not very bright” (1962, 14). in 1988. Nevertheless, in 2004 Judith Berling claimed that More recently, this approach has been articulated by her guidebook, Understanding Other Religious Worlds, Francis X. Clooney (2010), whose method of compara- was “ahead of its time” (3) and that Christian theological tive theology is often expressed in pedagogical language. education had largely “ignored” (54) other religious tra- Comparative theology, not unlike interreligious educa- ditions. “Theological education remains largely monore- tion, involves “the dynamics of back-and-forth learn- ligious” (57). Likewise, The International Handbook of ing” (11), in which one explores his or her own religious Inter-religious Education, published in 2010, was said to tradition in concert with looking for insight outside that represent “the first time that such a group of scholars has tradition. “Learning across religious borders” can be addressed itself to this issue in a co-ordinated way.” an “integral intellectual and spiritual education” (126), Interreligious education is an interdisciplinary dis- which “discloses the truth of my faith, in the light of cipline. In his vision for moving “beyond a mono-reli- their faith” (16). gious theological education,” Knitter (1991) proposed a marriage between theology and religious studies. More TerminologyContributor recently, the field has been described as involving “com- The term “interreligious education” is sometimes used parative religion, theology, the sociology of religion, and interchangeably with “multireligious education.” Both religious education, as well as philosophy of education, approaches can be distinguished from a mono-religious peace education, and critical and cultural studies” (Enge- approach to theological education. For example, in a bretson et al. 2010, v). 650 Iona Monastery

Interreligious education is an educational discipline. Engebretson, K. 2009. In Your Shoes: Inter-Faith Education While the term interreligious dialogue is popular, as a for Australian Religious Educators. Ballan, Australia: Con- pedagogical activity, interreligious education involves nercourt. experiential and curricular components not denoted by Engebretson, K., M. De Souza, G. Durka, and L. Gearon, eds. the practice of dialogue. Some believe that dialogical 2010. International Handbook of Inter-religious Education. approaches are too narrowly focused on texts, theories, Dordrecht: Springer Science+Business Media. and institutions; as Clooney (2010, 100) warns: “Com- Feinberg, W. 2006. For Goodness Sake: Religious Schools and parative theology risks becoming something white guys Education for Democratic Citizenry. New York: Routledge. do in their offices, while most of the Church happens Ghiloni, A. J. 2011. “Interreligious Education: What Would elsewhere.” Thus, recent scholars have taken steps to Dewey Do?” Religious Education 106 (5): 476–493. add teaching and learning theories to the theological and Hermans, C. A. M. 2003. Participatory Learning: Religious Edu- religious perspectives that also inform the field. Berling cation in a Globalizing Society. Ledien: Brill. (2004) employs theories on multiple intelligences, em- Knitter, P. 1991. “Beyond a Mono-religious Theological Educa- powerment, imagination, and reacculturation. Others tion.” In Shifting Boundaries: Contextual Approaches to the refer to transformative learning theory (Engebretson Structure of Theological Education, edited by B. Wheeler and 2009) and Deweyan pragmatism (Ghiloni 2011) in map- E. Farley, 151–180. Louisville, KY: WestminsterOnly John Knox ping approaches to interreligious education. Press. Miedema, S. 2000. “The Need for Multi-Religious Schools.” Location of Interreligious Education Religious Education 95 (3): 285–298. Locality is a decisive issue in interreligious education. Mosher, L., and J. Baird. 2009. Beyond World Religions: Contexts of formal education (e.g., religious education in The State of Multifaith Education in American Theological state schools) may well require a very different approach Schools. New York: Auburn Theological Seminary, Center than less formal contexts (e.g., community gatherings for Multifaith Education. involving faith communities). Reflective of the inherently Smith, W. C. 1962. The Meaning and End of Religion: A New international scope of both inter- and multireligious edu- Approach to the Religious Traditions of Mankind. New York: cation, much of the scholarship has focused on formal Mentor. schooling in places such as The Netherlands (Miedema ———.Copy 1981. Towards a World Theology: Faith and the Compar- 2000; Sterkens, Hermans, and Van der Yen 1988), Aus- ative History of Religion. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. tralia (Engebretson 2009), and the United Kingdom Sterkens, C., C. A. M. Hermans, and J. A. Van der Yen. 1988. (Barnes 2008). While the notion of religious education “Formation of the Religious Polyphonic Self: Inter-Religious in state schools is somewhat foreign to the United States, Learning in Religiously Affiliated Schools.” In Search for the educational theorist Walter Feinberg (2006, 213) Meaning: Education into Realms of Meaning in Plural So- hints that interreligious education may happen more ef- ciety, edited by C. Sterkens and A. Ploeger, 123–143. The fectively in America’s public schools than in its religious Netherlands, Kampen: KOK. and parochial schools, inasmuch as the former are more Thompson, N., ed. 1988. Religious Pluralism and Religious Edu- reflective of society’s pluralism. Theological and clerical cation. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. education is another distinct location in which interreli- van der Ven, J. 1994. “Religious Values in the Interreligious gious and multireligious curricula are being developed Dialogue.” Religion and Theology 1 (3): 244–260. (Mosher and Baird 2009). The practice of interreligious —Aaron J. Ghiloni education in nonschooling contexts, such as in neighbor- hood groups and faith communities, is an area where further research is needed. Iona Monastery

References and Resources Iona, a small Hebridean island southwest of Mull, is cel- Barnes, L. P. 2008. “The 2007 Birmingham Agreed Syllabus for ebrated as the birthplace of Christianity in Scotland. The Religious Education: A New Direction for Statutory Reli- island was given to Columba by Conall mac Comgaill, gious Education in England and Wales.” Journal of Beliefs & king of Dál Riata, soon after his arrival in Scotland in AD Values 29 (1): 75–83. 563, and there he founded a monastic institution that was Berling,Contributor J. 2004. Understanding Other Religious Worlds: A to influence the spread of Christianity, not only in Gaelic Guide for Interreligious Education. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. Scotland, but also in northern England. Clooney, F. X. 2010. Comparative Theology: Deep Learning Aidan, a monk from Iona, later founded Lindisfarne, Across Religious Borders. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. where he and his successors were instrumental in the Ireland and Christian Education 651 conversion of the Northumbrians and even extended the The onset of the Reformation in the mid-16th century influence of Christianity into central England and beyond. was the death knell for monasticism, and the abbey was a Adomnan, the ninth abbot of Iona, in his Life of St Co- Protestant cathedral until the buildings fell into ruins in lumba, provides an insight into the day-to-day life of the the 17th century. The church was restored in the first de- monks. They lived in single cells, constructed of wattle cade of the last century, and the monastic buildings have or wood. The Abbot’s cell was built slightly apart from now been reconstructed. the rest. The daily regimen was mortification, scriptural In the present day, the restored abbey is a center of study, and manual work. Every Wednesday and Friday Christian ecumenical activities. This is due to the vision the monks fasted, with no food taken until afternoon. of the Reverend George Macleod who, in 1938, founded The exception was between Easter and Whitsun. During the community and began reconstruction work on the the period of Lent, the fast was extended until evening, church. Macleod believed in an incarnational gospel and excluding Sunday, when a modest meal was permitted. was an indefatigable campaigner for social justice. His The study of scripture formed a principal part of the aim, in essence, was to glorify God in the High Street. monks’ day. The Psalms in particular were committed Nowadays, community membership is drawn from a to memory. From Adomnan’s description, it is apparent variety of Christian denominations. Each one assents to that secular literature, as well as the lives of saints, was a “Rule” that provides for, amongOnly other things, regular part of the curriculum. No doubt this would facilitate the meetings, daily prayer and Bible reading, accountability monks’ learning Latin. for one’s use of time and financial resources, as well as a Columba was an outstanding scribe, and he and his commitment to act for peace and justice. second abbot, Baíthlín, put in place the groundwork for the scribal art, which was to become one of the References and Resources most remarkable features of Irish monastic schools. The Anderson, A. O., and M. O. Anderson, eds. and trans. 1991. monks in Iona worked on the land, plowing, sowing, and Adomnan’s Life of Columba. Oxford: Clarendon Press. harvesting. Intricately carved stones and crosses of the Attwater, D., with John, and Catherine Rachel. 1995. The Pen- eighth century are also testimony to their artistic talent. guin Dictionary of Saints. London: Penguin. It is probable that the Book of Kells, one of the most Dilworth, M. 2000. “Iona.” In Encyclopedia of Monasticism, vol. outstanding of the illuminated scriptural manuscripts, 1,Copy A–L, edited by William M. Johnston, 658–659. Chicago originated in the late eighth or early ninth century in and Dublin: Fitzroy and Dearborn. Iona. Scholarly opinion today is that toward the end of Farmer, D. H. 1982. The Oxford Dictionary of Saints. Oxford: the ninth century, at an incomplete stage, it was taken Oxford University Press. from Iona to the Columban monastery in Kells, County Herbert, M. 1996. Iona, Kells and Derry: The History and Ha- Meath, to protect it from the rapacious Norsemen. The giography of the Monastic “Familia” of Columba. Blackrock, Book of Kells is now preserved at Trinity College, Dublin. Dublin, Ireland: Four Courts Press. Similarly, authorities consider that the Book of Durrow, —Robert Jennings one of the earliest illuminated Irish manuscripts, had an Ionian or Northumbrian provenance. It has indications of being produced by monks who had Irish training. Ireland and Christian Education From the late eighth century, Iona was the focus of Viking raids, to the extent that in the mid-ninth century, The arrival of Christianity in pagan Ireland is most fa- Columba’s relics were removed: some to Kells and some mously associated with St. Patrick in the fifth century.44 to Dunkeld in Perth and Kinross. The latter monastery Contemporary Christian education in the Republic of is thought to have been founded by the saint in the late Ireland is inextricably linked to the island’s complex and sixth or early seventh century. In 806 and 986, the settle- divided religious and political history. After Partition in ment at Iona was decimated, yet it still remained a thriv- 1921, primary and secondary education was controlled ing spiritual center until the 12th century. Its political by the Roman Catholic Church (over 90 percent) and and spiritual significance is evidenced by the fact that the the minority Protestant population (mostly Anglican, ap- graveyard was the burial place of kings of Scotland from proximately 3 percent today). Smaller Protestant denomi- the ninth to the eleventh centuries. nations such as Presbyterians and Methodists also manage ContributorIn 1203, Iona came under Benedictine “Rule,” despite some primary and secondary schools in the republic.45 opposition from the Columban Familia in Ireland. The connection with the Benedictines continued until the 44. For the text of Patrick’s Confession and related resources, see http:// www.confessio.ie/. late 15th century, when the abbey became the see of the 45. Wesley College in Dublin, for example, caters for a wide variety of bishops of the Isles. Protestants at the secondary level and has a strong Christian ethos. 652 Irenaeus of Lyons

Separate Protestant and Catholic teacher training colleges46 Although Irenaeus wrote a number of books and trea- continue to be mirrored in distinct theological training in- tises, only two are extant. The most famous, Adversus stitutions at the tertiary level, such as the Church of Ireland Haereses or “Against Heresies,” is a thorough refuta- Theological College (CITC); All Hallows College (Catho- tion of the many expressions of Gnosticism plaguing lic, a college of Dublin City University); and St. Patrick’s early Christianity. The other, Demonstration of Apostolic College, Pontifical University, Maynooth and the Milltown Teaching, gives a synopsis of Christian teaching intended Institute (Jesuit; a recognized college of the National Uni- for the baptized. Both works present the “rule of faith,” versity of Ireland). These are complemented by evangelical which Irenaeus argued was received from the apostles and denominational theological colleges, namely Belfast and faithfully taught by the church scattered throughout Bible College and the Irish Bible Institute in Dublin. In the world. Together they give a clear picture of the doctri- Northern Ireland, the Presbyterian Church in Ireland nal content of early orthodoxy and Christian instruction trains its ministers at Union College, and the Methodist in the second-century church. Church has Edgehill College. Many charismatic, Pentecos- In Adversus Haereses, Irenaeus provides a summary tal, and newer ethnic churches prefer to develop their own, of the “rule of faith” in three places (1.10.1, 3.4.1–2, and unvalidated forms of Christian education and training. 4.33.7). He states that the church believes in One God Many Christian leaders are acutely aware of the failure the Father Almighty, maker of heavenOnly and earth; in Jesus of Ireland’s Christendom model of “franchising out” Christ, the Son and Word of God, through whom the act Christian education within the primary and second- of creation took place, who became incarnate through the ary school systems, where religion acts as little more virgin Mary to bring salvation to the fallen world by unit- than a political, ethnic identity marker. The collapse of ing in himself God and humanity, passed through every Catholic vocations; significant decline of all the historic stage of human development in order to redeem people denominational churches; increasing pluralism; and an of every age, died on a cross, overcame death for all hu- associated waning of political, social, and cultural influ- manity through bodily resurrection, is now glorified by ence all pose profound challenges for Christian educators the Father, and will come again to judge humanity; and in in Ireland. In a post-Christendom future, it is likely that the Holy Spirit, by whom the prophets spoke, the apostles effective Christian education in Ireland will be less and taught, and humanity is brought to truth and perfected in less able to rely on the support of the state, but will need the imageCopy of God. to find fresh ideas and resources to communicate, teach, In Demonstration of Apostolic Teaching, in addition and apply the good news of Jesus Christ at an individual to giving the “rule of faith” as found in Adversus Hae- and local church level. reses, Irenaeus provides the first detailed account of the —Patrick Mitchel theological narrative (God, creation, fall, redemption, and consummation) used in Christian education. He teaches that there is one uncreated, infinite, and invis- Irenaeus of Lyons ible God, the Father, who in love brought creation into being by His Word, the Son of God, and adorned it Church father and Bishop of Lyons, Irenaeus (c. 115– through His Spirit. God formed humanity as a steward c. 202) was born in Asia Minor, possibly Smyrna, where of creation to be like God, reflecting divine holiness and as a youth he listened to the preaching of . love. He gave humanity free will, through the faithful Later he traveled to Rome to complete his education. exercise of which they could grow increasingly in divine As an adult, he migrated farther west to Gaul, becom- likeness and be made fully like God, incorruptible in ing a presbyter in the church at Lyons and a leader in nature and character. the struggle against Gnosticism. When Bishop Photinus However, Satan became jealous of humanity’s glory died as a martyr in 177, Irenaeus ascended to the epis- and deceived Adam and Eve in the Garden, causing them copal office. As bishop, he focused his work on send- to disobey God and inaugurating the reign of death and ing missionaries to unevangelized areas of Gaul and sin in the world. Because of God’s love for humanity, maintaining the church’s unity against persistent chal- He could not leave humanity in misery. Through a suc- lenges through a vigorous defense of the “rule of faith.” cession of Old Testament covenants, God prepared the Scholars believe Irenaeus died as a martyr in the Roman world for the coming of His Son. The only way to redeem massacreContributor of Gallic Christians in 202. humanity—defeat the devil, destroy sin, overcome death, perfect the divine likeness, and impart incorruption to humanity—was for the Son of God to become human, 46. For example, Church of Ireland College of Education (CICE) and St. passing through every stage of life, thereby paving the Patrick’s College (Catholic, primary) and Mater Dei (Catholic, secondary). way for union with God. Irish Christianity, Influence of Early 653

Christ’s redemptive work in life, death, resurrection, Irish Christianity was characterized by a rich blend of and exaltation to the “right hand of the Father” set the Celtic spirituality and “orthodox” Christianity, at least foundation for the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon in its popular form. This living incarnate religion was humanity. Through baptism in the Triune name, Chris- ritualized regularly outside the confines of church build- tians are absolved of sin, born into new life through the ings and centered around four great feasts marking the Spirit, and receive the Spirit as “an earnest” of ultimate beginnings of the four seasons of the year: Samhain (1 perfection. The Holy Spirit then works continually to November), Imbolg (1 February), Bealtaine (1 May), and render Christians into greater likeness to God. Finally, Lughnasa (1 August). at Christ’s second coming, the Holy Spirit will enable The first challenge to this unique expression of Christi- mortal life to take up incorruptibility in bodily resur- anity integrated into the lives of Irish people came from the rection, and humanity will be fully united with God in Protestant reformers. By the 18th century the (Protestant) final consummation. Church of Ireland had become the established religion, since Ireland was under English rule. Patrick continued to References and Resources be the great symbol of Christianity in Ireland. “Patrick’s re- Bounds, Christopher T. 2010. “Irenaeus and the Doctrine of ligion became the guarantor of stability and the bringer of Christian Perfection.” Wesleyan Theological Journal 45 (2): a national social principle. He epitomized the established Only48 45–60. Church and state as national and enlightened.” From a Donovan, Mary Ann. 1997. One Right Reading? A Guide to Church of Ireland perspective, the result was an image of Irenaeus. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. Patrick that mirrored the position of this church as the Osborne, Eric. 2001. Irenaeus of Lyons. Cambridge, UK: Cam- established religion. While the vast majority of Catholics bridge University Press. continued with their Celtic expression of Christianity, a Purvis, Sara, and Paul Foster. 2012. Irenaeus: Life, Scripture, comparable image of Patrick, with its consequent expres- Legacy. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. sion in practice, emerged between the lay professional —Christopher T. Bounds Catholics and their Protestant counterparts. Yet among the majority of people, the popular cult of attending holy wells, places of pilgrimages, and patrons did not claim Irish Christianity, Influence of Early denomination allegiance: “It extended beyond denomina- Copy 49 tion, often comprising pre-Christian characteristics.” It is well known that Patrick brought Christianity to The impact of the Catholic Counter-Reformation Ireland. At that time, the fourth century AD, the Celtic eventually reached Ireland, and church leaders made people who inhabited the island had developed a rich strenuous efforts to purge many traditional practices of spirituality, which was strongly linked to nature and the the unique Irish expressions of Christianity and to em- seasons of the year. Patrick and the early missionaries brace an essentially clerical ecclesial vision. Throughout were very sensitive to native sacred rituals, and instead the 18th century, the Catholic Church devoted much of eliminating them, they Christianized them. This form energy to the creation of church structures, especially of enculturation of the Christian message was very suc- parishes, and also to engaging in catechesis on the sac- cessful, and in a relatively short time, the Celts became a raments and doctrinal formation. It is clear that by the Christian nation. middle of the 19th century, despite the best efforts of the For many centuries, the Celtic spirit imbued the church and the English-ruled state to “purify” religion, new faith, and Celtic Christianity took on a distinc- the Irish people clung tenaciously to their ancient ritual tive character. Unlike European Christianity, which celebrations. It required one of the greatest peacetime was exported to the New World, the Celtic mind was catastrophes to change that. Where the Reformation not burdened by dualism. As John O’Donohue points and Counter-Reformation had failed, the Famine (1845– out, “The dualisation which separated the visible from 1852) succeeded in transforming the religious minds the invisible, time from eternity, the human from the and hearts of Irish Catholics. “It is in this sense,” says divine, was totally alien to them.”47 The Celtic imagina- Drumm, “that it is probably true to speak of contempo- tion recognized how the rhythm of nature, human life, rary Irish Catholicism as a post-Famine phenomenon.”50 and divinity followed a circular pattern. This continued to be the pattern of faith and practice to the time of the Contributor 48. Bridget McCormack, Perceptions of St. Patrick in Eighteenth Century Protestant Reformation in Europe. Ireland (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2000), 32. 49. Ibid., 36. 50. Michael Drumm, “A People Formed by Ritual,” in Faith and Culture 47. John O’Donohue, Anam Cara: Spiritual Wisdom from the Celtic in the Irish Context, ed. E. G. Cassidy (Dublin: Veritas Publications, 1996), World (London: Bantam Press, 1997), 16. 83. 654 Italy and Christian Education

Traditional rituals were relentlessly attacked by both Christianity. This resulted in the dynamic development Catholic priests and Protestant evangelists. Their path of Christianity in the territory of present-day Italy. was cleared, as there were no longer any first fruits of the Italy’s religious structure is diversified: Roman Catho- harvest to celebrate the feast of Lughnasa (1 August). lics constitute 83.2 percent of the population, Muslims The second attempt at a Protestant Reformation in 1.9 percent, Orthodox 1.6 percent, Protestants 1.3 per- Ireland, in postfamine years, was met face to face by a cent, and others 12 percent (Kielian 2010). Counter-Reformation. The former failed, whereas the In Italy a facultative form of religious education func- latter had extraordinary success under the leadership tions in public schools, and it is characterized by the fact of Paul Cullen, Catholic archbishop of Dublin. Cullen’s that pupils’ participation in religious education depends impact on the postfamine church was so great that is on the submission of a positive declaration of intent to was termed the Cullenization of Irish Catholicism. The participate in such lessons. Confessional lessons of reli- outcome was a devotional revolution, which resulted in gious education may be held in all types of schools and church-based practices of faith. The great majority of educational institutions. Religious education is treated on Irish people became practicing Catholics and uniquely equal terms with other subjects, except for assessment, remained so until recent decades. and is part of the schedule. Representatives of other The first half of the 20th century witnessed an ex- faiths may attend the lessons for theOnly Catholic religion traordinary rise in vocations to church ministries, to- (Misiaszek 1999). The inclusion of the confessional les- gether with an expansive missionary drive throughout son of religious education in the school schedule means the world. Thereafter, it was evident that the Catholic that pupils enrolled for facultative lessons of Catholic re- Church in Ireland, now heavily influenced by traditional ligion are obliged to regularly participate in such lessons, European structures, would have great difficulty in re- because the subject of Catholic religion is an integral part sponding to the rapid socioeconomic and cultural change of the school educational program. Approximately 80 that was about to occur and permeate every level of Irish percent of pupils take part in such lessons. society. As a result of very rapid economic and social There is a clear presence of the Catholic Church in the change, unequaled anywhere else in the developed world, field of education. It conducts several religious univer- a major cultural shift has dramatically changed the Irish sities, among which the most renowned are Pontifical religious landscape, leading to a corresponding weaken- UniversityCopy of the Holy Cross, Pontifical University of St. ing of religious beliefs and practice among all people, Thomas Aquinas, Pontifical Gregorian University, Pon- especially the rising generation. tifical Lateran University, Pontifical Salesian University, —Oliver Brennan Antonianum (University of Rome), and Pontifical Urba- niana University.

Italy and Christian Education References and Resources How Teachers in Europe Teach Religion: An International Em- Christianity appeared in what is now Italy in the second pirical Study in 16 Countries. 2009. Edited by H. G. Ziebertz. half of the first century as a result of missionary journeys Berlin: University of Riegel. made by Paul of Tarsus as well as the activity of the apos- Kielian, A. 2010. Modele nauczania religii rzymskokatolickiej w tle Peter. The first Christian communities established krajach europejskich. Kraków: Wydawnictwo UNUM. the principle of one-man leadership of the bishop. The Misiaszek, K. 1999. Koncepcja nauczania religii katolickiej Edict of Milan in 313 was of the greatest importance. It w publicznej szkole włoskiej po Konkordacie z 1984 roku. guaranteed full religious freedom to Christians and al- Warszawa: Białystok. lowed the followers of the Roman religion to convert to —Marian Zajac Contributor J Only James, William world.” He further stated that his view “admits miracles and providential leadings, and finds no intellectual dif- Early Background and Education ficulty in mixing the ideal and the real worlds” (James Born in New York, William James (1842–1910) was the [1902] 1961, 403). Because of the centrality of experi- oldest child of Mary James and Henry James Sr., a Swe- ence to his metaphysics, James tended to discount the denborgian theologian. He earned an MD from Harvard, issues that occupied philosophical theologians, such as but never practiced medicine. James briefly taught anat- the existence of God, and focused more on the experi- omy at Harvard before eventually turning to psychology. ential realities as well as the doubts and aspirations of He was instrumental in bringing German experimental living individuals. psychology to the United States and getting it accepted as AsCopy the first American psychologist to devote special an academic field at Harvard. His two-volume work, The attention to educational issues, James played a signifi- Principles of Psychology ([1890] 1981), was foundational cant role in the development of educational psychology. for the development of the discipline in the United States. His ideas influenced a diverse spectrum of psychological He later shifted his attention to philosophy and became schools that developed educational theory and practice. one of the most influential and popular American philos- His view that as humans “we are thus mere bundles of ophers of his time, developing and popularizing pragma- habit” and that as such we “are stereotyped creatures, tism (a term originated by Charles Peirce) as a distinctly imitators and copiers of our past selves” (James [1899] American philosophy. 1915, 66 ) had significant impact on the development of behavioral psychology. On the other hand, humanistic Significant Contributions to Christian Education psychologies were also influenced by his focus on the In spite of his commitment to empirical science, reli- “importance of the individual” (James [1897] 1979, 255) gion was always one of James’s primary interests in life. and his emphasis on the importance of “introspection” The tension between the two shaped much of his phi- (James [1890] 1981, 185). However, James’s most sig- losophy, as reflected in a good deal of his writing from nificant contribution to the development of education 1880 onward. Empirical science of the day dismissed was his influence on his contemporary John Dewey. any religious phenomena from the realm of the physical In describing his shift from Hegelian idealism, Dewey or the “real world,” while traditional religion insisted claimed that one of the most significant factors in this that ultimate reality existed beyond the physical realm. change was “the influence of William James,” which James vigorously supported the power, vitality, and he described as a “specifiable philosophic factor which validity of religious experience in the lives of devotees entered into my thinking so as to give it a new direction against what he felt was the limited perspective of em- and quality” (Dewey 1930, 33). In Dewey’s biography piricalContributor science. He also rejected the Kantian “universal- his daughters also stated, “William James’ Principles of ist supernaturalism,” in which the entities of the “ideal Psychology was much the greatest single influence in world” were barred “from interfering causally in the changing the direction of Dewey’s philosophical think- course of phenomenal events” associated with the “real ing” (Dewey 1939, 24).

— 655 — 656 Japan and Christian Education

James’s work has left an indelible mark on the study of References and Resources the psychology of religion as well as educational psychol- Carette, Jeremy, ed. 2005. William James and “The Varieties ogy. Students of Christian spirituality can benefit from of Religious Experience”: A Centenary Celebration. London: his work and his rigorous defense of humanity’s right to Routledge. believe as well as the empirical support he offered for the Dewey, Jane, ed. 1939. “Biography of John Dewey.” In The legitimacy of religious experiences. His concern for the Philosophy of John Dewey, edited by Paul Schilpp, 3–45. New life experiences, including doubts, of authentically reli- York: Tudor Publishing Co. gious people can be a source of encouragement to those Dewey, John. 1930. “From Absolutism to Experimentalism.” struggling in their spirituality. There is also great benefit In Contemporary American Philosophy: Personal Statements, in the rich variety of religious and theological perspec- edited by George P. Adams and Wm. Pepperell Montague, tives reflected in the breadth and width of the religious 13–27. New York: Russell and Russell. traditions represented in James’s studies. Garrison, Jim, Ronald Podeschi, and Eric Bredo, eds. 2002. William James and Education. New York: Teachers College Notable Publications Press. James was a prolific writer who had a significant impact James, William. (1890) 1981. The Principles of Psychology. in several fields. His 1,000-page Principles of Psychology Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Only ([1890] 1981) has proved to be his most influential work, ———. (1897) 1979. The Will to Believe and Other Essays in containing much of his philosophical foundation as well Popular Philosophy. Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard as his ideas on psychology. This book both develops and University Press. follows his method of “introspection,” which became ———. (1899) 1915. Talks to Teachers on Psychology and to Stu- central to his epistemology. The Will to Believe and Other dents on Some of Life’s Ideals. New York: Henry Holt. Essays in Popular Philosophy ([1897] 1979) was also ex- ———. (1902) 1961. The Varieties of Religious Experience. New tremely influential during the last century. In the title York: Macmillan. essay, James vigorously defends an individual’s right to ———. (1907) 1979. Pragmatism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard religious beliefs based on the outcomes of those beliefs University Press, 1979. in a person’s life. The book also contains writings that —John Lillis attempt to alleviate the tension between religion and sci- Copy ence of the day and others that provide a thorough state- ment of his views on morality. His book Talks to Teachers Japan and Christian Education on Psychology ([1899] 1915), based on 12 lectures he gave to teachers at Cambridge in 1892, eventually became a The first known appearance of organized Christianity central part of teacher education programs in a number in Japan was the arrival of Roman Catholic missionar- of countries, including the United States. In these essays, ies from Portugal in 1549. There is earlier evidence of James encourages teachers to engage in a “plurality of Japanese encounters with Christians through trading outlooks,” which “commands us to tolerate, respect, and with the Portuguese and South Asian Indians from Goa, indulge those whom we see harmlessly interested and a central base of the Portuguese East India Company. happy in their own ways, however unintelligible these Roman Catholic missionaries arrived in the southern may be to us” ([1899] 1915, 264). In The Varieties of Japanese cities of Nagasaki and Kagoshima, the most Religious Experience ([1902] 1961), James focuses on that notable of whom was Francis Xavier, a Jesuit, who was part of human nature that deals with religious experience. later given sainthood. In this book, he is not concerned with the institutional These early Christians and their converts faced per- trappings of religions or even their beliefs. Rather, his secution from the later 16th through the 17th centuries, concern is with the “the feelings, acts, and experiences of resulting in many martyrs and the development of a individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend “hidden church.” After 1853, when Japan became open themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may con- to foreign trade, Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox sider the divine” ([1902] 1961, 42). The book includes a churches began sending missionaries in significant chapter on mysticism, which discusses four helpful char- numbers. Despite rigorous missionary activity, less than acteristics of an experience that would justify labeling it 1 percent of the population now claims Christian belief “mystical.”Contributor One of the last books that James published or affiliation. The vast majority of Christian churches before his death in 1910 was Pragmatism ([1907] 1979), in Japan have a membership of fewer than 30 peo- based on lectures he gave on pragmatism from 1898 ple, though attendance is markedly higher. Protestant through 1907. The book provides a helpful outline of churches (United, Presbyterian, Methodist, Episcopal, James’s fundamental ideas about this philosophy. Lutheran) and the Roman Catholic Church share the Jerome 657 majority of congregations in Japan. Many Japanese rec- in Trier, but becoming familiar with the ideals of mo- ognize both Roman Catholics and Protestants for their nastic life, he rejected the career of a civil servant and ongoing colleges and universities. around 370 left for Aquilea, where with some friends Many Christians in Japan cite the Sunday school as he led an ascetic lifestyle. After a few years, Jerome the most important evangelistic and outreach method. went to Antioch, where he perfected his knowledge of Because many secular parents consider the Christian Greek and listened to the lectures of Apollinaris of La- church to be a good place for their children to obtain odicea. Under the influence of a mysterious dream, he a moral education, and because the Japanese culture abandoned secular literature and devoted himself to the places such a high value on education, significant num- study of scripture and Hebrew, learned from a Jewish bers of churches report more children in their Sunday hermit. In 378 at Antioch, he was ordained a priest, and schools than members in worship. With small mem- in 382 he went back to Rome, where he became secretary bership numbers and an aging population, however, to Pope Damasus, performing his pastoral work among Japanese churches are often struggling to find teachers the Roman noblewomen. After the death of the pope in for Sunday school. 384, Jerome went to Palestine and Alexandria, where he Japan is an open and progressive but largely secular attended the lectures of Didymus the Blind. In 386 he society. Despite the small percentage of Christians, for settled in Bethlehem, where he organizedOnly monastic life instance, there have been nine Christian prime ministers for men and women, assisted by a Roman noblewoman, in the 20th and 21st centuries. Important theologians Paula. He taught sacred scripture and the classics in the emerged from the Japanese church in the 20th century, monastery school. After he died, 30 September 420 in including Kosuke Koyama (1929–2009), professor of the- Bethlehem, he was buried beside Paula and Eustochium ology at Union Theological Seminary in New York City near the grotto of the Nativity. and author of Waterbuffalo Theology; Kazoh Kitamori Jerome is renowned for his work on the text of the (1916–1998), professor at Tokyo Union Seminary and Bible and translations of works of the Greek fathers of author of The Pain of God; and Toyohiko Kagawa (1888– the church, especially Origen, under whose influence 1960), a social rights activist, author, and nominee for he remained for most of his life. His own works can be the Nobel Peace Prize and the Nobel Prize in Literature. divided into exegetical, historical, dogmatic-polemical, homilies,Copy and letters. The most pivotal of these is De viris References and Resources illustribus, a description of 135 Christian, Jewish, and Ibuka, Kajinosuke. 2007. Christian Education in Japan. Report pagan authors, inspired by the work of Suetonius, and of a Commission on Christian Education in Japan Jointly Commentarii in Prophetas, a commentary on the Old Issued by the National Council of Churches of Japan, the Na- Testament’s prophets. tional Christian Education Association of Japan, the Foreign In the field of education, Jerome became famous for Missions Conference of North America and the International his guidance on the education of girls, which he included Missionary Council. Tokyo: International Mission Council. in two letters: 107, To Laetha, regarding the educational Wiens, Ruth L. 1984. “Christian Education in Japan.” Christian process of the girl Paula; and 128, To Gaudentius, about Education Journal V (1): 31–37. the education of his daughter, Pacatula. The basic as- —Rodger Nishioka sumptions of Jerome’s educational theory were that the family is the first educational environment, that the teacher should always be carefully selected to match the Jerome age of the child, and that he should be a man of high moral character and impeccable behavior. According Born in AD 347 at Stridon, Dalmatia, to a Catholic to Jerome, the main educational aims are to protect the Christian family, who according to common custom did child from the source of evil and to fight evil with good. not baptize him in his infancy, Jerome was a brother of He distinguishes two periods in the intellectual educa- Paulinian, who was some 20 years younger and from tion: up to seven years, when parents should concentrate AD 385 constantly lived with him. Between 360 and on the accuracy and beauty of the language and teach the 367, Jerome studied in Rome at the school of Donatus child to read and write, and from eight years of age up, Elius, where he obtained a splendid acquaintance with when the psalter, scripture, and strictly indicated canon LatinContributor rhetoric and classical literature, and from which of books should be the subject of teaching. He pointed to he derived his special admiration for the works of Ci- the enormous value of labor at every age in a child’s de- cero and Vergil. During his studies, he became friends velopment. St. Jerome stressed the importance of ascetic with Rufinus of Aquilea. In 366 he was baptized by and moral education as well. Concerning girls’ education, Pope Libierius. For a time he lived at the imperial court Jerome emphasized the execution of certain restrictions 658 Jesuits, The or instructions that were to protect the pupils against Jesuits, The moral decay. He recommended adequate nutrition and proper hygiene, appropriate selection of the company, The Jesuits are members of the Roman Catholic male and emphasis on modesty in behavior and dress. He order known as the Society of Jesus. The order began recommended that a child, under the guidance of par- humbly in 1534, when the Spaniard Ignatius Loyola ents and educators, should have direct contact with the (1491–1556) and fellow university students each took a scriptures. From girls, whom he divided into two groups, vow to serve God and offer their services to the pope to Jerome required concrete things: a girl dedicated to God perform whatever commands he gave them (Boehmer has to have some fear of God; she should imitate Holy 1928, 57–58). In 1539, the Company of Jesus was orga- Mary in all things; bad words or secular songs were not nized with a draft of regulations known as the Formula for her ears; and she should get to know the letters and be Instituti (65). The pope sanctioned the new order in 1540 encouraged to read the Bible. Such a girl should not use in the Regimini Militantis Ecclesiae, and Loyola cosmetics or earrings and wear trailing robes; she should was elected as its first general (66–67). never leave the house alone, if she has a friend, she should Very quickly the Jesuits became prominent in “church be in her likeness, and she should stay away from men. reform, organizers of Christian instruction, founders of a She should eat vegetarian dishes, she should not go into new method of preaching and of newOnly methods of prac- the bath with a married woman, and if she reads after tice in the confessional, restorers of the true nature of sunset, she should read piously. A lay girl should learn to ecclesiastical organizations and of the Church’s works of worship her grandparents and learn weaving, she should mercy” (Boehmer 1928, 71–72). But the society became not go out alone and be alone anywhere, and she should best known for its two interconnected purposes: the not drink wine excessively. At the age of 13, a sound man education of young boys and countering the Protestant should be found for her. Reformation. It was primarily through the establishment Another influence of St. Jerome in the field of educa- of schools and superior teaching that the Jesuits achieved tion is his Latin translations of the Hebrew text of the a measure of success in arresting the Protestant move- Bible, called Vulgata (Latin: vulgus—ordinary, com- ment in select regions. By the 17th and 18th centuries, mon). Jerome made a translation into Latin that was the renowned Jesuit educational system had been firmly used by the common folk. His work on the text of the establishedCopy across Europe, providing education for lay Bible began in Rome (383) by the order of Pope Dama- boys and clerics alike (Aveling 1981, 212–213). The Jesu- sus; in 390 he began the translation of the Old Testa- its deemed the education of young people key to achiev- ment from Hebrew and Aramaic. When he encountered ing the aim of countering the humanism of Protestant an unusual difficulty during his translation or exposi- schools and universities. René Fülöp-Miller (1963) notes tion, he relied on the help of others: for the Book of Job that between 1600 and 1700, they were so successful in he paid a teacher to come to him from as far away as their quest that even “Protestant parents were entrusting Lydda; for the Chaldee of Tobit he brought a rabbi from their children to the Jesuits” (405). Tiberias; and he worked over the Chronicles word by The teaching of the Jesuit institutions was arranged in word with a doctor of law from Tiberias. Paula no doubt three stages: subsidized this work. At a later time, when his resources failed, Chromatius of Aquileia and Heliodorus of Alti- The lowest or “Grammar” class, in which Latin was taught, num supported the scribes who assisted him. was intended merely for the thorough exercise of the memory; the following classes in the “Humanities” and References and Resources “Rhetoric” were to develop the formulation of ideas. . . . The final stage, that of “Dialectics,” was intended to enable Brunner, J. N. 1910. Der hl. Hieronymus und die Mädchenerzie- students correctly to assess the importance of contradic- hung auf Grund seiner Briefe an Laeta und Gaudentius. Eine tory arguments, and to accustom them not merely to solve Patristisch-Pädagogische studie. München: J.J. Lentner. contradictions by an affirmative or a negative, but in accor- Cain, A., and J. Lössl, eds. 2009. Jerome of Stridon: His Life, dance with the methods of mediaeval scholasticism, to raise Writings and Legacy. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. them to a higher unity. (Fülöp-Miller 1963, 408) Kelly, J. N. D. (1975) 1998. Jerome: His Life, Writings, and Con- troversies. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. The Jesuits were very careful to systematize their sub- Rebenich,Contributor S. 1992. Hieronymus und sein Kreis: Prosopogra- ject matter, and only prescribed curriculum, textbooks, phische und sozialgeschichtliche Untersuchungen. Stuttgart: interpretations, and doctrines were used. Naturally, notes Steiner. Manfred Barthel, curriculum was “limited to those sub- ———. 2002. Jerome. Early Church Fathers. New York: Routledge. jects and opinions that enjoyed the full endorsement —Marcin Wysocki of the Church” (1984, 115). While this all made for a Jesus Christ 659 universal approach to teaching, the system discour- cation today. The title “Jesus Christ” is a combination of aged independent and reflective thinking. For example, the personal name “Jesus” and “Christ,” which means Boehmer points out that theologians “were compelled to “anointed one” and referred to the future son from the accept the interpretation of a passage in the Bible made royal line of King David who will fulfill prophecies and by the popes or ecumenical councils as binding in every rule on the throne of David his father forever (see Ps. 2:2; respect” (1928, 116). 2 Sam. 7:12–16). The primary sources of information Despite all the advances and successes achieved by the for Jesus’s life and teaching are the Gospels of Matthew, Jesuit order in education, even among good Catholics Mark, Luke, and John. It is important to note for teaching they have been the subject of contention. Robert Ulich purposes that these are theological biographies motivated argues that by a theological agenda. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke are the only Gos- [t]he older Orders disliked the infiltration into their pels that describe the birth and childhood of Jesus. Mary established domains, and the secular clergy disliked it and Joseph are the parents, yet Jesus was conceived by tendency to undermine the few remnants of national in- the Holy Spirit while Mary was still a virgin (Luke 1:27, dependence left by the council of Trent. There were also 35, 2:5; Matt. 1:18, 25), in the time of Herod (Luke 1:5; differences of opinion in regard to the dogma, especially Matt, 2:15, 16–19). Herod’s intention to have Jesus (and the concept of grace. Jesuits destroyed even the work of Only reform attempted by more liberal Catholic clergymen and all children two years old and younger in and around educators, while the universities regarded with suspicion Bethlehem [Matt. 2:16]) killed points to a date of 6–4 BC the intrusion of Jesuit politics. (1968, 125) for the birth of Jesus, since the Jewish historian Josephus indicates that Herod died in 4 BC (Jewish War 1.33.5). Yet the legacy of the Jesuits in the field of education The beginnings of Jesus’s public ministry can be as- cannot be denied. Today there are 3,730 Jesuit educa- certained by its association with . The tional institutions around the world, serving 2.5 million Gospel of Luke places the time of the appearance of John students. In the United States, there are 71 secondary or the Baptist “in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius presecondary schools for boys and girls. There are 28 col- Caesar” (Luke 3:1), which indicates a time not earlier leges and universities in the United States affiliated with than autumn of AD 27 nor later than midsummer AD the Society of Jesus, including Loyola, Xavier, George- 29.Copy Jesus most likely had either a three- or four-year min- town, Boston College, Fordham, and Gonzaga (Jesuits). istry, based on the data from the Gospel of John, where Canadian Jesuit schools of higher education include St. it is stated that He was involved in three Passovers (John Bonaventure College and St. Mary’s University. 2:13, 6:4, 12:1; John 5:1 refers to an unnamed feast of the Jews, possibly another Passover feast). Jesus healed References and Resources lepers, raised the dead, restored sight to the blind, and Aveling, J. C. H. 1981. The Jesuits. New York: Dorset Press. proclaimed good news to the poor, indicating that the Barthel, Manfred. 1984. The Jesuits: History and Legend of the Kingdom had dawned (Matt. 12:28; Luke 11:20) and was Society of Jesus. Translated by M. Howson. New York: Wil- operating through Him. He had a specific sense of mis- liam Morrow. sion to “sinners”: “I came not to call the righteous but Boehmer, Heinrich. 1928. The Jesuits: An Historical Study. sinners” (Mark 2:17; Matt. 9:12–13; Luke 5:31–32). Translated by by P. Zeller Strodach. Philadelphia: The Castle It is stated that in His final days, Jesus celebrated the Press. Passover meal with his disciples (Matt. 26:17–29; Mark Fülöp-Miller, René. 1963. The Jesuits: A History of the Society of 14:12–25; Luke 22:7–23; see also 1 Cor. 11:23–26). Jesus Jesus. Translated by by F. S. Flint and D. F. Tait. New York: blessed the unleavened bread, broke it and distributed it Capricorn Books. among the disciples, and said, “This is my body.” After Ulich, Robert. 1968. A History of Religious Education. New the meal, Jesus took the cup and asked His disciples to York: New York University Press. drink from it, saying, “This is my blood of the covenant, to be poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins.” Jesuits. http://www.jesuit.org/worldwide/education/. This language interpreted Jesus’s imminent death as a —Harley T. Atkinson substitutionary and sacrificial death that would inaugu- rate the new covenant (see Exod. 24:8; Jer. 31:31–34; Isa. Contributor 53:11–12). Jesus Christ With the help of Judas Iscariot, Jesus was arrested later on the same night in a garden on the Mount of Jesus Christ is the central figure in the early Christian Olives and was hastily brought to trial before the Jew- movement and is the central character in Christian edu- ish religious leaders known as the Sanhedrin. Since the 660 Jesus Prayer, The

Sanhedrin did not have jurisdiction in capital cases, the and “Prayer of the Heart,” is not only the original Christian case was referred to the Roman prefect Pilate. The fol- prayer, it is also the earliest form of Christian education. lowing morning, Jesus was tried before Pilate on charges The prayer has its variations, such as “Lord Jesus of sedition and claiming to be a messianic pretender Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me” (or us if used in and a king (Luke 23:2). Pilate found Jesus guilty despite public). “Lord have mercy,” or “Kyrie eleision,” is not the the innocence communicated in His responses. He was classic Jesus Prayer, but a petition invoking His name. Or then scourged and led to Golgotha, just outside the city just the Holy Name, “Jesus,” may be repeated in solitude gates of Jerusalem, where Roman soldiers crucified him or in the context of daily life, silently or aloud. with two thieves. Jesus was put on the cross about noon Well known to Eastern and Orthodox Christians for and died about three hours later (Mark 15:16–32; Matt. centuries, used by ascetics in solitary contemplation and 27:27–44; Luke 23:26–43; John 19:16–27). After Jesus in monasteries and convents both cenobitic and idioryth- died, His body was taken down from the cross and buried mic, the Jesus Prayer is curiously not used much in West- in a tomb provided by Joseph of Arimathea (John 19:38– ern churches nor well known by believers in the West. 42). Jesus’s crucifixion most likely took place in April in Scholars and clergy do not agree on the etymology the year AD 30, which covers the overlapping reigns of of the Jesus Prayer. Perhaps it was the Gospel accounts the prefect Pilate (AD 26–36), the high priest Caiaphas of the blind man, Bartimaeus, callingOnly out to Jesus as he (AD 18–36), and the tetrarch Antipas (4 BC–AD 37). passed by on the road from Jericho, “Jesus, thou son of In the Gospels we do not have any firsthand witnesses David, have mercy on me” (Mark 10:47; Matt. 20:30–31; of what happened in the tomb of Jesus. However, there Luke 18:39). There was also the woman of Canaan, who is widespread attestation of experiences with the resur- uttered, “Have mercy on me, O Lord, thou son of David; rected Jesus (Matt. 28; Mark 16:1–8; Luke 24; John 20–21; my daughter is grievously vexed with a devil” (Matt. Rom. 10:9; 1 Cor. 6:14, 15:5–8, 15) and early traditions 15:22). And there is this about a crowd of 10 lepers: “And of empty tomb stories (Mark 16:6; Matt. 28:6; Luke 24:5; they lifted up their voices, and said, Jesus, Master, have John 20:2–10). The early testimony of Jesus’s resurrection mercy on us” (Luke 17:13). There are multiple references goes back to a very early stage of Christian proclamation. to cries for mercy in the Gospels and in the Psalms. Many Christians believe that Jesus will come back to in- In the sixth century, teachings of continued recitation augurate the final phase of the Kingdom of God/Heaven: of theCopy name of Jesus were solidly established through the “They will see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of work of the Syrian-born St. (c. 525–606), the sky, with power and great glory” (Matt. 24:30; see also who at age 75 would become the abbott of St. Catherine’s Mark 14:62; Luke 12:40). Monastery at the foot of Mt. Sinai: “Hesychia is to stand before God in unceasing worship. Let the remembrance References and Resources of Jesus be united to your breathing, and then you will Dunn, James D. G. 2003. Jesus Remembered: Christianity in the know the value of hesychia” (from The Ladder of Divine Making. Vol 1. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Ascent). Meyendorff notes that St. John uses the “term he- Green, Joel B., Scott McKnight, and I. Howard Marshall, eds. sychia (‘silence,’ ‘quietude’) and hesychasts, designat[ing] 1992. Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. Downers Grove, quite specifically the eremitic, contemplative life of the IL: InterVarsity Press. solitary monk practicing the ‘Jesus Prayer’” (1974, 70). Meyer, Ben F. 1992. “Jesus Christ.” In The Anchor Bible Dic- Climacus (1959) clearly did teach connection of mind tionary, edited by D. N. Freedman, 3:773–796. New York: and heart, connected to breathing, toward deification of Doubleday. the whole person into the transfigured Christ. To “re- Wilkins, Michael J., and J. P. Moreland, eds. 1995. Jesus Under member Jesus” was and is to monks an experience of Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents the Historical Jesus. divine presence, not just a symbol or simulacrum. This is Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. done by evoking “Jesus” “in the heart,” not just externally Witherington, Ben, III. 2006. What Have They Done with Jesus? imagining or thinking of the historical or utilizing repre- San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. sentational figures. To the monks it is about being united —John A. Bertone in God’s presence via the sacraments, beyond imagination. His Eminence Archbishop Justinian Chira Maramure- seanul of Baia Mare, Romania, portrays the Jesus Prayer ContributorJesus Prayer, The and its cause or effect differently. He argues that the Jesus Prayer did not originate with St. John Climacus, This ancient prayer—“Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have but rather with the apostles themselves: “Because the mercy on me a sinner”—known as both the “Jesus Prayer” ascension of Christ to heaven, the apostles stayed alone Jewish Catechetical Tradition 661 and they started day and night to say this prayer—Jesus Chumley, Norris J. Unpublished research notes for “Mysteries Christ, Son of God, have mercy. It was the only way to of the Jesus Prayer.” New York: HarperCollins, 2011. keep contact with the one who had ascended to heaven Climacus, John. 1959. The Ladder of Divine Ascent: Classics of through thoughts, image and sound.” The archbishop the Contemplative Life. New York: Harper. says, “When the heart is pure, it starts elevating itself Harmless, William. 2004. Desert Christians: An Introduction to towards the mind, and it enlightens the mind, and it the Literature of Early Monasticism. Oxford: Oxford Univer- goes slowly down on the lips, and then the human being sity Press. says, ‘Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me.’” Lazarus, Father. 2014. Monastery of St. Antony, Egypt. In Nor- (Maramureseanul, 2007, n.p.). Archbishop Justinian goes ris J. Chumley, Be Still and Know: God’s Presence in Silence, against the Platonic. Here, the purified heart is in control; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 82. the emotions and the affective aspect of humanity inform Lossky, Vladimir. 1963. The Vision of God. Translated by the mind, illuminating the entire being, infusing the Ashleigh Moorhouse. London: Faith Press. whole person with prayer, which floats up to the intellect. Louth, Andrew. 2007. The Origins of the Christian Mystical The Jesus Prayer is particularly useful in Christian Tradition: From Plato to Denys. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford education because it is easy to remember. Father Jo- University Press. hannes, a monk at a monastery on Mt. Athos, notes: Maramureseanul, His Eminence ArchbishopOnly Justinian Chira. “[I]t was originally forwarded orally, for people who were From the documentary motion picture, “Mysteries of the illiterate. They could recite the prayer without having to Jesus Prayer,” Recorded January 23, 2007, Bucovina, Baia read Scripture” (Unpublished research note, Chumley, Mare, Romania. HD Master Reel 33. 2011, n.p.). Father Lazarus, the Starets of St. Anthony’s Meyendorff, John. 1974. Byzantine Theology: Historical Trends Monastery, teaches that and Doctrinal Themes. New York: Fordham University Press, 70. when you pray the Jesus Prayer with concentration, with Ware, Kallistos. 1974. The Power of the Name: The Jesus Prayer intention, with love, with humility, with penitence in your in Orthodox Spirituality. Fairacres Publication. Fairacres, heart, you acknowledge something [or someone greater] Oxford: SLG Press. when you are saying “Lord.” You are already in a whole —Norris J. Chumley theology; you have moved in three words. You are way past your personal life into Jesus. “Have mercy on me, I Copy need mercy.” Jewish Catechetical Tradition If you add your breathing . . . if you breathe in . . . “Lord Jesus Christ,” you take in, you breathe in with your breath the name of the Lord, and you hold it, when you confess “So when your son asks, ‘Why?’ say to him.” Jewish and your sins, as Peter confessed you are the Lord, you confess Christian parents both face the same question. “Why?” your sins, you breathe in. And the result? You breathe asks for meaning, reason, and purpose. All people inter- out your sin. This is a marriage of body and soul. This is ested in passing on the system of beliefs they hold ponder a purification of your body by your prayer. It’s already an the best way to do so for their children. accelerated way of silence, because you arrive at a point where your mind is still because it has surrendered to Biblical Theology of Catechism Jesus. (Lazarus, 2014, 82) Everyone has a heritage, a tradition, something passed down to another. Whether positive or negative, heritage References and Resources has a sense of permanence. Land was given as an endur- Burton-Christie, Douglas. 1993. The Word in the Desert: Scrip- ing right to the Hebrews (Lev. 25.23, 28; Num. 26:52–56; ture and the Quest for Holiness in Early Christian Monasti- 1 Kings 21:3–4). The Hebrews were God’s heritage (Deut. cism. New York: Oxford University Press. 4:20, 32:9), in turn, He was to be theirs (Ps. 119:57, 142:5). Chryssavgis, John. 2004. John Climacus: From the Egyptian Des- God gave His law for His people’s inheritance (Deut. ert to the Sinaite Mountain. Hants, UK: Ashgate. 33:4; Ps. 119:111). Primary for Hebrew peoples is that Chryssavgis, John, and Abba Zosimas. 2003. In the Heart of the children are an inheritance from the Lord (Ps. 127:3). Desert: The Spirituality of the Desert Fathers and Mothers: Hebrews combined the two most precious earthly pos- With a Translation of Abba Zosimas’ Reflections, Treasures sessions they had—God’s law and their children—to Contributorof the World’s Religions. Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom. establish a practice of answering “Why?” Chumley, Norris J. 2011. Mysteries of the Jesus Prayer. San Four repetitious passages establish the Jewish catechet- Francisco: HarperOne. (Feature film, New York: Magnetic ical tradition. In each case, the same format is followed: Arts and SnagFilms; Boston: American Public Television, (1) the question, (2) who asks, (3) who answers, (4) 2011 and 2012. www.JesusPrayerMovie.com.) what event occurred, and (5) what action was taken. The 662 Jewish Model of Education first three are always the same. Children seek meaning echism had calcified. Christian teaching had occurred about a certain event from their parents. Passover (Exod. but prompted no growth. These Christians did not know 12:24–28), law-giving (Deut. 6:20–25), and the Jordan “the elementary principles” (5:12), the primary materi- crossing (Josh. 4:1–9, 19–24) are the events prompting als of creation (2 Pet. 3:10). Maturity should result from the catechism, the passing down of the information to consistent scriptural training (Heb. 5:14). Catechism can “generations yet to come” (Exod. 12.42). lead people to the well of learning, but each person still Further observations illicit ideas for the catechetical bears responsibility to drink. process to be followed. The rite or ritual was a literal Very deliberate practices can give clear direction for work, labor, or service (12.24). The service (13:5) was the church’s catechesis based on scriptural teaching. something planned or scheduled (13:4) and provided an Catechism should be a curricular design, planned and opportunity to have a ready answer (13:8) to the question scheduled. Attention should be paid to detail develop- (13:14), which was assumed (Exod. 10:2). A similar ques- ing the necessity of personal reflection. The educational tion was later asked about a stone marker for the Jordan process should involve question and answer as well as River crossing. The sign was a historical symbol pointing stories being retold. Christian interpretation is based back to a space-time event (Josh. 4:6). The pile of rocks on historical connections that are maintained. Serious- was to be a memorial, a place of reflection, recalling the ness and solemnity should mark the procedure.Only Parents past event (Josh. 4:7). should be personally involved with their children’s belief education. Active learning, visual aids, and physical Biblical Philosophy of Catechism memorials help convey the Christian remembrance. An Five ways of thinking spur people to pass down their audible invocation or commencement engages children, beliefs to the next generation. First, the importance of which is helpful as they plan to pass on to their children belief prompts teaching. The events of history must not what they have learned. be forgotten; etched in memory, parents relive the past. Christian children must be able to defend what and The past depends on interpretation, so guidance is needed why they believe, be able to give an answer to all who ask to ensure proper analysis. Second, the intention of belief with gentleness and respect (1 Pet. 3:15–16). The content promotes planning. Teaching does not happen by hap- of belief is combined with communication for the sake of penstance. Traditions are employed to create repeated training.Copy Knowledge provides confidence for explanation attention to historical detail. Physical-visual aids are neces- to others. Two groups, believers and unbelievers, benefit sary to connect the past to the present, one generation to from continuing catechesis, according to Joshua 4:24: “so the next. Third, the instruction of belief upholds meaning. that all the peoples of the earth may know that the hand A celebration of creed develops confidence, something of the LORD is mighty, that you may fear the LORD your upon which future generations can depend. Questions God forever.” and answers can build trust, leading to certainty. Fourth, the indicative of belief encourages investigation, the idea References and Resources that credibility is sustained through proper analysis. A Parrett, Gary A., and S. Steve Kang. 2009. Teaching the Faith story retold is only as good as the research and inquiry into and Forming the Faithful: A Biblical Vision for Education in whether or not the history is true. Fifth, the imperative of the Church. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. belief endorses commitment. If the belief is true, people Spooner, Bernard M., ed. 2012. Christian Education Leadership: have no other choice but to tell it. Exclusivity marks the Making Disciples in the 21st Century. Coppell, TX: Christian belief. There can be no neutrality, no vacillation, and no Leadership Publishing. acceptance of competing belief systems. The belief is a —Mark Eckel command of God, not a human invention.

Christian Practice of Catechism Jewish Model of Education Will Christian young people be able to meet the chal- lenges of the 21st century? A catechism is both a personal Jewish education began with the close of the Hebrew pe- and corporate attempt to educate sons and daughters riod of Old Testament history, when Solomon’s Temple of the faith. Children need to know what and why they was destroyed in 586 BC. The culture of Judaism dif- believe.Contributor “What?” must proceed “Why?” then “How?” fered drastically from that of the Hebrews and fostered the teaching is given. The early church was certainly a new educational model. Education in Judaism is an concerned that some had not been well taught (Heb. expansion of Hebrew education, with adaptation and ad- 5:11–14), teaching being critical to the future of the ditional instructional initiatives to respond to the cultural church. In the case of the Hebrews (5:11–6:2), the cat- transitions within the community of faith. The Jewish Jewish Model of Education 663

TABLE J.1 Student Age School Curriculum Content Comment 5–9 Beth Hassepher (“House of the Book”) Torah, Nebhim, and Kethubim Elementary education; reading and writing 10–14 Beth ha-Midrash (“House of Study”) Mishnah (oral law) Secondary education; discussion of subjects 15+ Scribal/rabbinic school Talmud Higher education educational system developed in three distinct phases: (1) conduct). Teachers typically taught without pay, most the Sopherim period (515–200 BC), in which the scribes becoming bivocational educators (Ebner 1956, 54). (Heb. sopherim) were the principal educational leaders Education within Judaism provides the immediate (cf. Ezra 7:6–10; Neh. 8:2, 8, 13); (2) the Zugot period backdrop for understanding education in the church of (200 BC–AD 10), literally meaning pair, wherein the the first century AD. It is easily forgotten that Jesus, His Sanhedrin was ruled by a pair of leaders, such as Hillel disciples, and the earliest Christian communities were and Shammai; and finally, (3) the Tannaitic period (AD in fact Jewish. We observe several points of intersection 10–220), which was characterized by the leadership of between education within Judaism and the development rabbis, such as those referenced in the New Testament. of Christianity within the first century AD. Jesus would The Jewish model was developed in response to new have participated in the synagogue,Only as well as perhaps the questions raised by the Jewish community as it encoun- Beth Hassepher. Jesus would have also been acculturated tered its non-Jewish context. How does one preserve Jew- into Jewish society through socialization as He partici- ish faith and identity in a non-Jewish setting? Four edu- pated in the rituals and feasts of the Jewish community cational institutions took root within Judaism: the (Luke 2:21–30, 46). Jesus was primarily a teacher, as He synagogue, secondary schools, elementary schools, and is most frequently called in the Gospels. Mark 10:1 best rabbinical academies or colleges. Philo of Alexandria illustrates this when it states, “as it was his custom, he called the synagogue the “House of Instruction” (Life of taught them.” Hence, Jesus was both the recipient and Moses, 3.27) and provided universal educational oppor- provider of instruction within the context of Judaism. tunity for lifelong learning (Drazin 1940, 15–23). In addi- Paul’s life seems to be a summation of the Jewish tion, three levels of Jewish formal education were estab- educational system (Gal. 1:14; Acts 23:3). He would lished (see table J.1). haveCopy received education on all levels of Judaism, includ- Instruction at the Jerusalem Temple, public reading of ing higher education in the rabbinical academies. The scripture, participation in feasts and festivals, as well as intellect of Paul was partially the product of the Jewish parental instruction continued to contribute to the edu- educational system. Paul likewise utilized the presence cation of God’s people. In addition, Jewish literature of the synagogue as a means of teaching others about the began to play a role in the educational process. Literature Christian faith (Acts 13:14–52, 17:1–4). such as Hallakah (formulations of oral law) and Hagga- dah (legends) added to the collective knowledge of the References and Resources Jewish community (see table J.2). Barclay, William. 1959. Educational Ideals in the Ancient The Jewish teacher was a moral and intellectual ex- World. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. emplar and was expected to instill these qualities in his Crenshaw, James L. 1998. Education in Ancient Israel. New students. In fact, the most important qualification for a York: Doubleday. teacher was not his scholastic ability, but his moral fiber. Drazin, Nathan. 1940. History of Jewish Education from 515 BCE Education was for Torah (intellectual) and Mitzvot (right to 220 CE. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

TABLE J.2 Literature Divisions Composition Date Contents Midrash Hallakah 100 BC–AD 300 Commentary on the Torah; focus on legal sections (Heb. walking) Discourses on the entire Old Testament; focus on nonlegal section Haggadah Tosefta AD 100–300 Supplemental materials for the Mishnah (Heb. Supplament) PalestinianContributor Talmud Gemara AD 200 Commentary on the Mishnah (Heb. completion) Babylonian Mishnah AD 200 Commentary on the Torah, six sections of legal commentary Talmud (Heb. repetition) AD 500 Commentary on the Mishnah Gemara 664 John Paul II Catholic University

Ebner, Eliezer. 1956. Elementary Education in Ancient Israel At present KUL consists of 12 faculties: theology; law, during the Tannaitic Period (10–220 CE). New York: Bloch canon law, and administration; philosophy; humanities; Publishing Company. social sciences; biotechnology and environment sciences; Heaton, E. W. 1994. The School Tradition for the Old Testa- mathematics; information technology; and landscape ment. Oxford: Oxford University Press. architecture. There are three off-campus faculties: legal Swift, F. H. 1919. Education in Ancient Israel from Earliest and economic sciences in Tomaszów Lubelski and socials Times to 30 A.D. Chicago: Open Court. science and law and economic sciences in Stalowa Wola. —James Riley Estep Jr. There are also many interfaculty units, such as the Col- lege for Inter-Faculty Individual Studies in the Humani- ties and the School of the Polish Language and Culture. John Paul II Catholic University The most fundamental mission of KUL is to conduct scientific research in the spirit of harmony between The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin—KUL science and faith, to educate and bring up Catholic is the oldest Catholic university in Central and Eastern intelligentsia and co-create the Christian culture. The Europe, founded in 1918. The university motto is “Deo university’s history is not only the number of genera- et Patriae—For God and Fatherland” and attracts people tions of students, layers of tradition, orOnly age of university searching for truth and wisdom. walls. What is essential is the accumulation of knowledge, which determines the shape of the university. Therefore, History with the Professor: The Future Pope the Catholic University of Lublin—where the effort to in the Background investigate the truth about God, man, and the world has In July 1918, the Polish Bishops’ Conference approved been made since the beginning of its existence—has re- the establishment of a Catholic university. The Most tained its links with the oldest universities, thanks to its Sacred Heart of Jesus was chosen to be the patron of the scientific and moral courage. new university, which soon became the center of Chris- tian culture. Resource The promising development of the university was in- Kiciński, A. 2012. “The John Paul II Catholic University of Lu- terrupted by the outbreak of World War II. Numerous blinCopy (KUL).” The Person and the Challenges: The Journal of professors and students were murdered or transported Theology, Education, Canon Law and Social Studies Inspired to concentration camps. Despite all these repressions, the by Pope John Paul II 1: 139–245. university carried out secret teaching. —Andrzej Kiciński and Paweł Mąkosa On 21 August 1944, KUL resumed its activity as the first university in Poland. The university started to promote Christian education. Cardinal Karol Wojtyła, Jones, E. Stanley who was elected pope on 16 October 1978, as Rev. Karol Wojtyła had started working at KUL in October 1954, E. Stanley Jones was born on 3 January 1884 in Baltimore, teaching ethics classes. Two years later he became the Maryland. He was converted at age 17. At the time, he be- head of the Department of Ethics. He combined his di- lieved that he was to be a lawyer, sensing there was a great dactic and scientific work with his pastoral service. He need for lawyers who were Christian. But it wasn’t long was among those professors who left an indelible mark before (as he put it) law moved to the margins of his life, on their students’ memories. In 1987, this most famous and ministry moved into the center, although his first at- professor of the Catholic University of Lublin, visiting tempts at preaching left him disappointed and somewhat his alma mater, addressed the academic community with confused about his life’s purpose. the unforgettable words: “University! Serve the Truth!” During this time, Dr. H. C. Morrison came to Baltimore Upon Holy Father John Paul II’s death in 2005, the Uni- to preach a revival. He was serving as president of Asbury versity Senate passed a resolution to name the university College in Wilmore, Kentucky. Through the influence of “The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin.” Morrison, Jones was convinced that this was where he should go to college. While there, he had an unexpected KUL Today call to missions. When he graduated, he had three offers to KULContributor is currently one of the fastest growing universities consider, one of which was an altered assignment to India in Poland. It is known for its high standards of education by the Methodist Mission Board. Stanley took all three of- and for conducting scientific research determined by the fers to God in prayer and came out of his room saying, “It’s humanistic traditions of the university as well as by its India.” Neither he, the church, nor millions in the world openness to the needs of the contemporary human being. had any idea what those words would come to mean. Jordan and Christian Education 665

Stanley Jones arrived in Bombay on 13 November ing (often recorded and distributed), his writing (used 1907. For the next 66 years, India would be both his by Sunday schools and small groups all over the world), literal home much of the time and always his “heart and the United Christian Ashram movement. Many home.” It would be his vantage point for looking at the of his books and taped messages remain available. His rest of the world, seeing its need for the Lordship of granddaughter, Anne Mathews-Younes, has launched Jesus and the growth of the Kingdom of God, personally the E. Stanley Jones Foundation to assist in perpetuat- and socially. His early ventures in missionary ministry ing his writings and legacy, and the United Christian were the lower castes, but soon God opened doors for Ashram movement has also undergone a renewal of its him to be an influential witness among political and own, reaching out to a new generation of younger adults religious leaders as well. He knew many in the Indian with the Gospel message and the hallmark message of E. independence movement, including Gandhi, and he Stanley Jones: “Jesus is Lord!” was known for his interfaith work, which he often re- ferred to as “Christ at the roundtable.” In 1919, as his References and Resources ministry spilled over the banks of one country and into Graham, Stephen. 2005. Ordinary Man, Extraordinary Mission. the larger world, the Methodist Mission Board renamed Nashville,TN: Abingdon Press/Summerside Press. him “Evangelist-at-Large”—a title he would hold for the Jones, E. Stanley. (1936) 1968. A SongOnly of Ascents: A Spiritual rest of his life. Autobiography. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. It was also in India that he met the woman he would ———. (1963) 2006. The Word Became Flesh. Nashville, TN: marry, Mabel Lossing, herself a missionary at Isabella Abingdon Press. Thoburn College in Lucknow. For the next 40 years, they ———. 2010. Victorious Living. Minneapolis, MN: Bethany made their home in Sitapur, 50 miles from Lucknow. It House. was there that their only child, Eunice, was born. Mabel —Steve Harper continued her teaching ministry, while Stanley moved ahead in the various ministries God had given him in the church and society. Jordan and Christian Education Most notable was his founding of the Christian ashram movement in 1930. Patterned on a Hindu model, but dis- HisCopy Majesty, the late King Hussein Talal Abdullah tinctively Christian (with Jesus, not a guru, at the center), Hashem of Jordan, helped set the tone for religious edu- this retreat ministry became a major evangelistic tool in cation with the country motto of “God, the Nation, the Stanley Jones’s hands. He believed that the soundest con- King.” Christian education in Jordan reflects this motto, versions occurred in a low-pressure context, with plenty with emphases on knowing and following God, work- of time for seekers to pray, ask questions, and make ing with and serving others, and respecting the king and realistic commitments. The United Christian Ashrams encouraging one another to obey the law. Freedom of continue to this day all over the world. religion is best expressed by the freedom to teach com- Brother Stanley’s speaking engagements increased as municants their faith in a variety of ways. time went by. But so too did his ministry of writing. His Christian education in Jordan is conducted as (1) an first book, The Christ of the Indian Road (1925), opened informal process in homes; (2) a nonformal process in the floodgates for another 27 books. In them E. Stanley the youth and fellowship groups of churches and para- Jones presented his message (centered in the conviction church organizations; and (3) a formal process in schools, that “Jesus is Lord”), with accompanying emphases on training programs, colleges, and seminaries. the Kingdom of God as a global, multiracial, multicul- tural, and multidenominational enterprise. His influence An Informal Educational Process extended so far that in 1938 Time Magazine called him Christian education is strongest in the home. Parents, the world’s greatest Christian missionary. In 1962, he was members of the extended family, and the clan provide the nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, and in 1963 he won framework for Christian faith and practice. With respect the Gandhi Peace Award. for elders as a hallmark of Arab society, uncles, aunts, He ministered almost literally to the end of his life. In and grandparents play special roles in shaping Christian December 1971 he suffered a massive stroke while lead- education in the family. ingContributor a Christian ashram in Oklahoma. He wanted to die in India, so his family arranged for him to go there, where A Nonformal Educational Process he died on 25 January 1973. Local churches are the most common provider of Chris- Putting it all together, we can see Brother Stanley’s tian education. Through age-specific meetings, youth legacy in Christian education running through his speak- and adults learn the truths, joys, and responsibilities of 666 Journaling as Christian Practice

Christian discipleship. They learn the worship practices A powerful example of the educational use of a jour- by participating in worship. nal can be found in the movie Freedom Writers. In this Outside of the churches but related to them, other movie, the teacher struggles to enter the lives of her nonformal Christian education occurs through group students. After trying various options, she provides each camping, praise bands, sport teams, scouting, and rallies. student with a tablet in which he or she is to keep a Teacher trainers are in high demand because of the many journal. The students submit them by placing them on different ministries that local churches support. Media a shelf in the classroom, where she collects them, then play a special role in nonformal Christian education reads the deep thoughts and emotions of her students. through radio, CDs, and satellite TV. The results are powerful and life changing for both her and her students. Formal Christian Education Another educational use of journaling is to read the This kind of education occurs through the private Chris- journals of others. Many have used the reflections of tian nursery schools and primary and secondary schools Anne Frank, Jim Elliot, John Wesley, and others who for young people. Colleges and seminaries that meet in have kept journals to gain insight into their struggles face-to-face and virtual classes help men and women and triumphs. develop their skills as Christian educators. A variety of journaling formats are Onlyavailable for use as Christian education leaders are parents, teachers, educational tools. Diaries usually include chronological young people, and adults who want to see children, teen- recording of daily events as perceived by the student. agers, and adults grow in the practice of their Christian This type of journaling will also reveal the amount of faith. In Jordan, as in many other nations, Christian edu- time allocated to particular events or systems in the life cation for Christians is a right protected by the state and of a student, which can reveal priorities and values and provided by Christian citizens. can be indicting. A dream log is a record of dreams that —Richard Kenneth Hart and Robin Hart students have and write down upon waking before they fade from memory. These dreams can be fascinating reflections of deep thoughts, fears, and symbols. Spiri- Journaling as Christian Practice tual journals record personal reactions to spiritual or metaphysicalCopy matters. God’s supernatural work in our Journaling is not an educational delivery method. Rather, lives or the lives of others is recorded and interpreted. it is an evaluative mechanism in the assessment of stu- Often vows, covenants, and personal commitments are dent learning. The three spheres of educational process born out of these events. Professional journals include are cognitive, affective, and behavioral. Whereas the as- statements of professional commitment, personal phi- sessment of student learning is fairly straightforward in losophies related to vocation and professional growth. the first and last spheres, affective learning is far more Often these professional journals are included in port- difficult to assess. For example, if the goal of your les- folios. Interactive reading logs are another journaling son is to increase the passion of your students regarding approach. Similar to book reports, these interactive a particular issue, how will you evaluate the degree to reading logs allow students to write down reflections which your students reach that goal? Journaling can be on readings they complete. Whether commentary on an appropriate response to that question. passages read in the Bible or reaction to other literature, Although a powerful educational tool that has been these journals help students interpret and personally gaining credibility in the writings of adult educators apply that literature to their personal lives. Electronic Malcolm Knowles and R. S. Christensen, journaling still journaling (often in the format of a blog, or web log) is remains underused as a teaching or learning tool. Journ- simply a technological variation of journaling. Students aling evokes conversations within our minds as well as in record their insights and reflections in some electronic our world, real or imagined. It helps the student distill, format. Advantages include the reduction of trees sacri- reflect, and synthesize events and their emotional contri- ficed in the production of paper, the ease of editing, and bution to our journey. less storage space being required. Disadvantages include Journaling is not simply recording the events of a tendency to verbosity, the potential for technological your day. A chronological record of events records the breakdown (dependency on power supply), and vulner- “what”Contributor of your life. A journal records the “why” and the ability to hacking and invasion of privacy. emotions surrounding those events. A journal is a nar- Journaling can reduce stress, assist the student in rative record of the emotions and personal interaction problem solving and critical thought, overcome writing with information, discoveries, and events in the life of blocks, and promote personal understanding and devel- a student. opment. When using journals as a mechanism of affec- Julian the Apostate, The Edict of 667 tive goal measurement, educators need to bear in mind of pagan culture would corrupt the Christian mind-set, a couple of important points. First, honor confidentiality whereas Julian, who had wholeheartedly become an initi- and ask permission to read them. Make it clear whether ate in that pagan culture, felt that the Christian teachers the journals will be read and the extent to which they will would corrupt the classics. be shared before the students begin journaling. Second, Julian’s edict worked as a catalyst in the Christian predetermine broad themes, phrases, or concepts to be world. Saint Gregory of Nazianzus, in particular, was noted as you read the journals. Although the nomencla- motivated to speak against the emperor and this seeming ture may vary to a degree, watch for those predetermined incompatibility of Christianity and classical knowledge. categories to better evaluate the degree to which the stu- A great deal of his 3rd and 4th Orations are direct attacks dents have reached the goal(s) of your course. on Julian, and his 43rd Oration, the funerary speech —Larry H. Lindquist dedicated to his friend Saint , condemns Julian’s fanaticism. Gregory spoke for many Christians, who found the edict banning them from the schools in Julian the Apostate, The Edict of which they studied and worked humiliating. This sparked an interest in developing Christian Julian was the nephew of Constantine I, the Great. In AD schools of their own, which wouldOnly be modeled on the 362, on 17 June, he passed a law forbidding Christians to traditional ones. In the words of Marrou, “they refused teach in the traditional schools that populated the Roman to allow themselves to be thus deprived of their literary context, which concerned the enkyklios paideia.1 These inheritance and set to work to produce their own text- schools followed a model that had been established in books as substitutes for the classics.”2 He cites the work classical Athens, which had been adopted almost entirely of a father and son, the Apollinarii, who were teachers in within and across the Roman world. It concentrated first Alexandria and passionate promoters of Greek literature. on literacy, then on the liberal arts and rhetoric. The These two developed a new set of texts for students to literature studied in these schools, the models that stu- study by rewriting Christian texts in the style of classi- dents used to learn form and style and to glean ideas, was cal texts. Marrou notes: “They set about rewriting the drawn from ancient Greek and Roman sources. Pentateuch in the style of Homer, the historical books of theCopy Old Testament in the style of drama, and so on, using Context: Christian Teachers of the Pagan Classics every kind of literary form and all manner of metres, Julian’s principal complaint against Christian teachers from Menander’s comedies to Pindaric odes. The New was that they promoted a worldview that ran contrary Testament became a series of Platonic dialogues.”3 to the culture espoused within these texts. The classical schools could not, in his opinion, be distinguished from Consequences and Aftermath the culture in which they developed. In Julian’s view, Julian’s edict was in effect only two years. The emperor Christian teachers—who were themselves educated in was killed in an ill-advised military campaign to subdue these schools, which remained the principal means of the Sassanids in Persia. The ban was lifted on 11 January cultivating a literate populace—were hypocritical. They 364. The immediate effect of Julian’s anti-Christian edu- had turned away from the culture of the enkyklios paideia cational policies was thus brief. Christians resumed their and thus threatened to undermine it. chairs and teaching posts following his death, and the enkyklios paideia remained the main curriculum model Julian’s Edict against Christian Teachers for schools in the Eastern Roman Empire, Byzantium, Julian’s edict initially stated that teachers had to gain even until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The lasting permission from the imperial authorities and from the legacy of Julian’s edict was the rousing and politicizing emperor himself to guarantee their pedagogical qualities of individuals like Gregory of Nazianzus, who along with and moral character. What this meant, according to the Basil of Caesarea and John Chrysostom would advocate clarification that was circulated shortly thereafter, was a reasoned and thoughtful employment of classical lit- that Christians had no credibility when teaching sources erature within a Christian framework of schooling. Each that they disbelieved. What is particularly curious about had received a classical education, and each could see its Julian’s position is how it parallels the work of Christian usefulness in a life lived in pursuit of virtue. writersContributor such as Tertullian and Jerome, who felt a pro- —Theodore Michael Christou found anxiety about the presence of Christians in the traditional, pagan schools. The Christians felt the poison 2. Henri-Irénée Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity, trans. George Lamb (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1956), 324. 1. In Greek, ενκύκλιος παιδεία. 3. Ibid. 668 Jurisprudence

Jurisprudence it with a contrary law is a sacrilege; failure to apply even one of its provisions is forbidden; no one can abrogate it “Jurisprudence” derives from the Latin words juris, or law, entirely” (Rep. III, 22, 33). Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle and prudentia, or practical wisdom, discretion or under- were all thinkers in the classical natural law tradition. St. standing. Jurisprudence, then, is practical wisdom about Augustine of Hippo is famous for his dictum, “Lex in- the nature of law. In Anglophone contexts, it tends to refer iusta non est lex,” which highlights the idea that law and to legal theory or legal philosophy. Jurisprudence is the bindingness are closely linked, and where a law becomes study and theory of law and involves a study of the nature unjust, it begins to resemble tyranny rather than genuine of law, legal reasoning, legal systems, and legal institutions. law. Some thinkers conflate natural law with . There are several schools of jurisprudential thought. But both Augustine and Aquinas held that since human These include the natural law tradition, which paradig- reason could not fully comprehend the eternal law, it matically sees some universal and timeless realities to is supplemented by divine revelation or revealed divine which positive or man-made law must answer if it is to law. Aquinas, like Augustine, taught that all human or be regarded as having the key feature of law, which is positive laws were to be judged by their conformity to bindingness. For those in the natural law tradition, the the natural law. foundations of law are accessible through human reason, These laws govern not merely theOnly physical universe, and it is from these laws of nature that man-made or but also the moral one. Closely related to the notion of positive laws gain their binding force. mind-independent moral and physical laws is the related Legal positivism, unlike the natural law tradition, though separate idea that these laws derive from an eter- generally holds that there is no necessary connection nal source. St. Augustine defined the eternal law as the di- between law and justice and that the force of law comes vine reason and will, commanding that the natural order from some basic social facts, which may be commands, of things be preserved and forbidding that it be disturbed. sanction, rules, social facts, human consensus, or any The eternal law drives all motion and acts of the universe. combination of these. Either way, law is fundamentally Bodies obey the direction or tendency of their natures. regarded as a social construct. The natural law tradition has been a pillar of Christian Legal realism argues that the real-world practice of law philosophical thought. The doctors of the church have is what determines what law is. This view is then not unlike alwaysCopy regarded the desire for truth as a foundational the positivist tradition, in that law is defined in terms of aspect of Christianity. Because God’s Word is Truth (cf. what legislators, judges, and members of the executive do John 17:17), the human search for truth, philosophy pur- with it. In this sense, legal realism is unlike philosophical sued in accordance with the precepts of reason, can only realism, because it depends on social constructions rather help to understand revelation better. than mind-independent realities, which are the concern But because Christianity involves both faith and prac- of the philosophical realist. The issue for both realists and tice by way of both individual virtue and social justice, positivists alike is the concern of the teacher of first-year it has natural links with theories that take a critical ap- law students: without reference to ordinary sources of law, proach to the practice and understanding of law. Law we remain in the dark about what law might be. is seen not merely as a static given, to be acted upon by Critical legal studies are a post-Marxist analysis of obedient automata. On the contrary, law is to be cre- law as an expression of the policy goals of the dominant ated, interpreted, and applied with reason and justice. In social group. The theory derives from the civil rights, this sense, other jurisprudential theories cannot be dis- women’s rights, and antiwar movements of the 1960s, counted as highlighting significant concerns. The natural and some thinkers try to develop the theory to encourage law tradition must incorporate critical, positivistic, and to development of alternative institutional structures to realistic elements for a fuller understanding of how the those they regard as flawed by reason of being dominated law is to be justly created, interpreted, and applied. by an elite. Procedural correctness, social consensus, social con- The idea that there are laws of nature—universal, time- tract, and sanction are a significant feature of the law, for less, objective, and in principle knowable—has character- reasons of justice. In “Taking Rights Seriously” in Law’s ized the thinking of many peoples throughout history, as Empire (1986), Ronald Dworkin criticizes H. L. A. Hart’s well as Christian thought. The pre-Christian Cicero said Concept of Law ([1961] 1994) and the positivists for their of theContributor natural law: “For there is a true law: right reason. It refusal to treat law as a moral issue. Dworkin argues that is in conformity with nature, is diffused among all men, law is an “interpretive” concept that requires judges to and is immutable and eternal; its orders summon to duty; find the best-fitting and most just solution to a legal dis- its prohibitions turn away from offense. . . . To replace pute, given their constitutional traditions. According to Justice Seeking as Christian Practice 669 him, law is not entirely based on social facts, but includes Laing, Jacqueline A., and Russell Wilcox. 2013. The Natural the morally best justification for the institutional facts Law Reader. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. and practices that we intuitively regard as legal. It follows Locke, J. 1690. Two Treatises of Government. Edited by P. Las- on Dworkin’s view that one cannot know whether a soci- lett. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ety has a legal system in force, or what any of its laws are, Sophocles. 2004. Antigone. Translated by R. C. Jebb. London: until one knows some moral truths about the justifica- Duckworth. tions for the practices in that society. It is consistent with —Jacqueline Laing Dworkin’s view—in contrast with the views of legal posi- tivists or legal realists—that no one in a society may know what its laws are, because no one may know the best Justice Seeking as Christian Practice justification for its practices. Dworkin insists that inter- pretation involves the requirement that reading of a text Justice seeking is working for change and transformation must meet the criterion of fit. Of those interpretations in a world scarred by injustice. In the words of William that fit, however, Dworkin maintains that the correct McElvaney (2009, 59), justice seeking is “working for interpretation is the one that puts the political practices tikkun olam, that is, repairing the world and reshaping of the community in their best light or makes of them it in the form of justice.” The churchOnly realizes its social the best that they can be. Although there is skepticism mission to the world through justice-seeking education. about whether there is a single best justification for the As Christian educators enter into the 21st century, there complex practices of any given community, and further- is a bourgeoning emphasis on addressing both local and more, whether they should be counted as part of the law global injustices. of that community, Dworkin supplies a jurisprudential Justice seeking in Christian education draws on a long argument which, although not in the natural law tradi- history, beginning with the biblical accounts of the He- tion, allows law to be intimately connected with morality brew prophets, most notably Jeremiah 22: 3: “This is what and justice, so that any articulation of law must inevitably the Lord Says: Do what is just and right.” More recently, involve it in a realm beyond the socially constructed. In justice-seeking Christian education can be seen in the certain ways, though an ardent liberal, Dworkin is more civil rights movement and the various liberation move- like those who insisted that “Lex iniusta non est lex.” John mentsCopy (class, race, gender, sexual orientation). Catholic Finnis (1980), a theorist writing in the natural law tradi- Church documents such as Pope Paul VI’s tion, may be described as a positivist-style natural lawyer. Populorum Progressio (1967), the Synod document Jus- tice in the World (1971), and the United States Catholic References and Resources Conference of Bishops’ The Challenge for Peace (1983) Aquinas, T. 1920. The “Summa Theologica” of St. Thomas Aqui- and Economic Justice for All (1986) all call for justice nas Literally Translated by Fathers of the English Dominican in terms of poverty, human dignity, care for creation, Province. London: Burns Oates and Washbourne Ltd. solidarity with the oppressed, the dignity of work, and Austin, John. 1831. The Province of Jurisprudence Determined. workers’ rights. London: John Murray. In the 21st century, there has been an increase across Cicero. 1998. The Republic, the Laws. Translated by N. Rudd. denominations in “justice-seeking congregations.” These Oxford: Oxford University Press. congregations place an emphasis on teaching how faith Dworkin, Ronald. 1986. Law’s Empire. Cambridge, MA: Har- communities can respond to the injustices of the world. vard University Press. According to McElvaney (2009, 69), effective justice seek- Finnis, J. 1980. Natural Law and Natural Rights. Oxford: Clar- ing programs begin with “listening and learning. Victims endon Press. of injustice know the most about the daily specifics of their Freeman, M. D. A. 1994. Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence. oppression and what remedies might be most possible.” London: Sweet and Maxwell. The clearest expression of the daily expression of Grotius, H. 1814. On the Law of War and Peace. London: A. C. justice seeking is the action-reflection model, especially Campell. as articulated by Latina theologians Carmen Nanko- Hart, H. L. A. (1961) 1994. The Concept of Law. 2nd ed. with Fernández (2010) and the late Ada María Isasi-Díaz Postscript. Oxford: Clarendon Press. (Isasi-Díaz and Tarango 1988). Nanko-Fernández (2010, Hobbes,Contributor T. 1651. Leviathan. Edited by C. B. MacPherson. Lon- 138) suggests that justice “is affected by the enactment of don: Penguin. socio-economic change through public policies, institu- Kant, I. 1785. The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. tions, and legislation.” To achieve these goals, Isasi-Díaz Translated by M. Gregor and C. Korsgaard. Cambridge, UK: (1988: 87–86) suggests a four-movement strategy for lib- Cambridge University Press. eration that constitutes justice-seeking education: 670 Justin Martyr

1. Community members share stories of injustice. gave shape to early Christian thinking and helped lay the 2. The community analyzes the social situation that foundation for theological reflection for years afterward. allowed the injustice to occur. 3. The community investigates the religious tradition Early Life and Education for how God aids those seeking justice. Justin was born to pagan parents in the Roman colony of 4. The community strategizes how to best seek justice Flavia Neapolis (known today as Nablus). Much informa- in society. tion about his early life comes from the beginning chap- ters of his notable work, Dialogue with Trypho. Educated In these four interrelated movements, religious educa- in the Grecian tradition, Justin believed philosophy held tion gets at the heart of injustice by hearing the stories of the answers to all of life’s questions and thus surveyed victims and then analyzing the situation that allows such the broad spectrum of philosophical thought. Justin thor- injustices to occur. Religious educators are instrumental oughly explored , the Peripatetic school, and the in the third movement, when the community engages the Pythagorean school, before finally settling on Platonist Christian tradition in the context of seeking justice. This philosophy. He notes that within Platonism, he expected step in justice-seeking education asks: How can our theo- “forthwith to look upon God, for this is the aim of Plato’s logical and liturgical tradition aid in the quest for justice? philosophy” (Dialogue with Trypho, 2.6).Only Finally, the worshipping community must strategize for However, Justin stopped short of fully submitting broader societal change before justice can be realized in to Plato’s philosophy, because a conversation with an the community. elderly man in the city of Ephesus exposed him to the shortcomings of Platonism. He soon came to believe References and Resources that God had revealed Himself through the prophets of Espín, O., ed. 2009. Building Bridges, Doing Justice: Construct- the Old Testament, who prophesied and announced the ing a Latino/a Ecumenical Theology. New York: Orbis Books. coming of God’s Son in the flesh. For Justin, philosophi- Isasi-Díaz, A., and Y. Tarango. 1988. Hispanic Women; Mujer cal inquiry was incomplete without God’s self-revelation hispana: Prophetic Voice in the Church; voz profética en la in the person and work of Jesus Christ, and this revela- iglesia. Scranton, PA: Scranton University Press. tion was inspired and sealed by the testimony of the Old Martin, Jim. 2012. The Just Church: Becoming a Risk-taking, TestamentCopy prophets. In addition, the perseverance in Justice-seeking, Disciple making Congregation. Carol Stream, faith of the early church amid strong persecution further IL: Tyndale House Publishers. convinced Justin of the divine truth of Christianity. Thus McElvaney, W. 2009. Becoming a Justice Seeking Congregation: Christianity surpassed Platonism in Justin’s mind as the Responding to God’s Justice Initiative. New York: IUniverse most complete and true philosophy known to humanity. Books. After his conversion, Justin donned a philosopher’s Nanko-fernandez, Carmen. 2010. Theologizing En Espanglish: attire and traveled the Roman Empire, teaching and Context, Community, and Ministry. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis defending the Christian faith to curious pagans. Once Press. he arrived in Rome, Justin founded his own academy, National Conference of Catholic Bishops. 1983. The Challenge where he mentored a young Assyrian theologian named of Peace: God’s Promise and Our Response. Washington, DC: Tatian. During his time in Rome, Justin debated the United States Catholic Conference Inc. cynic philosopher Crescens, who denounced him as a ———. 1986. Economic Justice for All: Pastoral Letter on Catho- threat to the Roman Empire. After being tried alongside lic Social Teaching and the U.S. Economy. Washington, DC: six colleagues by the prefect Junius Rusticus, Justin was United States Catholic Conference Inc. beheaded in 165; surviving official records authenticate —Patrick Bruner Reyes his martyrdom.

Contribution to Christian Education Justin Martyr Justin Martyr’s primary contribution to Christian educa- tion (and Christianity in general), like many in his era, Introduction was in the field of apologetics. Justin’s background in Justin Martyr (c. AD 100–165) was a Roman apolo- Platonic philosophy enabled him to reason with promi- gist Contributorand philosopher who defended Christianity against nent opponents to Christianity. Notably, he pioneered pagan philosophies. Justin’s theology asserted that Jesus the idea that Jesus Christ was the logos who had been Christ was the divine logos, or reason, governing the described earlier in philosophical thought as the force of universe. Justin’s work as an apologist and philosopher reason governing the universe. Justin authored numer- Justin Martyr 671 ous treatises defending the Christian faith, such as his remarkable pedagogue, devoting his life to teaching and First Apology, Second Apology, On the Resurrection, and defending the Christian faith against pagan philosophies Dialogue with Trypho. The central thrust of these works incongruent with scriptural teaching. Justin founded a was to counter various religious claims and philosophies catechetical school in Rome, where he educated Tatian, of political and religious leaders and give philosophical who went on to become a noted theologian. validity to the Christian faith. Justin’s argumentation for and defense of the Christian faith laid the foundation References and Resources for further theological reflection by the church fathers Barnard, Leslie W. 1997. The First and Second Apologies. New who came after him. These refutations and apologetic York: Paulist Press. works provide insight into how the early church inter- Martyr, Justin, Alexander Roberts, and James Donaldson. 2007. preted scripture and reasoned about the faith with non- The Writings of Justin Martyr. Berkeley, CA: The Aprocry- Christians. In this way, Justin contributed to the educa- phile Press. tional ministry of the church by providing reasonable Minns, Denis, and P. M. Parvis. 2009. Justin, Philosopher and defenses of the faith and providing religious confidence Martyr: Apologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. to Christians under persecution. Moreover, Justin was a —BenjaminOnly D. Espinoza

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Contributor K Only Kennedy, William B. Christian education. There, during the tumultuous 1950s and 1960s and the civil rights movement in the American Early Background and Education South, and with his growing interest in the role of educa- William Bean Kennedy was born on 18 October 1926 in tion in the life of the church and the church’s place in so- Spartanburg, South Carolina. He was the fourth of five ciety, Kennedy eventually left his faculty position at Union children and the son of a pharmacist and a former school- and became the secretary of education for the Board of teacher. He relates that his family was “poor but cultured Christian Education of the Presbyterian Church in the middle class.” During the Great Depression, his father lost United States, the southern Presbyterian church, where he the family-owned drugstore, but they were able to keep led the Christian education efforts of the whole denomina- their modest home thanks to the federal New Deal pro- tion.Copy In 1969, Kennedy was called to be the first director of gram instituted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Office of Education for the World Council of Churches his Democratic Party. Given his upbringing, this oriented in Geneva, where he worked closely with Paulo Freire, Kennedy’s later Christian education teaching and research exploring the relationship between Christian education toward issues of economic and racial justice. and liberation theology and adapting Freire’s concepts to Kennedy’s family was very involved in the First Presby- European and North American contexts. terian Church of Spartanburg, a large, well-educated con- In early 1976, Kennedy returned to the United States gregation, and he particularly remembers the significant as director of the Atlanta Association for International influence of the congregation’s director of Christian edu- Education, and in 1979 he was called as professor of reli- cation, Rachael Wylie. Kennedy attended Wofford College gion and education at Union Theological Seminary in the in Spartanburg and was inducted into the Phi Beta Kappa City of New York. In 1981, he was named Skinner and Society in 1945. After serving in the Navy for one year, he McAlpin Professor of Practical Theology. He retired to completed his undergraduate degree and was awarded a Black Mountain, North Carolina, in 1994, and died in his graduate fellowship to Duke University, where he earned home in 2006, survived by his wife of 54 years, Frances, 4 his master’s degree and then went on to teach high school children, and 10 grandchildren. and junior college history classes. He attended Union Theological Seminary, a Presbyterian-related seminary, Significant Contributions to Christian Education in Richmond, Virginia, where he earned his bachelor’s of Kennedy early on focused his research on “seeing educa- divinity in 1954, and then went to Yale University, where tion whole,” using this as the theme for the first World he earned his doctor of philosophy degree in 1957. His dis- Council of Churches conference on education, sponsored sertation, “The Genesis and Development of the Christian by the newly formed Office of Education. For Kennedy, Faith and Life Curriculum,” was a contemporary study of a this meant seeing education as both schooling and all majorContributor new curriculum in the United Presbyterian Church that occurs outside of the school, and it called for careful in the USA. He married Frances Barron Harris in 1952, social, ideological, and theological analysis of the location and the couple had four children. of education within larger social and political systems. He Upon the completion of his doctoral degree, Ken- argued that education is never neutral, and the question nedy returned to Union Seminary in Richmond to teach of “who profits” became a crucial one for him.

— 673 — 674 Kenya and Christian Education

Influenced by his work with friend and colleague Paulo people (Protestant 47.4 percent, Catholic 23.3 percent, Freire, Kennedy believed that education for justice hap- and others 11.8 percent). pens best when it begins either with direct involvement In 1884 Ludwig Krapf, a Christian Missionary Society with those who are poor or with direct engagement in the (CMS) missionary, arrived in Mombasa. Following the struggle against the forces that oppress them. For Ken- construction of the Mombasa-Uganda railway line, sev- nedy, this meant either active commitment and action to eral more groups of missionaries arrived. Christian edu- work alongside those who are already so engaged or the cation was dominated by the teaching of literacy skills, radical change of the context, which would force a fresh Bible reading, and basic religious instruction. look at oneself and one’s social setting, with its condi- The lack of Christian education programs to ad- tioning influences. In the U.S. church context, it meant dress cultural concerns among Africans created conflict deliberately and strategically entering into an activity and between missionaries and communities (Njenga 2010; working through a process actively to grow a broader Karanja 1999; Nthamburi 2002). This motivated the critical consciousness. Kennedy was clear that this re- founding of indigenous churches, further encouraged by quired a significant level of risk, but without this risk, he the East Africa Revival in the 1930s. This growth created argued, without the inevitable “flow of adrenaline” that a vacuum in the area of trained Christian educators. follows, there would be little chance that a deeply held From 1970 to 1990, PentecostalismOnly and the charis- conviction or ideology would be exposed, challenged, matic movement had an immense impact on the Kenyan and changed. Kennedy believed that “to know” viscerally church, with renewed evangelicalism and a quest for is essential if learning intellectually is to do more than power encounter experiences (Kalu 2008; Parsitau and reinforce already conditioned values and beliefs. Mwaura 2010). These features have also become charac- His early interest in the significance of class and race teristic of Christian education programs in the country. expanded during his career to include gender, sexual ori- Although the quality and value of teaching Christian entation, and cultural privilege, particularly in the North religious education in schools have been questioned (Ito- American religious context. While his many global ex- londo 2012; Kowino et al. 2011), it remains an open door periences deeply and profoundly shaped and formed his for Christian educators. Nevertheless, the church lacks understanding and practice of Christian education, Ken- trained Christian educators. Thus, as Kenya celebrates nedy was most concerned about the ideological captivity milestonesCopy in Christian education, much innovation for of the American church by American culture. training personnel is needed.

Most Notable Publications References and Resources Among Kennedy’s most notable works are a volume he Itolondo, Wilfrida Arnodah. 2012. ‘The Role and Status of edited with two colleagues, Pedagogies for the Non-poor Christian Religious Education in the School: Curriculum in (New York: Orbis, 1987), and another volume, edited with Kenya.” Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research Paulo Freire and Werner Simpfendorder, Seeing Education and Policy Studies 3 (5): 721–729. Whole (Geneva: World Council of Churches Press, 1971). Kalu, Ogbu. 2008. African Pentecostalism: An Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. References and Resources Karanja, John K. 1999. Founding an African faith: Kikuyu An- Kennedy, W. B., ed. 1997. “Religious Educators Oral History: Reli- glican Christianity, 1900–1945. Nairobi: Uzima Press. gious Education in the Twentieth Century in the United States,” Kowino, O. J., J. O. Agak, Owino C. Obiero, and R. O. vol. II. Unpublished manuscript (14 vols.), Union Theological Ong’unya. 2011. “The Perceived Discrepancy between the Seminary, New York Library, and Union-PSCE Library. Teaching of Christian Religious Education and Inculcation Vann, Jane Rogers. 1998–2013. “William B. Kennedy.” Chris- of Moral Values amongst Secondary Schools Students in tian Educators of the 20th Century Project. Biola University, Kisumu.” Educational Research and Reviews 6 (3): 299–314. Talbot School of Theology. http://www.talbot.edu/ce20/ Njenga, George N. 2010. “A Synopsis of the History of Kenya educators/protestant/william_kennedy/ before Colonisation.” Wisdom@Strathmore series. http:// —Rodger Nishioka www.digital.library.strathmore.edu. Nthamburi, Zablon. 2002. “The Beginning and Development of Christianity in Kenya: A Survey.” In Dictionary of African ContributorKenya and Christian Education Christian Biography. http://www.dacb.org. Parsitau, Damaris Seleina, and Njeri Mwaura. 2010. Kenya is a country in East Africa with a population of 43 “God in the City: Pentecostalism as an Urban Phenomenon million (July 2012 estimates) and more than 42 ethnic in Kenya.” Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae 36 (2): 95–112. groups. The Christian population is 82.5 percent of the —Rosemary Wahu Mbogo Kerygma, An Overview of 675

Kerygma, An Overview of 5. The present time will find its final fulfillment on the day of Christ’s return. Kerygma is the proclamation of the good news about the 6. All are invited to participate in the work of redemp- redemption taking place in Jesus Christ and about the call tion accomplished by Christ. to conversion. The essence of kerygma is the person of Jesus Christ and the mystery of His resurrection. The tes- On the other hand, on the basis of synoptic Gospels, timony of the proclaimer who upon meeting Christ shares James Dunn (1977) enumerates the following items com- with others the experience of this most important meeting prising the kerygma: in his life is the fundamental form of the proclamation of kerygma. What is more, kerygma also consists of a distinct 1. The proximity of the Kingdom of God (Mark 1:15; call to believe in Christ and to change one’s life. Matt. 10:7; Luke 21:31) 2. The fulfillment of time (Matt. 11:5; Luke 7:22) The Origins of Kerygma 3. The call to repent and believe in the Gospel (Matt. The term kerygma originates from the Greek noun to 11:21; Luke 10:13) kérygma, which means the proclamation, calling, or 4. The proposal to participate in the work of redemp- teaching, or perhaps the contents of such a message it- tion Only self. This term is strongly settled in the New Testament 5. Ethical implications (Matt. 5:21–32; Luke 7:1–23) (its verb form appears 61 times, whereas the noun form appears 3 times), especially in the texts written by St. However, the truth addressed to every human being— Paul, who adopted this term as the technical term for his “God loves you, Christ has come for you, Christ is your theology. He most frequently uses the verb form kerysso ‘Way and the Truth and the Life’” (John 14:6) is the (19 times) and the noun form keryks (twice). Apart from fundamental message of kerygma. Thanks to this fact, the St. Paul’s texts, this term can be most commonly found in experience of a personal meeting with Christ becomes texts by St. Mark (14 times). St. Peter’s speeches included possible, which as a consequence results in the undertak- in the Acts are also an example of apostolic kerygma ing of the decision to live according to the challenges that (2:14–39, 3:12–26, 4:8–12, 10:34–43, 13:16–41, 14:15–17, arise from such a meeting. 17:22–31). In biblical and patristic sources, this term Copy has mostly covered the first concise proclamation of the The Form of Kerygma Proclamation good news with the aim to call to conversion or its con- The form of kerygma is patterned on the teaching of tents—that is, the teaching of Jesus Christ passed on to the apostles about Jesus Christ and His mystery of the apostles (Paciorek 2000). redemption (John Paul II 1994, 42). A proclaimer of kerygma shares his joy stemming from the meeting The Content of Kerygma with the most important person in his life and shows The content of kerygma is what God has done out of love how other people may meet Him. At the same time, he for man through His Son Jesus Christ: the liberation from believes in the commitment of fidelity arising from such sin (redemption) and the gift of the grace of sonship as a meeting. The form of kerygma proclamation should well as the gift of the Holy Spirit. The work of redemp- therefore have the character of a testimony and per- tion proclaimed in kerygma is inextricably linked with sonal engagement. By its nature, kerygma should most the call to repent and to accept Christ (Kudasiewicz and of all be understandable and communicative. Therefore, Zuberbier 1985, 246–247). it should be characterized by conciseness, clarity of Ch. H. Dodd (1978, 23–28) captures the content of thought, transparency, and logic, as well as some sort classic kerygma based on St. Peter’s teaching included in of directness (Augustine 2009, 397–426, IV: VIII 22– the Acts in six points: X 24). The proclamation of kerygma may not be reduced to impersonal, purely theoretical, and abstract speech. 1. The history of the world has been fulfilled; the The fundamental contents of the faith are presented in fullness of time, the “last days” announced by the such a manner as to move hearts, to disclose the living prophets, have come. Christ, with whom one can meet and establish a real 2. The fullness of time has been fulfilled through the relationship. What is also important is the timeliness of Contributorbirth, life, death, and Christ. the message and the disclosure of the good news, not as 3. Christ’s resurrection is a sign of might and the a distant notion but as the coming of God into the pres- proof of His credibility. ent situation of an individual person, which goes to the 4. The Holy Spirit in the church is a sign of the present heart of one’s expectations, longings, failings, desires, might and glory of Christ. and problems. 676 Kerygma, New Testament Foundations of

References and Resources ecclesial practice, public speech that acclaims the divine Augustine. 2009. On Christian Doctrine, in Four Books (De glory for the salvation and sanctification of all creation, Doctrina Christiana). Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics the wonder and witness of living communion enjoyed by Ethereal Library. the church within the life of the Holy Trinity. Dodd, Ch. H. 1978. La predicazione apostolica e il suo sviluppo. Such dramatic announcement and communal celebra- Brescia: Paideia Editrice. tion is indeed the work of evangelism, the astounding Dunn, J. D. G. 1977. Unity and Diversity in the New Testament: news that in the calling of Israel and the life, death, resur- An Inquiry into the Character of Earliest Christianity. Phila- rection, and exaltation of Jesus Christ, God has defeated delphia: Fortress. the false gods and powers of this world and enthroned John Paul II. 1994. Apostolic Letter Tertio Millenio Adveniente Him as Lord of heaven and earth. Joined with Christ 42 (Vatican). by the Spirit whose presence indwells scripture and the Kudasiewicz, J., and A. Zuberbier. 1985. “Kerygmat.” In Słownik church, the church’s liturgical celebration of the Gospel teologiczny, edited by A. Zuberbier, 1:246–247. Katowice: through Word and Sacrament is both a witness and a Księgarnia Św. Jacka. blessing to the nations, offering a compelling invitation Macdonald, J. I. H. 1980. Kerygma and Didache. Cambridge: and urgent summons to join the great vocation of praise Cambridge University Press. as God’s good creation. Only Paciorek, A. 2000. “Kerygmat w Biblii.” In Encyklopedia The Book of Acts provides a beautiful expression of the Katolicka, 8;1361. Lublin: TW KUL. prophetic word revealed in and through the story of the Patzia, A. G. 1995. The Making of the New Testament: Origin, church as a creation of the Spirit, which in its living and Collection, Text and Canon. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity speaking bears witness to the crucified and risen Lord, Press. who enacts what the apostolic witness proclaims. The Theobald, M. 1962. “Kerygma.” In Lexikon für Theologie und church therefore lives from and for the Gospel: the story Kirche, edited by M. Buchberger, J. Hofer, and K. Rahner, of the words and actions of Jesus that are centered on His 6:1406–1409. Freiburg im Breisgan: Herder-Verlag. death on a cross and resurrection from the dead. In light —Paweł Mąkosa of this story, praise and thanks will be the primary start- ing point for all expressions of mission, since the church is a communityCopy that confesses its origin and destiny are Kerygma, New Testament Foundations of found in God’s reign of love revealed in the calling of Israel, the sending of Jesus, and the outpouring of the The New Testament texts seek to proclaim, to trans- Spirit. Intrinsic to the church’s identity is a way of life mit the message, the kerygma, simply to make an an- consistent with its destiny; the announcement of God’s nouncement. The Greek of the New Testament scripture, mighty acts of gathering up, reconciling, and perfecting kerysso, to herald or proclaim, is often used interchange- of all things by the Spirit of Jesus, who has been exalted ably with “to preach.” While it is often assumed there is as both Lord and Christ. a basic kerygmatic structure or proclamation underlying the whole of the New Testament, it is best to remember References and Resources the urgent nature and purpose of Christian proclamation, Pasquarello, Michael. 2008. Christian Preaching: A Trinitar- as a public announcement of the Gospel as news, good ian Theology of Proclamation. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker news of a whole new state of affairs brought about by Academic. God. Indeed, the New Testament, as the fulfillment of the Sider, Robert D. 1983. The Gospel and Its Proclamation. Yon- scriptures of Israel, reads like an extended sermon, the kers, NY: Michael Glazier. purpose of which is to proclaim the good news of God’s Wilder, Amos N. 1965. Kerygma, Eschatology and Social Ethics. redemptive action in Jesus Christ. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1965. As doxological speech, preaching is the work of the —Michael Pasquarello III whole church which, drawn by the Spirit in respond- ing to the Living Word in the Risen Lord, offers itself in prayer and praise and so constitutes and is constituted as Kienel, Paul the body of Christ. Moreover, the saving power of God’s revealedContributor speech is experienced and rooted in worship. Early Background and Education Animated by the gift of divine grace, the church attends Dr. Paul A. Kienel is arguably the most important figure to the Gospel in both speech and action, offering its at- in the formation and early rapid growth of the Associa- tention to the astonishing glory, goodness, and love of tion of Christian Schools International (ACSI), one of the Triune God. Thus the proclamation of the Word is an the largest Christian school organizations in the world. Kienel, Paul 677

It could even be argued that as ACSI’s founding execu- would encompass 19 western states. The Western Asso- tive director, he was among the most important global ciation was growing steadily, and Kienel was leading the leaders in the Christian school movement during the charge. In 1978, the opportunity for a merger with the 20th century. National Christian School Education Association and the Paul A. Kienel IV was born on 25 September 1933 in Ohio Association of Christian Schools was presented to Daytona Beach, Florida, where his father, Rev. Paul Kie- the WACS board. The merger of these three associations nel III, served as a minister. Like many of his generation, would lead to the formation of ACSI. Kienel was known he and his family suffered through extreme hardship dur- to often credit Bill Male, Gene Garrick, Roy Lowrie, ing the Great Depression. His father passed away in 1940 and himself with initiating the discussions for the initial from tuberculosis when Paul was only seven, leaving his merger of the three founding associations. wife, Velma Kienel, to raise Paul and his two younger sisters alone. After graduating from Bethany Bible Col- Notable Publications lege, Kienel was ordained in 1959 with the Assemblies of Besides being a visionary leader and entrepreneur, Kienel God denomination and assumed a series of positions at was also a prolific writer. One of his early books was The both the local and national levels. Soon after, he began his Christian School: Why Is It Right for Your Child? His most graduate studies and accepted a position as both teacher prolific and influential publicationOnly was his Christian and principal at the recently founded Westminster Chris- School Comment, which he wrote for 26 years. Comment tian School in California. dealt with just about every conceivable topic related to Christian school education, and circulation eventually Significant Contributions to Christian Education rose to around 140,000. Westminster Christian School grew quickly to 318 stu- Later in life, Kienel chronicled the history of Christian dents in just three years. After only three and a half years, school education from a Protestant perspective in his Kienel left in 1966 to lead the California Association of two-volume A History of Christian School Education. Christian Schools (CACS), where two years earlier he In the first volume, published in 1998, Kienel traced had been appointed to serve on the board. His wife Annie the early development of a system of education by first- soon joined him as his first assistant, and they worked century Christians who did not want their children from their home for four years. It was a bold move by the educatedCopy by Rome. Kienel recounted the rise of Christian CACS board and the member schools to hire a full-time school education in Rome; its eventual persecution at the executive director for what had been an all-volunteer hands of the emerging Catholic Church; its preservation organization. It was a daring commitment financially, through the Middle Ages; its reemergence during the based on faith that the Christian school movement was Reformation; and finally its propagation by the Pilgrims, ready to blossom. In order to fund the added costs associ- the Puritans, and other evangelical groups that eventu- ated with a full-time director, Kienel had to demonstrate ally immigrated to America. In volume two, published his entrepreneurial skills. in 2005, Kienel described, in detail, the early influence Kienel led the association through a season of phe- of Christian schools in the New World. The second half nomenal expansion. It grew steadily, from 8 schools in of volume two provided a detailed account of the advent 1950, to 68 schools in 1965, and then mushroomed to of state-sponsored education and the wane of Christian 408 member schools and colleges by its 25th anniversary schools. These two volumes are an important historical in 1975. Student enrollment also ballooned, from a few treatment of the unique history and societal contribu- hundred in 1950, to 11,388 in 1965, to 52,459 in 1975, an tions of Christian school education. increase of 600 percent. In February 1974, Kienel received a telephone call Conclusion from Douglas Horney, the president of the Arizona Asso- Now approaching his 80th birthday, Kienel’s passion for ciation of Christian Schools, headquartered in Phoenix. the movement he helped shape still burns bright. He is a Horney suggested that his association might be willing who still contributes to the cause of Christian to merge with CACS, if CACS would change its name to school education in various roles. His extensive travel the Western Association of Christian Schools (WACS). across the country and around the world provides him Kienel and the CACS board readily agreed, and they with a global perspective, and his vast experience build- formedContributor a fledgling regional organization. The follow- ing an international organization provides him with ing year the Northwest Fellowship of Christian Schools an extensive background in corporate dynamics and (NFCS) joined the growing WACS. The NFCS included change. Kienel’s perspective as a historian makes him Christian schools in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and able to recognize trends that may help or hinder his Montana. Within three more years the organization cause. The Christian school education community owes 678 Kierkegaard, Søren him an enormous debt of gratitude for his leadership Education and Christian Faith and many contributions. In his essay “Kierkegaard as Educator,” Ronald Man- —James A. Swezey heimer explains the link among Kierkegaard’s writing style, his understanding of Christianity, and the role of the teacher: Kierkegaard, Søren Kierkegaard has the generosity of acknowledging that no Biographical Elements one can take the steps of inward deepening except each Søren Kierkegaard was a Danish philosopher, born in singular individual. The language corresponding to this 1813 in Copenhagen, where he spent most of his life truth of process would, therefore, need to reflect acts of human becoming rather than final results. The speaker until his premature death in 1855. He studied philoso- would share a process rather than communicate as if from phy and theology at Copenhagen University and finished the side of the accomplishment. This is why Kierkegaard his doctorate in 1841 with a dissertation on the concept would disclaim the role of teacher, because, for him, to of irony in Socrates’s philosophy. After graduation, Ki- teach has connotations of positioning oneself on the side erkegaard devoted himself entirely to writing, rejecting of finality and of communicating results. Teaching, thus the professional path of professorship or ministry. His understood, is inconsistent with the truthOnly of human being mother, Ane Sørensdatter Lund, died in 1834, and his as self-becoming and with the ever unfinished, because father, Michael Pedersen Kierkegaard, four years later always yet to be lived, the truth of becoming Christian. in 1838, leaving Kierkegaard an inheritance sufficient to (1977, 169–170) pay for his studies and the publication of his first manu- scripts. Of the seven children born into the Kierkegaard Against the institutionalized church, Kierkegaard family, only one other child survived and outlived Søren, imagines himself as God’s spy, in charge of defending his oldest brother, Peter Kierkegaard (1805–1888). In authentic Christianity and preaching God’s paradoxical 1837, Kierkegaard met Regine Olsen (1822–1904) and revelation of the crucified Christ. In this context, educa- immediately fell in love with her; he formally proposed tion participates in an ongoing, existential act of self- to her in 1840, only to break off their engagement one discovery instead of being limited to the formal teach- year later. Kierkegaard never married, and many of his ing of some objective knowledge. Kierkegaard’s view of ChristianityCopy leads to the necessity of recognizing the biographers discuss the impact of this failed relationship on his work and life. impossibility of communicating directly the contents of Christian faith; rather, Christian faith is always first and Major Works foremost an existential experience. A prolific writer, Kierkegaard’s complete works cover God’s incarnation represents the absolute paradox, several thousand pages; many of his essays were pub- the encounter between eternity and immortality, finite lished posthumously. Between 1843 and 1846, Kierkeg- and infinite. Human reason and language can partially aard published some of his most important works: Either/ explain this paradox, but can never fully understand Or (1843), Repetition (1843), Fear and Trembling (1843), it; only an individual’s “leap of faith” allows for its full The Concept of Anxiety (1844), Philosophical Fragments understanding. In this context, there cannot be any for- (1844), and Stages of Life’s Way (1845), all six of them mal Christian education, and the model of the midwife written under pseudonyms, as well as his Concluding is ultimately the only model available for an authentic Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments (1846), Christian teacher. published under his own name. His dissertation set the tone of his philosophical approach and style: analyzing References and Resources Socrates’s rhetoric, Kierkegaard conceives of the role of Evans, C. Stephen. 1996. The Historical Christ & the Jesus of the philosopher as a midwife, assisting individuals in the Faith: The Incarnational Narrative as History. Oxford: Ox- quest for their own selves. In this process, irony serves as ford University Press. a unique tool that destabilizes the individual and forces ———. 2006. Kierkegaard on Faith and the Self: Selected Essays. him or her to question predetermined answers. In addi- Waco, TX: Baylor University Press. tion, in Kierkegaard’s understanding of Christianity, the Hannay, Alastair. 2001. Kierkegaard: A Biography. Cambridge, notionContributor of becoming Christian (as opposed to being one) UK: Cambridge University Press. is central: faith is a lifelong process rather than a series of Hannay, Alastair, and Gordon D. Marino, eds. 1998. The Cam- dogmas to learn. As such, Kierkegaard is often seen as the bridge Companion to Kierkegaard. Cambridge, UK: Cam- founder of existentialism. bridge University Press. Kildare Monastery 679

Hong, Howard V., ed. 2000. The Essential Kierkegaard. century, but it supplies little concrete information on her Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. life. He does, however, provide insight into the ecclesiasti- Lippitt, John, and George Pattison, eds. 2013. The Oxford cal politics of the time. Because of his allegiance to Kildare, Handbook of Kierkegaard. Oxford: Oxford University Press. he is hardly neutral in his assessment of the significance Manheimer, Ronald J. 1977. Kierkegaard as Educator. Berkeley: attached to that church. Scholars have posited that his University of California Press. work is the product of the Scriptorium in Kildare, which Nielsen, Klaus. 2006. “The Negativistic Process of Education: flourished at an early stage and was sustained until the Kierkegaard and the Ontology of Despair.” Nordic Psychol- ninth century. The success of scriptoria in Irish monastic ogy 58 (3): 183–195. schools is often predicated on wealth. In this case, Cogito- Pattison, George. 1992. Kierkegaard on Art and Communica- sus chronicles a church that is remarkably large and well tion. New York: St. Martin’s Press. endowed. He describes Kildare as a great metropolitan Walters, David. 2008. “Existential Being as Transformative city, the implication being that it is the major church in Learning.” Pastoral Care in Education 26 (2): 111–118. Leinster. In his prologue, he describes it as the head of practically all the Irish churches and at the forefront of Internet Resources monasteries that spread throughout the whole island. The Kierkegaard Library at St. Olaf College: http://www.stolaf.edu/ bishop of Kildare is depicted as the “ChiefOnly of the Irish Bish- collections/kierkegaard/ ops.” At this distance, it is difficult to assess the validity of Kierkegaard Research Center at the University of Copenhagen: such claims, but certainly Cogitosus’s imprecision does not http://www.skc.ku.dk/english/ inspire confidence. Nevertheless, it appears that Kildare by —Muriel Schmid the time of Cogitosus’s writing, had developed links with monasteries that put it on a par with the jurisdiction as- sociated with the monastery at Iona. Kildare Monastery Kildare operated under a strict Rule, and frequent fasts were observed, with unceasing prayer and vigils. Monks The Monastic Center at Kildare (Cill Dara), which means slept on the hard ground, food was limited, and they Church of the Oak, was founded by St. Brigit. Variously had to till the land by hand. One of the most noteworthy described as “Foster Mother of the Saints in Ireland,” featuresCopy of the monastery was its school for boys. The and as “Mary of the Gaels” (Mhuire Na Gael), Brigit is focus in the monastery was on faith in God, holiness, and regarded as one of the three patrons of Ireland (the others simplicity of lifestyle. are Patrick and Columba). Traditions about the saint are Kildare is also famous for its double monastery, al- conflicting, leading some scholars to conclude that she though it also served dependents of the monastic com- did not even exist. Some have suggested that the rapid munity. There is no record of another such center in Ire- growth of the cult of Brigit can be accounted for on the land at the time. The double monastery consisted of two basis that she is a merely euhemerized pagan deity, or the houses, one for each sex, built around a shared chapel. All outcome of syncretism. It is evident that hagiographers were under the jurisdiction of the abbess, Brigit, who was over the centuries, writing for a Christian constituency, assisted by a bishop called Conlaedh. The women needed have transmitted an overidealized picture of Brigit. Nev- the spiritual services of consecrated monks, their protec- ertheless, given the paucity of information on the back- tion, and their support in the heavy manual work. The ground of the druidical goddess associated with her, the church was divided into sections, with a screen between evidence suggests that the Christian Brigit was a histori- the nave and the sanctuary and two doors leading into cal figure of some significance. the latter, providing access: one for the bishop and monks The circumstances of Brigit’s religious profession are and the other for the abbess and the . Another deco- varied. One tradition explains that at the age of 16, she rated screen partitioned the church, providing space on received the white veil and white garment, signifying either side for men and women. dedication to Christ, with at least seven other young Brigit and Conlaedh died in the 520s, and their sar- women, from Bishop Mel in Telcha Mide. In error, he cophagi flanked the high altar in the church at Kildare, conferred on Brigit the Episcopal Order, and when chal- decorated with gold and silver jewels, topped with gold lenged about his mistake, attributed it to the work of the and silver crowns. Brigit was a woman of virtue, dedi- HolyContributor Spirit. Regardless of what actually happened, Bri- cated to Christ, living for Him and strengthened by His git’s life became a byword for holiness of Christian living, love. Her feast day is celebrated on 1 February each year, generosity of spirit, faith, and miraculous power. a fitting tribute to a woman whose sanctity stood out in a Our primary source for the monastery at Kildare is male-dominated culture, as well as evidence of the posi- Cogitosus, who wrote the Life of Brigit in the mid-seventh tion achieved by the Monastery at Kildare. 680 Kindergarten

References and Resources named “kindergarten,” which is known globally today. Hughes, K. 1972. Early Christian Ireland: Introduction to the Key to the development of the kindergarten system is its Sources. London: Hodder and Stoughton. emphasis on “play,” the use of materials for play called Kenney, J. F. 1993. The Sources for the Early History of Ireland, “gifts,” and the use of “occupation” activities in learning. Ecclesiastical: An Introduction and Guide. Blackrock, Dublin, These three concepts were rooted in the ideas that all Ireland: Four Courts Press. children and adults are essentially productive and cre- McCone, K. 1982. “Brigit in the Seventh Century: A Saint with ative, but for individuals to feel fulfilled, these must be in Three Lives?” Peritia 1: 107–145. harmony with both God and the world.2 Ó Ríordaín, John J. 2001. Early Irish Saints. Dublin: Columba Froebel’s influence on modern education is focused on Press. informal education, learning through activities such as Pochin Mould, Daphne, DC, BSc, PhD. 1976. The Monasteries play, the importance of social learning, and the impor- of Ireland: An Introduction. London: BT Batsford. tance of the “unification of life.” While the kindergarten Ryan, J., Rev. 1931. Irish Monasticism: Origins and Early Devel- theories and activities have continued to develop as the opment. Dublin and Cork: Talbot Press. concept is used and developed globally, even encouraging Walsh, John R., and Thomas Bradley. 2003. A History of the the study and education of younger children, the kinder- Irish Church 400–700AD. Blackrock, Dublin, Ireland: Co- garten system is widely accepted todayOnly as a tool to assist lumba Press. in addressing societal concerns. —Robert Jennings History of the Kindergarten in the United States German immigrants introduced Froebel’s system of kin- Kindergarten dergarten to the United States in the 1850s, and Marga- rethe Schurz opened the first kindergarten in Watertown, Since its origin, the kindergarten has been an effort to re- Wisconsin, in 1856. Like many that followed, it was spond to the social and moral evils of society. Its principal privately operated in her home. Schurz was herself a Ger- founder, Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel, was born at man immigrant and had been trained as a kindergarten home on 21 April 1782 near Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, teacher by her sister in London.3 Germany. Froebel himself had a difficult childhood, as SinceCopy the latter part of the 20th century, publicly his mother died when he was a baby and his working funded kindergartens have been available to nearly all father was mostly absent, so what attention he did receive five-year-old children in the United States.4 The kinder- was from his older brother. Even as a young man, he garten concept has been essential to the ongoing develop- received very little attention as an apprentice working in ment of learning theories concerning young children and the nearby forest. However, these experiences shaped his an influential catalyst for 21st-century national policy thoughts, giving him time to reflect, grow in his love for debates about the need to provide preschool and other nature, and develop a strong Christian faith and beliefs forms of early childhood education for all children start- about education, of which he writes that ing at birth. Longitudinal research has sought to prove the positive outcomes of the program for society. the purpose of education is to encourage and guide man as a conscious thinking and perceiving being in such a Current Findings way that he becomes a pure and perfect representation Supported by many years of research, the kindergarten of the divine inner law through his own personal choice; system has proven to be both socially and academically education must show him the ways and meanings of at- beneficial. However, the critics of the U.S. curriculum taining that goal.1 argue that its programs are more focused on social than Froebel was educated in Jena, Germany, and studied academic development, and recent research on the im- pedagogy following the work of Johann Pestalozzi and pact of public funding of kindergarten reveals that the the theories of John Comenius, who some 200 years be- kindergarten has had little impact on the reduction of fore believed education should be more comprehensive dropout rates. This was only among white children (2.5 and advanced. Froebel contributed as an educator, work- percent), yet it has had a larger impact on keeping white ing out Comenius’s theories and founding a system he Contributor2. Ibid. 1. Mark K. Smith, “Fredrich Froebel (Fröbel),” infed.org (1997), http:// 3. L. Prochner, “‘Their Little Wooden Bricks’: A History of the Mate- www.infed.org/thinkers/et-froeb.htm); Fredrick Froebel, The Educa- rial Culture of Kindergarten in the United States,” Paedagogica Historica: tion of a Man, trans. D. Appleton (1887), http://books.google.com/ International Journal of the History of Education 47, no. 3 (2011): 355–375. books?id=Hm4WAAAAIAAJ&dq=the%20education%20of%20man&pg= 4. E. U. Cascio, “What Happened When Kindergarten Went Universal?” PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false). Education Next 10, no. 2 (2010): 62–69. Kingdom Education 681 children out of prison or institutionalized quarters (22 Human Kingdoms percent). In addition, there seems to have been little The predominant Old Testament understanding of the impact on African Americans, as they already had the term “kingdom” related primarily to human institutions. advantage of high-quality programs that were offered to With God’s blessing on David’s kingdom, it had the most disadvantaged minorities.5 Educators continue to believe enduring and greatest hope for longevity (cf. Ps. 89:20– that kindergartens have a social impact beyond what they 29; Acts 1:6, NKJV). David himself, however, signaled can statistically validate for all populations. the eventual replacement of his earthbound kingdom by a qualitatively different, heavenly inspired kingdom (Ps. References and Resources 145:11–13; Isa. 9:6–7). Bruce, T., A. Findlay, J. Read, and M. Scarborough, eds. 1995. How Christians contribute to bringing God’s Kingdom Recurring Themes in Education. London: Paul Chapman to earth has multiple, sometimes less than clearly delin- Publishing. eated, interpretations. Certainly, the Son of God came to Bruegel, G. A. 1899. “History and Problem of the Kindergar- earth in human form to initiate the process. The redemp- ten.” The Lutheran Church Review 18: 704–711. tive or restorative approach favored by groups such as neo- Cascio, E. U. 2010. “What Happened When Kindergarten Calvinists is that believers are called to redeem all cultural Went Universal?” Education Next 10 (2): 62–69. and institutional expressions fromOnly the consequences of Ewen, D., H. Matthews, and Center for Law and Social Policy. the Fall, since “every square inch” of creation is His. The 2007. “Title I and Early Childhood Programs: A Look at scholarly excellence and Christian worldview development Investments in the NCLB Era.” CLASP Child Care and Early characteristic of this emphasis have not shifted cultures as Education Series. Policy Paper No. 2. Center for Law and expected, however. Excellent academics notwithstanding, Social Policy, Inc. (CLASP). the two-kingdoms, Augustinian, and similar type orienta- Froebel, F. 1826. On the Education of Man (Die Menschenerzie- tions believe that Christians presently occupy God’s peace- hung). Keilhaul/Leipzig: Wienbrach. ful countercultural Kingdom and are to spread it via His “History and Problem of the Kindergarten.” 1899. The Lu- personal qualities such as love, service, and forgiveness. theran Church Review 18 (January 1): 704–711. In His perfect time, God will replace all earthly kingdoms Lilley, I., ed. 1967. Friedrick Froebel: A Selection from His Writ- with a new heaven and new earth occupied only by His ings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ownCopy (2 Pet. 3). The interim expansion of God’s Kingdom Prochner, L. 2011. “‘Their Little Wooden Bricks’: A History of on earth thus focuses on infusing each receptive individual the Material Culture of Kindergarten in the United States.” with the nature of Christ rather than on externally aligning Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of human institutions according to biblical precepts. Akin to Education 47 (3): 355–375. the second orientation, a third and least traditional ap- Smith, Mark K. n.d. “Fredrich Froebel (Fröbel).” infed. http:// proach, known by names such as revivalists, reformers, www.infed.org/thinkers/et-froeb.htm. and the Seven Mountains mandate, tends toward more —Karen L. Estep overt incorporation of the supernatural and a conscious lifestyle of heavenly family intimacy.

Kingdom Education God’s Kingdom The Old Testament Hebrew words for kingdom, such as Kingdom education overtly advances the Holy Spirit– mamlakah, and the New Testament Greek word basileia, empowered kingdom that Jesus inaugurated and will connote dynamics such as dominion, governing influence, consummate at His second coming. The intentional sovereignty, reign, and power (Munroe 2007, 78). Some incorporation of the presence, leading, and enjoyment of recent interpretations hold that God’s Kingdom expan- the presence of God goes beyond Christian education’s sion on earth is about more than a monarchical rule of a traditional practice of combining academic and biblical one-dimensional, triumphal nature (Clowney 1995, 39). content. Kingdom education reprioritizes through equip- The Kingdom of God / Kingdom of heaven (generally ping to bring the kingdom qualities of God’s personal synonymous terms) is not primarily about refinement of nature to earth through the academic venue, which oth- earthly kingdoms. It is not of this world (John 18:36), will erwise equips students mainly for temporal competence. not be directly militant against opposing human agency KingdomContributor schools are envisioned as centers of worship (Eph. 6:12), will not look like temporal kingdoms (Barclay where learning occurs (rather than vice versa); its gradu- 1968, 121), is not a program to reform society (Bright 1981, ates are treasure chests of God’s endowments. 222), and is open to aggression (Matt. 5:10). Broadly, a kingdom reflects the characteristics of its 5. Ibid. king. Accordingly, God’s Kingdom is primarily about 682 Kingdom of God

God’s essential nature of love. His kingdom is about Problems with kingdom education include potential joy-filled relationships within a harmonious family of an confusion resulting from an expanding yet diverse un- eternal Father who lavishly loves His children. In adoring derstanding of it, balancing kingdom grace with educa- the Father, biblical obedience of His sons and daughters tional standards, incorrectly interpreting love as license, originates in affection rather than duty. The love-based interpreting grace narcissistically, and shifting from edu- Two Greatest Commandments and the Great Commis- cating for living in the temporal realm to flourishing in sion, coupled with the power qualities of the Holy Spirit, the invisible yet expanding kingdom realm. capture the essence of God’s Kingdom on earth. This kingdom of agape love and power is matched by the fact References and Resources that humans were created to love and be loved, a prime Arroyo, A., and H. Jordan, eds. (2012). The Secret Kingdom for reflection of God’s image. Educators. New York: Pearson. Barclay, W. 1968. The King and the Kingdom. Philadelphia: Kingdom Education Westminster Press. The fact that the earthly realm is temporal, corrupt, and Boardman, G. D. 2008. The Kingdom. Shippensburg, PA: Des- under Satan’s control (1 John 5:19) complicates bringing tiny Image. God’s Kingdom to earth. Entrance into His kingdom Bright, John. 1981. The Kingdom of God. OnlyNashville: Abingdon depends on being humble and childlike. The dynamics of Press. replacing temporal with kingdom qualities require em- Clowney, E. P. 1995. The Church. Downers Grove, IL: Inter- ployment of kingdom keys (Matt. 16:19) and Holy Spirit Varsity Press. empowerment (1 Cor. 4:20). The keys bind hindrances Cooke, G. 2010. Prophetic Wisdom. Vacaville, CA: Brilliant and facilitate receptivity for heavenly downloads; divine Book House. empowerment equips for interconnecting the supernatu- Cox, W. F., Jr. 2011. “Kingdom Education.” Journal of Research ral and the natural. Kingdom education contributes to on Christian Education 20 (3): 330–341. the ultimate heaven-to-earth transition; academics es- Moreland, J. P. 2007. Kingdom Triangle. Grand Rapids, MI: sentially equip for an environment that will eventually be Zondervan. replaced (2 Pet. 3). Munroe, M. 2007. Applying the Kingdom. Shippensburg, PA: Kingdom education focuses on treating self and others DestinyCopy Image. as forgiven, just as God does (Col. 2:13): sinner identity Rogers, A. 2002. The Incredible Power of Kingdom Authority. no more; believers are saints! The focus is on, for instance, Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. uncovering the God-implanted “gold” in humans’ earthly Silk, D. 2009. Culture of Honor. Shippensburg, PA: Destiny natures, operating in the supernatural, “going the extra Image. mile,” loving unconditionally, eliminating judgmental Smith, J. K. A. 2009. Desiring the Kingdom. Grand Rapids, MI: attitudes, receiving inner healing, living as Kingdom roy- Baker Academic. alty, praying powerfully, establishing a culture of honor, Vallotton, K., and B. Johnson. 2006. The Supernatural Ways of desiring and enjoying God’s presence, joyfully trusting Royalty. Shippensburg, PA: Destiny Image. God in all things, learning to live responsibly in liberty, VanDrunen, D. 2010. Living in God’s Two Kingdoms. Wheaton, pursuing personal destiny from God, being completely IL: Crossway. preoccupied with God, naturally exuding Sermon on the Wallnau, L. 2010. “The Seven Mountain Mandate.” In The Mount and fruit of the Spirit qualities, being instruments Reformer’s Pledge, edited by C. An, 177–196. Shippensburg, of healing, evangelizing the lost, blessing others, living PA: Destiny Image. in gratitude and gratefulness, praising and worshipping —William F. Cox Jr. God, expecting kingdom visitations, living from heaven’s abundance rather than earthbound neediness, discipling rather than punishing, banishing shame, and hearing Kingdom of God God’s voice. The focus is intimate fellowship with God, blessing and honoring His heart rather than performing The word “millennium” is derived from the Latin mille obediently for Him. (“thousand”) and annum (“year”), in reference to the Kingdom education can be described as being Spirit- statement in Revelation 20:4 (“and they came to life and empowered,Contributor living in agape love with God, self, and reigned with Christ for a thousand years”). The early others to partner with the Creator of the universe to church referred to the millennium by the Greek term, live from heaven to earth. Equipping for rule-following chiliasm. Throughout the history of the church, there is superseded by equipping for fellowshipping with the have been three primary views about the nature of the Creator of the rules. thousand years: (1) , (2) postmillennial- Kingdom of God 683 ism, and (3) premillennialism. Interpretative (hermeneu- inhabitants. The realm is the thousand years following tical) differences are the reason for three views, such as the second coming of Jesus Christ. This Kingdom could whether to understand “thousand” in Revelation 20 as also be called the single, unified, mediatorial kingdom literal or symbolic. How one understands the millennium that existed historically under the Mosaic covenant and will also influence one’s views on the details of eschatol- was prophesied by the Old Testament prophets to be ogy (“the doctrine of last things”). restored in its former glory at the second coming; it is The millennium is the Kingdom of the Lord Jesus the same kingdom John the Baptist preached and Jesus Christ and includes not only spiritual blessings but also offered to Israel at His first coming. It is therefore the glorious expectation. The term premillennialism refers to same Kingdom that Israel rejected in the first century. the future literal reign of Jesus Christ on David’s throne The Kingdom is historic, prophetic, offered, and rejected. in Jerusalem. Premillennialism is in contrast to amillen- The mystery form of the Kingdom is the church age, nialism and postmillennialism. Amillennialism does not which encompasses the period between the comings of deny the literal return of Jesus Christ (which is taught Christ (Matt. 13). The ruler of the mystery form of the to occur at the consummation of the church age), but it Kingdom is Jesus Christ. The ruled is Christendom. The does communicate that the church age is presently the realm is the period between the comings of Christ. Kingdom of God; therefore (according to the amillen- The spiritual Kingdom is God’sOnly rule over His people nial view), there will not be a future literal reign of Jesus at all times in history (John 3:3; Col. 1:13; Heb. 1:4–14; Christ on the earth. Postmillennialism also does not deny 2 Pet. 1:11). The ruler is the Triune God. The ruled in- the literal return of Jesus Christ (which is taught to occur cludes the elect of humanity and the angels. The realm is after the millennium); rather, adherents of this position from eternity past to eternity future. teach that the church will inaugurate the Kingdom of The kingdom of man includes humanity as ruler (Gen. God (which is not a literal thousand years, but rather a 10–11, 11:31–12:9; Rev. 17–18). The ruled, of course, is long, indefinite period) through the moral and spiritual mankind. The realm began at the Tower of Babel and will influence of Gospel proclamation. culminate at the beginning of the millennial Kingdom. The distinctions are important to understand, because God’s blessed provision to end the kingdom of man began many conservative evangelicals believe there is only one in history with the calling of Abram for the purpose of es- general, inclusive rule of God in the hearts of all His peo- tablishingCopy His Kingdom through the nation of Israel. ple. According to such an understanding, the Kingdom The Kingdom of God is an important emphasis of of God is essentially soteriological (“the doctrine of salva- scripture. The doctrine of the Kingdom is that God is tion”); however, the concept of the Kingdom cannot be not only king over the present world, but also sovereign reduced to mere soteriology, as there are other aspects of over a coming kingdom of peace and righteousness. it in scripture. The concept of the Kingdom of God is the One must be “born again” (John 3:3, 5) to enter the major theme or purpose of divine election. The entirety Kingdom of God, and those who are “fellow heirs with of world history—from Genesis to Revelation—concerns Christ” will prove their citizenship as they “walk by the the progression of the Kingdom of God. Spirit” (Rom. 8:12–17; Gal. 5:16–26). Scripture exhorts The concept of the Kingdom includes more than one believers to build upon the foundation “which is Jesus aspect. The definition includes (1) the ruler, (2) the ruled, Christ,” for in doing so one labors for that which no and (3) the realm. Scripture provides a detailed descrip- time can efface, because such work will endure for all tion of various aspects of the Kingdom of God: (1) the eternity (1 Cor. 3:10–15). universal kingdom, (2) the millennial (Davidic/Mes- sianic) kingdom, (3) the mystery form of the kingdom, References and Resources (4) the spiritual kingdom, and (5) the kingdom of man. Berkhof, Louis. 1951. The Kingdom of God. Grand Rapids, MI: The universal Kingdom is God’s sovereign rule of his- Eerdmans. tory, from creation throughout eternity (1 Chron. 29:11; Boettner, Lorraine. 1958. The Millennium. Philadelphia: Pres- Ps. 96:13, 103:19, 145:9–13; Dan. 2:37). The ruler of the byterian and Reformed. universal Kingdom is the Triune God. The ruled is all Froom, LeRoy Edwin. 1945. The Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers. creation (including heaven and earth). The realm is all 4 vols. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. time and eternity. Ladd, George Eldon. 1959. The Gospel of the Kingdom. Grand ContributorThe millennial (Davidic/Messianic) Kingdom is ac- Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. cording to God’s promise to Israel (2 Sam. 7:5–16; 1 McClain, Alva J. 1959. The Greatness of the Kingdom. Winona Chron. 17:3–15; Rev. 20:1–10). The ruler of the mil- Lake, IN: BMH Books. lennial kingdom will be the King, Jesus Christ (as King Peters, George N. H. 1952. The Theocratic Kingdom. 3 vols. David ruled in history). The ruled is the earth and its Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel. 684 Knowledge

Sandeen, Ernest R. 1970. The Roots of Fundamentalism: British terests and passions, namely the three human interests and American Millenarianism 1800—1930. Chicago: Univer- or passions of control, curiosity, and compassion. The sity of Chicago Press. knowledge gained through applied empirical and ana- Walvoord, John F. 1959. The Millennial Kingdom. Grand Rap- lytical study generally seeks to gain control over a body ids, MI: Zondervan. of information. The knowledge gained through specula- —Ron J. Bigalke tive, historical, and hermeneutical study generally seeks to discover knowledge as an end in itself, to satisfy curi- osity (Palmer 1983, 6–10). The knowledge that liberates Knowledge is described in 1 Corinthians 8:1–3: “We know that we all possess knowledge. Knowledge puffs up, but love Knowledge in the Bible refers to a whole life response builds up. The man who thinks he knows something to God and God’s creation that embraces His revela- does not yet know as he ought to know. But the man tion as the essential source for both truth and wisdom. who loves God is known by God.” This knowledge is Knowledge in general as a cognitive apprehension of associated with the interest of compassion or love and reality (yada) is distinguished from wisdom (chokmah) recognizes the web of relationships in which knowl- that issues in life. In the Old Testament, the reverence edge is embraced. The New TestamentOnly maintains that of God (Prov. 1:7, 9:10) is the beginning of wisdom, “for knowledge or truth must be related to love (Eph. 4:15; 2 the Lord gives wisdom; from his mouth come knowledge John 1), and that all truth is God’s truth. The problem and understanding” (Prov. 2:6). In the New Testament, posed for the Christian is how to maintain in creative the claim is that in Jesus Christ “are hidden all the trea- tension those truths discerned through study in various sures of wisdom (sophia) and knowledge (gnosis).” (Col. disciplines with the truths revealed in scripture, while 2:3). Therefore, a biblical view of knowledge is one that at the same time being guided by love for God, others, is holistic in the sense of involving knowledge in the and the creation. It is Jesus’s prayer that His disciples be cognitive sense along with feeling and action. Knowledge sanctified by God’s truth, recognizing that God’s Word includes a physical dimension that implies a personal is truth (John 17:17). Christ declares that He incarnates commitment and intention to be one with the person or truth (John 14:6). thing known. In the case of knowing God, this knowledge HustonCopy Smith (1979) points out the dangers of limited embodies a loving, obedient, and believing response to or excluded knowledge in relation to values and faith. God and thus a relational/experiential/reflective way of For example, science values control, prediction, objec- knowing grounded in God’s revelation as described in tivity, numbers, and signs, while faith values surrender, the scriptures (Groome 1980, 141–145). surprise, subjectivity and objectivity, words, and symbols. The Bible regards knowledge as something that arises Whereas science deals with the instrumental values of from personal encounter, and knowledge of God is re- utility, usefulness, service, and control, faith deals with lated to the revelation of God in the historic past and the the intrinsic values of wonder, awe, reverence, creativ- promised future. Yet God is also revealed in the present ity, imagination, and promise. Whereas becoming is the earthly sphere in which His creatures have their being dominant focus of science, being/becoming is the focus and live out their history. The knowledge of God is in- of faith. The faith perspective of Christianity provides an separably bound up with His revelation in time and space alternative way of knowing that expands upon, but does and in historical contexts. In the Bible, knowledge im- not contradict, the truths of science, given that all truth is plies the awareness of the specific relationship in which God’s truth. The Christian is free to explore the insights the individual person and corporate community stand of science, which are discerned or discovered through with the person or object known. Just as the individual is use of reason and empirical observation in relation to considered as a totality rather than as a being composed the natural world of God’s general revelation. Several of body and mind, knowledge is an activity in which the questions emerge for Christians: What is the nature of whole individual is engaged. knowledge in a Christian perspective, and how is knowl- Knowledge is also recognized as a social and cultural edge related to life? How is reason related to faith? What construction related to the sources drawn upon to gain has Jerusalem to do with Athens? To what extent can understanding of the world, ourselves, and the meaning Christianity be wed to a particular philosophy, or does of life.Contributor It is discerned through nature and science that Christianity itself imply a general philosophy and episte- studies the natural world, through rationality, experi- mology or understanding of knowledge? ence, tradition, history, intuition, and even imagination. Christians recognize the limits of human knowledge Parker Palmer suggests that knowledge as understood and the place of no-knowledge or what mystics describe in our societal context must be related to human in- as the “cloud of unknowing.” This recognition honors the Knowledge 685 place of mystery and reverence in relation to knowledge knowledge to exist. The highest knowledge possible for and all of life. Abraham Heschel, a Jewish educator, has persons is knowledge of God that is discussed in terms of suggested a comparison of the insights from the Greek spirituality. This knowledge is conditioned by faith and heritage that influenced the New Testament with those obedience, by a willingness to know and submit to the of the Old Testament and today: “The Greeks learned in will of God that flows from a loving heart. The known order to comprehend. The Hebrews learned in order to in this case is God, but God is also unknowable and un- revere. The modern man learns in order to use” (Heschel known beyond revelation. Christians recognize the place 1959, 37). Although comprehension and the use of learn- of mystery and allow for the working of the Holy Spirit. ing are important, the challenge remains for Christian As the Holy Spirit encounters human spirits, life and educators to enable persons to revere, to appreciate, to growth are possible as God is known in new ways. Again, stand in awe of, and to worship God as a result of their the words of the apostle Paul about the issue of food teaching and the knowledge it shares. Heschel points to sacrificed to idols in Corinth serve to warn Christians the need for Christian educators to transcend the persis- regarding our knowledge and its potential idolatry: “We tent pragmatism prevalent in the United States. know that we all possess knowledge. Knowledge puffs up, Knowledge cannot be separated from a person’s being but love builds up. The man who thinks he knows some- in the world, and knowledge, as proposed by societies thing does not yet know as he oughtOnly to know. But the and faith communities, embodies and conditions the man who loves God is known by God” (1 Cor. 8:1b–3). tasks of naming, creating, critiquing, and transforming Human knowledge is transcended by being known by that world by particular persons and groups. Christians God and encountering God’s love. Paul’s warning does acknowledge the place of mystery and incomplete knowl- not negate the quest for knowledge, but sets that quest in edge in both doctrine and life, which counters any stance a wider context of biblical faith and commitment. of arrogance in relation to one’s own knowledge. Chris- tians can recognize the place of paradox and always be References and Resources open to new light and truth from God’s Word—written, Berger, Peter L., and Thomas Luckmann. 1966. The Social Con- created, and incarnate. Knowledge is conditioned by the struction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. context, by the questions being asked, and is therefore Garden City, NY: Doubleday. always knowledge from a certain perspective or position. Freire,Copy Paulo. 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Translated by The recognition and ownership of one’s perspective is Myra Bergman Ramos. New York: Seabury. important for all communities. Knowledge is also socially Gill, Jerry H. 1971. The Possibility of Religious Knowledge. distributed. It is an instrument in the struggle for survival Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. and power and has the potential for the liberation and Groome, Thomas H. 1980. Christian Religious Education: Shar- actualization of persons. Knowledge can be a tool for op- ing Our Story and Vision. San Francisco: Harper & Row. pression or liberation, depending on its distribution and Habermas, Jürgen. 1971. Knowledge and Human Interests. perpetuation (Freire 1970). Boston: Beacon. There are different ways of knowing. A person may Heschel, Abraham J. 1959. Between God and Man: An Inter- only draw on an established authority or tradition (het- pretation of Judaism from the Writing of Abraham Heschel. eronomy). Through the use of human reasoning and Edited by Fritz A. Rothschild. New York: Free Press. thought, a person may ask questions, critique ideas and Palmer, Parker J. 1983. To Know as We Are Known: A Spiritual- situations, assemble data, and use what appeals to reason ity of Education. San Francisco: Harper & Row. and thought in the light of experience (autonomy). Per- Pazmiño, Robert W. 2008. Foundational Issues in Christian sonal or corporate experience may provide knowledge Education: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective. 3rd (autonomy). However, while Christians use reason, expe- ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. rience, and authority to make sense of the factual world, Sloan, Douglas. 1994. Faith and Knowledge: Mainline Prot- they acknowledge the beyondness known only by revela- estantism and American Higher Education. Louisville, KY: tion. They accept both the supernatural and the reality of Westminster John Knox Press. the concrete and practical, giving priority to the place of Smith, Huston. 1979. “Excluded Knowledge: A Critique of revelation (theonomy). Christians are to actively listen the Modern Mind Set.” Teachers College Record (February): and interpret within their historical context, combining 419–445. convictionContributor with tolerance, commitment with openness, Tozer, A. W. 1961. The Knowledge of the Holy. New York: to gain knowledge. Harper & Row. It is possible to view knowledge as a union with the Underhill, Evelyn. 1946. Cloud of Unknowing. 4th ed. London: person or thing known. It does not mean that there must J. M. Watkins. always be union with the object of knowledge in order for —Robert W. Pazmiño 686 Knowles, Malcolm

Knowles, Malcolm 5. An adult’s willingness to learn comes from within rather than from external sources. Malcolm Knowles (1913–1997) was born, lived, and 6. Adults have a desire to know why they need to worked in the United States his entire life as a pioneer in learn—or to sum up numbers 5 and 6, perhaps a lit- the field of adult education. He became known by some tle too crudely: adults only learn when they want to. as the “father” of the important concept of andragogy, which makes a distinction between the principles for Knowles’s andragogical theory has proved both wide educating children and those for the learning of adults. reaching and controversial and is therefore subject to Knowles freely acknowledged his debt in early life and several criticisms. Some question whether it is a compre- learning to both his parents, his schooling, and the Boy hensive theory of learning at all, since it appears as a set Scout movement (1989). He gained a scholarship to Har- of assumptions or even “shoulds” about human beings. vard University and was influenced while there by Alfred Knowles himself blurred the distinction between andra- North Whitehead. On leaving Harvard, he by chance fell gogy and pedagogy as he developed his thinking, and the into a role with the National Youth Administration, de- principles take very little account of the social, historical, veloping skills-based courses for young people entering and cultural context of the learner and seem to be highly industrial jobs. It was here he met and became a devoted individualistic. Nevertheless Knowles’sOnly ideas have en- follower of Eduard Lindeman, author of The Meaning of dured and continue to influence adult education practice Adult Education (1926). long after his death. In the 1940s, between war service, Knowles cut his adult educator teeth in the YMCA movement, first in References and Resources Boston and then Chicago, and at the same time studied Jarvis, P. 1987. “Malcolm Knowles.” In Twentieth Century for a master’s degree at the University of Chicago. He Thinkers in Adult Education, edited by P. Jarvis, 144–159. published his master’s thesis as Informal Adult Education London: Croom Helm. in 1950. In 1951, Knowles became the executive director Knowles, M. S. 1970. The Modern Practice of Adult Education: of the Adult Education Association of the USA, which Andragogy versus Pedagogy. New York: Cambridge Books. offered him an opportunity to oversee the development ———. (1973) 1990. The Adult Learner. A Neglected Species. 4th of the field and to chart its progress while studying for a ed. Houston:Copy Gulf Publishing. PhD, also at Chicago. ———. 1975. Self-Directed Learning. A Guide for Learners and At the end of the 1950s, Knowles became an associate Teachers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall/Cambridge. professor at Boston University. He labored there for the ———. 1980. The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From next 14 years, where he produced his most important Pedagogy to Andragogy. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge books: The Modern Practice of Adult Education (1970) Books. and The Adult Learner (1973). These texts brought him ———. 1989. The Making of an Adult Educator. An Autobio- to prominence in the adult education field in the United graphical Journey. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. States and put the notion of andragogy squarely on Knowles, M. S., et al. 1984. Andragogy in Action. Applying Mod- the map. In 1974 he moved to the faculty of the North ern Principles of Adult Education. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Carolina State University, where he completed his formal Merriam, Sharan B., Rosemary S. Cafarella, and Lisa M. academic career, although he continued to be active as Baumgartner. 2007. Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehen- professor emeritus after retiring in 1979. sive Guide. 3rd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Knowles’s six key “andragogical” assumptions have Smith, M. K. 2002. “Malcolm Knowles, Informal Adult Educa- become widely accepted and almost axiomatic among tion, Self-direction and Andragogy.” In The Encyclopedia of adult educators, including Christian facilitators of adult Informal Education. Accessed 2 December 2013. www.infed learning: .org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm. —Nigel Rooms 1. Mature adults are self-directed human beings. 2. Adults have a rich reservoir of experience, which is a resource for learning. Knox, John 3. Adults’ openness to learning is related to the ways Contributorin which they need to develop in their life roles. John Knox (c. 1505/1515–1572) was a Scottish theologian 4. Adults look for immediate applications of their and pastor who is generally recognized as the leader of learning and so become more problem centered the Reformation in Scotland and one of the founders of than subject centered. Presbyterianism. Kohlberg, Lawrence 687

Early Career and Education deteriorated over the course of the decade, Knox openly Little is known about John Knox’s early life. He was prob- opposed her. He preached against her marriage to Lord ably born at Haddington, Scotland. Knox was educated at Darnly in 1565, preached at the coronation of her son either Glasgow or St. Andrews University and ordained James in her stead in 1567, and called for her execution as a priest in 1536. He came to adopt Reformist views in 1568. Mary survived in spite of the efforts of Knox, that put him at odds with the government of the Scot- who labored hard to see her executed. Knox continued to tish regent, Mary of Guise. One of his mentors, Charles minister in Edinburgh, with the exception of a brief exile Wishart, was burned at the stake by Cardinal Beaton in to St. Andrews in 1571, until his death in 1572. 1546. When Beaton himself was murdered two years Knox is primarily remembered for his leadership of later, Knox was accused of taking part in the plot. Knox the Scottish Reformation and his chronicle of that move- retreated to the fortress at St. Andrews, where he tutored ment, The History of the Reformation in Scotland. His ser- the sons of Protestant noblemen and served as chaplain mons and letters also helped define the Reformed theory for the Protestant garrison. When the fortress fell to the of republicanism and civil disobedience. The ecclesiasti- French at the end of July 1567, Knox was imprisoned cal influence of John Knox continues through the numer- aboard a French galley for the next 19 months. He sur- ous expressions of Presbyterianism that survive. vived despite deplorable conditions and was released, Only seeking refuge in England in 1549. Knox ministered in References and Resources England until the restoration of Catholicism under Mary Bond, Douglas, and Stephen J. Lawson. 2011. The Mighty I (r. 1553–1558) forced him to seek asylum on the conti- Weakness of John Knox. Sanford, FL: Reformation Trust nent in 1554. It was during this period that Knox traveled Publishing. to Geneva to pursue theological studies with John Calvin Knox, John. 2010. The Works of John Knox. 4 vols. Edited by and Theodore Beza. This period strengthened Knox’s David Laing. Burlington, Ontaria, Canada: Tanner Ritchie already passionate commitment to Reformed theology. Publishing and The University of St. Andrews. Kyle, Richard G., and Dale W. Johnson. 2009. John Knox: An In- Significant Contributions troduction to His Life and Works. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. Knox spent the years 1554–1559 studying at Geneva, Mackie, J. D. 1968. John Knox. London: Historical Association. pastoring a church at Frankfurt, and briefly returning to Copy —Scott Culpepper Scotland to be examined by the Queen Regent’s tribu- nal. The hearing was canceled, and Knox used the time to preach in Scotland before returning to Geneva. He Kohlberg, Lawrence produced a work entitled The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women in 1558. This Early Background and Education pamphlet was a direct attack on female Catholic rulers Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) was born in Bronxville, such as Mary I of England, Regent Mary of Guise of Scot- New York, into the family of a wealthy businessman. land, and her daughter, Mary Queen of Scots, in France. Although he received his early education from exclusive Unfortunately for Knox, his screed against the “un- preparatory schools in New York, Kohlberg was more natural” rule of women was published on the eve of Mary interested in seeing the world than in academics and Tudor’s death and the ascension of her sister Elizabeth joined the Merchant Marines after high school. Hav- to the throne. Despite Elizabeth’s Protestant convictions, ing become involved in the Zionist movement, he later she maintained a frosty attitude toward Knox because of joined the crew of a ship that was involved in smuggling his attack on rule by women. Her hostility extended the Jewish refugees into Palestine after World War II. He length of Knox’s journey when he returned to Scotland in would later state that his interest in moral development 1559, because he was not able to travel through England. and morality in general began during the Nazi era, when The Scotland that Knox returned to was primed for he was still in boarding school. change. He joined the Scottish Covenanters in rebelling In 1948, Kohlberg enrolled at the University of Chi- against the regency of Mary of Guise. Mary’s death in cago; because of high test scores, he completed his 1560 led to the end of hostilities and an opportunity for bachelor’s degree in just one year. He continued at the Protestants to shape the religious future of Scotland. The university as a PhD student in psychology, where he was ascendancyContributor of Mary Queen of Scots presented barriers to heavily influenced by Jean Piaget’s theories on cognitive their ambitions; in 1561 she decreed that she would con- and moral development. He completed his degree in tinue to maintain the old order. Knox clashed with Mary 1958, and his dissertation provided the basic outline of face to face in several personal audiences, one of which, what became his theory of moral development. Kohlberg in 1563, left Mary weeping in frustration. As Mary’s reign taught briefly at Yale University (1956–1961) and then at 688 Kohlberg, Lawrence the University of Chicago until 1968. In 1968, he joined behavior. Stage 4 is characterized by respect for authority the Harvard Graduate School of Education, where he and concern for maintaining a given social order through stayed until his death in 1987. following fixed rules. “Doing one’s duty” is a common posture in this stage, and one “takes the view point of the Significant Contributions to Christian Education system” and “considers individual relations in terms of Kohlberg’s lasting contribution to education was his the- place in the system” (Kohlberg 1981, 411). ory of moral development. Basing his initial research on In the third level (postconventional), moral behavior the presentation of moral dilemmas to a core group of 72 is based on moral principles that have validity apart white, adolescent boys, Kohlberg found that when talking from one’s primary social context (e.g., the Golden with children about morality, “they have as many ways of Rule). According to Kohlberg, individuals at this level, making judgments which are not ‘internalized’ from the especially at stage 6, are able to “accept the possibility outside, and which do not come in any direct and obvi- of conflict between norms” and are able to “attempt ous ways from parents, teachers, or even peers” (Kohl- something like a rational decision between conflicting berg 1968, 26). Using Piaget’s theory of cognitive devel- norms” (1963, 20). In defining Stages 5 and 6, Kohlberg opment, Kohlberg similarly posited that moral reasoning, was heavily influenced by social contract theory, espe- itself based on cognitive processes, must also involve a cially that of Harvard colleague John RawlsOnly (1971). Stage sequential development. By moral reasoning, Kohlberg 5 moral behavior involves “upholding the basic rights, meant the general forms and structures of moral thought values, and legal contracts of a society, even when they and judgments independent of specific content related conflict with the concrete rules and laws of the group” to moral decisions or actions. His concern was with how (Kohlberg 1981, 411). The final stage of moral develop- individuals come to moral decisions as they develop cog- ment, stage 6, is achieved when an individual’s behavior nitively, regardless of their cultural context, and not with is guided by “self-chosen ethical principles appealing the content of those decisions. Individuals at the same to logical comprehensiveness, universality, and consis- stage of cognitive development may hold differing moral tency” (Kohlberg, 1981: 19). Whereas stage 1 behavior views, but they will have arrived at those views using the strives to avoid punishment, stage 6 behavior strives to same forms and structures of moral reasoning appropri- avoid self-condemnation. ate to their cognitive development. ManyCopy Christian educators believe that Kohlberg’s As a result of his research, Kohlberg proposed a typol- model should be used with caution. Although he claims ogy for moral development that involved three levels and that all of his stages describe natural moral thinking six stages. His first two stages are a part of the level that rather than the content of moral judgment, many Chris- he called the preconventional level, which generally oc- tian authors have argued that his last two stages are laden curs in children aged 4–10. In this level, Kohlberg found with values and moral content. Stephen Moroney, in an that, “while the child . . . is responsive to cultural labels of article evaluating the pros and cons of Kohlberg’s model good and bad, he interprets those labels in terms of their from a Christian perspective, stated, “The Christian physical consequences or in terms of the physical power Scriptures present people with a broad spectrum of valid of those who enunciate the rules and labels” (1968, 26). reasons for doing what is right, and these reasons do not Stage 1 is characterized by an “egocentric point of view,” fit naturally within Kohlberg’s progressive hierarchy of in which right behavior is “literal obedience to rules and higher and lower stages of moral reasoning” (2006, 370). authority, avoiding punishment, and not doing physi- cal harm” (Kohlberg 1981, 409). Stage 2 is characterized Notable Publications by what Kohlberg initially called a “naïve instrumental Kohlberg published extensively in psychology, philoso- hedonism” (1963, 12) in which “right is serving one’s phy, and education. The best and most recent compila- own or others’ needs and making fair deals in terms of tions of his views are found in the three-volume set The concrete exchange” (Kohlberg 1981, 409). Philosophy of Moral Development (1981), in The Psychol- Stages 3 and 4 are part of the conventional level. At this ogy of Moral Development (1984), and in Lawrence Kohl- level, typically demonstrated by preadolescents, the indi- berg’s Approach to Moral Education (Powers, Higgins, vidual is concerned with conforming to and maintaining and Kohlberg 1988). the stability of various social contexts (e.g., family, com- munity,Contributor nation). Stage 3 introduces a relational perspec- References and Resources tive with a “good-boy / good girl orientation,” in which Kohlberg, Lawrence. 1963. “The Development of Children’s “good behavior is that which pleases or helps others and Orientations toward a Moral Order.” Vita Humana 6:11–33. is approved by them” (Kohlberg 1968, 27). Intentions ———. 1968. “The Child as a Moral Philosopher.” Psychology become paramount in this stage as a standard for right Today 2 (4): 25–30. Kyiv Theological Academy and Seminary 689

———. 1981. The Philosophy of Moral Development. San Fran- Anti-Revolutionary Party. Kuyper served as the prime cisco: Harper & Row. minister of The Netherlands from 1901 to 1905. ———. 1984. The Psychology of Moral Development. San Fran- cisco: Harper and Row. Significant Contributions to Christian Education Maroney, Stephen. 2006. “Higher Stages? Some Cautions for Kuyper promoted a system of independent Christian ele- Christian Integration with Kohlberg’s Theory.” Journal of mentary schools in The Netherlands, along with advocat- Psychology & Theology 34 (4): 361–371. ing the advancement of Reformed higher education. His Powers, F. Clark, Ann Higgins, and Lawrence Kohlberg. 1988. robust view of God’s creation and God’s sovereign provi- Lawrence Kohlberg’s Approach to Moral Education. New dence over that creation implies the need for humankind York: Columbia University Press. to redeem culture for God’s glory. Kuyper’s example and Rawls, John. 1971. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, MA: promotion of common grace inspires Christian educa- Belknap Press of Harvard University. tors to respect the entire world of learning and culture —John Lillis within the framework of God’s creative, authoritative providence. This perspective on God’s common grace to all humankind opens up the educational space for Chris- Kuyper, Abraham tians to learn from both ChristiansOnly and non-Christians in many spheres of life and study. Kuyper founded the Abraham Kuyper (1837–1920) was a Dutch Calvinist Free University of Amsterdam in 1880, serving as its first prime minister, statesman, editor, pastor, theologian, and president and professor of theology from 1880 to 1901. founder of the Free University of Amsterdam (now VU Amsterdam). Kuyper famously said: “There is is not a Most Notable Publications square inch in the whole domain of our human existence Kuyper, Abraham. 1898. Encyclopedia of Sacred Theology: Its over which Christ, who is Sovereign over all, does not cry: Principles. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. ‘Mine!’”(Kuyper 1998). As the founder of a major univer- ———. 1899. Calvinism: Six Lectures Delivered in the Theological sity in The Netherlands, Kuyper was deeply committed Seminary at Princeton. New York, Chicago, Toronto: Flem- to education and research. He believed every aspect of ing H. Revell Company. creation, and hence learning, must be seen as rightfully ———.Copy 1900. The Work of the Holy Spirit. New York, London: belonging to God. With this notion of God’s sovereignty Funk & Wagnalls. in mind, Kuyper became a major advocate for private education in The Netherlands. This was also represented References and Resources by his affiliation with the Anti-Revolutionary Party and Bratt, James D. 1998. “Abraham Kuyper: His World and his editing work with two Dutch papers, De Heraut and Work.” In Abraham Kuyper: A Centienniel Reader, edited by De Standaard. James D. Bratt, 1–16. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Kuyper, Abraham. 1998. “Sphere Sovereignty.” In Abraham Early Background and Education Kuyper: A Centienniel Reader, edited by James D. Bratt, 488. Abraham Kuyper was born in Maassluis, The Nether- Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. lands, the son of a Dutch Reformed Church minister. As “Kuyper pages.” n.d. All of Life Redeemed: Resources for a a child he played on the docks at the port of Middelburg, Christian Worldview. Accessed 18 December 2012. http:// which provided him with a longing for travel, perhaps in www.allofliferedeemed.co.uk/kuyper.htm. line with the Dutch sea captains in days of old. Kuyper Strauss, Gideon. n.d. “Abraham Kuyper: Christian Cultural began his studies at the University of Leiden in 1855, Activist.” Accessed 15 December 2012. http://thebigpicture showing great enthusiasm for the study of literature. In .homestead.com/abrahamkuyper.html. graduate school, he studied the Reformed tradition under Veltman, P. 1992. “Kuyper, Abraham.” In Who’s Who in Chris- the modernist scholar J. H. Scholten. Kuyper completed tian History, edited by J. D. Douglas and Philip W. Comfort, his doctorate in theology in 1862. As a student, he cer- 406. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House. tainly flirted with modernist leanings toward Christian- —Ronald T. Michener ity, but he repudiated these tendencies when he took up his first pastoral ministry in Beesd. This was followed by pastoratesContributor in Utrecht and Amsterdam. In 1872, Kuyper Kyiv Theological Academy and Seminary began publishing a daily paper called De Standaard, as a response to liberals attempting to put an end to religious Kyiv Theological Academy and Seminary (KTAS) is a schools. Kuyper entered politics in 1874, being elected theological and educational institution of the Ukrainian to the Second Chamber of the Dutch parliament for the Orthodox Church, which comprises the seminary (the 690 Kyiv Theological Academy and Seminary first level of theological education) and the academy education and tried to create his own system of theology. (the second level). Nevertheless, he never overcame the decisive Catholic The history of systematic theological education in Kyiv influence on theological studies at the Kyiv Academy. starts in 1615, when the first Kyiv brotherhood school At the beginning of the 19th century, at the instigation was founded. At that time Kyiv was a part of the Polish- of Russian emperor Alexander I, the system of theologi- Lithuanian Commonwealth. Under the conditions of cal education in the Russian Empire was fully reformed. violent confrontation between Catholicism after the As a result, during 1817–1819 three independent educa- Council of Trent and the Protestant confessions, the Or- tional institutions were formed on the foundation of the thodox population of the commonwealth tried to create Kyiv Mohyla Academy: the school (the elementary level), its own competitive educational system. For this reason, theological seminary (the intermediate level), and the the brotherhood schools were formed (these were schools theological academy (the higher level). The training period opened and supported by Orthodox communities). Yet at the seminary was six years, and at the academy four the schools offered only basic education and didn’t have years. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, there were any full-fledged philosophical or theological courses. several reforms of theological education, in the course of The merger of a brotherhood school with the school which the approach to the content of education, as well that was operating in Kyiv, Pechersk Lavra, marked a as to the system of theological accreditation,Only was changed, new phase in the development of Kyiv theological edu- though the training duration remained the same. During cation. The merger took place in 1632 on the initiative those years, the Kyiv Theological Seminary formed its of Kyiv metropolitan Peter Mohyla. Kyiv Collegium was distinctive biblical, philosophical, and historical schools, created, based on a Western European model of educa- which had an important influence on the development tion. Here, along with elementary grammar courses, of theological disciplines in the Russian Empire and far rhetoric and poetry were taught. However, the Polish abroad. At the Kyiv Academy there were not only Ukrai- government did not permit the Kyiv Collegium to teach nians and Russians, but also Serbians, Bulgarians, Greeks, complete courses in theology and philosophy, so the Syrians, and representatives of other nations who became alumni had to apply to Polish schools leading figures at various local Orthodox churches. in order to finish their education. Only in 1689, when After the final establishment of Soviet power in Kyiv Kyiv was already a part of the Moscow Principality, did in 1920,Copy for some years the Kyiv Theological Academy the Kyiv Collegium start teaching a complete course on continued functioning as a private educational institu- theology. By decrees of Tsar Peter I, issued in 1694 and tion, having lost its centralized financing. Moreover, the 1701, the Kyiv school was granted full rights to teach academy lost its buildings and its library. Until 1924, complete courses of philosophy and theology, and its teaching was done in the private apartments of the acad- autonomous rights were recognized. From then on the emy professors, and after that year the academy ceased Collegium obtained official status as an “academy” (in its activities. the modern literature this educational institution is Following Perestroika in 1989, when the Russian state called the Kyiv Mohyla Academy). In the 18th century, abandoned its violent atheist policy, Kyiv Theological the complete course of studies at the academy required Seminary was reestablished. In 1992 it had its first class 12 years, which was distributed among seven classes. The of graduates, and in the same year, the Kyiv Theological opening courses were Slavonic, Polish, and Latin gram- Academy was revived. mar (the elementary level), and the concluding courses Today Kyiv Theological Academy and Seminary is were philosophy and theology (the higher level). an educational institution with a united administration In Kyiv Mohyla Academy, the theology studies were and scientific-pedagogical body. The seminary’s training based on the late scholastic tradition adopted through term is four years. Its main goal is to equip future priests Polish theology literature in Latin. Though avoiding for the Ukrainian Orthodox Church. The seminary ma- direct copying of clear Catholic sections of theology, triculates young men who have completed their second- the Kyiv professors were still fully following scholastic ary education. Graduates receive bachelor’s diplomas in theological methodology. At the beginning of the 18th Orthodox theology. At present, the training term at the century, a well-known church figure, the academy rec- Kyiv Theological Academy is four years. The academy tor Theophan Prokopovich, attempted to reform this offers higher theological education. The best graduates systemContributor of theological studies. He was critical of Catholic of theological seminaries are enrolled in the academy. tradition and sympathized with Lutheran theology. In In order to earn the academy’s diploma, it is necessary his course on theology, which he taught in 1711–1715, to write and to present a paper (thesis or dissertation). he largely rejected the tradition of Catholic theological Graduates who defend their dissertations receive a PhD Kyiv Theological Academy and Seminary 691 in theology. In the near future, the four-year training The Works of Kyiv Theological Academy, the KTAS mag- term at the academy will be changed into two levels: two azine, comes out two times a year and publishes scientific years of a master’s program and possibly three years of research on theology, biblicism, church history, and postgraduate studies. This is being done so that the KTAS practical church disciplines. The students publish their educational structure will meet the requirements of the own magazine, The Academic Chronicler, which contains Bologna Process. articles of a spiritual and educational character. The In January 2013, the KTAS had 336 full-time students academy has its own student scientific society. In 2009, (204 seminary students and 132 academy students) and the KTAS founded its Museum of Church Archeology, 887 distance students (534 seminary students and 353 which has a large collection of church antiquities. Since academy students). The faculty includes 67 professors 2007, Antoniy (Pakanych), metropolitan of Borispol, has and teachers. In addition, the KTAS offers catechism served as the KTAS rector. courses for laypeople and a Sunday school for everyone. —Vladimir Bugera Only

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Contributor L Only Langham Partnership Christ through the ministry of Christian leaders and pas- tors who believe, teach and live by the Word of God.” Its Langham Partnership is a Christian organization that work comprises three mutually reinforcing ministries. emerged from the global teaching and preaching ministry The first ministry is Langham Scholars. Scholarships are of Rev. John R. W. Stott (1921–2011). The name is derived provided for PhD studies in core theological disciplines to from Langham Place, the location of Stott’s Anglican majority world students who are committed to returning congregation, All Soul’s Church, in London. Stott started to their own regions, especially to teach in seminaries to a charitable trust called Langham Trust in 1969 to fund prepare pastors. In the early decades, students came to the doctoral study for non-Western church leaders. In 1971, he United Kingdom or United States for their studies, but set up the Evangelical Literature Trust to receive all the roy- increasinglyCopy they are studying at majority world seminar- alties from his extensive publications and distribute funds ies and universities. As of 2012, more than 250 Langham to provide books for pastors and seminary libraries around scholars had completed doctorates. The second ministry the globe. Stott led these two entities until they were merged is Langham Literature, distributes evangelical literature to into a new entity called Langham Partnership International pastors and seminaries around the world. More recently, in 2001, when Christopher J. H. Wright was appointed as this ministry has been developing majority world writ- its international director. The organization gradually grew ers of theological books, including major one-volume to include six coordinated yet independent partner orga- Bible commentaries by indigenous authors, such as The nizations in Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Africa Bible Commentary, as well as advancing Christian the United Kingdom and Ireland, and the United States publishing through an academic imprint called Langham (where the organization was called John Stott Ministries be- Monographs. The third ministry, Langham Preaching, tween 1996 and 2012). The growth of Langham preaching equips pastors in expository biblical preaching through movements around the world led to the admission of more building training networks in various regions of the world than 20 new partner countries in 2013. that sponsor a series of developmental seminars, offer in- Langham aims to strengthen the ministry of God’s structional materials, and organize local groups of preach- Word in the churches of the majority world (their pre- ers for ongoing fellowship and mutual training. ferred term for the non-Western world of Africa, Asia, Langham Partnership’s contribution to global theo- and Latin America). It is oriented by what Stott called logical education has been significant. It has facilitated the “Langham Logic”: God wants His church worldwide library development; trained indigenous faculty for ma- to grow up to maturity; the people of God grow through jority world theological colleges, where few have had the the Word of God; and the Word of God comes to people opportunity to be educated to the doctoral level; and mainly, not exclusively, through biblical preaching. So fostered indigenous Christian publishing for the church theContributor primary aim of Langham is to raise the standards of and academy. Langham scholars often have provided biblical preaching. A key aspect of Stott’s strategy was influential leadership in their countries and regions as supporting formal theological training outside the West. theological scholars, Christian educators and authors, Langham’s vision “is to see Majority World churches biblical preachers, and organizational developers. being equipped for mission and growing to maturity in —Jeffrey P. Greenman

— 693 — 694 Latin

Latin church and within the family, but very rarely established entirely separate educational institutions. The Latin language originated among the people of La- St. Jerome was one of the most influential church tium and ancient Rome, finding expression in written fathers to shape the relationship between Latin and the form during the eighth century BC. Old Latin is the ear- church. He produced the Bible and worked liest form of the language, developed from the Etruscan to preserve the importance of the original Greek text alphabet, and it was spoken until the middle republican through favoring a more literal translation, sacrificing period in the first century. Crafted by orators, poets, some Latin stylistic norms in the process. St. Jerome also and scholars as the language of the intellectual elite, wrote explicitly about the relationship between Christian classical Latin was used by the great writers, such as thought and classical literature, suggesting that Chris- Virgil and Cicero, and taught in rhetoric schools, which tians can learn from the wisdom of Greek and Roman provided a model for education that lasted long after works, but that they must exercise great discernment in the collapse of the empire. Those who used classical the process, with scripture maintaining the dominant Latin did so to resist the deterioration of the language role. By the fourth century, Latin was instituted more in the form of Vulgar Latin, a result of the decline in centrally as the language of the liturgy, making it an inte- educational standards as the empire began to fall apart. gral part of church practice for many hundredsOnly of years. The dissolution of the Roman Empire led to Late Latin, By the Middle Ages, Latin was the shared language which retained an affinity for the spoken language, and of most Europeans, including the church; within the medieval Latin, used in writing. The medieval period growing number of schools and universities; and for saw the transformation of Late Latin vernacular into most writers on all subjects. The church, which ran most the Romance languages—which today include Spanish, educational institutions during this time, was heavily Portuguese, French, and Italian—and the rise of eccle- influenced by the classical tradition associated with its sial Latin, used in the Holy rite of the Roman Catholic official language. The liberal arts were established as the Church. In the Renaissance era, the deterioration of core of educational goals and practice during the Middle Latin inspired a movement to rediscover classical Latin Ages. Monasteries played a central role in preserving and to reestablish it as a spoken language. Although texts and in providing a space for study, and until the most books were written in Latin up through the 18th 12th Copycentury many, if not most prominent leaders of century, vernacular Latin did not survive the Renais- society were educated in Latin in the monastery schools. sance, with the only major exception being its use in the The influence of the Latin language and the classical Roman Catholic Church. Since the 20th century, the culture associated with it was widespread. The language living Latin movement has sought to again reestablish changed as it encountered Germanic languages and as Latin as a spoken language, with minor successes. some stylistic and grammatical elements shifted with use. The Latin language has existed in close relationship to However, around the time of the Renaissance, two trends Christianity, with many implications for Christian edu- contributed to Latin becoming a dead language. First, cation. Initially, first-century Latin speakers with a higher many writers began using vernacular languages, a devel- level of intellectual training reacted strongly against early opment that gained popularity and become increasingly translations of the Bible into their language, which gener- pervasive. Second, the classical ideals of the Renaissance ally did not follow traditional literary conventions. Latin- led many to call for a return to a use of the original Latin. speaking Christians responded in two significant ways. This removed Latin from the daily lives of many people, First, they began to form their own biblical Latin, seeking and it became a much less central element of educational to respect the Greek text through inventing and employ- practice. However, the relationship between Latin and ing a new and unique style that fit its original meanings. the church established many traditions that persist in This resulted in a distinct use of Latin within their private Christian education, including, perhaps most promi- community life (in which they were often targets of per- nently, a careful intention of relating faith and church life secution) and in their writings. Second, they hesitated to to contemporary culture and history. give up the conventions of the classical literary tradition Since the beginning of the Roman Empire, fluency in entirely and sought ways in which they might integrate the Latin language—particularly in its written form—has the two. Christians generally had their children attend played a central role in education. Well into the modern the Contributorclassical schools of their day. They wanted to remain period, knowledge of classical literature was necessary relevant and active within their culture, and they then for those who wished to join the ranks of the intellectual naturally began to relate the Greek and Roman literary elites, which required training in classical Latin. Begin- traditions to their faith tradition. Christians developed ning in the medieval era with the fragmentation of Latin some supplemental religious education directed by the vernacular into the Romance languages, members of Latin America and Christian Education 695 the educated classes benefited from a Latin education the natural world. However, in Latin America, several to communicate across national and linguistic borders. particular situations form barriers to carrying out this Latin as the language of Europe thus encouraged schol- task as it should be done.1 One is the high percentage of arship by facilitating the exchange of ideas. It also made illiteracy, which makes the educative experience painful2 possible the unity of the Roman Catholic Church and and at the same time poses a great challenge for Christian European Christendom. education. Even though there have recently been many Many secondary and postsecondary educational in- governmental efforts to improve the level of education stitutions teach Latin today. Organizations such as the among children and young people, efforts to educate Classical Association (UK) and the American Classical adults are still limited. At its second conference, Consejo League (US) promote the study of antiquity, the clas- Episcopal Latin America (CELAM) stated: “Admittedly, sics, and the Latin language. Many educators in Western there are very considerable efforts being made in most of countries argue for the instruction of Latin, emphasizing the countries, by extending education at various levels, its ability to help students understand both their Western and are great merits which correspond to the Govern- heritage and their own native tongue, particularly in the ments, to the Church and to other sectors responsible for areas of vocabulary and grammar. In the past decade education in that effort.”3 there has been a marked increase in interest in Latin Another challenge for Christian educationOnly is that there among middle and high school students, especially in are some cultural restrictions on the education of women, Christian schools. especially in the rural areas of several countries through- out Latin America.4 There is much transience, because References and Resources people migrate in search of employment and to obtain Cook, William R., and Ronald B. Herzman. 2004. The Medieval resources that they cannot find in their region of origin.5 Worldview: An Introduction. New York: Oxford University This is a serious issue for the families, church, schools, Press. and community. Daintree, Daniel. 2011. “The Case for Latin.” Quadrant Maga- Yet another challenge is the way that Christian educa- zine 55 (9): 94–97. Accessed 12 April 2013. http://connection tion is perceived. It is thought of as an activity aimed at .ebscohost.com/c/articles/65287773/case-latin. children and viewed as the responsibility of churchwomen, Kopff, Christian E. 1998. The Devil Knows Latin: Why America or CopyChristian women teachers,6 held at churches, mainly in Needs the Classical Tradition. Wilmington, DE: Intercolle- a Sunday school program and at Christian schools. giate Studies Institute. Marrou, H. I. 1956. A History of Education in Antiquity. Trans- 1. Pablo A. Deirós, “El futuro del testimonio cristiano en América La- lated by George Lamb. New York: Sheed & Ward. tina” (paper presented at the Conference on the International Convention INSTE, 2004). This paper included a series of reflections on education in Mohrmann, Christine. 1957. Liturgical Latin: Its Origins and Latin America. One has to do with the crisis of Christian education in Latin Character. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America America, including philosophy, methodology, aim, and locus. 2. Anna Lucía D’Emilio, ed., Mujer Indígena y Educación en América Press. Latina (Santiago, Chile: OREALC, 1989), 25. The region of Latin America Ostler, Nicholas. 2008. Ad Infinitum: A Biography of Latin. New as a whole, registers a relative decrease in illiteracy, from 27.3 percent in York: Walker Publishing Company. 1970 to 17.3 percent in 1985, and efforts to eradicate illiteracy continue. Greatest rates of illiteracy are found in Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Simmons, Tracy Lee. 2002. Climbing Parnassus: A New Apo- and Bolivia. logia for Greek and Latin. Wilmington, DE: Intercollegiate 3. CELAM, “Educación,” Comisiones Vicaría de Pastoral Arquidióce- sis Primaria de México, http://www.vicariadepastoral.org.mx/5_celam/2 Studies Institute. –medellin/medellin_08.htm (accessed 25 June 2013). This is their second Solodow, Joseph B. 2010. Latin Alive: The Survival of Latin in conference. English and the Romance Languages. New York: Cambridge 4. D’Emilio, Mujer indígena y educación, 297. Indigenous women in the rural areas perform some traditional roles. They must work at an early age, University Press. and this prevents them from attending school regularly. They contribute in —Jeffry C. Davis agriculture and the rearing of younger siblings. For these reasons, farmers are reluctant to allow their daughters to go to school. It is believed that education serves no purpose for women, and because parents cannot af- ford much education as it is, they do not invest in the education of their Latin America and Christian Education daughters. This is the first obstacle that must be overcome to educate in the Latin American context. 5. María Clara Lucchetti Bingemer, “Desafíos y tareas de la teológica en There are few investigations of Christian education in América Latina hoy,” Theologica Xaveriana 62, no. 174 (July–December Latin America. In recent years, there has not been any even 2012): 406. This article is the result of research carried out by the author in Contributor an internship as a postdoctoral fellow at De Paul University, Chicago. This minimally comprehensive research done on the complex- is a preliminary report; the rest is to be published by a Brazilian publisher. ity of the reality of Christian education in Latin America. 6. Not necessarily because they are trained as teachers, but because they are committed Christians who have the desire to serve as teachers in the Christian education is a fundamental tool to bring church or Christian schools. Another reality is that teachers in formal educa- people back to God, other people, their own selves, and tion, such as seminaries, know their subjects, but lack training as teachers. 696 Latin America and Christian Education

While there are sophisticated buildings and well-made C. B. Eavey affirms this goal of the task of the Christian infrastructures in which Christian education takes place, teachers: “The foundational aim in Christian education there are many more facilities that are insufficient for the is the bringing of the individual to Christ for salvation. needs of education. Because of limited resources and lack Before a man of God can be perfected, there must be a of space, these inadequate locations become classrooms. In man of God to perfect; without the new birth there is no the majority of cases there are no libraries, chapels, offices, man of God.”11 or recreation centers. There is concern that the conditions There is hope that these challenges can be overcome. of these facilities render learning extremely difficult. The following changes are needed to do so: Normally, the expectation that Christian families have for Christian education in the church or school is that • It is necessary to establish a dialogue between these programs are in charge of the growth of the spiri- Christian education and the various branches of tual life of their children. Therefore, parents send their knowledge that respects the proper autonomy of children to church and Christian schools for that pur- the sciences and brings the light of the Gospel to the pose, even though they do not attend church regularly.7 convergence of human values in Christ. Christian This situation affects how the students respond to the education seeks to prepare the student for both the teaching in churches or Christian schools. present world and eternity. Only The resources for teaching are also very limited. The • It is necessary for education to affirm with sincere manuals that teachers use in Sunday school classes are appreciation local and national peculiarities and in- normally translated from English. These materials are tegrate them in the pluralistic unity of the continent written for another context, and because of the lack of and the world. training of teachers, they teach exactly as the manual is • It is necessary to educate the church and its leaders written; even though the activities are out of context, they about the importance of a well-organized, pertinent, are followed. and effective ministry of Christian education in each Teachers lack knowledge of how to design a cur- church, school, Bible institute, seminary, and para- riculum for the various educational programs within the church ministry. church as well as in Christian schools, Bible institutes, • It is necessary to train teachers to teach the Word seminaries, and parachurches ministries. They mainly of God well. That way, it can fulfill the purpose for Copy12 follow imported pensums, without any previous needs which is given to us. assessments to contextualize the curriculum for their par- • It is necessary to develop a philosophy of education ticular ministries. The content is generally too abstract wherein the praxis is seen as an integration of theory and formalistic. Teaching methods are more concerned and practices. This philosophy would support the with the transmission of knowledge than with creating teacher-disciple relationship as characterized by other values, such as critical spirit.8 The philosophy of horizontality, personal example, accompaniment, Christian education is unknown, or in need of revision, submission, and discipline,13 and the evaluation of and even not considered important by the leaders in the the disciple by transformation of his or her heart, various ministries of Christian education. The majority which is evident in his or her conduct.14 of Christian schools are not accredited, either because • Finally, Christian education should empower new they are unaware such organizations exist or because they generations for permanent and integral change that have failed to meet the requirements for accreditation.9 involves the development of men and women, in The Christian educational goal of producing integral order to “reach unity in the faith and in the knowl- transformations of lives faces obstacles in Latin America. edge of the Son of God and become mature, attain- This goal is well defined by George Knight: the role of ing to the whole measure of the fullness of Christ.”15 education should be the development of the Christian character in students, as well as of a Christian mind.10 Christian education is called upon to respond to the challenges of the present and the future for the Latin American continent. 7. Pontificia Commissio pro América Latina, Actas: La familia y la educación cristiana en América Latina (Roma, Italia: Published by Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2007). 8. CELAM, “Educación.” 11. C. B. Eavey, “Aims and Objectives of Christian Education,” in An 9.Contributor This information is from ACSI International, “Schools’ Member- Introduction to Evangelical Christian Education, ed. J. Edward Hakes (Chi- ships Per Country,” n.d., http://www.acsilat.org/index.php?option=com cago: Moody Press, 1964), 62. _content&view=article&id=13&Itemid=35 (accessed 31 July 2013). 12. Hebrews 4:12. 10. George R. Knight, Philosophy & Education: An Introduction in 13. Deirós, “El futuro del testimonio cristiano en América Latina.” Christian Perspective, 3rd ed. (Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University 14. Ibid. Press, 1998), 201. 15. Ephesians 4:13 (NIV). Latvia and Christian Education 697

Latin American Members of ACSI tion of 2.2 million people were 34 percent Lutheran, 21 There are 21 Latin American countries with 439 Chris- percent Catholics, 18 percent Orthodox Christians, and tian schools. Argentina has 1; Belize’s membership is in 21 percent nonbelievers. Gaining independence in 1991 process. Bolivia has 1, Brazil has 102, Chile has 64, and opened the possibility of religious education. The Consti- Colombia has 43. Costa Rica has 3; Ecuador, 8; El Salva- tutional Law of Latvia (1991) provides for separation of dor, 11; Guatemala, 98; and Honduras, 29. México has church and state and defines freedom of religious belief 7; Nicaragua, 4; Panamá, 28; Paraguay, 51; Perú, 36; and as having the right to practice rituals and ceremonies or Puerto Rico, 32. República Dominicana has 43, Uruguay, to learn religious doctrine.18 1; and Venezuela, 1. Christian education is occurs in churches as traditional Sunday school or catechesis. According to the Law on References and Resources Religious Organizations, Christian education in the form ACSI International. n.d. “Schools’ Memberships Per Country.” of a Christian faith subject can be taught in the first three Accessed 31 July 2013. http://www.acsilat.org/index.php grades of public schools; students must choose between ?option=com_content&view=article&id=13&Itemid=35. Christian faith and ethics.19 CELAM. n.d. “Educación.” Vicaría de Pastoral Arquidiócesis At the beginning of the 1990s, work on the introduc- Primada de México. Accessed 30 July 2013. http://www.vicaria tion of beyond-confessional religionOnly lessons common depastoral.org.mx/5_celam/2–medellin/medellin_08.htm. for all Christian denominations began, but the lessons Deirós, Pablo A. 2004. “El futuro del testimonio cristiano en did not meet with the approval of the church authori- América Latina.” INSTE. ties. In 1996, facultative and confessional religion les- D’Emilio, Anna Lucía, ed. 1989. Mujer indígena y educación en sons became available for Lutherans, Catholics, Baptists, América Latina. Santiago, Chile: OREALC. Orthodox Christians, and Old Catholics. Syllabuses of Eavey, C. B. 1964. “Aims and Objectives of Christian Educa- religious lessons were prepared by particular denomina- tion.” In An Introduction to Evangelical Christian Education, tions and approved by state authorities, and they served edited by J. Edward Hakes, 62. Chicago: Moody Press. to introduce the fundamental truths of faith. Religion Knight, George R. 1998. Philosophy & Education: An Introduc- teachers received missions from their communities. tion in Christian Perspective. 3rd ed. Berrien Springs, MI: Confessional religious education, strongly criticized by Andrews University Press. theCopy mass media, was not perceived as a means to opening Lucchetti Bingemer, María Clara. 2012. “Desafíos y tareas de la faith to others and improving relations. People opposed teológica en América Latina hoy.” Theologica Xaveriana 62 to religious education in the schools raised objections of (174): 399–432. indoctrination, lack of an ecumenical attitude, and lack Pontificia Commissio pro América Latina. 2007. Actas: La of education in tolerance toward others. Low church at- familia y la educación cristiana en América Latina. Rome: tendance and participation forced church authorities to Published by Libreria Editrice Vaticana. change their position. Since 2004, beyond-confessional —Ana María E. Campos classes in the Christian faith or ethics are taught in pri- mary schools (parents more frequently choose ethics classes for their children). Youth can choose between Latvia and Christian Education general and Christian ethics. The school curriculum also includes the history of religion as a subject. Religious Christianity was taken to the territory of Latvia in the education, especially referring to sacraments, takes place 12th to 13th centuries by Roman Catholic missionaries in particular parishes. These are the places of evangeliza- (there was some Orthodox influence in the eastern region tion and experience of faith for the faithful. in the 12th century16).17 Latvia, one of the Baltic countries, —Laima Geikina and Radosław Chałupniak for 50 years was a part of the Soviet Union, and its inhab- itants were subjected to forced atheism. The Constitu- tion of Latvia now guarantees religious freedom and also referrs to religious education. In 2011, Latvia’s popula- 18. Dz. Ilishko, “Religious Education in Latvia,” in Religious Education in Europe: Situation and Current Trends in Schools, ed. E. Kuyk, R. Jensen, D. Lankshear, E. Löh Manna, P. Schreiner (Oslo, Norway: IKO Publishing 16. According to The Chronicle of Novgorod: 1016–1471, trans. Robert House, 2007), 122–123. Michel and Nevill Forbes (London: Offices of the Society, 1914), http:// 19. The Law on Religious Organizations, http://www.vvc.gov.lv/ faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/rus/texts/MF1914.pdfContributor (accessed 6 April advantagecms/LV/meklet/meklet_dokumentus.html?query=Law%20 2013). of%20religious%20Organization&resultsPerPage=10 (accessed 6 April 17. “No latīņu valodas tulkojis Ā. Feldhūns: Ē. Mugurēviča priekšvārds 2013); Ilishko, “Religious Education in Latvia,” 123; and A. Filipsone, “Re- un komentāri,” in Indriķa hronika (Rīga: Zinātne, 1993), http://www ligious Education in Post-Soviet Latvia,” East-West Church & Ministry Re- .historia.lv/alfabets/I/In/Indrika%20hronika/teksts/saturs_indr_hr.htm port 13, no. 4 (Fall 2005), http://www.eastwestreport.org/articles/ew13404. (accessed 6 April 2013). html (accessed 6 April 2013). 698 Laubach, Frank C.

Laubach, Frank C. tance of integrating prayer with action. Throughout his life, Laubach stressed that every person can learn to read, Frequently known as the “apostle of literacy” or the but to teach people you have to first love them and dem- “apostle of compassion,” once he discovered his method onstrate that they are important and that you sincerely of literacy education, Laubach (1884–1970) traveled care for them. In addition, God is everywhere present and tirelessly to every corner of the world. He received his will lead you if you surrender yourself and depend on His education at Princeton University, Union Theological guidance. Laubach maintained that Christians are often Seminary in New York, and Columbia University (PhD ineffective in the world because they devote inadequate in sociology). Laubach’s early ministry in the Philippines time and awareness to God and others. Love and compas- was marked by frequent painful experiences, including sion are more effective in drawing others to Christ than the death of three of his children to malaria. In 1929, just preaching doctrine, and prayer is the strongest power enduring severe exhaustion and discouragement, he ex- in the world that can accomplish God’s purposes. His perienced a life-changing event atop Signal Hill that con- frequent travels confirmed for him that greed and apathy vinced him to truly love the Muslim people with whom inside a country exert a far greater threat than perceived he lived. Laubach’s spirituality was also renewed by this enemies outside that country. Contemporary educators experience and became the primary motivation for his can profit from Laubach’s wisdom to loveOnly and respect our educational ministry of literacy. He acknowledged the students and seek to involve them as actively as possible specific influence of Brother Lawrence’s Practicing the in the learning process. Furthermore, educators must Presence of God, and Thomas à Kempis’s The Imitation not neglect their personal preparation through prayer or of Christ. He also cultivated a greater awareness of God’s compassionate prayer for their students. presence to guide him daily in his missionary service. Reading specialists distinguish between two methods References and Resources for literacy training: the analytic or “meaning emphasis” Laubach, Frank C., and Robert S. Laubach. 1960. Toward approach, often known as “whole language,” and the World Literacy: The Each One Teach One Way. Syracuse, synthetic or alphabetic and phonic approach. Laubach’s NY: Syracuse University Press. synthetic pedagogy for teaching reading was developed Mason, David E. 1966. Apostle to the Illiterates. Grand Rapids, through simple charts that depicted phonics or word as- MI: CopyZondervan. sociations to express sight–sound correspondence. The Norton, Karen A. 1990. Frank C. Laubach One Burning Heart: complexity of the language determined whether a story A Biography of Frank C. Laubach. Syracuse, NY: Laubach or keyword method would be utilized. In countries with Literacy International. more complex languages, such as India, picture–word– Roberts, H. M. 1961. Champion of the Silent Billion: The Story syllable charts or other alternatives were created. Another of Frank C. Laubach. St. Paul, MN: Macalester Park. common feature of Laubach’s literacy method was to —Tom Schwanda enlist volunteers to tutor family and friends with the new skills they had recently learned; hence the motto of Lau- bach’s rapidly expanding method for literacy, “Each One, Law, Christian Contribution to Teach One.” Both research and experience persuaded him that literacy was the most critical need of people be- The Judeo-Christian tradition has provided a foundation cause of its ability to produce the necessary social change. for the establishment of legal systems in the Western Over a 40-year period, Laubach visited and guided 103 world. Wayne House notes: “Law relates to order based countries to develop methods to improve their literacy on a standard. It may be divided, usually, into three dif- and was responsible for creating literary primers in 315 ferent categories: the law of God revealed in nature, the languages. He also challenged those who were trained law of God revealed in Scripture, and the implementation not to neglect the importance of compassion toward oth- or enactment of the law by statute or ordinance” (1992, ers. In this way, literacy education and evangelism often 16). House also indicates that Sir William Blackstone intersected in Laubach’s life. recognized an additional category, natural law, which is Laubach recorded many of his spiritual insights and to be distinguished from the law of nature. Blackstone struggles. Game with Minutes (1952), initially written for viewed natural law as man’s distorted analysis, interpre- the ContributorMaranao people of the Philippines, records his at- tation, and application of the law of nature (221). tempt to cultivate a minute by-minute awareness of God. An example of the biblical foundation for law is the His earlier Letters by a Modern Mystic (1937) details his Ten Commandments. According to House, the following life-transforming experience on Signal Hill. His active principles flow naturally from the Ten Commandments life, inspired by contemplation, demonstrates the impor- (1992, 17–18): Law, Christian Contribution to 699

• Commandment 1: Sanctity of the special claims of in their affliction as well as keeping oneself unstained God on his people. from the world. In the sheep and goat judgment in Mat- • Commandment 2: Sanctity of the incomparability thew 25:31–46, Jesus makes it clear that the righteous of God. will take care of the hungry, sick, or needy; strangers; and • Commandment 3: Sanctity of the character of God. those in prison. Jesus indicates that when you did it unto • Commandment 4: Sanctity of the worship of God. one of the least of these, “you did it to me” (v. 40). Many • Commandment 5: Sanctity of the parents as the re- of these Christian principles made their way into the legal flection of God. system. Taylor asserts, “Modern laws, whether statutory • Commandment 6: Sanctity of human life. or from judicial precedent, keenly look out for the welfare • Commandment 7: Sanctity of marriage as the reflec- of individuals or groups that cannot otherwise look out tion of God. for themselves, such as children, the mentally impaired, • Commandments 8 and 10: Sanctity of private prop- the elderly, or others who may be vulnerable in many erty or sole stewardship over God’s creation. circumstances” (1996, 19). • Commandment 9: Sanctity of the person’s character Contemporary Western legal systems have a founda- from defamation. tion of morality based on Judeo-Christian principles. The Magna Carta in 1215 and the ongoingOnly development Another major Judeo-Christian contribution to law of English common law have for many years served as a is found in the development of social mores and stan- standard for the development of legal systems. For many dards. Thomas Taylor notes: “An even more elaborate years, attorneys and barristers studied the law by read- sociotheological development occurred in the recogni- ing William Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Common tion that some sins were of greater social consequence Law. Gibbs and Gibbs note: “The first 140 pages of Black- than others. Killing your neighbor’s goat had far less stone’s Commentaries outlined the Biblical precepts and social import than killing your neighbor. Laws well principles that controlled English common law. The re- established in the Pentateuch and other Old Testament mainder of the Commentaries detailed how this law was writings to distinguish some sins as worse than others, being interpreted (not always correctly in England. For by attaching more severe punishments or remedies to the first hundred years of its existence, America’s found- certain acts” (1996, 17). ersCopy and, later, its judges and lawyers, used Blackstone’s Examples of distinguishing between certain acts and principles in developing the legal system for the newly actions are found in both the Old and New Testaments. emerging nation” (2006, 162). The principle of letting the punishment fit the crime was One controversial issue among educators and society foundational in the Judeo-Christian model. Joshua, in in general is whether one can legislate morality. In es- following the word of the Lord, was instructed to appoint sence, law does reflect morality. House argues: “Since cities of refuge where a person who had accidentally someone’s morality is going to be law, and since Christian killed another could flee for safety and protection after morality preserves society, benefits individuals and glori- a trial if the person was found to be innocent. Once the fies God, Christians should seek to have a public morality man was determined to be innocent, he could stay in the based upon Judeo-Christian moral standards” (1992, 19). city of refuge without fear of revenge by the dead man’s He points out that it is important to distinguish between friends or relatives. The person would remain in the attempting to establish a public morality and people city of refuge until the death of the man who was high being saved by the law. “The latter would be futile. People priest when the act occurred. After this event, the man cannot be saved by law. However, the former is appropri- was free to return to his own home and town, the place ate. All laws reflect a morality. Laws against murder are from which he had fled (Josh. 20:1–6). This philosophy moral laws, as are laws against theft or perjury. . . . People of jurisprudence promoted the concept of mitigating fac- may differ on which moral laws to legislate, but all agree tors, inherent in modern judicial systems. According to to legislate morality” (House 1992, 19). Taylor, “These texts and acts of the ancient Jewish and One of the most compelling arguments for a Christian Christian communities represent early legislature efforts contribution to law is the founding of the United States to make a given punishment fit the crime (or wrong- of America. The Declaration of Independence was based doing)—an equitable maxim also recognized in our west- on a concept of a creator God who bestowed rights, ernContributor legal heritage” (1996, 17). privileges, and obligations upon citizens. The U.S. Con- The Bible is clear concerning the obligation to take stitution was developed on biblical concepts. Gibbs and care of certain classes of individuals who could easily be Newcombe argue that “the Biblical understanding of the abused or harmed. Christians are reminded in James 1:27 sinfulness of man was the guiding principle behind the that pure religion involves visiting orphans and widows United States Constitution. The Bible was quoted more 700 Leadership Development in the Early Church (Through the Fourth Century) than any other source in the political writings of Ameri- care of the common goods, preside over the Eucharist, cas founding era. In the First Amendment, the founders provide proper teaching to catechumens, and prepare presented America with a framework for religious liberty, them for baptism. In those primitive communities one not a weapon to be used by secularists against any public could also find deacons, also established by the apostles expression of Christianity” (2003, 11). (Acts 6), whose position was initially clearly defined. Christians must recognize that government was or- The title was first used by the apostles and then by their dained by God as a divine institution. In Romans 13, the successors in the ministry of charity. From the begin- apostle Paul makes it clear that there is no authority ex- ning, the method of establishing deacons was a formal cept from God, and that believers are to be in subjection ceremony, in front of the community, comprising the of- to the governing authorities. This may involve obliga- ficial presentation of the candidates and the imposition tions under the legal authority of the state. Romans 13:7 of hands. An example of such a community is the church (ESV) states, “Pay to all what is owed to them: taxes to of Didache. What is more, this preliminary period is the whom taxes are owed, revenue to whom revenue is owed, wellspring of the concept of monarchical episcopate. St. respect to whom respect is owed, honor to whom honor was a supporter; in his letters, he is owed.” For Christians, there will always be a delicate emphasized the importance of one bishop (episkopos) balancing act in how issues are to be addressed regarding and his council of presbyters, aroundOnly whom is gathered the law and church and state issues. the whole church. This understanding of leadership has Jesus admonished his disciples to render to Caesar met with objections, mainly from the original presbyters, what is Caesar’s and to God the things that are God’s as evidenced by the letters of Ignatius of Antioch and (Matt. 22:21). Jesus also challenged his disciples to be the Letter of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians. At wise as serpents and harmless as doves (Matt. 22:16). As that time (in the first centuries), a particularly important Christians face issues related to government and the law, issue was the bishop’s combining the functions of teach- it would be wise to heed the advice of the Master Teacher. ing and presiding over the community, especially during God is the ultimate lawgiver, and His Word is the stan- celebration of the Eucharist. Before the end of the second dard by which all law must be evaluated. century, the Greek term hiereus-priest (as an equivalent to mark bishops or presbyters) had been rejected by References and Resources Christians.Copy Clearly, in popular opinion the term resem- Gibbs, David, Jr., and David Gibbs III. 2006. Understanding the bled nothing associated with Christian sacrifice. There Constitution. Seminole, FL: Christian Law Association. was also in Judeo-Christian circles an attempt to form a Gibbs, David, Jr., with Jerry Newcombe. 2003. One Nation hierarchy copied from the model of the destroyed Jeru- Under God. Seminole: Christian Law Association. salem Temple. As the Didaskalia Apostolorum notes, the House, H. Wayne. 1992. Christian Ministries and the Law. function of bishop was granted an extraordinary dignity, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. being God’s deputy. Equally high was the position of the Taylor, Thomas F. 1996. 7 Deadly Lawsuits. Nashville, TN: deacons, who held the place of Christ. Startling is the low Abingdon Press. position in the hierarchy of presbyters. The function of —J. Gregory Lawson teacher was ascribed solely to the bishop, as well as the notion of infallibility and being located above the com- munity. This concept, born in Syria, met immediately Leadership Development in the Early with very strong criticism. In addition to the hierarchi- Church (Through the Fourth Century) cal structure of the church in the second century, there was also a prophetic structure, in which the prophets There is no doubt that from the very beginning of the occupied a privileged place (Didache; Ireneus of Lyon). church, the apostles established the functions of dea- Moreover, in the region of Asia Minor, there existed a cons and presbyters, also referred to as bishops. This commonly accepted notion of prophetic succession. Due is evidenced by the Acts of the Apostles and Letters to the prophetic structure, analogous to the hierarchical of St. Paul. During the time of the first generation of one, mutual friction was unavoidable (Ignatius of An- Christians, accounts of whose lives are found in the tioch), the effect of which was to strengthen the position New Testament, there is no distinction between bishops of the bishops. Prophecy then found its outlet in hetero- andContributor presbyters. The terms were used interchangeably. dox movements such as Montanism. The faithful constituted a “domestic church,” led by its The best-known concept of hierarchy in the church founder (e.g., one of the apostles) and senior members was presented to the world in the third century, through (presbyters), also called episkopos (from the Greek: carer, the spiritual and allegorical interpretation of scripture guardian, caretaker). The functionary’s task was to take performed by Origen. According to him, the only priest Leadership Development in the First Century: Jesus 701 of the New Covenant is Christ, and it is His priesthood purpose of His church will be completed in the future. that is extended in the common priesthood of all of the There are a number of considerations that one must keep baptized. Bishops, priests, and deacons are in the priestly in mind when contemplating the leadership development service of the people, and they carry out a function that of Jesus: Jesus called His disciples, carried Himself as their is an extension of the work of Christ on earth. They example, coached His followers, and cared for them. have to be open to the Word of God; they are to teach The first thing that Jesus did in leadership develop- others and to spread the faith and the value of forgive- ment was to call His followers, so that He could make ness. In a similar manner, Tertullian (after AD 225) them “fishers of men” (Matt. 4:23–25). That is, He in- wrote about presbyters in sacerdotal terms, yet he did vited people to follow, learn from, and be committed to so from a different standpoint: presbyters are called out Him. This was offered generally to any who would fol- from among a priesthood of all believers. He specifically low, but Jesus also chose specific, key individuals (Luke argued against different rules regarding chastity and re- 6:12–16; John 15:16). These disciples would learn from marriage for priests and laypeople. Furthermore, along Him as He prepared them to take over His ministry with the development of the inner life of the church and after His departure. its external organization, there appeared a need for fur- Second, Jesus carried Himself as their example. Jesus ther auxiliary offices: ministries. Thus, in third-century wanted all of His followers to see thatOnly it was possible to Rome one could meet subdeacons, acolytes, exorcists, live righteously before God. “The character of the Chris- lectors, and ostiariuses. Due to the Edict of Milan (AD tian leader is always more important than any activity” 313), the understanding of the functions, dignities, and (Gangel 2001, 410). As a result, “His goal . . . was to importance of the church hierarchy has changed. Along change the quality of life of his students, raising them to a with the change in the appearance of Christian places of higher measure of obedience to God and a higher level of gathering—the temples now being modeled on the pagan holiness. Because Jesus would lay down his life for them and Jerusalem Temple—was another alteration: those (John 10:11), he was able to teach and enable them to live who had previously been called episcopoi or presbyteroi in new ways” (Downs 1994, 33). Jesus, then, serves not officially received the title of hiereus-priest. In addition, a only as an example in leadership development, but also new emphasis was placed on the sacrificial dimension of of living a righteous life. the Eucharist. Some Roman influence may be discerned, Third,Copy Jesus coached His disciples as a means of because the priest became a civil servant, guarding the preparing them for ministry. This included three key temple and sacrifices, and hence identified as the pontifex features: they watched Jesus live out His life of faith and (e.g., Ambrose of Milan), an official who so far had only ministry (Luke 8:22ff.), they participated with Him in been watching over the correctness of prayers and sacri- faith and ministry (Luke 9:10–17), and they were sent out fices in the pagan Roman system. on their own ministry to be reviewed and evaluated later —Marcin Wysocki (Luke 9:1–6, 10, 10:1–24), (Robbins 2004, 550–552). Jesus spent time with His developing leaders demonstrating References and Resources how to pray, lead, and minister. He expected that they Campenhausen, H. von. (1967) 1997. Ecclesiastical Authority would be able to minister on their own, so He walked and Spiritual Power in the Church of the First Three Centu- them through the process of leadership development. ries. Translated by J. A. Baker. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. Finally, Jesus cared for those who followed him (Woolfe Ferguson, E. 1993. Church, Ministry, and Organization in the 2002). This is evidenced in the way He wept for Lazarus, Early Church Era. Studies in Early Christianity 13. New who had died (John 11:25–36), and how He constantly York: Garland Publishing. had compassion upon the crowds (Mark 6:34–44). The Sullivan, F. A. 2001. From Apostles to Bishops: The Develop- high priestly prayer (John 17, esp. v. 12) demonstrates ment of the Episcopacy in the Early Church. New York: that Jesus had a sense of care for His followers as they Paulist Press. grew into obedience. While He trained His disciples, He cared for them and protected them so that they would develop effectively as leaders. Leadership Development Many leadership texts have been written, and Bredfeldt in the First Century: Jesus (2006, 52–54) suggests a different way of developing lead- Contributor ers that is less leadership-guru-like, more like one who Many have pointed to Jesus as the ultimate leader and de- shepherds his followers. Each of these aspects of leader- veloper of leaders throughout the centuries. Developing ship development can be identified in the metaphor of leaders was a requirement for Jesus and is now a crucial Jesus as the Good Shepherd (John 10:1–18). In leading task for Christian educators, so that the mission and like a shepherd, one calls out those who will follow well, 702 Leadership Development in the First Century: Paul leads by example, coaches followers to excellence, and Roles and responsibilities are at the core of Paul’s cares for them. In His final meeting with the disciples, teaching about leadership development. These can be after He had washed their feet, Jesus reminded them, “I categorized according to the social concept of household. have set you an example, that you should do as I have A distinguishing characteristic of a Christian family is the done for you” (John 13:15, NIV). This is the quintes- spiritual development of its members (Eph. 5:21–6:9; Col. sential leadership development lesson of Jesus, that of 3:18–4:1). The household is also present in Paul’s concep- sacrificially serving those He led. tion of the church (1 Tim. 3:15), instructions about rela- tionships in the church (1 Tim. 5:1–2; Titus 2:1–10), and References and Resources qualifications for church leaders, which overlap signifi- Bredfeldt, G. 2006. Great Leader, Great Teacher: Recovering the cantly with family leadership (1 Tim. 3:1–15; Titus 1:6–9). Biblical Vision for Leadership. Chicago: Moody Publishers. Criteria are important in the first-century model of Downs, P. G. 1994. Teaching for Spiritual Growth. Grand Rap- leadership development. Overseers are to be “above re- ids, MI: Zondervan. proach” (1 Tim. 3:1) and “have a good reputation with Gangel, K. 2001. “Leadership.” In Evangelical Dictionary of outsiders” (1 Tim. 3:7) and deacons alike (1 Tim. 3:8). It Christian Education, edited by Michael Anthony, 409–410. was acknowledged that Timothy had been “spoken well Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. of” by the brethren (Acts 16:2). QualificationsOnly of leaders Robbins, D. 2004. This Way to Youth Ministry. Grand Rapids, and therefore content of leadership development include MI: Zondervan. family characteristics (e.g., husband of one wife, manag- Woolfe, L. 2002. The Bible of Leadership. New York: American ing his own family well), personal characteristics (e.g., Management Association. self-controlled, respectable, hospitable), and ministry —Donald R. Shepson III characteristics (e.g., able to teach). The leadership development approach of Paul (with emphasis on organizational structure and the establish- Leadership Development ment of churches) and the leadership development of in the First Century: Paul Jesus (with emphasis on relationship and the emergence of a new community) should be viewed as complemen- Leadership development in the first century was a natural tary. TheCopy Gospels themselves were leadership develop- part of apostolic work and church life in the progress of ment tools written by apostles who served alongside Paul the Gospel. Paul appointed elders in each church (Acts (e.g., Luke was a close coworker with Paul). The Gospels 14:23; Titus 1:5), wrote letters of instruction to the leaders provide leaders and churches with a foundational under- of churches, and provided models by his presence (e.g., standing of Jesus (kerygma), an apology for the legitimacy in Ephesus for two years) and the record of his pres- of the apostles, and a connection between the teaching of ence (Acts 19:1–20:38). He also sent his young apostolic Jesus and the teaching of the apostles (Didache). leaders into substantial places of difficult ministry (e.g., Timothy to Thessalonica, Titus to Crete) and wrote let- References and Resources ters of instruction to them. Bruce, F. F. 1985. The Pauline Circle. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerd- Local churches developed leaders to sustain an expo- mans. nential church planting movement, best summarized in 2 Reed, Jeff. 2001. “Paul’s Concept of Establishing.” In Pauline Timothy 2:2 (NASB): “The things which you have heard Epistles: Strategies for Establishing Churches, 17–37. Ames, from me in the presence of many witnesses, entrust these IA: BILD International. to faithful men who will be able to teach others also.” Verner, David C. 1981. The Household of God: The Social World Local church and apostolic leaders are responsible to per- of the Pastoral Epistles. Chico, CA: Scholars Press. petuate the apostolic teaching, namely the proclamation Zuck, Roy B. 1998. Teaching as Paul Taught. Grand Rapids, about Christ (kerygma) and the corresponding doctrine MI: Baker. (Didache) about what to believe and how to live accord- —Stephen J. Kemp ingly. All believers are gifted by the Spirit (1 Cor. 12:7). These gifts are to be stewarded for the sake of Christ and there- Leadership Development foreContributor need to be developed (Eph. 4:16; Col. 2:19). Gather- in the Middle Ages ings of believers should include edification, stimulation, and growth (Col. 3:16; Heb. 10:24–25). Emerging leaders The emperor, holy man, and bishop were the most should “fan into flame the gift of God” (2 Tim. 1:6). powerful leaders during the Middle Ages (5th–15th cen- Leadership Development in the Post-Reformation Era 703 turies). Religious leadership during this period was devel- the church leadership to lose much of its moral and spiri- oped mainly in two broad areas. First was the Benedictine tual authority during the Middle Ages. It was during this tradition. The other main source of religious leadership period that the Crusades, Black Death, Eastern schism development was the cathedral schools, the early format (1054), and great Western schism (1378–1423) occurred. of our modern university system. Too often the ecclesial Church leadership during this period was militant, con- structure, leadership, and worship of the Middle Ages fused, fearful, superstitious, and ill informed. have been ignored by evangelicals, who seem to be either embarrassed or confused by the fact that the church prior References and Resources to the Protestant Reformation was so Roman Catholic. Clark, James G. 2011. The Benedictines in the Middle Ages. In fact, to discover the leadership structure and develop- Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: The Boydell Press. ment of this period of church history, one must rely on Gonzalez, Justo L. 1996. Church History: An Essential Guide. the documents of the Catholic Church and the writings Nashville: Abingdon Press. of monks and secular historians. —Larry H. Lindquist Those who would become leaders in the church under the Benedictine tradition entered a rigid admission pro- cess. Candidates (both men and women) were detained Leadership DevelopmentOnly in at the gate for four or five days to demonstrate their the Post-Reformation Era capacity for patience. When they were granted entry, they were required to stay in the guesthouse for further The Reformation was, at its beginnings, a university observation. Later, the ability to pay the customary movement, aided by the recovery of humanistic studies entry fee was the principal criterion. In the first year, the that were assimilated for the advancement of reform candidate was examined three times (at two, eight, and in belief, practice, and learning. It would be difficult to twelve months). The training might go on for several overestimate the significance of 16th-century reforms years (between eight and twelve years) under the guid- for the education of ecclesial leadership. Protestant uni- ance of a senior governor. The culmination was a cer- versities eliminated aspects of the curriculum that were emony of profession in which they would pledge adher- perceived to be “popish.” New universities were founded ence to Benedict’s “Rule.” The acquisition of the Latin as Copya consequence of Protestant and Catholic reforms. language and the Rules of Benedict constituted the bulk Eventually, the increasing divide between Protestants of the curricular training for these novitiates. Beyond and Catholics created distinct confessional settings for that, they were required to know the complete canon of the training of church leaders. In addition to the educa- the liturgy, the antiphons, psalms, prayers, readings, and tion provided by the universities, the Council of Trent responses. Beyond these curricular requirements, every approved seminaries supervised by bishops for educating day the novices were to study the Bible as well as the Catholic clergy (1563). The greatest impact of this decree culture of the community in which they were to make was that it opened theological education to many clergy their profession (Clark 2011, 74–85). With the rise of the who were not part of the select few who had the privilege cathedral schools, the monasteries lost their secular stu- of a university education. Oriented to the priesthood and dents (those who sought the educational benefits rather its ministry, the seminaries provided practical and moral than having a call to church leadership). training in the service of the church. There was confusion and stress in the process of lead- One of the primary shifts in the education of church ership transition in the church from the apostles (per- leaders among Protestants in the 16th century was sonally trained and commissioned by Christ) to those changes in the nature of ordained ministry. Protes- mentored and sent by the apostles (Ireneous, Polycarp, tant reformers were vehement in their criticism of the etc.) to the next generation of leaders ordained by the Catholic priesthood, calling for a more learned clergy church leadership. The danger of heracy and corruption that would feature the centrality of the pulpit: preaching increased with each generation of leadership. The papacy and teaching the Word of God. Those universities that fell prey to the ambitions of powerful Roman families. were aligned with the newly formed Protestant churches Several popes were murdered, some even apparently by sought to provide higher levels of education to produce their successors. Sometimes there was more than one a more professional clergy. Interestingly, in spite of the claimantContributor to the throne of Peter. At one point, a 15-year- sharp divisions that came to shape the church follow- old even became pope (Gonzalez 1996, 44). ing this period of intense reform, both Protestant and The feudal system of the Middle Ages and the role con- Catholic leaders emphasized an increasing need for fusion between political lords and ecclesial bishops caused ministries of preaching, teaching, and direction in mat- 704 Leadership Development in the Reformation Era ters spiritual and moral that would meet the changing Mary Tudor (a Roman Catholic) violently fought the needs of a more learned laity. Church of England (Anglican or Episcopal) that had For centuries, schools of higher theological education been established by Henry VIII to circumvent the Roman were rare in the Orthodox world. Prior to the founding Catholic marital prohibitions. After Mary’s death, the of seminaries, most candidates for the priesthood were Church of England gained strength. Leadership in the trained in monastery schools. There they were educated Church of England was politically appointed. Evidence of in the fundamentals of Orthodox doctrine and the prac- this can be seen in the conflict between Charles I and Par- tice of music and worship within the Orthodox liturgy. liament. The latter called the Assembly of Westminster in During the 19th and 20th centuries, modern theo- 1647, whose Confession became a fundamental document logical schools, seminaries overseen by the church, and for Calvinist orthodoxy and established church govern- university-affiliated theological schools were founded in ment that the king did not support. Orthodox countries in the West. At the same time, post- In response to the Protestant Reformation as well as Reformation theological education among Protestants inner dynamic issues, the Roman Catholic Church went and Catholics was characterized by a shift from the study through a renewal process, often called the Counter- of theology to the theological encyclopedia, the study of Reformation. The effective Catholic Reformation began one thing to the study of many things. Of importance in in Spain about the time Luther was born.Only Roman Catho- this change was the rise of new universities, new genres lic theologians involved in this movement include John of scholarly publication, Pietism, and the Enlightenment. Eck, Robert Bellarmine, and Caesar Baronius. Part of the Orthodoxy, for the most part, did not experience the result of this Catholic Reformation was the birth of new Renaissance, Reformation, religious wars, or Enlighten- monastic orders. The Society of Jesus, or Jesuits as they ment modernity. Orthodox theological education re- came to be known, was founded by Ignatius of Loyola. mained Eucharistic in its ethos, emphasizing what is The Jesuits soon became leaders in the struggle against fundamental to the life and mission of the church: the Protestantism. Although the Catholic Reformation ad- teaching and wisdom of the fathers, pneumatology, theo- dressed abuse and corruption, it was mostly a moral sis and deification, the economy of Word and Spirit, and and administrative reform and defended the central- a liturgical community oriented eschatologically to the ized power of the papacy and traditional doctrine. The Kingdom of God. Perhaps the most significant challenge CouncilCopy of Trent (1545–1563) was an effort to address facing Orthodox theological education in the immedi- these reformation issues. However, this council did not ate future will be discerning how to train leaders for the include Protestant representation, so the decisions of church in a post-Christian and post-patristic world. the council placed scripture and tradition on an equal basis, which only the leaders of the church could inter- References and Resources pret. Both faith and works were declared necessary for D’Costa, Gavin. 2005. Theology in the Public Square: Church, justification, and the seven sacraments and the doctrine Academy and Nation. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. of transubstantiation, celibacy, and papal power were Farley, Edward. 1983. Theologia: The Fragmentation and Unity upheld. In an effort to better qualify clergy, theological of Theological Education. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. seminaries were to be established in every diocese, and Werner, Dietrich, ed. 2010. Handbook of Theological Education the clergy were to be examined before ordination or ap- in World Christianity. Oxford, UK: Regnum Books. pointment. Periodic synods, or meetings of the clergy, —Michael Pasquarello III were ordered. The preaching activities of the monastic clergy were restricted and the administration of these orders tightened. Leadership Development Protestant reforms looked differently on the leader- in the Reformation Era ship of the clergy. The Protestant minister was simply one who for the sake of public order was appointed The date usually given as the beginning of the Reforma- to certain duties every Christian was entitled to per- tion is 1517, when Luther posted his 95 theses on the form. Pastors with more education and training served door of the castle church of Wittenberg. However, the churches in towns, while those with less training served era of the Reformation extends basically from 1453 to the country parishes. Education was a serious priority for 1600s.Contributor The most recognizable initiating Protestant lead- the reformers. Melanchthon was known as the “teacher ers in this movement are Martin Luther and his successor of Germany” and established more than 60 schools that (Philip Melanchthon), John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli. emphasized the need to prepare youth for the ministry However, not all those who abandoned Roman Catholi- and civil government. cism became followers of these Protestant leaders. —Larry H. Lindquist Leadership Development in the United States (19th Century to the Present) 705

Leadership Development in the United ministration and is therefore known as the developer States (19th Century to the Present) of administrative theory. He developed his concepts of management while leading a large French coal-mining Prior to the 20th century, there was one dominant ap- company and published them in General and Industrial proach to the discussion of leadership, known as trait the- Management (1929). In this text, Fayol is credited with ory. This theoretical approach was based on the thinking several major contributions to administrative theory. that “great men” dominate historical or organizational First, he distinguished between supervisory and manage- events due to personal qualities such as charisma, per- rial responsibilities, assigning more importance and rec- sonality, stature, and so forth. It was believed that their ognition to managing as opposed to supervising workers. greatness was innate or hereditary. Research in this area Second, he defined what the managers did as functions focused on discovering which characteristics or traits led of management, which served as tools for the classifica- to their success (Northouse 2007, 15). tion and evaluation of management. He also developed general principles that offered practical advice on how to Scientific Management function as a manager. Finally, Fayol departed from con- Patrick Montana and Bruce Charnov (1993, 8) note that temporary thought to argue that these principles could be since the time of Moses and Jethro in Exodus 18, there learned, as opposed to the notion thatOnly managers are born have been discussions of effective management and the with these abilities (Montana and Charnov 1993, 13–14). successful management of people and projects. However, Another theorist, Luther Gulick (1892–1992), later am- not until recently has there been a body of literature that plified these functions as he developed his response to the examines these processes in a scientific way. The begin- question, “What is the work of the chief executive?” He ning of the scientific management era is generally marked listed seven administrative procedures, which have been re- by the influence of Frederick W. Taylor (1856–1915). duced to the well-known acronym POSDCoRB: planning, “Created by engineers, scientists, and practicing manag- organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and ers concerned with the improvement of worker efficiency budgeting. Gulick emphasized the principle of division of (the amount a worker produces in a given period of labor. He believed that the more a task could be broken time), this approach assumed two major forms: manage- down into its components, the more specialized, and there- ment of work and management of organizations” (Mon- foreCopy the more effective, the worker would be in performing tana and Charnov 1993, 9). Taylor, called the “Father the task. A second principle was span of control, or the of Scientific Management,” and his associates thought number of workers supervised. In subdividing from the top that workers, motivated by economics and limited by downward, each work unit had to be supervised and coor- physiology, needed constant direction. This approach dinated with other units. The span of control considered to and other theories were published in The Principles of be most effective was five to ten subordinates. Scientific Management in 1911. Taylor’s writings, which were influenced by his experiences in companies such as Human Relations Movement Bethlehem Steel, continue to influence concepts such as As noted in the preceding discussion, the management job design, work layout, and task scheduling. Taylor be- theory of the early decades of the last century was totally lieved that maximum production was tied to maximum focused on the formal structure of the organization and efficiency of the worker. Such efficiency was possible only gave no thought to the dynamics at work in the informal by having a management scientist “redesign tasks for em- structure. A growing awareness of this powerful but ployees who were not to be trusted with structuring the unexamined dimension of any organization gave rise to work themselves” (Hoy and Miskel 1982, 2). the human relations movement. During a time of transi- tion, the work of Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), one Administrative Management of the first researchers and authors who focused on the Traditional or classical organizational thought, often human side of administration, pointed managers to the called administrative management theory, concentrated importance of developing and maintaining dynamic and on the broad problems of departmental division of harmonious relationships. Specifically, she focused on work and coordination. While Taylor’s human engi- how managers deal with conflict. She developed what she neers worked from the individual workers upward, the called “a collaborative approach to problem solving,” in administrativeContributor managers worked from the managing which she advocated the involvement of workers in the director downward. Their focuses were different, but everyday conflicts and the use of compromise in man- their contributions complemented one another (Hoy agement disputes (Montana and Charnov 1993, 13). De- and Miskel 1982, 3). Henri Fayol (1841–1925) was a spite her work, the development of the human relations trained engineer who used a scientific approach to ad- approach is usually traced to what have become some 706 Leadership Development in the United States (19th Century to the Present) of the most famous studies done in the first half of the 1940s have been classified in a variety of ways by different century—the studies conducted at the Hawthorne plant authors, who have generally agreed on the theorists who of the Western Electric Company in Chicago. have made the most significant contributions, though The Hawthorne studies, done from 1927 to 1932, some names may appear in more than one category. The began with three experiments that were conducted to third major movement of the 20th century is usually con- study the relation of quality and quantity of illumination sidered to have occurred around 1950, and it is labeled a to efficiency in industry. The initial results revealed that reaction to the overemphasis on formal structure by the the production rates increased in the test group until the classical approach on the one hand and the concern by the light became so poor that the workers complained that human relations approach for social relations on the other. they could no longer see what they were doing. Elton What resulted was the behavioral science approach, which Mayo, an Australian industrial psychologist, and Fritz focused on work behavior in formal organizations. New Roethlisberger, a social psychologist, were Harvard pro- theories in the fields of psychology, sociology, political fessors who were hired by the company to investigate fur- science, and economics influenced the thinking in this ap- ther the relationship between physical conditions of work proach. Included in the behavioral science approach, also and productivity. The company thought that both psy- called management science (Montana and Charnov 1993), chological as well as physiological factors were involved. are the writings of Chester Barnard, DouglasOnly McGregor, In an effort to isolate the variables they were examin- and Herbert Simon. ing, the researchers put six women in a special working Barnard originated much of the thinking of the move- environment and began to manipulate work conditions ment with his analysis of organizational life in Func- such as payment systems, rest breaks of various sorts and tions of the Executive, which was published in 1938. lengths, variations in the length of the workday, and the The product of Barnard’s years as president of Bell provision of food and refreshments during the workday. Telephone Company of New Jersey, this book provides a These women were under the watchful eye of a supervi- comprehensive theory of cooperative behavior in formal sor, who became more like a friendly observer than a organizations (Hoy and Miskel 1982, 9). He maintained disciplinarian. After a five-year period, these workers that employees form organizations to achieve goals and returned to the main workforce; however, a totally unex- emphasized “cooperative effort as a key to organizational pected set of findings resulted. Output increased, but the productivityCopy and managerial effectiveness” (Montana increase was independent of any change in rest pauses and Charnov 1993, 19). or working hours. Both the daily and weekly produc- tion levels rose to a point much higher than under the Human Resources Movement nearly identical conditions of the pre-experimental set- In the mid-1960s Raymond Miles, a writer for the Har- ting (Hoy and Miskel 1982, 6). The women responded to vard Business Review, posed a question in the title of an the realization that they were taking part in a meaningful article that would suggest a new era: “Human Relations experiment. (The researchers identified this tendency or Human Resources?” One of the theorists of this new to react differently because they were being observed as movement, Chris Argyris, articulated the focus of this ap- the “Hawthorne effect.” Though this one phrase is often proach: “We’re interested in developing neither an over- quoted as the primary finding in these studies, there was powering manipulative organization nor organizations a much more significant result.) Montana and Charnov that will ‘keep people happy.’ Happiness, morale, and summarize the work of the Hawthorne studies: “Mayo satisfaction are not going to be highly relevant guides in and his colleagues concluded that factors other than the our discussion. . . . Individual competence, commitment, physical aspects of work had the power of improving self-responsibility, fully functioning individuals, and ac- production. These factors related to the interrelation- tive, viable, vital organizations will be the kinds of criteria ships between workers and individual worker psychology that we will keep foremost in our minds” (1964, 4). An- were termed, after much additional investigation, human other well-known figure at this time, Rensis Likert, noted relations factors” (1993, 20). These experiments changed that the leader characterized by this movement would be forever the importance and awareness of the informal neither directive nor patronizing, but instead supportive: dimensions that are significant when considering the “The leader and other processes of the organization must motivation of participants in an organization and the be such as to ensure a maximum probability that in all interpersonalContributor dynamics that influence productivity. interactions and in all relationships within the organiza- tion, each member, in light of his background, values, Behavioral Science Movement desires, and expectations, will view the experience as The theoretical movements and corresponding periods supportive and one which builds and maintains his sense following the human relations movement of the 1930s and of personal worth and importance” (1961, 103). Perhaps Leadership Development in the United States (19th Century to the Present) 707 the best known representative of this approach is Douglas make decisions about their approach to leading and man- McGregor, who pointed out that administrative deci- aging based on the needs of those being supervised. The sions are influenced by the leader’s attitude toward his supervisor must determine whether or not the situation or her workers. Some executives view their employees as calls for more or less direction and to what extent support lacking potential for growth, being uninterested in the is needed. These two behaviors of the leader vary accord- productivity of the organization, and being unable to put ing to the individual employee’s performance, training, forth meaningful effort unless they are closely supervised. and experience. Ultimately the leader is able to delegate This generally negative view is held by a leader McGregor responsibilities to the follower when the need for direction designated as Theory X. In The Human Side of Enterprise and support are both low (Northouse 2007, 91–92). (1960, 132), he lists these assumptions held by a Theory During the same period, Fred Fiedler was developing X leader: the average worker is indolent, lacks ambition, a related model called contingency theory. This model is and is inherently self-centered. Theory Y leaders, on the concerned with styles and situations. Effective leadership other hand, believe that managers must take the respon- is contingent upon matching the leader’s style with the sibility to establish workplace environments in which situation (Northouse 2007, 111). workers feel valued and trusted. In such environments, Transformational leadership is a final major category they become motivated to be productive and even to de- of leadership that dominated the discussionOnly during the sire professional growth. last two decades of the 20th century. It has been defined The writings of the fourth theorist of the human re- and examined in detail by James MacGregor Burns source movement, Frederick Herzberg, further highlight (1978). He describes transforming leadership as occur- the emphasis on developing an individual’s potential, as ring when the leader recognizes and exploits an existing can be seen in his discussion of his two-factor theory, also need or demand of a potential follower. In addition, the called the motivation hygiene theory. Herzberg’s research leader looks for potential motives in followers, seeks to led him to believe that there are certain factors associated satisfy their higher needs, and attempts to engage the full with work that may be considered maintenance factors. As person of the follower. As a result, both the leader and these needs are met, the worker is not “dissatisfied.” He follower in this relationship experience mutual stimula- or she basically comes to work in a neutral state, that is, a tion and elevation, which may convert followers into neutral state of motivation, since his or her maintenance leadersCopy and may transform leaders into moral agents. By needs have been met. Herzberg argues that as the motiva- the concept moral leadership, Burns means, “Leaders and tor factors are provided, the worker is satisfied or positively those they lead have a relationship not only of power but motivated. He described the influence of the two-factor of mutual needs, aspirations, and values” (1978, 4). theory in the following way: “To feel that one has grown depends on achievement of tasks that have meaning to the References and Resources individual, and since the hygiene factors do not relate to Argyris, Chris. 1964. Integrating the Individual and the Organi- the task, they are powerless to give such meaning to the zation. New York: John Wiley & Sons. individual. Growth is dependent on some achievements Burns, James MacGregor. 1978. Leadership. New York: Harper but achievement requires a task. The motivators are task & Row. factors and thus are necessary for growth” (1966, 78). Coley, Kenneth S. 2010. The Helmsman: Leading with Courage In the last four decades of the 20th century, several and Wisdom. Colorado Springs, CO: Purposeful Design. new models emerged that are based on the concept that Herzberg, Frederick. 1966. Work and the Nature of Man. New leaders are capable of altering their behavior or style York: World Publishing. depending on the environment in which they find them- Hoy, Wayne K., and Cecil G. Miskel. 1982. Educational Admin- selves. The managerial grid, developed by Robert Blake istration: Theory, Research, and Practice. 2nd ed. Edited by and Jane Mouton in the mid-1960s, examines how lead- Jack Nelson. New York: Random House. ers help their organizations reach their goals by looking Likert, Rensis. 1961. New Patterns of Management. New York: at two factors: concern for production and concern for McGraw-Hill. people. Concern for production refers to how a leader is McGregor, Douglas. 1960. The Human Side of Enterprise. New concerned with achieving organizational tasks through York: McGraw-Hill. such things as policies and processes. Concern for people Montana, Patrick J., and Bruce H. Charnov. 1993. Manage- shiftsContributor the focus and attention to the people who make up ment. 2nd ed. Barron’s Business Review Series. Hauppauge, the organization (Northouse 2007, 73). NY: Barron’s Educational Series. A second influential model is the situational leadership Northouse, Peter G. 2007. Leadership: Theory and Practice. 4th model, developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard in ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. the late 1960s and early 1970s. As the title suggests, leaders —Kenneth S. Coley 708 Leadership Emergence Theory

Leadership Emergence Theory ening of natural abilities, and further acquiring of skills. Toward the end of this stage, leaders have responded in Applying grounded theory research methodology to the transformative ways to opportunities for character forma- life stories of biblical, historical, and contemporary lead- tion, have strong self-awareness regarding their gifts and ers, J. Robert Clinton developed leadership emergence limitations, and have experienced effectiveness in using theory, which explains the “process in which God inter- their gifts. They also have experimented with various types venes throughout a lifetime in crucial ways, to shape that of roles, so that when the time for the next stage naturally leader towards His purposes.”20 Clinton defines leader- unfolds, they actively choose a role that most enables them ship as “a dynamic process in which a man or woman to leverage their experience and capitalize on their gifts. with God-given capacity influences a specific group of Experimenting with various positions enables leaders God’s people toward His purposes for the group.”21 to discern the type of role that most utilizes their gifts Grounded theory analysis of 10,000 pages of life his- (natural abilities, acquired skills, and spiritual gifts). tory data revealed three variables influencing leadership Therefore, in the third stage of leadership emergence, emergence: (1) processing (shaping experiences and leaders choose a role that connects their gifts and calling; activities), (2) time, and (3) the leaders’ responses (either thus, often there is a narrowing of focus in their voca- positive, embracing transformation, or negative, rejecting tion. Also during this time, leaders gain a deeper sense of 22 Only transformation). Transformation through these means how they have been made to influence, whether broadly leads to spiritual (shaping of character and growth in (regional, national, international, etc.), comprehensively relationship with God), ministerial (acquiring leadership (small groups, one-to-one mentoring, etc.), or some- skills), and strategic formation (pursuing vocational call). where in between. Understanding of sphere of influence Overall, the formation “ involves internal psychological leads to the next stage in leadership development. shaping, external sociological shaping, and internal/ex- In the fourth stage, ideally leaders focus call, experi- ternal divine shaping.”23 ence, gifts, influence, and role to enable fruitful work. Clinton observed 50 types of process items (shaping Clinton describes this focus as “convergence,” which is incidents) common in leaders’ lives. Examples include a fantastically effective period of work. In the later part formation through conflict, challenging assignments, of this stage, as leaders age or draw near to the end of encounters with authority, life crises, opportunities for their lives,Copy activity often decreases, and therefore leaders choosing integrity, and Bible study. Recognizing these solidify their legacy through relationships, mentoring, process items offers perspective, especially during peri- writing, or a combination of all three. ods of suffering. —Shelley Trebesch As already noted, time factors into leadership emer- gence as well. Here, Clinton observes four common stages in development.24 The first stage correlates with Leadership Formation and Development the formation that occurs during the first years of leaders’ lives through their family, teachers, and socio-contextual Nature or nurture? Discussions on leadership formation factors. If persons are natural leaders, leadership emer- and development often begin with this or similar ques- gence will most likely occur in this foundational stage. tions. Is one born a leader? Can the skills of leadership In the second stage of development, leaders embrace a be taught? While nature can play a role in leadership, calling to leadership (which becomes observable through contemporary scholars conclude that most aspects of a variety of experiences) and pursue more formal steps to leadership can be developed. Before turning to growth orient their life’s work toward leadership. Formation in and development, however, let’s define the parameters of this stage is directed toward the person’s character (integ- Christian leadership formation and development. rity, faithfulness to responsibilities, choosing transforma- According to the research of J. Robert Clinton (leader- tion, etc.) and experience with a variety of activities, which ship emergence theory), formation of Christian leaders in turn increases abilities and skills in leadership. The ac- leads to spiritual (shaping of character and growing in tivities lead to the emergence of spiritual gifts, the strength- relationship with God), ministerial (acquiring leadership skills), and strategic formation (pursuing vocational call). 20. J. Robert Clinton, Leadership Emergence Theory: A Self-Study Overall, the formation “involves internal psychological ManualContributor for Analyzing the Development of a Christian Leader (Altadena, shaping, external sociological shaping, and internal/ex- CA: Publishers, 2003), 7. ternal divine shaping.”25 21. J. Robert Clinton, The Making of A Leader: Recognizing the Lessons and Stages of Leadership Development, 2nd ed. (Colorado Springs, CO: Leadership development is “the expansion of a per- NavPress, 2012), 10. son’s capacity to be effective in leadership roles and 22. Clinton, Leadership Emergence Theory, 8. 23. Ibid., 27. 24. Ibid., 30. 25. Ibid., 27. Learning 709 processes” where “leadership roles and processes are Learning those that enable groups of people to work together in productive and meaningful ways.”26 Progress in leader- Implicit in any understanding of learning is the notion ship development requires experiences and the ability to of change, although the nature of that change varies. A learn from experiences.27 Therefore, a cycle of practice familiar emphasis is on the acquisition of knowledge, and reflection is critical. The most productive growth but this quantitative focus is gradually giving way to experiences are those in which there are challenges an appreciation of more qualitative aspects, which are (new situations, increased responsibilities, etc.), support concerned with the processes of learning and the cor- (empathetic encouragement), and assessment (feedback responding growth and development experienced by that corrects mistakes and highlights success).28 Thus for individuals. Outside a specifically Christian context, the one’s self or for those who oversee leadership develop- study of learning has been approached from a number ment, the proactive creation of sequential developmen- of perspectives, including theoretical (behaviorist, cog- tal experiences (which include challenge, support, and nitivist, and interactionist, such as experiential learning assessment), along with periods of reflection, ensures theories); epistemological (which emphasizes learners as leader development. knowers); situational (especially the place where learning Recent studies in neuroscience also contribute to the is occurring, such as the workplace);Only and promotional discussion of leadership formation and development. The (strategies for promoting and fostering learning) (Tay- premise is that because of the neuroplasticity of the brain, lor 2005).To these may be added more recent emphases development can occur. Daniel Goleman compiled re- on the context or stage of learning, such as students in search in neuroscience from scholars at Harvard, UCLA, higher education (Biggs and Tang 2007). Despite the Rutgers, and other institutions and advanced the concept fact that there is now recognition that learning occurs of emotional intelligence, which is connected to the brain throughout life (something most clearly seen in the life- functioning of the limbic system. Ninety percent of the long learning movement), which has encouraged a more most effective leaders have high emotional intelligence: extensive investigation into learning than simply how understanding and handling one’s and others’ emotions. children learn, the view that it is possible to formulate Emotional intelligence comprises four domains: self- one grand, universal theory of learning is increasingly awareness (recognizing one’s emotions and their impact challengedCopy (Biggs and Tang 2007). Jarvis’s theory of on others, knowing one’s strengths and limitations), self- experiential learning (2006, 2009, 2010) is an example management (self-control, transparency, and adaptabil- of such an attempt; he brings together the whole person ity), social awareness (empathy toward and awareness of (both body and mind) and the social situations that are others’ emotions), and relationship management (inspi- encountered and that result in the transformation of ration, bonding, teamwork, conflict resolution, and de- experience and the continually changing person (Jarvis veloping others).29 The limbic system (the emotional part 2009). The person is therefore more at the center of all of the brain, which includes the amygdala—the flight or thinking about learning than has been the case thus far, fight response) features prominently in emotional intel- and the study and understanding of learning has adopted ligence. The limbic system is an open-loop system, need- a highly multidisciplinary approach. ing connection and interaction for healthy functioning.30 Christian understandings of learning have tended Due to the neuroplasticity of the brain, one can increase to follow secular trends, especially in the emphasis on emotional intelligence by imagining the ideal (envision- how children learn and how they might be “discipled” ing being emotionally intelligent in situations), assessing within a church setting or appropriately “informed” reality, planning for actions that lead to change, and within a secular school context. Each of these raises ques- inviting others (the limbic system needs connection) to tions about whether “Christian learning” has specifically participate in the change. Therefore, leaders can increase different characteristics from other subject disciplines. their emotional intelligence, and this is a key aspect of Astley (2000) makes an important distinction between leadership development. learning about Christianity and learning Christianity, —Shelley Trebesch observing also that new Christians, at whatever age, have to receive information about their faith, its traditions, 26. Cynthia D. McCauley, Russ S. Moxley, and Ellen Van Velsor, eds., and its practices. Reception precedes what he perceives HandbookContributor of Leadership Development (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998), 4. as the crucial dimension of critically reflecting on the 27. Ibid., 7. Christian tradition and people’s personal faith, a practice 28. Ibid., 6. 29. See Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter and skill that Hull (1991) identifies as weakly exercised More Than IQ (New York: Bantam Books, 2005). among many adult Christians. Hull argues that adult 30. Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annie McKee, Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of Emotional Intelligence (Boston: Harvard Christians are prevented from learning because of the Business School Press, 2002), 6. ways in which ideologies function, as well as the role of 710 Learning and the Rise of Vernacular Languages the emotions within humans. While there are grounds to purposes—encompassed an unfathomable morass of challenge the notion of “non-learning,” especially from regional and dialectical variations. For medieval people, the perspective of experiential learning theories, it is clear Latin remained the lingua franca of the West. Over time, that many adult Christians do not develop in their faith however, vernacular languages began to develop their in a profound or meaningful way. Faith development own distinct literary and scholarly identities. may well be the central goal of Christian learning, and it During the later Middle Ages and into the 17th century, incorporates many dimensions, in terms of both learning developments in language reached a culmination as the and faith. In a contemporary climate that prizes the ar- modern language map of Europe more or less emerged in ticulation of learning outcomes that can be assessed both its present-day form. Vernacular languages of common formatively and summatively, the development of a dis- people eventually evolved into the major national lan- tinctly Christian character often eludes identification, al- guages of modern times. Along with the natural changes in though Leclercq (1982) suggests a range of activities that syntax, grammar, vocabulary, and accents that inevitably contribute to “sacred learning,” such as “active” reading, occur in any given linguistic milieu over time, the devel- meditative prayer and reminiscence, and the fostering of opment of strong literary and scholarly traditions aided a biblical imagination. greatly in the rise of vernacular languages. Such changes develop naturally over time from the Onlyaccumulated influ- References and Resources ences of trade or daily banter. Institutional forces like Astley, Jeff, ed. 2000. Learning in the Way. Leominster, UK: religion also played an important role in shaping language Gracewing. patterns. Education and learning were key ingredients in Biggs, John, and Catherine Tang. 2007. Teaching for Qual- the rise of Europe’s modern national languages. ity Learning at University. 3rd ed. Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press and The Society for Research into Higher The Meaning of Vernacular Education. Languages as they exist today have evolved over thousands English, Leona, ed. 2005. International Encyclopedia of Adult of years. None of the modern languages existed in antiq- Education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. uity, although the revival of biblical Hebrew in 1947 as the Hull, John. 1991. What Prevents Adult Christians from Learn- national language of the state of Israel might constitute ing? Philadelphia: Trinity Press International. one fascinatingCopy exception. There were many greater and Jarvis, P. 2006. Lifelong Learning and the Learning Society. Vol- lesser languages and dialects in the ancient world and dur- ume 1, Towards a Comprehensive Theory of Human Learn- ing the Middle Ages. These often became ancestral stock ing. New York: Routledge. for the modern languages. In many cases, there was a ———. 2009. Learning to Be a Person in Society. Abingdon, UK: natural tension between the language of the street and the Routledge. language of the written word. In general, everyday speech ———. 2010. Adult Education and Lifelong Learning. 4th ed. and common dialects constitute “vernaculars,” the native Abingdon, UK: Routledge. tongues of the common people. Vernacular languages that Jarvis, P., J. Holford, and C. Griffin. 1998. The Theory and Prac- developed a strong literary tradition usually rose above the tice of Learning. London: Kogan Page, 1998. vast host of local and regional dialects. Leclercq, Jean. 1982. The Love of Learning and the Desire for The word “vernacular” literally means “of the slave,” God. 3rd ed. Translated by Catharine Misrahi. New York: coming from the Latin word verna, or “household ser- Fordham University Press. vant.” In the ancient world, the great imperial languages Taylor, Edward. 2005. “Learning.” In International Encyclope- like Hellenistic Greek or Latin were widely spoken as dia of Adult Education, edited by Leona English, 348–353. common tongues across the huge geographical areas of New York: Palgrave Macmillan. the Roman Empire. Many well-to-do people would have —Alison Le Cornu spoken either Greek or Latin, and the elites usually spoke both, often fluently. In this Greco-Roman world, a ver- nacular language would have been a local dialect or lan- Learning and the Rise of guage standing apart from the dominant lingua francas of Vernacular Languages the day. Vernacular languages would have been spoken as household languages. They often developed alongside the Europe’sContributor “national languages” are largely a product of larger languages such as Greek or Latin. the modern era. They resulted from the slow and steady growth of vernacular languages and dialects. In the Ancient World Antecedents Middle Ages, Europe’s major language families—out- In Victorian times, history was usually alleged to have side of the Latin used for ecclesiastical and scholarly begun with the advent of writing in Sumer, around 3500 Learning and the Rise of Vernacular Languages 711

BC. Everything before 3500 BC was considered “prehis- jority of the early Mesopotamian cultures were Semitic, tory.” Since the 19th century, newer approaches to his- notwithstanding the famous “Indo-European invasions” tory have developed, including a strong emphasis on ma- from the north in 1800 BC. Semitic languages produced terial culture and archaeology, oral histories, and other both the writing scripts of Mesopotamian cuneiform and innovations. These new areas of research and inquiry Egyptian hieroglyphics, usually regarded as the two old- have added enormously to historical scholarship. There- est writing systems. fore, in more recent decades, the old distinction between The development of written literature, law, and liturgy “history” and “‘prehistory” became blurred. Nonetheless, helped to standardize the significant variations that al- writing’s historical significance is huge by any reckoning, most always existed in earlier, exclusively oral versions especially when considering the development of vernacu- of any given language. Business receipts and accounting lar languages. records also played an important role in this regard. In Before writing, one can only imagine the vast prehis- general, the version of the language that was written torical mosaic of dialects and local idioms that must have often gained precedence over dialects of a language that existed. Varying levels of sophistication and complex- remained unwritten. Grammatical and syntactic conven- ity must have differentiated the various local languages tions within a written language undoubtedly came to be spoken, even in those early times. While many of these seen as more “correct.” Similarly, theOnly relative permanence languages and dialects shared common linguistic roots, of written language facilitated dissemination across time variations between groups and regions undoubtedly and place, unlike more ephemeral spoken language. made identifying single coherent languages a problematic Admittedly, the tension between written language and endeavor. In historical periods, famous ancient languages nonwritten speech contains a bit of the “chicken and the like Greek or Hebrew still featured many distinctive egg” dynamic, since unwritten language no doubt shaped dialects and accents that rendered them almost unintel- written language and vice versa. Nonetheless, all the dis- ligible, even to related peoples and kinsmen. The biblical tinct languages that emerged from the ancient world in- story of the Tower of Babel found in Genesis 11 colorfully evitably possessed solid and effective systems of writing. recounts the welter of languages that made up even rela- The alphabet system devised by the Phoenicians is tively local regions in those days. one of the most important developments in language The two major language groupings of the Western andCopy learning that came from the ancient Near East. The ancient world were Indo-European and Semitic. The Phoenician alphabet was adopted by the Greeks some- Indo-European language family constitutes a wide array time around 800 BC. It was an arguably superior system of distinct tongues and their related dialects, a huge of writing, capable of transliterating virtually any spoken linguistic grouping found all through Europe, across language with its symbols representing sounds made by Asia Minor, into Persia, and down into India. In ancient human speech. With relatively few symbols to learn— times, two especially significant Indo-European tongues originally around 22—writing and reading were greatly were Greek and Latin. The Indo-European Greeks lived simplified. This simplification of writing greatly aided on the southeast tip of the Balkan peninsula, as well as in the democratization of literacy, which had previously around the rim of the Aegean Sea, including the west been extremely elite. The Phoenician alphabet eventually coast of Asia Minor. Several dialects existed within an- became the basis of written languages throughout virtu- cient Greek, though the various Greek regions probably ally the whole of the Mediterranean. A version of the enjoyed a rough form of mutual intelligibility. Among Greek/Phoenician alphabet was adopted by the Romans, the most famous of the Greek dialects are Attic, spoken adding to its diffusion. by the Athenians, and Doric, spoken by the Spartans. For its part, Latin—which would become the mother tongue Vernacular Languages and Imperialism of millions, and one of the most important languages in During the heyday of the Roman Empire, languages were history—began as an obscure tribal language nestled in greatly affected by politics and imperialism. Following the linguistically heterogeneous mix of peoples that once the conquests of Alexander the Great (r. 363–323 BC), occupied central Italy. Due to the great militarism and Greek became the lingua franca of much of the ancient imperialism of the mighty Romans, Latin grew to become Near East. This world, with the Greek tongue overlay- one of history’s most important languages. ing the rich mix of local historic languages all across the ContributorThe other major language grouping of the ancient Eastern Mediterranean, is often called the “Hellenistic” world was the Semitic group. Most of the peoples of or “Greek-like” world. The New Testament, with its koine North Africa and the ancient Near East were Semitic in (common) Greek, is a product of this world. Greek was a ancient times. Hebrew, Phoenician, Egyptian, and the strong second language and used by non-Greeks in areas early dialects of Arabic were all Semitic languages. A ma- such as business, political matters, and scholarship. 712 Learning and the Rise of Vernacular Languages

With the Roman conquests of the Eastern Mediter- country. Latin gradually came into the British cultures ranean that began in the second century BC, this Hel- through Christian missionaries, though largely as a lan- lenistic culture largely continued. The Roman Empire guage of scholarship, liturgy, and literature. featured a Latin-speaking half and a Greek-speaking half. Areas of western North Africa also were heavily Lati- When the Western Empire fell in AD 476, the Greek- nized by Roman rule. The great Latin Christian saint Au- speaking half remained, commonly called Byzantium. gustine of Hippo (354–430) was from Tagaste, in mod- During the early years of the Byzantine period, Greek ern-day Algeria. But his background both culturally and continued as the lingua franca of the East. After the death linguistically seems almost that of a native Latin Roman. of the prophet Muhammad in 632, the Arabic language By later antiquity, the once mighty North African city of moved into much of the Middle East and all across North Carthage, in modern-day Tunisia, also had become vir- Africa, along with the Islamic faith. In the ensuing years, tually a Latin city. The movement of the Muslims across Greek largely settled back into its historic homeland on North Africa in the seventh century resulted in a lin- the southeastern tip of the Balkans. Nonetheless, the guistic change to Arabic. Indeed, the Muslim movement centuries of Hellenistic cultural influence in the Eastern across North Africa also supplanted the ancient Egyptian Mediterranean meant that the Greek language would language in Egypt, replacing it with Arabic. continue to have a huge influence in later years, especially Only in scholarship and the arts. Early European Vernacular Dialects In the West, Latin became the universal tongue. More- Prehistoric continental Europe mostly lacked clearly over, unlike the East, where Greek remained largely a defined languages, at least by modern standards. Frank- secondary language, Latin replaced local languages in ish is often described as a language, as is Anglo-Saxon. many areas of the West. Latin became the “first language” But there were strong variations even within these larger for millions of formerly non-Latin peoples. In Spain, the tribal tongues. In terms of families of dialects, Europe Celto-Iberian tribes largely adopted Latin. In what is had four main groupings: Latin/Romance dialects, Ger- now France, the Gallic peoples largely lost their ancient manic dialects, Celtic dialects, and Slavic dialects. Within Celtic languages, though isolated rural pockets of the these larger categories, a welter of tribes in their vari- Gallic ancient language remained until medieval times. ous groupings often spoke in local patterns and idioms. The Italian peninsula, once home to a score of languages WithinCopy the four major groups, many of the local dialects and dialects, including Greek in the south and the strong were probably somewhat intelligible to those speaking heritage of Etruscan in Tuscany, was heavily Latinized as related dialects. In this sense, a language continuum ex- early as the first century AD. North of the Danube in far isted. Sharp, clearly defined distinctions between various eastern Europe, Dacia was another important area of the dialects were rare. Subtle changes existed as one traveled Roman Empire. Conquered by the Roman emperor Tra- from town to town and grew more pronounced with jan (r. 98–117), the Province of Dacia also adopted Latin, greater distances. The closer people were geographically, virtually wholesale. Over the centuries, these “Latinized” the more likely it was that they understood each other. areas of the old Roman Empire produced the Romance The odds of mutual intelligibility decreased substantially languages: Romanian, Italian, French, Spanish, and Por- the more one traveled. Few of these dialects were written tuguese. Regional dialects also exist within these major down, making them even more local and colloquial. Even languages, often categorized as subgroupings of one of centuries after the development of the major European the major Romance tongues. national languages, many of these extremely local and Not all areas of the Roman Empire were Latinized. The regional flavors would continue to color the language ancient peoples of the Eastern Mediterranean—Greeks, map of Europe. Egyptians, Syrians, Jews, and many others—largely re- A few isolated languages do not seem a part of Eu- tained their ancient tongues, as well as the Hellenistic rope’s main language families. Languages such as Finnish influences predating Roman conquest. The Latin imprint or Magyar (Hungarian) seem to be more Asiatic in ori- was also lighter in Roman Britain. There, the Celtic tribes gin. Questions remain about their original relationships largely retained their historic dialects, maintaining them to the four main branches of European languages. At any throughout the years of Roman imperialism and beyond. rate, the Magyars came out of Asia in the 10th century, When the Romans left the island early in the fifth cen- so they are relative newcomers. Ancient Basque, isolated tury,Contributor Latin left with them. When the Anglo-Saxon tribes in rugged northeast Spain, also seems to stand alone, invaded the island beginning in the fifth century, the predating the convenient modern linguistic categories of Latin heritage in the southwest part of the island was even European language families. In some cases, it is impos- more lost. Ancient England in the days after the with- sible to prove original linguistic roots of these ancient drawal of Roman troops was almost like a Scandinavian and highly distinctive smaller languages. Learning and the Rise of Vernacular Languages 713

Religion and the Vernacular Languages was an especially important translation. King James’s In the early Middle Ages, religion played a key role in Authorized Version of the Bible (in English), released in shaping the development of future language patterns. 1611, was another. Three great religious heritages developed on the territory Missionaries in the West also promoted the Latin of the old Roman Empire: the Eastern Orthodox heritage, language. In many cases, they not only promoted Latin the Western Roman Catholic heritage, and the Islamic in particular, but literacy in general. This was especially world. Both Christianity and Islam were “missionary re- true in the pagan areas of the Germanic North. Many of ligions” that purported to have universal messages for all these areas had little or no tradition of writing, though a men and women, regardless of ethnic or language group. “runic” script did appear in scattered inscriptions. The In general, this reflected a large change from pagan re- Benedictine order of monks that was ordained in the ligions, which were often based on birth or nationality. sixth century included in its famous Benedictine “Rule” Moreover, both Christianity and Islam featured sacred, the establishment of a school with each and every mon- fixed texts—the Bible and the Koran—which made lan- astery. All across Anglo-Saxon England and Germany, guage and literacy important components of their out- and into Scandinavia, Latin learning was promoted by reach to others. Catholic missionaries. Though Latin never replaced the Both Eastern and Western Christianity vigorously vernacular languages in GermanicOnly areas such as these, promoted missionary activity into the heart of “barbar- it did become a strong intellectual language. In the later ian” Europe. The Byzantine “Orthodox” Church, how- Middle Ages, the Latin-based university system that ever, generally encouraged the translation of the Bible flourished all across Europe and learned Latin writings into the vernacular languages. This policy of encour- were therefore more widely disseminated. aging vernacular languages aided in the development The third religious tradition that settled into the area of national identities across the Orthodox world, with of the old Roman Empire was Islam. After the prophet’s distinct national churches emerging, each with its own death in 632, Islam moved into a period of great expan- patriarch. Saints Cyril (827–869) and Methodius (826– sion. It quickly moved out of its home in the Arabian 885), the famous “missionaries to the Slavs,” were cred- Peninsula, moving both east and west. The expansion of ited with having developed the Cyrillic alphabet, named Islam is one of history’s most stunningly rapid religious after Saint Cyril. It should be noted that not all Slavic andCopy cultural movements. Within 50 years, Islam had peoples converted to the Byzantine brand of Christi- triumphed in virtually all of North Africa, throughout anity, including the Cyrillic alphabet. The Poles con- the Middle East, and on into Afghanistan and the Indus verted to Catholicism and therefore adopted the Latin Valley of India. In 711, Islamic forces crossed over into alphabet. Similarly, the Slavic Croatians also converted Spain, overthrowing the Roman Catholic Visigoths, who to Roman Catholicism, sharing close geographical and occupied most of the peninsula. cultural ties with Italians on the Adriatic. Though the The spread of Islam is very important in terms of lin- Croatian language is very similar to Serbian, it is written guistic development. Like Christians and Jews, Muslims with the Latin alphabet, adding to an arguably artifi- had a holy book, the Koran. This meant Islam natu- cially heightened sense of linguistic distinction between rally encouraged literacy and education as part of its the two groups. outreach. Moreover, as had been the case with Roman In the West, Latin reigned supreme as the lingua franca Catholics and the Vulgate, Islamic leaders forbade the of Catholic Christianity. Saint Jerome’s translation of the translation of the Koran into vernacular languages. Bible into Latin in the late fourth century—commonly Within a hundred years after the death of Muhammad, called the Vulgate—virtually established Latin as a sacred Arabic had emerged as one of the world’s most impor- language, on a par with Hebrew or Greek. Moreover, tant languages, with millions and millions of speakers. Catholic authorities generally discouraged translation Indeed, in many areas of the Islamic world, the old of the Vulgate into vernacular languages and promoted vernacular languages were completely erased. Unfortu- Latin Mass all across Western Europe. This policy helped nately for Christianity, this meant that many formerly maintain a strong Latin presence in virtually all of me- Christian areas became Islamic. In particular, the Byz- dieval Western Christendom. Over the centuries, the antine Empire lost an enormous amount of territory translation of the Bible, along with the language of Mass, to the advance of Islam, a development that ultimately wouldContributor flare up occasionally as an issue pitting regions precipitated the Crusades. Prior to the rise of Islam, and local vernaculars against the Latin popes. During the Greek had remained a strong language in the Eastern Reformation, one of the most important impacts of Prot- Mediterranean in a range of areas including Egypt, the estantism was the translation of the Bible into vernacular Holy Land, Syria, and Asia Minor. In western North languages. Luther’s translation of the Bible into German Africa, Latin was virtually eradicated. 714 Learning and the Rise of Vernacular Languages

Latin and Vernacular Languages serving concentrations of power and wealth. Though it in the Early Middle Ages bought a few years of relative peace (and only a few), On the continent, Latin was the most important language its flaws and failures reflect in microcosm the growing for many centuries following the Western Empire’s fall. language and ethnic divisions that were emerging in the In terms of writing, vernacular alternatives to Latin were new Europe. At the treaty negotiations, the Franks from few and often lacked the universal qualities and especially the west of the empire no longer spoke the old Germanic refined literary heritage Latin possessed. There were al- Frankish language as their principal language. The West most no “national” languages comparable to the modern Franks had become Latinized. For the East Franks, who languages of Europe. While there was a “Latin language” were living on territory that had never been part of the in the singular, linguistic sense, there was no such thing once mighty Roman Empire, Germanic Frankish re- as a singular “German” language. Similarly, there was no mained the native tongue. Between the East and West Spanish, Italian, or French, either. But the Latin language Franks, many no longer even understood each other. was at least ostensibly uniform. The Roman Empire—once overrun by the Franks—had In the early Middle Ages, the peoples of Western had the last laugh. The Germanic West Franks who lived Europe were usually either “Germans” or “.” And in old Roman Gaul had basically become Romance lan- while Latin had a long established writing tradition, the guage speakers. Only numerous Germanic dialects had very little. Unlike Ger- Not only did the West Franks switch from being Ger- man, Latin was already well-established as a great literary mans to Latins; they also were speaking a new variant of language, with many centuries of excellent learning and the old Gallo-Roman tongue. The Latin spoken in the literature to its credit. But even Latin was far less uniform West Frankish realm had changed greatly by 843. It was in the Middle Ages than one might suppose. After AD no longer classical Latin. But it was not really the new 476, with the connectivity of the Roman Empire now streamlined medieval Latin, either. In fact, the entourage ruptured, the Latin-speaking areas of Europe grew in- of Charles the Bald was speaking Old French, the earliest creasingly isolated from one another. New accents, gram- version of French. One of the world’s most famous and matical constructions, and spellings inevitably arose. beautiful languages had emerged. Over time, Latin came to be as fragmented and dialecti- The creation of the middle kingdom by the Treaty cal as the Germanic languages were. By 1000, Latin had of VerdunCopy is very instructive, especially with regard to become virtually extinct as a living spoken language. At the important interplay between language and nations. the same time, it continued as strong as ever as a form Lothair’s middle kingdom had especially glaring con- of written expression. The result was that for millions ceptual flaws. By the terms of the treaty, Lothair, the of Europeans, the language they spoke and the language eldest brother, held two titles. He was the king of his they wrote were entirely different. own middle kingdom and also “emperor,” with a vague overlordship over his two brothers. If it seemed like a The Significance of the Treaty of Verdun good idea on paper, the middle kingdom proved to be Always lurking beneath the surface, dialects of Latin very unworkable in reality. Stretching from the North Sea began to emerge more clearly in the ninth century. One to Rome, which linked Lothair to the pope, this narrow of the most important events in this regard is the famous kingdom had no real linguistic or historical meaning. Treaty of Verdun, approved in 843. The Treaty of Ver- The western kingdom roughly corresponded to the Latin dun divided the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne among areas of the empire. Similarly, the east Frankish kingdom Charlemagne’s three grandsons. Three separate king- roughly corresponded to German-speaking areas. But doms were created out of the old Frankish Empire: an Lothair’s kingdom drew on both Franco-Latin and Ger- eastern Frankish kingdom ruled by King Louis the Ger- man areas, creating an unwieldy center. In fact, it roughly man, a western Frankish kingdom ruled by Charles the corresponded to the Franco-German border. Further Bald, and a middle kingdom ruled by Lothair, the eldest complicating matters was inclusion of Italy, south of the of the three brothers. Along with being the middle king in natural geographical boundary, the Alps. his own right, Lothair also inherited Charlemagne’s and Given these geographical and linguistic difficulties, Louis’s title of emperor, a vague precursor to the Holy the arrangements made at Verdun lasted only a few Roman Emperor of the following century. years. The kings of France and Germany behaved as vir- Overall,Contributor the Treaty of Verdun was an attempt to tually sovereign monarchs. When their brother Lothair straddle the seemingly irreconcilable principles of Ger- died in 855, the imperial title passed briefly to his son, manic inheritance—whereby brothers generally inherited Lothair II (835–869). When Lothair II died in 869, the equally—and the Roman principle of primogeniture, in brothers divided up what was left of the middle king- which everything went to the eldest son, thereby pre- dom. The sovereign kingdoms of France and Germany Learning and the Rise of Vernacular Languages 715 now dominated the continent. In the years to come, greatly enriched Arthurian legend with the addition of former territories of the middle kingdom—The Neth- anachronistic elements such as chivalry and other courtly erlands, Alsace and Lorraine, Burgundy—remained elements from his own time. battleground states. With no emperor or king, Italy be- In the years after Verdun, other romantic dialects came a world of smaller principalities and duchies, with also crystallized into their own distinct vernaculars, the Papal States in the center of the peninsula prevent- following the example of French. Spanish was another ing unification along national lines. important romantic language that emerged from the The Treaty of Verdun—and especially the catastrophic vast sea of Latin regions that were left in the wake of the failure of the middle kingdom—illustrates the impor- fall of the Roman Empire in the West. The Iberian Pen- tance of considering language and cultural ties when insula experienced many invasions and conquests over forging states. The European continent had been uni- the years. These naturally influenced the development fied under the Franks, reaching its apogee under Char- of language. Nonetheless, as was the case with Gaul or lemagne (r. 768–814). In some ways, it really was a revival Dacia, the Latin language proved to be deeply rooted in of the old Roman Empire of Augustus, with its ideals of the streets and homes of Spain. The Visigoths moved internationalism and universality. But by the 10th cen- into Spain following their famous sacking of Rome in tury, the Frankish empire had vanished, leaving in its AD 410. In 711, the Moors attacked.Only All this time, Latin wake two new sovereign kingdoms and three increasingly seems to have remained a strong linguistic presence on distinct lands: Italy, Germany, and France. the Iberian Peninsula. Nonetheless, as had been the case with French, changes Vernacular Languages in the Heyday and variations inevitably emerged in the various roman- of the Middle Ages (1000–1400) tic dialects spoken in the Iberian Peninsula. The Moorish The Old French that appeared in 843 still had many ar- invasions of 711 introduced thousands of words into the chaic qualities and idiosyncrasies. It retained some of the language. Indeed, over time many of these words became Latin inflections and cases from Latin, making it virtually common in most European languages, including English: a foreign language to modern Francophones. Nonethe- admiral, alcohol, algebra, almanac, candy, sofa, syrup, less, Old French is an early version of French, and distinct and many others. During the reign of Charlemagne, the from its Latin roots. In the coming centuries, it would FranksCopy began a Reconquista (Reconquest) of Spain, es- become even more distinct as a language all its own. tablishing petty Christian states on territory seized from Around 1100, the famous Song of Roland appeared in the Moors: Castile and Aragon were created in 1035; French. Enormously influential, it helped spawn a great Portugal in 1139, after the Battle of Ourique. With the spate of French vernacular literature, further establishing reintroduction of Roman Catholicism into the peninsula, the bona fides of French as a language in its own right. Spanish grew stronger. Castilian—the principal dialect The Song of Roland depicts heroic French fighters at the equated with formal Spanish—evolved during these famous battle of Roncesvalles (778), with the Franks and years. The epic El Cid appeared around 1140, the tale of the Moorish Saracens fighting in the rugged mountains. heroic Rodrigo Diaz (1043–1099), a fighter in the Recon- It inspired a large body of French romantic literature quista who conquered and ruled Valencia, gaining fame focused on Charlemagne as the ideal Christian king and for his wisdom, humanity, and bold exploits. warrior, a rambling body of various legends and stories The development of Spanish as a vernacular began comparable to the legends of King Arthur. to reach its stride later in the Middle Ages. In 1469, During the High Middle Ages (1000–1300), French the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon with Isabella vernacular literature was perhaps the most viable of all of Castile—both heirs apparent to their respective the vernacular languages in Europe. The troubadour thrones—created the dynastic foundation for a uni- tradition, though not reserved to France per se, was es- fied Spain. When they had both gained royal power pecially strong in France. In general, French vernacular in 1479, they began a vigorous campaign of creating literature of the period was “romantic” in both the literal a more homogeneous and unified country. The still and figurative senses. Preferring to leave heavy schol- prevalent nationalist linkage between Spanishness and arship or dreary theology to the Latin speakers in the Roman Catholicism dates from this time. The period is universities, French literature often emphasized courtly often remembered for religious and ethnic chauvinism, love,Contributor heroic deeds and legends, and knightly quests. An- including such acts as the expulsion of the Moors and other of the most important French vernacular writings Sephardic Jews in 1492, as well as the imposition of the is the Arthurian Romances (circa 1191) by Chrétien de infamous Spanish Inquisition. Nonetheless, it was also Troyes. Building on the mystical and fantasy-like Celtic in the late medieval years that Spanish emerged as one core of the legends of Camelot and King Arthur, Chrétien of Europe’s greatest literary languages. 716 Learning and the Rise of Vernacular Languages

In the early 17th century, the great Spanish writer charm to literature. Petrarch was a classicist living on Miguel Cervantes (1547–1616) published Don Quixote. the cusp of the Renaissance. His love of the Greek and Often called one of the first modern novels, Cervantes’s Latin texts foreshadowed the humanistic movement that work was to the Spanish language what Shakespeare’s transformed so much of European cultural life during writings were to English. Cervantes’s contemporary, the 15th and 16th centuries. Though a Latinist of the first Lope de Vega (1562–1635), was another important writer rank, his sonnets in Tuscan are among his most famous in this newly mature Spanish language. His play El Nuevo works. Boccaccio’s Decameron is another highly influen- Mundo descubierto por Cristóbal Colón (The New World tial vernacular work. Like other such efforts, Boccaccio’s Discovered by Christopher Columbus) depicts the civiliz- writings show the power of colloquial vernacular speech ing role of Spanish culture and people in the New World. to convey humor and personality. His ribald tales—often Both Lope and Cervantes are “modern” in the broader featuring nuns and priests engaged in highly scandal- sense of the term, meaning part of the more secular and ous behavior—combined excellent writing with earthy scientific world that emerged with the ending of the humor and social commentary. Middle Ages. Both their works are relatively less religious Of the three Tuscan writers, Dante is probably the and more secular than earlier literature generally was. most important. He is not only a quintessential example Both also reflect a national Spanish character that was of medieval thinking and knowledge atOnly its most brilliant, emerging by the early 17th century. but he also helped begin the process by which vernacular Regional romantic dialects continued to flourish, even literature gained prestige and intellectual stature on a par after the emergence of more consolidated vernacular lan- with the finest and most significant Latin writings. Dante guages began to shape the beginning of national literary wrote extensively in Latin early in his life, but it was his traditions. In the south of France, the Provençal language Divine Comedy, written in Tuscan, that made him a giant was especially equated with the rich ballads and poems of of European literature. Many vernacular writings were the minstrels. In fact, a large and closely related swath of often seen as enjoyable, but less formal and serious. The romantic dialects ran from east to west, all across south- Divine Comedy changed all that. Often described as being western Europe, from northern Italy, through southern to literature what Thomas Aquinas was to theology, France, and into southeastern Spain beyond the Pyrenees Dante’s Divine Comedy was arguably the first vernacular (Catalonia). Closer to old Latin than French was, this work Copythat connected scholarly and academic writings dialect was sometimes called Occitan, because it used the with vernacular literature. By any reckoning, it is one of old Latin hoc—“this”—for the word “yes,” as opposed the most important books written in the Middle Ages. to oui, which prevailed in the North around Paris, or si, prevalent in Spanish and Italian. Unfortunately, this dia- Germanic Vernacular lect never benefited from having a unified country based The Germanic dialects followed a path similar to those around it. Over time, it largely faded into the more domi- of the romantic dialects. Most Germanic areas of Eu- nant languages of Spain, Italy, or France, though even rope had existed outside the Roman Empire. Over today it still colors accents and some idioms, especially time, however, exposure to the Roman Empire or to around Provence. Parisian French became the standard Roman Catholicism greatly influenced the development and most prestigious form of French. On a related note, of vernacular literatures in German. As was the case the language Portuguese had not yet emerged as a distinct with Latin, the Germanic tongues were a cacophony language during the high Middle Ages. It was perceived of different tribal and regional variations. Gradually, as a lower dialect of Spanish, somewhat similar to the way however, Germanic peoples acquired literary traditions. Dutch was viewed in German-speaking countries. Around AD 340, the Arian Christian Ulfilas (310–383) In Italy, the Italian language also began to make deep created a script for the Visigoths, drawing largely on the inroads into the old Latin base of Western Europe. As Greek alphabet. This was the first ever attempt to write in Spain or France, many regional Latin-based dialects any Germanic language. existed in the Italian Peninsula and the great Mediter- During the Middle Ages, most of the German-speak- ranean islands of Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia. The ing areas were in the so-called Holy Roman Empire, a Tuscan dialect around the resplendent city of Florence somewhat loose-knit state based on an arguably awkward would come to be especially equated with Italian. Three alliance between the German ruler in the North and the toweringContributor figures in this regard are the so-called Tus- Roman Catholic pope. In 962, the pope had crowned the can Triumvirate, who wrote extensively in their native king of the East Franks “emperor,” reviving the ancient Tuscan: Dante (1265–1321), Petrarch (1304–1374), and Roman title as well as the imperial title held by Char- Boccaccio (1313–1375). All three of these men were lemagne a century earlier. While most Germanic peoples great writers who brought intelligence, personality, and outside of Scandinavia lived in the Holy Roman Empire, Learning and the Rise of Vernacular Languages 717 it should not really be considered Germany per se. It semination possible of everything from the most serious envisioned an imperial government reflecting the inter- medical books to popular flyers and inflammatory pam- nationalism and universality of the old Roman Empire. phlets. The influence of the printing press on literary and Such pretensions are almost amusing and, at any rate, popular culture cannot be overemphasized. In the 16th never really lived up to their billing. century, when the printing press was having its great- There were many language groups in the Holy Roman est transformative impact, Europe was also undergoing Empire. Along with a strong majority of Germans, there a revolution in which more and more common people were also many romance speakers, as well as Slavs. were learning to read—especially in the northern parts of Catholicism—a universal Christian doctrine—was sup- Europe. Most of these people knew no Latin, so the rise of posedly the organizing political principle of the empire. vernacular languages is part of a complex linguistic and An important related point about the Holy Roman Em- social dynamic that intertwined education, Protestant pire is that it really had no single capital city. Instead, it religious movements, and the technology of printing. had many regional or provincial capitals. While cities Arguably, the German language did not really come like Berlin or Vienna would ultimately emerge as major into its own, however, until the Reformation. After his capitals for their respective regions or principalities, no excommunication in 1521 and his refusal to recant later single capital comparable to Paris or London existed in that year at the famous Diet of Worms,Only Luther spent time the Holy Roman Empire. Even the Diets—the imperial hiding at the gloomy Wartburg Tower. There, he wrote parliaments, as it were—moved from host city to host his famous translation of the New Testament into Ger- city, taking the trappings of the imperial court with them man. Luther’s translation helped produce standardiza- as occasions required. In was a somewhat picturesque, tion of the German language. Luther wrote in the High decentralized, fairy-tale-like world of minor princes, German dialect, which helped to make it the accepted, bishops, dukes, and lower nobles. No one dialect emerged standard German. as dominant. The major division dialectically was be- Despite the significant heritage of vernacular litera- tween High German and Low German, with Dutch being ture in German, much serious writing in Germany was like an especially low form of lower German. still in Latin during the 16th and 17th centuries. But by By the early Middle Ages, Germanic vernacular lan- the time of the Enlightenment, German had developed guages were making appearances in some fairly substan- a richCopy and freestanding literary tradition. Two of the tial literature. Still, these efforts were relatively limited, in greatest German writers of early modern German were comparison to the exponential growth of writing in Latin Schiller (1759–1805) and Goethe (1749–1832). Like that was occurring all across Christian Europe. Beowulf in other Enlightenment and romantic-era writers, they Anglo-Saxon “Old English” (circa 800) represents early wrote in a time when self-confident vernacular litera- literature in a Germanic vernacular, though its excellent ture in the major European languages had finally come composition was greatly enabled by Old English adapta- of age. On a related note, composers like Mozart (1756– tion of the Latin alphabet. Though normally equated with 1791) and Beethoven (1770–1827) began writing songs England, Beowulf also has obvious continental deriva- and even operas in German. European composers of tions, both linguistically and in terms of the story. The vocal works had long avoided the “guttural” languages Norse Edda, written in Iceland during the 13th century, like German or English. Virtually any romance dialect also are famous vernacular writings from quite early in a was preferred for serious singing over a Germanic one, script related to the one used in Beowulf. While both the especially Italian or Latin. Edda and Beowulf are indeed great specimens of epic “Vi- During the 19th century, German emerged as one of the king” storytelling, they are much more widely read today greatest languages of scholarship. German universities of than they ever were in the Middle Ages. Other famous the 19th century were widely admired and imitated. In a Germanic vernacular writings from the Middle Ages are range of disciplines, German scholars produced cutting- Parsifal, by Eschenbach (1160–1220), and Tristan and edge works. Along with French, German became one of Isolde, written early in the 13th century by Gottfried von the de rigueur languages that advanced students in the Strasbourg (d. 1210). liberal arts or sciences had to be able to translate. The invention of the printing press in 1452—usually attributed to Johann Gutenberg (1398–1468)—gave an- Vernacular English otherContributor strong impetus to the movement toward vernacular The rise of vernacular English during the Middle Ages languages, especially in the countries of the northern closely corresponds to the other examples seen here. Renaissance. Not only did the printing press facilitate a A Germanic language in origin, English is commonly far greater dispersion of written knowledge; it also helped divided into three major period groupings: Old English give rise to easier writing and publishing, making dis- (Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. 718 Learning and the Rise of Vernacular Languages

While many variations and subdialects exist within each of the most famous French words imported into English of these groupings—especially Old English and Middle during these years have to do with food, physical func- English—early on English also developed one of the more tions and anatomy, and officialdom. Many “dirty words” coherent and distinct vernacular traditions in Western are Anglo-Saxon in derivation, whereas the French Europe. Today, England is renowned for its great literary equivalent words are usually considered polite. heritage, much in the way the Dutch are remembered as The English that evolved after 1066 is commonly called great painters, or the Germans are hailed for their great Middle English. Somewhat more accessible to modern compositions in classical music. English speakers than Old English—which is, for all in- Old English is the language of the Anglo-Saxon in- tents and purposes, a foreign language—Middle English vaders who came to the island following the withdrawal is nonetheless usually “translated” for modern readers. of Roman troops. Beowulf is a classic Old English text, By far the most important and famous of the Middle Eng- though it also likely has continental derivation and cer- lish writers was Chaucer (c. 1340–1400). His Canterbury tainly is set in the Viking world of Sweden and Denmark. Tales are the definitive work of Middle English. Depict- Relatively speaking, fair amounts of Old English writings ing a group of pilgrims on the Pilgrim’s Trail to Canter- are extant. The monks who usually maintained the scat- bury—a path that once led from east to west across much tered Anglo-Saxon poems and texts seem to have had of southern England—the colorful, highlyOnly insightful tales a preservationist instinct, saving the colorful and often present a rich window into 14th-century daily life, at- folksy literature of their ancestors for posterity. The fa- titudes, and values. Chaucer’s writings also bespeak the mous Saxon poet Caedmon (657–680), who lived around personality and vitality often shared by other vernacular the Whitby Abbey in Northumbria, penned his hymns writings. His earthy, authentic, funny, colloquial English in Old English. Numerous other poems survived as well, wit and charm could not have emerged in as satisfying a including a fascinating collection of 95 “riddles.” These fashion had he penned his work in Latin. are found in The Exeter Book, a book presented by the When the printing press came to England in 1478, bishop of Exeter to the Cathedral Library in 1071. The England’s first printer, William Caxton (c. 1415–c. 1492), Exeter Book contains most of the extant Anglo-Saxon chose The Canterbury Tales as the first book he printed. poetry. It has survived many centuries of abuse and was Chaucer wrote in the East Midland dialect, considered at apparently used as a chopping board at some point in the the timeCopy to be the “King’s English.” With the greater dis- Middle Ages and as a beer mat. Nonetheless, the fact that semination of Chaucer produced by the printing press, Exeter is inland protected the precious texts in The Exeter the East Midland dialect of Middle English became in- Book from salty sea air. Most of the poems in it have for- creasingly seen as the standardized form of English. tunately survived the past thousand years. There are many other important Middle English writ- During the heyday of Old English, many fine scholars ings, though none as famous as The Canterbury Tales. in England wrote in Latin, though they themselves were The Green Knight, a tale drawn from Arthurian legend, Anglo-Saxon. One of the most important in this regard was written in Middle English sometime around the late was Venerable Bede (673–735). His work An Ecclesiasti- 14th century. Many Middle English lyrics to songs also cal History of the English People is a vital resource for exist. Since writings were often preserved in ecclesiasti- anyone studying the history of the spread of Christian- cal settings and recorded by monks or clerics, many of ity to the Anglo-Saxons in the early Middle Ages. More the poems and lyrics that exist are religious in nature. than that, it is an excellent window into this fascinating Nonetheless, some secular love songs have survived. “The and complex time. His work reflects the growing alli- Cuckoo Song (Sumer Is Icumen In)” is a popular Middle ance between Anglo-Saxon intellectual life and the Latin English favorite still sung today. language by the eighth century. Despite the increasing There is no one single moment when Middle English prevalence of Latin, however, Old English continued to became Modern English. Sir Thomas Malory’s (1405– be written and spoken. 1471) famous Le Morte d’Arthur—which is arguably In 1066, the famous Norman Invasion by William the the most comprehensive and definitive source for the Conqueror introduced a strong dosage of French into legends of Camelot and King Arthur—reflects the slow the Anglo-Saxon language. For many years thereafter, transition. Written while Sir Thomas was probably in the two languages coexisted uneasily. Norman courts and prison during the dreary years of the War of the Roses, publicContributor life were conducted in French, whereas the older Le Morte d’Arthur in its original form is probably dif- Anglo-Saxon tongues were reserved for the often down- ficult if not impossible to read for most casual readers of trodden, common people. Over time, English absorbed modern English. Nonetheless, it is a bit late to be labeled many French words, greatly enriching the vocabulary of as Middle English, and should probably be considered English as opposed to either German or French. Some Early Modern English, or at least as an important tran- Learning Biblical Languages 719 sitional work between Middle and Modern English. The Though vernacular languages had made great strides language spoken in the Tudor court was likely an “Early by the 17th century, many authors continued to work in Modern” form of English as well. Continuing in this vein, Latin. This was especially true of scientific works, whose the language spoken during the reign of Queen Elizabeth authors hoped to connect with the broadest possible audi- (1558–1603) is commonly nicknamed Elizabethan Eng- ence, across national borders. Galileo’s Sidereus Nuncius lish. Edmund Spenser’s The Fairie Queen (1595) and the [Starry Messenger] (1610) and William Harvey’s De Motu highly influential works of the playwright Christopher Cordis [Regarding the Motion of the Heart] (1628) are two Marlowe reflect the ongoing evolution of English in this famous 17th-century scientific works still penned in Latin, period (1564–1593). among many others. Many works—even in the scholarly English reached its status as a mature, national lan- sciences—were by this time being penned in the ver- guage early in the 17th century. In 1611, King James I nacular. Robert Hooke’s Micrographia (1665), a work that (r. 1603–1625) authorized the King James Version of the introduced readers to the world of microscopic organisms Bible, one of the landmark events of the English language. and also coined the term “cell,” was in English, addressed Sometimes called the Authorized Version to ensure oth- to Charles II. In France, René Descartes (1596–1650) gen- ers of its legitimacy, the KJV represented the culmination erally wrote in French, as did Blaise Pascal (1623–1662). of many centuries of struggle over the language of scrip- One of the last major scholarly worksOnly penned in Latin ture. Earlier English translations existed, of course—no- was Principia Mathematica, published in 1687 by Sir tably William Tyndale’s (1494–1536) English Bible. But Isaac Newton (1642–1727). Even in the late 17th century, the Authorized Version had the king’s own stamp of Newton believed that Latin was necessary to reach the approval behind it, as well as a wonderful and refined widest possible audience. In the coming years, however, literary quality. Over the years the King James Version Latin declined precipitously. Once Western Europe’s proved to be one of the most beloved and enduring works “universal” language, it was increasingly relegated to the of the English language. (This should remind scholars status of dead language, outside the Vatican, historical that translations are a legitimate form of literature.) The scholarship, or university. Conversely, during the 18th many memorable poetic phrases and general beauty of century, virtually all of the Enlightenment’s great writ- the King James Bible’s language deeply influenced Eng- ers wrote in their respective languages. Their charm and lish during the 17th and 18th centuries. In 1742, George color,Copy as well as their relative accessibility to a wider au- Frederick Handel used the simple verses of the KJV as his dience, showed that vernacular languages in Europe had libretto for the Messiah. The coupling of Handel’s precise truly come of age. and wonderful musical expression and the evocative wording drawn from the KJV produced one of the most References and Resources popular and important choral works ever written. Bartlett, Robert. 1993. The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colo- The other major writer in Early Modern English is nization and Cultural Change. Princeton, NJ: Princeton William Shakespeare (1564–1616). His many fine trag- University Press. edies, comedies, and sonnets reflected the new stature Curtius, E. R. 1953. European Literature and the Latin Middle of English as one of the world’s great literary languages. Ages. Translated by by W. R. Trask. New York: Pantheon Like the King James Version of the Bible, Shakespeare’s Books. writing reflects more or less modern grammar, vocabu- Elcock, W. D. 1975. The Romance Languages. London: Faber lary, and syntax—although it can often seem archaic at & Faber. first blush. Shakespeare’s writing is also “modern” in the Geary, P. J. 1988. Before France and Germany. New York: Ox- broader sense of the term. Unlike Chaucer, Shakespeare’s ford University Press. plays and sonnets are overall secular. They also reflect Harris, Martin, and Nigel Vincent. 1988. The Romance Lan- a well-rounded humanist education that characterized guages. New York: Oxford University Press. the finest Renaissance upbringings. There is also a sense Mugglestone, Lynda, ed. 2006. The Oxford History of English. of “Englishness” in Shakespeare’s plays. His histories, New York: Oxford University Press. in particular, reflect a great love and care for his native —David Leinweber England. In Chaucer’s time, arguably, that sense of being “English” in a national or political sense was less devel- oped.Contributor Later, in the 17th century, great writers like John Learning Biblical Languages Milton (1608–1674) continued to demonstrate the power of the English vernacular. His Paradise Lost combined We have many Bible translations today, so why put in the biblical epic with the classical epic, and all in Eng- the hard work undoubtedly required to learn the original lish—a work in English that rivaled that of Vergil himself. languages? 720 Learning Biblical Languages

Learning biblical languages is crucial for Christian ments are organized through recognizing and en- education: it enables learners and educators to engage gaging with key grammatical and syntactical signals; with the Bible itself, rather than a translation, however varieties of uses of, for example, Greek cases and good. Translators must choose one translation, and some Hebrew verb moods; and variant readings among knowledge of the original language helps in understand- original language manuscripts. ing translators’ dilemmas in considering the best way to Learning to use good tools. The most valuable reference express a word, phrase, or sentence. works for in-depth study of the Bible rely on knowl- Translation is never-ending, for languages change; a edge of biblical languages: dictionaries, grammars, translation that served well in one period needs updat- concordances, computer-based tools (e.g., Accor- ing. At least 600 words in KJV are now obsolete, or their dance, BibleWorks), and commentaries. meaning has changed substantially. Recognizing the distance between the Bible and us. En- In addition, the healthy development of Christian the- gaging with biblical languages enables us to feel the ology and learning requires that the church continually strangeness of the Bible, which leads to appropriate return to biblical roots. Such reflection is much stronger humility in interpreting it, for we recognize the lim- when engaging with the original biblical texts, for it is its of what we may claim from the Bible. hard to do full justice to the riches of the Hebrew and Learning to think independently. ThoseOnly who learn bibli- Greek. Thus biblical language knowledge is vital in en- cal languages, if those languages are taught well, also countering alternative biblical interpretations, such as learn skills in reading texts. They are able to read the Jehovah’s Witnesses’ translation of John 1:1: “In the independently, not simply be led by the questions beginning was the Word, and the Word was a god,” con- previous scholars and commentators asked. They trasting with the traditional, “was God” (see Barrett 1978, learn to assess the work of scholars for themselves. 155–156; Michaels 2010, 47–48). In sum, they join the reformers in returning to the fountainhead of Christian theology, the Bible itself. A Very Short History Biblical languages were neglected throughout the Middle Methods of Learning Ages because of the dominance of the Latin Vulgate Deductive approaches to language learning prioritize translation. The 14th- and 15th-century Renaissance grammar,Copy syntax, and vocabulary, hoping learners will called on scholars to return ad fontes (“to the sources”), apply this material to reading biblical texts, with appro- and thus Christian theologians began to engage afresh priate support from a teacher (e.g., Mounce 2003; Duff with Greek New Testament texts, and later Hebrew and 2005). They provide good grounding in the language, but Aramaic Old Testament texts. Such reengagement with can demotivate learners—it takes a long time to grasp a scripture led to the Reformation, as theologians encoun- language’s basic ideas well enough to read a whole text. tered ideas at variance from the Catholic Church’s of- Inductive approaches prioritize in-depth language en- ficial interpretation. This return to the sources marked gagement, including reading biblical texts. Such ap- Christian theology over the following centuries; it differs proaches draw on modern language pedagogy: they interestingly from Muslim interpretation of the Koran, immerse learners in the language—indeed, some (e.g., which reads it through the lens of the later writings and the Biblical Language Center) speak only the biblical commentaries (Walton 2013, 215). language in class. Such approaches depend on excellent As Protestant universities and seminaries expanded, teachers and can work well. Greek and Hebrew were core curriculum until the early Mediating approaches seek to combine the best of in- 20th century. During the 20th century, however, the ex- ductive and deductive methods by giving students a good pansion of religious studies (rather than Christian theol- grounding in the language while drawing extensively on ogy) in the universities and the burgeoning of other areas the Bible for examples and illustrations (with appropriate in seminary curricula, led to biblical languages being help, especially in early stages). By this means they seek to sidelined. Many Christian ministers and clergy now keep learners motivated (e.g., Macnair 1995). know no Greek or Hebrew at all. References and Resources Aims Barrett, C. K. 1978. The Gospel According to St John. 2nd ed. FourContributor central aims motivate and animate initial learning London: SPCK. of biblical languages: Duff, J. 2005. The Elements of New Testament Greek. Cam- bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Learning to read well. Language knowledge enables Macnair, I. 1995. Teach Yourself New Testament Greek. Nash- readers to see more clearly how stories and argu- ville, TN: Nelson. Learning, Project-Based 721

Michaels, J. R. 2010. The Gospel of John. New International Israel built and maintained a physical place of worship Commentary on the NT. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. (Exod. 35–40) focusing attention on the physical aspects Mounce, W. D. 2003. Basics of Biblical Greek Grammar. 2nd ed. of worship. God’s people were to actively participate Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. in sacrifices (Lev. 1–7) as well as annual festivals (Lev. ———, ed. 2006. Mounce’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old 23–25). Worship is focused on participatory performance and New Testament Words. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. (1 Chron. 15–16). Communion, baptism, foot washing, Walton, S. 2013. “What Is Progress in New Testament Studies?” and love feasts are used as participatory acts of worship Expository Times 124: 209–226. by believers (Matt. 28:29; John 13; 1 Cor. 11). Paul made it clear that the Christian use of the body was a physical Accordance Bible. http://www.accordancebible.com/ act of worship (Rom. 6:13, 12:1). BibleWorks. http://www.bibleworks.com/ Biblical teaching is concerned with a change in physi- Biblical Language Center. http://www.biblicallanguagecenter cal behavior (Eph. 4; Col. 3). God is concerned about the .com/ body’s sinful misuse (1 Cor. 5, 6), including verbal attacks —Steve Walton on others (James 3:5–8). The physical needs of widows arise early in the church’s history (Acts 6). Good works were to be the result of the ChristianOnly life (Gal. 6:9–10; Learning, Project-Based Eph. 2:10; Titus 3:1, 8, 14). The Gospel is to be lived out in front of others (2 Cor. 3:3; 1 Thess. 4:11–12; Titus 2:1– Humans are created as whole people. People learn 10). Seeing the needs of others without physically acting linguistically, logically, aesthetically, spatially, socially, on them called into question Christian transformation intrapersonally, interpersonally, and kinesthetically. Kin- (James 2:14–17; 1 John 3:16–18). esthetic or physical movement is important because humans are corporeal. Teaching-learning is concerned Biblical Philosophy of Project-Based Learning with every aspect of the human person, including physi- Creation, revelation, worship, and biblical teaching all cal engagement. Project-based learning is an essential teach that the physical component of life must not be component of any Christian’s education. ignored. Teaching curriculum is content-centered and teacher-directed,Copy yet also student-discovered. Transfer Biblical Theology of Project-Based Learning of ideas can be achieved through an incarnational, ac- God created a physical world (Gen. 1) including physical tive, practical process that engages the full person of the humans (Gen. 2:5–7). God uses His creation to physically student, intellectually embodied. Students bear the load proclaim His own message (Ps. 19, 148). He actively par- of learning, accountable before the Lordship of Jesus for ticipates in fulfilling the needs of His creation (Ps. 102, their efforts. Instructors should be committed to both 147). In fact, God declares that the physical world is His content and communication. What and how something (Lev. 25:23; 1 Chron. 29:11; Ps. 50:9–12, 89:11). is taught are both equally important. Effective teaching God tells His prophets to communicate in unique ways: necessarily includes active engagement with truth. parading naked while preaching (Isa. 20), wearing an ox- en’s yoke (Jer. 28), or marrying prostitutes (Hosea). God’s Christian Practice of Project-Based Learning revelation took the form of physical writing (Exod. 20; Jer. The human person is multifaceted, yet whole, so Chris- 36; Dan. 5) and employed the speech of animals (Num. tian teaching will follow different tactics to engage stu- 22) and the physical presence of His Son (John 1:14–18). dents in the fullness of who they are. Jesus’s incarnation Jesus’s miracles were physical, impacting creation (Luke teaches that students should be met where they are, with 8) as well as healing humans (Luke 5–7). The teaching of the opportunity to conform to Heaven’s standard. Ap- Jesus’s incarnation—literally “in-fleshness”—is dependent plication of truth to life is nowhere better stated than in on real, physical, historical space-time events: birth, life, Micah 6:8, where humility, justice, and mercy are stan- death, resurrection, ascension, and consummation. dards of conduct in community. In this way, learning Repetition and memory were fostered through activ- could be “sweet” (Ezek. 3:3; Ps. 119:103; Prov. 24:13–14). ity. The Sabbath was a “sign” (Ezek. 20:12, 20) practiced A Christian lifeview can transform the mind-sets of through community celebration of Jesus’s resurrection (1 individuals and the public policies of institutions. An in- Cor.Contributor 15:54–16:2). Feasts (Esther 9:27–28), stones (Josh. terdisciplinary framework will mesh belief with practice. 4:7), tassels (Num. 15:39–40), tabletops (Num. 16:36–40), Christian living can be demonstrated in practical ways. and repositories for scripture (Deut. 11:18) were the Teachers seeking to implement project-based learning premise for active reminders through monuments, holi- should enact certain guidelines. First, foundational les- days, and medallions. sons should build up to the project, cementing the con- 722 Learning, Spiritual Dimension of tent needed to understand an assignment. Second, the world, there is a pressing need for Christian educators students or groups should be chosen on the basis of their to move beyond this rather restrictive understanding of giftedness, the teacher being aware of all student activity. spirituality, given the multiple perspectives and practices Third, the project should be linked to specific activities: that have emerged alongside traditional ones. This is dressing like a character, character development, the set- particularly the case where secularism and pluralism have ting of a play, singing, map creation, problem solution, become essential and influential features in the construc- and so forth. Fourth, specific rubrics should be created tion of the reality that contextualizes the lives of children to properly assess student learning. Students should have and young people. access to the rubrics from the beginning of the project so The notion that the human person is a spiritual being is they know exactly how they will be assessed. recognized by many writers from a range of backgrounds Students enjoy active learning because by it, they own and disciplines (see, e.g., Armstrong 2009; Ó Murchú their learning (Acts 17:11). Teacher preparation makes 1997; Rahner 1978; Teilhard de Chardin 1955), and this project-based learning possible. Creativity is an impor- has significant implications for education. Throughout tant component of teaching-learning for both teachers the last century, school programs were based on cogni- and students. Project-based learning allows teachers tive learning—that is, developing knowledge and skills to give individual attention to students. In turn, active that were important for the individualOnly to function in learning encourages differentiation in learning. society. Less attention was given to learning in the affec- If the creation belongs to God, then all aspects of His tive domain. However, learning in the spiritual domain world are potentially open for investigation. Each subject has often been neglected in public Western education sphere should be investigated and established in the same systems or restricted to expressions of religiosity in faith- general pattern: laying a biblical groundwork, creating a based schools. Christian philosophy statement, engaging cultural ideas, Within the Christian context, addressing the spiritual countering errant thinking, specifying relevant applica- dimension of education is even more imperative in a tion to the Christian life, and suggesting methodological world where: cues. Educational arenas may include, but are not limited to, fine arts, business, cultural apologetics, athletics, gov- The influence of religious traditions is declining, ernment, math, science, history, psychology, technology, manyCopy children are “unchurched” or “dechurched” politics, journalism, health, economics, literature, and (Collins-Mayo et al. 2010, 3), and many have only a administration. superficial knowledge of their faith tradition (Lynch How one engages multiple disciplines is as varied as the 2002; Rymarz 1999). In such instances, religious number of disciplines themselves. Ideas for project-based education may be likened to the teaching of a for- learning include a retreat for discussion, professional eign subject, in which connections must first be lectures, film reviews, reflective questionnaires, problem established if it is to become at all meaningful. solving, interdisciplinarity, site visits (e.g., museums), The health—including mental health—and social expert interviews, storytelling, community events, and problems that beset children and young people have cocurricular activities. become significant symptoms in societies across the globe (de Souza et al. 2009). Given this environ- References and Resources ment, many professionals working with children deSilva, David A. 2008. Sacramental Life: Spiritual Formation and young people have identified spiritual well- Through the Book of Common Prayer. Downers Grove, IL: being as an essential area to be addressed. In addi- InterVarsity Press. tion, strategies to nurture spirituality in the lives of Silberman, Mel. 1996. Active Learning: 101 Strategies to Teach children and young people have become topics for Any Subject. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. much research and discussion (e.g., de Souza et al. —Mark Eckel 2009; Roehlkepartain et al. 2006).

A Contemporary Understanding of Spirituality Learning, Spiritual Dimension of Spirituality, as it is being discussed here, is understood as the relational dimension of the individual, and expres- Spirituality,Contributor in Christian education, has been inextrica- sions of spirituality are expressions of the connectedness bly linked to religion and therefore religious education. that the individual experiences with the human and non- Spirituality is usually understood as spiritual practices, human world (de Souza 2003; Groome 1998; Hay and such as prayer, liturgies, action for social justice, and a Nye 1998; Ó Murchú 1997). Thus, care, empathy and study of sacred literature. However, in the contemporary compassion, joy and happiness, peace and freedom, still- Learning, Spiritual Dimension of 723 ness and silence, prayer, contemplation and meditation, The Complementarity of Cognitive, Affective, and wonder and awe, among others, are all expressions and Spiritual Dimensions of Learning of human spirituality. These are feelings and experiences A particular learning approach that recognizes the com- that arise in the individual in response to something or plementarity of the cognitive, affective, and spiritual someone other than the Self. For some, these responses dimensions of education (de Souza 2006) is one that are to a Higher Power, a Divine Being sometimes known identifies the following elements in the learning process: as God, but not all individuals are at this stage of realiza- perceiving, thinking, feeling, and intuiting/imagining/ tion and awareness. Nonetheless, they remain spiritual creating. Subsequent to the initial perceptions that the beings, deeply connected, at some level, to the Other31 in child gains as she or he engages with the outer world, their physical world. other elements follow and may be aligned with cogni- tive (thinking), affective (feeling), and spiritual (intuit- Spirituality in Education ing, imagining, and creating) learning. This approach Consequently, spirituality in education needs to focus on also recognizes the role of conscious (thinking and the relational dimension of being. Current practices that feeling) and nonconscious (feeling/intuiting/imagining emphasize competition, compartmentalization, assess- and creating) learning in the process. It is holistic, thus ment, weighting of some subjects over others, valuing recognizing the intellectual, emotional,Only and spiritual some personalities/characteristics over others, and so dimensions of the human person and involving each of on need to be revisited. Nurturing children and young these dimensions in the process of learning, whereby it people’s spirituality requires that attention be given to the addresses the whole person. These four elements enable activities and resources used in learning programs as well us to become familiar and engage with both our inner as the design of learning environments. These should be and outer worlds, and this is essential if learning is to be- chosen with care so that there is an acknowledgment that come meaningful and address the whole person. Hence, children need time and space for silence, stillness, and learning must be balanced among the four elements of solitude in a noisy, busy world. More attention needs to be the process: perceiving, thinking, feeling, and intuiting. given to activities that promote, positively, the relational The elements of intuiting, imagining, and creating aspects of students’ lives rather than those that continue come from beyond the conscious mind, in other words, to propagate the highly charged competitive climate. The theCopy nonconscious mind (de Souza et al. 2009); this, again, latter encourages the individual to work against one’s co- is an area upon which little emphasis has been placed in students, thereby generating a dehumanizing effect. One the educational arena. Intuition in particular is an element way is to share stories so that students may appreciate, that becomes an integrating factor between new and old in a world of diversity, how the Other’s story may mir- learning, thereby raising the potential for the learning to ror their own. Children and young people need rites of address the relational aspects of the individual’s life, that is, passage and rituals to ground them in a world steeped in the spiritual dimension. This learning approach involves change and uncertainty. Beyond that, they need to experi- perpetual movement: learning is taken beyond the surface ence being valued for who they are and what they bring to to the depth levels of the individual’s being, where a merg- the table, which is developing their self-esteem and sense ing between new and previous knowledge takes place. of identity. Ultimately, children and young people should This fusion should, then, generate outward expressions of be encouraged to recognize that their individual gifts are transformed thinking, action, and behavior. God given for the use and benefit of all, thereby deepen- A significant factor in the educational environment, ing their sense of belonging within their communities of course, is the teacher. Therefore, teachers in Christian and beyond. Belonging brings with it a sense of purpose education settings should be trained to become reflec- generated by the responsibility they may feel to and for tive and intuitive practitioners who bring their souls into their community, and it may enrich their sense of con- their educational practice. This is the only way teach- nectedness to Other. Further, individuals are provided ers will be enabled to nurture the spiritual lives of their with a communal framework within which they may students. Only then will Christian education provide make meaning of their life experiences. For this reason, children and young people with opportunities to develop addressing the spiritual dimension of the student needs meaningful knowledge about their faith tradition and to be foundational for learning across the curriculum in help them become faith-filled, hope-empowered, and ChristianContributor education, instead of being restricted to some love-inspired people. aspects of a religious education classroom. References and Resources 31. I use “Other” with a capital “O” to identify collectively and to per- Armstrong, K. 2009. The Case for God. London: The Bodley sonify all others. Head. 724 Learning Styles

Collins-Mayo, Sylvia, Bob Mayo, Sally Nash, and Christopher learning style, and that it has nothing to do with one’s IQ, Cocksworth. 2010. The Faith of Generation Y. London: educational background, or cultural experience. Church House Publishing. One of the best-known voices and advocates of learn- de Souza, M. 2003. “Contemporary Influences on the Spiritual- ing styles is David Kolb (1984). Kolb’s model is based on ity of Young People: Implications for Education.” Interna- experiential learning theory and outlines the following tional Journal of Children’s Spirituality 8 (3): 269–279. four learning styles: converger, diverger, assimilator, and ———. 2006. “Rediscovering the Spiritual Dimension in Edu- accommodator. Convergers prefer learning by active ex- cation: Promoting a Sense of Self and Place, Meaning and perimentation, abstract conceptualization, and deductive Purpose in Learning.” In International Handbook of the reasoning. Divergers lean toward more concrete experi- Religious, Moral and Spiritual Dimensions of Education, ed- ences, reflective observation, and seeing things from mul- ited by M. de Souza, K. Engebretson, G. Durka, R. Jackson, tiple perspectives. Assimilators also value abstract concep- and A. McGrady, 1127–1140. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: tualization but prefer inductive reasoning. Accomodators Springer Academic Publishers. prefer concrete experience and actively doing things rather de Souza, M., L. Francis, J. O’Higgins-Norman, and D. Scott, than just reading about or reflecting on things. eds. 2009. International Handbook of Education for Spiritual- In Christian education, Marlene LeFever (1995) em- ity, Care and Wellbeing. 2 vols. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: braces the following four learning styles—imaginativeOnly Springer Academic Publishers. learner, analytic learner, commonsense learner, and Groome, T. H. 1998. Educating for Life. Allen, TX: Thomas dynamic learner—which finds much of their roots in Moore. Kolb’s model. Imaginative learners learn best in settings Harris, M., and G. Moran. 1998. Reshaping Religious Education. that allow collaborative relationships and opportunity for Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. sharing and listening to ideas. Analytic learners learn best Hay, D., and R. Nye. 1998. The Spirit of the Child. London: by watching and listening and will often favor the more Fount Paperbacks. traditional, teacher-focused approach. Commonsense Hyde, B. 2008. Children and Spirituality: Searching for Mean- leaners like to explore and test ideas to see if they are ing and Connectedness. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. possible. Dynamic learners also like the practical, hands- Lynch, G. 2002. After Religion: “Generation X” and the Search on side of learning, but prefer to work from intuitive for Meaning. London: Darton, Longman & Todd. hunchesCopy and value creative and flexible solutions. LeFe- Ó Murchú, D. 1997. Reclaiming Spirituality. New York: Cross- ver argues that the four learning styles fit into a cycle, and road Publishing. when all four styles are employed in a learning context, Rahner, K. 1978. Foundations of Christian Faith: An Introduc- healthy biblical community and learning have the best tion to the Idea of Christianity. Translated by W. Dych. Lon- opportunity to take place. don: Darton, Longman & Todd. Learning style approaches have faced significant criti- Roehlkepartain, E. C., P. E. King, L. Wagener, and P. L. Benson. cism in recent years, especially from neuroscientists, who 2006. The Handbook of Spiritual Development in Childhood argue that brain research doesn’t support what they call and Adolescence. The SAGE Program on Applied Devel- an oversimplistic understanding of how people process opmental Science. Thousand Oaks, CA, London, and New information. The critics also highlight that many of the Delhi: Sage Publications. learning style assessments and inventories lack solid Rymarz, R. 1999. “Constructing the Future: A Reflection on the independent empirical research. While learning styles Post-conciliar Generations.” Australasian Catholic Record 76 have seen significant criticism, many would argue, that (1): 24–33. like other modern adult learning theories, learning styles Tielhard de Chardin, P. 1959. The Phenomenon of Man. English offer helpful practical insights and strategies for improv- trans. London: Wm. Collins Sons. ing teaching and learning in many contexts. Although it —Marian de Souza may be possible to criticize learning styles for not being a full learning theory, it does provide considerable prag- matic assistance for many in the teaching trenches. Learning Styles References and Resources Research and use of learning styles has exploded over Kolb, David. 1984. Experiential Learning: Experience as the the Contributorpast several decades. However, the rapid growth and Source of Learning and Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: interest have not been without critics. Learning styles Prentice Hall. are often defined or understood as a learner’s natural or LeFever, Marlene. 1995. Learning Styles: Reaching Everyone God unique preferred means of gaining or processing infor- Gave You. Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook Publishers. mation. Proponents argue that everyone has a preferred —Peter G. Osborn LeBar, Lois E. 725

Lebanon and Christian Education secular, independent university.35 With three campuses in Beirut, Byblos, and Sidon, the Lebanese American Univer- Located in the Eastern Mediterranean, Lebanon is bor- sity (LAU) was founded by Presbyterians and continues to dered by Syria on the north and east and Israel to the train church leaders in an American university setting.36 south. Lebanon’s location makes it the crossroads of the The Near East School of Theology (NEST) is an “intercon- Mediterranean Basin; Beirut is its capital. fessional” Protestant Seminary serving the churches of the Middle East.37 Other seminaries in Lebanon include the How and When Christianity Came to the Country Arab Baptist Theological Seminary, Christian Alliance In- Lebanon has a long history with Israel and is the home stitute of Theology, Eastern Mediterranean Nazarene Bible of the cedars of Lebanon, which was used in building the College, and Mediterranean Bible College. Temple (1 Kings 9:19). Jesus visited Tyre and Sidon in South Lebanon during His Galilean ministry, where He Typical Means of Educating Christians in the Country ministered to the Syro Phoenician woman (Mark 7:24– Lebanon has many private Christian schools and uni- 31). Marionite Catholics settled in the Lebanese moun- versities that serve their own specific religious commu- tains in the sixth century and have been an active part of nities. In addition, education is available via broadcast the Christian community since that time. In the 1800s, media using SAT 7, an evangelical religious broadcaster, which offers an extensive selectionOnly of Bible study and Europe’s interest in Lebanon’s Christians increased. In 1920, the French created “Greater Lebanon” with a very preaching programming. pro-Christian government. Brief Description of the State of Religious Freedom, Freedom to Worship, Conscience, Church and Main Denominations and Institutions in the Country State Relations The religious composition of Lebanon is Muslim, Catholic, With the majority of the population being Muslim, Leba- and evangelical. Approximately 60 percent of Lebanese are non is considered partly free on the Freedom House Free- Muslim of various sects, with 39 percent Marionite Catho- dom Index.38 The relationships among Muslims, Chris- lics, Orthodox, and Coptic Christians. Evangelicals are ap- tians, and evangelicals continues to be a political concern, proximately 1 percent of the total population.32 Evangelical as these three religious groups struggle for governmental denominations break out as follows: controlCopy and balance. Freedom of worship exists in Leba- non, as there are no prohibitions against it, but evangelism • Anglican Church of Lebanon: All Saints Anglican is limited. Church and state relations are political in nature, church is a blending of two languages, Arabic and as the Lebanese constitution specifies religious qualifica- English. The international congregation is composed tions for president (Maronite Christian), prime minister of more than 22 nationalities and worships in English. (Sunni Muslim), speaker of the Parliament (Shia Muslim), • Baptist Christians of Lebanon was founded in 1895 and deputy prime minister (Eastern Orthodox).39 Lebanon by Said Jureidini.33 This convention is composed is the only Middle Eastern country where religious free- of 28 churches and approximately 1,000 baptized dom is protected in the constitution. members. Southern Baptist missionaries began —Stephen K. McCord working with this convention in 1948. • Presbyterian Church of Lebanon, PC (USA) began its ministry in the early 1800s and established the LeBar, Lois E. American University in Beirut as a primary focus. Later the national church became the National Early Background and Education Evangelical Synod of Syria and Lebanon, and it min- Lois E. LeBar (1907–1998) was born and raised in Olean, 34 isters through multiple institutions. New York. She grew up attending a Methodist church

Institutions 35. “American University of Beirut,” http://www.aub.edu.lb (accessed The American University in Beirut (AUB) was founded 28 March 2013). 36. “Presbyterian Missions in Lebanon,” http://www.Presbyterianmis in 1886 by evangelical Christians and is now a private, sion.org/ministries/global/lebanon (accessed 28 March 2013). 37. “Near East School of Theology,” http://www.theonest.edu.lb (ac- cessed 15 March 2013). Contributor32. Central Intelligence Agency, The CIA World Factbook 2012–2013 38. “Freedom House Index,” http://www.freedomhouse.org/search/ (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2012), 419–422. lebanon (accessed 20 March 2013). Freedom House rates religious freedom 33. Albert W. Wardin, ed., Baptists around the World (Nashville, TN: in a country level on a scale from free to not free. Broadman & Holman, 1995). 39. “Lebanon’s Confessionalism: Problems and Prospects,” United States 34. “Presbyterian Missions in Lebanon,” http://www.Presbyterian Institute of Peace, http://www.usip.org/pubs/usipeace_briefings/2006/0330 mission.org/ministries/global/lebanon (accessed 28 March 2013). _lebanon_confessionalism.html (accessed 17 January 2013). 726 Lectio Divina as Christian Practice and as a youth helped her mother teach Sunday school Lois and Mary taught at Wheaton College until their there. She attended Geneseo State Normal School, in retirement in 1975. In the years that followed, both were Geneseo, New York, and upon graduation in 1928 taught involved in training schoolteachers to teach the Bible in first grade in Perry, New York. Though raised in a cli- public schools in Zimbabwe and in parts of Asia, Canada, mate of theological liberalism, she and her sister Mary, and Central America. In 1980, they moved to a retire- who was also a schoolteacher, embraced an evangelical ment community in Fort Myers, Florida. Lois continued faith commitment in 1932. Together, Mary and Lois pur- to be involved in various writing projects, particularly sued further education for possible ministry. They both curriculum development. Mary died of a heart attack in studied at Moody Bible Institute under Clarence Benson, 1982, and Lois died in 1998, at the age of 90. where Lois became involved in curriculum development Along with her impact through teaching at Wheaton projects with Benson that later became part of Scripture for 30 years and her publications, Lois was also involved Press curricula. Following graduation, Lois was hired to in a number of organizations that promoted the devel- teach courses in children’s work at Moody (1935–1942). opment of the church’s nonformal educational ministry She continued her studies at Pestalozzi-Froebel Teacher’s efforts. She served as a children’s book review editor College and Central YMCA College, graduating with a for Christian Life magazine, developed curriculum for BA in psychology in 1943. Scripture Press Publications, and wasOnly involved in lead- Both Lois and Mary then earned their master’s degrees ership roles in the National Sunday School Association in Christian education at Wheaton College, studying (NSSA). She served as a leader of the NSSA Commission under Rebecca Price. Following graduation, they both on Christian Education in 1951, which in 1970 became began to teach at Wheaton and in 1946 pursued doctoral the National Association of Professors of Christian studies in religious education at New York University, Education (renamed North American Professors of studying under Samuel Hamilton and D. Campbell Christian Education in 1991, and the Society of Profes- Wyckoff. The sisters returned to teach at Wheaton Col- sors in Christian Education in 2012). Her commitment lege in 1949 and earned their doctoral degrees from New to teaching the scriptures through educationally sound York University in 1951. methods continues to be a model to learn from today, influencing curriculum development in the church Significant Contributions to Christian Education aroundCopy the world. Among evangelical Christian education leaders, Lois LeBar was an early advocate for applying the results of Most Notable Publications recent educational psychology research to teaching the LeBar, L. E. 1958. Education That Is Christian. Old Tappan, NJ: Bible in the church. Her emphasis on active learning, F.H. Revell Publishing. developmental readiness, inductive Bible study methods, ———. 1952. Children in the Bible School: The HOW of Christian student discovery and application of scriptural principles, Education. Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming Revell Publishing. and the teacher as a facilitator of student learning chal- ———. 1968. Focus on People in Church Education. Old Tappan, lenged the prevalent Herbartian focus on well-organized NJ: Fleming Revell Publishing. content and the teacher as a dispenser of knowledge. In 1958, Lois published her most significant work, References and Resources Education That Is Christian. In it she integrated biblical Setran, David P. n.d. “Lois E. LeBar.” In Christian Educators examples of teaching and learning, a scriptural under- of the 20th Century. http://www.talbot.edu/ce20/educators/ standing of how people grow to maturity in Christ, and protestant/lois_lebar/ the growth of the whole person (mind, emotions, will, —Kevin E. Lawson behavior). She also focused on beginning with students’ needs and moving them to encounter their real needs through a study of the scripture, God’s divine revela- Lectio Divina as Christian Practice tion, the Living Word. She promoted an active learning approach, both in understanding what the scripture The literal meaning of lectio divina is “divine reading,” but taught and in learning to apply it in daily life. This book it is also translated as “spiritual reading,” because its focus has remained in print for over 50 years, still impacting is on God, and what its practitioners are seeking through it readersContributor today. Lois wrote two other books that also had is communion with God (Pennington 1983, 82). Another a significant impact in the church’s educational ministry description of lectio divina is “a way of prayerfully engag- efforts: Children in the Bible School (1952), and Focus on ing with Scriptures in order to hear God’s personal word People in Church Education (1968). to you” (Benner 2010, 47). Lectio divina treats “[s]criptures Lectionary 727 not as a text to be studied or a set of truths to be grasped, forms of responses can take place: words, journaling, but as the living Word—always alive, active, always fresh worship, singing, painting, and other forms of expressing and new” (Benner 2010, 48). gratitude. Contemplatio is prayer as being, which means There are varying opinions on how, when, and by the supplicant rests in the presence of God (Benner 2010, whom lectio divina began to be practiced. Although the 51). Lately, a few more movements have been added to term was not used until the sixth century by St. Benedict the original four—silencio (silence) before lectio for the of Nursia, a number of records indicate that the early preparation for the prayer, and incarnatio after contem- Church believers practiced this type of prayer. Benner plation for the practical application in everyday life on notes, “The root of Lectio Divina goes back to Judaism. which the supplicant learned from lectio divina (Mulhol- Jews have always had two approaches to the Torah. The land 1993,112). first is analytical and seeks to discover the one objective, Whether lectio divina was originally developed and true meaning of the text. The second is more subjective practiced for spiritual growth of the individual or com- in that it seeks the deeper and more personal spiritual munity is still debated. Nevertheless, currently lectio div- meaning. Both have validity and importance, but it was ina is used as a tool for individual spiritual enhancement the second that provided the soil out of which early Chris- as well as in a community, especially for small group tians developed Lectio Divina” (2010, 47). Early texts that ministry (Casey 1995). Only make reference to the use of this type of prayer during the early church period are by Origen (AD 185–254), who References and Resources used the Greek phrase thea anagnosis (divine reading) to Benner, D. G. 2010. Opening to God. Downers Grove, IL: IVP describe a way of approaching scriptures for the purpose Books. of finding a personal message from God (Benner 2010, Casey, M. 1995. Sacred Reading: The Ancient Art of Lectio 47–48); Cyprian of Carthage (AD 200–258), who wrote, Divina. Liguori, MO: Triumph Books. “Be assiduous in prayer and in reading. In the one you Fiedler, E. J. 1996. “Lectio Divina: Devouring God’s Word.” speak to God, in the other God speaks to you” (Fiedler Liturgical Ministry 5 (Spring): 65–69. 1996); St. Jerome (AD 347–420), who wrote, “Now he Hagan, H., C. Raab, and T. Gricoski. 2007. The Tradition of looks at God when he reads the sacred books; now he Catholic Prayer. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. speaks to God when he prays to the Lord” (Fiedler 1996); Mulholland,Copy M. R. 1993. Invitation to a Journey: A Roadmap for and St. Augustine (AD 354–430), who commented on Spiritual Formation. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Psalm 85, “Your prayer is a speaking with God. When Pennington, M. B. 1983. A Place Apart: Monastic Prayer and you read, God speaks to you: when you pray, you speak Practice for Everyone. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. to God” (Fiedler 1996). St. Benedict (AD 480–547) of Stock, B. 2001. After Augustine: The Meditative Reader and the Nursia actually used the words lectio divina and practiced Text. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. the prayer. Because of his use of the phrase, lectio divina —Mariana Hwang became more widespread and central to Western mo- nasticism (Stock 2001, 105). Although the practice was primarily associated with monastic spirituality until the Lectionary 20th century, it has been revived by Catholics as well as Protestants through recent interest in classical Christian The word “lectionary,” derived from the Latin “to read, spirituality (Hagan, Raab, and Gricoski 2007, 107–130). to choose,”40 refers to a book of lessons (lections) or Theologians and practitioners agree that lectio divina portions of scripture appointed to be read in a worship is not a technique or a method of prayer; instead, it is service; it also refers to the list of appointed passages.41 more of an intention and an expectation to encounter Beginning in ancient times, synagogues had fixed scrip- God behind scripture. The commonly practiced four ture readings appointed for the Jewish feasts and readings movements of the prayer were described and formulated for ordinary Sabbaths; an example of this practice may by the 12th-century Carthusian monk Guigo II, who have occurred when Jesus was in the synagogue in Naza- labeled them lectio, meditatio, oratio, and contemplatio. reth and “stood up to read the lesson and was handed Lectio is prayer as attending, which is the foundation of all prayer. The literal meaning is reading. Meditatio, from English meaning meditation, is prayer as ponder- Contributor 40. “Lection, n.,” in OED Online (Oxford University Press, June 2013), ing. This is a moment of reflection which the supplicant http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/106853 (accessed 12 July 2013). has received from God in lectio. Oratio, with its literal 41. “Lectionary, n.,” in OED Online (Oxford University Press, June 2013), http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/106855?redirectedFrom=lection meaning of speaking, is prayer as responding. Several ary& (accessed 9 July 2013). 728 Lectionary the scroll of the prophet Isaiah” (Luke 4: 16–17, NEB).42 and worship leaders with a scaffold on which to build Greek versions of Christian lectionaries date back to the integrated sermons and worship experiences, and helps third or fourth century.43 Following Jewish practice, early Christian educators develop unified teaching programs. lectionaries usually involved continuous readings (lectio Aiding them are a wide variety of lectionary-based com- continua), with each day’s reading picking up where it mentaries, preaching and worship resources, personal left off the previous day.44 In the ninth century, various devotional materials, and educational curricula—both local versions in western Europe were standardized into published and online50—enabling the faithful to explore a Sunday lectionary, which was used until recent years the sacred text together. by Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and Lutherans;45 wor- As Clifton Black states, a lectionary is only a map, ship renewal movements in the mid-20th century led to and scripture is the atlas, directing us to the territory for major consultations, which produced the Roman Catho- which we were created—life in God as Christ is formed lic Lectionary for Mass of 1969, the ecumenical Common in us.51 Lectionary of 1983, and the Revised Common Lectionary of 1992, which is now widely used by Protestants around References and Resources the world. In recent decades, other special interest lec- The African American Lectionary. n.d. www.theafricanamerican tionaries, such as the African American Lectionary, have lectionary.org. 46 Only also been developed. Black, C. Clifton. 2002. “Journeying through Scripture with the Lectionaries come in two basic forms: (1) a simple Lectionary’s Map.” Interpretation 56 (1): 59–72. table of readings, which gives the liturgical date and the Buttrick, George, ed. 1962. “Text.” In The Interpreter’s Diction- scripture references for the texts to be read, and (2) a ary of the Bible, vol. 4. New York: Abingdon Press. full-text edition, which includes the complete texts from Hickman, Hoyt L., Don E. Saliers, Laurence Hull Stookey, and a particular translation of the Bible.47 James F. White, eds. 1986. Handbook of the Christian Year. The Revised Common Lectionary presents three read- Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. ings for each Sunday—an Old Testament lesson, a Gospel “Lection.” 2013. OED Online. Oxford University Press. Accessed reading, and an Epistle—and a responsorial Psalm. The 12 July 2013. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/106853. readings are arranged in three-year cycles, each year cen- “Lectionary.” 2013. OED Online. Oxford University Press. Ac- tered on one of the three synoptic Gospels: Year A, the year cessedCopy 12 July 2013. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/10685 of Matthew; Year B, the year of Mark; and Year C, the year 5?redirectedFrom=lectionary&. of Luke; portions of the Gospel of John and Acts are read Meeter, Daniel. 2006. “The Church Tells Time; The Observance each year. Each year begins on the first Sunday of Advent.48 of the Liturgical Year with the Lectionary.” Liturgy 21 (2): By following the suggested readings, over the three- 35–41. year cycle regular worshippers will be exposed to the Reumann, John. 1977. “A History of Lectionaries: From the breadth and depth of the biblical story, with particu- Synagogue at Nazareth to Post-Vatican II.” Interpretation lar emphasis on the person and life of Christ. Despite 31: 116–130. limitations,49 using the lectionary provides preachers The Revised Common Lectionary. 1992. Washington, DC: Con- sultation on Common Texts. Published in Canada by Wood 42. Hoyt L. Hickman, Don E. Saliers, Laurence Hull Stookey, and James Lake Books. F. White, ed., Handbook of the Christian Year (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1986), 24. Webber, Robert E., ed. 1993. The Services of the Christian Year. 43. “Text,” in The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, ed. George But- Vol. V, The Complete Library of Christian Worship. Peabody, trick (New York: Abingdon Press, 1962), 4:598. MA: Hendrickson Publishers. 44. The Revised Common Lectionary (Washington, DC: Consultation on Common Texts, 1992), 9. Willimon, William H. 2001. “The Lectionary: Assessing the 45. For a concise history of lectionaries up to the development of the Gains and Losses in a Homiletical Revolution.” Theology Common Lectionary, see John Reumann, “A History of Lectionaries: From the Synagogue at Nazareth to Post-Vatican II,” Interpretation 31 (1977): Today 58: 333–341. 116–130. —Carol Anne Janzen 46. The African American Lectionary, which “focuses on liturgical mo- ments of significance to most African American Christians,” is available at www.theafricanamericanlectionary.org. 50. For an introductory bibliography of resources, though somewhat 47. Revised Common Lectionary, 9. dated, see Robert E. Webber, ed., The Services of the Christian Year, vol. V, 48. For a fuller explication of its history, structure, and use, see Revised The Complete Library of Christian Worship (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Common Lectionary. Publishers, 1993), 102–104. The Calvin Institute of Christian Worship of- 49.Contributor For a well-balanced assessment of the concerns and advantages of fers a rich variety of resources based on the Revised Common Lectionary at using the Revised Common Lectionary, see C. Clifton Black, “Journeying http://worship.calvin.edu. See also the dictionary entry “Lectionary-based through Scripture with the Lectionary’s Map,” Interpretation 56, no. 1 Curriculum.” (2002): 59–72. 51. Black, “Journeying through Scripture,” 72. Lectionary-based Curriculum 729

Lectionary-based Curriculum lic), Living the Good News55 (produced by the Episcopal Church but available for both the Roman Catholic and A lectionary-based curriculum is built on the biblical Protestant lectionaries), Spark Lectionary56 (Evangeli- texts (lections) that have been appointed to be read in cal Lutheran Church in America), Come and See Jesus57 worship, using the lectionary (see Lectionary) that any (Lutheran Church of Australia), The Whole People of God given congregation, denomination, or gathered body of and Seasons of the Spirit58 (international, ecumenical), believers may be following. While the most widely used Feasting on the Word59 (Presbyterian Church [USA]), lectionaries are the Roman Catholic Lectionary for Mass and Nurturing Faith60 (Baptists Today). and the Protestant Revised Common Lectionary, other As is the lectionary itself, the lectionary-based curricu- lectionaries are available (for instance, the African Ameri- lum is simply a tool for leading regular church attend- can Lectionary). ees through scripture in a comprehensive and unified Lectionary-based curricula facilitate the integration fashion; if followed faithfully, it has the capacity to grow and vitality of worship (leitourgia) and education (Di- biblical literacy, theological depth, and personal spiritual dache), two of the key tasks of the church.52 By focus- devotion. ing on the same weekly scripture passages in worship, church school, and adult study groups, people of all ages References and Resources Only learn and worship together, such that learning flows into Come and See Jesus: A Children’s Ministry Curriculum Based on worship and worship reinforces the Gospel taught. Such the Three-year Lectionary. 1990. Adelaide: Lutheran Publish- curricula are also designed to encourage family conversa- ing House. tions about faith, since the youngest to the oldest have deVillers, Sylvia. 2002. Lectionary-Based Catechesis for Chil- explored the same texts in age-appropriate activities. dren: A Catechist’s Guide. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. This approach has the potential to bring scripture to life Feasting on the Word. 2008. Louisville, KY: Presbyterian Pub- as various perspectives are shared; a particular strength lishing Corp. & Congregational Ministries Publishing. www is that children are not disadvantaged since they, too, are .feastingontheword.net. able to bring their voices to the conversation. Living the Good News. 1995. North Blackburn, Vic.: Dove. In general, most lectionary-based curricula follow the Morehouse Education Resources, an imprint of Church Pub- Christian calendar, thereby covering the whole story lishing,Copy Inc. www.livingthegoodnews.com. of redemptive history, rather than just the obligatory Lockerbie, D. Bruce. 1994. “Living and Growing in the Church observance of Christmas and Easter. In doing so, it is Year.” In The Christian Educator’s Handbook on Spiritual anticipated that the lessons may lead worshippers and Formation, edited by Kenneth O. Gangel and James C. Wil- learners “toward a fuller recognition of the progress hoit, 130–142. Wheaton, IL: Victor Books. and continuity of the presence of God in His dealings Nurturing Faith. 2011. Macon, GA: Baptists Today. www.nur- with Israel, in the life of Christ, and in the growth of the turingfaith.net. church.”53 Moving in a disciplined fashion through the Seasons of the Spirit. 2003. Kelowna, BC: Wood Lake Publish- seasons and with the rhythms of the church year has the ing. www.seasonsonline.ca. potential to deepen one’s spiritual insight and broaden Spark Lectionary. 2013. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress one’s understanding of the full story of God’s dealing Press. with God’s people. Whole People of God Online. 2010. Kelowna, BC: Wood Lake In the years since the Lectionary for Mass and the Publishing. www.wholepeopleofgod.com. Revised Common Lectionary were published and widely —Carol Anne Janzen adopted, a variety of curricula, supporting a spectrum of Christian denominations, have been developed. Many 55. Living the Good News (Morehouse Education Resources, 1995), are available both in print and online. A representative www.livingthegoodnews.com. sample includes Catechesis for Children54 (Roman Catho- 56. Spark Lectionary (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Press, 2013). 57. Come and See Jesus: A Children’s Ministry Curriculum Based on the Three-year Lectionary (Adelaide, Australia: Lutheran Publishing House, 52. The other key tasks of the church are kerygma (proclamation of the 1990). Gospel), koinonia (fellowship, building up the body), and diakonia (service, 58. Whole People of God Online (Kelowna, BC: Wood Lake Publish- caring for those in need). ing, Inc., 2010), www.wholepeopleofgod.com; and Seasons of the Spirit 53. D. Bruce Lockerbie, “Living and Growing in the Church Year,” in (Kelowna, BC: Wood Lake Publishing, Inc.), www.seasonsonline.ca. TheContributor Christian Educator’s Handbook on Spiritual Formation, ed. Kenneth 59. Feasting on the Word (Louisville, KY: Presbyterian Publishing Corp. O. Gangel and James C. Wilhoit (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1994), 139. & Congregational Ministries Publishing, 2008), www.feastingontheword.net. 54. Sylvia deVillers, Lectionary-Based Catechesis for Children: A Cat- 60. Nurturing Faith (Macon, GA: Baptists Today, 2011), www.nurturing echist’s Guide (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 2002). faith.net. 730 Lee, James Michael

Lee, James Michael His educational experience was also quite influential in his continuing intellectual and spiritual development. Early Background and Education His educational journey included Coindre Hall private James Michael Lee IV was born in 1931 in New York boarding school, the Jesuit Brooklyn Preparatory School, City to Roman Catholic parents of exceptional artistic, Venard junior seminary, St. John’s University, and Co- religious, and intellectual inclinations. Lee described his lumbia University.66 His early education was spiritually childhood as “extremely happy,” even though his art- and intellectually effective in deepening his faith, but his loving and erudite accountant father died at age 45 of time in junior seminary set him on a course of disdain a massive stroke.61 Both his mother and father exerted for clergy politics and mental slothfulness that followed significant positive spiritual and intellectual influence Lee throughout his life. He decided not to enter the on Lee, and from their example he learned an incredibly priesthood; he found the education at St. John’s Uni- industrious work ethic and commitment to excellence versity satisfying, but considered Columbia Teacher’s in personal and professional pursuits. Lee attributed his College educationally weak. Interestingly, although Lee focus on the “real and demonstrable” in his educational wanted to study theology, he chose to pursue doctoral theory to his experience growing up on the streets of New studies in education because of the barriers to layper- York City. His later emphasis on the importance of fam- sons teaching theology in the RomanOnly Catholic Church ily in religious development—although grounded by Lee and his conviction that “any person who works in God’s in empirical research—is also likely due to the decidedly service ought not go into a field primarily because he formative impact of his childhood family experience. likes it but rather because he is needed.”67 Other forma- Lee’s early life was marked by powerful spiritual expe- tive influences in Lee’s life included his stint with the riences that he considered foundational and determina- Catholic Worker movement and Catholic Action and his tive of his vocation throughout his life. He claimed his involvement in New York City politics, which left him “call to serve God came rather early in life.”62 Attributing convinced politicians were characterized by self-interest this life-defining experience as a “rather low-keyed occur- and compromise, resulting in the “abandonment of rence” that unfolded over several weeks, Lee concluded, people and principles.”68 “All I know for certain is that sometime during this extended experience and also as a direct consequence of SignificantCopy Contributions to Christian Education this experience I irrevocably and completely gave myself James Michael Lee has championed a social science to God’s service.”63 Strikingly, this experience so shaped approach to the process of Christian formation and is his religious consciousness that Lee remained convinced recognized as the “father of the social science approach throughout his life that “God had personally called me to religious instruction.”69 Lee’s trilogy of works—The to be one of his apostles.”64 Another such experience— Shape of Religious Instruction (1971), The Flow of Reli- which Lee described as “very powerful”—occurred when gious Instruction (1973), and The Content of Religious he was around age eight. It involved Lee promising God Instruction (1985)—were foundational to the ascendance he would “work night and day for you with everything of the social science school in religious and Christian I have” if he were granted a life of 80 years. In mystical education. After leaving Notre Dame when its graduate fashion, Lee continued to “somehow hold it fast within department in religious education was arbitrarily closed, my soul” that God had honored his admittedly child- Lee joined the faculty of the University of Alabama in ish appeal and—despite all manner of skepticism about Birmingham in 1977 and founded the Religious Educa- this—that “somehow and in some way St. Michael is tion Press. The press has become the most influential personally watching out for me and armoring me in a publisher of works in the field of religious education very special way.”65 Consequently, Lee developed a pas- in the world.70 Lee’s primary contribution to Christian sionate missionary and apostolate sense of vocation and, contrary to scholarly perception, was influenced greatly 66. James E. Reed and Ronnie Prevost, A History of Christian Educa- in his later educational theory making by these formative tion (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 1993), 355; Lee, “To Basically spiritual experiences. Change Fundamental Theory and Practice,” 260–277. 67. Lee, “To Basically Change Fundamental Theory and Practice,” 274. 68. Ibid., 273. 61. James Michael Lee, “To Basically Change Fundamental Theory and 69. See Kenneth O. Gangel and Warren S. Benson, Christian Education: Practice,”Contributor in Modern Masters of Religious Education, ed. by Marlene Mayr Its History and Philosophy (Chicago: Moody Press, 1983), 325; Harold (Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press, 1983), 256–257. William Burgess, An Invitation to Religious Education (Birmingham, AL: 62. Ibid., 258. Religious Education Press, 1975), 127; and Thomas H. Groome, Christian 63. Ibid., 259. Religious Education: Sharing Our Story and Vision (San Francisco: Harper 64. Ibid. & Row, 1980), 130. 65. Ibid., 261. 70. Reed and Prevost, History of Christian Education, 356. l’Epée, Abbé Charles-Michel de 731 education is his advocacy of a viable theory for teaching oath rejecting the teachings of Jansenism. He then turned learning in the instructional process that can achieve to studying law and was admitted to the bar, but returned learning goals and yield measurable evaluative data. to his religious calling and was eventually ordained but barred from serving as a priest (Lane 1984, 53–54). Most Important Publications The sequence of events that led Abbé de l’Epée to Lee has published works on seminary education; the invest his time and talents in educating deaf people has spirituality of educators; the future of religious educa- been romanticized and mythologized in French culture tion; guidance and counseling; secondary education; through a long-running and popular play penned by Jean Catholic education; and the implications of social sci- Nicolas Bouilly that frames l’Epée as a “father of the deaf” ence for teaching theory, instruction, and content. While who regularly saved unfortunate deaf people from desti- Lee considered his work on seminary education to have tution and led them onto a path of mental and spiritual had the greatest impact, his foundational works on the development, much to the satisfaction of French audi- social science approach to religious instruction are his ences of the early 19th century (Lane 1984, 42). Similarly, best known and most influential in theorizing about histories of deaf culture often enshrine his encounter religious or Christian education. Lee’s immanentist theo- with deaf people in a manner that frames it as a discovery logical assumptions and empirical passion have led many of deaf people and enrichment ofOnly their prospects, in a Christian educators committed to a more theologically problematic manner akin to Columbus’s “discovery” of shaped approach to formation not to fully engage Lee’s the New World (Wrigley 1996, 46). While such hagio- work. In the present American educational context of graphic accounts are less than helpful in understanding learning outcomes, more rigorous learning assessments, historical facts, they do point to the significance of Abbé and increasing focus on the scholarship of teaching and de l’Epée’s work in deaf education. As the successor to learning, Lee’s works are valuable and may see a wider a Catholic priest, Father Vanin, l’Epée often visited the readership among Christian educators who do not share poorer quarters of Paris. After Father Vanin’s passing, his theological presuppositions. l’Epée took charge of the religious education of two deaf sisters who were using manual signs to communicate References and Resources with one another. In learning and using these signs, he Burgess, Harold William. 1975. An Invitation to Religious Edu- beganCopy to chart a method for teaching religious concepts cation. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. to deaf people (Lane 1984, 57–58). In his writings, l’Epée Gangel, Kenneth O., and Warren S. Benson. 1983. Christian later explained his efforts in religious education for deaf Education: Its History and Philosophy. Chicago: Moody people as “seeking, . . . ‘to reach heaven by trying at least Press. to lead others there.’” (Lane 1984, 57). Groome, Thomas H. 1980. Christian Religious Education: Shar- Having learned the signs that deaf people throughout ing Our Story and Vision. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Paris were using to communicate with one another, Abbé Lee, James Michael. 1983. “To Basically Change Fundamental de l’Epée’s school used his manualist method of deaf edu- Theory and Practice.” In Modern Masters of Religious Educa- cation with great success. However, l’Epée also viewed tion, edited by Marlene Mayr, 254–323. Birmingham, AL: the signs that deaf people were using as incomplete lan- Religious Education Press. guage, as there were no signs for specific parts of speech Reed, James E., and Ronnie Prevost. 1993. A History of Chris- present in spoken and written French. By supplementing tian Education. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. the natural signed language of Parisian deaf people with —James P. Bowers additional signs and distorting them to follow French syntax and grammar, he developed what he termed “methodological signs” as a part of his educational ap- l’Epée, Abbé Charles-Michel de proach (Fischer 1993, 14–15). While these signs allowed students to understand French sentences and render Abbé Charles-Michel de l’Epée was a French Catholic their responses in precise French grammar when asked hearing educator credited with establishing the first free to do so at public exhibitions of Abbé de l’Epée’s meth- school for the deaf, in Paris, France, in 1760. He is best odology for teaching the deaf, they were unwieldy and known for his contribution to establishing methods of unlike the natural signed language of deaf Parisians. One deafContributor education that use signed languages rather than of the lasting legacies of this confusion between l’Epée’s ascribing to a philosophy of educating deaf people by methodological signs and the natural signs of deaf Pari- teaching them to speak. Born to a wealthy family in Ver- sians is that Abbé de l’Epée is often credited with having sailles in 1712, he studied for the priesthood but was ini- invented signed language (Wrigley 1996, 61). Similarly, tially denied ordination as a result of his refusal to sign an subsequent opponents to the use of signed languages in 732 Lewis, C. S. deaf education, known as oralists, pointed to l’Epée’s ap- April 1918, he was wounded in battle; eventually demo- parent need to supplement existing signs as a weakness or bilized, he returned to his studies at University College, deficiency in the natural signed languages of deaf people Oxford. In May 1925, Lewis was appointed fellow and (Fischer 1993, 23). Regardless of l’Epée’s misconceptions tutor in English literature at Magdalen College, Oxford, about the nature of signed languages, his work in estab- where he remained until his professorship at Cambridge lishing the first public school for deaf people using signed in 1954. Lewis, a committed atheist by the age of 15, languages has a lasting significance. By his emphasizing converted to Christianity in 1931 following an engaging signed language in his pedagogy, many deaf students conversation with two Christian friends, J. R. R. Tolkien became educators themselves, and a number of success- and Hugo Dyson. ful graduates of this school went on to assist with the founding of and lead teaching at deaf schools throughout Significant Contributions to Christian Education Europe and the United States. One can hardly speak of Christian intellectual engage- ment without mentioning C. S. Lewis. His diverse works References and Suggested Reading of poetry, fiction, and popular have Fischer, Renate. 1993. “Abbé de l’Epée and the Living Diction- provided extensive resources for Christian education in ary.” In Deaf History Unveiled: Interpretations from the New both formal and informal settings. HisOnly fictional work, Scholarship, edited by John Vickrey VanCleve, 13–26. Wash- The Screwtape Letters, opened the door for discussion in ington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. the modern world about the character and influence of Lane, Harlan. 1984. When the Mind Hears: A History of the the demonic in our daily lives. Although Lewis denied Deaf. New York: Random House. the allegorical nature of his stories, his adventure novels Wrigley, Owen. 1996. The Politics of Deafness. Washington, in The Chronicles of Narnia series certainly set the stage DC: Gallaudet University Press. for Christian narrative reflection in the context of myth —Kirk A. VanGilder and allegory. His rigorous literary scholarship has inspired many Christian teachers to emulate his academic assiduity. Lewis, C. S. Lewis’s forthright, unashamed defense of the Christian faith Copyhas stimulated many discussions about history, Clive Staples Lewis (1898–1963), known as “Jack” myth, miracles, and the problem of evil. His involvement among his friends, was an Anglican scholar, university in the Oxford Socratic Club, along with his BBC broad- don, and author. He held academic posts at both Ox- casts, provided an example for many of the robust con- ford (1925–1954) and Cambridge (1954–1963). Lewis fidence Christians may maintain as public intellectuals deeply influenced modern-day evangelical thought and and educators. Today, his legacy continues through such apologetics through his vast writings. His BBC radio organizations as the C.S. Lewis Institute (www.cslewis broadcasts between 1942 and 1944 resulted in the pub- institute.org), which provides discipleship resources for lication of a book, Mere Christianity, that set the tone the church; the C.S. Lewis Foundation (www.cslewis for a robust evangelical apologetics in the late modern .org), which focuses on higher education and culture; and English-speaking world. a multitude of additional C. S. Lewis centers, institutes, and programs. Early Background and Education Lewis was born in Belfast, Ireland, the son of Albert, a Most Notable Publications lawyer, and Flora, a well-educated daughter of an An- The Allegory of Love, 1936 glican vicar. “Jack” and his older brother, Warren, had Space Trilogy: Out of the Silent Planet, 1938 vivid imaginations, perhaps in part due to their family’s Perelandra, 1942 vast library. The boys played together in their “made-up” That Hideous Strength, 1945 land of Boxen, a world of talking animals. Lewis was ed- A Preface to Paradise Lost, 1942 ucated at home by his mother in his early years. After his English Literature in the Sixteenth Century, 1954 mother’s death to cancer in 1908, Lewis attended various The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Ward- boarding schools in England until his private education robe, 1950 underContributor the former tutor of his father, W. T. Kirkpatrick, Prince Caspian, 1951 the former headmaster of Lurgan College. In 1917, Lewis The Voyage of the “Dawn Treader,” 1952 began studying at Oxford, but he interrupted his studies The Silver Chair, 1953 to follow the footsteps of his older brother by volunteer- The Horse and His Boy, 1954 ing for the British Army, serving in World War I. In The Magician’s Nephew, 1955 Liberal Arts 733

The Last Battle, 1956 pected to perform. Free citizens, on the other hand, were Till We Have Faces, 1956 given a “liberal” education (derived from the Latin for The Problem of Pain, 1940 “free,” liber). In order to take part in Greek democracy or The Screwtape Letters, 1942 the Roman republic, a citizen had to be able to deliberate, The Abolition of Man, 1943 to persuade others, and to think rationally. In addition, The Great Divorce, 1945 those who were free must receive and pass on their cul- Miracles, 1947 tural heritage and cultivate civic virtues. With the rise of The Weight of Glory, 1949 philosophy, as institutionalized in Plato’s academy and Mere Christianity, 1952 Aristotle’s lyceum, liberal education became associated The Four Loves, 1960 with the pursuit of knowledge as an end in itself and the The World’s Last Night, 1960 exploration of the true, the good, and the beautiful. This God in the Dock, 1971. included mathematics, music, and the study of nature. Whereas the Greek curriculum emphasized philosophy, References and Resources the Romans emphasized literature and the art of rhetoric. “About C.S. Lewis.” n.d. Harper One. Accessed 8 January 2013. When Christianity came to the Hellenistic and Roman http://www.cslewis.com/about.aspx. world, the early church worked Onlyto reconcile “pagan” Edwards, Bruce. n.d. “A Modest Literary Biography and Bibli- learning with Christian truth. Augustine showed how ography.” Accessed 16 November 2012. http://personal.bgsu the insights and knowledge of the pagans could be .edu/~edwards/biobib.html. understood more deeply as aspects of God’s creation. Schultz, Jeffrey D., and John G. West Jr., eds. 1998. The C.S. The Christian scholar Cassiodorus went so far as to Lewis Readers’ Encyclopedia. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. systematize classical educational theory and practice, formulating what became the definitive list of the seven C.S. Lewis Foundation. http://www.cslewis.org/resources/ liberal arts. These were the trivium of grammar, logic, cslewis.html. and rhetoric and the quadrivium of arithmetic, geometry, Explorefaith.org. http://www.explorefaith.org/lewis/bio.html. music, and astronomy. Essentially, the three arts of the —Ronald T. Michener trivium taught the mastery of language, while the four artsCopy of the quadrivium taught the mastery of mathemat- ics. As another Christian scholar, Boethius, explained the Liberal Arts quadrivium, arithmetic is the study of numbers, geom- etry is numbers in space, music is numbers in time, and The liberal arts are an educational tradition character- astronomy is numbers in space and time. ized by the cultivation of the intellect and other human The medieval universities were organized around the powers (as opposed to vocational training), the pursuit seven liberal arts, to which were added the three sci- of knowledge for its own sake (rather than for utilitarian ences. An “art” referred to an ability of the human mind. ends), the study of the humanities (as opposed to a purely “Science” (from the Latin word for knowledge, scientia) scientific education), and the exploration of a broad referred to any kind of knowledge. Medieval educators range of subjects (rather than narrow specialization). The classified the various kinds of knowledge into three liberal arts had their origins in ancient Greece and Rome, categories: Natural sciences (knowledge of the created were systematized by the early church, and became the world, including physics, biology, and metaphysics), leading educational paradigm for the medieval university moral sciences (knowledge of human beings, including and, in a different variation, for the academies of the history, law, and the humanities), and theological science Renaissance and the Reformation. The liberal arts also (knowledge of God, including theology and scripture). shaped the curriculum of modern universities. Recover- Theology was the “queen of the sciences” because the ing the liberal arts tradition is the basis of the contem- knowledge of God gave coherence to all of the other sci- porary educational reform movement known as classical ences, as well as to the arts. Christian education. The Varieties of Liberal Education The Arts and Sciences Even within the structure of the seven liberal arts and TheContributor Greeks and the Romans practiced two kinds of the sciences, a liberal education could take different education: one for slaves and one for free citizens. Slaves forms. The trivium of grammar, logic, and rhetoric was were given a “servile” education (derived from the Latin foundational, but some approaches would emphasize for slave, servus), in which they were trained in arts of one of the arts over the others. The Greeks favored logic, craftsmanship and whatever occupation they were ex- also termed “dialectic,” referring to the pedagogical 734 Liberal Arts method of Socratic questioning that was employed to still honor the tradition, whether through experimental teach logical understanding. The Romans, in contrast, interdisciplinary courses or for the larger goal of forming favored rhetoric, with its political applications. Similarly, free citizens. the medieval version of the liberal arts tended to stress Some Christian colleges, such as New St. Andrews, logic, resulting in the syllogisms and chains of reasoning Patrick Henry College, and Aquinas College, have re- that characterize scholastic theology. The Renaissance, turned to the classical liberal arts as an antidote to the however, emphasized rhetoric, with its literary creativity. progressivism of most higher education and in an at- For all of their differences, the Greeks and the Romans, tempt to rebuild the Christian intellectual tradition. the medieval scholastics, and the Renaissance humanists were all part of the liberal arts tradition.71 Classical Christian Education The liberal arts, accompanied by the study of Greek The liberal arts are being recovered as they apply to pri- and Latin literature, dominated Western education, mary and secondary education in the classical Christian from the parochial schools of both Catholics and Protes- education movement, which has become popular among tants to the great universities of Oxford and Cambridge, homeschoolers and private Christian schools. The cata- Harvard, and Princeton. A new approach to education, lyst was an essay by the English author Dorothy L. Say- however, arose in the 19th century. In Germany, Wil- ers entitled “The Lost Tools of Learning,”Only in which she helm von Humboldt, with the help of theologian Fried- described the trivium as a developmental model for how rich Schleiermacher, designed a new kind of curriculum children learn, progressing from a “grammar” stage of for the new University of Berlin, founded in 1810. It direct instruction and memorization in the early grades, was designed in accordance with modern science, rather moving to a “logic” stage of questioning in the middle than the liberal arts, featuring highly specialized depart- school years, and then moving to a “rhetoric” stage of ments, majors, and courses. This so-called German Uni- personal expression in the high school years. Reformed versity model became the template for the modern re- pastor Douglas Wilson started a school on those prin- search university. Beginning with Johns Hopkins in the ciples, Logos School, in Moscow, Idaho. He published a United States, founded in 1876, the German model was book, Recovering the Lost Tools of Learning, about what adopted for the numerous public land grant universities he called “classical Christian education” in 1991. This in- being established, and in the course of the 20th century, spiredCopy the founding of similar schools across the country. it was adopted by virtually all American institutions of The Association of Classical Christian Schools now has higher education. over 200 member schools. Other classical schools, reflect- And yet many observers felt the scientific, technical ing different theological perspectives, have been founded, model for higher education—which was applied even along with more organizations, such as the Society for to subjects such as literature and theology—fell short, Classical Learning and the Consortium of Classical & leaving students with a narrow specialty, but without the Lutheran Schools. broader knowledge and skills necessary for a full educa- In 1999, Susan Wise Bauer and Jessie Bauer published tion. A professor at Columbia University, John Erskine, The Well-Trained Mind: A Guide to Classical Education taught a course in Western literature that became the at Home, with the secular press W. W. Norton. Today inspiration for a liberal arts “core curriculum.” Students there are many liberal arts curricula for homeschoolers, would have a liberal arts requirement, consisting of as well as online tutorials and distance learning classes. courses in humanities and samplings from a wide range of disciplines, and then they could specialize in their ma- References and Resources jors. The president of the University of Chicago, Robert Bauer, Susan Wise, and Jessie Bauer. 1999. The Well-Trained Maynard Hutchins, further promoted the core curricu- Mind: A Guide to Classical Education at Home. New York: lum. He favored an approach to the liberal arts through W. W. Norton. the study of the “great books” of the Western tradition. Joseph, Miriam, Sister. 2002. The Trivium: The Liberal Arts of Soon the liberal arts core curriculum became a fixture Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric. Philadelphia: Paul Dry Books. in virtually all universities, ranging from extensive com- Kimball, Bruce A. 1995. Orators and Philosophers: A History mon cores taken by all students to a more cursory menu of the Idea of Liberal Education. New York: College Board. of electives. Although since the 1970s many colleges and Littlejohn, Robert, and Charles T. Evans. 2006. Wisdom and universitiesContributor have dropped or dramatically reduced their Eloquence: A Christian Paradigm for Classical Learning. liberal arts requirements, institutions of higher education Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books. Sayers, Dorothy L. 2001. The Lost Tools of Learning.” Re- 71. See Bruce A. Kimball, Orators and Philosophers: A History of the Idea printed in Classical Education: The Movement Sweeping of Liberal Education (New York: College Board, 1995). America (Studies in Philanthropy), rev. ed., edited by Appen- Liberalism/Fundamentalist Controversy 735

dix Wilson, Gene Edward Veith and Andrew Kern, 59–85. teaching evolution, fundamentalism went underground Washington, DC: Capital Research Center. and maintained a militant position through separate Wilson, Douglas. 1991. Recovering the Lost Tools of Learning. educational institutions. Wheaton, IL: Crossway. —Gene Edward Veith Controversy Surrounding Education The modernist/fundamentalist conflict erupted in large part due to concerns surrounding education. As Ameri- Liberalism/Fundamentalist Controversy can universities became increasingly dominated by mod- ernist/liberal scholars, fundamentalists grew increasingly Introduction suspicious of such institutions. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, American Historians generally consider the publication between Protestants became increasingly polarized. One vein 1910 and 1915 of a series of tracts titled The Fundamen- of thought, the modernists, argued that Protestantism tals: A Testimony to the Truth the catalyst for the rising needed to break down traditional barriers between re- movement. The purpose of these tracts was to disseminate ligion and culture and thereby embrace modernity. For core values and beliefs to a culture that no longer placed example, some of these “New Theologians,” such as New- authority in the divine inspirationOnly of scripture. The man Smyth, Charles A. Briggs, and Theodore Munger, project was funded by two tycoons of the Standard Oil attempted to integrate science and theology. By the turn Company, Lyman and Milton Stewart. These two broth- of the century, modernism was a discernible and influen- ers financed a wide range of mission projects to endowed tial movement that emphasized the immanence of God professorships at educational institutions. As the Stewart in the natural and cultural order while preserving Chris- brothers became disenchanted with other educational tianity’s uniqueness. By the end of the 1920s, the term institutions, they ultimately founded the Bible Institute “modernism” had fallen into disuse as “liberalism”—as of Los Angeles (BIOLA). According to Lyman Stewart, personified by Harry Emerson Fosdick—instead empha- the purpose of the school was to create a theological safe sized the divine immanence while avoiding the earlier haven where the authority of the Bible was never to be movement’s emphasis on human progress. questioned. He specifically cited that his concerns had The term “fundamentalism,” in its broadest sense, arisenCopy during the 1890s when a teacher at Occidental Col- refers to a conservative milieu within a particular type of lege, a school where his money funded the entire Bible culture of religion. In a historical sense the rising “fun- department, had a teacher who used historical-critical damentalist” movement was a militant antimodern and textbooks that undermined confidence in supernatural antiliberal movement recognizable during the first few aspects of the biblical narrative. Such “positively devilish” decades of the 20th century. This movement comprised teachings, as he put it, destroyed faith in the “absolute a loose coalition of conservative Christians who con- inerrancy” of scripture. Thus BIOLA was founded to en- structed their identity and worldview around the Bible, sure that this did not happen again. The Stewart brothers which they regarded as divinely inspired and beyond the set a precedent in which the rising fundamentalist move- reach of human criticism. These “fundamentalists,” as ment created its own educational subculture that became they later came to be known, were evangelical Christians a lasting part of American society. Although the emerg- who emphasized the importance of being “born again” ing cross-denominational fundamentalist movement did and viewed sharing the good news of salvation as the not have a defined set of beliefs, it stood vehemently for highest task entrusted to human beings. the Bible and against anything that might compromise it. The origins of the fundamentalist movement came Historian Ernest R. Sandeen argues that the publica- about, as historian George R. Marsden argues, as a re- tion of The Fundamentals did little to impact biblical sponse to profound social and intellectual change after studies. What it did accomplish was to arouse average the American Civil War (1861–1865). The fundamen- Christian lay members to action—individuals who pre- talists were set apart by their conspicuous militancy in viously were unaware of historical criticism and other defending what they considered to be “traditional” Prot- scholarly work. Within this subculture, fundamentalists estantism. Secularism, Marxism, evolutionary natural- created a separate body of literature along with separate ism, Roman Catholicism, and even “cults” were a threat educational institutions to safeguard their children. toContributor white Anglo-Saxon Protestantism. Four paramount emphases distinguished this historic movement: revival- References and Resources ist evangelicalism, dispensationalist premillennialism, Carpenter, Joel A., ed. 1988. The Fundamentalist-Modernist the Holiness movement, and efforts to defend the faith. Conflict: Opposing Views on Three Major Issues. New York: By the late 1920s, after the debacle of the Scopes trial over Garland Publishing. 736 Liberation Pedagogy

———. 1997. Revive Us Again: The Reawakening of American According to Freire, “authentic liberation—the process Fundamentalism. New York: Oxford University Press. of humanization—is not another deposit to be made in Dayton, Donald W., and Robert K. Johnston, eds. 1991. The men [sic]. Liberation is a praxis: the action and reflec- Variety of American Evangelicalism. Knoxville: University of tion of men and women upon their world in order to Tennessee Press. transform it” ([1971] 1997, 60). Through this praxis, Hutchinson, William R., ed. 1968. American Protestant human beings become critically conscious of the social, Thought: The Liberal Era. New York: Harper & Row. political, and economic structures that oppress them, ———. 1976. The Modernist Impulse in American Protestantism. and by denouncing these dehumanizing situations of Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. oppression and alienation, they announce alternative Larson, Edward J. 1997. Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial structures that seek to liberate and transform their real- and America’s Continuing Debate Over Science and Religion. ity. In light of Freire’s thinking, liberation pedagogy is Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. not reducible to a mechanical method of instruction and Marsden, George M. 1980. Fundamentalism and American transferable skills, which Freire identifies as a “banking” Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth-Century Evangelicalism, model of education, but is a social-political construct, a 1870–1925. New York: Oxford University Press. liberating form of education that engages participants in ———. 1991. Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelical- critical thinking and the quest for mutualOnly humanization. ism. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. For Freire, liberation pedagogy implies an “archaeology” Marty, Martin E. 1992. Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism. of consciousness—that is, a deepened consciousness of Munich: K. G. Saur. the historical reality that leads individuals to analyze and ———. 1993. Fundamentalisms and Society: Reclaiming the acquire an understanding of the roots of existing condi- Sciences, the Family, and Education. Chicago: University of tions and to become aware of their place in the world as Chicago Press. active subjects and cocreators of history. However, Freire ———. 1995. Fundamentalisms Comprehended. Chicago: Uni- concedes that reaching a critical comprehension of any versity of Chicago Press. oppressive situation through the process of “conscienti- Riley, William B. 1917. The Menace of Modernism. New York: zation” does not liberate the oppressed immediately, but Christian Alliance. is simply the first step toward transformation. Sandeen, Ernest R. 1970. The Roots of Fundamentalism: British Copy and American Millenarianism, 1800–1930. Chicago: Univer- The Role of Liberation Pedagogy sity of Chicago Press. According to Freire, the role of liberation pedagogy is to Weber, Timothy P. 1983. Living in the Shadow of the Second educate for critical consciousness, with the ultimate goal Coming: American Premillennialism, 1875–1982. rev. ed. of humanization and the building of a just society. He Grand Rapids, MI: Academic Books. regards the ontological vocation of human beings “to be —Michael W. Campbell more” as a central construct of his theory, which explic- itly opposes any action that is destructive and inhuman. Consistent with his thinking, liberation is made possible Liberation Pedagogy only insofar as the historical subjects assume the contra- dictions of the society in which they live, and through The term “liberation pedagogy” has political connota- their praxis, work to change it. Within that context, tions in its essence, with visionary and prophetic implica- liberation pedagogy empowers teachers and students tions in its application. It implies a pedagogy concerned to advance democracy, to enhance their literacy and with sociopolitical systems that compromise human knowledge of the world, working together for change. dignity. From such a perspective, the primary role of Therefore, liberation pedagogy is not a place to arrive, education is to engage learners in a dialogical process of but rather a place of departure that implies a critical view critical consciousness, identifying colonialist, hegemonic, of social reality, an engaged praxis, and faith to move and neoliberal schemes of domination that perpetu- prophetically forward toward transformation. ate inequalities. Liberation pedagogy encompasses the In light of Freire’s understanding, liberation pedagogy dialectics of oppression and liberation and aims to foster is not a pedagogy for the oppressed, but with the op- critical individuals to articulate prophetically a new vi- pressed. It seeks to address life’s circumstances of misery, sionContributor for humanity and society. ignorance, and abandonment. It is to be engaged by those The work of Paulo Freire (1921–1997), Brazilian who are imprisoned in their own banality, superficiality, educator, has been very influential and rightly referred and selfishness, so that they may recognize how their to as one of the most expressive exponents of liberation alienated condition oppresses their brothers and sisters. pedagogy, not only in Latin America, but worldwide. Thus, liberation pedagogy is, at the end, in favor of life Liberation Theology 737 and freedom. It does not constitute a methodological ———. 1994. Pedagogia da Esperança. Um Re-Encontro com a prescription to those who merely want to be in solidarity Pedagogia do Oprimido. São Paulo, Brazil: Paz & Terra. with the oppressed; on the contrary, it is for those who ———. 2001. Pedagogy of Freedom: Ethics, Democracy, and Civic are willing to undergo the process of “conscientization” Courage. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. and transformation together. Freire, P., and A. M. A Freire. 1994. Pedagogy of Hope: Reliving Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum. Implications to Religious Education ———. 1998. Pedagogy of the Heart. New York: Continuum. The theological dimensions of Freire’s principles are un- ———. 1999. A Pedagogia da Indignação. Cartas Pedagógicas. doubtedly present in the framework of his liberation ped- São Paulo, Brazil: UNESP. agogy. For him, to understand the Gospel is to be able to —Débora B. Agra Junker put into practice its message. According to him, the word of God invites us to re-create the world, not to control others, but to liberate all of us together. As he declares, Liberation Theology “listening to the word of God does not mean acting like empty vessels waiting to be filled with that word. . . . That In the past half century, many people have articulated a is why I insist that a utopian and prophetic theology leads Christian theology that focuses onOnly liberation from eco- naturally to a cultural action for liberation and hence to nomic and sociopolitical oppression as an expression of conscientization” (1972, 12). Thus, a faith that anchors God’s salvation. First associated in academic theology itself in passivity and accommodation is an alienating with theologians from Latin America, liberation theolo- faith and serves to promote injustices and inequities. In gies have also been explored by black, feminist, Asian, Af- essence, it contradicts the Christian message to love God rican, and other theologians around the globe. Liberation and neighbors. Love in this respect is not an abstraction, theologies are marked by concern for orthopraxis (right but rather materializes in concrete actions of solidar- action) as much as orthodoxy, by a commitment to God’s ity and justice in face of oppressive socioeconomic and preferential option for the poor, by political and social cultural circumstances. As he reminds us, “having faith, analysis as a key step to theological reflection and con- believing, is not a problem, the problem is claiming to struction, by the importance of communities in the prac- have it and, at the same time, contradicting it in action” ticeCopy of theological knowing, and by their critique of the (Freire and Freire 1998, 104). In this framework, libera- way that the Christian tradition has often been co-opted tion pedagogy within the religious education landscape by the powerful as a tool of domination. As one of the respects local contexts, individual stories and narratives, major theological developments of the second half of the and historical events and works diligently to connect 20th century, the insights of liberation theologies have them to a universal ethic that has as its epicenter human had a profound impact on understandings of Christian beings—their freedom, potential, distinctiveness, and education since their emergence.72 nonnegotiable dignity as children of God. A pedagogy The emphasis on the experience of everyday per- such as this encompasses denouncement and announce- sons, particularly the poor and oppressed, as a source ment, critique and compassion, indignation and hope— of theological insight and revelation shifted the focus of all core concepts found in the Judeo-Christian tradition. theological teaching from dissemination of the doctrinal See also Conscientization; Consciousness; Critical formulations of the tradition. This emphasis on the folk Thinking; Freire, Paulo; Pedagogy. wisdom of everyday people contributed to a rethink- ing of educational purposes, moving from traditional References and Resources catechesis through schooling models to a focus on the Freire, A. M. A. 1999. A Pedagogia da Libertação em Paulo agency of the learner in articulating the tradition and Freire. São Paulo, Brazil: UNESP. participating in its meaningful interpretation into daily Freire, Paulo. 1970. Cultural Action for Freedom. Cambridge, life. Discerning Christian insight through communal dia- MA: Harvard Educational Review. logue with the tradition was central to both expressions ———. (1971) 1997. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Sea- of liberation theology and the Christian educational pro- bury Press. cess. This transition can particularly be seen in the work ———. [1972]. “The Educational Role of the Churches in Latin of post–Vatican II Roman Catholic Christian educators ContributorAmerica.” Pasos, no. 9: 43–54. such as Thomas Groome and Maria Harris, who created ———. 1973. Education for Critical Consciousness. New York: Seabury Press. 72. An early exploration of the connections between religious education ———. 1984. “Education, Liberation and the Church.” Religious and liberation theology is Daniel Schipani, Religious Education Encounters Education 79 (4): 524–545. Liberation Theology (Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press, 1988). 738 Liberty University methodologies and visions of curriculum that engaged rallying vision for Liberty was to “Train Champions for laypeople in the act of critical and constructive theologi- Christ” within a conceptual framework embodied in the cal reflection within the tradition.73 This focus on local school’s motto, “Knowledge Aflame.” The 110 students communities and their social location also led to atten- who arrived in August 1971 saw their number increase to tion being devoted to the functions of ethnicity, cultural 305 by the end of the first year, and to 484 by the begin- particularity, and multicultural dynamics in Christian ning of the second year in 1972 (Strober and Tomczak education across the field.74 1979, 45–47). The continuous growth of the student Another feature of liberation theology that worked its body contributed to a sense of destiny that was evident way into Christian education was the focus on liberation in the early years of the new school. Drs. Falwell Sr. and from oppression as a goal or outcome of Christian educa- Towns’s original goal for Liberty was 5,000 students, tion, such as in the work of Anne Streaty Wimberly and seeking to surpass the two prominent Christian univer- Michael Warren.75 For those who took seriously this un- sities of that time, Bob Jones University in Greenville, derstanding of Christian salvation, liberation demanded South Carolina, and Tennessee Temple University in not only the religious literacy and spiritual well-being of Chattanooga, Tennessee, each of which had approximate believers, but also attention to the material conditions enrollments of 4,000 to 4,500 students. By 1985, the Lib- and social practices of one’s life as part of Christian erty student body exceeded 5,000 students.Only Several years formation. This focus on the political nature and impli- prior to this accomplishment, Dr. Falwell Sr. had begun cations of Christian knowing led to an increased public to express a new goal of 50,000 students, studying both focus in the work of Christian education and critique of on campus and as distance learners. and resistance to social practices such as racism, sexism, Dr. Towns relates a conversation with Dr. Falwell Sr. and colonialism as a part of the work of Christian forma- as a critical element in defining the purpose of Liberty tion. The social analysis and critique central to liberation as they planned together early in 1971: “Jerry saw the theology lent itself to practices beginning with analysis of university, then college as an extension of the local the generative themes of a community to identify educa- church; in this case Thomas Road Baptist Church, and tional needs and questions rather than with the answers whose purpose was to prepare students not only aca- defined by the tradition. In particular, Brazilian educator demically, but also to invade the culture with the truth Paulo Freire’s popular educational methods, particularly of God’sCopy word” (Hirschman 2010, 81–82). He stated his emphasis on conscientization, dialogue, and the po- that Dr. Falwell’s desire was “to start a world-class litical nature of knowledge, contributed new methodolo- university, not a Bible College; a liberal arts university gies and aims to the field. training young people in all walks of life; better than a —Katherine Turpin Wheaton, better than a Bob Jones” (Hirschman 2010, 82). Ten years following the inaugural class, A. Pierre Guillermin (president of LBC in 1981) reemphasized Liberty University the original purpose of the institution: “Our goal at LBC is to produce champions—men and women equipped to Historical Introduction make an impact on their world, whether they enter the Liberty University was founded in 1971 as Lynchburg ministry, business, education, the media, or any other Baptist College (LBC; later renamed Liberty Baptist Col- profession. We think we can do that best by offering a lege) by the late Dr. Jerry Falwell and Dr. Elmer Towns as program of academic excellence in a Christian environ- a ministry of Thomas Road Baptist Church (TRBC). The ment” (Hirschman 2010, 82). LBC formally became goal in creating this university in Lynchburg, Virginia, Liberty University in 1985 following full accreditation was to create an institution that would be for evangelical from the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Christians what Notre Dame and Brigham Young Uni- (SACS), a process that had begun in 1980. versities are for Catholics and Mormons. Falwell Sr.’s The leadership of the university transferred to Jerry Falwell Jr. (JD, University of Virginia) upon Dr. Fal- 73. Thomas Groome, Christian Religious Education: Sharing Our Story well Sr.’s death in May 2007. Since assuming the senior and Vision (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1999); Maria Harris. Fashion Me a leadership role of the university, Chancellor Falwell has People: Curriculum in the Church (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox guided Liberty into a new era of academic growth and Press, 1989). 74.Contributor Charles R. Foster, ed., Ethnicity in the Education of the Church financial stability, while at the same time continuing the (Nashville, TN: Scarritt Press, 1987). original theme of “Training Champions for Christ.” In 75. Anne E. Streaty Wimberly, Soul Stories: African American Christian Education, rev. ed (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 2005); Michael Warren, 2010, Liberty University surpassed Falwell Sr.’s goal of At This Time, in This Place (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press, 2000). 50,000 students. In 2011–2012, the residential popula- Liberty University 739 tion of Liberty University exceeded 12,000 students, and creditation from SACS in 2009. This is the highest level there were 80,000 students online. The school’s campus of classification and is reserved for schools offering four is currently undergoing a $200 million enhancement or more doctoral degrees. that will include infrastructure, athletic, and academic improvements. Summary of Christian Philosophy of Education Liberty University continues to have a distinct relation- Description of Notable Academic Programs ship with Thomas Road Baptist Church (TRBC). It was Liberty’s first step into graduate education began in 1973, the intent of Dr. Falwell Sr. to guard Liberty against what with the establishment of Liberty Baptist Theological he saw as the theological liberalization of many Christian Seminary (LBTS), with Dr. Robert Hughes serving as its colleges over the course of their maturation. In order first dean. The philosophy underlying the seminary con- to guard against the tendency of academia to slide left, tinued the late Dr. Falwell’s theme of training champions. Pastor Jonathan Falwell of TRBC functions as the vice From its inception, LBTS was designed to be a place chancellor for spiritual affairs. In this role, he must con- where students could be trained in rigorous biblical and sent to any doctrinal changes and all faculty members theological studies while also being skilled in the practical hired in the areas of religion or theology. This process areas of ministry. Dr. Towns, who has now served as dean is a purposeful result of Liberty’s Onlyunique philosophy of of the seminary on two separate occasions, has often said education in concordance with its desire to maintain its that a seminary cannot be built on scholarship alone, but historical doctrinal positions. it cannot be built without it, either. This philosophy has One of Dr. Falwell Sr.’s consistent messages to stu- helped maintain LBTS’s emphasis on both scholarship dents, staff, and faculty was “if it’s Christian, it ought and ministry praxis. to be better.” He meant that Liberty’s excellence should In 1985, Liberty began a process that situated it as a not just be driven by the desire to succeed, but should pioneer of distance-based education in America, so that reflect humanity’s divine calling and equipping by the nontraditional students would not have to relocate in Holy Spirit. This approach to education has resulted in order to earn an accredited university degree. Originally the development of a curriculum and vision to produce referred to as the Liberty University School of Lifelong graduates who can enter national and global arenas in Learning, this program evolved over several years under theirCopy specific disciplines with the intention of making the leadership of Dr. Ron Godwin to become the Liberty significant contributions that not only benefit the disci- University Distance Learning Program, and ultimately pline, but also contribute to societal change motivated by into Liberty University Online (LUO). It is currently the a biblically Christian worldview and philosophy. largest Christian, nonprofit, online school in the nation, offering an education to students in all 50 states and all References and Resources over the world. In 2011, Liberty adapted the LUO format Falwell, J. 1973. Capturing a Town for Christ. Old Tappan, NJ: to create Liberty University en Español (LUE), which Fleming H. Revell. offers 12 degree programs using the online format. Fac- ———. 1987. Strength for the Journey: An Autobiography by Jerry ulty members teach these degree programs in a unique Falwell. New York: Simon & Schuster. context, using a combination of English and Spanish ———. 1997. Falwell: An Autobiography. Lynchburg, VA: Lib- textbooks while allowing students to submit work in their erty House Publishers. native or preferred language. ———. 2005. Building Dynamic Faith. Nashville, TN: Thomas Over the course of its maturation, Liberty has added Nelson. additional graduate programs, establishing the Schools Falwell, J., and E. Towns. 1971. Church Aflame. Nashville, TN: of Education, Communication, Health Sciences, Music, Impact Books. and Worship; the Overton Graduate School of Business; ———. 1984. Stepping out on Faith. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale. the Helms School of Government; the Liberty University Hirschman, D. W. 2010. “An Examination of the Significant School of Law; and the proposed Liberty University Col- Factors Motivating Early Liberty University Ministerial lege of Osteopathic Medicine, which accepted its first Graduates to Envision and Pursue Ambitious Ministry Op- class of students in 2014. portunities.” DM diss., Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary, Liberty University currently offers a variety of aca- Lynchburg, VA. http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/view demicContributor opportunities, including 193 undergraduate and content.cgi?article=1340&context=doctoral. certificate programs and 110 graduate programs, 4 post- Strober, G., and R. Tomczak. 1979. Jerry Falwell: Aflame for graduate programs, and 7 doctoral programs (JD, DMin, God. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. EdD, PhD). Liberty University received Level VI ac- —David W. Hirschman and Benjamin K. Forrest 740 Libraries, Early Christian

Libraries, Early Christian of growth and progress across the full range of human dimensions. Within a religious context, Fowler’s Stages of Between the late second century and the middle of the Faith (1981) introduced a faith dimension to human de- third, libraries were established as scriptoriums in the velopment, extending this beyond childhood into a life- three great Christian schools at Alexandria, Caesarea, long activity. However, Fowler’s understanding of “faith” and Jerusalem. The library of Jerusalem was founded by as a human universal is controversial, and many dispute Bishop Alexander. It was used by Eusebius in compiling that his schema accurately represents the faith journey of his History. Most coenobia in Egypt also had large col- adherents to specific religions such as Christianity. lections of books. In the West, Martin of Tours helped At the beginning of the 21st century, there are increas- to found the earliest library in Gaul. Notable among the ing indications that rigid approaches to understanding private collections of this period was the library of Au- life-span development are questionable. The very no- gustine in Hippo, but it was destroyed during the Vandal tion of “development” has been challenged (see Tennant invasions. Many Christian libraries and archives were 2005), and new studies have emerged in which matura- destroyed during Diocletian persecutions. Pope Hilarius tion and aging are not seen in developmental terms. helped to rebuild the collections in the cloister of St. Jarvis (2001, 61) quotes Giddens’s (1991) view that the Lorenzo at Verano. In Rome, the Vatican Library was life span is structured around “open Onlyexperience thresh- expanded by Pope Gelasius (492–496) and Pope Agape- olds” rather than a ritualized passage. We learn from the tus (1535–1536), who created the library on Scaurus on experiences we have during life and we develop as we the Coelian Hill. It later merged with the Lateran library age—but in no particular idealized direction—although established by Gregory the Great (590–604). From the there are sets of values and characteristics at which in- sixth to the seventh centuries, scriptoria began to become dividuals regard it desirable to aim. He also references increasingly numerous thanks to the Benedictine order. Sheehy (1995) and Hudson (1999), who discuss aging by In Italy, Cassiodorus founded the Vivarium at Calabria, 10-year periods, rather than by any more sophisticated which was closely linked to St. Benedict. At Bobbio, Co- theoretical framework. For Jarvis, this is linked to the lumbanus, with the help of the Longobard kings, founded fact that lifestyles and roles are not that fixed and age- an abbey that soon became famous for its writing school related in late modern society. This recognizes the power as well as its library. New libraries were founded in Gaul. of socialCopy forces in shaping the course of people’s lives, In Spain, Isidore, the noted encyclopedist and archbishop something evidenced also by studies into women’s devel- of Seville, amassed a large library that he used in writing opment, such as those conducted by Gilligan (1982) and his encyclopedias. Also noteworthy were libraries estab- Belenky and colleagues (1986). Slee (2004), reporting an lished by Columba in Scotland. In the British Isles, other empirical study conducted into women’s spirituality and notable libraries were being built up, especially at Iona, faith, endorses this and similarly challenges the idea that Lindisfarne, and Jarrow. In Germany, the great libraries “development” is linear and uniform. were at Fulda and Mainz. Spirituality, spiritual intelligence (Zohar and Marshall —George Thomas Kurian 2000), and spiritual development are now increasingly recognized as significant throughout the life span, al- though they are not necessarily explored and promoted Life-span development from within a religious context. As is the case with much Christian education, ongoing dialogue must take place The notion of humans “developing” in a particular and between the “Christian” and the secular, allowing each common way has dominated understandings of and ap- to contribute to the other. Many attributes—especially proaches to studying the aging and maturation processes wisdom—that are valued by Christianity are gained for decades. Defined stages of childhood development throughout the life span through experience. There is have been proposed by scholars such as Piaget, Erikson, some evidence to suggest that a distinctively Christian and Freud. These have been appropriated not only in a wisdom can be “developed” through the capacity for descriptive but also in a prescriptive way, allowing diag- theological reflection, and also that reflection itself has an noses of “early” and “late” development, along with, in embedded developmental progression that can be delib- some cases, exceptional ability, disability, and medical or erately fostered (Moon 2000). Lifelong learning therefore psychologicalContributor issues. The focus of these theories has pri- becomes a key dimension to life-span development how- marily been on the cognitive domain. Stages of physical ever it is conceived, challenging the idea that all aspects of maturing accompany the cognitive, and Tennant (2005) human beings remain stable or that there is necessarily a adds self-development and identity as a third category; gradual deterioration of cognitive abilities after maturity, together the three are understood to provide a picture and affirming the notion that although there might be Lindisfarne Gospels 741 biological deterioration, ongoing learning and personal Billfrith (an anchorite) ornamented the outside of the experience compensate for this. In addition, Christian document with precious metals and gems. Both Eadfrith theology offers profound insights into the nature of and Ethelwald were monks of the community who were human beings that should guide and inform understand- contemporaries of Cuthbert. ings of both the aging and maturation processes. During this period, teams of scribes in scriptoriums usually copied biblical texts, so it was unusual that this in- References and Resources tricate book was written by one hermit and that his name Belenky, M. F., B. M. Clinchy, N. R. Goldberger, and J. M. is known. Though Eadfrith was English, he drew from Tarule. 1986. Women’s Ways of Knowing. New York: Basic a variety of artistic traditions, such as Celtic, Germanic, Books. Italian, Byzantine, and Middle Eastern. In particular, the Fowler, James W. 1981. Stages of Faith. San Francisco: Harper work displays the Irish pattern of writing and illumina- & Row. tion, given that he had studied with Irish monks on the Gilligan, Carol. 1982. In a Different Voice. London: Harvard Holy Island from his youth and continued under their University Press. tutelage for another six years in various Irish monaster- Hudson, M. 1999. Ruins of Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Japa- ies. Even though there were many non-Christian artistic nese Islands. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. influences in the text, the patterns displayOnly Christian mo- Jarvis, P. 2001. Learning in Later Life: An Introduction for Edu- tifs and concepts. For instance, the opening words of the cators and Carers. London: Kogan Page. Gospels were highly decorated with interlaced birds and Moon, Jennifer. 2000. Reflection in Learning and Professional beasts of artistic naturalness and authenticity, represent- Development. London: Kogan Page. ing the beauty of God’s creation. Sheehy, G. 1995. New passages: Mapping Your Life across Time. The 518 pages of the Lindisfarne Gospels employed New York : Random House. half-uncial script along with ornamental pages drawn Slee, Nicola. 2004. Women’s Faith Development. Aldershot, UK: and colored using interlaced coiling patterns. Eadfrith Ashgate. drew these configurations by using mathematical instru- Tennant, Mark. 2005. “Lifespan Development.” In Interna- ments on the reverse side of the page. The artist-scribe tional Encyclopedia of Adult Education, edited by Leona must have been an innovative designer and chemist to English, 378–381. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. haveCopy achieved his elaborate designs using the limited Zohar, Danah, and Ian Marshall. 2000. Spiritual Intelligence: local products to re-create the array of colors. The Ultimate Intelligence. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. The Lindisfarne Gospels contain the Gospels of the —Alison Le Cornu Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, about the life of Jesus. Each Gospel is preceded with a portrait of the evangelist, a cross-carpet page, and a decorated Lindisfarne Gospels initial page. Carpet pages were composed of complex interlace patterns influenced by early Egyptian Coptic art The manuscript known as the Lindisfarne Gospels was in their similarity to Islamic prayer rugs, which prepared written and decorated in a monastery off the Northum- worshippers for prayer. They were designed to spiritually berland coast at Lindisfarne in England (around 715) in prepare the reader before the Gospel message, with each honor of God and Bishop Cuthbert of Lindisfarne (634– page having an image of a cross highlighting the central 687), by the monk Eadfrith. The book was Jerome’s Vul- message of the Christian faith. gate version of the Gospels, preceded by his prefaces and The evangelists were represented by their personal canon tables. Written in Latin calligraphy with a complex symbols: Matthew was the man (representing the hu- rhythmic labyrinth of ornamentation, each Gospel was manity of Christ), Mark was the lion (figurative of the introduced by authorship prologues, chapter summaries, resurrected Christ), Luke was the calf (symbolic of and instructions for feast day readings. Christ’s sacrifice on the Cross), and John was the eagle An interlinear, word-for-word translation of the text (symbolizing Christ’s second coming). Each of the gos- into Old English was inserted between the lines of the pel writers was portrayed in the manuscript: Matthew, Latin text by Aldred, provost of Chester-le-Street in Mark, and Luke were shown writing, whereas John holds County Durham, in the mid-10th century. This is one a scroll and is looking forward. Influenced by the Byzan- ofContributor the two oldest surviving translations of the Gospels tine manner of figure painting, the miniature portraits in the English language. In Aldred’s brief description of also symbolized the divine and human natures of Christ. the publication of the book, he recorded that Eadfrith Mark and John were represented as young men (the (bishop of Lindisfarne, 698–721) wrote the manuscript, divine nature of Christ), while Matthew and Luke were Ethelwald (bishop of Lindisfarne in 721) bound it, and depicted as older and bearded (Christ’s humanity). 742 Linguistics, Christian Contributions to

The Gospels were preceded by a letter from Jerome to as signifying and of words as signs (Kirwan 2001, 191). Pope Damasus I and by 16 pages of Eusebian canon tables This view of language was critiqued by the influential on which parallel passages of the four Gospels were cor- philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951), who related. The Latin Gospel text was a version of Jerome’s claimed that the notion of language as an arbitrary code Vulgate, with the script after the tradition developed in is mistaken. Although Wittgenstein’s understanding early Christian Ireland and transmitted to Northumbria of Augustine has been disputed (Kirwan 2001, 186), by Iona and Irish missionaries. his notion of “language games” has been beneficial to The book was not only produced for practical ceremo- Christian theologians and educators. “Language games” nial use, but was also a representation of the splendor of was his term for the idea that language is essentially a God’s Word and the Christian religion in missionary ex- shared activity and that words find meaning through ploits. The monks were well aware of the deep impression their use. He noted various categories of language that such a book as the Lindisfarne Gospels would have on games, including religious language. To call religion non-Christian communities. This would also have been a language game is to say that certain practices, such an important contribution to the cult of Cuthbert, which as church attendance, lighting candles, and going on turned Lindisfarne (the place of Cuthbert’s burial) into a pilgrimage, are the background against which religious pilgrimage site in the late seventh and eighth centuries. claims are made. Practice gives wordsOnly their sense, ac- A number of archivists believe that at this time there cording to Wittgenstein. Early in his work, he argued was a need in England to foster a spirit of reconcilia- that talk of God is beyond the range of meaningful tion and cooperation among Bede (the Northumbrian discourse, but later he modified his thinking to say that scholar), Abbot Adomnán of Iona, and Bishop Eadfrith. God talk is beyond the reach of cognitive meaning, not This process came to be symbolized by the Lindisfarne because it is meaningless, but because it is personal and Gospels, housed at the saint’s shrine, which was a focus mysterious (Musser and Price 1992, 280). for Cuthbert’s cult of collaboration in the generation after In 1936 A. J. Ayer, in Language, Truth and Logic, dis- his death. Housed at the British Library in London since missed any religious statements as having no meaning 1753, the manuscript is one of the finest examples of early other than the emotive and having “weak verification” Hiberno-Saxon art extant. (Miller 1970, 23). This prompted some Christian theolo- gians Copyto defend God talk and how we interpret the Bible. References and Resources Rudolf Bultmann’s demythologization hermeneutic was Brown, Michelle P. 2003a. The Lindisfarne Gospels: Society, one such effort. Process philosophers and theologians Spirituality, and the Scribe. London: British Library; To- like Alfred North Whitehead and Charles Hartshorne ronto: Toronto University Press. began talking about God’s relation to the world in terms ———. 2003b. Painted Labyrinth: The World of the Lindisfarne that would resonate with the scientific thinking of the day Gospels. London: British Library. (Miller 1970, 54, 62–63). Ian T. Ramsey (1957) described ———. 2010. The Lindisfarne Gospels and the Early Medieval the central problem of theology as how to use language World. London: British Library. so as to be suitable currency for what, in part, transcends —Robert L. Gallagher language. He wrote that religious language seems strange because we only have ordinary, human language to talk about “cosmic commitment” to Christ. Linguistics, Christian Contributions to In the 1960s there was a surge of interest in linguis- tics, and because language is a universal characteristic Linguistics is the study of language and concerns itself of humanity, other disciplines sought to apply linguis- with describing and explaining the nature of human lan- tics to their work. Amos N. Wilder (1964) provided an guage, which enables people to communicate with each analysis of early Christian uses of language. Because other, to express ideas, hypotheses, emotions, desires, Christianity is a “speech-event,” it is important to at- and all the other things that need expressing. It is philo- tempt to understand how language conveys it. David sophical in nature and includes the study of semantics Crystal’s Linguistics, Language and Religion (1965) (how meaning is inferred from words and concepts). examined the power of language for faith and the prin- Christian contributions to linguistics come out of the ciples of liturgical language. Because many religions necessityContributor to speak about God in ways that can be under- follow a sacred text, espouse wise words of revered stood and responded to (Miller 1970, xiii). leaders, and create a liturgy that claims a connection Many Christian theologians have written about and with the divine, language is crucial. Language plays a employed linguistics. St. Augustine was a teacher of major part in communicating God and faith, so the uses rhetoric before his ordination. He spoke of language and abuses of language are a pastoral concern. Paul van Listening as Christian Practice 743

Buren (1963) wrote about the difficulty of talking about References and Resources God because the word does not refer to anything that Crystal, D. 1965. Linguistics, Language and Religion. London: can be understood empirically. The language of faith Burns & Oates. does have meaning, because it is a “blik,” a term derived Kirwan, C. 2001. “Augustine’s Philosophy of Language.” In from R. M. Hare that refers to a deeply held conviction The Cambridge Companion to Augustine, edited by E. Stump grounded in the unconscious that cannot be falsified. and N. Kretzmann, 186–204. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge The language of Christianity is of one who has been University Press. “caught by the Gospel” (Miller 1970, 29). Lindbeck, G. A. 1984. The Nature of Doctrine: Religion and The- Randolph Crump Miller, who was the Horace Bush- ology in a Postliberal Age. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. nell Professor Emeritus of Christian Nurture at the Yale McFague, S. 1982. Metaphorical Theology: Models of God in Divinity School, wrote The Language Gap and God: Religious Language. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. Religious Language and Christian Education in 1970. In Miller, R. C. 1970. The Language Gap and God: Religious Lan- this volume he attempted to relate language analysis to guage and Christian Education. Philadelphia: Pilgrim Press. the work of Christian education toward explaining the Musser, D. W., and J. L. Price, eds. 1992. A New Handbook of Bible and theology in a secular age. Miller said that the Christian Theology. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. language of the early Christians fitted their culture. At Ramsey, I. T. 1957. Religious LanguageOnly. London: SCM Press. first they used the Jewish texts, which reflected the life Van Buren, P. 1963. The Secular Meaning of the Gospel. New and culture of the Middle East. As Christianity moved York: Macmillan. into the world of the Greeks and Romans, their uses of Wilder, A. 1964. The Language of the Gospels: Early Christian language changed to meet the new situation. After the Rhetoric. New York: Harper & Row. canon was closed, Christians continued their theology —Susan Willhauck and catechesis to adopt their language to the changing conditions. As long as there is a relatively close con- nection between the language of Christians and the Listening as Christian Practice culture, communicating the faith was easier. In differ- ent or secular cultures, it becomes more difficult (Miller Within the tradition of Christian formation, the act of lis- 1970, 2–3). Also influenced by the philosophy of Witt- teningCopy and being listened to has been an important theme genstein, theologian George Lindbeck (1984) argues, foundational to many traditional practices, although in contrast to liberal relativism, that religious faith is often not explicitly identified as such. Scripture provides neither feeling nor propositions, but a cultural linguistic us with the model of what this looks like, as we encounter enterprise. Faith is centered in the language and culture a relational God who seeks to abide with us in a deep inti- of a living tradition. macy, then invites us in turn to model this relationship of Sallie McFague brought a feminist perspective to the listening presence with each other and ourselves. Various question of religious language. In her view, to absolutize practices help us in this endeavor, and through them we one tradition or way of speaking about God becomes discover that in this invitation lies a deeply formational idolatrous, to substitute right language in place of God, practice, and that as we engage in listening relationships or irrelevant, for the experiences of many people will not with God and ourselves, we are able to cultivate a hal- be included within the absolutized tradition. She offered lowed space within, which we can then offer to others as a critique of patriarchal Western religious language. we accept God’s invitation to be present to them in the Because Christian theology and education is an inter- act of listening. In this space of listening where we join pretation of the Gospel in a particular time and place, God, and join others with God, discernment and heal- she argued that a metaphorical theology is indigenous to ing can occur, which ultimately allows us to become the Christianity (McFague 1982, 3, 14). Similarly, postmod- people God knows us to be. ern philosophers, notably Jacques Derrida, insist that We encounter the origin for this practice in scripture, language does not function in a nomenclaturistic way, as we read about God’s listening presence among first the but is shaped by the lived experience of the communities people of the Jewish scriptures and then incarnated in the that use it. He claimed the need for deconstruction of person of Jesus in the New Testament. In Jesus we see language and texts so as to render invalid any claim to this articulated as he spends time in silence and prayer, unequivocalContributor domination of one mode of signifying over discerning God’s will, and then attending to the people another. Recent works on slang, hip-hop, and the lingua of Judea with his presence, seeking especially those indi- franca of popular culture continue to attempt to meet viduals whose voices were not heard due to their status in the challenge to find language to speak of God and teach society. In these relationships, it was often listening that faith, an ongoing task for Christian education. was at the heart of the relationship between Jesus and his 744 Literacy, Christian Contributions to followers that allowed healing to occur, healing which offer her or him the ultimate hospitality of a space within then allowed them to experience wholeness and return ourselves that is grounded in God. to their larger community to cultivate new relationships. It is the practice of listening, then, that allows us to As we seek to follow Jesus’s teaching, listening is in- become who God is calling us to be: people who are called tegral to who we are asked, as Christians, to become. In to love. Through the process of learning how to listen to this practice, then, is the call to listen to God, others, and God and ourselves and practicing this skill, God teaches ourselves, as God continues to listen to us. us to listen to others. It is in this space of listening that we Many prayer practices facilitate this call to listen to truly know and are known, and it is in this space that we God. Centering prayer seeks to offer a space below all can answer the call of Christians to be a people who love. the thoughts, images, and imaginings that often take up space in our internal selves, and in this apophatic place References and Resources beyond all words and images, we can encounter God in Barry, William A., and William J. Connolly. 2009. The Practice the very sound of silence. Other practices, such as those of Spiritual Direction. New York: HarperOne. found in Ignatian spirituality, invite us to see and hear Cooper-White, Pamela. 2004. Shared Wisdom: Use of the Self God in everything around and within us, sensing that in Pastoral Care and Counseling. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress God is truly in all aspects of creation, and that as we seek Press. Only to listen to Him, we are called to attend to the totality of Guenther, Margaret. 1992. Holy Listening: The Art of Spiritual our experiences. In these kataphatic prayers, rather than Direction. Boston: Cowley Publications. hearing God only in the silence, we witness God in the all, Ruffing, Janet K. 2005. “Direction, Spiritual.” In The New and follow His lead as we seek to integrate what we see in Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, edited by the world with what we know of God. While some people Philip Sheldrake, 243–245. Louisville, KY: Westminster John are called to practice one of these traditions to the exclu- Knox Press. sion of others, most of us experience ways of listening to —Karri Backer God that involve a flow of experiences that incorporate both transcendent and immanent images of God, and over time this practice of listening and attentiveness, of Literacy, Christian Contributions to coming to know God, offers us an opportunity to experi- Copy ence His abiding attention to us, and His presence with Literacy training is a foundational element of the Chris- us through our lives. tian faith. A person can grow in the knowledge of God The tradition of spiritual direction is one way we can through oral presentations, but to grow in faith in God find support on this path. Trained in the art of “holy lis- requires personal study of the scriptures. It is difficult to tening,” spiritual directors do not so much direct as offer grow in faith without the ability to spiritually feed one- a space of intentional and deep listening, which aids us self. Christians have developed schools, universities, and in understanding where God is moving within our own other educational environments for individuals to learn lives. Spiritual traditions that emphasize discernment, to read and study. such as Ignatian spirituality, are also helpful as we seek to The Bible was the first book in many languages of the listen to where God is calling us in our lives, and Ignatian world, the first book to be printed using the printing practices such as the Spiritual Exercises or the Examen of press, and one of the first books to be printed in mul- Consciousness offer paths that can strengthen our own tiple languages. Christian organizations and missionar- holy listening skills, teaching us a language that allows ies worked with groups first to form a written alphabet, us to hear, in new ways, God’s continual call in our lives. and then to translate the Bible into the native language, As we continue in this practice of listening to God, making it possible for all the people to learn to read and God continues to listen to us, and in this nexus deep heal- study God’s Word for themselves. The community and ing and growth are possible. As we return to this space the whole country benefited from an improved literacy of communion again and again, the internal space where rate, enabling people from multiple economic levels to we greet God becomes wider and wider, and in turn we serve in society, lowering unemployment, and improving have more and more internal space to offer others, which living conditions. is experienced in a listening presence. As we then accept Missionaries diligently translated and codified multiple God’sContributor invitation to join Him, to listen to His people with languages to give people the Bible in their language. Each our hearts, our internal self stretches even more as it group was taught to read and write, thus improving the grows to accommodate the life of another, and all the joy literacy rate for that group. Ulfilas (311–381) codified the and suffering this implies. The capacity for true listening Goths’ language and translated the Bible to the Germanic also grows along with it, as we can sit with another and tribes. Cassiodorus (477–570) and other Christian monks Literacy, Christian Contributions to 745 made copies of Christian and pagan manuscripts by hand in theology. Many other universities across Europe and to train people. The monks and priests of the Middle Ages America were founded based on these two models and fought literacy one hand-written manuscript at a time, en- the profound desire to educate people in the doctrines of suring people had God’s Word in their language. Christianity. The university and the printing press were Over time, Christianity has provided multiple educa- two major innovations that greatly improved literacy. tional systems and opportunities by establishing schools When Johannes Gutenberg (1398–1468) invented the for the purpose of training people for church member- printing press, the church gained a tool to mass produce ship. As early as the second century, church leaders the Bible and directly improve literacy across the known established catechetical schools to prepare people for world. The Protestant reformers wanted everyone to church membership and to provide literary and theologi- read the Bible in order to understand the difference be- cal education. Most public training formats and schools tween biblical authority and papal authority. This tool only taught boys from elite or privileged classes. Chris- was used by the church to quickly provide a copy of the tians were possibly the first to teach both male and female Bible to almost anyone who wanted it. People could students at the same time, with no ethnic, gender, or read God’s Word for themselves and grow in knowledge class bias. Schools were founded in Ephesus, Rome, and of the Holy One. Alexandria. Cathedral schools were established to teach Reformation leaders also wantedOnly education to be avail- people how to read and write, along with preparing indi- able to all people. Tax-supported public school education viduals for church service. Pope Gregory VII established was first recommended by Martin Luther, Philipp Mel- cathedral schools in 1079, which became the seedbeds for anchthon, and Johannes Bugenhagen in Germany. These later universities. Protestant reformers wanted all people to read and write Monasteries were another form of education during in order to maintain society. Luther added that education the Middle Ages, founded to train clergy in the particu- should be compulsory for all children. A century later the lar church doctrines and practices. The monasteries had Roman Catholic priest, La Salle, advocated compulsory served as a precursor to the university, but were primarily education in France. Johann Sturm (1507–1589) from designed to train their own people for the ministry and not Germany created a graded education system to compel open to public enrollment. They had elaborate libraries of students to advance through levels; this is the same sys- both secular and sacred writings from which monks read temCopy used today. daily, studied scripture, and endlessly copied manuscripts During the Reformation, many leaders emerged who in the scriptoria (sacred rooms for copying manuscripts). wanted to educate people with the Word of God and Many books and other manuscript sections were provided how to serve Him through the printed Bible and scholarly by the monks for people to study and read. documents. Martin Luther, John Calvin, and John Come- Public education was introduced in the eighth century nius all advocated universal education. Luther believed in to raise the literacy rate over most of Western Europe. cultivating the human mind through education to deepen King Charles the Great of the Franks and the Holy understanding of scripture and fought for a state school Roman emperor, known commonly as Charlemagne system that would consist of a vernacular primary school (742–814), established the first public school to educate for both sexes, a Latin secondary school, and a university. his empire to read and write, combating illiteracy in the Calvin created his Geneva Plan for elementary education Middle Ages. Charlemagne commanded that community in the vernacular and advocated education with a moral schools be set up by the priests to educate students for balance because of his strong belief in the total depravity free. Charlemagne’s attempted mass education was not of man. Comenius developed schools to teach about God, continued after his death. man, and nature. Many parts of Europe in the Middle Ages did not have In the 1530s, Ignatius Loyola established the Society a written form of language to teach people to read and of Jesus, known as the Jesuits, to educate the priests and write. In the ninth century, St. Cyril and St. Methodius non-Jesuits. By the time he died, Loyola had established developed the Cyrillic alphabet to provide the Bible in 35 Jesuit schools throughout Europe with the goal of a the Slavic language for groups from modern-day Eastern free education for everyone. The Jesuits became known Europe to Russia. as the educators of Europe, offering highly structured Public education of nonclergy and non-nobility was classes that combined spiritual traditions with current madeContributor available through the university. Anyone could at- learning systems. Many Jesuits coming from these sys- tend who met the academic standards and could afford tems became influential scientists, astronomers, and the classes. The first university was founded in Bologna, mathematicians. In 1609, the Jesuits established the first Italy, in 1158, specializing in the study of canon law. literate society in Paraguay by providing a Jesuit educa- The University of Paris followed in 1200, specializing tion for all the people. 746 Literacy, Christian Contributions to

The first American public education policy was the Baurain, Bradley. 2007. “Christian Witness and Repect for “Old Deluder Satan Act,” promulgated by the Puritans in Persons.” Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 6: 1647, which required that towns of 50 households or more 201–219. hire a teacher to educate all children, starting with how Czachesz, Istvan. 2010. “Rewriting and Textual Fluidity in to read the Bible and study scripture. The New England Antiquity: Exploring the Socio-Cultural and Psychological Primer was used as the primary textbook to teach people Context of Earliest Christian Literacy.” In Myths, Martyrs, the alphabet, along with the Bible through catechisms and Modernity: Studies in the History of Religions in Honour and study materials. William McGuffey (1800–1873) cre- of Jan N. Bremmer, edited by Jan N. Bremmer, Jitse H. F. Di- ated the McGuffey’s Eclectic Reader in the 1830s to teach jkstra, J. E. A. Kroesen, and Y. Kuiper. 425–441. Boston: Brill. students how to read, using the basics of Christian faith Dickerson, Lonna, and Dianne Dow. 1997. Handbook for Chris- as the substance in the book. Educators have used these tian EFL Teachers: Christian Teacher-Preparation Programs, books as the foundational tool for teaching people the ba- Overseas Teaching Opportunities, Instructional Materials, sics of spelling, phonics, reading, and biblical knowledge. and Resources. Wheaton, IL: Emis/Billy Graham Center. Friedrich Frobel (1782–1852) established the first kin- Gamble, Harry. 1995. Books and Readers in the Early Church: dergarten school in Germany to teach children at a young A History of Early Christian Texts. New Haven, CT: Yale age to grow in knowledge of how people and nature were University Press. Only connected by God. When asked for an explanation of Hammond, Peter. 2004. “The Roots of Education.” Christian why education should start so early, he used the analogy Action for Reformation and Revival Magazine 4. Accessed of a garden, with the child being a garden under the care 19 February 2013. http://www.christianaction.org.za/articles of an expert gardener, the teacher. _ca/2004-4-therootsofeducation.htm. In 1780, Robert Raikes of Scotland developed a system Hill, Jonathan. 2005. What Has Christianity Ever Done for Us? to teach the poor and disadvantaged how to read and How It Shaped the Modern World. Downers Grove, IL: In- study the Bible through a Sunday school. The children terVarsity Press. were available only on Sundays due to labor laws. Raikes Hurtado, Larry. 2006. The Earliest Christian Artifacts: Manu- fed, clothed, and educated countless young people in scripts and Christian Origins. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. England in order to introduce them to Jesus Christ. This Kennedy, James, and Jerry Newcomer. 1994. What If Jesus Had Sunday school movement quickly spread across Europe NeverCopy Been Born? Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. and to America. Laubach, Frank. 1943. The Silent Billion Speak. New York: The deaf and the blind were also educated by Chris- Friendship Press. tians through newly created communications systems. ———. 1964. How to Teach One and Win One for Christ. Grand Louis Braille (1809–1852) developed a system of six Rapids, MI: Zondervan. embossed dots with a unique combination for each letter Lingenfelter, Judith, and Sherwood Lingenfelter. 2003. Teach- of the alphabet. This education system enabled a blind ing Cross Culturally: An Incarnational Model for Learning person to read and communicate in order to learn about and Teaching. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. God and the Christian faith. Abbé Charles Michel de Padak, Nancy, et al. 2000. Distinguished Educators on Reading: l’Epée, Thomas Gallaudet, and Laurent Clerc developed Contributions That Have Shaped Effective Literacy Instruc- a process to educate the deaf in order to teach them about tion. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Jesus Christ. In 1775, l’Epée created a sign language for Robert, Dana. 2009. Christian Mission: How Christianity Be- use in schools in Paris. In 1817, Gallaudet founded a deaf came a World Religion. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. school in Hartford, Connecticut, and later established Schmidt, Alvin. 2001. How Christianity Changed the World. Gallaudet University in Washington, DC. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. In the 19th century, missionary efforts circled the Shepard-Wong, Mary, and Suresh Canagarajah, eds. 2009. globe with schools and Bible translations, beginning with Christian and Critical English Language Educators in Dialogue: creating written languages for many peoples. Christians Pedagogical and Ethical Dilemmas. New York: Routledge. increased literacy rates, helping countries to develop Smith, David, and Barbara Carvill. 2000. The Gift of the economically, politically, and educationally. Christian Stranger: Faith, Hospitality, and Foreign Language Learning. contributions helped stabilize entire regions with written Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. communication options. Snow, Donald. 2001. English Teaching as Christian Mission: An Contributor Applied Theology. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press. References and Resources ——— . More Than a Native Speaker: An Introduction to Teach- American Bible Society. n.d. “Mission: Literacy.” Accessed 18 ing English Abroad. rev. ed. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. February 2013. http://record.americanbible.org/content/usa/ Stevick, Earl. 1998. Working with Teaching Methods: What’s at mission-literacy. Stake? Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Literary Criticism 747

Tennant, Agnieszka. 2002. “The Ultimate Language Lesson.” to the workings of the system itself. Contrary to many Christianity Today 46 (13): 32. misunderstandings, Saussure’s assertion that signs are ar- United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organiza- bitrary does not imply that the sign is freely chosen. The tion. n.d. Effective Literacy Practice. Accessed 18 February relationship between the sign and its signified is arbitrary 2013. http://www.unesco.org/uil/litbase/. only in the sense that it is nonessential. In another sys- Watkins, Morris. 1978. Literacy, Bible Reading, and Church tem of language in some other universe, another speech Growth through the Ages. South Pasadena, CA: William sound might have been used; however, the referential Carey Library. quality of language means that one can always decipher Yount, Willam. 1999. Called to Teach: An Introduction to the the intended signified by examining the diachronic emer- Ministry of Teaching. Nashville, TN: B & H Academic. gence and synchronic conditions of its use. —Steve Yates Semiology Roland Barthes straddled the line between structuralism Literary Criticism and poststructuralism by transitioning from the search for what a text means to beginning a journey into how a For Christian education, the field of literary criticism, text means. Barthes analyzed the textOnly as part of a system which developed in the 20th century, both disrupted tra- of meaning in which the reader uses symbolic systems ditional practices of analyzing the biblical texts as well as beyond the writer’s control to produce meaning from illuminated new possibilities for understanding the role the text. The text no longer possesses a singular meaning of reader and writer in relation to language, meaning, and based on the author’s intention that can be excavated by each other and their world. In its most concrete sense, skillful analysis of linguistic relationships. For Barthes, literary criticism refers to the analysis of texts’ literary el- the text becomes part of a larger enterprise of producing ements such as grammar, syntax, plot, setting, character, multiple meanings, in which the reader plays a crucial figurative language, and so forth. As an intellectual tradi- role. In light of Barthes’s many contributions to the study tion, however, literary criticism refers to a field within of symbols, or semiology, his questioning of authorial literary studies that focuses on theories of language and intention and the role of the reader had lasting repercus- literature. These theories often exposed the irony of sionsCopy for Christian education. defining expertise in interpretation, as the edifices of a text’s absolute meaning or an author’s intention were Poststructuralism/Deconstruction crumbling around the critic. This entry discusses three of Despite the diversity of literary criticism, perhaps its the major movements in 20th-century literary criticism most enduring legacy remains its status as a marker of in relation to their foundational theorists: structuralism postmodern subjectivity’s specter of doubt. Some of liter- and Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913), semiology and ary criticism’s major developments occurred in relation Roland Barthes (1915–1980), and poststructuralism and to transformations of theories of the subject. Liberation Jacques Derrida (1930–2004). movements of the 1950s and 1960s had revealed the lit- eral and figural veiling and erasure of entire peoples from Structuralism history, society, and politics. Movements by marginalized Though literary criticism emerged as a field in the 1960s persons to demand acknowledgment from and/or over- and gained popularity in biblical scholarship in the 1970s, turn the systems that had silenced them were reflected in literature departments readily trace literary criticism’s literary critical theories that challenged the notion that a genealogy to Ferdinand de Saussure’s early 20th-century universal subject existed: a subject who wrote with inten- structural analysis of the referential quality of language, tion and read with the powerful to discern and discover semiotics, or structural linguistics. Saussure divided an other’s intended truth. An autonomous subject who language into the sound/word, or sign, and the thing to created, discerned, and discovered with absolute certainty which the sound referred, or what it signified. The in- was a subject who lived in ignorance of its own isolation tended referent could always be determined in relation to from others. It was amid continental philosophy’s post– the history of the system and the immediate, synchronic World War II ethical turn and liberation movements of reality of the system at any given moment. The sign is the 1960s that literary critics became less interested in thereforeContributor determined within the system of language in mining a text for meaning and more invested in actively relation to its historical and collective use. The precise reading to challenge prevailing power structures by dis- relationship between speech sounds and thought emerges rupting normative interpretations of a text. diachronically in connection with an entire history of These techniques of reading, which would become the system of language and synchronically in relation known as deconstruction, challenged the notion of a 748 Literary Theory and Theology singular truth or set of universal truth claims. Perhaps scholarship, literature and religion as a field remains literary criticism’s most notable theorist, Jacques Derrida, amorphous, consisting of a variety of competing and a student of French philosopher Paul Ricoeur (see Phe- often contradictory methods and perspectives. Acknowl- nomenology), left an indelible mark on literary theory edging the absence of clear disciplinary boundaries for and Christian thought. Derrida famously suggested that defining religion and literature, this entry disambiguates everything is text; everything is part of a continuous literature and religion in relation to Christian education relational exchange and repetition and re-creation of by tracing modern developments in literary theory and meaning. The sign is infinitely repeatable, such that it their methodological impacts on Christian thought. differs from its historical use and yet defers to its infinite Literary theory refers to a broad field that examines potential iterations at any given moment. In Derrida’s literature in its most precise technical as well as abstract theory, there is no signified to which the sign refers with philosophical significance. Literary criticism applies the absolute certainty, only an endless chain of signifiers. various methods of literary theory to specific texts. In Derrida’s deconstruction of the structuralist system of the 19th century, it was characterized by its view of lit- language meant the rejection of an absolute signified erature as a medium for expressing transcendent truths meaning of a text. To Christian proponents of Derrida’s of human experience. The 20th century witnessed a shift disruptive readings, traditional readings of scripture were in the search for meaning in a text. RatherOnly than examin- often the product of a singular narrative of biblical truth. ing the content of a work, theorists began to mine texts Energized by the possibilities of Derrida’s literary theory, for meaning by analyzing the structural elements of lit- biblical critics began providing alternate interpretations erature, such as grammar, syntax, and plot. By the 1940s, of the biblical text that spoke earnestly to its jarring com- structuralism had developed in response to critiques that plexities and consternations. formalism decontextualized literary works. Structuralism considered elements of literature as representative of the Though literary criticism is most often associated with larger structures of meaning in the world. a secular field of literary analysis, the development of After World War II, religion and literature emerged as techniques and methods, from structural linguistics to an academic field for those who could not find a home in semiology to deconstruction, greatly impacted the ways religious studies because of their literary interests or in biblical scholars, theologians, and clergy would come to literatureCopy departments because of their religious interests. understand themselves in relation to their sacred texts In 1956, the Conference on Christianity and Literature and to the goal of their vocations. Literary disruptions was formed in response to demand among those with of prevailing power structures have galvanized readers interests in Christianity. In addition, graduate programs and writers from marginalized populations to use their in religion and literature emerged in the United States particular contexts to authorize new ways of knowing. and Europe. In the 1960s, literary theory was following the demo- References and Resources cratic currents of social and political movements that Alter, Robert, and Frank Kermode, eds. 1987. The Literary challenged universal claims about justice and author- Guide to the Bible. Cambridge, MA : Belknap Press. ity. Accordingly, literary theory underwent a shift from Barthes, R., and H. Balzac. 1974. S/Z. Translated by Richard searching for meaning in a text to examining the produc- Miller. Preface by Richard Howard. New York: Hill and tion and reproduction of meaning itself. Poststructural- Wang. ism emerged as an intellectual movement that disrupted Groden, Michael, Martin Kreiswirth, et al., eds. 2005. The Johns truth claims by analyzing a society’s norms as part of Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory & Criticism. Baltimore, interlocking discursive systems that manage and fa- MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. cilitate knowledge and its production. Michel Foucault —Wesley Nan Barker (1926–1984) became synonymous with poststructural- ism’s historical-contextual analysis of the production of knowledge. Foucault’s theoretical framework, by signal- Literary Theory and Theology ing the contingency of truth claims, continues to culti- vate innovation among marginalized voices in Christian The contemporary significance of literature for Christi- thought, theology, and ethics. “Particularizing theolo- anityContributor has its roots in biblical interpretation. Philological gies” have drawn on poststructuralist thought to resur- methods of 15th- to 16th-century humanists inspired a rect the authority of narratives previously veiled by the generation of Christian reformers. Centuries later, devel- production of prevailing truth claims. opments in literary theory continue to shape the study Like Michele Foucault, Jacques Derrida (1930–2004) of scripture; however, apart from its relation to biblical indelibly impacted the landscape of literary studies, and Literary Theory and Theology 749 through it literature and Christianity. Derrida’s notion of education was to cultivate humanity in accordance with différance suggests that meaning is established through natural law or “natural powers” that would contribute a complex differential system in which one term gains to the greater good of society. By Pope Paul VI’s defini- its uniqueness apart from the other terms, but also apart tion of Christian education, one can conceive the role of from the other instances in which that term has been literature in Christian education in terms of the extent used and will be repeated in the future. Derrida’s work to which literature cultivates the social, moral, and in- inspired a mode of analysis known as deconstruction. tellectual development of the individual and Christian In deconstruction, all life could be approached as text, community as a spiritual whole. This entry focuses on the continuously disrupting, producing, and reproducing aesthetic dimensions of figurative language in reference meaning in relation to its other terms. to their engagement with the foundations of Christian By the 1980s, Christian theologians across the globe theology and the extent to which such language cultivates were increasingly engaged with developments in post- conversations about Christian consciousness by expand- structuralism, as well as the innovations in literary theory ing religious imagination. at the intersections of linguistics, psychoanalysis, postco- In contrast to expository theological writings that lonial theory, and feminist theory. A generation of think- would have been more explicitly instructional, figura- ers and theologians, including Derrida’s former student tive language captures the imaginationOnly and lends itself Jean-Luc Marion, emerged to engage philosophical ques- to spiritual themes. Poetry’s facility with figurative lan- tions about language, the production of meaning, and the guage made it a particularly useful genre for exploring challenges postmodernity presented to the dogmatics of the heights of human desires and despairs. From Dante religious discourse. In the United States, mutual interest to Milton, poetry offered a highly aesthetic conduit for in the effects and applications of these theories for Chris- representing biblical themes. Dante’s early 14th-century tian theology contributed to an explosion of conferences, Divine Comedy vividly combined the literary elements articles, and books on Christianity and postmodernity. In of classical poetry and Christian representations of hell, 1987, amid this flurry of intellectual activity, the Journal , and heaven to capture his ascent from secu- of Literature and Theology was founded. Despite a back- lar to Christian virtue. Beyond representing Christian lash against the highly theoretical and often impractical themes and theological ideas, poets have often used their aspects of theory, interest in literature and Christianity aptitudeCopy with language to recast entire allegories of the as an interdisciplinary area of interest continues to grow biblical text and provide Christian moral instruction to and develop. society. The 16th-century English poet Edmund Spenser Postmodern trends in literary theory facilitate the dis- penned the The Faerie Queene, writing a love story that is ruption of prevailing truth claims; however, if Christian also an allegory for the Reformation and the exploration education sees itself as part of an ongoing conversation of Christian virtue.76 In the 17th century, John Milton’s about living faith in the world, then literature and the depiction of Adam and Eve in Paradise Lost provided a possibilities of literary analysis offer fresh perspectives distinctly Puritan reading of the biblical narrative in a for thinking about the world and what it means to know way that spoke to the spiritual concerns the author had oneself in relation to that world as a person of faith. regarding the social realities of his time. Rather than capturing the imagination and directing Literature and Christian Education it to a particular purpose or instruction, some figurative Christian education is not only about spiritual develop- language serves to set the imagination free by engen- ment, but also about the moral, social, and intellectual dering multiple layers of meaning. Figurative language development that extend from spiritual growth. In Oc- found favor in late 18th- to 19th-century romanticism, tober 1965, Pope Paul VI proclaimed the gravissimum a varied philosophical and literary period that celebrated educationis, suggesting that the developments in science Christianity’s universal and moral truths as represented and technology, and the shifts of cultural, social, political, most resplendently in aesthetic form. While German and economic movements globally, necessitated the most high criticism’s historicization of a text prevailed in serious consideration of the role of Christian education German theological circles, English poets like Samuel in the late 20th century. Rather than increasingly alienat- Taylor Coleridge (1772–1834) and William Wordsworth ing the church in ways that would segregate it from the (1770–1850) exemplified romantic celebration of bibli- worldContributor and its needs, Pope Paul VI’s document suggests cal aesthetics as an ideal union of the spiritual with the that Christian education, while it should first and fore- sublime. Romanticism marked a decidedly literary appre- most educate the Christian in the “mystery of salvation,” should serve to develop men wholly, “to the mature mea- 76. Roy Maynard, Fierce Wars and Faithful Loves: Edmund Spenser’s sure of the fullness of Christ” (cf. Eph. 4:13). Christian The Faerie Queene, Book I (Moscow, ID: Canon Press, 1999), 9–10. 750 Lithuania and Christian Education ciation of scripture that inspired poets and writers; how- of other postmodern writers present Christian educators ever, tensions between higher criticism and romanticism with an opportunity to rethink the role of Christian edu- ultimately led to a split between theology and the arts in cation as responsive to the demands of society and the the 19th century. Even as appreciation of the aesthetics of needs of the individual. Literature—whether romantic Christianity was at a height in literary circles, theologians or realist, modern or postmodern, Christian or secu- and biblical scholars often associated that same literary lar—represents a finger on the pulse of humanity in its emphasis with emotion and lack of precision that led search for meaning. Christian education can either know humans to error.77 itself in relation to that world through participation and The 19th-century division between literature and creative engagement by scholars like C. S. Lewis, or in Christianity as distinct fields did not alienate them isolation from it, withdrawing from it, and rhetorically entirely, though the relationship was contentious. The insisting with Tertullian that, after all, “What has Athens early 19th-century literary movement transcendental- to do with Jerusalem?” ism epitomized the tensions of the division. Writers like Emily Dickinson and wrote about References and Resources spiritual heights of the individual cultivated apart from Eliot, T. S. 1975. “Religion and Literature.” In Selected Prose Christianity. European and American writers of mid- to of T. S. Eliot, edited by F. Kermode, 97–108.Only London: Faber late 19th-century realism used literature to play on the and Faber. familiarity of Christian themes while using the harsh de- Kort, Wesley A. 2009. “What, After All, Is ‘Religion and Litera- pictions of human existence to exercise incisive critique ture’?” Religion and Literature 41 (2): 105–111. and eschew religious myths that veiled reality. Maynard, Roy. 1999. Fierce Wars and Faithful Loves: Edmund Modernists in the 20th century focused less on the Spenser’s “The Faerie Queene,” Book I. Moscow, ID: Canon decay of society and more on the rise of individualism Press. and alienation from society. Modern Christian writers Prickett, Stephen. “Biblical and Literary Criticism: A History of relocated concepts of grace, liberation, and salvation in Interaction.” Literature and the Bible: A Reader (1999). eds. their world as part of remedying this condition. Irish- David Jasper, Stephen Prickett, and Andrew Haas, 12–43. born writer C. S. Lewis (1898–1963) stands as one of the Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1999. most well-known Christian writers of the 20th-century Copy—Wesley Nan Barker effort to reconnect the individual to the Christian com- munity. Lewis enjoyed commercial success with his Chronicles of Narnia, among other works, but he was also Lithuania and Christian Education a theologian who believed Christianity could heal many wounds of modernity. Lewis’s friend J. R. R. Tolkein Lithuanians accepted Christianity in 1387, later than was a philologist and science fiction writer who played most other European nations. The baptism of Lithuania upon Christian themes of sacrifice and redemption in occurred under King Jogaila. Following the king, his his imaginative works The Lord of the Rings and The family and most of the court were also baptized. Some 77 Hobbit. These writers advocated the value of Christian- percent of Lithuanians consider themselves to be Roman ity within the context of a modern world ravaged by war Catholics. Russian Orthodox and Old Believers are the and disconnected by individualism. Through literature, second largest religious group. Many also belong to these writers were able to educate a broad audience on Lutheran and Reformed evangelical churches. There are Christian virtues, playing on themes of the Christian tra- Lithuanians whose professed faith is Judaism or Islam. dition embedded in Western history to bring the crisis of Academic theology came to Lithuania together with modern life into relief. the Jesuit Order. By their efforts Vilnius University was Today’s postmodern writers have challenged the no- established in 1579, where today the Center of Religious tion of a transcendental Truth of values that can univer- Studies and Research is located. Catholic, Orthodox, sally save us. Many of these writers of the last 50 years and evangelical education is represented in the Faculty emphasize the uniqueness of the individual experience in of Catholic Theology in Vytautas Magnus University, an effort to problematize the grand narratives that have Telsiai Bishop Vincentas Borisevicius Priest Seminary, silenced narratives of marginalized persons. The works Vilnius St. Joseph’s Priest Seminary, Kaunas Priest Semi- Contributornary, Vilnius University Center of Religious Studies and Research, LCC International University (former Lithu- 77. Stephen Prickett, “Biblical and Literary Criticism: A History of In- teraction,” in Literature and the Bible: A Reader, ed. David Jasper, Stephen ania Christian Fund College), and Vilnius Theological Prickett, and Andrew Haas (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1999), 36. College. The Lithuanian government protects religious Little, Sara Pamela 751 freedom through the constitution and other laws. Reli- she remained a committed teacher and lecturer, speaking gious organizations have freedom to provide religious in numerous conferences and churches across the world. education if their teaching doesn’t contravene a law. She held academic appointments at several colleges and —Ivanas Shkulis universities while advancing the scholarly study of Chris- tian education. According to Laura Lewis, Little’s work in Christian education can be summarized in four major cat- Little, Sara Pamela egories: (1) pedagogy that contributes to belief, (2) Chris- tian education in dialogue with theology, (3) advocacy of Introduction youth ministry, and (4) leadership in theological educa- Sara Pamela Little (1919–2009) was an American Pres- tion.78 Harold Burgess places Little’s contribution within byterian Christian educator whose work was primarily the 20th-century mainline paradigm, which emphasizes concerned with the relationship between theology and a commitment to learning in community and educating education, as well as Christian education practice. Little people for citizenship and engagement with the world.79 held numerous academic appointments throughout her A primary concern for Little was that theological under- life and wrote many works that remain influential in the standing be the foundation of Christian education prac- field of Christian education. tice. She drew on the works of KarlOnly Barth, Emil Brunner, and Paul Tillich, among others, in formulating her dialogi- Early Life and Education cal approach to Christian education. For Little, Christian Born in 1919 in Charlotte, North Carolina, Little earned education serves as a means of forming participants in the an AB degree from Queens College in 1939 and taught Christian community, and any practice that contributes to English and mathematics there until 1942. She then the development of Christian community is worthwhile. earned an MRE degree from the Presbyterian School In The Role of the Bible in Contemporary Christian of Christian Education (PSCE) in Richmond, Virginia, Education (1961), Little contends that the core of Chris- in1944. For the next six years, she served as an assistant to tian curriculum was God’s revelation made known to the the regional director for the Presbyterian Synod of North Christian community, whose responsibility it was then to Carolina. In 1951, she received an invitation to teach at respond in worship and commitment. For her, Christian PSCE, a post she held until 1976. During that time, Little educationCopy must not be relegated to either the realm of earned a PhD in religious education from Yale Univer- theological method or educational theory exclusively, but sity, in 1958, and did postdoctoral research at Harvard should be an integrative discipline. In Learning Together University in 1965. in the Christian Fellowship (1956), Little gives practical From 1973 to 1989, Little taught at Union Theological advice to practitioners in the church, emphasizing the role Seminary (now Union Presbyterian Seminary) in Rich- community plays in the Christian formation process. In mond. Little was prolific in her engagement with academic Youth, World, and Church (1968), she seeks to empower life. She held numerous distinguished lectureships in the church’s youth for mission and service in the world. various colleges and seminaries across the globe, was an One of Little’s best-known works, To Set One’s Heart: influential leader in the Religious Education Association Belief and Teaching in the Church (1983), explores various throughout her career, and served on the editorial board of models of teaching in the church and how each impinges Religious Education. Little was also one of the few women on the Christian formation process. Throughout these in leadership in the Association of Theological Schools works, Little continuously wrestles with the relationships (ATS), and she viewed her experiences within that organi- between theology and Christian education and how this zation as abundantly fruitful in broadening her experience. dialogical relationship manifests itself in the educational From 1984 to 1989, Little directed the Lilly Endowment’s ministry of the church. Youth Ministry and Theological Schools. In the 1990s, she taught at various institutions, including Columbia Theo- References and Resources logical Seminary and Presbyterian School of Christian Burgess, Harold William. 2001. Models of Religious Education: Education, and for a time she held academic leadership at Theory and Practice in Historical and Contemporary Perspec- Pacific School of Religion. Little was also a longtime mem- tive. Nappanee, IN: Evangel Publishing House. ber of Grace Covenant Presbyterian Church in Richmond. She passed away in 2009. Contributor 78. Laura B. Lewis, “Sara Little: Embracing the Call to Teach,” in Faith of Our Foremothers: Women Changing Religious Education (Louisville, KY: Contribution to Christian Education Westminster John Knox, 1997), 127–131. 79. Harold Burgess, Models of Religious Education: Theory and Practice Little contributed in numerous ways to the scholarship in Historical and Contemporary Practice (Nappanee, IN: Evangel Publish- and practice of Christian education. Throughout her life, ing House, 2001), 116. 752 Liturgical Calendar, Development of

Lewis, Laura B. 1997. “Sara Little: Embracing the Call to By the end of the fourth century, Christmas, Good Teach.” In Faith of Our Foremothers: Women Changing Friday, and Ascension day (40 days after Easter) had Religious Education, edited by Barbara Ann Keely, 121–135. become separate observances, along with additional days Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. during Holy Week (including Palm Sunday and Maundy Little, Sara P. 1956. Learning Together in the Christian Fellow- Thursday). Epiphany had also been expanded. ship. Richmond, VA: John Knox Press. ———. 1961. The Role of the Bible in Contemporary Christian Further Developments, and the Liturgical Calendar Education. Richmond, VA: John Knox Press. as We Have It Today ———. 1968. Youth, World, and Church. Richmond: John Knox Today the calendar is divided into two cycles—the “cycle Press. of light” and the “cycle of life.” The former begins with ———. 1983. To Set One’s Heart: Belief and Teaching in the the season of Advent (from the Latin adventus, meaning Church. Atlanta, GA: John Knox Press. “coming”). It is a season of solemn preparation for the Steibel, Sophia. n.d. “Sara P. Little.” Christian Educators of the coming of Christ, reentering Israel’s waiting and staying 20th Century. Accessed 30 March 2013. http://www2.talbot alert for Christ’s second appearance. The first clear refer- .edu/ce20/educators/view.cfm?n=sara_little. ence to the season in the West comes from the latter half —Benjamin Espinoza of the sixth century. In the West it comprisesOnly the four Sundays before Christmas. (There is a longer period in the Eastern calendar.) The first Sunday of Advent marks Liturgical Calendar, Development of the first day of the church year. Christmas was first celebrated on 25 December in The Rationale for a Liturgical Calendar Rome in the mid-fourth century. The church was ac- Just as a national calendar marks significant events and customed to celebrating one’s death or baptism rather persons in a nation’s history, and just as that calendar than one’s natural birth, hence the late date in adding shapes its citizens with its annual reminders of their his- the observance of Christmas. The East was slower to torical roots and heritage, so the Christian church’s litur- adopt this date, preferring to commemorate the baptism gical calendar provides the means by which God’s people of Jesus on 6 January. relive the biblical and Christian story each year as they TheCopy “cycle of life” begins with Ash Wednesday, calling are immersed in a sacred time zone and inhabit the story people to remember their mortality and inviting them to of God. As the national calendar annually cycles through enter into a time of repentance, prayer, and self-denial; commemorations of significant figures and events, so the a time of meditation on Christ’s life and death; and a liturgical calendar reminds us of those who have come time of self-giving to others. So begins the season of Lent before us and the events that have been milestones in (from the Anglo-Saxon word lencten, referring to the the history of Christ’s church. Accompanying these sig- lengthening of days in the spring). Originally, this was a nificant days on both kinds of calendars are appropriate time to prepare new converts for baptism on Easter Eve, colors, songs, gestures, ceremonies, and apparel. but it eventually became a time of reflection and self- In the creation story (Gen. 1), God did not set apart examination for all Christians. a place, but he did set apart a time—the Sabbath, its sig- Though preparation for Easter began with only two nificance to be later accentuated by the fourth command- or three days of fasting, there is evidence of a 40-day fast ment. So from the beginning time is sanctified or claimed as early as the fourth century. As we have it today in the by God as his own. In the same way, the church calendar Western church calendar, the Lenten period that begins sets apart days on which we are summoned to remember with Ash Wednesday and ends at noon on Holy Saturday occurrences and people in the past and anticipate events (the Saturday before Easter Sunday) was established in in the future. the West sometime in the sixth or seventh century. Sun- days are excluded because they are always “Little Easters”: Early Development of the Liturgical Calendar feast days celebrating the Lord’s resurrection. The church’s calendar grew out of Jewish roots and was Holy Week begins with Palm Sunday and ends with shaped as the church developed. By the end of the third Easter, though it originated as a vigil that lasted from Sat- century, there was in place a three-day celebration of urday night until Easter dawn. Eventually the Triduum— Jesus’sContributor death and resurrection at Passover time, a recog- the “Three Great Days”—developed, beginning a com- nition of the gift of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost (50 days memoration of the Last Supper on Maundy Thursday after Easter), and a celebration of the God’s manifestation (from the Latin mandatum, referring to Jesus’s new to the world in Jesus Christ at Epiphany, to which was commandment in John 13:34 that we love one another as soon added the celebration of Jesus’s birth and baptism. He has loved us). Good Friday follows (“Good” evolving Liturgy 753 from the Old English good, meaning “of God”), observing word and sacraments, and God’s people respond with Jesus’s death on the cross. The Vigil on Holy Saturday prayers, praise, and thanksgivings. The word “liturgy” became the “mother of all vigils,” beginning in darkness comes from two Greek words for “people” (laity) and and ending in light with the announcement of the resur- “work” (energy) and is translated as “service” (Luke 1:23) rection; typically, the service included and the or “worship” (Acts 13:2). Originally, liturgy referred to Eucharist. The week ends with Easter (the term stem- public activities of local citizens of the Roman Empire. ming from the Anglo-Saxon spring goddess called Eastre, Christians adopted the term to designate the formal whose pagan festival the Christian festival replaced); in corporate public activities of the community as gathered the early church this was associated with Passover, an guests around word and sacraments. association it often retains when referred to as Pascha or The ancient liturgical mass-form, although not rigidly Pasch (Greek for “Passover”). set until the late medieval period, is structured around Just as Christmastide extends through Epiphany, East- the two foci of word and sacrament. The first part of ertide extends to the celebration of Pentecost, observing the service, called by various names over the centuries Christ’s ascension (40 days after Easter) along the way. (Mass of the Catechumens, Ante-Communion, Service What is called “Ordinary Time” developed as the of the Word), grew out of the Jewish synagogue service periods after Epiphany and Pentecost (the term “ordi- (synaxis), which featured two or Onlythree readings. The nary” stemming from “ordinal” numbers that count the Christian adaptation includes readings from the New Sundays). Testament, along with Psalm responses and prayers. The There have evolved many other feast days (such as second part of the service (referred to as the Mass of the Trinity Sunday and the Feast of the Annunciation), and Faithful, Communion, and Service of the Sacrament) was the church has added to its calendar days on which cer- fairly standard as a service of thanksgiving (eucharist), tain saints are celebrated, just as people in the United beginning with a Preface dating back to the second cen- States celebrate the life of Martin Luther King Jr. or tury, which introduces the Sanctus (Isa. 6). Community presidents Washington and Lincoln. For example, these prayers follow: either a longer Eucharistic prayer or the feast days include Andrew, Joseph, the Holy Innocents Canon of the Mass, or the Lord’s Prayer and consecration (who died in Bethlehem on the order of King Herod), of the communion elements with the words of institution and many others. (1 Cor.Copy 11). Bread and wine are distributed, followed by a Accompanying the seasons and special days during postcommunion canticle (a biblical text set to music) and the church year are colors; with some variations, purple a prayer before the Benediction. Most Roman Catholic, during Advent and Lent, white on Christmas and Easter, Anglican, and Lutheran traditions follow this ancient and green for the periods of spiritual growth during Or- mass-form. In Eastern Orthodox congregations, the ser- dinary Time. There are also various symbols and gestures vice is more elaborate, with various songs and hymns and involving the whole person. prayers, yet it retains this same basic shape. Participation in the liturgy provides theological train- References and Resources ing at the feet of the great masters of the faith. Texts, sym- Bradshaw, Paul F., and Maxwell E. Johnson. 2011. The Origins bols, and actions operate in a hermeneutical circle that of Feasts, Fasts, and Seasons in Early Christianity. Colleg- engages the participant in meaningful spiritual realities. eville, MN: The Liturgical Press. Scriptural texts are recited along with prayers and hymns, Chittister. Joan. 2009. The Liturgical Year: The Spiraling Ad- which reflect the theological depth of the Christian com- venture of the Spiritual Life. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. munity. The biblical understanding of the “priesthood Gross, Bobby. 2009. Living the Christian Year: Time to Inhabit of all believers” (1 Pet. 2) is actively experienced in the the Story of God. Grand Rapids, MI: InterVarsity Press. liturgy. Participation in liturgy also unites disparate Klein, Patricia S. 2007. Worship Without Words: The Signs and groups—various ages, races, cognitive abilities, and so- Symbols of our Faith, 2nd ed. Brewster, MA: Paraclete Press. cial statuses—into a corporate community, the body of Webber, Robert. 2004. Ancient-Future Time: Forming Spiritu- Christ. Table-fellowship is enacted in ways that are often ality through the Christian Year. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. quite distinct from most social contexts by an agreed- —Dennis Okholm upon criterion of participation, usually doctrinal. The focus is not on individuals, although each worshipper is Contributor important, but upon the God who graciously speaks and Liturgy gives Himself for the life of the world. Children in worship find many opportunities to learn The liturgy of the church is the heartbeat of Christ’s essential elements of the Christian faith merely by par- people. The Triune God comes to His people through ticipating in the liturgy. The Apostles’ and Nicene Creeds 754 and the Lord’s Prayer are said regularly in a liturgical Webber, Robert. 2008. Ancient-Future Worship. Grand Rapids, setting, and small children soon recite them by memory. MI: Baker. Other parts of the liturgy, including the prayers and can- —Timothy H. Maschke ticles, become second nature to children brought up in a liturgical context. The 16th-century reformer Martin Luther emphasized the educational value of worship for Liturgy of the Hours the common folk and the young as he prepared his evan- gelical orders of service. The Liturgy of the Hours, also called the Divine Hours Nonliturgical worshippers—that is, those groups that or the Divine Office, is the historical Christian practice follow a camp-meeting style of songs and scriptures and of fixed times throughout the day for prayer. Scholars see prayers—benefit from considering the ancient forms of possible connections between the Divine Hours and the liturgy. The liturgy directs attention beyond parochial Jewish observation of morning and evening sacrifices and perspectives as it represents the greater church. Drawing the possible practice of daily prayers such as those found on sources from over 2,000 years of Christian tradition, in Daniel 6.80 By the middle of the third century, Chris- the liturgy extends the worshipper’s experience of Chris- tian leaders such as Clement, Origen, Tertullian, and tianity as a global community. Finally, as a resource of Cyprian made references to the importanceOnly of intervals long-standing relevance, the liturgy provides stability in of prayer throughout the day. They based this practice on an ever-changing social environment. biblical passages such as Daniel 6, the Markan references Vatican II (1962–1965) emphasized participation to the hours of the events that took place on the day of of all the people in the liturgy, recapturing a biblical Christ’s crucifixion, and the Pauline exhortations to pray emphasis that had been criticized by 16th-century Prot- without ceasing.81 estant reformers. A recent four-part liturgy that reflects In the Apostolic Tradition (c. 215), attributed to Hip- this ancient mass-form provides a structure for more polytus, believers were exhorted to pray as soon as they contemporary or cultural expressions. This service be- rose from their beds and, if possible, to participate in gins with a Gathering, followed by the central feature, a this with the local church. This prayer time became focus on the Word—read and spoken and recited. Wor- known as matins or lauds. Believers were to further shippers then participate in a sacramental Meal, which pray Copyat the third, sixth, and ninth hours of the day concludes with the Sending into the world for service (the “little hours”); in the evening (vespers); when they and continued celebration. went to bed; at midnight; and once again as the cock In recent years, even among nonliturgical groups a crowed.82 These time frames roughly represent what was postmodern curiosity about the ancient rites has rein- to become the long-standing Christian tradition of the troduced intriguing worship expressions—silence, in- liturgical horarium. cense, and chant—to younger generations. These litur- The theological basis for these practices seemed to gical elements, which again focus on the Word, provide stem from an emphasis in the early church wherein all of a greater depth and breadth for Christian training and life is meant to be an act of worship before Christ. By the nurturing in the faith. middle of the fourth century, the morning and evening prayer were often established as formal church services. References and Resources While practices varied widely from one congregation Alberigo, Giuseppe, and Joseph A. Komonchak, eds. 1997. to the next, they often involved incense, chants, hymns, History of Vatican II. Vol. II, The Formation of the Council’s reading from the Psalms, and prayers of intercession.83 Identity First Period and Intersession October 1962–Septem- The Liturgy of the Hours also provided the major or- ber 1963. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1997. ganizational structure of communal life for the monastic Chupango, Anscar J. 2002. Liturgies of the Future. Mahwah, NJ: orders from the earliest days of their existence. Texts such Paulist Press. as the Rule of the Master and the Rule of St. Benedict out- Jones, Cheslyn, Edward Yarnold, Geoffrey Wainright, and Paul lined rigorous directions for the ordering of daily reading Bradshaw, eds. 1992. The Study of Liturgy. New York: Oxford of scripture and prayer, with the goal of aiding the mem- University Press. bers to live in full obedience and devotion to Christ on Maschke, Timothy. 2009. Gathered Guests. St. Louis, MO: Concordia. Contributor80. Robert Taft, The Liturgy of the Hours in the East and West: The Ori- Pivarnik, R. Gabriel. 2013. Toward a Trinitarian Theology of gins of the Divine Office and Its Meaning for Today (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Participation. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press. Liturgical Press, 1993), 3. 81. Ibid., 13–21. Senn, Frank. 1997. Christian Liturgy. Minneapolis, MN: For- 82. Ibid., 21–27. tress Press. 83. Ibid., 23–28. Lloyd-Jones, D. M. 755 a communal level. The Rule of St. Benedict emerged as thus studied medicine at London University. He became one form of Divine Hours and was adopted throughout a distinguished physician (1921–1927), working along- Latin-speaking Europe at the behest of Pope Gregory in side Sir Thomas Horder, and even became a member of the seventh century. It is considered to have been one of the Royal College of Physicians. the most influential forces in medieval Christian faith By 1925, he began questioning his life’s calling. With and society until the 12th century.84 a combined awareness of the futility of a life without Cultural shifts in the 13th century brought about a slow God (which, by his own confession, was evident among demise of corporate daily celebration of the liturgy. By the his wealthy patients) and the grace of God in saving him 13th century, the longer versions were being reduced to from his own sin and worthlessness, Lloyd-Jones was shortened versions called “breviaries,” with the emphasis overwhelmed by a sense of God’s calling him to preach. increasingly on private, individual prayer as opposed to the He forsook the field of medicine to become a minister, time-consuming demands of communal daily practice.85 and thus returned to Wales in 1927, having married Be- The Protestant Reformation brought radical change to than Phillips (a physician), with whom he later had two the Divine Office. Reformers reduced the length, elimi- daughters (Elizabeth and Ann). nated the legends of the saints, and translated it into the Lloyd-Jones became the minister of a small Presbyterian vernacular so that it would be accessible to all. Martin Lu- church in Aberavon (Sandfields), SouthOnly Wales, and minis- ther transformed matins and vespers into daily services tered there for a decade (eventually resigning from mental for preaching the Word. Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of and physical exhaustion). In 1939, Lloyd-Jones returned the Anglican Church at the time of the English Reforma- to London to serve as associate pastor of Westminster tion in the 16th century, modified the traditional liturgy Chapel, laboring alongside G. Campbell Morgan; also in by reducing it to the Book of Common Prayer and keep- that year he became president of the Inter-Varsity Fellow- ing the morning and evening prayer. The Anglican com- ship of Students, which is now known as the Universities munion is the only one to continue to actively celebrate and Colleges Christian Fellowship. In 1943, when Morgan these as daily services, as can be experienced in St. Paul’s retired from Westminster Chapel, Lloyd-Jones became the or Canterbury Cathedral.86 sole pastor. He ministered at Westminster Chapel until 1968, when ill health forced him to retire. References and Resources D.Copy M. Lloyd-Jones is regarded as one of the 20th cen- Knowles, David. 1963. The Monastic Order in England. Cam- turt’s most gifted preachers and writers. He was particu- bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. larly influential among British evangelicals. From 1969 to Taft, Robert. 1993. The Liturgy of the Hours in East and West. 1981, he continued to preach and teach in various pulpits Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. in both Great Britain and North America. For instance, —Jennifer Jagerson in the spring of 1969 he gave a series of lectures at West- minster Seminary in Philadelphia, which were published as Preaching and Preachers (1971). His legacy continues Lloyd-Jones, D. M. to influence the lives of many worldwide by means of his books and commentaries, such as his eight-volume Ex- D. M. (David Martyn) Lloyd-Jones was born 20 Decem- position of Ephesians (1978), the monumental 14-volume ber 1899, in Donald Street, Cardiff, South Wales, and Exposition of Romans (derived from sermons delivered was reared in the small town of Llangeitho, Ceredigion between 1955 and 1968 at Westminster Chapel), and the (now Dyfed). He was the middle child of three sons born 2-volume Studies in the Sermon on the Mount (1959, 1960). to Henry and Magdalene (“Maggie”) Lloyd-Jones. Henry The definitive biography of him is the two-volume David Lloyd-Jones was a nominal Congregationalist, then later Martyn Lloyd-Jones (1982, 1990) by Iain H. Murray. Lloyd- a Calvinistic Methodist; his political persuasion was lib- Jones preached his last sermon on 8 June 1980 at the open- eral. Magdalene Lloyd-Jones was reared in the Church of ing of Barcombe Baptist Chapel, and died in his sleep (after England; her political persuasion was Tory. The family several months of suffering in Charing Cross Hospital) on home caught fire in January 1910 while Lloyd-Jones and 1 March 1981 at Ealing. He was buried on 6 March 1981 at his brothers were sleeping; the family lost nearly every- Bethel Calvinistic Methodist Chapel in Newscastle Emlyn, thing they owned, and they never regained financial sta- Dyfed. A thanksgiving service was held in his honor at bility.Contributor Lloyd-Jones was determined to be successful and Westminster Chapel on 6 April 1981. 84. David Knowles, The Monastic Order in England (Cambridge, UK: References and Resources Cambridge University Press, 1963), 3–7. 85. Taft, Liturgy of the Hours in the East and West, 309–310. Atherstone, Andrew, and David Ceri Jones, eds. 2011. Engaging 86. Ibid., 319–326. with Martyn Lloyd-Jones. Nottingham, UK: Apollos. 756 Local Church

Catherwood, Christopher, ed. 1986. Martyn Lloyd-Jones: Cho- nity) is only a part, not all, of the universal church. The sen of God. Wheaton, IL: Crossway. local church is a voluntary assembly of Christians and is Decker, Robert D. 1991. “The Preaching Style of David Martyn the sphere in which the Holy Spirit manifests His gifting Lloyd Jones.” Protestant Reformed Theological Journal 24 and edifying, which makes Christ known to a lost world. (April): 25–33. The local church should be a microcosm of the unity and Murray, Iain H. 1982–1990. David Martyn Lloyd Jones. 2 vols. purity that is the reality of the universal church. The uni- Edinburgh: Banner of Truth. versal church is instructed to evangelize/disciple, serve, Peters, John. 1986. Martyn Lloyd-Jones: Preacher. Exeter, UK: teach, and worship, but the expression of this instruction Paternoster. is fulfilled by the local assembly through the empowering Sargent, Tony. 1994. The Sacred Anointing: The Preaching of of the Holy Spirit. The ordinances of baptism and the Dr. Martyn Lloyd-Jones. Wheaton, IL: Crossway. Lord’s Supper are not the exclusive privilege of the local Smith, Argile Asa. 1984. “David Martyn Lloyd-Jones: A Criti- church, but are universal expressions of the believer’s cal Condition of His Preaching.” ThD thesis, New Orleans identity with and remembrance of Jesus Christ (Acts Baptist Theological Seminary. 2:41, 8:36–38, 18:8; 1 Cor. 11:23–26). The church is the —Ron J. Bigalke regenerate of this age, both in heaven and on earth, who have been redeemed by grace through faithOnly in the finished work of Christ and are united with Him and each other by Local Church the baptizing work of the Holy Spirit, and who assemble voluntarily in any local community for the express pur- Although the English word “church” is opulent in mean- pose of edification, making disciples, worship, and admin- ing, and used quite commonly and extensively, its biblical istration of the ordinances. The church has a holy calling, meaning is often misunderstood. The term has been used as evident from an understanding of the foundation and in reference to a building (whether a cathedral or store- origin of the church. front), corporation with tax-exempt status, denomina- tion, national or state church, people who meet together References and Resources corporately in obedience to biblical commands, religion Clowney, Edmund P. 1995. The Church. Downers Grove, IL: generally (e.g., as in separation of church and state), and InterVarsityCopy Press. the universal body of Christ. Theologically, only one Saucy, Robert L. 1972. The Church in God’s Program. Chicago: church exists as regards the body of Christ universally (1 Moody. Cor. 12:12–27; Eph. 4:4–6), because Christians are cur- —Ron J. Bigalke rently fellow citizens and saints of the household of God. The church is not the consequence of human organiza- tion; rather, it is built upon the foundation of the apostles Loder, James and prophets. Furthermore, the church is God’s work- manship (Eph. 2:10), created in accordance with His eter- Early Formative Life nal purpose in Christ (1:4) so God may demonstrate the James Edwin Loder Jr. was born in Lincoln, Nebraska, exceeding riches of His grace (2:7). The church is invisible on 5 December 1931. His father, Edwin Loder, was the only as regards those of the body who are already present principal of Loder’s elementary school, and he strongly with the Lord. The local gathering of believers in the ser- steered the young boy down a path of intellectual pur- vice of Christ is as a part of the universal church. It is es- suits. His mother, Frances Loder, was known as a gifted sential to understand the universal and localized elements orator with great dramatic and artistic talent. She would for a complete understanding of the New Testament doc- frequently recite poetry to her children. Though both trine of the church. Accordingly, the plural, “churches” is parents provided their children with a rich education, used in the New Testament as a description of multiple neither was deeply committed to the Christian faith tra- assemblies in a city or territory. Those who are Christians dition until a later time. by grace through faith in Christ alone are expected to be members of both the universal and local church. Educational Background The church includes all, and only, those who have been Loder was educated at Carleton College, where he re- regeneratedContributor (born again). The new birth by the Holy Spirit ceived his BA in 1953. He earned a divinity degree from results in faith and repentance in the completed redemp- Princeton Seminary in 1957 and a master of theology tive work of Christ and union with Christ and with fellow degree from Harvard University Divinity School in 1958. believers (Acts 2:47, 20:28). Members are placed into the During 1958–1962, Loder served as a research assistant body of Christ through the baptism of the Holy Spirit (1 under B. D. Hofmann, director of Harvard University’s Cor. 12:13). Unity of believers in a local church (commu- Project on Religion and Mental Health, and earned a Logos System Associates 757

ThM from Harvard Divinity School in 1958 and a PhD of God is to usher the learner into the full power of in the history and philosophy of religion from Harvard the Void in order to surrender its futile efforts to University, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences in 1962. provide meaning for its existence. Loder then joined the faculty of Princeton Theological 2. The Knight’s Move: The Relational Logic of the Spirit Seminary in 1962 as an instructor, and was appointed as- in Theology and Science, coauthored with W. J. Nei- sistant professor in 1965, associate professor in 1967, and dhardt (1992): Integrating the work of numerous professor in 1979. D. Campbell Wyckoff and Freda Gard- scientists and theologians, the authors developed ner had supported and guided the brilliant emerging “the strange loop model,” a generic, asymmetrical scholar into their department as a colleague during this version of complementarity that can enrich the the- maturation period. In 1982, he was named to the Mary D. ology and science dialogue. Synnott Chair of the Philosophy of Christian Education. 3. The Logic of the Spirit: Human Development in Theological Perspective (1998): Presenting a pro- Significant Contributions to Christian Education found and insightful interpretation of the human Perhaps one of the most significant contributions that spirit and its impact on human development, Loder Loder has made to Christian education centers on un- demonstrates how a theological perspective en- locking the nature of convictional epistemology in seek- larges our understanding ofOnly how humans grow ing to demonstrate how such convicted imagination and develop from birth throughout the life span. creates models of disclosure with the tremendously In investigating the intimate relationship between generative power to make life intelligible. Through The human nature and the divine, Loder acknowledges Transforming Moment and The Knight’s Move, Loder that psychological stage theories enable us to un- sought to provide a foundation for practical theology derstand the logic of humans’ evolving relationship and science based on a relational model of Christ’s trans- with the world and with God. formative Spirit and human spirit. Loder’s description of the epistemological efficacy of the Holy Spirit in human After serving as a professor of Christian education at transformation provided Christian educators with a sub- Princeton Seminary for almost 40 years and earning a stantive alternative to the normative structures proposed reputation as a world-renowned scholar in his field, Loder by James Fowler’s faith development paradigm. diedCopy suddenly in Trenton, New Jersey, on 9 November A pivotal incident had become the catalyst for Loder 2001, at the age of 69. He is remembered by his students to radically redefine his understanding and practice of and colleagues as a Christian scholar who wanted to bring Christian faith as a willing participant in the “logic of the the rich resources of the Christian faith into a healing and Spirit.” He and his wife were traveling on the New York transforming relationship with the brokenness of human Thruway toward Albany when he stopped to help two lives, the fragmentation of society, and the deepening de- ladies by the side of the road change a flat tire. As Loder personalization implicit in modern culture. crouched, trying to secure a place underneath the car, the driver of a passing truck fell asleep and rammed into the References and Resources car. The impact of the crash dragged him through the as- Loder, James E. 1966. Religious Pathology and Christian Faith. phalt, cutting his right thumb and almost crushing him to Philadelphia: Westminster Press. death. While witnessing this horrendous accident, Loder’s ———. 1982. The Transforming Moment: Understanding Con- diminutive wife Arlene prayed and then lifted the car up in victional Experiences. Colorado Springs, CO: Helmers & order to break her injured husband free. Alive yet severely Howard. injured, Loder lay on the ground and confronted a terrible ———. 1998. The Logic of the Spirit: Human Development in Void, which ushered him into a profound negation of all Theological Perspective. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. he had lived for up to that time. He found himself more Loder, James E., and Jim Neidhardt. 1992. The Knight’s Move: fully aware of the amazing Grace of the One who has the The Relational Logic of the Spirit in Theology and Science. full authorship of life and the sustaining guarantee for life. Colorado Springs, CO: Helmers & Howard. —Timothy D. Son Most Notable Publications 1. The Transforming Moment: Understanding Con- Contributorvictional Experiences (1982): As a framework of Logos System Associates human experience, Loder provides a four-dimen- sional reality of human development—the self, the The Logos System evolved over more than two decades world, the void, and the Holy—arguing that even of testing and experimentation by many different con- though the normal ego’s defensive tendency is to gregations. Originally called Youth Club, the program’s ignore the Void and the Holy, the role of the Spirit name was changed to The Logos Systems Associates in 758 London School of Theology

1986 and changed again in 2012 to GenOn Ministries. It the church’s life being positively affected by The Logos/ celebrated its 50th year of ministry in 2013. GenOn Program, specifically the church’s tasks of wor- The original Youth Club was successfully introduced ship, stewardship, and evangelism.87 at the Beulah Presbyterian Church in Pittsburgh, Penn- The seven core values shaping the Logos/GenOn ap- sylvania, in the late 1950s and early 1960s; an initial proach to ministry are to affirm a saving relationship membership of 65 soon grew to over 600 children and with God through Jesus Christ as more important than young people attending on a weekly basis. anything else in life; to seek to live with God as the center In 1962, Dr. Dale K. Milligan, pastor of the Beulah and focus of everything we do, following the Bible as our Presbyterian Church, partnered with other interested guide and standard; to develop and deepen Christian pastors and laypeople to expand the program to other relationships that nurture people into lifelong faith and church congregations and establish Youth Club Program, discipleship; to recognize that partnering with the Body Inc. This nonprofit corporation developed curriculum of Christ, the church, is essential in Christian nurture; to materials, local church leadership training, and support advocate the study and practice of the early church (Acts resources for churches of all denominations. The organi- 2:42–47)—teaching, fellowship, breaking bread, and wor- zation began by serving a few churches in Western Penn- ship; to strive to be accountable as stewards of the gifts sylvania and Ohio and currently trains and resources God has entrusted us with—time, talentOnly and treasure, several thousand churches in all parts of the United States including gifts for ministry given by God to individuals as well as overseas. The headquarters, near Pittsburgh, and congregations; and to equip adults to do ministry Pennsylvania, oversees curriculum production and dis- by providing training, resource materials, and ongoing tribution, coordinates training events and the website, relational support. and conducts two annual Logos Program Youth Summits While placing a heavy emphasis on intergenerational for teens: Youth Summit West in Estes Park, Colorado, nurturing experiences and cross-generational sharing of and Youth Summit East in Scranton, Pennsylvania. faith journeys, the Logos/GenOn goal has been to create The weekly Logos Program is touted as enabling young space for lifelong disciples and reduce the loss of young people to engage in all the benefits of summer camp ex- people from organized church. This cross-generational perience on a weekly basis throughout the school year. approach is designed to bring energy and vitality to the It is a disciplined and structured program in four parts, wholeCopy of the local congregations; churches that embrace based on the practices of the early church in the book of this ministry are often referred to as Logos churches Acts: teaching (through Bible study), worship (through rather than as churches with a Logos/GenOn program. youth choir and worship training), fellowship (through —Trevecca Okholm recreation, crafts, and affinity groups), and the breaking of bread together (through a family-style dinner hour). Through these four equal parts, children and youth London School of Theology grow in Christian fellowship, in faith and biblical knowl- edge, and in service to the church. The program is In 1939, discussions by a group of ministers, missionar- designed to run for 30 weeks during the school year. ies and business people began about starting an interde- Curriculum is created for a full range of grades from first nominational “Bible training institute” in London. John through twelfth. Laing, a leading builder who supported many evangelical There are three keys to the success of this program. causes, offered a site in London for what became London The first key is parent and family involvement, meaning Bible College (LBC). Laing would give enormous finan- that parents are required to participate actively in the cial support to LBC. The college was established in 1944 program. Parental involvement, as well as the interest and grew after World War II, when there was much talk Logos/GenOn generates throughout the congregation, of postwar reconstruction. The first full-time students, creates renewal and spiritual growth for all ages and gen- in 1946, were almost all of reasonably mature age. In erations in the congregation. The second key is pastoral autumn 1948 there were 100 full-time students at LBC, involvement. The senior pastor and all other church pro- a figure maintained over the next decade. Ernest Kevan, fessionals are encouraged to assume an effective teach- a Baptist minister in London, was appointed as the first ing role, minister to young people, and develop closer full-time principal in 1946. personalContributor relationships with the children and youth. The Kevan gathered an able group of teachers around him. third key is a self-financing program combined with One early student, Donald Guthrie, was a member of the church renewal. The program is essentially self-sup- staff for over three decades and became an eminent New porting and tends to increase overall understanding of stewardship due to the emphasis on every dimension of 87. http://www.genonministries.org Lonergan, Bernard 759

Testament scholar of international repute. H. Dermot who was at Tyndale House, Cambridge, a center of McDonald, another early and long-term staff member, evangelical biblical research. Dick France was a highly was also a prolific writer and sought to show that evan- effective writer and lecturer. Max Turner became sec- gelicals could engage intelligently with prevailing theo- retary of the Tyndale Fellowship New Testament Study logical thinking. Harold Rowdon taught church history Group in 1981 and also a full-time lecturer in New Tes- to generations of students. H. L. Ellison was a stimulat- tament at LBC. Another leading staff member, in the ing full-time Old Testament lecturer. The teaching staff area of theology, was Tony Lane. started preparing students for the London University BD. Peter Cotterell followed Griffiths as principal from In 1958, LBC moved to new premises in Marylebone 1995 to 2007. Cotterell’s gifts contributed to significant Road, London. In this period the college took on an growth in the full-time student body, to well over 300, international as well as interdenominational character. a rate of growth not seen since the 1950s. The number At least one-third of the leaving students each year went of research students became significant. Derek Tid- overseas. A slightly smaller proportion of students came ball was principal from 1995 to 2008. Since then the from overseas to LBC. In 1963, of former full-time stu- college has not had a long-term leader. Tidball was a dents, 150 were in pastoral ministry, 180 were in mission significant Baptist denominational figure and published overseas, 73 were schoolteachers, and 23 were lecturers in books in the biblical, theological, andOnly pastoral areas. He theological colleges. Many more had undertaken shorter was committed to holistic training to produce people courses by correspondence or through evening classes. equipped for ministry and mission, and he led a team The second principal of LBC was Gilbert Kirby, who that included staff such as Turner and Lane, highly re- encouraged many younger evangelical leaders. Kirby spected figures in the world of scholarship. The college moved from the general secretaryship of the Evangelical was renamed London School of Theology in 2004. Over Alliance to LBC’s principalship in 1966. LBC grew and nearly seven decades, LST’s influence as a British and an changed during the 1970s. Full-time student numbers international center of evangelical theological education reached 230, making it by far the largest Bible college has been unique. in Britain. Gilbert Kirby was enthusiastic about LBC’s global impact. Among leading non-Western figures References and Resources trained at LBC were Byang Kato, first African general Randall,Copy I. M. 2000. Educating Evangelicalism: The Origins, secretary of the Association of Evangelicals of Africa and Development and Impact of London Bible College. Carlisle, Madagascar; Kwame Bediako, a Ghanaian Presbyterian; UK: Paternoster. and Ken Gnanakan, a Methodist from India. Bediako and —Ian Randall Gnanakan became leading evangelical theologians and founders of theological centers. Under Kirby’s leadership, LBC moved to a larger site, Lonergan, Bernard in Northwood, northwest London. Student numbers, including correspondence course and evening class stu- Early Background and Education dents, continued to grow. In one year, 840 new corre- Bernard Lonergan, priest, philosopher, theologian, and spondence students were enrolled. Kirby appointed new economist, was born 17 December 1904 in Buckingham, staff, including two future principals, Derek Tidball and Quebec, Canada. His education in Jesuit schools began Peter Cotterell. Tidball became director of studies. Cot- in 1918 at Loyola College in Montreal, a boarding school. terell’s field was mission. Mary Evans, who had a back- In 1922, he entered The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and ground in education, graduated from LBC and became for the next five years studied mathematics, philosophy, Old Testament lecturer. LBC was known for producing and languages at Heythrop College and the University scholars, but some scholarly work by LBC staff could be of London, England. He then completed four years of controversial. For example, in a commentary on Jonah theological studies, required by the Jesuits, followed by (1976), Leslie Allen suggested that there might well be two additional years of doctoral studies in theology at the “a historical nucleus” behind Jonah, but that its form Gregorian University, Rome. He taught at Jesuit seminar- was parable. This caused considerable consternation in ies in Canada, at Harvard University, the Gregorian Uni- some quarters. versity, Regis College in Toronto, and Boston College. ContributorFollowing the retirement of Kirby, Michael Griffiths became LBC’s third principal, in 1980. Griffiths had Significant Contributions to Christian Education been general director of the Overseas Missionary Fel- While Lonergan’s intellectual influences and interests lowship since 1969. In 1981, he was delighted that LBC were varied, it was his study of the medieval philosopher was able to appoint R. T. France, an Anglican scholar and theologian Thomas Aquinas and his dissertation on 760 Lonergan, Bernard grace in the thought of Aquinas that profoundly shaped form people in Christian living and move them toward the course of his academic life. Influenced by the work personal transformation and that of the church and of Aquinas and his dissatisfaction with Catholic educa- the world. These tasks are essential to the vitality of the tion in general, Lonergan recognized the need to update Christian community and its relevance in particular his- Catholic thinking by bridging modern empirical culture torical and cultural contexts. Christian educators today with Catholic philosophy and theology. He did this by face many challenges as they attempt to make Christian transforming the notion of “method.” In his ground- faith meaningful in an increasingly pluralistic and global breaking book Insight: A Study of Human Understand- world that often discredits the value of Christianity. Since ing (1959), Lonergan explores the concrete and ongoing Insight, Lonergan’s work has attracted widespread inter- style of method that he identifies as the basic, invariant, est among scholars in many fields, including Christian dynamic pattern of conscious and intentional operations education. While Lonergan does not write explicitly in human “subjects” themselves. He invites readers to about Christian education, he did offer a foundational engage in reflective awareness of the structured methodi- philosophy of education in a 1959 workshop, “Institute cal processes of their own consciousness (self-appropri- on the Philosophy of Education.” Here Lonergan em- ation), and with that to gain insight into the universally ploys many of the themes of Insight to suggest the educa- relevant operation and pattern of every scientific, hu- tional foundations of the subject that Onlyground all fields of manist, and religious method (i.e., generalized empirical study and provide the goal of all educational projects. He method). Lonergan calls the pattern of recurrent and is clear that academic success and personal development related operations that yield cumulative and progres- cannot be separated. As Christian educators working in a sive results “levels of consciousness.” The authenticity variety of contexts have faced the exigencies of contem- of this “transcendental method” is measured against the porary living, they have found Lonergan’s work to be a transcendental imperatives that correlate with each of valuable resource. In recent years, both academics and the “levels” of consciousness. These are “be attentive, be practitioners in Christian education have examined and intelligent, be reasonable and be responsible.” It is our interrelated aspects of Lonergan’s thought from a Chris- radical drive for self-transcendence, embodied in ques- tian education interest and have found that his insights tions of meaning and value, that moves us through the provide a framework or map for relevant educational various levels. For Lonergan, we are method. It structures theoryCopy and pedagogical praxis that promotes people as our entire knowing and creative processes and is identical subjects of Christian faith and identity committed to col- with our deepest and spontaneous desires to know and to laboratively exercising a healing and creative praxis in respond to and create value. We do not arrive at truth by an increasingly pluralistic Christian church, world, and merely “taking a good look” or by deduction from prem- history. The elements most often explored and utilized ises. The notion of truth (and value) unfolds in the dy- by Christian educators include Lonergan’s cognitive namic context of living. Throughout his academic career, theory, his view of the human person as subject, and his Lonergan continued to advance and apply his method emphasis on the role of questioning in the process of in diverse fields. In his later writings, he identifies a learning. Developments in Lonergan’s post-Insight work double movement through the multileveled structure of have also been employed, including his description and consciousness: we can move from lower levels to higher distinction of Christian faith and belief; articulation of levels of consciousness “from below upward,” and we Christian authenticity; theory and praxis of intellectual, can move in the other direction in a second movement moral, and religious conversion that transforms subjects “from above downward.” In his last major book, Method and their world; and insight into the dialectical character in Theology, he develops his understanding of generalized of Christian development. empirical method (he also explores a fifth level of being- in-love) and applies his intentionality analysis to religion, Most Notable Publications culture, and Christian faith to demonstrate how it is Lonergan, Bernard. 1959. “Lectures on the Philosophy of Educa- possible to maintain fidelity to religious traditions while tion.” Lectures presented at Xavier College, Cincinnati, OH. also respecting modern culture. He lays out the criteria ———. 1972. Method in Theology. London: Herder and Herder. to guide the task of mediating religion to contemporary ———. 1978. Insight: A Study of Human Understanding. San culture and identifies conversion—intellectual, moral, Francisco: Harper & Row. andContributor religious—as key to using the resources of method to ———. 2005. Collected Works of Bernard Lonergan. Vol. 10, the fullest extent in authentic living. Topics in Education. Frederick Crowe and Robert Doran, From its beginnings, the Christian community has general eds. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. recognized its educational responsibility to inform and —Cate Siejk Lordship Salvation 761

Lordship Salvation vocabulary may be difficult to change, it is nevertheless beneficial with regard to 1 Corinthians 3:1, since sarki- “Lordship salvation” is the prevalent term for a current nois is slightly different from the two words—sarkikoi— controversy that seems to have begun in the late 1950s translated “carnal” in 3:3. The difference is subtle, but and early 1960s. Everett F. Harrison (a Presbyterian significant nevertheless. professor at Fuller Theological Seminary) and John R. “Men of flesh” could be translated more precisely as W. Stott (an Anglican theologian) first debated the issue “mere human” or “worldling,” which the Corinthians in in the September 1959 issue of Eternity magazine. Three a sense indeed were as a consequence of their human- positions have since been defended: pro-Lordship, ity, but in another sense due more to the presence of the non-Lordship, and anti-Lordship. The connotations of Holy Spirit in their lives. “Men of flesh” indicates human “Lordship salvation” create much confusion, and the limitations without the Holy Spirit. The point of the text term is a source of discomfort for those who have en- is that to be a “mere human” or “worldling” is not exactly gaged in the debate. the same as being “carnal,” because this latter form of Those who affirm a pro-Lordship view believe faith the word implies sin due to the believer’s lack of spiritual and obedience are the result of God’s effective (effica- growth. Therefore, it may not be justifiable to state that cious) grace; this view would be better understood as the Paul intended to regard all “infantsOnly in Christ” as worldly. “effective-grace” position. Pro-Lordship advocates argue They were weak like “worldings,” but they were growing that faith alone justifies, but not the faith which is alone spiritually nevertheless. If “infants in Christ” are called (sola fides iustificat, sed non fides quae est sola). The kind “carnal,” the implication is that “carnality” or “worldli- (or quality) of faith that is the means of justification ness” is a normal category for some Christians, and such results in obedience, since the existence of spiritual life language allows the possibility for creating a classifica- (regeneration) is assumed. tion of Christians who are never expected to grow or Charles C. Ryrie defended the non-Lordship position demonstrate any evidence whatsoever of regenerative (“non-effective-grace”) in a chapter of his book Balanc- faith. Therefore, if one assumes that an individual can be ing the Christian Life (1969), which compared the pro- a believer without any visible evidence, then one creates Lordship position to the Galatian legalism (Gal. 1:6–9). a subclass of Christian who makes a profession of faith Non-Lordship advocates argue that obedience should be withoutCopy any evidence of faith; it is not correct to state that a consequence of justification and is essential for perse- a believer ought to grow, but if the “believer” has faith in verance in complete discipleship. A necessary corollary of Christ but never grows, that such an individual is truly the non-Lordship position is the belief that a true Chris- regenerate. The danger in this teaching is a careless at- tian can remain in a state of carnality (sin). In defense of titude toward Christianity, which may encourage certain the pro-Lordship view, John F. MacArthur responded individuals to think they need not aspire to the rigors with his work The Gospel According to Jesus (1988), to and sufferings of discipleship. When one fails to grow which Ryrie responded in 1989 with So Great Salvation. spiritually, it is indeed sin, but worldliness is a temporary In defense of the anti-Lordship view (“Free Grace”), condition into which one lapses. Worldliness is spiritual Zane Hodges entered the debate the same year. MacAr- childness, that is, reverting to the natural man’s behavior thur responded a second time in 1993 (and also provided and thinking. The Holy Spirit will not allow such a condi- clarifications). Numerous other advocates of the three tion to continue indefinitely (cf. Heb. 12:4–13). positions have since responded. The “Free Grace” move- Lewis Sperry Chafer (founder and first president of Dal- ment best represents the terminology desired of those las Theological Seminary) taught a view of sanctification affirming anti-Lordship. Anti-Lordship advocates affirm similar to the “victorious life” teaching (associated with the possibility of being a Christian, yet such an individual the historic Keswick conventions), which was that spiritual by his or her works may deny Jesus Christ (cf. Titus 1:16). maturity began as a permanent surrender to Christ subse- According to the non-Lordship and anti-Lordship quent to conversion. Ryrie classified the ongoing tension positions, all humanity can be categorized within one of between the sin nature and new nature as “counteraction.” three descriptions. According to 1 Corinthians 2:14, the Therefore, the believer is responsible for spiritual matu- first category is the “natural” man. The second category rity by yielding to the Holy Spirit. The Chaferian view of is the “carnal” man (cf. 1 Cor. 3:1). The third category is sanctification also taught that the believer is “carnal” prior theContributor “spiritual” man (1 Cor. 2:15). The most literal trans- to this permanent dedication, which would mean that im- lation of the Greek word sarkinois (sometimes translated maturity could continue indefinitely for some. While the as “carnal”) is “men of flesh” (NASB). Although certain emphasis on human responsibility is commendable in this terminology that is very prevalent in common Christian view, the divine work must also be given equal importance. 762 Love

To be “fleshly” is a temporary lapse from godly obedience, There are those who seek knowledge to be known by oth- of which true believers will repent (2 Cor. 7:11). Scripture ers; that is vanity. There are those who seek knowledge in does not teach that one may be “carnal” indefinitely, or order to serve; that is love.” that it is a natural state for the new believer. Indeed, all While this topic of “love” may seem like an overly believers—young and old in spiritual age—are indwelt by familiar concept to many, the application of love may be the Holy Spirit and demonstrate “spiritual” behavior (1 the most important single factor for effective teaching Cor. 2:11–16), although some may be inconsistent initially, and learning in Christian education. This emotional ele- as were the Corinthians. ment allows biblical knowledge, values, and behaviors to find fertile soil for growth. References and Resources Alderson, Richard. 1986. No Holiness, No Heaven! Antinomian- The Mark of the Christian ism Today. Carlisle, UK: Banner of Truth. At the close of His ministry, Jesus makes clear what will Belcher, Richard P. 1990. A Layman’s Guide to the Lordship be the distinguishing mark of the Christian: “A new Controversy. Southbridge, UK: Crowne Publications. command I give you: Love one another. As I have loved Bing, Charles C. 1992. Lordship Salvation: A Biblical Evaluation you, so you must love one another. By this all men will and Response. Burleson, TX: GraceLife Ministries. know that you are my disciples, if youOnly love one another” Boice, James Montgomery. 1986. Christ’s Call to Discipleship. (John 13:33–35). Chicago: Moody Press. This command includes a condition: If you obey, you Chantry, Walter. 1970. Today’s Gospel: Authentic or Synthetic? will wear the badge Christ gave. But since this is a com- Carlisle, UK: Banner of Truth. mand, it can be violated. The point is that it is possible to Cocoris, G. Michael. 1983. Lordship Salvation: Is It Biblical? be a Christian without showing the mark, but if we expect Dallas, TX: Redención Viva. non-Christians to know that we are Christians, we must Gentry, Kenneth L., Jr. 1992. Lord of the Saved: Getting to the show the mark. Paul makes the double obligation clear in Heart of the Lordship Debate. Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian Galatians 6:10: “As we have therefore opportunity, let us & Reformed. do good unto all men, especially unto them who are of Hodges, Zane. 1989. Absolutely Free! A Biblical Reply to Lord- the household of faith” (cf. also I Thes. 3:12; I John 3:11). ship Salvation. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Of Copycourse, our first commandment is to love the Lord Horton, Michael, ed. 1992. Christ the Lord: The Reformation our God with all our heart, soul, and mind, but the sec- and Lordship Salvation. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. ond bears the universal command to love all people. No- Julian, Ron. 1998. Righteous Sinners: The Believer’s Struggle with tice that the second is not just to love Christians; we are Faith, Grace, and Works. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress. to love our neighbor as ourselves. The church is to be a MacArthur, John F. 1993. Faith Works: The Gospel According to loving church in a dying culture—a countercultural pro- the Apostles. Dallas, TX: Word. posal. How, then, is the dying culture going to consider Ryrie, Charles C. 1989. So Great Salvation: What It Means to us? Upon His authority He gives the world the right to Believe in Jesus. Wheaton, IL: Victor. judge whether the church is Christian on the basis of our —Ron J. Bigalke observable love toward all Christians. But there is something even more sobering. Jesus prays, “That all of them may be one, Father, just as you are in me Love and I am in you. May they also be in us so that the world may believe that you have sent me” (John 17:21). In John The test of the character and quality of our relationship 13, the point was that, if an individual Christian does not with God is measured by the character and quality of all show love toward other true Christians, the world has a our other relationships.88 But, as humorist Garrison Keil- right to judge that he or she is not a Christian. In John 17, lor quips: “Some people have a love of their fellow man Jesus is stating that we cannot expect the world to believe in their hearts, and others require a light anesthetic.”89 the Father sent the Son, that Jesus’s claims are true, and Nevertheless, if we love God, we will love people. Bernard that Christianity is true, unless the world sees some real- of Clairvaux (1090–1153) said: “There are those who seek ity of the oneness of true Christians. knowledge for the sake of knowledge; that is curiosity. ContributorThe Role of Oneness in Christian Education 88. John Westerhoff, Spiritual Life: The Foundation for Preaching and In John 13 and 17, Jesus talks about a real seeable one- Teaching (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1994), 1. 89. Life among the Lutherans (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Books, ness, a practicing oneness, a practical oneness across all 2009), 87. lines, among all true Christians. Lowrie, Roy, Jr. 763

The Christian really has a double task: to practice both love is that permeating factor that allows the Holy Spirit God’s holiness and God’s love. The Christian is to exhibit to seep truth into the lives of believers for their further that God exists as the infinite-personal God, and then he education in faith. or she is to exhibit simultaneously God’s character of ho- liness and love. Not His holiness without His love; that is References and Resources only harshness. Not His love without His holiness; that is Benner, David G. 2003. Surrender to Love: Discovering the only compromise. Anything that an individual Christian Heart of Christian Spirituality. Downers Grove, IL: Inter- or Christian group does that fails to show the simultane- Varsity Press. ous balance of the holiness of God and the love of God Brady, Bernard V. 2003. Christian Love. Washington, DC: presents to a watching world not a demonstration of the Georgetown University Press. God who exists but a caricature of the God who exists. Everist, Norma Cook. 2002. The Church as Learning Commu- What, then, does this love mean? How does love nity: A Comprehensive Guide to Christian Education. Nash- promote effective Christian education?90 “Why this in- ville, TN: Abingdon Press. sistence on the communal nature of the church? Because —Mark A. Lamport it is by this process that faith can be incubated and nur- tured. Faith is a concomitant of human association. This Only is why the church must a gathering of Christians which Lowrie, Roy, Jr. is permanent enough to allow individuals to know each other in various facets of their life and regular enough Early Background, Education, in its meetings to be able to develop a sense of solidarity and Professional/Family Life in Christ and in their mission to the world. The human Roy Lowrie (1928–1994) was born in Glenrock, Wyo- interaction is the most powerful process we know for ming, and moved with his family to Springfield, Illinois, creating and sustaining values, and for shaping a distinc- when he was two. After graduating from Springfield High tive style of life.”91 School, he began his Bible studies at the Philadelphia First, it means that Christians who love must practice College of the Bible, from which he graduated in 1949. forgiveness. We are asking the Lord to open to us the He earned a bachelor’s degree from Wheaton College in experiential realities of fellowship with Him as we forgive 1952Copy and a master’s and doctorate in educational admin- others. Our love will not be perfect, but it must be sub- istration from Temple University in 1954 and 1958. stantial enough for learners to be able to observe. The act Dr. Lowrie began his teaching career in 1952 at of forgiving and being forgiven is a powerful teacher in Delaware County Christian School in Newtown Square, the Christian ethic. Pennsylvania. Just two years later he was named the Second, the more Christians disagree with fellow school’s first headmaster. During the next 26 years Low- Christians, the more important it is to exhibit the holi- rie oversaw the school’s growth from a fledging start-up ness of God. At the same time, the more serious the dif- to a school that included two campuses on 25 acres, with ferences become, the more important it becomes that we facilities for almost 1,000 students. Ken Tanis, the man look to the Holy Spirit to enable us to show love to the who followed Dr. Lowrie as head of school, commented true Christians with whom we must differ. about his predecessor: “Dr. Lowrie’s ministry at Delaware Third, Christians can exhibit love without sharing County Christian School was characterized by a primary in other’s mistakes. Our approach would be a desire concern that the school be truly Christian.” to solve the problem rather than a desire to win. What Lowrie and his wife of 42 years, Peg, had five children, we are working for in the midst of our differences is a three of whom became significant leaders in the Christian solution that will give God the glory, will be true to the school movement. Bible, and will exhibit the love of God simultaneously with His holiness. Significant Contributions to Christian Education Love—and the unity it attests to—is the mark Christ In 1971 Dr. Lowrie, along with Dr. William Male, began gave Christians to wear before the world. Only with this the Institute for Christian School Administration on mark may the world know that Christians are indeed the campus of Grace College in Winona Lake, Indiana. Christians and that Jesus was sent by the Father. And During the rapid expansion of Christian schools in the Contributor 1970s and 1980s, the institute became a popular site for 90. Some of this material is adapted from Francis Schaeffer, The Mark of administrators around the country to come for training. the Christian (InterVarsity Press, 2006). 91. C. Ellis Nelson, Where Faith Begins (Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, Their time there proved to be valuable for network- 1967), 101. ing and for discussions about biblical integration in all 764 Loyola University, Chicago aspects of a Christian school. Grace Seminary started a in mission work. The orthodox Christian faith was not master’s degree program in 1985 to train administrators compromised, but where possible cultural adjustments in response to the growing demand for leaders who pos- were made to adapt to a people’s way of life. By so doing, sessed a philosophy of Christian education. In 1994, the Christian teaching was acculturated, taking on customs master’s degree and the institute relocated to Columbia of the majority community. For instance, Jesuits were International University. known for their integration of a community’s documents In 1978, Dr. Lowrie was the founding president of the into Christian instruction. Finding latent Christian truth Association of Christian Schools International (ACSI), within a given culture, Jesuits retained the practice of originally located in La Habra, California, and moved in “plundering the Egyptians” (Exod. 3:20–22), which in 1994 to its current location in Colorado Springs, Colo- Christian educational parlance means taking truth, good- rado. ACSI grew to become the largest organization of ness, and beauty from the surrounding culture because its kind, with over 23,000 member schools in more than the principles are biblical. Loyola University, Chicago has 100 countries. put this principle into practice in its exceptional liberal Christian camping was also a passion of Lowrie’s. arts programs, wrapping truths from the surrounding He was director of boys’ camping at Camp Sankanac in culture with Roman Catholic teaching. Spring City, Pennsylvania, for more than 20 years. Only Educational Design Most Notable Publications St. Ignatius College, founded by Father Arnold Damen Lowrie, Roy W., Jr., and Roy L. Lowrie. 2004. Serving God on in 1870, became Loyola University, Chicago in 1909. the Christian School Board. 3rd ed. Colorado Springs, CO: Though it is known for its School of Liberal Arts, a dozen Purposeful Design. schools within the university setting boast studies in law, medicine, business, and not surprisingly, education. Uni- References and Resources versity Centers of Excellence benefit both professors and Columbia International University. 2013. “About the Roy W. students engaging areas such as Catholic heritage, math- Lowrie Family.” Lowrie Center for Christian Education. science studies, urban commitment, and women in lead- http://www.lowriecenter.com/page/history. ership. Loyola University boasts campuses throughout Price, B. 1994. “Obituaries.” 4 February. http://articles.philly ChicagoCopy and programs around the world in places such .com/1994-02-04/news/25856837_1_middle-states-associa as Rome, Beijing, and Ho Chi Minh City. Nearly 200,000 tion-christian-schools-international-high-school-program. alumni have earned dozens of undergraduate degrees, —Kenneth S. Coley scores of master’s degrees, and over 30 doctoral degrees, and participated in two dozen postgraduate programs. Loyola has not left its religious roots, as the university Loyola University, Chicago is home to Saint Joseph College Seminary as well as the Jesuit First Studies program. The latter training is the first Ignatius of Loyola was a man of passion, erudition, and step toward the process of Jesuit priesthood. Lay min- generosity. Personal-educational maturity marked his life isters receive training through the university’s Institute as he became educated in the liberal arts, traveled widely, of Pastoral Studies. Loyola’s core curriculum exposes all and served others wherever he went. His life provides the students to theology and ethics courses. soil from which Loyola University, Chicago has grown. Campus Distinction Historic Beginnings Loyola continues Ignatius’s care for others through its Loyola University, Chicago has deep roots in the life of application of theological ethics. The university has an Ignatius Loyola (1491–1556). He founded The Company outstanding reputation for environmental concerns in of Jesus, which later came to be called the Jesuits (today, addition to its exceptional educational standing. All The Society of Jesus, its members identified by SJ). Imi- Loyola campuses have the highest standards and are tation of Christ, vows of poverty, and missions marked nationally ranked for ecological sustainability. Loyola’s the order’s Rule. Living in community, the Jesuits com- many schools in and around Chicago are consistently mitted to disciplined, personal spirituality, worked out regarded as some of the top-ranked programs and best throughContributor one’s vocation. Jesuit missionary endeavors were education for the dollar in the country. Its famous alumni grounded in education as well as preaching. Contextu- dot the landscapes of business, education, law, literature, alization—bridging one’s message to another commu- politics, and theology. CBS news anchor Bill Plante hails nity’s culture—was an important sensitivity component from Loyola. George Halas Jr., the former president of the Luther League 765

Chicago Bears football team, is an alumnus. Comedian- to the dramatic growth of the nondenominational So- actor Bob Newhart is a Loyola grad. Brenda C. Barnes has ciety of Christian Endeavor, founded in 1881.95 Many held multiple positions of leadership in U.S. companies, churches associated with Christian Endeavor, but con- including Pepsi-Cola and Sara Lee, and has appeared in cerns emerged over losing theological distinctions and the top 10 of the World’s Most Powerful Women. Henry retaining youth within the denomination. Hyde, sponsor of the famous Hyde Amendment, was a well known pro-life advocate; one of the university’s 18 Early Developments (1895–1960) congressional graduates. Norman Geisler is a well-known Luther League’s history largely corresponds to trends evangelical apologist and president of Southern Evan- within American Lutheranism through the 20th cen- gelical Seminary. Loyola University, Chicago is one of the tury. Differences in cultural and linguistic heritage (e.g., many famous Jesuit universities: Fordham, Georgetown, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish) yielded to a desire for a Boston College, Marquette, and Xavier. Upholding the common Lutheran identity, producing a steady series of focus on Jesuit education, Loyola continues to maintain mergers. The Luther League movement became a unify- its allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church, while its ing force as various synods adopted the name for youth focus is always on Ignatius’s primary concern: providing auxiliaries, regardless of affiliation with the organization the world with alumni whose educational background is established in 1895.96 A number ofOnly the more significant grounded in the life of Christ through works of service. organizations are described below. Pope Francis I continues the example of the student- servant as the Roman Catholic Church’s first Jesuit pope. Augustana Synod The Augustana Synod Luther League organized in Chi- References and Resources cago in 1910 as a result of grassroots efforts to connect Loyola, Ignatius. 1964. Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius. leagues at a local, district, conference, then national lev- Translated by Anthony Mottola. New York: Doubleday. el.97 From the outset, the group sought to maintain strong Skerrett, Ellen. 2008. Born in Chicago: A History of Chicago’s ties to Luther League of America and utilize its resources, Jesuit University. Chicago: Loyola Press. though it also published manuals with Bible studies and —Mark Eckel themeCopy suggestions for programs. United Lutheran Church in America Luther League The successor to synods forming the Luther League of America was the United Lutheran Church in America, es- Founding of the Movement (1895) tablished in 1918. The organization remained active, with The Luther League of America was organized on 30–31 continued focus on spiritual nurture of adolescents and a October 1895 at First Lutheran Church in Pittsburgh, desire to retain young people within the denomination.98 Pennsylvania. Nearly 400 delegates gathered to “sustain The Luther League Review was published, and biennial the endeavor of a national Luther League to quicken, by national conventions gathered young leaders. With no age churchly methods, especially among the youth, a clearer limit to participation, many league participants (including consciousness of Christian faith, and to promote among officers) were in their twenties or older.99 them a practical life.”92 The league’s roots go back to Junius Remensnyder, who in 1875 organized a Young Evangelical Lutheran Church People’s Religious Society for 75 youth who joined his The Young People’s Luther League formed in 1919, two Lewiston, Pennsylvania, congregation.93 The idea quickly years after the merger creating the Norwegian Evan- replicated in neighboring towns in eastern Pennsylvania, New York, and beyond. Local and state-level alliances 95. Mark H. Senter III, When God Shows Up: A History of Protestant Youth Ministry in America (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2010), soon emerged, the antecedent to uniting as a national 170. Lutheran youth association.94 96. For a review of early Lutheran youth societies, see Clarence Pe- ters, “Developments of the Youth Programs of the Lutheran Churches Luther League was among a dozen mainline Protestant in America” (ThD thesis, Concordia Theological Seminary, 1951). The youth societies started in the late 1800s, largely a response Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod (a national church body) maintained its own youth auxiliary, the Walther League, founded in 1893. For a detailed history, see Jon Pahl, Youth Ministry in Modern America, 1930 to the Pres- Contributor92. Gerald Jenny, The Young People’s Movement in the American Lu- ent (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2000), 17–37. theran Church (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1928), 46. 97. Nelson, Lutherans in North America, 15–16. 93. Ibid., 41. 98. E. Theodore Bachmann, The United Lutheran Church in America, 94. Ibid., 41–46; E. Clifford Nelson, ed., The Lutherans in North Amer- 1918–1962 (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1997), 248. ica, rev. ed. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980), 303–304. 99. Ibid. 766 Luther League gelical Lutheran Church in America (later shortened to ingly involved in social, economic, and political concerns, Evangelical Lutheran Church). The league held bien- including racial tensions, world hunger, and the Vietnam nial conventions with a focus on worship, fellowship, War. The emphasis was underscored by the reception of and education; early activities included youth educa- Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. as speaker at the 1961 Miami tion, leadership training, a Pocket Testament League, a conference and as convention delegates published state- Choral Union, youth-to-youth evangelism, stewardship ments related to global issues, prejudice, Christian unity, education, and summer Bible camps.100 Chapters became and more.104 To reflect the desire to promote a youth increasingly active on college campuses, and an emphasis voice within the wider church, major policy changes in emerged in the 1920s to reach post-Confirmation high the late 1960s passed the organization’s leadership to school youth through junior leagues. By 1927, there were high school and college students, roles previously held by 1,600 organized leagues with 100,000 members.101 seminary students and young pastors. During the 1980s, the Luther League continued to American Lutheran Church engage in global and social concerns, including global The Luther League of the American Lutheran Church relationships, cross-cultural evangelism, public health (formed in 1930) united over 12,000 members among issues, and South African apartheid. Attention was also several hundred local leagues, some dating to the 1890s. given to inclusion of youth of color andOnly those with dis- The league’s central theme, “With Christ, For Christ,” abilities, including national leadership events to train was affirmed at the first convention in 1930, and na- minority youth. tional conventions were held on a mostly biennial basis through 1960. Lutheran Church in America The Lutheran Church in America (LCA), the successor to United Evangelical Lutheran Church the ULCA and Augustana Synod in 1962, became Luther The United Evangelical Lutheran Church (UELC), of League of America’s new home. The young church sup- Danish heritage, established a Luther League of its own in ported the youth auxiliary and staged a national youth 1935, though the denomination had a history of support- gathering in 1965, but a movement among Protestant ing youth work from its founding in 1896. The UELC’s denominations led national offices to reduce or eliminate league was actively involved in summer camp programs; youthCopy ministry departments. The LCA notwithstanding, training for congregational leaders; promoting youth Luther League of America was disbanded in 1968, with fellowship, stewardship, and evangelism; and holding the expectation that local congregations would continue national youth rallies.102 youth programs and work to integrate young people into the whole of congregational life.105 Lutheran Free Church The Luther League Federation of the Lutheran Free Lutheran Youth Organization (1988–2012) Church began in 1937, though affiliated societies had When the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America been connected with the Young People’s Federation (ELCA) formed in 1988 as a merger of The American since 1920. The federation published resources (includ- Lutheran Church, Lutheran Church in America, and ing the annual Luther League Handbook and a quarterly Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches, “Luther periodical), established summer Bible camps, and later League” was lost as the Lutheran Youth Organization conducted Luther League Leadership Training Schools.103 (LYO) emerged as the ELCA’s youth auxiliary.106 Much of the LYO’s work was devoted to leadership development, Two Denominations, Two Directions (1960–1987) advocating for a youth voice within the church, and seek- ing greater inclusion of multicultural and disabled youth. The American Lutheran Church Reductions in denominational support in the 2010s A 1960 convention in Milwaukee launched the Luther hastened the end of the LYO, which disbanded in 2012. League of The American Lutheran Church from the merger of three predecessors (ELC, UELC, and former ALC; the Lutheran Free Church joined in 1963). Through 104. Charles Lutz, ed., Memories of Miami (Minneapolis, MN: The the 1960s and 1970s, the organization became increas- American Lutheran Church Luther League, 1961), 25–26. 105. W. Kent Gilbert, Commitment to Unity: A History of the Lutheran Church in America (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1988), 158–161. Though 100.Contributor Richard H. Ellingson, “The Youth Movement in the Norwegian Luther League of America was disbanded, the LCA did maintain a Com- Lutheran Church” (BTh thesis, Luther Theological Seminary, 1943), 11–30. mission on Youth Ministry, involved youth in national church conven- 101. Jenny, Young People’s Movement, 113. tions, and produced parish education resources for youth. 102. Richard Ellingson and David Ellingson, “Luther League: 90 Years 106. Some local churches and disparate regional bodies of other de- Young, 25 Years Strong,” The Lutheran Standard, 15 November 15, 34. nominations retain “Luther League” for their youth programs, though a 103. Ibid. unifying national organization by that name ceases to exist. Luther, Martin 767

The ELCA has continued triennial youth gatherings, with gatory). On 31 October 1517, Luther tacked his “95 The- attendance between 22,000 and 41,000, since 1988. ses” on the church door of Wittenberg. He rejected the notion of the church as a hierarchical institution under References and Resources the bishop of Rome, who had the ability to administer Bachmann, E. Theodore. 1997. The United Lutheran Church in salvation through sacraments, and thus protested against America, 1918–1962. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. the unbiblical teachings and practices that were preva- Ellingson, Richard H. 1943. “The Youth Movement in the Nor- lent in his day and called for the return of an obstinate wegian Lutheran Church.” BTh thesis, Luther Theological church to the essential truth of the Gospel that sinners are Seminary. justified by grace alone (sola gratia), through faith alone Ellingson, Richard, and David Ellingson. 1985. “Luther League: (sola fide), on the Word alone (sola scriptura), because of 90 Years Young, 25 Years Strong.” Lutheran Standard, 15 Christ alone (solus Christus), to the glory of God alone November. (soli Deo Gloria). Luther’s protest against many of the Gilbert, W. Kent. 1988. Commitment to Unity: A History of the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church resulted in a Lutheran Church in America. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. series of pamphlets (1519–1520), such as “On Christian Jenny, Gerald. 1928. The Young People’s Movement in the Liberty,” “On the Freedom of a Christian Man,” “To the American Lutheran Church. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Christian Nobility,” and “On the OnlyBabylonian Captivity Publishing House. of the Church.” With the advent of the printing press, Lutz, Charles, ed. 1961. Memories of Miami. Minneapolis, MN: Luther’s “95 Theses” and other writings were circulated The American Lutheran Church Luther League. swiftly throughout Europe. Nelson, E. Clifford, ed. 1980. The Lutherans in North America. Luther’s opposition to many of the teachings of Roman rev. ed. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. Catholicism culminated in a debate in Leipzig in 1519 Pahl, Jon. 2000. Youth Ministry in Modern America, 1930 to the with the renowned theologian John Eck. On 3 January Present. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. 1521, when Luther refused to recant his position, Pope Peters, Clarence. 1951. “Developments of the Youth Programs Leo X excommunicated him from the Roman Catholic of the Lutheran Churches in America.” ThD thesis, Concor- Church. Four months later (April 1521), Luther was dia Theological Seminary. summoned to appear at the Diet of Worms before Em- Senter, Mark H., III. 2010. When God Shows Up: A History of perorCopy Charles V, where he stated, “I stand convicted by Protestant Youth Ministry in America. Grand Rapids, MI: the Scriptures to which I have appealed, and my con- Baker Academic. science is taken captive by God’s Word, I cannot and will —Mark J. Jackson not recant anything. For to act against our conscience is neither safe for us nor open to us. On this I take my stand. I can do no other. God help me. Amen.” Luther was Luther, Martin subsequently declared a heretic and outlaw. Elector Fred- erick the Wise (of Saxony) encouraged Luther to hide in Martin Luther was born on 10 November 1483 in the the Wartburg Castle, where he remained from May 1521 small town of Eisleben in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. until March 1522, during which time Luther translated Luther’s father was a copper miner and wanted his son the New Testament into German, which significantly to study law; thus in 1501, Luther began studies at the contributed to the development and proliferation of the University of Erfurt. During a thunderstorm four years German language. later, Luther vowed to become an Augustinian monk if Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1522, and in 1525 St. Anne would help him. Luther was ordained in 1507 he married Katharina von Bora, a former , with and began teaching biblical studies at the University of whom he had six children (two died prior to reaching Wittenberg (a new school in 1502), where he obtained adulthood). In 1529, Luther wrote his most notable pub- the doctor of theology degree in 1512. lications, the Small Catechism and the Large Catechism, In 1510, Luther’s superior, Johann von Staupitz, com- which continue to be read and studied. Three beliefs missioned him to visit Rome on behalf of several Augus- characterized Luther’s teachings: (1) the supreme au- tinian monasteries, and Luther was appalled by the cor- thority of God’s Word; (2) salvation is received by grace ruption of the papacy that he encountered there. Luther alone, as a free and unmerited gift of Christ; and, (3) all wasContributor incensed that the Roman Catholic clergy was selling believers are priests; thus there is one status before God, indulgences (either a partial or complete remission of “the priesthood of all believers.” Luther’s influence pro- temporal punishment for sin, which could be obtained liferated throughout eastern and northern Europe and for either someone living who confesses and receives resulted in Wittenberg becoming an intellectual center. absolution, or for one deceased and believed to be in pur- Luther died on 18 February 1546 in Eisleben. 768 Lutheran Church Christian Education

References and Resources reason or rationalism. Third, the Lutheran emphases on Bainton, Roland H. 1950. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther. Christology, the Incarnation, and the importance of the New York: Abingdon Press. doctrine of creation led to hearty investigation of the Lohse, Bernhard. 1986. Martin Luther: An Introduction to His material world as a legitimate scholarly vocation. Thus, Life and Work. Philadelphia: Fortress. whereas Luther and Melanchthon did not personally Oberman, Heiko. 1989. Luther: Man between God and the embrace Copernicus’s new astronomy, science faculty at Devil. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Wittenberg could engage and even embrace Copernican Pelikan, Jaroslav, ed. 1955–1986. Luther’s Works. 55 vols. St. ideas. Fourth, Luther’s doctrine of the “two kingdoms,” Louis, MO: Concordia. the teaching that God works out a divine plan in both —Ron J. Bigalke the Kingdom of Grace (the church) and the Kingdom of Power (the world at large), provided space for the so-called secular disciplines without having to forcefully Lutheran Church Christian Education Christianize every subject. Fifth, Luther’s doctrine of vo- cation meant that every calling in life had its own dignity Since its inception, the Lutheran tradition has placed and was as much a way to serve God and neighbors as the a strong emphasis on education within the church and work of a professional clergyman. As Onlyfor the vocation of society. Reformers emphasized the importance of an pastor, Luther placed an emphasis on the artful distinc- individual’s ability to read and understand scripture, tion between Law and Gospel, with theological training rather than relying exclusively on the trained clergy and focusing on proper proclamation rather than theological professional theologians. Martin Luther (1483–1546) speculation about God’s hidden mysteries. argued that education should be available to all citizens, After its initial phase, guided by Melanchthon’s hu- male and female, high and low ranking. This perspective manistic spirit, Lutheran theological education entered was sometimes dismissed by members of the emerging a period of scholasticism and theological consolida- commercial society, who believed that liberal arts educa- tion. This tradition applied technical elaborations to the tion was impractical and that education should primar- basic doctrine found in Melanchthon’s Loci Communes, ily equip students to succeed in emerging middle-class through the detailed work of teachers like Martin Chem- occupations. Nonetheless, Luther defended the role of nitz (1522–1586)Copy and Johann Gerhard (1582–1637). poetry, public libraries, public scholarship, and reading Pietism offered a typically anti-intellectual reaction to broadly. In a letter to the German nobility, he argued that this scholastic trend, as seen in the work of Philipp Jakob high-quality education should be funded by Lutheran Spener (1635–1705). His Pia Desideria (1675) indicates princes. Meanwhile, after visiting various congregations the character of this Pietism as it relates to education. and discovering a general ignorance about the essential Spener downplayed advanced systematic theology but components of the Christian faith, Luther advocated a emphasized personal morality, prayer, and devotional strong catechetical tradition, which continued for cen- Bible study. He suggested that Christian teachers should turies and employed Luther’s own Shorter and Larger publicly discourage students who were studious but Catechisms. Similarly, humanist Philip Melanchthon lacked piety, and that they should praise students who, (1497–1560) emphasized the need for robust higher even when lacking in academic aptitude, demonstrated education at Wittenberg and defended the importance spiritual and moral uprightness. The structure of Lu- of studying biblical and classical languages. He devised theran education established and sustained in North a topical and biblically driven approach to theological America by Scandinavian immigrants maintained some study that followed the format and method of his famous of the structures and practices of scholarly Lutheranism, text, the Loci Communes. but often carried forward a Pietist ethos. This, coupled Lutheran theology contains several key themes that af- with cultural isolation, meant that Lutheran education, fect its philosophy of Christian education. First, Luther’s while significant in terms of the number of institutions theology of the cross, articulated in his early Heidelberg and congregational youth catechized, was rarely as signif- Disputation (1518), insists on both spiritual and intel- icant in public discourse as Reformed and Wesleyan con- lectual humility, placing scripture above reason as the tributions to the intellectual landscape of North America. source of theological knowledge and questioning the Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment continental necessityContributor of Aristotelian categories for understanding thinkers like Kant, Nietzsche, Hegel, and Heidegger all revelation. Second, Luther’s infamous description of reflect their emergence from a Lutheran critical tradition reason as the Devil’s whore, though not a case for anti-in- in education, though they do not represent a distinctly tellectualism, was nonetheless a recognition of the effects Christian form of education or thought. The emphasis of sin upon the knower, especially with respect to a priori on broad, universal, and independent scholarship in Luther’s Catechisms 769 the Lutheran Reformation may not have anticipated the Simmons, Ernest. 1998. Lutheran Higher Education: An Intro- extremes of the Enlightenment, but its freedom and anti- duction for Faculty. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress. authoritarianism likely provided fertile soil for the move- —Jeff Mallinson ment. Similarly, some scholars detect commonalities between Luther’s rejection of rationalism and the spirit of postmodern trends in European philosophy. Luther’s Catechisms Distinctly Lutheran education was important for European immigrant communities throughout North In medieval Christianity, a book of catechism expressed America. Many Lutheran denominations and associa- the basics of the faith, including the Ten Command- tions even included a mandate for congregations to spon- ments, Apostles’ Creed, and Lord’s Prayer. During the sor and maintain elementary, university, and seminary Reformation, the term catechism became associated with education. There was a reciprocal relationship between a handbook used for religious instruction (catechesis) of Lutheran teaching and education: parochial schools pro- the laity. Medieval catechisms typically had a question- vided the tools for students to understand scripture and and-answer format. In 1529, German reformer Martin their faith; likewise, Lutheran education allowed students Luther (1483–1546) published two documents, now to receive theological grounding alongside training in the called the Small Catechism and LargeOnly Catechism. Both other disciplines. Curricula included confessional mate- are found in the Book of Concord, Lutheranism’s historic rial, scripture, church history, and historic hymns and collection of authoritative doctrinal confessions (1580). prayers. Despite occasional antiphilosophical and pro- In his preface to the Small Catechism, Luther explains vincial approaches of some schools in the Lutheran tradi- why he wrote it. The “deplorable, miserable condition” of tion over the last two centuries, the quality and quantity religious ignorance prompted him to prepare it “in this of Lutheran institutions in the United States and Canada small, plain, simple form.” The “common people” had arguably constitute its major cultural contribution to “no knowledge whatever of Christian doctrine, and alas! non-Lutheran neighbors. Commitment to both general many preachers are altogether incapable and incompe- and theological training remains a hallmark of Lutherans tent to teach.” The resulting work was written as a practi- in North America today. A pan-Lutheran organization cal tool for parents and the uneducated clergy to teach called the Lutheran Educational Conference of North theCopy Christian faith to their children. Each major section America (LECNA), founded in 1910, currently repre- begins by stating: “As the head of the family should teach sents 40 Lutheran colleges and universities in the United them in a simple way to his household.” Luther saw States and Canada. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in parents as “bishops” and “bishopesses” with an “office America has 10 seminaries and partners with 26 colleges of ministry” in their homes. The preface was addressed and universities. The Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod to pastors. boasts a system of 10 universities and the largest Prot- The Small Catechism offers explanations of the Ten estant parochial school system in the world. There are Commandments, Apostles’ Creed, and Lord’s Prayer, also at least two independent Lutheran higher education then baptism, confession, and the Lord’s Supper. It also institutions in the United States. While various Lutheran includes a recommended pattern for a family’s daily de- traditions disagree about the essence of Lutheran iden- votional practices and concludes with a “table of duties” tity, there is general consensus that Lutherans ought to drawn directly from scripture. The language is clear and value and support Christian education. uncomplicated. Simple wording aided memorization, which allowed the basic texts of the Christian faith to take References and Resources deep root in a child’s heart. The Small Catechism was first Andersen, David. 2012. Martin Luther: The Problem with Faith produced in the form of wall charts to be hung in church, and Reason; A Reexamination in Light of the Epistemological home, or school. In booklet form, each commandment, and Christological Issues. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. article of the creed, petition, and sacrament was accom- Ferry, Patrick. 1993. “The Guiding Lights of the University of panied by a picture of a scene from the Bible illustrating Wittenberg and the Emergence of Copernican Atronomy.” the content being discussed; visual aids assisted all mem- Concordia Theological Quarterly 57 (4): 265–291. bers of the household. One of its most famous features is Heck, Joel, and Angus Menuge, eds. 2011. Learning at the Foot Luther’s explanation of the First Commandment, “You Contributorof the Cross: A Lutheran Vision for Education. Austin, TX: are to have no other gods.” The catechism asks: “What Concordia University Press. is this? Answer: We are to fear, love, and trust in God Hockenbery Dragseth, Jennifer, ed. 2011. The Devil’s Whore: above all things.” Faith, understood as a work of the Holy Reason and Philosophy in the Lutheran Tradition. Minne- Spirit in the explanation of the third article of the creed, apolis, MN: Fortress Press. fulfilled the commandments. Luther’s distinctive order- 770 Luther’s Small Catechism ing of material reflected a progression designed to mirror included explanation of the creed (either the Apostles’ Reformation theology. His catechisms start with Law, or Nicene), the Decalogue, the Lord’s Prayer, the sacra- which brings the diagnosis of spiritual and moral illness ments, and miscellaneous topics. While some catechetical (made by the Ten Commandments); and move to Gos- manuals were produced in the late first millennium, cate- pel, which declares the cure (expressed by the Apostles’ chesis was largely neglected in the medieval church, leav- Creed); and then turn to prayer, which procures the ing most Christians in ignorance and superstition (Schaff needed spiritual medicine (found in the Lord’s Prayer). 1977, 246). The reformers sought to reverse this trend The Large Catechism is directed toward enabling preach- and developed short manuals of religion covering the ers and pastors to better instruct the laity in the faith. It re- most basic elements of Christian doctrine and practice. flects the content of a series of sermons on the catechism’s Luther was motivated to produce a catechism when he topics that Luther preached in 1528. It follows the same visited the lamentable and ignorant churches in Saxony basic order as the Small Catechism but offers much longer in 1527–1529. He reported: and more nuanced treatments of the subject matter. His preface to the Large Catechism refers to his work as “a brief The ordinary person, especially in the villages, knows abso- compend and summary of all the Holy Scriptures.” lutely nothing about the Christian faith, and unfortunately many pastors are completely unskilled and incompetent Lutheran scholar George Lindbeck stated that “the teachers. Yet supposedly they all bear theOnly name Christian, Catechisms provide the most authoritative normative de- are baptized, and receive the holy sacrament [Eucharist], scription of Reformation Christianity as a religion of the even though they do not know the Lord’s Prayer, the Creed, 107 population at large.” Luther’s catechisms are important or the Ten Commandments! As a result they live like historical markers of Protestantism’s profound concern simple cattle or irrational pigs and, despite the fact that the to teach the heart of the Bible to the whole people of gospel has returned, have mastered the fine art of misusing God, its vision of sincere faith practiced in daily life, its all their freedom. (preface to The Small Catechism) concern to transmit the substance of the Gospel and main contours of the Christian life to the laity, and its commit- Before Luther posted his “95 Theses,” he preached ment to the importance of the Christian home as a locus regularly at Wittenberg’s church, and a number of his of religious instruction. They remain valuable resources sermons were focused on various parts of the catechism. for Protestant churches in the contemporary era and are TimothyCopy F. Lull explains: still used in many Lutheran congregations. First published separately, in 1522 they appeared as a col- lection in his Personal Prayer book. Although this booklet References and Resources was not a catechism per se, in the preface to his 1526 Arand, Charles P. 2000. That I May Be His Own: An Overview version of the liturgy. . . . Luther appealed to his fellow of Luther’s Catechisms. St. Louis, MO: Concordia. pastors and preachers to write instruction booklets and Wengert, Timothy J. 2009. Martin Luther’s Catechisms: Form- suggested they use his Personal Prayer Book as the basis ing the Faith. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. for their work. (2005, 317) —Jeffrey P. Greenman Luther began writing his Small Catechism in late 1528 or early 1529. The first three parts—Decalogue, Creed, Luther’s Small Catechism Lord’s Prayer—were published separately in January 1529. After recovering from a serious illness, he finished Catechesis became vital in the early church as Christi- the catechism in the spring, with an explanation of the anity spread throughout the Roman Empire. Whereas sacraments (Lull 2005, 317). Jewish converts in the first century were baptized upon The structure of the Small Catechism—Decalogue, conversion, having already a knowledge of the Old Tes- Creed, Lord’s Prayer, Sacraments—reflects Luther’s fa- tament, pagan converts needed formal Christian instruc- mous Law-Gospel distinction—knowledge of Law and tion before receiving baptism. However, once church and sin must precede knowledge of the Gospel. Luther’s Small state were unified under Constantine and infant baptism Catechism is in a simple question-and-answer format, became the norm, catechetical instruction was imparted posing one simple, recurring question, What is this? and largely to baptized Christians, preparing them for con- only occasionally poses other questions such as How does firmationContributor (Schaff 1977, 246). Historically, catechesis this happen? What does this mean? and What does this signify? The catechism also includes prayers for meal- times, mornings, and evenings. 107. George Lindbeck, “Martin Luther and the Rabbinic Mind,” in The Church in a Postliberal Age, ed. James J. Buckley (Grand Rapids, MI: The Small Catechism was originally written in German. Eerdmans, 2003), 24. It has been translated into many languages, including Lynn, Robert W. 771

Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac. It was an instant best was influenced by the progressive mainline Protestant seller, printed and reprinted many times in Wittenberg liberal theology of the time. Robert graduated with a BA and other cities in Germany. In early 1529, Luther had from Princeton University in 1948, earned a bachelor of large posters printed containing the principal parts of the divinity from Yale Divinity School in 1952, and received a catechism. They were displayed in churches, schools, and doctor of theology degree from Union Theological Semi- homes for children to read and recite together (McCain nary. After earning his BD, both before and during his 2005, 311). It is believed to have had a circulation of over doctoral studies, Robert served as an assistant minister 100,000 copies within 37 years after its original publica- for adult education at Montview Boulevard Presbyte- tion. Upon publication, it was immediately adopted in rian Church in Denver, Colorado. During his studies, schools, churches, and families. Philip Schaff has said, “It he was greatly influenced by the growing neoorthodox became by common consent a symbolic book, and a sort movement in theological education, studying under Paul of ‘Lay Bible’ for the German people” (1977, 250). It is the Ramsey, H. Richard Niebuhr, Reinhold Niebuhr, Lewis first of the catechisms produced by the reformers, and its Sherrill, and Paul Tillich. His interests leaned toward the dialogical format was quickly adopted by other Protes- history of American religion, culture, and public life, and tant catechisms (except Calvin’s first catechism). To this he sought to better understand the forces shaping Ameri- day, it is used extensively in Lutheran churches. Schaff can Christianity. He interacted withOnly Lawrence Cremin reflects the high praise it has received from theologians, at Columbia Teacher’s College and focused much of his historians, and churchmen alike: studies on the development of education in American history and its impact on the church’s religious educa- It exhibits [Luther’s] almost apostolic gift of expressing tion efforts. the deepest things in the plainest language for the com- In 1959, Robert joined the faculty of Union Theo- mon people. It is strong food for a man, and yet as simple logical Seminary and then became the dean of Auburn as a child. It marks an epoch in the history of religious Theological Seminary, an institution that collaborated instruction: it purged it from popish superstitions, and with Union. Over the next 15 years he served in this brought it back to Scriptural purity and simplicity. . . . To the age of the reformation it was an incalculable blessing. role, at times teaching at Columbia Teacher’s College Luther himself wrote no better book, excepting, of course, and Fordham University. In 1976, he became the senior his translation of the Bible, and it alone would have im- programCopy officer in the Religion Division at the Lilly En- mortalized him as one the great benefactors of the human dowment, guiding the awarding of grants in the area of race. (1977, 250) religion, particularly mainline Protestant church life. He retired from the office of senior vice president at the Lilly References and Resources Endowment in 1989 and served as scholar in residence at Boettcher, H. C. 1946. Instructor’s Manual for Luther’s Small Bangor Theological Seminary, Bangor, Maine, until 1995. Catechism. St. Louis, MO: Concordia. Lull, Timothy F. 2005. Martin Luther’s Basic Theological Writ- Significant Contributions to Christian Education ings. 2nd ed. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. Robert Lynn’s focus on the history of the church and the McCain, Paul Timothy, gen. ed. 2005. Concordia: The Lutheran Christian faith in America was foundational to his im- Confessions: A Reader’s Edition of the Book of Concord. 2nd pact in the field of Christian education. His application ed. St. Louis, MO: Concordia. of Lawrence Cremin’s concepts of educational ecolo- Repp, Arthur C. 1982. Luther’s Catechism Comes to America: gies influenced a generation of students and scholars to Theological Effects on the Issues of the Small Catechism Pre- consider a broader range of ways that social institutions, pared in or for America Prior to 1850. Lanham, MD: Scare- including churches, schools, parachurch organizations, crow Press. and publishers, worked together to support and shape the Schaff, Philip. 1977. Creeds of Christendom. Grand Rapids, MI: lives and faith of children, youth, and adults. This influ- Baker Book House. ence can be seen in the writings of those who worked and —Kevin P. Emmert studied with him, including John H. Westerhoff III’s Will Our Children Have Faith (1976) and C. Ellis Nelson’s Where Faith Begins (1967). This perspective helped many Lynn, Robert W. Christian education leaders expand their understanding Contributor of teaching and learning, gaining a better appreciation Early Background and Education for how experiences outside the classroom and inten- Robert Wood Lynn was born in 1925 in Wheatland, Wy- tional instructional efforts contribute to people’s spiritual oming, to a family of homesteaders who were involved growth, encouraging greater attention to the formative in their local Presbyterian church. His early environment power of the life of the church, school, and culture. 772 Lynn, Robert W.

Through the Religion Division of the Lilly Endow- ———. 1992. “The Crisis of Leadership in the Oldline Protestant ment, Robert Lynn helped fund studies investigating the Churches: The Ninth Peter Ainsley Lecture on Christian decline of the mainline Protestant church, supporting Unity.” Midstream 31 (2): 112–122. the development of the field of congregational studies Lynn, R. W., and E. Wright. 1971. The Big Little School: 200 and the strengthening of theological education to meet Years of the Sunday School. New York: Harper & Row. the challenges of contemporary ministry. He sought to strengthen the preparation of leaders for the church, the References and Resources church’s efforts to rebuild an educational ecology that Bass, Dorothy, and Glenn Miller. n.d. “Robert W. Lynn.” Chris- promoted a strong and vital faith engaged with the needs tian Educators of the 20th Century. http://www.talbot.edu/ of the church and society, and theological education to ce20/educators/protestant/robert_lynn/. equip church leaders to guide these efforts. Indiana University. n.d. “Honoree: Robert Wood Lynn.” Uni- versity Honors & Awards. https://honorsandawards.iu.edu/ Most Notable Publications search-awards/honoree.shtml?honoreeID=443. Lynn, R. W. 1964. “A Strand of Events in the History of Protes- Nelson, C. Ellis. 1967. Where Faith Begins. Richmond, VA: tant Educational Strategy: The 1850s to the 1960s.” Religious John Knox Press. Education 59 (44): 305–312. Westerhoff, John H., III. 1976. Will Our ChildrenOnly Have Faith? ———. 1966. “Religious Educators: Their Vision of Polity and New York: Seabury Press. Education.” Union Theological Seminary Quarterly Review —Kevin E. Lawson 21 (2): 145–159.

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Contributor M Only Macedonia and Christian Education religions and denominations make up the remaining ap- proximately 5 percent (Johnston, Mandryk). Current law The beginnings of Christianity in Macedonia, as in the does not allow private religious primary schools, but this rest of the Balkans, date back to the first century AD prohibition does not apply to higher schools (secondary and are associated with the apostolic activity of St. Paul level and above) (U.S. Department of State 2012, 2). In (Jashari 2008, 170). St. Clement and St. Naum of Ohrid, 2009, it became possible to attend religious classes of one who lived in the ninth and 10th centuries, played a sig- denomination in school, but the Constitutional Tribunal nificant role in the Christianization of these lands. Sev- considered this inconsistent with the principle of the eral theological educational institutions were functioning separation of church and state. Currently in the school in monasteries by that time (Kagioglidis 2009, 60). At systemCopy there is no place for religious education, which the end of the 14th century, these lands were invaded takes place in religious communities. Starting with the by the armies of the Ottoman Empire, which led to their school year of 2010/2011, students can choose among Islamization. The collapse of the archbishopric of Ohrid the following subjects: introduction to religions, ethics in in 1767 was a manifestation of the Islamic domination. In religion, or classical culture in European civilization (U.S. 1918, the structures of the Catholic Church were created; Department of State 2008, 2–3). they belonged to the Eastern rite and held the in the liturgy. After World War II, the People’s Re- References and Resources public of Yugoslavia was established, and within it the Committee for Human Rights of the Republic of Macedonia. Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Between 1958 and n.d. “Religious Instruction in Schools: A Tool for Better Dia- 1967, the Orthodox Church ceased to be subject to the logue or Instigator of Conflicts?” http://humanrightshouse church in Serbia and declared autocephaly. According .org/noop/file.php?id=10806. to the constitution at that time, religious schools were Jashari, H. 2008. “Contemporary Movements and Religion allowed, although subject to state authorities. The con- among Macedonian Albanians.” Academic and Scientific stitution of 1974 stated that religious communities could Journal of Linguistics, Literature, Education and Culture 1 create schools, but designed solely for the education of (June). the clergy. Legislation in 1977 provided that “religious Johnstone, Patrick, and Jason Mandryk. 2001. Operation World: education can be practiced in public rooms in which 21st Century Edition, Updated and Revised Edition (When religious rituals and religious activities also occur” and We Pray God Works). Waynesboro, GA: Gabriel Resources. “religious instruction of minors cannot take place during Kagioglidis, I. 2009. “Religious Education and the Prevention school hours or when the children are engaged in other of Islamic Radicalization: Albania, Britain, France and the school activities.” The constitution of 1991 states that re- Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.” Master’s thesis, ligiousContributor communities are separate from the state and have Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California, September. the right to establish religious schools (Kostovski 2003, http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA508894. 203–204). Nowadays Orthodox Christians constitute ap- Kostovski, S. 2003. “Church and State in Macedonia.” In Law proximately 65 percent of the Macedonian population, and Religion in Post-Communist Europe, edited by S. Ferrari whereas Muslims account for about 30 percent. Other and W. Cole Durham Jr., 89–120. Leuven: Peeters.

— 773 — 774 Madagascar and Christian Education

U.S. Department of State. 2008. “Macedonia.” http://www.state of the Church .gov/documents/organization/171707.pdf. ———. 2012. “Macedonia 2012 International Religious Free- The word “magisterium” comes from the Latin term dom Report.” http://www.state.gov/documents/organiza magister, which means teacher, professor, or master. The tion/208552.pdf. magisterium of the church refers in most Christian de- —Paweł Mąkosa nominations to the authority of the church to preach and teach the Word of God. This authority is clearly rooted in the person and work of Jesus as well as the scriptural Madagascar and Christian Education mandate to preach the Gospel to the nations and to bap- tize (Matt. 28:19). As a result, this teaching authority is The Beginning of Christianity in Madagascar visible in scripture and in the history of theology as an Christianization began in the early 19th century (1818), element of the universal priesthood of all believers. How- when missionaries from the London Missionary So- ever, it is also understood as a communal mandate and ciety (LMS) were officially invited by King Radama I therefore is particularly connected to the ecclesial teach- (1810–1828) to develop a written form of the Merina ing authority of the Christian community. As a result, the language, to establish schools and to teach useful crafts history, use, and meaning of the termOnly differ significantly (Ralibera, 1993). The Bible was the first book translated depending on the ecclesial context of the speaker and into the Merina dialect and printed (1835). It became the her or his audience. While widespread agreement exists standard textbook to teach literacy.1 that the church has the right and duty to faithfully and The four largest Christian denominations are the authoritatively expound the Gospel, disagreements over Roman Catholic Church (ECAR), the Reformed Protes- the role of tradition, the particular locus of this office in tant Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar (FJKM), the the church, and the exercise of this authority are matters Reformed Lutheran Church (FLM), and the Anglican of ecumenical division. Church (EEM), which form the National Council of Paul asserts that teaching is a gift of the Spirit for the Churches in Madagascar (FFKM). About 41 percent of building up of the church (Rom. 12:6–8), but since the the country’s population is Christian, 52 percent of indig- Reformation, denominations have had difficulty agree- enous belief, and 7 percent Muslim.2 ing onCopy the relationship between this teaching and the teaching of scripture itself. Famously, Luther and Calvin Typical Means of Educating Christians argued for the inspiration and sufficiency of scripture Families with the financial resources enroll their chil- against the use of ecclesial tradition as a source for the dren in private Roman Catholic schools, which teach in proper understanding of divine revelation. The Council French and have the best qualified teachers, followed by of Trent, in its fourth session, placed the unwritten tradi- Protestant private schools. tion of the church alongside the writings of sacred scrip- ture and warned that no one may interpret the scriptures Religious Freedom and Freedom of Worship in a way contrary to the teachings of the church on their and Conscience own authority. Since the 15th century, however, there The regime’s new constitution (2010) upholds religious has been an increasing awareness among both Catholics freedom and reaffirms the secular nature of the state.3 and Protestants of the interdependence of scripture and Religious schools are required to register with the gov- the history of its interpretation throughout the life of the ernment and can operate in freedom of worship. church. This growing awareness of the historically con- ditioned nature of all human understanding has made References and Resources it increasingly difficult for those who argue for a simple Ralibera, Daniel. 1993. Madagascar et le Christianisme, Edi- reading of either scripture or doctrinal statements. tions Karthala, p. 196. Ephesians (4:11–12) connects the teaching office with —Christa Buse Bearivo other ministerial offices. However, the proper locus of magisterial authority is also a persistent issue of ecu- menical division. In , the office of 1. “Education in Madagascar,” in Wikipedia, https//www. en.wikipedia the magisterium is centered in the . .org/wiki/ (modified 30 November 2012). This office is exercised ordinarily by each bishop in his 2. Contributor“Field Listing—Religions—CIA,” in The World Factbook, https:// www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/notesanddefs own diocese and united to the universal church, but also .html?fieldkey=2122&alphaletter=R&term=Religions extraordinarily when the Roman Catholic Church seeks 3. U.S. Department of State, 2011 Report on International Religious Freedom—Madagascar (30 July 2012), http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ to make a formal definition of the faith, either via an ex- docid/502105a55f.html (accessed 17 March 2013). pression of episcopal collegiality, such as an ecumenical Malawi and Christian Education 775 council, or when the Roman pontiff speaks in accordance Eno, R. 1984. Teaching Authority in the Early Church. Colleg- with the universal church via an ex cathedra statement on eville, MN: Michael Glazier Press. some issue concerning faith or morals. Gaillardetz, R. 1997. Teaching with Authority: A Theology of the Among churches of the Reformation, it is clear that the Magisterium of the Church. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical teaching authority of the church is rooted in the inspira- Press. tion of scripture. However, within Protestantism there Henderson R. 1962. The Teaching Office in the Reformed is a great diversity of opinions about the proper locus of Tradition: A History of the Doctoral Ministry. Philadelphia: the authoritative interpretation of scripture within the Westminster Press. church. Presbyterial polities tend to associate the teach- Hooft, W. A. V. 2000. Teachers and the Teaching Authorities: ing authority of the church with a governing board of el- The Magistri and the Magisterium. Geneva: World Council ders, who establish the authoritative doctrinal and ethical of Churches. teaching for the polity. Congregational polities place their Lindbeck, G. A. 2009. The Nature of Doctrine: Religion and emphasis on the autonomy of the local congregation Theology in a Postliberal Age. 25th anniv. ed. Louisville, KY: (and the relationship between the local pastor and the Westminster John Knox Press. community) for the proper expositing of the content of Metz, J-B., and E. Schillebeeckx. 1985. The Teaching Authority scripture. Regardless of the structure of the polity (epis- of the Believers. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.Only copal, presbyterial, or congregational), every polity relies Moltmann, J., H. Küng, and M. Lefébure, eds. 1981. Who Has on the work of the Holy Spirit for the proper expression the Say in the Church? Edinburgh: Seabury Press. and understanding of the content of revelation. Osmer, R. 1990. A Teachable Spirit: Recovering the Teaching Questions about the proper exercise of the magis- Office in the Church. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox terium are closely connected to those regarding the Press. proper locus of the magisterium within the church. ———. 2005. The Teaching Ministry of Congregations. Louisville, Although the magisterium might be particularly asso- KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ciated with particular bodies within the church, every Sullivan, F. 2003. Creative Fidelity: Weighing and Interpreting member of the church shares in the teaching office by Documents of the Magisterium. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. virtue of her or his baptism. Thus, for example, the U.S. United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB). 2011. Conference of Catholic Bishops (2011) argues that par- GeneralCopy Directory for Catechesis. Washington, DC: USCCB. ents are the primary religious educators of the family Vanhoozer, K. 2005. The Drama of Doctrine: A Canonical (225). Similarly, pastors, missionaries, and theologians Linguistic Approach to Christian Theology. Louisville, KY: each play a unique role in the handing over of the con- Westminster John Knox Press. tent of revelation and the interpretation of scripture for World Council of Churches, Commission on Faith and Order. the life of the church. Tensions frequently arise between 1979. “How Does the Church Teach Authoritatively Today?” the individual and communal exercise of the teaching Ecumenical Review 31 (1): 77–93. authority of the church and are handled in various ways —Theodore James Whapham depending on the ecclesial context. This issue is particu- larly challenging because of the way it pits individual and communal concerns against each other, in addition Malawi and Christian Education to the fact that it is immediately connected to one’s un- derstanding of the Gospel. The church in Malawi is blessed by a stable and support- Christian and religious educators thus have a par- ive government, although it faces challenges from the low ticular function in the daily exercise of the magisterium standard of living, low literacy rates, HIV and AIDS, and of the church. In this role, it is their responsibility to an increasing Islamic population. concern themselves with not only the methods of trans- Christianity was brought to Malawi in the mid-1850s by mitting the faith of the Christian community, but also its missionaries associated with David Livingstone. Roughly a content. Religious educators thus participate in a special quarter of Malawi’s population is Catholic, and just over a way in the teaching office of the church as they seek to quarter is Protestant (in 62 denominations). Malawi also understand and present the Gospel to each generation has more than 330 African independent churches. of Christians in a way that is faithful to its content while The schools established by missions laid a foundation everContributor mindful of their audiences. for both secular and religious education. Most mission- related schools are now run by the government. The References and Resources Overtoun Institution of the Livingstonia Mission and St. Dulles, A. 2007. Magisterium: Teacher and Guardian of the Michael’s College of the Universities to Central Africa Faith. Naples, FL: Sapientia Press. (Anglican) were two of the earliest colleges. 776 Malaysia and Christian Education

Malawi has two national universities (in Mzuzu and History shows that Christian education is one of the best Zomba), along with 17 Protestant and four Roman Cath- witnesses of the faith and an agent of mission in Malaysia. olic seminaries and Bible schools. Through cooperation, several of these programs have been accredited by the References and Resources Department of Education. Most of the Protestant pro- National Evangelical Christian Fellowship. 1993. Educational grams are lower- or mid-level institutions that serve spe- Challenges in the Malaysian Society: A Christian Response. cific denominations. Many Bible schools run extension Petaling Jaya, Selangor: NECF. programs and correspondence courses. Organizations —Rosalind Lim-Tan like the Evangelical Association of Malawi offer training in pastoral leadership. But traditional models of theo- logical education have not produced leaders affordably or Malta and Christian Education fast enough to meet the needs of the growing church, and most church leadership is untrained. Malta is located on two small islands (Malta and Gozo) Christian literature is expensive and not easily avail- in the Mediterranean Sea in the south of Europe. The be- able, although Malawi’s Kachere is one of the best pub- ginnings of its civilization dates back to 5000 BC; temple lishing houses for theological and historical issues related ruins originate from that time. ChristianityOnly arrived in AD to the African church. 60 during a storm, when the ship bearing the apostle Paul —Steve Hardy wrecked on Malta. In the 16th century, Malta was given to the Order of St. John (the Knights of Malta); in the 19th and 20th centuries it was a British colony; and since Malaysia and Christian Education 1974 it has been an autonomous republic. It is the most Catholic country in Europe (Catholics constitute 98 per- Malaysia is a Muslim nation, and Christians make up cent of the population, a considerable part of whom are about 10 percent of the population. Portuguese traders practicing and proudly confess to their faith). For 400,000 introduced Catholicism in 1511; the Dutch brought Prot- inhabitants, there are two Catholic dioceses and 85 par- estantism in 1641. Religious freedom is ingrained in the ishes in which almost 900 priests and 900 nuns work. constitution (Article 3), but Muslims are not allowed to ReligiousCopy education is guaranteed by the Constitution embrace Christianity (Article 11). In a multireligious so- of Malta (Art. 2). Classes, attended by about 98 percent ciocultural environment, Christian education is practiced of students, take place in schools, are obligatory and in a number of ways. confessional, and are two hours long (ethics lessons are First, church-based religious education programs help an alternative). Catechesis is supervised by the National believers grow in their faith. Many churches also run Catechetical Office. Confessional religion lessons at school preschools as a social ministry. Second, Bible institutions are also available for Orthodox Christians, Protestants, offer theological education for Christians preparing for Muslims, and Jews. Religion lessons are evaluated, but ministry. Degrees granted by these institutions are not religious practices are not. Parish catechesis is organized recognized by the local government and are accredited for children and youth. It is facultative, twice a week, and by external agencies. Third, mission schools provide aca- includes preparation for sacraments. Numerous priests, demic education founded on Christian values. Anglican nuns, and laypeople are engaged in the work of catechesis. missionaries pioneered the first mission school in1816. This is an unusual fruit of the activity of St. George Preca By 2012, the Federation of Councils of Christian Mis- (1880–1962), a charismatic faith educator and the founder sion Schools, Malaysia had 448 affiliated schools. Mis- of The Society of Christian Doctrine (M.U.S.E.U.M.—Ma- sion schools are challenged to maintain their vision and gister Utinam Sequatur Evangelium Universus Mundus/ ethos even as the government actively seeks to take over. Divine Teacher, May the Whole World Follow Your Gos- Fourth, Christian parents dissatisfied with public educa- pel). Numerous Maltese are committed to the activities of tion resort to homeschooling. The Education (Amend- religious movements and church communities. ment) Act of 2002 states that homeschooling is an option, but parents are required to inform the Ministry of Educa- References and Resources tion of their intent. Chalupniak, Radoslaw. 2010. “Wychowanie religijne na Mal- WhileContributor Christian religious and theological education in cie.” Katecheta 54 (6): 7–11. Malaysia is for non-Muslims only, Muslims may enroll in Deguara, George. 2006. “Parish catechesis in Malta.” In Kat- mission schools and homeschool centers, provided these echeza parafialna—reaktywacja. Duszpasterstwo katechetyc- institutions do not force Christian teachings on them. zne w parafii, edited by Radoslaw Chalupniak, 31–33. Opole: Marion E. Wade Center, Wheaton College 777

Redakcja Wydawnictw Wydziału Teologicznego Uniwer- Academic Programs sytetu Opolskiego. The Wade Center provides various services in the inter- Kielian, Andrzej. 2010. Modele nauczania religii rzyms- est of promoting the seven authors. First and foremost kokatolickiej w krajach europejskich. Kraków: Poprzedni. is providing access to the various research collections —Radoslaw Chalupniak to both individuals and groups—including classes from other educational institutions. The Kilby Reading Room at the Wade Center receives visitors from all over the Marion E. Wade Center, Wheaton College world, who are able to explore thousands of letters, manuscripts, books, and other materials by or about the History Wade authors. Patrons may come for extensive research The Marion E. Wade Center is a special collections library projects, such as writing a book or completing a disserta- with holdings related to seven British authors: Owen tion, or for personal edification and enjoyment. These Barfield, G. K. Chesterton, C. S. Lewis, George MacDon- collections are also highlighted through the Wade Cen- ald, Dorothy L. Sayers, J. R. R. Tolkien, and Charles Wil- ter’s museum space. A wardrobe that belonged to C. S. liams. The center began in 1965 when Wheaton College Lewis as well as Tolkien’s and Lewis’s desks and Charles English professor Dr. Clyde S. Kilby founded The C. S. Williams’s bookcases are among theOnly objects available for Lewis Collection, gathering together the works of C. S. viewing, along with rotating educational displays and Lewis and other like-minded authors who significantly interactive exhibits. influenced Lewis through direct aquaintance, their writ- The Wade Center’s commitment to promoting educa- ings, or both. Former Wade Center director Christopher tion and understanding of the authors and their works is Mitchell comments on this unique assemblage of writers: also reflected in its program offerings. Regular reading discussion groups at the Wade are available to members There was a farsightedness about the grouping of these of the campus and local communities; these groups give seven authors. Together they can be said to form a kind participants an opportunity to mine the riches of various of school of thought. All seven shared a common nation- works by discussing them with others and learning from ality. Each found more common ground with the think- knowledgeable group facilitators. Likewise, Wade staff ing of the past than with the thinking of their own time. members provide talks and tours to school groups and Each shared Christian interests and wrote on Christian Copy themes.4 others interested in learning more about the seven au- thors. Public educational and creative programming also The collection began with a few letters exchanged be- includes appearances by noteworthy authors, scholars, tween Kilby and C. S. Lewis and a handful of books and and artists. The Wade Center’s offerings allow partici- has subsequently grown to become one of the largest re- pants to engage with ongoing application of the authors’ search centers on these seven authors in the world. thought to areas such as current scholarship, daily living, In 1974, friends and family of Marion E. Wade, a and the arts. Christian businessman who was a great admirer of The Wade’s list of services rounds out with the pub- C. S. Lewis’s writings, established an endowment in his lication of SEVEN, a highly regarded, peer-reviewed memory to support the collection, which was renamed academic journal that promotes awareness of the authors The Marion E. Wade Collection. In 1980, the Wade pub- along with critical assessment of their work. SEVEN lished the first volume of its academic journal, SEVEN: includes cutting-edge scholarly articles, book reviews, An Anglo-American Literary Review. It was begun by Dr. as well as news and events related to the Wade authors. Kilby, Dr. Beatrice Batson, and Dr. Barbara Reynolds, Since 1980, 29 volumes have been published. who established SEVEN to provide a venue for critical assessment of the writings of the seven Wade authors. Christian Philosophy and Mission of Education As the collection grew, the Wade Center was moved The primary mission of the Marion E. Wade Center is among various locations on Wheaton College’s campus. twofold: to collect and preserve the works by and about It is now located in its own building, which opened in these seven authors, as well as to make these materials 2001. This facility has made it possible to serve more than and their content accessible, understandable, and rel- 12,000 visitors a year through the museum and reading evant to today’s culture. The Wade welcomes all those roomContributor as well as discussion groups, speaking engage- with an interest in the authors to visit, attend its varied ments, and other public programming. programming, and make use of its vast resources. For ad- ditional information about the Wade Center, see http:// 4. http://www.wheaton.edu/wadecenter/Welcome/~/media/Files/Cen www.wheaton.edu/wadecenter. ters-and-Institutes/Wade-Center/30thAnniversaryWadeWeb.pdf. —Marjorie Lamp Mead and Laura Schmidt 778 Marriage

Marriage logica that “matrimony is instituted both as an office of nature and as a sacrament of the Church.”8 Marriage is natural to humans in diverse cultural tradi- Opponents of Christian marriage see the institution tions across time, place, and peoples. A basic pillar of as a private compact between persons, to be created, society, as an institution it signals the propagation of the maintained, and dissolved by the contracting parties at species, family, race, and tribe and is a natural propaga- will. Feminists argue that marriage is inherently sexist, tor of culture and language. This is because it creates the while advocates of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender conditions most propitious for the rearing and flourish- marital rights9 hold marriage to be open to persons of the ing of children. same sex. Whichever way it is interpreted, the institution Traditional Christian teaching, however, goes further creates intergenerational demands on existing adults to than these reasons of natural law. It holds that marriage create children in ways that allow youngsters to discover is a covenant before God between a man and a woman, themselves, their kin, and their communities; understand ordered for the procreation and rearing of children. their place in the universe; and thus to flourish. The Ordinarily regarded by Christians as a sacred institu- avoidable and deliberate separation of a child from its tion, Roman Catholics, Orthodox Christians, and some biological parents and family implies institutionalized in- Anglicans believe the contract to be a sacrament and so a tergenerational injustice.10 Whether theOnly current elevation source of special grace. of the desires of this generation over the needs and in- Central to Christian teaching on marriage is sacred terests of future generations can be ethically maintained scripture. Genesis 1:27 teaches: “And God created man over time remains to be seen. to his own image: to the image of God he created him: Christian educators should note that as the spiraling male and female he created them.” Genesis 2:24 states: cost to future generations11 of dissoluble and same-sex “Wherefore a man shall leave father and mother, and marriage (predicated on expensive in vitro fertilization shall cleave to his wife: and they shall be two in one and child separation from blood kin) becomes ever flesh.” In Mark 10:8–9 it is said: “And they twain shall be more apparent, Christian teaching on marriage is likely one flesh: so then they are no more twain, but one flesh. to become ever more necessary to the well-being of What therefore God hath joined together, let not man put communities. asunder.”5 Ephesians 5:31 states: “For this cause shall a Copy man leave his father and mother, and shall be joined unto References and Resources his wife, and they two shall be one flesh.” Almond, Brenda. 2006. The Fragmenting Family. Oxford: Ox- St. Augustine, in “On the Good of Marriage,” affirms ford University Press. the sacramental nature of Christian marriage: “Among all Aquinas, Thomas. 1920. The “Summa Theologica” of St. Thomas people and all men the good that is secured by marriage Aquinas Literally Translated by Fathers of the English Do- consists in the offspring and in the chastity of married minican Province. London: Burns, Oates and Washbourne. fidelity; but, in the case of God’s people [the Christians], Archard, David. 1993. Children: Rights & Childhood. London: it consists moreover in the holiness of the sacrament, by Routledge. reason of which it is forbidden, even after a separation Augustine. 1887. “On the Good of Marriage.” Translated by has taken place, to marry another as long as the first Peter Holmes and Robert Ernest Wallis. Revised by Ben- partner lives.”6 jamin B. Warfield. In Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 1st In “On Marriage and Concupiscence” (1.10), St. Au- series, vol. 5, edited by Philip Schaff. Buffalo, NY: Christian gustine says: “Undoubtedly it belongs to the essence of Literature Publishing. this sacrament that, when man and wife are once united Girgis, Sherif, Ryan T. Anderson, and Robert P. George. 2012. by marriage, this bond remains indissoluble throughout What Is Marriage? Man and Woman: A Defense. New York: their lives.”7 Encounter Books. Highlighting both the natural and sacramental aspects of Christian marriage, Aquinas says in the Summa Theo- 8. T. Aquinas, The Summa Theologica of St. Thomas Aquinas Literally Translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province (London: Burns Oates and Washbourne, 1920), Q49, art. 2 5. See also Matthew 19:5–6. 9. David Archard, Children: Rights & Childhood (London: Routledge, 6. St. Augustine, “On the Good of Marriage,” trans. Peter Holmes and 1993), 98–102. RobertContributor Ernest Wallis, rev. Benjamin B. Warfield, in Nicene and Post-Nicene 10. Jacqueline A. Laing, “Law, Liberalism and the Common Good,” in Fathers, First Series, ed. Philip Schaff (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Human Values: New Essays on Ethics and Natural Law, ed. David S. Oder- Publishing Co., 1887), 5:ch. 24. berg and T. D. J. Chappell (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 184–216. 7. St. Augustine, “On Marriage and Concupiscence,” in Nicene and 11. Brenda Almond, The Fragmenting Family (Oxford: Oxford Univer- Post-Nicene Fathers. sity Press, 2006). Maslow, Abraham 779

Laing, Jacqueline A. 2004. “Law, Liberalism and the Common what he termed “peak experiences,” which he described Good.” In Human Values: New Essays on Ethics and Natural as self-transcending experiences of awe, mystery, joy, Law, edited by David S. Oderberg and T. D. J. Chappell, and wonder (Maslow 1968, 695). Maslow discussed 184–216. London: Palgrave Macmillan. the relationship of his theory to religion in Religions, Laing, Jacqueline A., and Russell Wilcox. 2013. The Natural Values and Peak-Experiences (1970). He cared little for Law Reader. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. organized religion, but acknowledged that religious Westermarck, Edward Alexander. 1903. The History of Human questions and yearnings are deeply rooted in human Marriage. London: Macmillan. nature and that religion helps people fulfill the needs of Witte, John, Jr., and Joel A. Nichols. 2005. Covenantal Marriage the hierarchy. He said the private, peak experience is the in Comparative Perspective. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. essence of every religion and called these experiences —Jacqueline Laing “godlike,” similar to Rudolf Otto’s mysterium tremen- dum (Friedman 1992, 103, 106–107). He wrote about “Being-Values” (B-values) of self-actualizers as spiritual Maslow, Abraham values of truth, beauty, and goodness, and that God is the embodiment of most of the Being Values (Fuller Early Background and Education 1986, 149, 162, 167). Only Maslow (1908–1970) was an American psychologist, Maslow wrote about the implications of his theory for born in New York to Jewish immigrants from Russia. He education. He believed that the drive to learn is intrinsic, earned his BA in 1930, his MA in 1931, and his PhD in and that the purpose of education and learning is to bring 1934, all from the University of Wisconsin. Maslow was about self-actualization. In the classroom, one’s needs chair of the psychology department at Brandeis Univer- must be met in order to learn. He claimed that his theory sity from 1951 to 1969. While at Brandeis he met Kurt put forth a different concept of the self, one that has to be Goldstein, who originated the idea of self-actualization uncovered. The job of the educator is to help persons find and led Maslow to develop his theory of the hierarchy of out what is already in them rather than to shape them needs (Boeree 2006). Maslow rejected what he considered into a prearranged form. Creating a positive classroom to be the negative view of humanity in Freudian psycho- environment to promote self-worth is critical. Maslow analytic theory as well as the reductionism of behavioral discussedCopy extrinsic learning, which is the traditional psychology, becoming a leader in the “third force” of method of accumulating information, versus intrinsic psychology that emerged in the 1950s and 1960s, known learning, which comes from discovering who one is from as human motivation theory (Maslow 1968, 686). experiences: “Learning to be a person is more central and basic than the impersonal learning of skills or the acquisi- Significant Contributions to Christian Education tion of habits” (Maslow 1968, 688, 691–692). Maslow’s contributions come mostly from his influential Criticism of his theory stems from his methodology. humanist personality theory, which he developed and He did biographical analysis of people he identified as wrote about in several papers and books. He described being self-actualized, which some considered to be a sub- psychological well-being as fulfilling innate human needs jective measure. Also, he assumed that the lower needs of in priority, culminating in self-actualization, or full the hierarchy must be met before a person can achieve his human potential. or her full potential, seeming to assume that people who His hierarchy of needs is depicted as a pyramid, with live in poverty cannot achieve self-actualization, which the most basic, physiological needs of food, water, and implies classism. Many creative, productive, and faithful shelter at the bottom. Next were safety needs, including people live in poverty on a daily basis. personal security and safe places to live and work. Next Maslow is considered a forerunner of transpersonal came relationship needs of love and belonging. The next psychology, which is concerned with the self-transcen- level consists of needs of self-esteem and confidence. dent or spiritual aspects of human experience. Finally, at the top is the need for self-actualization. Maslow described “self-actualizers” as creative problem Significant Publications solvers, accepting of others, free of prejudice, compas- Maslow developed his hierarchy of needs in a paper enti- sionate, spontaneous, achieving what they are capable tled, “A Theory of Human Motivation” in the Psychologi- of,Contributor flexible, and altruistic (Fuller 1986, 143). He thought cal Review in 1943. His major books include Motivation that there were very few self-actualized people, but he and Personality (1954); Toward a Psychology of Being studied the lives of some famous people that he con- (1962); The Further Reaches of Human Nature (1971); sidered to have fulfilled this need. Self-actualizers have and Religions, Value and Peak-Experience, which was 780 Mass reprinted several times. He cofounded the Journal of Hu- the priest. Transubstantiation is based on Aristotelian manistic Psychology in 1961, which is still in publication. philosophy, which taught that matter was composed of accidents and substance. Consequently, the inner essence References and Resources of a wafer changes into the body of Christ, while the out- Boeree, G. 2006. “Abraham Maslow.” http://webspace.ship.edu/ ward appearance remains the same. Although the wafer cgboer/maslow.html. may feel, smell, and taste like bread, Catholics believe Friedman, M. 1992. Religion and Psychology: A Dialogical Ap- it has been transubstantiated. The change is necessary, proach. New York: Paragon House Publishers. because the priest must change the wafer into the body of Fuller, A. R. 1986. Psychology and Religion: Eight Points of View. Christ to be offered as a real sacrifice for the sins of both Lanham, MD: University Press of America. the living and the dead. Mass is regarded as the great- Maslow, A. 1968. “Some Educational Implications of the Hu- est of the Roman Catholic sacraments, because it is not manistic Psychologies.” Harvard Educational Review 38 (4): just grace that is received but the true body and blood of 685–696. Jesus Christ. The Eucharist is believed to nourish the soul —Susan Willhauck that received the grace of God in baptism and that was deepened in confirmation; it is taught that the Eucharist provides as much nourishment for theOnly soul as physical Mass food provides for the body. Roman Catholic and some Anglo-Catholic theolo- Mass is the complex of ceremonies and prayers that gians distinguish between the body (death) of Christ and constitute the Eucharistic service. The Mass is divided the blood (life) of Christ. Other titles for the Eucharist into the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the include the Holy of Holies (Sanctissimum), the Lord’s Eucharist. Traditionally, the first part of the Mass was Body (Corpus Domini), the Lord’s Supper (Coena Do- called the Mass of the Catechumens, and the second part mini), and Table of the Lord (Mensa Domini). There is was called the Mass of the Faithful. The “catechumens” variance among Catholic theologians regarding the per- were not communicants and following the homily were petual offering of Christ in the Mass. Aquinas sought to dismissed at the end of the first part of the Mass. In the distinguish between the “offering of the sacrifice” and the earliest liturgy, congregational members read passages “consummationCopy of the sacrifice” (i.e., the actual sacrifice from the Old and New Testaments, which were followed and the accomplishments of the sacrifice). The Council by an antiphon or “Alleluia.” The priest’s homily was of Trent affirmed the belief that Christ is truly present then followed by an affirmation of faith, prayers, and in the sacrifice of the Mass and regarded the heavenly antiphons (and an offering at some time). The “faithful” priesthood of Christ as being fulfilled in the perpetual were baptized, and therefore are full members, who were sacrifice of the Mass. Whereas Aquinas and the Council sent forth at the end of the second part of the Mass. The of Trent regarded the Mass as a true sacrifice of Christ, Liturgy of the Eucharist is the pinnacle of the Mass. Anglo-Catholic theologians have commonly combined The Eucharist is the “Most Blessed Sacrament of the the doctrine of the Eucharist with the theory of a per- Altar” in the dual aspects of sacrament and sacrifice of petual offering of Christ in the heavenly sanctuary (e.g., the Mass, wherein it is believed the Lord Jesus Christ the true tabernacle). The Mass and the Eucharist is the is truly and completely present (i.e., “Real Presence”: means for redemption being implemented in Roman Ca- blood, body, divinity, and soul) under the appearance tholicism. Vatican II’s “The Constitution on the Sacred (or “accidents”) of bread and wine, which are as true as Liturgy: Excerpts on the Eucharist” affirmed that “it is the He is in heaven. All who partake of and believe in the liturgy through which, especially in the divine sacrifice “Real Presence” of Christ in the Mass are more acutely of the Eucharist,” redemptive work is accomplished. The united in the church, but only as each communion host Council of Trent reaffirmed that Christ is offered in an is offered to the participant with the words, “the body of unbloody manner in the sacrifice of the Mass, which is Christ,” thereby indicating that the sacramental elements the same as that of Calvary. have actually become the body and blood of Christ. Al- Throughout church history, there have been three pri- though the outward appearance (“accidents”) appears to mary beliefs concerning the nature of the elements used be the same, the essential nature of the bread and wine for the Lord’s Supper. The view of the Roman Catho- is believedContributor to change, which occurs so that the priest can lic Church, for instance, is transubstantiation. Roman sacrifice Christ again upon the altar. Catholicism teaches that the bread and wine actually The doctrine of transubstantiation indicates that the become the flesh and blood of Christ, just as if one were physical objects that were once bread and wine have eating a part of the Lord’s flesh and drinking His blood. become the body and blood of Christ by the agency of The Lutheran view of the Lord’s Supper is consubstantia- Maturity, Paul’s Theology of Christian 781 tion. Lutheranism teaches that the bread and wine are not Greek adjective teleios (“perfect,” “complete,” or “ma- actually transformed into the body and blood of Christ, ture”). This idea of completion is strongly linked with the but the molecules of the flesh and blood are present with complementary theme of progressive conformity to the the molecules of the bread and the wine. The Zwinglian image of Christ. Foundational concepts include spiritual view of the Lord’s Supper is as a memorial: there is not perfection as new life “in Christ,” developmental perfec- an intrinsic change in the bread and wine; the elements tion/maturity growing in Christ-likeness through the are only symbols of Christ’s body and blood. This belief course of life, and final perfection/maturity in glorifica- is that Christ used the elements of the Passover as an ob- tion in the age to come. ject lesson, as they were used on the Passover table. John A biblical and theological framework for Christian Calvin objected strongly to the memorialist view. He education based on Paul’s theology of Christian maturity believed there was a genuine spiritual reality that allowed can be described through three primary concepts; (1) those partaking of the Lord’s Supper to share in the body understanding Christian identity as a new creation in and blood of Christ. Christ, (2) identifying the purpose of moving toward the intended goal of Christ-likeness, and (3) recognizing the References and Resources process of growth in maturity. Critical to Paul’s under- Aquinas, Thomas. 1981. Summa Theologica. 5 vols. Translated standing is the simultaneous focusOnly on all three realities: by the Fathers of the English Dominican Province. Westmin- the present state of identity, the future state of perfection, ster, MD: Christian Classics. and the progressive state of maturation. In addition, a Bigalke, Ron J., Jr. 2006. “The Theory of Sacrifice in the Mass.” framework built on a Pauline theology of Christian ma- Conservative Theological Journal 10 (May/June): 49–74. turity must incorporate both the indicative (declarative) Brantl, George, ed. 1962. Catholicism. New York: George Bra- and imperative (directive) elements in Paul’s letters, as ziller. well as the identification and exploration of intrinsic Catechism of the Catholic Church. 1994. New York: Doubleday. motivation. The three primary concepts of identity, pur- Davis, Thomas J. 2008. This Is My Body. Grand Rapids, MI: pose, and process are each considered here in light of the Baker. educational categories (taxonomy) of cognitive, affective, Flannery, Austin, gen. ed. 1975. Vatican Council II: The Con- and behavioral learning domains. ciliar and Post Conciliar Documents. Collegeville, MN: The WeCopy begin our exploration with an understanding of Liturgical Press. Christian identity as a new creation in Christ. The be- ———. 1982. Vatican Council II: More Post Conciliar Docu- liever in Christ finds himself in a new reality of identity, ments. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. of core being (this would include such areas as attitudes, Gibbons, James Cardinal. (1867) 1917. The Faith of Our perspectives, judgments, inclinations, and desires leading Fathers. 83rd ed. Reprint, Baltimore, MD: John Murphy to actions). This reflects God’s creative work transforming Company. the old identity and replacing it with a new identity “in Hardon, John. 1975. Catholic Catechism. Garden City, NY: Christ” through the identification with Christ in His death Doubleday. and in His resurrection (2 Cor. 5:17, Rom. 6:6–23). This Mathison, Keith A. 2002. Given for You. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R understanding of new identity requires the comprehen- Publishing. sion and accompanying recognition of a radical change in McBrien, Richard P. 1981. Catholicism. New York: Harper & being and in condition that has occurred. This is stated in Row. the indicative as something that was definitively done in Waterworth, James, ed. and trans. 1848. The Canons and De- the past (Rom. 6:6–11), while accompanied by an impera- crees of the Sacred and Ecumenical Council of Trent. London: tive directive calling for an intentional attitude of mind Dolman. and direction of will in the present (Rom. 6:12–13). When —Ron J. Bigalke Christ was crucified (put to death), the “old self” was crucified (put to death). The whole of our fallen human nature, both whole and discrete elements, was affected. Maturity, Paul’s Theology of Christian A vital component of Paul’s understanding of Christian maturity lies in the understanding of the believer’s new Within the New Testament writings, the apostle Paul identity in Christ and in comprehending the definitive articulatesContributor a clear and pervasive emphasis on maturity in breach with our old relationship to sin and new relation- the life of the Christian, which can serve as a framework ship in Christ. This represents a soteriological juxtaposi- for education. The idea of maturity in the Pauline letters tioning (exchanging a person positionally in relation to involves several ideas related to the concept of comple- right standing with God) regarding the believer’s changed tion or reaching an intended goal, generally utilizing the identity. This new identity is characterized by righteous- 782 Maturity, Paul’s Theology of Christian ness and holiness, being made new in the attitude of the rity. As with the comprehension of new identity in Chris- mind, having an enlightened understanding, no longer tian maturity, the understanding and acknowledgment ignorant (Eph. 4:20–24). Both the indicative instruction of the goal of Christian maturity requires a fundamental declaring a definitive break (Col. 3:9–10; Rom. 6:6) and and increasing knowledge (cognitive engagement) in the directive imperative of being renewed (Eph. 4:22–23) the form of a deepening perception, understanding, and are operational in the believer’s new identity. This exten- comprehension of God’s will that motivates and flows sion of the indicative (old has gone, new has come) into into and informs every facet of the Christian’s life. The the imperative (put off the old, put on the new) empha- goal of ultimately presenting everyone perfect in Christ sizes the continual challenge to intentionally align the (Col. 1:28) serves as the primary intrinsic motivation for believer’s thoughts (Rom. 12:2). This “putting off” is not the believer’s progress. simply behavior modification eliminating bad habits, but Finally, having settled our understanding of Christian rather a more holistic and comprehensive transformation identity and defined the purpose of Christian maturity, we of being. Identity can be described as consisting of the come to the need to recognize and engage in the process of essential distinguishing character traits of an individual. growth in maturity. Christian maturity involves a vigorous These traits include perceptions, preferences, principles, pursuit of Christ-likeness (Phil. 3:12–16). Paul portrays and practices embodied by that individual. Within the this as an active and relentless progressionOnly toward a spe- sphere of Christian maturity, this involves a progressive cific goal, an intense and focused concentration on the increase in true knowledge and conformity to Christ and present pursuit and final goal that disregards distractions is not limited to the individual’s condition or expression, and remains fixed. This kind of pursuit requires significant but is more intrinsic and incarnationally authentic in intentionality (1 Tim. 4:7–10). The progressive growth to nature. This understanding of Christian identity as a new full maturity is facilitated by the intentional and systematic creation in Christ is developed through cognitive engage- equipping and training of God’s people (Eph. 4:11–16) and ment (explanation and comprehension) and critical re- is marked by “the unity of faith, and of the knowledge of flection (evaluation and perspective integration), leading the Son of God” (Eph. 4:13, NASB). to application (personal exploration and experimentation This process includes all levels of cognitive engagement, with changed behavior and action). requiring being mindful and intentional in aim, direction, Having settled our understanding of Christian iden- and desires.Copy To “mind the things of someone” indicates an tity, we next identify the purpose of Christian maturity as alignment of our thinking and desires with and on some- moving toward the intended goal of Christ-likeness. The one or something. To “be of the same mind” indicates a purpose of Christian maturity for Paul is to arrive at a shared ideology, commonly held pattern or worldview. teleological goal, moving along a God-involved trajectory This also includes a complex disposition involving various toward His determined end: perfection as conformity to affective and behavioral categories making up an organiz- the image of His Son (Rom. 8:29–30). This includes the ing pattern of reasoning, intensions, affections, desires, idea of an intentional developmental process of progres- and actions (Rom. 8:5–8; Col. 3:1–2). Again, the impera- sive conformity to Christ in this life, moving toward tive tone comes through in the instruction to “set your God’s purpose (Gen. 1:27; Col. 1:28), thus linking the minds on things above, not on the things that are on earth” purpose (goal) and progressive conformity (process) ul- (Col. 3:2, NASB). This instruction directs us to an ongoing timately realized in the believer’s glorification, the won- transformation (metamorphosis) by a sustained redirect- drous destination of conformity to the image of Christ. ing of thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and actions, resulting Paul expresses an absolute confidence and conviction in in a growing alignment with God’s will and desires (Rom. reaching this goal of completeness according to God’s 12:2), while moving us further along in the pursuit of the continual work (Phil. 1:6). The tension in this process goal of Christian maturity, of Christ-likeness. exists between the believer’s responsibility of action and the need for reliance on God’s grace in making progress, References and Resources as well as ensuring the completion. Again, all three com- Klein, W. W. 1993. “Perfect, Mature.” In Dictionary of Paul and ponents of identity, goal, and process remain in full view. His Letters, edited by G. F. Hawthorne, R. P. Martin, and D. Here we find a theological affirmation expressing confi- G. Reid, 699–701. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. dence in the process as well as the outcome (participation Yount, William R. 1999. Called to Teach: An Introduction to the as wellContributor as perfection, assurance along with perseverance). Ministry of Teaching. Nashville, TN: B & H Academic. The aim or goal of the Christian life is characterized as ———. 2010. Created to Learn: A Christian Teacher’s Introduc- living in a way that is worthy, pleasing, bearing fruit, and tion to Educational Psychology. 2nd ed. Downers Grove, IL: increasing in knowledge (Col. 1:9–14; Eph. 4:1), reflect- B & H Academic. ing God’s reason, action, and design for Christian matu- —Gino Pasquariello Maximus the Confessor 783

Maximus the Confessor their lives are each person’s own life as well. Each fellow human being is a brother/sister and friend to all others, Saint Maximus the Confessor (580–662) has summarized regardless of their color, tribe, sex, religion, nationality, in his works the church’s teaching on the harmonic language and specific features. coexistence of all beings in Christ. In its communion Similarly, when it comes to the communion between with Christ, each being is in unconfused and indivisible human beings and nature, communion without change communion with all others. “Unconfused” means that means complete respect for the particular nature of each each being is unique and unprecedented. Communion creature, a full affirmation of each creature’s dignity. does not threaten this being’s otherness; on the contrary, Communion without partition means a determined otherness is elevated through communion. Indivisibly scope for everything within creation. Everything must means that each being is in perfect unity with the oth- find its place in the cosmic liturgy that is life. ers; existence is accentuated by coexistence. Therefore, Furthermore, this indwelling of difference and unity is difference in unity and unity in diversity comprise the a framework for the ways Christian education situates the interpretive equation with which St. Maximus considers notion of knowledge itself. Knowledge is not the posses- each communion. This interpretive equation is a source sion of an object, but partaking in the life of another sub- of guidance and inspiration for Christian education. ject. This means that two subjects,Only motivated freely and Hence, Christian education must present the coher- out of love, exit their own selves and enter completely ence of otherness and unity as the mode of life of the into the life of each other. Here, authentic knowledge Triune God. The God of the Christian Gospels is a com- becomes identical with love (agape). Only love can lead to munion of freedom and love among three persons: the true knowledge, since only love allows a person to reveal Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. The “I,” the “you,” his or her true self. the “other,” cohabit in the “we,” the one with the other, Believers experience this harmonious communion through the other, for the other. In the Trinitarian com- with God and, by extension, with their own selves, their munion, every person is unique and unprecedented and, fellow humans, and nature, primarily through and during at the same time, exists in full unity with the others. the . The Divine Liturgy is a foretaste of Jesus Christ reveals this communion of Triadic God the eschatological Kingdom of God, in which all beings to human beings, and indicates how they can participate coexistCopy harmoniously. It shows that, during their move- in it. In the person of Christ, human nature is united ment toward God, the various beings join together. This unconfusedly and indivisibly with the divine nature. liturgical ethos of self-transcendence and self-offering Without confusion means that in their communion with is diffused out of the temple into a “liturgy-after-the- God, human persons do not disappear, do not lose their Liturgy,” in order to transform every aspect of human integrity, but remain unique and irreplaceable. With- life: to transform politics into diakonia, economics into out division means that in their communion with God, philanthropy, work into ministry, and art into creativity. human persons transcend the limitations of their created The harmonious coexistence of the whole of creation nature and acquire the ability to live eternally. Therefore, in Christ; the transformation of a whole person and of a in their communion with God, human beings experience, whole life; the freedom that loves and the love that liber- by grace, the two fundamental attributes of an authentic ates: this is the legacy of St. Maximus the Confessor to life: personal otherness and immortality. Christian education. The reciprocity of difference and unity also explains the human hypostasis. A human being is neither a References and Resources fleshless spirit nor a soulless body, but a unified psy- Balthasar, Hans Urs von. 2003. Cosmic Liturgy: The Universe chosomatic entity; body and soul are intertwined in a According to Maximus the Confessor. Translated by Brian E. harmonious whole. This means that Christian education, Daley. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. beyond idealism or materialism, cultivates the entire psy- Bathrellos, Demetrios. 2005. The Byzantine Christ: Person, Na- chosomatic dynamism of human beings: all their senses ture, and Will in the Christology of St. Maximus the Confes- and all sensory organs. sor. Oxford: Oxford University Press. As to the communion between human beings and Loudovikos, Nicholas. 2010. A Eucharistic Ontology. Maximus their fellow humans, Christian education must show that the Confessor’s Eschatological Ontology of Being as Dialogical “unconfused”Contributor means that each person is exceptional and Reciprocity. Translated by Elizabeth Theokritoff. Brookline, unprecedented; its complete otherness is marked out in MA: Holy Cross Orthodox Press. its communion with other persons. Indivisibly means Louth, Andrew. 1996. Maximus the Confessor. New York: that each person is in full communion with all the others; Routledge Press. 784 McGuffey Readers

Thunberg, Lars. 1995. Microcosm and Mediator: The Theologi- patriotism. Lessons typically consisted of stories that the cal Anthropology of Saint Maximus the Confessor. Chicago: children would read and tell back in their own words, Open Court Publishing Company. answering related questions posed by the author or —Stavros S. Fotiou teacher. The lessons therefore emphasized rhetoric and public speaking as well as written prose. Students were given careful instructions on how to stand and how to McGuffey Readers read aloud, maintaining proper posture and elocution. Each reader increased the length and complexity of the William Holmes McGuffey’s Eclectic Readers were a lessons. The second reader included twice as many les- collection of American school texts that were widely sons as the first. The third reader, 67 lessons in length, used in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Spurred by the was written for students in late elementary years. In American common school movement in the first half of addition to typical story-based lessons, it also included the 19th century, seven million copies were sold by 1850. essays by well-known educators, religious leaders, writ- According to estimates, at least 120 million copies of the ers, and politicians. The fourth reader, containing 130 McGuffey Readers were sold between 1836 and 1920. By lessons, was typically used with those students who 1890, the McGuffey Readers had assumed a critical role had already completed elementary schoolOnly and included as basic school readers in at least 37 states. Because of 51 poems and 79 pieces of prose. By the time students their prolonged dominance, it can be surmised that more reached the fourth reader, they were also instructed to children learned to read through McGuffey’s Eclectic write the stories from memory to enhance both under- Readers than any other textbook in American history. standing and memorization skills. For reading content, A strong Calvinist, William Holmes McGuffey was McGuffey borrowed from eclectic literary, historical, educated at Washington College, a Scots-Presbyterian and biblical sources. He made sure that the biblical se- institution in Pennsylvania. Studying ancient languages lections were chosen on a nonsectarian basis, avoiding and philosophy, he started his own private school in texts that might spark debate among members of various Paris, Kentucky, to help fund his education. Before even denominations. Yet he was unapologetic in his conten- completing his college degree, he was recruited to serve as tion that biblical passages should be central to a child’s a professor of ancient languages (and later moral philoso- educationalCopy process in Christian America. phy) at Miami University in Ohio. In 1829, he was also The changing content and worldview of the McGuffey ordained in the Presbyterian Church. He later assumed readers reflected the changing perspectives of each era. the presidencies of the short-lived Cincinnati College McGuffey originally composed these works with a heavy (1836) and Ohio University (1839), served as a professor emphasis on the character and nature of God, focusing at Woodward College, and spent 28 years as a professor often on His role as creator, sustainer, and ruler of the of philosophy at the University of Virginia (1845–1873). world. With a central focus on God’s providence and By 1830, McGuffey was already organizing local chil- loving care, he urged obedience as a response to this dren into age groups and experimenting with stories divine benevolence. McGuffey also emphasized the pro- and lessons. In 1835, at the recommendation of Harriet gressive nature of sin, providing examples of the slippery Beecher Stowe, the Cincinnati publishing firm of Tru- slope in which one evil act would create habits leading man and Smith approached him about developing a set to destruction. In opposition to more optimistic views of of readers for younger pupils. It is important to recognize human nature, McGuffey clearly supported the concept that McGuffey was the author of the first edition of the of . He also emphasized contentment with readers in 1836–1837, but not of the later, revised edi- one’s position in life, viewing discrepancies of wealth as tions published in 1857 and 1879. In addition, he com- part of God’s providential plan. He supported religious piled only the first four readers; his brother Alexander conversion and urged children to live lives of piety compiled books five and six of the original set in the marked by such virtues as honesty, humility, thrift, tem- 1840s. Seven different publishers worked with the readers perance, obedience to parents, industriousness, kind- during their 100 years of continuous publication. ness, and patriotism. Compared to other extant readers at the time, Mc- By 1879, much of the theistic center of the readers Guffey’s Eclectic Readers were more theological in had been removed. Emphases on salvation and religious content,Contributor more concerned with salvation and holiness, conversion were absent, and virtue was thought to merit and less attentive to social issues related to slavery and earthly rewards rather than heavenly gain. As a result of racism. They were designed to assist in reading, writing, this secularization process, greater emphasis was placed moral and religious instruction, and the cultivation of on self-reliance and personal success, so much so that Mears, Henrietta 785 the virtue of contentment was replaced by a continual When Henrietta arrived at Hollywood Presbyterian, the striving for self-improvement. The changes in later edi- Sunday school ministry was already thriving, with an at- tions demonstrated the growing sense that the Calvinis- tendance of 400. Three years later, it had grown to 4,000. tic theism of McGuffey’s early readers was increasingly In time, the enrollment reached 6,500, making this the incompatible with the public schools’ attempts to foster largest Presbyterian Sunday school in the world.12 a unified, nonsectarian pluralism among an increasingly One of the challenges Henrietta faced in her new job diverse population. In this sense, the first edition of the was the lack of quality Sunday school curriculum. The Eclectic Readers reflected a prior Puritan consensus that available lessons were unattractive, lacked continuity, was gradually eroded by the pluralistic civic virtue that and were not graded for age appropriateness. She was was to come. While this collection’s dominance faded in committed to giving God’s work the best, and poor cur- the 20th century, reprinted versions of these texts are still riculum was simply not acceptable. Finding nothing that accessible and are often used in homeschool and Chris- met her standards, she began to write her own lessons. tian school contexts. Others heard of the impact her high-quality material was having, and requests for copies began to pour in. In re- References and Resources sponse to these requests, she founded Gospel Light Publi- Sullivan, Dolores P. 1994. William Holmes McGuffey: School- cations, which became a leading publisherOnly of curriculum, master to the Nation. Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickenson and later Gospel Literature International, which provides University Press. quality Christian education materials for missionaries. Westerhoff, John F., III. 1978. McGuffey and His Readers: Piety, Besides administering the Christian education pro- Morality, and Education in Nineteenth Century America. gram at First Presbyterian, Henrietta taught a college Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. class. Young adults were attracted by her dynamic per- —David Setran sonality, her colorful style (she wore bright colors and outrageous hats), her passion for God, her love for each student, and the excellence of her teaching. Her college Mears, Henrietta ministry impacted thousands of young adults, includ- ing many who went on to become leaders in American Early Background and Education evangelicalism.Copy Bill Bright, founder of Campus Crusade, Henrietta Mears was a visionary and influential leader wrote of her, “I have had the privilege of knowing many in Christian education in the United States in the 20th godly pastors and great Christian leaders, but no one has century. Born to godly parents in 1890, she accepted the influenced my life more than Dr. Mears.”13 Billy Graham, claims of Christ on her life at age seven. Just five years who was helped through a period of doubt by Henrietta, later, she taught her first Sunday school class, beginning said, “I doubt if any other woman outside my wife and a lifetime of ministry in the local church. Henrietta was mother has had such a marked influence [on my life]. afflicted with extreme nearsightedness from a young age. She is certainly one of the greatest Christians I have Her doctor expected her to be blind by the time she was ever known!”14 Other leaders who benefited from her 30 and recommended that she not attend college in order mentoring are Richard Halverson, pastor and chaplain to preserve her limited vision. She ignored this advice and of the U.S. Senate; Louis Evans Jr., a well-known pastor; earned a degree in secondary education at the University Vonette Bright, cofounder of Campus Crusade; and Don of Minnesota. After graduation, she taught chemistry, Moomaw, All American football player and later pastor drama, and other subjects, as well as continuing to serve of Bel Air Presbyterian Church. in churches wherever she lived. As Henrietta became nationally known as a curricu- lum writer and teacher, she responded to requests that Significant Contributions to Christian Education she help develop teachers and leaders outside of her own In 1926, Mears and her sister, Margaret, visited First church. She began to teach a Christian education training Presbyterian Church in Hollywood at the invitation of course in the Los Angeles area and went on to become a the pastor, Dr. Stewart P. MacLennan. The two women popular and effective speaker at thousands of rallies, con- had met Dr. MacLennan when he preached at their home church, and he had been impressed with Henrietta’s 12. Richard J. Leyda, “Henrietta Cornelia Mears,” http://www.talbot .edu/ce20/educators/protestant/henrietta_mears/. ministryContributor and gifts. He wanted her to serve on his staff as 13. Bill Bright, “Three Women: What a Difference They Made in My director of Christian education. Two years later, Henri- Life,” http://www.judydouglas.com/2012/02/three-women-what-a-differ ence-they-made-in-my-life-3-by-bill-bright/ (modified 24 February 2012). etta accepted that job, a position she held for 35 years and 14. Barbara Hudson Powers, The Henrietta Mears Story (Old Tappan, which served as a platform for her many other ministries. NJ: Fleming H. Revell, 1957), 7. 786 Meditation as Christian Practice ferences, and Sunday school conventions. Her influence Meditation as Christian Practice on Sunday schools was enhanced by the work of the Na- tional Sunday School Association, which she cofounded Meditation should concern itself with the content of and which sparked a renewal movement in the ministry thoughtful reflection as well as the methods of contem- of Christian education, and by her column in Teach plation. Many faiths have meditative practices. Christians magazine and other writings. Her best known work is focus their deliberation on the text of scripture, focusing What the Bible Is All About, which is still in print and has on Christ’s person and work. sold over four million copies, making it “one of the most popular study books on the Bible ever printed.”15 Biblical Theology of Meditation In 1938, Henrietta realized another of her dreams “Reflection” originates in Hebrew words for meditation. when she purchased land and founded the Forest Home One word gives the impression of a “groan” (Ps. 5:1) or Conference Center in the San Bernardino Mountains, a a “moan” (Isa. 38:14; 59:11). Psalm 19:14 captures the place where young people could both enjoy nature and most famous reflective statement of thoughts expressed be discipled. Another influential ministry was the Hol- in words, “Let the meditation of my heart be acceptable in lywood Christian Group, which began in her home and your sight, O Lord.” Silent rehearsal, turning something impacted many people in the entertainment industry, over in one’s mind, ends in an enthusiastic,Only emotion- including Roy Rogers and Dale Evans, who attended the filled confession. The believer then orchestrates God’s first meeting. Henrietta often said, “There is no magic in works to all those around (1 Chr. 16:9; Ps. 105:2). Once small plans . . . . When I consider my ministry, I think of the silent reflection is told to others, the teaching con- the world. Anything less than that would not be worthy tinues to “talk” to the reflective heart: whether walking, of Christ nor of His will for my life.”16 lying down, or awake (Prov. 6:20–22). Meditation is to In Teacher: The Henrietta Mears Story, Marcus Broth- continue all the time (“day and night,” Josh. 1:8; Ps. 1:2, erton (2006) wrote about this influential woman: “His- 119:97, 99) and even during sleepless hours (Ps. 4:4, 63:6, torians credit Henrietta Mears with changing the face of 77:6). The focus of Hebraic-Christian meditation is on all a generation . . . . Her contribution to the international God’s works and words (Ps. 77:12, 119:27, 145:5). cause of the gospel ranks as one of the most important Meditation shows what is valuable to the believer. and influential in the twentieth century.”17 Selah,Copy the repetitious word found throughout the Psalms, communicates value by its definition: to hang, weigh, or References and Resources measure. The term was used in the Old Testament to de- Bright, Bill. 2012. “Three Women: What a Difference They scribe people using scales to identify the cost or weight of Made in My Life.” http://www.judydouglass.com/2012/02/ an object (Job 28:15–16). Selah functions as an interlude three-women-what-a-difference-they-made-in-my-life to weigh a thought. One stops, pauses, ponders, consid- -3-by-bill-bright. ers, and thinks. The biblical implication is to take a break, Brotherton, Marcus. 2006. Teacher: The Henrietta Mears Story. take a minute, or take a breath (Ps. 3, 24, 46). Practicing Glendale, CA: Regal. biblical meditation links the temporal with the eternal. Doan, E. L., ed. 1970. 431 Quotes from the Notes of Henri- The righteous are to deliberate over proper answers etta Mears. Glendale, CA: Regal. http://www.semicolonblog (Prov. 15:28), meditating on the implications (Ps. 1:2). “I .com?p=13260. thought to myself” and “I thought in my heart” are both Leyda, Richard J. n.d. “Henrietta Cornelia Mears.” http:www2 frequent and summary statements in the book (1:16, 2:1, .talbot.edu/ce20/educators/view.cfm?n=henrietta_mears. 15, etc.). Leaving no stone unturned, life was “tested by Mears, Henrietta, and Earl Roe. 1990. Dream Big: The Henrietta wisdom” (Ecc. 7:23). Solomon declares, “Look, this is Mears Story. Glendale, CA: Regal. what I have discovered, this is what I have found” (Ecc. Powers, Barbara Hudson. 1957. The Henrietta Mears Story. Old 6:11–12, 7:27, 29, 12:9). Solomon’s recurring meditation Tappan, NJ: Penguin Putnam. is that a God-centered life leads to gladness, satisfaction, Woodbridge, John, ed. 1992. More Than Conquerors: Portraits and contentment (Ecc. 2:24–25, 3:12–13, 5:18–20, 7:14, of Believers from All Walks of Life. Chicago: Moody 8:15, 9:9). —Keith Springer Biblical Philosophy of Meditation 15.Contributor http://www.semicolonblog.com/?p=13260. Meditation could comprise a number of threads. Simple 16. E. L. Doan, ed., 431 Quotes from the Notes of Henrietta Mears (Glen- observations could prompt new or recurring thoughts, dale, CA: Regal Books, 1970), 38. 17. Marcus Brotherton, Teacher: The Henrietta Mears Story (Glendale, ideas, perspectives, or questions. The reader could iden- CA, 2006), 29. tify reasons to accept, corroborate, or pursue a biblical Melanchthon, Philip 787 author’s thinking. Personal musing and rumination ticles, or reviews, all because believers took time to stop, may produce ideas for the practice of any concept. The pause, consider, and think God’s thoughts after Him. Hebraic-Christian lifeview rests on essential ideas estab- lished in scripture and reflected upon by the believer. References and Resources Believers ponder the importance of many scriptural Houston, James. 2006. Joyful Exiles: Life in Christ on the Dan- ideas. There is a consequence of meaning, “Why?” being gerous Edge of Things. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. the chief question in life. Making sense of reality—all Sertillanges, A. G. 1998. The Intellectual Life: Its Spirit, Con- inclusive of what is seen and unseen—arises from a medi- ditions, Methods. Translated by Mary Ryan. Foreword by tation on beginnings and ends. The eternal plan of God James V. Schall. Reprint, Washington DC: Catholic Univer- stimulates meditation: how God sustains His creation sity of America Press. while preparing for its culmination. The Creator’s good —Mark Eckel gifts to humanity encourage meditation, while Christians commit themselves to being caretakers of everything given. Meditation provokes the responsibility to teach the Melanchthon, Philip next generation to remember God’s work. Meditation should provide biblical, relational, and gen- Melanchthon (1497–1560) is well knownOnly for his theologi- erational learning opportunities for the believing com- cal contributions and controversies in religious circles, munity. Practical learning opportunities should include but he is best known to the history of education as the (1) the revelational—scripture will be the foundation of preceptor of Germany. He applied his humanist training all study; (2) the relational—dialogue will be engaged and sympathies to educational reforms during the Ger- within the Christian community; (3) the perennial— man Reformation. eternal, universal, great ideas will be understood as “true His version of humanism brought scripture and the Truth” dependent on God as the source of knowledge study of classical literature and languages to the forefront (4) the historical—a Hebraic-Christian study of history of all educational endeavors. Thus, as he set about to begins in eternity, acknowledging the purposeful work of redesign the educational system in Saxony and beyond, God through persons and nations; (5) the experiential— classical methods and texts were always used; at the same wedding truth with life is encouraged through personal time,Copy the scriptures remained preeminent and served as introspection, meditation, and reflection by reading the the central truth that tied all other subjects together. Text and all other texts, through communion with the Melanchthon was successful as an orator, textbook Word, the Spirit, and the Body (both in the universal and author, and classroom instructor. While Luther drew historical church); and (6) the creational—the physical approximately 400 students to his lectures, Melanch- setting of creation allows believers the enjoyment of re- thon often had more than 800 students attend his. flective study in God’s Word engaged with God’s world. This is a testament to the breadth of knowledge that Melanchthon brought to the university. He taught the- Christian Practice of Meditation ology, Bible, ethics, grammar, dialectic, history, Greek, Meditation can prompt the Christian community to Hebrew, Latin, law, medicine, astronomy, astrology, recognize and discuss biblical truths and their applica- mathematics, poetry, philosophy, and natural science. tion to personal life. Interpretation of cultural issues The textbooks that Melanchthon prepared on these with the Spirit’s illumination of scripture is an important subjects were used for more than 200 years. His seminal Christian reflection. Critiquing categories of thought an- theological textbook, the Loci Communes, which ap- tithetical to Christian teaching is imperative. Proposing peared in more than 40 editions, was used to educate solutions to civic and cultural responsibilities within a pastors as late as the 19th century. biblical framework could arise out of meditation. Evalua- He was a classroom teacher for more than 40 years. In tion of personal commitments to change could keep one his wake followed many teachers who had studied under in step with the Spirit. him. Through these pedagogues, Melanchthon’s educa- Pastoral renewal is an imperative for the practice tional principles, methodology, and vast base of subject of meditation. Workshops for Christian leaders could knowledge were implemented in preparatory schools include teaching on and practice of meditation. Lecture- and universities throughout Saxony, Germany, Scan- discussionsContributor for interested parties would profit medita- dinavian lands, the Low Countries, England, France, tion’s promotion. Film review should involve reflection. Poland, and Switzerland. Reflective weekend summits, retreats, and educational In 1518, upon being called to be professor of Greek dialogue may generate curriculum, position papers, ar- at the University of Wittenberg, Melanchthon gave his 788 Men and Christian Education

“Inaugural Address” to the university faculty. In it, this tioned theological magnum opus, the Loci Communes 21-year-old professor outlined his plan for the reorgani- Theologici. While he adapted this method throughout zation and reform of the educational system of his time. his life, expanded his volumes, and tinkered with the Melanchthon’s greatest educational triumph was his role fringes of his theological speculation, he did not stray as the founder and chief organizer of the German public in this work from the core of Lutheran theology as first school system. Second to this was his influence over the taught by Luther. Rather, through his loci, he sought to organization of school systems in several other countries define Lutheran theology clearly and methodologically. that took his advice and followed the pattern of Christian The root of his theology is literally breathed from the humanism. His model established a three-part system of scriptures—as the loci method dictates—and is centered educational institutions designed to progressively work not on God’s sovereignty, but rather on God’s gift of together in moving students forward educationally. This faith, which allows believers to grab hold of the gracious system was divided into lower (equivalent to the modern justifying work of Christ. Grace alone and faith alone are grammar school), higher (equivalent to the modern high strong themes in the loci, though Melanchthon focuses school), and university levels of education. on faith alone. Finally, the theme of propter Christum, At the lower level, his concept of the Latin School or the idea that believers are justified on account of Christ trivium school frowned on diversification of instruction alone, dominates all editions of theOnly loci. This theme, and focused on learning Latin, Bible, and catechesis as the propter Christum, is the central locus in the life and basis for further education. The higher school, the gym- thought of Melanchthon, around which all other topics nasium, provided instruction in dialectic, rhetoric, Bible, are consequently ordered. Thus the centrality of Christ Latin, Greek, literature, poetry, and mathematics. Mel- informed and ordered all of Melanchthon’s theological anchthon also aided in the founding and reorganization and educational endeavors. of several universities throughout Saxony and Germany, including Wittenberg, Leipzig, Tübingen, Frankfort, Ros- References and Resources tock, Jena, Königsberg, Marburg, and Heidelberg. His Jackson, Samuel F. 1898. Philip Melanchthon the Protestant brand of reorganization included innovations that would Preceptor of Germany. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. lead to the modern system of a liberal arts education, Melanchthon, Philip. 1944. The Loci Communes of Philip Mel- wherein students were encouraged and required to study anchthonCopy (1521). 2nd ed. Edited and translated by Charles L. broadly (in mathematics, languages, philosophy, history, Hill. Boston: The Meador Press. science, and art) in order to receive a university degree. ———. 1965. Melanchthon on Christian Doctrine. [The Loci As a scholar, Melanchthon’s contributions can be Communes of 1555]. Edited by Clyde L. Manschreck. Li- categorized into three general disciplines: the liberal brary of Protestant Thought. New York: Oxford University arts, theology, and natural philosophy. Within the liberal Press. arts, his lectures and works in the areas of philosophy, ———. 2011. The Chief Theological Topics [Loci Praecipui Theo- dialectic, ethics, rhetoric, physics, Greek, Latin, history, logici 1559]. Translated by J. A. O. Preus. Saint Louis, MO: psychology, astronomy, and geography are too numerous Concordia Publishing House. to delineate here. Melanchthon’s academic first love was —Scott Leonard Keith rhetoric and eloquence. For him, rhetoric was integral to understanding all subject matter, since it encompassed the ability to communicate in an organized, efficient, and Men and Christian Education aesthetically pleasing way. The academic task meant not only memorization of detailed facts, but also the compul- Men and Christian education refers to the formation of sion and aptitude to communicate that knowledge effec- men in Christian discipleship, with particular attention tively. This emphasis on eloquence found its apex in his given to the beliefs, content, and methods of this forma- utilization of the loci method in all areas of instruction, tion. This subject differs from the topic of women and most especially in the realm of theological education. Christian education in that the experiences of men gen- Melanchthon opened the doors of biblical humanism erally diverge from those of women not only biologically, by bringing the structure of the loci to theological educa- but also because of differences in gender role expecta- tion. This approach was found in the classical texts of tions. With the exception of a few modern cultures,18 Aristotle,Contributor Cicero, and Quintilian and focused on the or- masculine men have been viewed as strong, rugged, ratio- ganization of ideas into topics, each of which flowed from a central locus or preeminent topic. While Melanchthon 18. Steve Smith, “Fear and Power in the Lives of Men,” in Redeeming utilized the loci method in most of what he wrote, the im- Men: Religion and Masculinities, ed. Stephen B. Boyd, W. Merle Longwood, pact of this method is most easily seen in his aforemen- and Mark W. Muesse (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996). Men and Christian Education 789 nal, and expressing little emotion, what Robert Connell much of its philosophy on Jungian archetypes. There is has termed the hegemonic male.19 an inner man within each male that seeks and needs to be More recently, various waves of feminism have taken released in order for a man to be initiated and actualized. social constructionist reasoning and now reconsider This movement is similar to the conservative theological gender as performance.20 That is, while there are physical stance in its essentialist notion of a natural man. Men are differences among women and men, as human beings created with certain traits and characteristics that need to the sexes have more in common than they don’t have in be identified, drawn out, and nurtured. common. Therefore, what some understand as natural Consequently, for these movements, Christian dis- difference is in effect a constructed notion of each soci- cipleship and formation of men includes identifying the ety’s consideration of appropriate and normative gender essence of man, especially in regard to his private and expression. Men are not masculine because of character- professional relationships. For conservative theological istics inherent within all men. Rather, men learn to ex- traditions, this involves reclaiming one’s headship of press these traits because society deems them masculine. family and church through a servant model. Christian This move from biological essentialism to social con- education consists of leadership training, some form of structionism has produced a range of Christian educa- accountability with other men, mentoring, and exploring tion responses among men and the groups who work the ways Jesus related to and led others.Only Some men go with them. The content (the issues one addresses when as far as advocating making the local church experience educating men for Christian discipleship) and method more appealing to a masculine constituency.21 This expe- (the ways men are educated in Christian discipleship) rience should consist of a less feminized culture and in- depend largely on one’s philosophical and theological clude providing side-by-side bonding opportunities such understandings of man. Profeminist men, who adhere to as team and outdoor sports participation.22 The mytho- the idea of gender as learned behavior, have focused on poetic movement, not explicitly Christian yet spiritually deconstructing the hegemonic male by drawing attention motivated, has focused its education on helping men find to issues such as violence, individual and systemic power, and release their inner man, mostly through practices intimacy, and mutuality. These men achieve internal such as vision quests and personal reflection. freedom through self-exploration and participation in Two questions remain moving forward: What does some type of support group with other men. These ChristianCopy education for marginal men (i.e., men of color, groups are akin to the Alcoholics Anonymous model, different sexual orientation, class, etc.) look like? How wherein men share and probe their own capacities to do will Christian institutions educate men in a growingly harm while also finding support to reimagine a man free diverse world that problematizes traditional men’s posi- from violence and oppression. tion and authority? An opposite response to profeminist Christian educa- tion involves a more traditional understanding of man. References and Resources This approach tends to follow the prevailing view of more Bartkowski, John P. 2001. Remaking the Godly Marriage: Gen- conservative theological traditions such as Promise Keep- der Negotiation in Evangelical Families. New Brunswick, NJ: ers, wherein Christian leaders advocate complementar- Rutgers University Press. ian, or in extreme traditions hierarchical, views of men’s ———. 2004. The Promise Keepers: Servants, Soldiers, and Godly and women’s relations. Complementarianism holds that Men. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers. while men and women are equal in value, there are innate Bly, Robert. 1990. Iron John: A Book About Men. Reading, MA: and God-ordained spheres of work and leadership. The Addison-Wesley. man’s role is to lead; his sphere is the public domain and Boyd, Stephen B. 1997. The Men We Long to Be: Beyond Lonely at the highest levels of church leadership. The woman’s Warriors and Desperate Lovers. Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim role is to follow, and her sphere is the domestic. Propo- Press. nents of a hierarchical approach hold similar gender role Boyd, Stephen B., W. Merle Longwood, and Mark W. Muesse, views, yet differ from complementarianism in believing eds. 1996. Redeeming Men: Religion and Masculinities. Lou- that a man is more valuable than a woman. isville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. The more traditional and essentialist understanding Butler, Judith. 1999. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subver- of man, however, is not constitutive of only conservative sion of Identity. New York: Routledge. theologicalContributor traditions. The mythopoetic movement bases 21. Clifford Putney, Muscular Christianity: Manhood and Sports in 19. Robert Connell, Masculinities (Berkeley: University of California Protestant America, 1880–1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995). Press, 2003). 20. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Iden- 22. David Murrow, Why Men Hate Going to Church (Nashville, TN: tity (New York: Routledge, 1999). Nelson Books, 2005). 790 Mennonite Church Christian Education

Connell, Robert. 1995. Masculinities. Berkeley: University of theran, and Roman Catholic churches. The severity of California Press. these persecutions scattered them geographically, united Eldredge, John. 2001. Wild at Heart: Discovering the Passionate them in closer fellowship with one another, and stifled Soul of a Man. Nashville: Thomas Nelson. much of their earlier missionary endeavors. Church Gallagher, Sally K., and Sabrina L. Wood. 2005. “Godly Man- services were simple and unrefined, with a central focus hood Going Wild? Transformations in Conservative Protes- on the preaching and teaching of the Word of God tant Masculinity.” Sociology of Religion 66 (2): 135–160. by nonprofessional pastors who promoted right living Kimmel, Michael S., and Michael A. Messner, eds. 1998. Men’s while eschewing worldliness. Like many other Protes- Lives. 4th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. tant denominations in the United States, Mennonites Murrow, David. 2005. Why Men Hate Going to Church. Nash- have splintered into various subgroups, such as General ville, TN: Nelson Books. Conference Mennonite, Swiss Mennonite, Old Order Piper, John, and Wayne A. Grudem, eds. 1991. Recovering Bib- Mennonite (“black bumper Mennonites”), Old Colony lical Manhood and Womanhood: A Response to Evangelical Mennonites, and Conservative Mennonites. Feminism. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books. Putney, Clifford. 2003. Muscular Christianity: Manhood and Educational Philosophy Sports in Protestant America, 1880–1920. Cambridge, MA: Faith and doctrine expressed in dynamicOnly Christian liv- Harvard University Press. ing centered in the teaching of the Word of God is at the Rohr, Richard. 2005. From Wild Man to Wise Man: Reflections heart of a Mennonite philosophy of church education. on Male Spirituality. Cincinnati, OH: St. Anthony Messenger There is a strong emphasis on discipleship and a core Press. belief that the primary responsibility for the nurture and Smith, Steve. 1996. “Fear and Power in the Lives of Men.” In education of children is a parental affair best accom- Redeeming Men: Religion and Masculinities, edited by Ste- plished in the home. Menno Simons published a tract on phen B. Boyd, W. Merle Longwood and Mark W. Muesse, this subject entitled “The Nurture of Children” (c. 1557), 7–18. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. admonishing Mennonite parents to instruct their chil- Sonderman, Steve. 2010. How to Build a Life-Changing Men’s dren following the blueprint of the people of Israel in the Ministry: Practical Ideas and Insights for Your Church. Rev. Old Testament. In those early years, Christian nurture and expanded ed. Minneapolis, MN: Bethany House. from Copyparents was excessively harsh in an attempt to rid Wilcox, William Bradford. 2004. Soft Patriarchs, New Men: the child of evil tendencies. How Christianity Shapes Fathers and Husbands. Chicago: Because Mennonites do not practice infant baptism University of Chicago Press. (even though many Anabaptist groups practice infant —Mark Chung Hearn dedication) and believe a child is innocent before God until the age of accountability (usually about age 12), the primary task of childhood education is to provide Mennonite Church Christian Education a nurturing environment in the home that cultivates a desire to follow Christ individually. When a child makes History a decision of faith, that child undergoes baptism by im- The Mennonite church traces its origin to the Refor- mersion, sprinkling, or pouring, sometimes dictated by mation Anabaptist tradition (Radical Reformers) most the denomination or local church but at other times left commonly associated with Menno Simons (1496–1561), up to the candidate. Fennema captures the spirit of the a Catholic priest converted in 1531 but baptized again in Mennonite approach: 1536 by an Anabaptist named Obbe Phillips (Latourette 1975). Anabaptists originated in Switzerland in the 16th The age of understanding and accountability is reached century; they believed that infant baptism did not con- when the pieces of the pattern or big picture fit together or seem to make sense. . . . [T]eachers and parents are form to New Testament practice and required a baptism to continually, but in a natural, unoppressive manner, again in adulthood after one had made a personal profes- hold before their children and young people the promises sion of faith in Christ. Mennonites typically believe in and responsibilities of the claims of Christ on their lives. simplicity of life: they refuse to take oaths; reject the state (1977, 23) church, preferring instead an autonomous local church; resistContributor the use of violence or force but practice pacifist There is a strong transmissive tradition to religious resistance when necessary; and believe in the imminent education among the various branches of Mennonites. return of Christ. Most instruction takes place in didactic form, from par- Mennonites and other Anabaptist groups experienced ent to child, teacher to student, or pastor to congregation. severe persecution at the hands of the Reformed, Lu- Regular, systematic, and expositional study of the scrip- Mentoring 791 tures is the centerpiece of Mennonite church education. was established in 1960 and “serves as a clearinghouse Students receive encouragement to memorize scripture, for directing and promoting Christian camping among learn the books of the Bible, know Bible stories, and carry Anabaptist/Mennonite conferences and congregations their Bible with them to church. Given the Mennonite at- throughout Canada and the United States” (accessed 27 traction to the teachings of Jesus, most church education February 2013, http://www.mennonitecamping.org). curricula emphasize this part of their tradition, creating Several institutions of higher education are affiliated the danger of a lack of balance in Bible coverage. Also, with various Mennonite denominations in the United given the pacifist Mennonite stance toward war and States, including Bethel College and Tabor College in violence, many shy away from those sections of the Old Kansas, Goshen College in Indiana, Mennonite Bibli- Testament that record such acts, including the story of cal Seminary in Illinois, and Fresno Pacific Seminary in David and Goliath (GAMEO 2013). California.

Educational Efforts References and Resources Mennonites who migrated to the United States seeking “Camps and Retreat Centers.” 1996–2013. In The Global Ana- relief from religious persecution established their first baptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Accessed 27 Febru- Christian Day School in 1701. Their schools flourished ary 2013. http://gameo.org/. Only for awhile and then fell upon hard times. However, in Fennema, J. 1977. Nurturing Children in the Lord. Phillipsburg, 1915 Bishop Swartzentruber of Iowa began a campaign NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co. to establish a church school in every Mennonite com- GAMEO: Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. munity. By 1959, these schools numbered 160, with 2013. http://www.gameo.org/ almost 9,000 students. This movement continued over Kraybill, D. 2010. Concise Encyclopedia of Amish, Brethren, the years, with such schools being organized around a Hutterites and Mennonites. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins local church or a group of interested parents who created University Press. a freestanding board of directors. Many of these schools Latourrette, Kenneth Scott. 1975. A History of Christianity: Ref- took the name academy, such as Corn Bible Academy ormation to the Present. Rev. ed. New York: Harper & Row. in Oklahoma, Berean Academy in Kansas, and Mukuru —Stephen D. Lowe Mennonite Academy in Japan. Copy In addition to freestanding elementary, secondary, and postsecondary schools, Mennonites actively pursued Mentoring educational endeavors in their local churches. Their focus on church-based education is in keeping with their The process of mentoring has been used for centuries, view of the centrality of the local church. Most of these contributing to the successful achievements of many lives churches, in keeping with their Mennonite heritage of in the secular and religious worlds. This is especially true simplicity, offer a very modest form of church education. in Christianity, where the scriptures recite instance after Most of their efforts in this regard are directed to main- instance of a younger person being mentored by an older taining Sunday school, various children’s ministries, and person. Christianity teaches that mentoring is important youth ministry. in the life of believers, especially young believers. It is the Most Mennonite churches use curriculum materials method used to train individuals in skills for employment provided by publishers such as Herald Press or more and for living life successfully. Mentoring is a unique broadly evangelical materials from Gospel Light, Scrip- learning relationship developed between two people, ture Press, and David C. Cook. The Foundation Series whereby the older or more skilled individual assists the was developed through a cooperative effort among sev- younger or less skilled individual with the development eral Mennonite denominations in 1977. By the 1990s, this of goals and reaching desired achievements. Mentoring had been replaced by Jubilee, and then in March 2006, can be accomplished in every walk of life within and out- Mennonite Publishing Network released Gather ’Round, side of the realm of religion. It is not unusual for an in- which deals with biblical issues from an Anabaptist per- dividual to have more than one mentor, covering various spective (Kraybill 2010). aspects of her or his life, such as finances, marriage, or Christian camping has become an integral part of profession. Among Christian believers, it is not unusual MennoniteContributor church education in the United States and for mentoring to be used to assist with spiritual growth, Canada. From very modest origins at the beginning of the not accountability but individual spiritual growth. Be- 20th century through the present, Christian camping has cause of its usage in spiritual growth, often the term is taken on a life of its own among Mennonite churches and confused with evangelizing or discipleship. However, denominations. The Mennonite Camping Association there is a very distinct difference between evangelizing/ 792 Mentoring Adolescent Boys discipling and mentoring. Christianity teaches us that through the outlets provided. Mentoring for this genera- evangelism and discipleship are to be used for adding to tion is more along the lines of spiritual direction to assist and expanding the Kingdom of God, whereas mentoring them in finding God personally. They are seeking out is for strengthening and establishing the protégé’s life. mentors to achieve this goal. The goal of mentoring is to form a relationship with the protégé, which often lasts a lifetime. The mentoring References and Resources relationship is usually lifelong; the mentor makes a com- Biehl, Bob. 1996. Confidence in Finding a Mentor and Becoming mitment to support, encourage, correct, and stretch the One. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. protégé. Christianity is evident in the scriptures in the English, Leona M. 1998. Mentoring in Religious Education. Bir- mentorship of Moses to Joshua and Elijah to Elisha, and mingham, AL: Religious Education Press. the relationship of Barnabas and Paul shows the power of Hendricks, Patricia. 200. Hungry Souls Holy Companions: the relationship of mentor and protégé. Mentoring a New Generation of Christians. Harrisburg, PA: Throughout Christian teachings, one of the most Morehouse Publishing. important aspects of the mentoring process is the com- —Candace C. Shields mitment to the relationship. The mentor is in essence assuring the protégé that he or she will be there to assist Only whenever the need arises. The goal of the mentoring Mentoring Adolescent Boys process is to help the protégé to reach her or his full potential and achieve goals. In order for the process Mentoring adolescent boys is a recent development, to be fully beneficial, the mentor and protégé should concurrent with the advent of the idea of adolescence define the parameters of the mentoring relationship, itself. In 1904, G. Stanley Hall published his ground- setting up the goals and achievements the protégé hopes breaking psychological work Adolescence: Its Psychology to accomplish. A time limit can be set for the goals, but and Its Relation to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, this does not mean that the mentoring relationship will Sex, Crime, Religion, and Education, in which he noted end. Finding a mentor need not be stressful. Mentor- adolescence as “the period during which boyhood spiri- ing can result from an individual seeking out someone tuality was either developed or buried forever.”23 Hall he admires to assist in the quest of achievement, or the emphasizedCopy recapitulation theory, in which all boys mentor may see an individual she believes she can as- transition from boyhood to manhood—from savage to sist in reaching his full potential. This is especially true civilized—supposedly repeating evolutionary history. in the Christian walk of faith. In either approach, the Adolescence, therefore, was a natural and critical transi- most important aspect is developing relationship. The tion determinative of a boy’s future manhood—a phase mentoring process is beneficial for the mentor and the abounding in salvific potential both socially and spiri- protégé. It allows both to experience self-examination, tually. The naturalness of Hall’s vision not only meant growth, and stability in their lives. that boys needed proper guidance attuned to their sav- Mentoring is not a structured process, and usually the age, rugged nature, but that only a masculine man who mentor does not have a written methodology for work- understood a boy’s disposition could provide him with ing with the individual who is being mentored. It usually this particular instruction. takes place in a relaxed atmosphere, in which mentor and Consequently, Progressive-Era Christians saw ado- protégé are sharing information or the protégé asks ques- lescents in dire need of their mentorship to develop a tions. It is during these relaxed conversations that the masculine, Christian character devoid of Victorian fem- protégé is relaxed enough to be able to receive what the ininity. Described by one leader as “the greatest means mentor is giving. There will be instances in which a men- of salvation today, next to the power of Divinity,” liberal tor and a protégé are not a good fit and there are no posi- Christians viewed mentorship as the primary means tive achievements. Then the mentoring process should be of evangelization among young men and the chief as- ended as amicably as possible, with neither the mentor sessment of a church’s ministerial efficacy.24 Deemed nor the protégé placing blame on the other. Nonetheless, “character building,” adolescent male mentorship de- mentoring as a process for assisting individuals in achiev- fined the work of newly founded, church-supported ing goals and reaching their full potential is worth every organizations such as the Boy Scouts of America, the individualContributor participating. YMCA, and the Boys’ Brigade. Masculine mentors acted There has been a resurgence of interest in mentoring as the lynchpin of their efforts, building relationships among postmodern young adults, who are looking at the traditional ways of seeking God. The postmodern gen- 23. Putney, Muscular Christianity, 122. eration has not found satisfaction in their spiritual lives 24. Ibid., 105. Mentoring Adolescent Boys 793 and making disciples through the shared experiences of underlying logic remains the same: only men can really summer camp and athletics. train boys into men. This rationale marginalizes women’s At the end of the 20th century, as teenage male critical role in mentoring boys while simultaneously con- violence in the United States became ubiquitous, a struing women as inferior to men. Moreover, any men growing number of professionals and parents feared who fail to achieve purported masculine ideals risk social that adolescent boys were “falling behind” their female rejection, forcing any divergence to be disciplined deep counterparts. Joining this sense of urgency, Christian into the inner life. Such notions of masculinity, then, organizations and churches noticed male lack of in- shackle women and men to an image that defines identity terest in religiosity with alarm. The Programs for the and molds character. Theological Exploration of Vocation implemented a Mentorship can also replicate hierarchies along socio- series of best practices to address the “gender disparity” economic and racial lines. The psychological literature on that resulted from fewer male participants. Similarly, adolescent boys and the character-building efforts of the many preachers bemoaned the church’s congregational 20th century were largely aimed at white, middle-class makeup, citing women, children, and the elderly as the populations. The issues of minority, foreign, homosexual, largest demographic. For many, the inconspicuousness and working-class boys were typically ignored. Concealed of young men in churches and Christian organizations within the act of mentorship, an idealisticOnly image can op- manifested deep boy troubles gone largely unaddressed erate unnoticed, calling all to its aspiration. Historically, by Christian practice. this socioeconomic and racial ideal has been utilized by Echoing the rhetoric of the early 20th century, the wealthy, powerful white men as a tool for securing their most vocal Christian responses to these boy troubles own hegemony. Masquerading as righteousness or mo- were twofold: reasserting the virtue of masculinity and rality, this ideal actually enforces a rigid, social hierarchy reclaiming a dominant, masculine place for men from in which markers of “whiteness” are universalized and the perceived encroachment of ecclesial feminization. A employed as a repressive tool to ensure the status quo. tool for both the evangelization of apathetic young men Contemporary male mentorship, therefore, must un- and the cultivation of masculine disciples, mentorship dergo critical examination of its participation in the (re) was crucial to this “rescue” effort. Reiterating state- production of oppressive power structures. ments by psychologists like Michael Gurian, Christian TheCopy masculine ideal occupying the center of male author John Eldredge railed against the pathologiza- mentorship efforts risks becoming a false idol in whose tion of “masculine” behaviors by an overly feminized image all must be cast. If Christ is the image in which culture. Eldredge’s Wild at Heart presses Christian men we are created, should not Christ be at the center of our to reclaim their God-given masculinity, characterized mentorship aims? If Christians are to take Jesus’s call to by an aggressive, boyish wildness bound by the heroic discipleship seriously, mentors and adolescent mentees Christianity of the chivalric knight. Furthermore, fa- alike must follow Christ into the baptismal waters. In thers and mentors must guard the natural wildness of baptism, the entire person enters into the death and adolescent boys from the cultural pressures of femini- resurrection of Jesus Christ. Masculinity, enmeshed as zation, helping them harness their masculinity as they it is in our subjectivity, must also enter into this liminal transition into manly, Godly men. space to face death and be reborn. Displacing any other As the heir to the concept of adolescence, the church systems of formation that claim supremacy, Christ now must interrogate the ideological foundation of adolescent comes to define a person’s being more than “manli- male mentorship at work today. In particular, Christians ness.” Masculinity is not jettisoned altogether, but must should begin to examine the misogyny often present become subservient to Christ so that it might be regen- as a silent corollary to masculine bravado. As Kimmel erated by our true image. “The baptismal new man,” argues, “What appears to be a concern about the plight Fred Edie avers, “is sealed with a new practice of power of boys actually masks a deeper agenda—a critique of oriented to solidarity with suffering, mutuality, gentle- feminism.”25 Motivated by perceived boy troubles, mas- ness, and peace.”26 In baptism, then, persons encounter culine movements and their proponents continually cast an alternative model of masculinity that is renewed women in opposition to men. Whether it is asserted that by Christ’s love, peace, and reconciliation. Mentoring women are unable to understand boys or that impos- adolescent males should neither be defined by a set of ingContributor “feminine” qualities subverts male development, the constructed gender characteristics nor limited to those

26. Fred Edie, “Vocation, Gender, and Youth Ministry: The Youth 25. Michael Kimmel, “‘What about the Boys?’ What the Current De- Track,” in Engaging College Men: Discovering What Works and Why, ed. bates Tell Us—And Don’t Tell Us—About Boys in School.” Masculinities Gar Kellom and Miles Groth (Harriman, TN: Men’s Studies Press, 2010), 14 (1999–2000): 2. 262. 794 Mentoring Adolescent Girls mentors with the requisite male genitalia. Instead, the why its teenagers do so as well.29 Therefore, the first task mentorship of male adolescents should involve men and of mentors of adolescent girls is to themselves participate women and should be formed in the baptismal waters of in the church and discover their own passionate faith, Christ our mediator. with which to counter MTD. When adolescent girls are connected in relationships with other adults who are References and Resources passionate about their faith, these girls are more likely to Edie, Fred. 2010. In Engaging College Men: Discovering What be passionate about their own faith and be formed into Works and Why, edited by Gar Kellom and Miles Groth. disciples of Christ throughout their lives. Harriman, TN: Men’s Studies Press. The mentoring relationship must be based on par- Eldredge, John. 2001. Wild at Heart: Discovering the Secret of a ticipating in the “living, active presence of Christ.”30 The Man’s Soul. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. relationship is about loving the adolescent girl and being Kimmel, Michael. 1999–2000. “‘What About the Boys?’ What present with her as a member of the Body of Christ. the Current Debates Tell Us—And Don’t Tell Us—About Ministry with girls is part of Christ’s own ministry. Help- Boys in School.” Masculinities 14:14. ing a girl discover her giftedness from God, discern her Putney, Clifford. 2001. Muscular Christianity: Manhood and call from God, and respond to the world around her as a Sports in Protestant America, 1880–1920. Cambridge, MA: Christian can all be part of what comesOnly out of a mentor- Harvard University Press. ing relationship. However, the goal of the mentoring re- —Derek Jones lationship must be the relationship itself; the relationship must not be a means to an end like becoming a member of the church or making some doctrinal affirmation. Mentoring Adolescent Girls The Role of the Mentor In order for Christian teenagers, including adolescent Practical theologist Joyce Mercer discovered through girls, to grow in their faith throughout their lives, what research with Christian adolescent girls that they are very they need most is relationships with Christian adults who open to being “spiritual apprentices,” but they often have are passionate about their faith. Such relationships can difficulty finding adults to apprentice with.31 Girls are include various aspects of mentoring, including presence, lookingCopy for genuine relationships with adults who can love, and discernment. Mentoring adolescent girls is an guide them. Mercer states that churches “may contribute especially important practice of Christian education, be- to women’s subordination on some levels while also on cause girls face sexism within and outside the church and other levels, [be] sites for emancipatory resistance.”32 In often struggle with loving themselves and finding their conversations with Mercer, girls pointed out that they bodies acceptable. hear the church should be a place without judgment, but that they are aware of the criticism and stares of especially The Purpose of the Mentor women in their congregations. Girls expect churches Kenda Creasy Dean and Ron Foster (1998) show that the to be different from the world they experience in their model of youth ministry as separate from the ministry schools, families, and other social areas of their lives. Un- of the whole church is flawed.27 The goal of Christian fortunately, this is often not what they find. At the same education is to aid in the formation of Christians into time, most girls with whom Mercer spoke see Christian- disciples of Jesus Christ. The National Study of Youth ity as a resource for transformation of oppression. They and Religion, an extensive study of the religious lives of see possibilities for the church to change. Despite their teenagers in the United States conducted from 2003 to criticism of the church, girls also maintain hope in our 2005, shows that adolescents care little about religion churches.33 Adult mentors of adolescent girls are a means and are formed into something the NSYR term labeled for that hope to be realized. “Moralistic Therapeutic Deism” (MTD), whether they identify themselves as Christian or another religion or as not affiliated with any religion.28 Dean argues that this is 29. Kenda Creasy Dean, Almost Christian: What the Faith of Our Teen- the faith that American churches adhere to, and that is agers Is Telling the American Church (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 4. 30. Andrew Root, Revisiting Relational Youth Ministry: From a Strategy 27.Contributor Kenda Creasy Dean and Ron Foster, The Godbearing Life The Art of Influence to a Theology of Incarnation (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books, of Soul Tending for Youth Ministry (Nashville, TN: Upper Room Books, 2007), 105. 1998), esp. ch. 1. 31. Joyce Ann Mercer, Girltalk/Godtalk: Why Faith Matters to Teenage 28. Christian Smith with Melinda Lundquist Denton, Soul Searching: Girls—and Their Parents (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2008), 127. The Religious and Spiritual Lives of American Teenagers (Oxford: Oxford 32. Ibid., xxii. University Press, 2005), 162. 33. Ibid., 71. Mentoring into Ministry 795

Adolescent girls face particular challenges to their come to this realization, adolescent girls need mentors Christian formation from within their churches and so- who listen to them, love them, act on their behalf, and ciety at large. Mentoring adolescent girls means forming model this kind of faith. an alliance with them against the pressures and forces that threaten girls’ humanity and therefore their spiri- References and Resources tuality.34 Depending on the context of the adolescent Baker, Dori Grinenko. 2005. Doing Girlfriend Theology: God- girls, there are a number of forces with which a mentor Talk with Young Women. Cleveland, OH: The Pilgrim Press. must engage. There may be pressures of sexual activity, Copeland, M. Shawn. 2010. “Enfleshing Freedom: Body, Race, promiscuous dress, gang involvement, consumerism, and Being.” In Innovations: African American Religious and “success.” Forming an alliance with girls against Thought, edited by Anthony B. Pinn and Katie G. Cannon. systemic oppression and damaging familial and social Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. structures in the very personal way they show up in Dean, Kenda Creasy. 2010. Almost Christian: What the Faith girls’ lives is a central task of the mentor. In this way, of Our Teenagers Is Telling the American Church. Oxford: mentoring is a practice of liberation and a way to em- Oxford University Press. body the freedom of Christ in relationship. Dean, Kenda Creasy, and Ron Foster. 1998. The Godbearing Life: The Art of Soul Tending for YouthOnly Ministry. Nashville, The Body of the Adolescent Girl TN: Upper Room Books. Adolescent girls are particularly attuned to their bod- Farley, Wendy. 2011. Gathering Those Driven Away: A Theol- ies and their experiences. Mentoring adolescent girls ogy of Incarnation. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox requires an adult mentor, whether male or female, to Press. value the experiences girls have in their lives as em- Mahan, Brian J., Michael Warren, and David F. White. 2008. bodied young women. Part of this is validating the Awakening Youth Discipleship: Christian Resistance in a Con- experiences girls have of God, both in and outside of sumer Culture. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books. activities officially sanctioned by the church. Mercer Mercer, Joyce Ann. 2008. Girltalk/Godtalk: Why Faith Matters writes that the girls she interviewed, “did not separate to Teenage Girls—and Their Parents. San Francisco: Jossey- who they were as girls and who they were as Christians. Bass. Their gender identities and religious lives took shape in Parker,Copy Evelyn. 2003. Trouble Don’t Last Always: Emancipatory relation to each other, mutually informing and trans- Hope Among African American Adolescents. Cleveland, OH: forming each other.”35 This means that the messages The Pilgrim Press. they receive in society and in the church about their ———, ed. 2006. The Sacred Selves of Adolescent Girls: Hard Sto- bodies will affect their religious formation. Therefore, it ries of Race, Class, and Gender. Cleveland, OH: The Pilgrim is especially important that mentors of adolescent girls Press. work intentionally to not perpetuate sexist messages Parks, Sharon Daloz. 2000. Big Questions, Worthy Dreams: girls receive about how they should dress or act or what Mentoring Young Adults in Their Search for Meaning, Pur- the possibilities for their lives include. pose, and Faith. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Although males can be mentors of adolescent girls, Root, Andrew. 2007. Revisiting Relational Youth Ministry: it is also important for girls to have adult women in From a Strategy of Influence to a Theology of Incarnation. leadership positions in the church acting as models Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books. and mentors for them. It is particularly helpful when Smith, Christian, with Melinda Lundquist Denton. 2005. Soul leadership roles in the church are open for girls’ partici- Searching: The Religious and Spiritual Lives of American pation.36 Girls need to see female bodies affirmed in this Teenagers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. way in the life of the church. Mentoring adolescent girls —Emily A. Peck-McClain often requires the mentor to advocate for the girls to the leadership of the church. Mentoring adolescent girls is a practice of helping them to see, believe, and ultimately Mentoring into Ministry act in a way that affirms their bodies are the “site and mediation of divine revelation.”37 In order for them to Clergy mentoring during the initial process into minis- try and beyond emerged with various names in the later decades of the 20th century. This intentional, formal, re- Contributor34. Evelyn Parker, ed. The Sacred Selves of Adolescent Girls: Hard Stories of Race, Class, and Gender (Cleveland, OH: The Pilgrim Press, 2006), 8. lational style of formation for ministry arose in response 35. Mercer, Girltalk/Godtalk, 72. to a more mobile population and a greater emphasis on 36. Ibid. 37. M. Shawn Copeland, Enfleshing Freedom: Body, Race, and Being the professionalization of ministry. It has largely replaced (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2010), 2. ministry formation that relied on the experience of min- 796 Merton, Thomas istry candidates in their early years and an apprenticeship ministry. It involves a denominationally trained mentor model in the training and early deployment of pastors in and a standardized pattern of meetings to produce a re- the local church as their first steps into ministry. Mentor- port for consideration when the credentials of candidacy ing has been associated with a cluster of terms and is often are being considered. Some would say that the functional used interchangeably with “supervision” and “coaching.” aspect of this process violates the protocols of mentor- The original concept of the term “mentoring” as a re- ing mentioned above and is more instrumental than lationship between a more experienced and wise person formational. However, another form of mentoring is in- and a younger individual, aimed at nurturing a particular troduced following candidacy that is more accountable to vocation, is found in the Homeric epic of Odysseus.38 the relationship than the functional process, as a person However, the model of the mentor pouring knowledge moves into ministry.42 The foundational mentoring book and wisdom into the person being mentored without cites the touchstones of mentoring as call, covenant, con- mutuality has been largely rejected by contemporary text, credo, and connection.43 concepts and guidelines for these relationships.39 The emergence of practices and protocols in clinical pastoral References and Resources education at the beginning of the 20th century heavily Fowler, Mark. 2011. Mentoring into Vocation: Touchstones for influenced a relationship that provided a safe place for the Journey. Nashville, TN: General BoardOnly of Higher Educa- reflection, a focus on self-understanding in the context tion and Ministry. of ministry practice, the capacity to explore one’s call- General Board of Higher Education and Ministry of The ing, and the relationship of faith seeking understanding United Methodist Church. n.d. “Beginning Candidacy.” Ac- to the vocation and settings in which ministry will take cessed 31 March 2013. www.gbhem.org/ministry/beginning place. The mentor is envisioned to be an active listener -candidacy. and guide to the mentee. Mentoring into ministry is ———. 2008. “Clergy Mentoring Manual.” www.gbhem.org/ practiced more as relational formation and embodied su- sites/default/files/DOM_ClergyMentoringManual.pdf. pervision in poetic fashion rather than as a linear training General Board of Pensions and Health Benefits of The United for ministry.40 The goal is formation for ministry and the Methodist Church. n.d. “Health Supplement to Clergy integration of the faith journey with intellectual, spiri- Mentor Manual.” Accessed 1 April 2013. www.gbophb.org/ tual, biblical, traditional, and transformative experience TheWell/Root/All/4238.pdf.Copy toward ministerial vocation. Lee, Charlene Jin. 2011. “The Art of Supervision and Forma- Mentoring into ministry is also distinct from, yet often tion.” In Welcome to Theological Field Education!, edited by associated and confused with, clergy coaching. Coaching Matthew Flooding, 17–30. Herndon, VA: Alban. has emerged from the worlds of sports and the perform- Lutheran Social Services of Minnesota. n.d. “Clergy Coaches.” ing arts. Although experienced in the same relational Accessed 1 April 2013. www.clergycoaches.org. pattern, its focus is on effective leadership toward the end —Mark A. Fowler of developing healthy and vital congregations. It develops goals and benchmarks along with patterns of account- ability in both personal and professional practice.41 Merton, Thomas Although many denominational churches have ad- opted mentoring programs for entry into ministry and Thomas Merton was born in Prades, France, on 31 Janu- as instruments of renewal or rehabilitation, the United ary 1915. His father (Owen) and mother (Ruth) were both Methodist Church has developed a two-stage mentoring artists, doubtless contributing to his own artistic creativity, process that exemplifies its use and effectiveness. Candi- which would be expressed not only in his writing, but also dacy mentoring is an important step of discernment for in his drawings and photography. Merton recounted early childhood instruction by his mother in reading, writing,

38. See a fuller discussion of the origins and Christian applications of the and drawing. His father was absent for the most part, but term in Mark A. Fowler, Mentoring into Vocation (Nashville, TN: General the time he spent with the family shows a genuine love and Board of Higher Education and Ministry, 2010), 11ff. concern for them. Merton had a brother, John Paul, but he 39. Charlene Jin Lee, “The Art of Supervision and Formation,” in Wel- come to Theological Field Education!, ed. Matthew Flooding (Herndon, VA: died in an airplane crash in April 1943. Alban, 2011), 17–30. See also General Board of Higher Education and Min- Ruth Merton died when Thomas was only six. His istry of The United Methodist Church, “Clergy Mentoring Manual” (2008), pre-university years can only be described as unsettled, www.gbhem.org/sites/default/files/DOM_ClergyMentoringManual.pdf.Contributor 40. Ibid., 18–24. 41. See Lutheran Social Services of Minnesota, “Clergy Coaches” (2013), 42. General Board of Higher Education and Ministry of The United www.clergycoaches.org. See also General Board of Pensions and Health Methodist Church, “Beginning Candidacy” (2013), www.gbhem.org/min Benefits of The United Methodist Church, “Health Supplement to Clergy istry/beginning-candidacy. Mentor Manual” (2013), www.gbophb.org/TheWell/Root/All/4238.pdf. 43. Fowler, Mentoring into Vocation, 01ff. Metacognition 797 both in terms of frequent moves (France, the United 1968. His journey to the conference included a very States, Bermuda, England) and in terms of his human meaningful visit with the Dalai Lama. development. His loss was compounded by his father’s Merton’s address to the conference on 7 December death when he was 15, leaving Merton a “restless soul.” 1968 (exactly 27 years from the time he entered Geth- A look at his journals and letters shows that this spirit semani) happened to fall into two parts, with a dinner never completely went away. But God used it to spark an break separating them. When the time came for Merton amazing creativity, which resulted in a passion to look at to resume his lecture, he was not there. A search of his life deeply and from a variety of angles. room revealed that he had been electrocuted through During his college years at both Cambridge in England a malfunctioning fan that he apparently was adjusting and Columbia in the United States, Merton continued to after taking a shower. The voice that had blessed so be a young man in search of the “good life” as the cultures many (even at the conference) was now silent. His body of his time defined it. He was not a particularly good was returned to Gethsemani, and he was buried in the student, even though he had a keen mind. He was largely monastic cemetery. undisciplined and sensual. But underneath his restless- Merton’s influence on Christian education is incalcu- ness was a sense of the transcendent and his search for lable. It can be seen most obviously in his writings and it. He sought it while traveling (e.g., in Cuba) and also their use in all parts of the church. OnlyBut it is likely that his in conversation with his closest friends (e.g., Mark Van greater impact is in the lives he touched through those Doren and Thomas Walsh). He also found deep streams writings and their ensuing ministries in the kingdom, of influence in the things he was reading at the time (e.g., church, and world. Etienne Gilson’s The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy and the writings of Gerard Manley Hopkins). References and Resources As a result of this spiritual quest, Merton was baptized Bochen, Christine M. 2000. Thomas Merton: Essential Writings. in November 1938 and confirmed in May 1939. For a Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. time, he considered becoming a Franciscan, but when Hart, Patrick, Brother. 1974. Thomas Merton, Monk. New he was turned down, he secured a job teaching English York: Sheed & Ward. at St. Bonaventure University. What he might have first McDonnell, Thomas P. 1974. A Thomas Merton Reader. Gar- thought was a fork in the road was actually only a tem- denCopy City, NY: Doubleday. porary detour on his journey into monasticism. God put Merton, Thomas. 1948. The Seven Storey Mountain. New York: Merton’s feet back on the monastic path in April 1941, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. during a retreat he made at the Abbey of Gethsemani ———. 1961. New Seeds of Contemplation. New York: New near Bardstown, Kentucky. After that, things moved Directions. swiftly, and he entered the Cistercian community at —Steve Harper Gethsemani on 10 December 1941. This order and place would be his home until his death. To summarize Merton’s life from 1941 to 1968 is im- Metacognition possible. Thousands of pages flowed from his typewriter (8 volumes of poetry, 600 articles, and more than 60 “Metacognition” is a term coined by John Flavell (1979) books), arguably the most notable being his autobiogra- to refer to one’s knowledge about one’s cognitive pro- phy, The Seven Story Mountain (1948). The immediate cesses. It includes both knowledge and strategy com- and widespread popularity of this book (which contin- ponents. The definition has now expanded to include ues to this day) surprised everyone, including Merton an emphasis on planning, monitoring, and evaluating himself, but it established him as a voice in monasticism, one’s own thinking or learning processes (Tanner 2012). the larger church, and society (i.e., the civil rights move- Flavell (1979) posits that metacognition contributes to ment). In addition to his external influence, Merton successful learning, a perspective that has been echoed by shaped the lives of a generation of monks at Gethsemani, many other educators.44 serving as their novice master. In 1965, he was granted permission to live as a hermit. Components of Metacognition The last decade or so of his life drew him deeper into Flavell introduces metacognition as a model of cognitive theContributor contemplative life and a keen interest in the intersec- monitoring, which happens “through the actions of and tions between Christianity and other religions, especially Christian monasticism and monasticism in other faiths. 44. Metacognition is now a buzzword among educational psychologists. He received permission to attend and speak at a confer- The abundance of research and resources on metacognition speaks strongly ence in Thailand on global monasticism in December to the educational implications. 798 Metacognition interactions among” metacognitive knowledge, metacog- (Perkins and Salomon 1989). The ability to control nitive experiences, tasks and strategies (1979, 906). Meta- one’s cognitive processes is also linked with intelligence cognitive knowledge is one’s stored knowledge, and meta- (Borkowski, Carr, and Pressely 1987). Studies on meta- cognitive experiences refer to any “conscious cognitive or cognition have provided insight into why some students affective experiences that pertain to any intellectual en- are successful in their learning and others are not. terprise” (906). Flavell adds that epistemic understanding Metacognition can be learned. Students develop their might be best understood in its relation to metacognition. metacognition through instructional interventions that The complex relationship between metacognition and promotes the conscious structuring of knowledge. For cognition becomes apparent, as metacognition is now example, teachers can design learning tasks that encour- equated with “higher-order cognition about cognition” age self-questioning, a common metacognitive monitor- (Veenman, Van Hout-Wolters, and Afflerbach 2006). In- ing strategy. Pintrich (2002) and Tanner (2012) suggest terestingly, Kuhn (2000) suggests “meta-knowing” as an building a classroom culture grounded in metacognition, all-encompassing term to refer to all cognitions on cog- such as giving students space and freedom to identify nition. Merriam, Cafarella, and Baumgartner (2007) also confusion, integrating reflection in course work, and include the development of more sophisticated episte- metacognitive modeling by the instructor. Teachers mological frameworks as part of cognitive development. should be mindful that both contentOnly knowledge and Hofer (2001, 364) offers some helpful hints for un- metacognitive skills are essential for learning. derstanding the complex relationship among cognition, In Christian education, students are expected to be metacognition, and epistemic cognition, synthesizing more critically reflective as they build knowledge about Kitchener’s (1983) three-level model of cognitive pro- their faith. Metacognition adds an introspective layer to cessing and Kuhn’s (2000) three-level model of meta- reflection, because the approach compels students to be knowing, as shown in table M.1. more self-aware of barriers to growth. What do I know about this theological concept, and how did I come to TABLE M.1 Locating Epistemological Thinking in Cognitive Development know? Why do I experience a disconnect with new knowl- edge? The goal of transformational learning in Christian 3-Level Model of Cognitive 3-Level Model of Meta-knowing education is reinforced in metacognitive activities. Processing (Kitchener 1983) (Kuhn 2000) Cognition Metacognitive knowing Copy References and Resources Metacognition Metastrategic knowing Borkowski, J., M. Carr, and M. Pressely. 1987. “‘Spontaneous’ Epistemic cognition • metatask knowledge • metastrategic knowledge Strategy Use: Perspectives from Metacognitive Theory.” In- Epistemological knowing telligence. 11: 61–75. Flavell, J. H. 1979. “Metacognition and Cognitive Monitoring: Kitchener (1983) puts metacognition on a higher level A New Area of Cognitive Developmental Inquiry.” American than cognition; but metacognition also draws on cogni- Psychologist 34: 906–911. tion. Kuhn’s (2000) meta-knowing includes higher levels Hofer, B. 2001. “Personal Epistemology Research: Implications of cognition. Metacognitive knowing is about declarative for Learning and Teaching.” Journal of Educational Psychol- knowing, and metastrategic knowing is about proce- ogy Review 13 (4): 353–383. dural knowing. Epistemological meta-knowing is the Kitchener, K. S. 1983. “Cognition, Metacognition, and Epis- more abstract part of metacognitive knowing—knowing temic Cognition.” Human Development 26: 222–232. about knowledge and knowing. Clearly, metacognition Kuhn, D. 2000. “Theory of Mind, Metacognition and Reason- or meta-knowing is composed of both knowledge and ing: A Life-span Perspective.” In Children’s Reasoning and strategy components, and metacognitive and cognitive the Mind, edited by P. Mitchell and K. J. Riggs, 301–326. strategies overlap. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. Merriam, S. B., R. S. Cafarella, and L. M. Baumgartner. 2007. Metacognition and Learning Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide. 3rd ed. San Metacognition is commonly referred to as “thinking Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. about thinking.” One uses metacognitive strategies not Perkins, D. N., and G. Salomon. 1989. “Are Cognitive Skills only to figure out how to do a particular task, but also Context Bound?” Educational Research 18: 16–25. to ensureContributor that the task is done correctly. The student Pintrich, P. 2002. “The Role of Metacognitive Knowledge in engages in overseeing the fulfillment of a learning goal Learning, Teaching and Assessing.” Theory and Practice 41: through planning, monitoring, and evaluating her or 219–226. his thought processes. Metacognition also helps stu- Tanner, K. D. 2012. “Promoting Student Metacognition.” CBE- dents avoid repeating unproductive learning approaches Life Sciences Education 11: 113–120. Metaphors for Learning 799

Veenman, M. V. J., B. H. A. M. Van Hout-Wolters, and ability to foster and sustain a Christian view of learners, P. Afflerbach. 2006. “Metacogntion and Learning: Concep- teachers, relationships, and the wider world. Reductive tual and Methodological Considerations.” Metacognition metaphors in particular (e.g., those that reduce learners Learning 1: 3–14. to objects to be controlled or learning to an economic —Joanna Feliciano-Soberano transaction) are unlikely to embody Christian learning goals. Christian educators may actively adopt meta- phors that open up education to Christian concerns— Metaphors for Learning for instance, thinking of the teacher as covenanting with students or as a fellow pilgrim. Although metaphors can serve merely as poetic figures Metaphors for learning have historically often arisen of speech, a large body of recent research has focused on from or been shaped by biblical and theological sources. the relationship among metaphor, thought, and practice. For instance, the metaphor of schools as gardens (com- Metaphorical speech takes two things that are not identical pare ‘kindergarten’) and learners as plants is com- and speaks about one in terms of the other. In the process, monplace, but also played a more specific role in the a range of properties and perceptions associated with one Christian tradition. Reflection on schools as “gardens of thing or experience is mapped onto the other. If we say delight” by Christian educators suchOnly as J. A. Comenius “the thought exploded in his mind,” we invite perception (1592–1670) (see Comenius, Jan) was grounded in, and of an act of thinking in terms of the properties of explo- served to evoke, passages such as Genesis 2:8–17, Isaiah sions. This may generate an open-ended set of associations 51:3, 58:6–12, and John 15:1–8. Key themes from these (the thought arrived suddenly, expanded rapidly, caused passages, such as beauty and abundance, divine generos- chaos, was dramatic, drowned out other thoughts, got past ity, the seriousness of spiritual and moral choices, and his defenses, destroyed previous structures, and so on). A justice, became mapped onto a way of seeing education.46 successful metaphor is therefore not replaceable by a literal Similarly, images of teaching as breaking bread (e.g., in equivalent. The use of metaphor does not mean that we Bernard of Clairvaux’s Sermons on the Song of Songs) are in the realm of fiction; in this case we mean to say that could evoke biblically rooted perceptions of the task of a real thought occurred in a real mind. It does, however, teaching and learning in terms of mutual fellowship, orient our perceptions in a particular way. ensuringCopy that none go hungry, recognition of Christ’s presence (cf. Luke 24:30–31), welcoming of guests to the Metaphor and Education table, and so forth. Metaphors for teaching and learning When particular metaphors become habitually rooted in in terms of gardens, eating and drinking (fasting, feast- our thinking, they may influence and guide our practices, ing, bread), buildings (foundations), light (darkness), including our educational practices. They become, as La- healing, sight (blindness), journeys (pilgrimages), and the koff and Johnson famously put it, “metaphors we live by,” heart have all served at various times to map a network even (or perhaps especially) when we do not dwell on of biblical themes and perceptions onto the educational them consciously.45 A teacher who thinks of learners as task. Metaphor thus plays a significant role in the forma- containers to be filled with information, one who thinks tion of a Christian educational imagination. of them as computers to be programmed, and one who thinks of them as plants to be watered and given space References and Resources to grow are likely to approach teaching in somewhat dif- Badley, Ken, and Harro Van Brummelen, eds. 2012. Metaphors ferent ways. Such orienting metaphors may inhabit any We Teach By: How Metaphors Shape What We Do in Class- aspect of educational thinking, including, for instance, rooms. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. how we think of learners (containers, customers, authors, Gibbs, Raymond W., Jr., ed. 2008. The Cambridge Handbook etc.), teachers (coaches, tour guides, gardeners, etc.), of Metaphor and Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni- schools and classrooms (factories, marketplaces, refuges, versity Press. etc.), and learning itself (writing on blank slates, process- Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. 1980. Metaphors We Live ing data, constructing knowledge, etc.). By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Smith, David I., and Susan Felch. 2014. Teaching and Christian Metaphor and Christian Education Imagination: Re-envisioning Faith and Learning. Grand Rap- InContributor the context of Christian education, educational ids, MI: Eerdmans. metaphors require examination and critique for their

46. This and the following example are discussed in David I. Smith and 45. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago: Susan Felch, Teaching and Christian Imagination: Re-envisioning Faith and University of Chicago Press, 1980). Learning (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2014). 800 Methodist Church Christian Education

Soskice, Janet M. 1985. Metaphor and Religious Language. tion, he wielded enormous influence over educational Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. developments in the Methodist Church that lasted for —David I. Smith generations. One of his greatest accomplishments was to organize all of the disparate denominational curricula into the Uniform Sunday School Lesson plan adopted by Methodist Church Christian Education the International Sunday School Convention of 1872. By 1874, it was obvious that the training of Sunday Origins of Church Education in the Methodist Church school teachers was a vital necessity if the successes of the Educational endeavors in the Methodist Church began Sunday school movement were to be secured for future on 15 February 1742, when class meetings led by class generations. In that year, Rev. John Vincent and Lewis leaders were initiated. Contrary to what we know about Miller (author of the Akron Plan), a prosperous manufac- their later purpose, originally the class meetings were turer from Akron, Ohio, joined forces to create the Chau- formed to retire the debt on Bristol Chapel. The idea was tauqua Assembly in Chautauqua, New York. At the begin- to divide the membership into groups of 10 plus a leader, ning, this was to be a summertime opportunity for Sunday who would be responsible for collecting one penny per school teachers to spend a few days or a few weeks learning week from each member. If a member could not afford how to be more effective in teaching OnlySunday school. In the penny, the leader would pay it on that person’s behalf. Vincent’s words, it was “a school for people out of school The “classes” did not meet together; they were simply an who can no longer attend school” (Grattan 1959). efficient way for leaders to collect money. Eventually the Chautauqua Assembly became the Eventually the leaders began reporting to Rev. John Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, with orga- Wesley that they were finding many of their class mem- nized training meetings in New York but branch meet- bers not living as good Christians. Wesley immediately ings that met in private homes and in temporary tents. In realized the significance of what he was hearing and addition to these endeavors, Chautauqua also created a called the leaders together to modify their roles in rela- school of languages in 1878, a teacher’s retreat in 1879 for tion to their classes. Now the leaders would see their public school teachers, a school of theology in 1881, the class members every week to not only collect the penny Teacher’s Reading Union in 1884, a missionary institute, but also “to inquire how their souls prospered, to advise, and aCopy church school of church work offering training reprove, comfort, exhort” (quoted in Tees 1948). Eventu- in practical theology. Eventually the society, under the ally the class meetings took on a more educational flavor, leadership of William Rainey Harper, began to distribute but they retained their role of providing pastoral over- courses via the U.S. Postal System, including courses in sight for every member who wished to join. Bible, theology, and biblical languages. Eventually Harper took what he learned to the University of Chicago, where Sunday School he founded the first university extension program that In 1737, John Wesley started a school on Saturdays and offered correspondence courses as part of its services Sundays at Christ Church in Savannah, Georgia, under to the public. One of Harper’s students at Yale was the leadership of a Mr. Delamotte (Tees 1948). Although R. A. Torrey, who would help D. L. Moody create adult this predates the Sunday school that Robert Raikes began Bible correspondence study at Moody Bible Institute of in 1781 at Gloucester, England, Wesley’s was a modest Chicago, beginning in 1901. Getz (1986) speculates that attempt, whereas what Raikes organized was intention- Harper influenced Torrey in his thinking about extension ally robust from the beginning, employing those formally or correspondence education. trained to teach reading to children. Although Sunday schools were attempted in the Methodist Church in fits The Board of Education and starts from 1737 onward both in England and the The Centennial of 1866 sparked the building of many United States, it was not until 1791 that a formally orga- Methodist churches and a financial drive that was to raise nized Sunday School Society came into existence, with its money for educational efforts in the Methodist Church. own separate building in Philadelphia (Tees 1948). The No one had any idea what a national financial campaign three Sunday schools that comprised the society had a of this sort would generate, and to everyone’s astonish- combined attendance of 900 scholars. ment the effort raised $9 million (Halford, Hutchinson, Contributorand R. Goodloe 1926). This effort resulted in the forma- Chautauqua and Methodist Education tion of the Board of Education for the Methodist Church, In 1868, Methodist church leaders elected Rev. John H. which in 1972 became the General Board of Discipleship Vincent secretary of the Methodist Sunday School Union (GBOD); it now serves 35,000 local churches. Part of and editor of Sunday school literature. In that posi- its oversight included promoting and supporting local Methodist Class Meetings 801 church education, including the publication and print- Wesley’s life and ministry took shape in the 18th ing of educational curricula as well as training resources. century within the spiritually and politically conflicted In addition, the GBOD maintains a wealth of electronic context of the Church of England. Puritan determina- resources on its website (gbod.org). tion to restore the church to spiritual vitality and primi- The University Senate of the General Board of Higher tive Christian practice clashed with representatives Education and Ministry oversees and approves the 120 of the Anglican ecclesiastical hierarchy committed to educational institutions affiliated with the United Meth- maintaining the status quo. Even Wesley’s home and odist Church. The Senate comprises 27 voting members, parents, Samuel and Susannah, were divided by differ- who have education, experience, and expertise in various ing monarchial sympathies and educational emphases. forms of higher education. Only institutions formally Samuel Wesley, an erudite biblical scholar and classi- affiliated through the University Senate are eligible for cally trained churchman, devoted himself to exposing funding from the denomination or any of its agencies. his children to liberal education and language study.47 Candidates for ordination in the United Methodist Susannah, coming from a Dissenting family and influ- Church who wish to attend a seminary must choose one enced by the Puritan piety of Richard Baxter and others, officially affiliated through review and approval by the ordered her children’s lives with methodical daily disci- University Senate. pline and nurtured them in practicalOnly devotion through According to the Book of Discipline of the United weekly one-on-one religious conversations. Susannah Methodist Church, “In each local church there shall be also organized a kitchen school for basic education of a church school for the purpose of accomplishing the poor children and led large gatherings of persons for church’s educational ministry” (2012, 170). This provi- spiritual nurture in her home.48 sion ensures that each United Methodist church will seek John Wesley put his father’s preference for classical to form disciples for the transformation of the church training together with his mother’s emphasis on practi- and the world through intentional educational efforts. cal divinity and disciplined lifestyle when he became the leader of the “Holy Club” at Oxford University.49 Wesley References and Resources had already distinguished himself academically with an The Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church, web- MA degree from Oxford when he was invited to tutor site: http://www.cokesbury.com/forms/DynamicContent a smallCopy group of men that included his brother, Charles .aspx?id=87&pageid=920 Wesley. The elder Wesley reorganized the group into a Getz, G. 1986. MBI: The Story of Moody Bible Institute. Chi- more methodical process of study and practical devo- cago: Moody Press. tion, reflective of his mother and father’s influence, but Grattan, G. 1959. American Ideas about Adult Education. New most clearly shaped by Susannah’s “methodistic” ways York: Teachers College, Columbia University. and practical spirituality. Although affected significantly Halford, E., P. Hutchinson, and R. Goodloe. 1926. The Story of by his acquaintance with the French Catholic de Renty’s Methodism. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. groups, the German Moravian Herrnhut model, and his Tees, F. 1948. Methodist Origins. Nashville, TN: The Parthenon own missionary experiments in Georgia and in London Press. with the Fetter Lane Society, Wesley eventually devel- —Stephen D. Lowe oped a distinctive process of communal nurture designed to express and sustain the spirituality of the Methodist renewal movement he founded.50 Methodist Class Meetings Methodist Class Meetings Historical Background Methodist class meetings were part of the larger system John Wesley (1703–1791) was the architect and chief of groups making up Wesley’s structure for spiritual organizer of Methodist class meetings among his fol- development. With George Whitefield’s departure from lowers in England. Wesley’s own spiritual journey and England and Wesley’s assumption of the reins of the key influences in his life led him to the conviction that revival his Oxford colleague had started, the Wesleyan the class meeting was essential to Christian discipleship, revival and its emphasis on holiness and organizing of the Methodist movement, and theological faithfulness. In actuality, the Methodist class meetings were a natural 47. D. Michael Henderson, John Wesley’s Class Meeting: A Model for Contributor Making Disciples (Nappanee, IN: Evangel Publishing House, 1997), 34. outgrowth of Wesley’s early life, spiritual influences, and 48. Ronald H. Stone, John Wesley’s Life & Ethics (Nashville, TN: Abing- development, as well as a pragmatically and theologically don, 2001), 33–38. 49. Howard A. Snyder, The Radical Wesley & Patterns for Church Re- strategic practice for cultivating and sustaining the spiri- newal (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1980), 18. tual renewal ignited through his ministry. 50. Henderson, John Wesley’s Class Meeting, 44–72. 802 Methodist Class Meetings discipleship groups emerged. Given his early life and or “prudential” means for providing the discipleship and spiritual journey, Wesley had an unshakeable conviction soul care needed.53 Class meetings, along with the bands of the absolute necessity of gathering those responding and societies, met this challenge. to his preaching into accountable fellowship cells. Upon It is noteworthy that the Methodist class meetings ex- his return, Whitefield found Wesley leading a movement ercised discipline in relation to life conduct but did not based not on revivalistic preaching or doctrinal unifor- focus on doctrinal differences. Wesley himself excluded mity but on an interlocking spiritually graduated system members for various moral lapses—smuggling, profan- of societies, bands, and class meetings. ity, Sabbath-breaking, spouse abuse, alcohol abuse, lying, Practical financial concerns gave rise to the class meet- quarreling, etc.—but never for doctrinal disagreements.54 ings that would become the foundational center of the Wesley’s understanding of holiness as love of God and entire Methodist movement. The need to raise funds to neighbor and emphasis on sanctification as perfection in pay the preaching-house debt of the revival led Wesley love made life rather than theological correctness his pri- to organize followers into class meetings in Bristol in mary concern. This perspective was also marked by the 1742.51 The original purpose soon broadened to include expectation that “faith working by love” would produce an effective means for intimate fellowship groups of a works of mercy especially for the poor as part of one’s dozen members to exhort one another, care for one an- discipleship and personal growth. Only other, and respond to the needs of the poor. Actually, to Finally, Wesley’s practice of assigning laypersons and call the groups “classes” is misleading. The focus was not women as leaders of the classes and his understanding on instruction, but rather on cultivating the life of true of the need for a graduated system of discipleship build- Christianity. Wesley soon organized the entire Method- ing on the class meeting was remarkable for his era. In ist movement into class meetings, assigned class lead- effect, Wesley empowered men and women as leader- ers, developed rules for meetings, and made acceptable pastors of the class meetings in a manner subversive of participation in class meetings a requirement for being the dominant caste system of England and the Church a member of the Methodist societies that constituted the of England. Socioeconomic status and gender were congregation-like level of the movement. relativized within the class meetings, and the intimate fellowship experienced in the groups promoted recon- Theological and Educational Significance ciliation between previously alienated classes of English Copy55 Methodist class meetings expressed several core theologi- citizens. Coupled with the requirement for giving to cal convictions of John Wesley and the Wesleyan move- ministry for the poor, the dynamics of the class meet- ment he ignited. Wesley believed Christian spirituality, ings proved effective not only for cultivating holiness especially sanctification and holiness, required a forma- and discipleship, but also for bringing social reconcilia- tional structure and polity. Perhaps he was most influ- tion to a nation on the cusp of revolution. enced in this by his mother, Susannah, who may correctly be credited with having given “Methodism is methodical References and Resources nature.”52 Wesley’s clear vision of the vital relationship Collins, Kenneth J. 2003. John Wesley: A Theological Journey. among structures, processes, and polity for spiritual for- Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. mation motivated his embrace of class meetings and, of Henderson, D. Michael. 1997. John Wesley’s Class Meeting: A course, the connectional nature of Methodism. Model for Making Disciples. Nappanee, IN: Evangel Publish- At the heart of Wesley’s practice of organizing class ing House. meetings was also a desire to recover biblical—specifically Snyder, Howard A. 1980. The Radical Wesley & Patterns for New Testament—fellowship with its mutual accountabil- Church Renewal. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ity, responsibility for one another, commitment to care, Stone, Ronald H. 2001. John Wesley’s Life & Ethics. Nashville, and ministry to those in need. Wesley’s own experience TN: Abingdon Press. and experiments convinced him that class meetings —James P. Bowers for encouragement, exhortation, ministry to the poor, and spiritual discipline recovered the nurturance and intimacy of primitive Christian practice. An essentially 53. Wesley did not argue that class meetings were mandated by the New Testament, but believed they represented an effective strategy for providing communal Christian spirituality must have a practical the kind of fellowship conducive to faithful discipleship and service. See ContributorSnyder, Radical Wesley & Patterns for Church Renewal, 56. 51. Kenneth J. Collins, John Wesley: A Theological Journey (Nashville, 54. Collins, John Wesley, 122; and Snyder, Radical Wesley & Patterns for TN: Abingdon Press, 2003), 121–122. Church Renewal, 58. 52. Henderson, John Wesley’s Class Meeting, 38. 55. Henderson, John Wesley’s Class Meeting, 97–98. Methodist Curricular Outcomes 803

Methodist Curricular Outcomes most offer a wide range of groups, calling them by di- verse names: classes, prayer groups, Bible studies, and In 18th-century Britain, the church conferences of “peo- others. Most churches also offer worship that features ple called Methodist” focused on three questions: what singing, praying, and preaching, in addition to tradi- to teach, how to teach, and how to live. John Wesley, tional liturgical elements of praise, repentance, and the progenitor of the Methodist tradition, saw teaching and sacraments. The rituals of 18th-century parish churches learning as central to the movement. His mother, Susan- are now combined with practices of early Methodist nah Wesley, was a consummate teacher, instructing her societies, creating a mix of formal and informal ritual own children and encouraging her boys to pursue formal in most churches. education. She also taught neighbors in her husband’s The emphasis on education for children and young parish when he was absent for an extended period, wrote people has increased since Wesley’s day. Wesley estab- meditations and biblical commentaries, and conducted lished the Kingswood School in Bristol, England, espe- years of intellectual and spiritual conversation with her cially for children of itinerant preachers. His curriculum children and others via letters. John Wesley accepted his included the classics, Christian sources, and both formal mother’s religious and educational zeal. He also accepted and informal formation in values. From the 18th cen- her stern views of child rearing; however, he understood tury onward, Methodist lay leadersOnly were also active in children as both recipients and communicators of God’s the Sunday school movement, first in England and then grace and was he committed to teaching both children across the world. Originally, this movement served poor and adults the knowledge of humankind and Christian children, offering them general and Christian education. faith, Christian values, and the art of holy living. The The movement was ecumenical but involved a dispropor- purpose of education, for Wesley, was to shape holy lives. tionate number of Methodists in its initiation and leader- Wesley focused primarily on adults, though his inter- ship. In the United States, the Sunday schools were active est in children increased as he realized later in his life that on the frontier as European Americans moved westward, the future of the Methodist movement would depend often preceding the establishment of churches in frontier on children.56 His approaches to adult education were towns. They were eventually domesticated as Sunday broad: preaching and lecturing; mentoring preachers and schools within Protestant churches, and pan-Methodist class leaders; letter writing; publishing religious classics, churchesCopy developed this educational form extensively, sermons, biblical commentaries, diaries, medical advice, with curriculum and teaching resources, while also de- and hymns; and forming bands, classes, and societies to veloping a broader educational ecology of fellowship complement the ministries of parish churches. His writ- groups, mission trips, choirs, and other forms. ings were available to people in diverse life situations, for Though the Sunday school developed an increas- example, medical advice for people who could not afford ingly internal emphasis, its original purposes reveal a professional medical care. Indeed, his writings provided a concern in Methodism for educating and supporting widely accessible library. The structures of bands, classes, people outside of the church. Such emphases continue and societies provided people with learning opportuni- in pan-Methodist attention to people in vulnerable life ties in small groups (bands and classes), where they could circumstances, such as in the United Methodist Episcopal pray together, discuss the state of their souls, and offer Initiative on Children and Poverty, which is shared with guidance in holy living. The societies were larger gather- pan-Methodist partners.57 ings that featured preaching and singing. This overall The concern for education is also seen in hundreds of structure reflected a holistic educational philosophy, schools, colleges, seminaries, and universities founded including instruction, ritual, soul searching, prayer, and across the world by the pan-Methodist family, including mutual support. in Ghana, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Korea, Japan, the Philip- These forms of adult education continue in Method- pines, Brazil, Argentina, the United States, and many ist traditions, albeit in modernized versions and with other countries, serving young people and offering higher variations across the world. Most churches in the Wes- education. In 2013, there were more than 700 such in- leyan tradition produce curriculum resources, biblical stitutions worldwide, including precollegiate schools, commentaries, social commentary, books of discipline, schools for underserved populations, small liberal arts andContributor books of spiritual and ethical guidance. Similarly, colleges, historically black colleges, theological schools, 56. Albert C. Outler, “Introduction to Sermon 94,” in The Bicenten- 57. The Council of Bishops of The United Methodist Church, “Children nial Edition of the Works of John Wesley (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, and Poverty: An Episcopal Initiative” (1996), 4, http://www.mumac.org/ 1984–), 3:333. childpov/BICP-Doc.html. 804 Methodist Education, The Rise of and research universities. Pan-Methodists continue to They are often quite evangelical in their approach to the foster education across age, social class, ethnicity, and Wesleyan tradition. faith perspectives, developing ever broader understand- The founder of Methodism was John Wesley, ably as- ings of education’s contributions to holy living. sisted by his brother Charles. Wesley was an Anglican —Mary Elizabeth Moore priest. He lived most of his life in England, making a missionary trip to colonial Georgia in 1737. Though he returned to England a year later discouraged by the Methodist Education, The Rise of ineffectiveness of his ministry to the colonists, his time in Georgia proved an instrumental component in the de- The Methodist movement in Protestant Christianity velopment of southern and North American Methodism. has made invaluable contributions to education. Many When he returned to England, he continued his ministry of North America’s finest universities have Methodist as an Anglican priest. roots, including Duke, Emory University, Vanderbilt, During the 18th century, many found the Anglican Southern Methodist University, Wesleyan University in Church to have reached a rather apathetic plateau. Many Connecticut, and many others. In addition to major re- accounts of the worship during these years describe search institutions, Methodism also founded hundreds of deadly dull services and apathetic congregants.Only The in- smaller colleges throughout North America and the rest fluence of deism and Enlightenment-era rationalism also of the world. Methodists have also been instrumental in affected popular piety, especially in the upper classes. In promoting education through Sunday School programs, this context of mid-18th century Anglicanism, Wesley as well as by founding many small schools in conjunction and his adherents began to preach a new and revitalized with their missionary activity. brand of Anglo-Protestant Christianity—one character- In general, education at all levels was emphasized by ized by an emphasis on both the heart and mind—the the founders of Methodism, John Wesley (1703–1791) personal, as well as the institutional. and his brother Charles (1707–1788). The “motto” of Wesley and his fellow worshippers soon acquired Methodist education comes from a hymn written by the nickname “Methodist,” owing to their disciplined Charles Wesley: “Unite the two so long disjoined, knowl- and methodical approach to daily devotions, study, and edge and vital piety.” worship.Copy A strong organization of followers developed, further facilitating the spread of Methodist structures The Methodist Movement and practices across England and North America. While The Methodist movement was an Anglo-American Wesley remained a lifelong Anglican, others in the Meth- movement in the 18th century. It resulted in the forma- odist movement established a separate church altogether tion of a new church outside of the Anglican/Episcopal by the end of the 18th century, outside of the authority Church. The largest Methodist church today is the of the archbishop of Canterbury and other Anglican of- United Methodist Church, with about 12 million mem- ficials. By the early 19th century, “Methodism” was firmly bers. It was created in 1968 when the Evangelical United ensconced across many areas of England and Wales. It Brethren Church, a denomination that also had strong had also gained enormous popularity in North America. Wesleyan roots, combined with the Methodist Episcopal The connectional structure of Methodism aided church Church. Between 1844 and 1939, there was also a Meth- growth during these formative years. Unlike many other odist Episcopal Church, South, and a Methodist Epis- Protestant groups that eschewed Anglicanism, Method- copal Church—a division reflecting the sectionalism of ists retained the Episcopal system. They also maintained the 19th century, as well as the northern church’s strong a system of “circuits” to connect the often small and opposition to slavery. The Methodist Episcopal Church, isolated congregations in a given district. Beneath the South joined with the Northern Methodist Episcopal level of bishop, “superintendents” administered the dis- Church in 1939. trict churches. Superintendents presided over an annual The holiness movement in the 19th century was closely conference, maintaining close ties between even remote linked to Methodism. It spawned a number of Wesleyan/ churches often found in virtual wilderness areas and the Methodist offshoots, not all of which are included in the larger structure of Methodism. This connectional qual- United Methodist Church. In addition to United Meth- ity enabled the Methodist movement to draw on greater odism,Contributor there are numerous other Protestant denomi- resources than many of its competitors in evangelical nations closely associated with Methodism, including North American Protestantism. As well as providing Free Methodists, Evangelical Methodists, Wesleyans, support and nurture for congregations, this connectional Nazarenes, and many others. Almost all of these smaller quality also aided in the promotion of colleges that were Methodist groups have roots in the holiness movement. often quite successful. Methodist Education, The Rise of 805

Methodism and Education education. Late in life, Wesley himself complained that With its ancient emphasis on the reading of the Bible, Kingswood School literature—hoping to attract more Christianity had long valued education. Even more par- students—downplayed the central role Christianity was ticularly, the Protestant movement had reinvigorated to play in its identity. The quality of students was also an Christian education. Protestantism’s use of vernacular issue confronting Wesley and other Kingswood leaders. languages and its arguably more democratic approach Many excellent students only wanted the fine academ- to piety complemented a strong growth in literacy and ics of the school, not the Christian aspects. When they education that characterized much of Northern Europe matriculated into the system, they weakened the school’s during the 16th and 17th centuries. All of the North more general commitment to Christian education. At American Ivy League universities were founded with this the same time, the school needed good students. Finally, distinctively Protestant intellectual energy—an energy Wesley’s ideas of maintaining the school as an outreach driving much of Anglo-American intellectual life during to the poor also confronted the hard financial realities of the 17th century. the school’s need for money. Due to their ability to pay From its earliest manifestations, Methodism embraced the tuition, well-to-do students became preferred to the this strong heritage of Protestant learning. The Wesley poorer students envisioned by Wesley. family also reflected this bond between common, hum- Despite hardships, Kingswood OnlySchool endured, in- ble Christianity and excellent education. In particular, spiring many. The Kingswood School’s foundation and John and Charles Wesley’s mother, Susannah Wesley early years inspired the writing of a play entitled The (1669–1742), was a lifelong proponent of education and Vision by Rex Stephenson and Mike Trochim (1996), a very well-educated woman. Indeed, Methodist educa- commissioned by the Methodist Church. In 1998, The tion has sometimes been dubbed “Susannah’s Legacy.” Vision was performed in Nashville, Tennessee, at a She instilled in her sons a lifelong love of learning and conference for administrators, chaplains, and faculty a gift for language. Later, both John and Charles Wesley members from Methodist-affiliated colleges and univer- attended Oxford University, excelling as students. At Ox- sities. Rarely performed, this play details the Kingswood ford, John also participated in the famous “Holy Club,” a School’s early years. group of students who studied, worshipped, and cavorted In addition to the Kingswood School experience, together. Their mutual commitment to keeping each MethodistsCopy also emphasized Sunday school. The Sun- other accountable would become a vital characteristic of day school was a major humanitarian and Christian active Methodism. development in early-19th century England to promote Wesley founded the first Methodist Kingswood School education and literacy for all children. Along with other at Bath in 1748. The school was beset by financial and prominent Christian reformers during the bleak years of personnel problems, but it survived to become a proto- English industrialization, Methodists were key support- type for Methodist education worldwide. Charles Wes- ers of England’s Sunday school movement. It was a vital ley’s hymn to celebrate the opening of Kingswood con- social balm in London and many other English cities. tained the famous lines that would become the “motto” of Methodist education: “Unite the two so long disjoined, The Development of Higher Education knowledge and vital piety,” in the United States Kingswood school emphasized an education that was Methodist education in the United States developed dur- both “classical and Christian.” Students read Virgil and ing the 19th century, when there was a general expansion Livy, as well as the Bible and church history. Teaching of colleges all across the newly formed nation. By the was rigorous. At the same time, students were to be early national period, the new nation already had fine nurtured in terms of their personal, social, and spiritual schools on the European model. Harvard College had development. Kingswood School emphasized education been founded in 1636, with great Puritan support and of the whole person, including the heart. At Kingswood, orientation. In general, the great colonial schools were by Christianity was to be central to all aspects of the cur- now well-established as institutions of higher learning. riculum, and indeed, to social and cultural life—not just They were large, and in many cases decidedly more secu- a mere duty to endure during boring chapel times. In lar than their earlier manifestations. Moreover, the larger this, Kingswood distinguished itself from other Anglican schools catered to elites. They were also mostly located schoolsContributor in England at this time, where religious instruc- in the Northeast or elsewhere on the Eastern Seaboard. tion and practice had arguably become more formulaic Along with the old colonial schools, which continue and routine. to grow in stature and prestige, many of the newly Issues confronting the Kingswood School in its early formed states founded “flagship” state universities. In years presaged many later tensions in church-related some cases, these universities stayed in the shadow of 806 Methodist Education, The Rise of the old colonial “ivy league” schools. In other cases, they Methodist colleges belong to the Council for Christian came to dominate their respective areas—especially Colleges and Universities. in states that already lacked a major college. The Uni- Many fine schools exist in the Wesleyan heritages that versity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill was founded are not technically “United Methodist” schools. Asbury in 1789. The University of Georgia was founded in University (founded in 1890) in Kentucky is named for 1785. The University of Michigan was founded in 1817, the first great Methodist bishop, Francis Asbury. Though while Michigan was still a territory. Thomas Jefferson’s not officially a United Methodist school, United Method- beloved University of Virginia was also a major pub- ist ministers can be ordained there, and it has a strong lic “flagship” school, founded in 1819 during this key Wesleyan, Methodist heritage. Similarly, in 1860 a group period in American educational history. In 1862, the split from the Methodist Episcopal Church over the issue Morrill Land Grant Act further expanded commitments of paying for pew-seats, a common fund-raising prac- to higher education—at least in the North—with the in- tice in many urban Methodist churches of the day. The novation of the “land-grant college.” breakaway denomination was called “Free Methodist.” The Free Methodists founded a number of small liberal The Idea of the Small Christian Liberal Arts College arts colleges, generally keeping the old Wesleyan ideals Despite the welcome addition of larger state-supported in their mission and purpose. SpringOnly Arbor College/ institutions during the 19th century, there was still a need University (1873) and Seattle Pacific University (1891) for more options in American higher education. During are two of the more prominent Free Methodist institu- the early 19th century, Methodists in North America tions operating today. There are also a number of fine began to form small schools. The preferred model of Nazarene-affiliated schools, including Olivet Nazarene higher education that emerged for Methodist education (1907) in Illinois. was that of the small liberal arts college. The intimacy The small liberal arts colleges founded by Methodist of its size made the small college the obvious choice, for leadership in the 19th century made an invaluable con- spiritual, economic, and administrative reasons. Also, the tribution to American higher education. Even the remote smaller scale facilitated a commitment to the liberal arts, locations they often occupied were part of their charm the key orientation of Wesleyan education dating back to and purpose. They provided excellent educational op- the days of the Kingswood School. portunitiesCopy to students at the more local level. They often Methodists established many small liberal arts colleges kept students isolated from the sinful, worldly habits be- in remote areas, often barely wrested from the American lieved to prevail in larger college and university settings. frontier, which still existed in those days. Emory College Even today, students at some of these smaller liberal arts in Georgia (1836), Emory and Henry College in Virginia colleges have been known to complain about the lack of (1836), and Duke College in Virginia (1838) are just a few bars, nightclubs, and bustling street life that seem to char- of the most important of the Methodist schools founded acterize student social lives in the great “college towns.” in those years. While many of these schools were destined Little do they realize that the remote and ostensibly “bor- to become major “research universities,” in those days ing” locations of these smaller liberal arts colleges, even they were small, strict liberal arts colleges serving small today, were a key aspect of their founding identities. student bodies. Often, the schools encouraged manual In keeping with their core Methodist and Chris- labor as part of their academic programs and as a way to tian values, Methodists also established many institu- ease tuition burdens on the students. Though the schools tions specifically designed to serve the needs of African varied in quality and the success of their endeavors, they American young people. These colleges were especially all shared a strong commitment to the liberal arts and significant in the days following the American Civil War a strong, sincere commitment to Methodist ideals. This and during the years of segregationist oppression. Rust combination nurtured a climate that frequently resulted College in Mississippi (1866) and Paine College in Geor- in academic excellence. gia (1882) are two of the 11 historically black Methodist It should be noted that not all the “Methodist” schools schools founded in the Old South. Even today, despite founded in the 19th century are today associated with many decades of progress in civil rights, historically Af- the United Methodist Church per se. During the 19th rican American schools remain a vital part of outreach century, the Wesleyan movement experienced the rise in Methodist education and a cherished heritage of the of otherContributor Wesleyan or Methodist groups. Many of these black educational experience in North America. schools remain valuable contributors to American higher The Methodist Church also established a number of education, especially as they often maintain a strong important women’s colleges. As was the case with Afri- evangelical identity. Today, many of these non-United can American schools in the segregated South, women’s Methodist Education, The Rise of 807 colleges were especially necessary in the days when most Vanderbilt University had been founded in 1873 by higher education was reserved for males. Wesleyan Col- Methodists as a university. Unlike the scores of smaller, lege in Macon, Georgia (1839) and Columbia College in old-style Methodist schools that existed by that time, Greensboro, South Carolina (established 1854) are two of Methodist officials envisioned Vanderbilt as a true “uni- the important women’s colleges founded in the Method- versity,” a Methodist flagship university for the south- ist tradition. ern states. Nonetheless, familiar tensions between the The Methodist Church has also founded schools academics in the university and the Methodist Church abroad. Indeed, Methodist missionaries have always erupted. In 1914, conflict over control of Vanderbilt’s emphasized education as an outreach. Today, for exam- board of trustees erupted in a legal clash between the ple, Methodist offerings help support the Kenyan Meth- church and the university. It finally reached the Ten- odist University, founded by Methodists as a smaller nessee Supreme Court, which sided with Vanderbilt school in 1906. Queen’s College (1871) in the Bahamas against the Methodist Church. Embittered Methodists is another well-known school founded with the support regrouped. In response to the “loss” of Vanderbilt, Meth- of British Methodists. odist leaders established Southern Methodist University in Texas and rechartered Emory as a major research uni- The University Model versity in Atlanta. Only By the late 19th century, many of the smaller colleges were moving toward the university model. This was so Modern Trends in Methodist Education across the board in North American universities, where During the Victorian period, tension arose between sci- the tendency was also felt in many of the old small Meth- ence and religion, greatly shaping academic institutions. odist colleges. Since universities had long existed in Eu- Darwin’s Origin of the Species, published in 1859, proved rope, there was less novelty about this tendency than one especially significant in this regard. It divided much of might suppose. Nonetheless, the move toward university- Western culture of its day. Many church leaders chafed style organization and research orientation challenged at evolution’s implications, while many academics in- many aspects of the old Methodist colleges. There was a creasingly saw it as a powerful and intellectually satis- strong drift toward secularism in this period. fying response to many of nature’s most longstanding A university is technically a collection of colleges. mysteries.Copy Beyond the fights over evolution, however, Therefore, as universities began to adopt graduate there was a growing insistence on academic freedom in schools in such areas as law, medicine, or theology, they Western universities, including the many Methodist- invariably adopted the university model of governance. related schools. Some were affected more than others. By the late 19th century, many of the old colleges defined Nonetheless, many Methodist-related schools inevitably themselves as universities. The change to a university changed with the times. format usually also involved academic changes, some- Aside from the general move toward research univer- times a more gradual evolution than one might suppose. sity models, many other changes greatly affected 20th- The curriculum was often reworked, with more electives century education in Western countries, including the added and less emphasis on the ancient languages, for United States. Growing student populations often made example. Also, the dominant role that Christianity had it harder to retain sectarian identities. Sports became played in the founding of virtually all private colleges and more and more prevalent. Fraternities—often verboten universities in North America weakened. in the old, stricter Methodist schools—divided student The change from small college to research university bodies and sometimes seemed to undermine the Wes- affected Methodist schools. In some cases, the move from leyan vision of older times. college to university was based on de facto changes in Today, there are many fine Methodist research univer- governance and structure. In others, there were formal sities, though some of the most notable maintain weak recharterings of old smaller colleges into university-level or virtually nonexistent ties with the church. Some have institutions. In 1869, the Methodist-related Boston Theo- formally severed their bonds. Wesleyan University in logical Institute was rechartered as Boston University. In Connecticut (1831) cut its ties with the church in 1937. 1919, Emory College moved from Oxford, Georgia, to Vanderbilt has been a secular, independent university Atlanta, rechartering itself as a university. Similarly, in (both formally and informally) since 1914. Many insti- 1924Contributor Trinity College, an old Methodist school in Dur- tutions still retaining Methodist associations on paper ham, North Carolina, became Duke University, renamed describe them in their campus literature as “historic.” after James Duke, a wealthy benefactor who supported Today, Methodist-related colleges and universities are the change. accredited by the University Senate of the United Meth- 808 Methods of Teaching odist Church, a body of the Board of Higher Education that will be shaped or conformed by a predetermined and Ministry of the United Methodist Church. set of course content that will produce consistent, The United Methodist Church today lists more than uniform education outputs based on the curriculum. 700 schools that maintain the Wesleyan heritage and a The learner-centered approach is a more progressive Methodist affiliation. Many of these schools remain in model, which understands learning as an individually the mode of the small liberal arts colleges that are at the constructed and self-authored meaning-making process heart of Wesleyan educational ideals, going back to the facilitated by the teacher. In each of these models, both 18th century. Such institutions play an invaluable role in the teacher and the learner take on specific roles and the mosaic of American higher education. Small liberal functions in the teaching process. arts colleges are relatively unknown curiosities in many A more recent model focuses on education as trans- parts of the world, where the research university model formational growth and development. Transformational more exclusively dominates higher education. In Amer- learning intentionally includes an element of self-discov- ica, though facing challenges, small liberal arts colleges in ery and personal growth in every subject presented. This the Methodist tradition remain a significant presence in requires the teacher to look for ways to create a learning the academic landscape. environment that facilitates an experience of personal discovery and transformation, infusingOnly the learning ex- References and Resources perience with an emphasis on self-reflection as well as the Cuninggim, Merrimon. 1994. Uneasy Partners: The College and analytical, developing in the student a practice of identi- the Church. Nashville: Abingdon Press. fying how to be personally transformed by what he or she Marsden, George. 1994. The Soul of The American University: is learning, thereby integrating both the informational From Protestant Establishment to Established Nonbelief. New and formational. The goal is to present course content in York: Oxford University Press. a more reflective and experiential way, while encouraging Schaeffer, Francis A. 1976. How Should We Then Live? The Rise the contextualization of these concepts into personal and and Decline of Western Thought and Culture. Old Tappan, interpersonal expressions. This is an especially appropri- NJ: F. H. Revell Co. ate method for Christian education, as it seeks to present Sloan, Doug. 1994. Faith and Knowledge: Mainline Protestant- biblical knowledge in a transformational way, rather than ism and American Higher Education. Louisville, KY: West- simplyCopy in an intellectual way. Transformational learning minster/John Knox Press. views education as a journey of personal development, Wells, Ronald A. 1989. History Through the Eyes of Faith. San reflection, and transformation over a lifetime. Francisco: Harper & Row. Methods of teaching from a Christian perspective —David Leinweber include a rich, multimodal approach promoting Chris- tian thinking, shaping attitudes, governing speech, and directing actions. Christian teaching and instruction Methods of Teaching never settles for acknowledgment detached from expres- sion. Philippians 4:8–9 addresses six categories, described The teaching and learning process involves teachers collectively as morally excellent and commendable, that and students in a dynamic interaction and exchange of are directly related to Christian thinking, virtues, and instructional, experiential, and relational activities that actions. In verse 9 the apostle Paul specifically identifies together create a learning outcome. Methods of teaching four key modalities of education: (1) what they learned in the context of Christian pedagogy (specific instruc- from Him, (2) what they received from His teaching, tional strategies) actively integrate cognitive (thinking), (3) what they heard from Him personally, and (4) what affective (feeling), and behavioral (doing) dimensions in they have seen exemplified in His life. These modalities the instructional process to promote the development of require the teacher to have rich, vibrant, and in-depth Christian thought, life, and practice. knowledge, experience, and authentic expression of what Three predominant models have served as guiding is being taught. paradigms for the teaching and learning process: (1) Best practices in Christian pedagogy should include teacher-centered, (2) content-centered, and (3) learner- active learning techniques that involve the learners more centered. In the teacher-centered model, information substantially in the teaching and learning process and tendsContributor to be transmitted by the teacher and deposited activities. Learners begin with what they already know, into the students, who function primarily as passive feel, or need. Making this real-life connection prepares recipients of information. This model emphasizes the them for learning new concepts. They are then guided transference of knowledge. The content-centered model in the comprehension, analysis, and integration of new tends to treat students as raw material or blank slates knowledge and are encouraged to explore how new Michel, Virgil 809 concepts work in real-life settings, enabling them to cre- gion, and the termination of the Roman Catholic Church atively apply what they are learning beyond the formal as the official religion. After 1860, many different Prot- classroom context. Community building is also an es- estant denominations were established and expanded in sential key to developing supportive environments and Mexico. Most of these belonged to historic Protestant nurturing relationships within educational structures groups such as Methodists, Presbyterian, Baptists, Con- that embrace and enable trust and creativity, as well as gregationalists, and Episcopalians. Pentecostals arrived academic excellence in theological studies. later, but their presence has increased considerably, and The personal learning styles of the students should also they are now the largest Protestant group in Mexico. be addressed. A learning style is the unique way in which Currently, the term “evangelical” is used in Mexico in a person perceives, organizes, processes, demonstrates, reference to all Protestant groups without regard to their and utilizes what has been learned. Students learn more denominational differences. The evangelical movement effectively when their particular learning style is affirmed in Mexico is very much a movement of laypeople, and by the teacher and directly addressed in the curriculum. many denominations, especially Pentecostal ones, have Some students tend to be more analytical in the way they a strong social emphasis in their Christian education learn, while others may be more imaginative, creative, endeavors. A strong emphasis on community along with common sense, or hands-on in their learning style. The a high regard for the scriptures makeOnly small group Bible teacher’s challenge is to reach beyond her or his own studies a popular method for discipleship. unique learning style to actively engage the unique learn- Although Roman Catholicism is still the major religion ing styles of students. in Mexico, Protestantism continues growing and shaping the religious landscape of the country. Currently, there References and Resources are more than 100 Bible schools and seminaries, with Ambrose, Susan A., Michael W. Bridges, Michele DiPietro, programs ranging from basic Bible teaching and literacy Marsha C. Lovett, and Marie K. Norman. 2010. How Learn- to formal theological degrees to prepare the increasing ing Works: Seven Research-Based Principles for Smart Teach- number of ministers for evangelical churches in Mexico. ing. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. —Octavio Javier Esqueda LeFever, Marlene D. 1995. Learning Styles. Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook. Copy Yount, William. 2010. Created to Learn: A Christian Teacher’s Michel, Virgil Introduction to Educational Psychology. 2nd ed. Downers Grove, IL: B & H Academic. Father Virgil Michel OSB was an American pioneer —Gino Pasquariello of the 20th-century liturgical movement in the United States and the founder of Worship magazine and The Liturgical Press of St. John’s University. Mexico and Christian Education Early Background and Education The Spanish and Portuguese conquistadors imposed A Benedictine of the Saint John Abbey of Collegeville, Roman Catholicism throughout the newly discovered Minnesota, Father Michel was born George Michel on 26 territories in the New World. Spain even established an June 1890 in St. Paul, Minnesota. As a graduate student inquisitorial tribunal in 1571 to protect the people from at the Catholic University of America, Michel wrote a other religious influences. For this reason, the Roman dissertation titled, “The Critical Principles of Orestes Catholic Church became the dominant religion in Mex- Brownson.” Brownson was a scholar of the relationship ico and Latin America for over three centuries. Although of Catholicism to culture. the Protestant Reformation was occurring simultane- ously with the initial colonization of Mexico (the Spanish Significant Contributions to Christian Education conquistador of Mexico, Hernán Cortés [1485–1547], Virgil Michel’s ideas were informed by an earlier litur- and Martin Luther [1483–1546] were contemporaries), gical reform movement initiated by European scholars this new religious movement failed to reach Mexico. in the first decades of the 20th century. This academic The Mexican president Benito Juárez (1806–1872) was reexamination of worship entailed a renewed emphasis instrumentalContributor in opening the door to Protestantism in on church history, especially the history of worship in Mexico in the 19th century. Under his influence, legisla- the Middle Ages. The liturgical movement in Europe is tion such as the constitution in 1857 and the reform laws sometimes traced to the practice of a dialogue-style Mass of 1859 and 1860 guaranteed some basics like the separa- in Germany in 1924, which required the congregants to tion of church and state, freedom of conscience and reli- repeat sections of the liturgy in their own language. 810 Middle East Association for Theological Education

A professor of both English and philosophy and later attempted to continue its mission of reflection on the role Dean of St. John’s University in Collegeville, Father Vir- of liturgy as the primary cultural expression for Christians. gil Michel met Father Lambert Beauduin of France while on a sabbatical from St. John’s University. Beauduin was References and Resources part of the liturgical movement in France, and Michel Franklin, R. W., and Robert L. Spaeth. 1988. Virgil Michel was greatly impressed by him and with the movement’s American Catholic. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. ideas and practices. Hynes, Emerson. 1940. “The Social Thought of Virgil Michel, O.S.B.” American Catholic Sociological Review 1 (4): 172– Most Notable Publications 180. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3706763. Virgil Michel founded Worship magazine in 1926 under the title Orate Fratres. Father Michel’s principles for Worship magazine. http://www.saintjohnsabbey.org/worship/ liturgical reform were published as articles in Orate index.html Fratres over the next decade, until his death in 1938. —Marlene Lang The magazine’s name was changed to Worship in 1951, as the term had become more commonly used for litur- gical celebrations. Middle East AssociationOnly His numerous articles espouse a few core principles for Theological Education related to liturgical theology and practice. In his writings, Michel held that the church parish is the local body best In October 1991, in the aftermath of the First Gulf War, fit to serve the world, to bring the Gospel to the poor it seemed that a new era was dawning in peacemaking through service and love. Each local parish should focus in the Middle East and around the world. Leaders in on real human needs and by extension, social conditions Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, and occupied Palestine and politics related to those needs. His writing further renewed their search for peace in their region. A new underscored that those outside the dominant economy— openness to one another began to occur in business, the poor—should be given a sense of belonging to the civil society, and education. church community. His work called for the renewal of Evangelical churches and ministry training institutions the laity through corporate worship and expression of in thisCopy Middle Eastern milieu were affected by the coopera- faith in material ways. The content of Orate Fratres fore- tive spirit of the times. In October 1991, a Baptist evangeli- shadowed reforms that would be confirmed at the Second cal mission with churches in the Middle East and North Vatican Council in 1962. Africa, MENA, wanted to create Christian education pathways that could be used by believers and church lead- Summary of Christian Philosophy and Mission ers across the region. They wanted the curriculum to span of Magazine all ages and stages, from babies with their parents to adults Dom Virgil Michel noted a deep connection between lit- in their senior years. The mission chose to use resources urgy and life, especially a relationship between the litur- from their denomination and other evangelical traditions. gical practices of the church and social justice. He served Leaders from the Arab Baptist Theological Seminary for several years as a pastor to Native American tribes (ABTS), Global University (GU), Bethlehem Bible Col- at Red Lake, Minnesota, where he had observed social lege (BBC), and the Program for Theological Educa- injustices. He became convinced that a liturgical practice tion by Extension (PTEE) met with the mission team in that involved the laity had the power to create commu- Cyprus to talk through a seamless curriculum. It was an nity and in turn to transform society. For Michel, this unusual event for that era. Arabic-oriented theological transformative community, the Body of Christ present in educators who lived in Cyprus, Lebanon, Jordan, and the Mass, could counter the secularism and individualism Palestine were engaging in fellowship and working to- that he was convinced undermined community and justi- gether on a common Kingdom of God project. fied abuses under unchecked capitalism. During breaks in the meetings and at meals, camara- He was a friend of Peter Maurin and Dorothy Day, derie grew among the educators. We realized that the contemporaries who founded the Catholic Worker move- conversations we were having were not just helping the ment, and whose emphasis on social action was compat- mission, but were also helping us. We wondered if other ible Contributorwith Michel’s insistence on the essential relationship ministry education institutions would like to have the op- of liturgy to life and justice. portunity to talk with one another from time to time in Father Virgil Michel died on 26 November 1938 at an association of evangelical leadership training schools. age 48. Father Godfrey Diekmann, a Saint John’s Abbey At the end of our time together, we appointed one of us monk, then took over the editorship of Orate Fratres and to visit the other institutions. Middle East Association for Theological Education 811

Over the next four months, visits were made to 10 In 2004, a MEATE journal was started and has been other evangelical theological institutions in Lebanon, Pal- published on an occasional basis since then. The journal estine, Jordan, and Egypt. Seven of those visited wanted gives Middle Eastern educators the opportunity to pub- to continue the discussion. In May 1992, representatives lish their research on concerns facing the MENA region. from 10 ministry education institutions gathered at the Articles are published in Arabic or English with a sum- Flamingo Beach Hotel in Larnaca, Cyprus, to consider mary in the other language. establishing an evangelical theological association. All Recently, a poetry contest was begun. Students and were in favor. But the delegates decided to delay starting faculty from member institutions are invited to submit an association until the Near East School of Theology in poems in Arabic. A team of judges reviews the poetry Beirut and the Evangelical Theological Seminary in Cairo and selects winners. Winners receive a cash prize and see could be contacted to probe their participation. their poetry published in the journal. Representatives of 10 evangelical theological institu- The executive director and his staff travel to MEATE tions met again in December 1992 in Larnaca, Cyprus, institutions throughout the year. In this way, they stay and established the Middle East Association for Theo- in contact with members and can be of service to them logical Education. Among the services the agency hoped on a face-to-face basis. The executive committee and to provide were professional development workshops, the accrediting commission meet onceOnly or twice per year accreditation evaluation, and fellowship. A constitution as needed. A biennial general assembly brings all the was approved. An executive committee with officers members together for encouragement, fellowship, and was elected. Operating procedures were agreed upon. conducting the business of the organization. MEATE Dr. Roger Kemp, who was then executive director of the operates on a not-for-profit basis. International Council for Evangelical Theological Educa- In the early 2000s, MEATE commissioned an Arab tion, was present during the proceedings. researcher, Jiries Habash, to study present and future The MEATE was led by its officers and institutional needs for evangelical theological education in the MENA members from 1992 to 1997. Beginning in 1997, an ex- region. The study became known as the MEATE Infra- ecutive director was appointed to help facilitate the work structure Project and was funded by Overseas Council of the MEATE. Since that time, three have served in that International (OCI). Demographic and institutional data position. First was Dr. Richard Hart, followed by Dr. Paul wereCopy analyzed and helped the researcher reveal current Sanders and Dr. Camille Melki. Each executive director and future gaps. Needed textbooks and study resources has been assisted by capable office managers. With the were identified. The number of teachers needed and their help of supportive grants, MEATE now employs a full- degree qualifications were summarized. The countries time office manager. with the greatest needs became evident. The Infrastruc- A current list of MEATE members is posted on the ture Project documents became foundational for institu- website (www.meate.org). Member institutions approach tional planning and donor relations. ministry education in a variety of ways, using extension, MEATE continues to maintain close relationships correspondence, Internet, and short- and long-term resi- with OCI. As a result of this friendship, many of the dential and commuter methodologies. MEATE institutions have been able to participate in Graduates of MEATE institutions now serve in most of the OCI-led Institutes in Excellence in Leadership the countries of the Arab world. When graduates return Education. OCI also selected MEATE as a partner in home, they share with their constituents the cooperative the LEARN Project (Leadership Education and Re- nature of MEATE. They have sometimes sought to foster source Network). The goal of LEARN is to enroll min- a similar spirit of cooperation in their home countries. istry workers and emerging leaders in online certificate At other times, they have encouraged institutions where or degree programs through theological institutions. they serve as graduates to join MEATE. Ministry education courses are delivered through the One of the services that MEATE has made available Internet. MEATE members are able to use the courses to its members is computer software for libraries and at no expense. These Internet courses promise to be an student records that can track student progress through important resource for Arabic language ministry and their study programs. The practice continues with the leadership education around the world. development of entirely new records system software. MEATE is an affiliate organization of the Asia Theo- AnotherContributor service is accreditation evaluation, whereby the logical Association (ATA). Some MEATE-accredited institution completes a self-study and is visited by a team institutions have also received recognition for their of evaluators from their peers that makes written recom- certificates, diplomas, and degrees from the European mendations for improvement. Professional development Evangelical Accrediting Association (EEAA). These workshops provide needed encouragement as well. associations were among the founding members of 812 Miller, Randolph Crump the International Council for Evangelical Theological Yale University in 1936. He also studied as a special stu- Education (ICETE) in 1980. Through its relationships dent at the Episcopal Theological School in Cambridge, with the ATA and the EEAA, MEATE is able to keep Massachusetts, and was ordained to the diaconate in informed about worldwide issues and innovations that the Episcopal Church in 1936 and to the priesthood in are occurring in theological education in the global 1937. After teaching at the Church Divinity School of ICETE community. the Pacific in Berkeley, California, and serving as vicar Twenty-two years since its establishment, MEATE and rector of St. Alban’s Episcopal Church in Albany, finds itself in a world that is undergoing dramatic California, from 1936 to 1952, Miller joined the Yale change. Public outcry against dictators has led to civil Divinity School faculty as the Horace Bushnell Professor disturbances and toppling of regimes. Militant Muslims Emeritus of Christian Nurture and served in that capacity constantly challenge and seek to overthrow moderate for 29 years, until his retirement as professor emeritus in Muslims who are leading Islamic nations. While Chris- 1981. Miller was married twice and had six children, one tians are encouraged to choose sides, most try to remain of whom predeceased him. His first wife, Muriel Phyllis friends and peacemakers between the two very different Hallett, died of polio in 1949. In 1950, he married Eliza- groups of militants and moderates. beth Rives Williams Fowlkes. Christians can thrive in this atmosphere as they un- A prodigious scholar, Randolph CrumpOnly Miller pub- waveringly integrate biblical and theological principles lished more than 250 works during his career, including into their Gospel sharing, neighbor care, and honest books, book chapters, editions, articles, reviews, pam- citizenship. MEATE member institutions seek to train phlets, and curricula. His books and articles were used marketplace and pastoral leaders who are able to help as standard texts for Christian education in theological church members survive, grow, and maintain a credible schools. Miller’s major works include The Clue to Chris- witness for Christ wherever they live in the Arab world. tian Education (1950), which focuses on the importance MEATE institutions believe the leaders trained at each of of the theological integration of scripture into mainline their institutions will lead new generations to find peace Christian education; Biblical Theology and Christian with God through trust in Christ alone. Education (1956), which relates the biblical narrative The MEATE idea sprang up when leaders of theologi- to learners of various ages not as dogma, but as the cal institutions realized they could be more effective if dramaCopy of redemption; Christian Nurture and the Church they did not feel so alone in the task of leadership train- (1961), which details the role of the church as the pri- ing. The years have proven that fellowship among leader mary institution of Christian nurture, along with the trainers promotes professional development, encour- significant influences of family, school, and community; ages innovation, and assures higher educational quality. and his last major work, The Theory of Christian Educa- The cooperative spirit that characterized MEATE in its tion (1982), which is a synthesis of Miller’s thinking on early years continues to flow through the organization. Christian education and Christian nurture as detailed in Members serve one another with kindness, diligence, his previous works. and dedication. Randolph Crump Miller’s influence on the field of —Richard Kenneth Hart Christian education is such that many of his original ideas evolved into what are now considered basic as- sumptions. For example, he criticized Christian educa- Miller, Randolph Crump tion that was focused only on content-centered biblical teaching. Miller was interested in modeling an approach Randolph Crump Miller (1910–2002) was an American to Christian education that included the best of the edu- Christian religious educator, scholar, editor, and Episco- cational process of John Dewey with the process theology pal priest. Considered one of the leading voices in Chris- of Alfred North Whitehead. He stressed the importance tian education in the 20th century, Miller influenced the of Christian education that focused more on process than field for more than 60 years. He published widely on the on content and more on the community than on the in- relationship among scripture, theology, and Christian dividual. Miller believed experience was integral to both education, as well as on the implications of the field for theology and Christian education; for him education is the church, and served as a leader in both scholarly and interpreted experience. Miller understood Christian edu- denominationalContributor organizations. cation to be, ultimately, a social process, which encom- Miller was born in 1910 in Fresno, California, the son passes all aspects of community life: worship, preaching, of Ray Oakley Miller, an Episcopal priest, and Laura Belle pastoral care, mission, fellowship, and so forth. As a Crump Miller. He graduated from Pomona College with Christian educator, Miller emphasized the importance of a BA in 1931, and received his PhD in philosophy from relationship as both the medium and the message. One Ministerial Formation 813 becomes a Christian through participation in the nurture Little, Sara. 1978. “Randolph Crump Miller: Theologian-Edu- and fellowship of the church throughout the life span. cator.” Religious Education, special issue (September-Octo- A popular teacher and lecturer as well as writer, Miller ber): S67–S77. served in many visiting professorships both in the United Miller, Randolph Crump. 1983. “How I Became a Religious States and abroad. Educator—Or Did I?” In Modern Masters of Religious Edu- In addition to his influence as a teacher and mentor cation, edited by Marlene Mayr, 129–152. Birmingham, AL: to generations of Christian educators, Randolph Crump Religious Education Press. Miller was a key leader of the Religious Education As- “Obituary: Randolph Crump Miller.” 2002. Yale News, 14 June. sociation (REA) from the 1950s until his death. He was —Sheryl A. Kujawa-Holbrook the chair of the board of the REA from 1956 to 1959, and after his retirement was executive secretary, from 1982 to 1992. In addition, Miller served as coeditor of the REA’s Ministerial Formation interreligious journal, Religious Education, from 1956 to 1957, and as editor from 1958 to 1978. In 1978, the A key indicator of the character of today’s Christianity is REA bestowed on Randolph Crump Miller the William ministerial formation, precisely because how Christian Rainey Harper award in recognition of his service to the traditions recruit, train, equip, andOnly morally “form” their organization. He maintained an office at the REA into leadership candidates may determine the quality and retirement. Miller was also active during his career in the faithfulness of their calling in Christian ministry (Percy Association of Professors and Researchers in Religious 2010, 138). The word “formation” comes from the Latin Education (APRRE) and the Hazen Pacific Coast Theol- word formosus, meaning bringing out the beauty of each ogy Group (1945–1952). person, and is explained by Vatican II (1965) thus: “True In addition to his career as an internationally recog- education (aims at) the formation of the human person, nized scholar, Randolph Crump Miller remained active in the pursuit of his final end and of the good of the so- in his denomination. He served as chair of the Christian cieties of which, as man, he is a member and in whose education department of the Episcopal Diocese of Cali- obligations, as an adult, he will share” (Gravissimum fornia (1944–1947 and 1949–1950). Miller also served educationis 3). Formation is a lifelong process of becom- as director of Christian education at Trinity Church ing,Copy of being formed and developed in the likeness of on the Green in New Haven, Connecticut (1961–1971). Christ (Col. 1:28; Rom. 12:2); it “suggests that the inner A member of the Episcopal Evangelical Fellowship, being of a person is radically altered so that he or she is he served as a Christian education consultant to the no longer the same” (Dettoni 1994, 15). It is personal and National Council of the Protestant Episcopal Church. relational formation that seeks to promote encounter and Miller also served as a trustee on the boards of two na- cooperation with God and society as a whole. Along with tional Episcopal periodicals, The Churchman and The the more frequently used term “transformation,” both a Anglican Theological Review. process and a contrast are suggested. In addition to his long career in Christian education, Calling or vocation is exhibited in the character of Randolph Crump Miller was a jazz enthusiast and was the person in community, in concrete participation in known for his riveting talks on the “theology of jazz.” He the lives of people and a consistent message that heals, died of cancer in Hamden, Connecticut, in 2002. nurtures, and matures the members of the community. Thus, the character, activities, and teaching of ministerial References and Resources candidates are crucial. This time of theological training Burgess, Harold William. 1975. An Invitation to Religious Edu- is crucial for ministers in encouraging a mature develop- cation. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. ment of occupational and personal identity and enabling ———. 1996. Models of Religious Education. Wheaton, IL: Vic- a coherent understanding of role and function in minis- tor Books. try (Warford 2007; Marshall 2009; Percy 2010). Cully, Kendig B., and Iris V. Cully. 1978. Process and Relation- Reasons for the intentionality in formational practices ship: Festschrift for Randolph Crump Miller. Birmingham, point to (1) reports that interpersonal and relational AL: Religious Education Press. deficits are associated with the vast majority of psycho- Estep, James Riley, Jr. n.d. “Randolph Crump Miller.” In logical and spiritual problems faced by pastors (Francis ContributorChristian Educators of the 20th Century, by Talbot School and Jones 1996), as well as (2) the growing awareness of Theology. http://www.talbot.edu/ce20/educators/view of professional misconduct by some clergy (Senior and .cfm?n=randolph_miller. Weber 1994, 26). Also, the dislocation of traditional fam- Gale Reference Team. n.d. “Biography—Randolph Crump Miller ily life and the decline in church participation among (1910–2002).” In Contemporary Authors. www.galenet.com. young people, particularly in mainline church traditions, 814 Mission of God results in many students having little sense of the history, Le Cornu, A. 2003. “The Shape of Things to Come: Theological customs, and ethos of religious communities that they Education in the Twenty-first Century.” British Journal of feel called to lead. At the same time, ministry in the form Theological Education 14 (1): 13–26. of ministerial leadership is a public and not a private Marshall, J. 2009. “Formative Practices: Intent, Structure, and role. Consequently, students must be attuned to the is- Content.” Reflective Practice: Formation and Supervision in sues of behavior and accountability also required of those Ministry 29: 56–72. who enjoy the community’s trust. This requires some Percy, M. 2010. Shaping the Church: The Promise of Implicit degree of psychological, anthropological, and sociologi- Theology. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. cal understanding, as well as a theological grasp of the Senior, D., and T. Weber. 1994. “What Is the Character of Cur- human condition before God (Van der Ven 1998, 171). It riculum, Formation and Cultivation of Ministerial Leader- requires insight and penetration and a multitude of other ship in the Good Theological School?” Theological Education personal qualities that rest on one’s self-knowledge and 2: 17–33. the character of one’s spiritual life. Van der Ven, J. A. 1998. Education for Reflective Ministry. Learning to be a minister encompasses the holistic Louvain: Peeters. development of individuals rather than being limited to Warford, M. L., ed. 2007. Practical Wisdom: On Theological either the acquisition of knowledge about the faith or Teaching and Learning. New York: PeterOnly Lang. how to behave as a minister (Harkness 2001). Education —Marilyn Naidoo is no longer perceived in terms of function and role or the transmission and absorption of information—instead it has become an ontological activity in which the primary Mission of God goal is human development. This has already involved a significant paradigm shift from pure education to train- Missio Dei is the Latin for “sending or mission of God,” ing (Le Cornu 2003, 15) intended to equip students with a theological concept that mission originates in and is the ability and skills to perform a range of tasks. Ministe- sustained by God. Inspired by the writings of Karl Barth, rial formation involves training and equipping pastoral actio Dei (action of God), which centered missions in the leaders to do theology by involvement on a grassroots activity of God and in the sending action of the Trinity, level and developing responsiveness to historical, bibli- Karl HartensteinCopy in 1933 coined the term missio Dei. The cal, and pastoral dimensions within its context in order term became widely known through George Vicedom’s to have relevance. Ideally, a model for ministerial forma- book The Mission of God: An Introduction to the Theology tion is one that has an integrated and ecclesial approach of Mission (1965) and its use at the Willingen conference focused on the theological institution as an educational in 1952 and the 1963 Commission on World Mission community, led by faithful and exemplary teachers, that and Evangelism meetings. Scherer (1987) notes that prior retains a focus on habitus (Farley 1983) as a theological to this “the study of the ‘theology of mission’ in today’s method for formation. sense hardly existed.” Missio Dei centers missions in the character and activ- References and Resources ity of the Trinity. The focus of mission is in the heart of Cannell, L. 2006. Theological Education Matters—Leadership God as the sending One—the Father sending the Son, Education for the Church. Newburgh, IN.: EDCOT. who together with the Father, sends the Spirit who em- Dettoni, J. M. 1994. “What Is Spiritual Formation?” In The powers the church to fulfill the mission of God (John Christian Educator’s Handbook on Spiritual Formation, ed- 3:16; Luke 4:43; John 14:26, 20:21). Further, the term ited by K. O. Gangel and J. C. Wilhoit, 11–20. Wheaton, IL: describes the church as part of God’s overall plan to build Victor Books. His Kingdom here on earth (Heb. 12:28). The mission of Farley, E. 1983. Theologia: The Fragmentation and Unity of God is manifest foremost in the teaching and life of Jesus, Theological Education. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. who calls the church into kingdom living. The missio Dei, Foster, C. R., E. L. Dahill, L. A. Golemon, and B. W. Tolentino. however, is universal in its scope. It is bringing all of His 2006. Educating Clergy: Teaching Practices and Pastoral creation into kingdom living, where He rules and reigns Imaginations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. with justice and mercy (Matt. 28:19–20). His rule extends Francis, L. J., and S. H. Jones. 1996. Psychological Perspectives to all peoples, nations, and facets of His creation (Eph. onContributor Christian Ministry. Leominster, UK: Gracewing. 1:9–10; Col. 1:20; Rom. 8:21). Harkness, A. G. 2001. “De-schooling the Theological Seminary: Previously, missio Dei had been centered in ecclesiol- An Appropriate Paradigm for Effective Ministerial Forma- ogy and Christology, with the church as the agency that tion.” Teaching Theology and Religion 4 (3): 141–154. was sent into the world to proclaim the good news of Missional Christian Education 815

Christ. It is, however, misleading to say that the church Vicedom, Georg F. 1965. The Mission of God: An Introduction has a mission. The mission comes from the heart of God. to a Theology of Mission. The Witnessing Church Series. It is imbedded in His character and nature and flows Saint Louis, MO: Concordia. from God’s sending nature to the church, which is sent —Philip Bustrum into the world to carry out the missio Dei. The church, then, is the instrument to fulfill that mission. Nor is the church the end of the mission. Rather, it implements the Missional Christian Education missio Dei in the world until the time when the kingdom is established and the mission is completed. With the Missional Christian education is a process whereby con- Godhead as the starting point of mission and the em- gregations adopt missional identities, resulting in a mis- phasis on the sending activity of the Trinity, the church sional lifestyle that empowers and equips them to witness becomes the major facet of God’s mission activity. to God’s love and reign as shown in the saving activity As Ott, Strauss, and Tennent (2010) note, the major of Jesus Christ, as they respond to God’s lovingly calling religious groups have adopted this trinitarian approach and sending them out in the power of the Holy Spirit.58 to missions theology. The Roman Catholics expressed it Globalization has left many people feeling disconnected in the document in 1965 following Vatican II, and in search of an identity amid theOnly heightened aware- the Orthodox in Bria’s 1996 article “Go Forth in Peace,” ness of change and suffering in the world around them libertarians in Boff’s work, and Protestants in the 1999 that confronts them daily. Missional Christian education meetings of the World Evangelistic Fellowship meetings educates Christians to know who they are in Christ as in Iguassu, Brazil, through the presentations of Fernando well as to understand and respond to what is happening and the conference statement “Trinitarian Affirmation of in this global world of change. Mission.” As Newbigin (1963) concluded, “The mission Missional Christian education is rooted in missio Dei. of the church . . . can only be rightly understood, in term God is present and active in history, saving and deliver- of the trinitarian model.” ing, ever faithful to His promise. God sent Jesus Christ, Educationally, missio Dei reminds us that mission is who came proclaiming the good news of the Kingdom of ultimately God’s mission and through the model of send- God. In demonstration of this reign, Jesus taught, healed, ing the church is empowered by the Spirit to fulfill its task delivered people, forgave sins, restored relationships, and Copy 59 of discipling every ethnic group for the purpose of doing was devoted and obedient to God. Jesus Christ’s life is everything that Christ commanded us to do in building the “curriculum”60 for the witnessing community as it His Kingdom here on earth, including bringing people seeks to follow and represent Christ in the world in love. and the creation into a right relationship with Him (Matt. God has also sent the Holy Spirit to guide and empower 28:19–20; John 20:22–23; Acts 1:8) in anticipation of the the church in faithful witness to this good news. The time when God will return and usher in shalom, the au- Holy Spirit dwells in God’s people, guiding, teaching, thentic missio Dei. reminding, revealing, empowering, and giving glory to creator God and Jesus Christ. The Triune God has sent References and Resources the church out to participate in God’s mission.61 Bosch, David Jacobus. 2011. Transforming Mission: Paradigm How then do we live in this reality in a way that reflects Shifts in Theology of Mission. 20th anniv. ed. American Soci- the communal and sending nature of this Triune God ety of Missiology Series. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. where He has placed us? How do we allow the scriptures, Guder, Darrell L., and Lois Barrett. 1998. Missional Church: which bear the record of this God and His interactions A Vision for the Sending of the Church in North America. with humankind, to shape our lives so that we become The Gospel and Our Culture Series. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. 58. Claire Annelise Smith, “Foundations for Missional Christian Educa- Newbigin, Lesslie. 1963. The Relevance of Trinitarian Doctrine tion” (PhD diss., Union Theological Seminary and Presbyterian School of for Today’s Mission. London: Edinburgh House Press. Christian Education, 2005), 227–228. 59. Luke 7:21–23 (NRSV). Jesus had just then cured many people of dis- Ott, Craig, Stephen J. Strauss, and Timothy C. Tennent. 2010. eases, plagues, and evil spirits, and had given sight to many who were blind. Encountering Theology of Mission: Biblical Foundations, His- And He answered them, “Go and tell John what you have seen and heard: torical Developments, and Contemporary Issues. Encounter- the blind receive their sight, the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, the poor have good news brought to them. And Contributoring Mission. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. blessed is anyone who takes no offense at me.” Scherer, James A. 1987. Gospel, Church & Kingdom: Compara- 60. Darrell L. Guder, The Incarnation and the Church’s Witness (Har- risburg, PA: Trinity, 1999), 4. tive Studies in World Mission Theology. Minneapolis, MN: 61. David J. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology Augsburg. of Mission (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1998), 390. 816 Missional Environments, Creating communities of missio Dei, communities of witness, and ———. 2000. The Continuing Conversion of the Church. Grand communities of glory? Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. This happens through an educational act of discern- Minatrea, Milfred. 2004. Shaped by God’s Heart: The Passion ment that interweaves observation, instruction, and en- and Practices of Missional Churches. San Francisco: John gagement.62 These lead to awareness of God and His Wiley & Sons. world and to subsequent action arising out of a devo- Russell, Letty. 1967. Christian Education in Mission. Philadel- tional life seen in Jesus Christ. phia: Westminster. Members learn to be intentional observers of the Smith, Claire Annelise. 2005. “Foundations for Missional world. They do this as individual persons in their homes Christian Education.” PhD diss., Union Theological Semi- and spaces of employment and recreation. They also do nary and Presbyterian School of Christian Education. this collectively as a congregation placed by God in a par- —Claire Annelise Smith ticular location. Thus, they are more attuned to the joys and sufferings of the world, how God is working in this world, and the ministry to which God is calling them in Missional Environments, Creating their role as witnesses. Observation reminds Christians that there is purpose to their life on earth. A “missional environment” describesOnly a church and its Instruction is used to signify the intentional aspect of context in which God’s love for the world, including the the congregation’s missional educational process. It is not Trinity’s initiatives to bring redemption, reconciliation, a one-way street, but a method that combines more tra- justice, and healing, is embodied by God’s people in rela- ditional forms of teaching with newer, innovative ways, tionships with their neighbors.63 It is shaped as Christians always allowing for a flow of communication among the enter into the lives of neighbors by listening, engaging in various parties in the educational enterprise. It focuses on mutual hospitality, and pursuing the shalom of neighbor- the witness of the scriptures, particularly as they relate to hoods and society together. the reign of God. Training is also given in areas that are The term “missional church” is rooted in the writings necessary for engagement. of Lesslie Newbigin,64 who, upon returning to England Engagement is threefold. It is inner engagement that after years as a missionary in India, voiced the need for helps congregants to be more in tune with the leading the church to understand that the West is a mission 65Copy of the Holy Spirit through the practice of spiritual dis- field. In both the United Kingdom and North America, ciplines as the congregation seeks to discern where and professors, pastors, and other leaders have created con- how God is sending it out to witness. It is the practical ferences, networks, and materials that engage biblical, rehearsal of aspects of instruction. It is also engagement theological, and practical matters related to Newbigin’s with the world. Witness is active. Although the life of the call.66 There are diverse (and even contradictory) ap- congregation witnesses, much of witness happens outside proaches to missional church theory and practice.67 the walls of the church as the congregants participate in An important way to clarify priorities is to consider God’s mission in the world. theological matters. If missional priorities are to avoid Missional Christian education recognizes the cen- overly programmatic approaches, romanticized ideals, trality of education in the church’s life and equips and mere relabeling of a traditional relationship be- congregations, individually and collectively, to live in tween ecclesiology and missions, then educators need its identity as witnesses to God’s love and reign. When to lead an engagement with theology. Some important observation, instruction, and engagement are woven together, the church becomes a community that, having 63. I am using this term to refer to those who live in proximity to been shaped by missio Dei, is now living as a witnessing churches and their participants. The initiatives described here may also be community and thus brings glory to God, becoming a relevant to networks of family, friends, and associates, and to people who community of glory. are more transient in our contexts. 64. See Lesslie Newbigin, The Open Secret, rev. ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1995); Foolishness to the Greeks (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, References and Resources 1986); The Gospel in a Pluralist Society (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1989). Bosch, David J. 1998. Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in 65. For a brief overview of some key insights from Newbigin, see Alan Theology of Mission. New York: Orbis. Roxburgh, Missional: Joining God in the Neighborhood (Grand Rapids, MI: Guder, Darrell L. 1999. The Incarnation and the Church’s Wit- Baker, 2011), 31–38; this book provides conceptual and practical resources Contributorfor creating missional environments. ness. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity. 66. See Darrell Guder, ed., Missional Church (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerd- mans, 1998). 67. Craig Van Gelder and Dwight Zscheile provide an overview and analysis of missional church publications in The Missional Church in Per- 62. Smith, “Foundations for Missional Christian Education,” 229. spective (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2011). Missional Environments, Creating 817 topics concern missiology, the Trinity, anthropology, and conversing about biblical texts;72 hospitality that in- and the work of the Holy Spirit.68 (1) The term missio cludes welcoming neighbors to meals and entering into Dei is used to specify that the mission is God’s mission, the hospitality of neighbors; learning about the needs that God is continually engaging the world, and the for healing among our neighbors (including bodies, church’s vocation is to join in God’s mission. (2) The emotions, economics, work, and social divisions) and Godhead participates in sending (the Father sends the then listening, praying, and partnering; and listening to Son, the Father and Son send the Spirit, and God sends and telling stories with each other and with neighbors the church), so when the church participates in God’s (which includes witnessing to God’s initiatives in neigh- initiatives, it is sent into the world. (3) Another element borhoods and church). These practices are repeated and of theological inquiry concerning the Trinity concerns in a process that includes constant movement between “otherness.” In that the Trinity itself includes both unity engagement/action and study/reflection,73 allowing for and otherness, then in our life together as gathered com- conversations among church participants that call atten- munities and our life as a sent people in the world, our tion to the Spirit’s activities among neighbors. The imag- engagement with others (to learn, to understand God’s inations of church men and women (and the younger being and graces, to be redeemed) is central to being “in generation) are engaged as links between scripture and God.” (4) Theological anthropology (our understanding daily life and are observed and named.Only Participants help of humanness) teaches that men and women are subjects each other discern what God is doing, and potential new rather than objects, so church education and all connec- activities are shaped that deepen discernment and en- tions with neighbors need to avoid objectifying people. gagement.74 As missional life deepens, the church often (5) As God’s love with the world is active (rather than experiences tensions, grief, and even anger among those passive), the Holy Spirit is constantly initiating with who do not welcome the loss of old norms and habits; neighbors and with various forces of justice, healing, the new environments require leaders who protect new beauty, and reconciliation. Only by being in neighbor- voices and encourage generative experiments while pro- hoods and societies as listeners, observers, partners, and viding hopeful perspectives and pastoral care to those participants can we learn what the Holy Spirit is already who do not initially welcome the changes.75 In order doing (discernment) and be engaged in those Spirit- to sustain the new approaches and provide continued empowered initiatives.69 This is in contrast to having learning,Copy leaders and their churches benefit from form- confidence in our strategies and resources to deliver ing colearning partnerships with other nearby churches. what we decide is needed by neighbors.70 As relationships and initiatives continue, neighbors hear An important key to shaping missional environments and see God’s goodness, justice, and salvation, and learn concerns leadership.71 Rather than focusing on creating that they are welcomed into confessional, missional life vision, strategies, and plans that then require volunteers, with God and church.76 marketing, and the delivery of programs, goods, and services, a missional environment requires a profound Missional Model of Education shift in roles. This shift is necessary if the above theo- Missional education has to do with thinking about and logical convictions are to be embraced. Regular church practicing Christian education from the perspective of participants can be engaged by God’s Spirit toward the mission of God (missio Dei). It is based in a missional missional imagination and actions. This requires that hermeneutic derived from the Old and New Testament leaders cultivate an environment in which God’s people, scriptures (Brownson 1998; Bauckham 2003). It is part through reflection, experiences, study, and experiences, become convinced that their vocation is to participate 72. The practice of lectio promotes listening to the text, to each other, and to the Holy Spirit; see Branson and Martínez, Churches, 72–73; impor- with God in the world. Some important practices (for tant texts include Luke 4:1–30, 10:1–12; and Jer. 29:1–7. life gathered and scattered) include leisurely listening to 73. See Mark Lau Branson, “Ecclesiology and Leadership for Missional the Church,” in The Missional Church in Context, ed. Craig Van Gelder (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2007). 74. See Dave Daubert, “Vision-Discerning vs. Vision-Casting,” in Mis- sional Church and Leadership Formation, ed. Van Gelder; Roxburgh, Mis- 68. For a summary of key theological themes in the missional church sional, 65–178; Branson and Martínez, Churches, ch. 10. Concerning the conversation, see Van Gelder and Zscheile, Missional Church in Perspec- place of experiments, see Alan Roxburgh and M. Scott Boren, Introducing tive, ch. 1. the Missional Church (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2009), 83–90. 69. This parallels the Augustinian and Wesleyan belief in prevenient 75. On working with opposition and tensions, see Ronald Heifetz and graceContributor (or preceding grace). Marty Linsky, Leadership on the Line (Boston: Harvard Business School, 70. This strategic approach is challenged by Roxburgh, Missional, 73–85. 2002). 71. See Alan Roxburgh and Fred Romanuk, The Missional Leader (San 76. For approaches to church missional transformation, see Roxburgh, Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006); and Mark Lau Branson and Juan Martínez, Missional; Roxburgh and Boren, Introducing the Missional Church; and Churches, Cultures and Leadership (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, Dwight Zscheile, ed. Cultivating Sent Communities (Grand Rapids, MI: 2011). Eerdmans, 2012). 818 Missional Environments, Creating of the missional church movement that has its origin in and Joshua, we find a variety of visual symbols employed the writings of Newbigin (1986), Bosch (2003), Guder to great effect. The Book of Psalms utilizes a mnemonic (1998), and Wright (2006), among others. learning device in the acrostic structure of some poems that are clearly educational in intent (Brueggemann The Mission of the Church 1984). The Book of Proverbs provided the parents of Before Jesus ascended to His Father upon completion ancient Israel with a teaching tool of inestimable value. of His mission on earth, He gathered His disciples and Crenshaw states clearly that the form and structure of passed on His mission to them in the words of the Great Proverbs indicates, “that the book grew out of parental Commission (Matt. 28:16ff). It is the task of those who instruction” (1998, 230). That cross-generational concern believe in Him, through the witness of the apostles and goes to the heart of sustaining the mission of Israel and prophets, to carry on the mission panta ta ethné (“to the church from generation to generation. all the nations”). This Greek phrase originates in the The instructional variety found in the biblical record Septuagint covenant narratives of Genesis (18:18, 22:18, finds expression in Moses’s description of the rich en- 26:4), identifying the international target for the mission vironment of the Jewish home in Deuteronomy 6:4–9, of Israel. It is the same phrase Jesus uses when He teaches where parents talk, bind, and write their instructions to His disciples how to interpret the Old Testament from a their children. Indicated in the verbs Onlyused is a prescient missional perspective (Luke 24:47). concern for learning styles or multimodal forms of in- struction. While there is much written and practiced Missional Education today in regard to learning styles, we can see the three The various iterations of the mission of God that unfold major learning styles reflected in this passage (auditory/ in scripture all partake of a consistent balance between talk; visual/write; kinesthetic-tactile/bind). an external outreach to those not yet a part of the faith A missional approach to Christian education takes and an internal concern for those committed to the seriously the missional grain of scripture and seeks to faith. In the Old Testament, Israel’s mission involves situate it within that biblical paradigm (Wright 2006). being a blessing to the nations and nurturing the next Doing so enables Christian educators to offer a compre- generation to know God and His deeds and words of hensive biblical rationale and model that goes beyond a redemption. In the New Testament, the church’s mis- proof-textingCopy approach and establishes a biblical basis for sion is to make disciples of “all the nations” and to Christian education ministry. teach those who believe everything Jesus commanded. The apostle Paul carries out his mission to the Gentiles References and Resources through a combination of evangelism (Acts 18:1–10) Bauckham, Richard. 2003. Bible and Mission: Christian Witness and edification (Acts 18:11). in a Postmodern World. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Another implication of a missional approach to Chris- Bosch, David J. 2003. Transforming Mission. Maryknoll, NY: tian education is that such an orientation to ministry will Orbis. take seriously the missional importance of the family. In Brownson, James V. 1998. Speaking the Truth in Love: New Tes- both the Old Testament and New Testament, we find the tament Resources for a Missional Hermeneutic. Harrisburg, faith family occupying a place as both an object of mis- PA: Trinity Press International. sion and a means of mission. Parents targeted their chil- Brueggemann, W. 1984. The Message of the Psalms. Minneapo- dren to “bring them up in the nurture and admonition lis, MN: Augsburg. of the Lord” (Eph. 6:4). On the other hand, the family Christensen, D. 2001. Word Biblical Commentary: Deuter- of Abraham was used by God to witness to the Gentile onomy 1:1–21:9. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. nations, as they would “keep the way of the Lord” (Gen. Crenshaw, J. 1998. Education in Israel: Across the Deadening 18:19). The critical ingredient in Israel’s mission to the Silence. New York: Doubleday. nations and the church’s making disciples of those same DeYoung, K., and G. Gilbert. 2011. What Is the Mission of the nations was the strength and vitality of the family. Church? Wheaton, IL: Crossway. A final implication from a missional approach to Guder, D. 1998. Missional Church: A Vision for the Sending Christian education involves the multisensory and mul- Church in North America. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. tigenerational instructional strategies employed by the Hendel, R. 1992. “Genesis, Book of.” In The Anchor Bible Dic- peopleContributor of God across the revelatory span of the record tionary, 2: 79–101. New York: Doubleday. of God’s mission. When we examine the various ways Larkin, W., and J. Williams. 1998. Mission in the New Testa- in which Israel and the church carried out their mission, ment: An Evangelical Approach. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. we are left with a smorgasbord of potential ways of com- Newbigin, Lesslie. 1986. Foolishness to the Greeks. Grand Rap- municating the faith. In Genesis, Exodus, Deuteronomy, ids, MI: Eedrmans. Missionary Schools 819

Page, C. 1995. Jesus and the Land. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Black Forest Academy in Kandern, Germany; Rift Val- Press. ley Academy in Kijabe, Kenya; and Dalat International Ware, J. 2011. Paul and the Mission of the Church: Philip- School in Penang, Malaysia). pians in Ancient Jewish Context. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Historically, most Protestant missionary schools were Academic. staffed by missionaries with various educational qualifi- Wright, C. 2006. The Mission of God: Unlocking the Bible’s cations who interacted with a student and staff popula- Grand Narrative. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. tion of ethnic and denominational homogeneity. This —Mark Lau Branson has now changed; most of the teachers are trained as educators and the schools are accredited, engaging multicultural staffs and student bodies. Retention and Missionary Schools recruitment of trained educators remains a challenge, because there is always a small number of teachers Serving the mission community, missionary schools attracted to such an international vocation, which re- throughout Protestant church history provided for the quires raising financial support from denominations or educational needs of missionary children. Starting in the mission agencies. This is changing somewhat as more 16th century, the history of Christian mission was fused schools are hiring staff directly andOnly providing compa- with the colonial expansion of the West, which also in- rable salary packages. volved education in this union of the sacred and secular. The growth in the number of missionary schools places In 1706, the first Protestant missionary schools were pressure on educational leaders to provide culturally ap- founded by Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Plüt- propriate materials in the global lingua franca of English schau, German Lutheran Pietist missionaries, under the to a growing multinational student population, which is a patronage of Frederick IV of Denmark, in Tranquebar, reflection of the changing missionary force. For instance, southern India. By 1725, there were 17 schools for non- the strategy of teaching English as a Second Language Christian and 4 for Christian children within the Danish (ESL) in multicultural, multilingual international schools colonies of India. is of growing importance for missionary schools such as This beginning was followed by English mission Gyeonggi Suwon International School in Suwon, Korea; schools initiated by the Society for the Promotion of theCopy Alliance Academy International in Quito, Ecuador; Christian Knowledge at Madras in 1727, and at Bengal and the George Washington International School in Cas- by the Baptists in 1793 and the London Missionary Soci- ablanca, Morocco. Added to this tension are the height- ety in 1804. Early motivations of the missionary schools ened parental expectations for tertiary preparation in an were to protect the flock from Catholic influence and increasingly competitive and expensive educational sys- evangelization. For example, the English missionary trio tem in the missionary school’s home countries. To meet of William Carey, Joshua Marshman, and William Ward these various challenges, missionary schools are initiating established such a school at Serampore in the Indian state creative projects such as the one from the Association of of West Bengal in 1818 under Danish protection in the Christian Schools International (ACSI). midst of East India Company opposition. By the early ACSI was founded in 1978 by uniting several regional 1800s, about a thousand children were being educated in U.S. school associations, to advance Christian educa- the Protestant mission schools of India. tion worldwide to equip and resource educators and Contemporary Protestant intentions vary from school schools. Through a network of 28 regional offices, the to school. Some only provide for the educational needs of organization accredits Protestant pre-K–12 schools. First missionary children, while others present opportunities headquartered in La Habra, California, ACSI moved to for the children of expatriates and nationals to attend. Colorado Springs, Colorado, in 1994 and today serves Most missionary schools see their purpose as preparing nearly 24,000 schools in more than 100 countries. missionary children with an educational program that At the request of ACSI, Alan Seaman, director of the allows them to enter tertiary education in their passport TESOL program at Wheaton College Graduate School, country, as well as providing a vehicle for the Gospel to together with June Hetzel, dean of the School of Educa- those outside the missionary community. Names of the tion at Biola University, and David I. Smith, director of schools may also fluctuate depending on the sensitivity the Kuyers Institute at Calvin College, coedited a series ofContributor the location. Some prefer the term international Chris- of textbooks on English as a Foreign Language, pub- tian school instead of “mission,” “missionary,” or “MK lished by Purposeful Design Press of Colorado Springs, School.” Various support services are often provided, Colorado (2010–2013). The PK–12 EFL textbook series including services for children with special needs, TESOL for both national and international Christian schools in programs, homeschooling, and full-time boarding (e.g., Asia, Central Europe, and Latin America was entitled 820 Missionary Task

Passport to Adventure: Wonder, Imagine, Discover, carnation, proclamation, and witness, all components and Explore Levels and included student texts, teachers’ involving education. This was the original missionary manuals, and audio recordings. task of the early church: Paul and his companions were Regardless of the ongoing challenges of mission- sent by the home churches to explain the Gospel of Jesus, ary schools, they will continue to help young people of educating the hearers to follow the Messiah of Nazareth. mission families develop spiritually, academically, and Upon winning people to the faith, they then taught and culturally by offering programs to prepare students for pastored the believers into organized churches. colleges and universities, as well as providing a vehicle for Each of these early church congregations saw the com- the Gospel of Christ. munication of the Gospel as its responsibility and ful- filled it in a variety of ways. Proclamation (kerygma) was References and Resources the way the churches educated those who had not heard Heredia, Rudolf C. 1995. “Education and Mission: School as the good news of the messianic kingdom, and teaching Agent of Evangelization.” Economic and Political Weekly 30 (Didache) was the method of guiding those who had al- (37): 2332–2340. ready heard along the way to that kingdom. Discussions Klauber, Martin I., and Scott M. Manetsch. 2008. The Great were initiated on the topic of the Messiah’s kingdom, and Commission: Evangelicals and the History of World Missions. letters circulated to elucidate and modifyOnly the dialogue. Nashville, TN: B & H Publishing. This was the New Testament’s missionary task. —Robert L. Gallagher The contemporary church still has the same challenge of educating (communicating the message) the whole world in the midst of cultural variations by listening to Missionary Task people groups and transmitting the significance of Christ to them in a relevant manner. The methods of com- Essential to the Christian missionary enterprise is the munication need not only be the traditional preaching, understanding of what constitutes the missionary task. catechesis, and pamphlet distribution. In fact, some cul- Empowered by the Holy Spirit, it is a crucial responsibil- tures are more receptive if Christian education involves ity of the church, yet throughout Christian history there chanted stories, dramas, or tribal dances. The possibilities has been little consensus as to what that requires. For 200 are numerousCopy for educating people about the missionary years from the time of the Reformation, Protestantism task, especially through theological education. was reluctant to embrace the responsibility of the mis- Theological education as a way of equipping people sionary task, until the early 18th century, with the arrival for missions involves curriculum development, training of the German Lutheran Pietists and Moravians. Then faculty and staff, library support, raising funds, and stu- followed the great century of mission, with Protestants in dent recruitment. Further, while we do mission/ministry Europe and North America building missionary vision theology, we must be aware of the importance of the pres- and primarily united in their understanding of the mis- ent context and situation to achieve relevance in teaching sionary task based on Christ’s command to the mission- about Jesus Christ. Students throughout the world need ary Paul: “Mission to the Gentiles, to whom I now send to construct theologies that display no compromise of the you, to open their eyes and to turn them from darkness Gospel, yet are responsive to the current situation of the to light, and from the power of Satan to God, that they church in their particular context. Theological educators may receive forgiveness of sins and an inheritance among need to be flexible to the changing times and adjust as those who are sanctified by faith in me” (Acts 26:17). The situations alter. Western theologies are one expression apostle Paul’s missionary methods were an educational of a theology in context, not the standard of judgment of outworking of this scripture in the following activities: theologies from other parts of the world. Thus, Western preaching the Gospel, bringing converts into the King- theologians need to learn from majority world theologians dom of God, making disciples, and organizing them into and not remain defensive in their Eurocentric towers. communities of faith. After His resurrection, Christ gave the educational References and Resources commission to His followers on at least four occasions: Glasser, Arthur F. 2009. “The Apostle Paul and the Missionary “As the Father sent me, so send I you” (John 20:21). “Go Task.” In Perspectives on the World Christian Movement, ed- intoContributor all the world and preach the gospel” (Mark 16:15). ited by Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 149–153. This Gospel “shall be proclaimed to all nations . . . and Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library. you are witnesses” (Luke 24:47, 48), and “You shall be Verkuyl, Johannes. 1978. Contemporary Missiology: An Intro- witnesses to me . . . to the uttermost parts of the world” duction. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. (Acts 1:8). In these four situations, Jesus focuses on in- —Robert L. Gallagher Missions and Democracy 821

Missions and Democracy called mission, not least since the missionary initiative comes from God alone” (Bosch 1991, 390). What is mission? What good, if any, has Christianity ever The God of the Bible who originated mission is given to the global community? In terms of democracy, transcendent, sovereign, holy, omnipotent, omnipres- what value is there in seeking to preserve and promote ent, and omniscient. When He chose to reveal Himself its influence in our time? Would the world we live in be to humankind, He used the cultural context of people, the same had it not been for Christianity’s contribution? their language and customs, without favoring one more Historically, mission has been looked at from differ- than the other. “The characteristic pattern of Christian- ent angles by its proponents and critics and has been ity’s engagement with the languages and culture of the understood in a variety of ways (Bosch 1991, 389). world had God at the center of the universe of cultures, Because of the diverse comprehensions, “the word mis- implying among cultures and the necessarily relative sion needs very careful definition if it is to continue as a status of cultures vis-à-vis the truth of God. No culture useful word for the church” (Tennent 2010, 53). There is so advanced and so superior that it can claim exclu- are mission grapes, mission companies, mission places, sive access or advantage to the truth of God, and none so mission coffee, and diplomatic missions. “Mission” is a marginal and remote that it can be excluded” (Sanneh very abused and misused word. Therefore, it is essential 2008, 25; emphasis added). ThroughOnly the prophets and that we have the right grasp of the term. Those who look the apostles and through all God’s witnesses up through at mission as divine initiative argue that, “Since God’s the 21st century, God has chosen to reveal Himself in concern is for the entire world, this should also be the many languages and many cultures. The incarnation of scope of missio Dei. It affects all people in all aspects of His son, Jesus Christ—who came in a human form, lived their existence. Mission is God’s turning to the world in among people and used the Aramaic language as the respect of creation, care, redemption and consumma- prime medium of His message instead of Hebrew—is the tion” (Bosch 1991, 391). Whether it is motivated by sheer climax of God’s manifestation and expression of mission. altruism, philanthropic ventures, paternalistic mentality, Tennent illuminates this thought: “The incarnation is the or passion for lost souls, mission is not the burden of ultimate example of what we call the translatability of the one region of the world to the other. And it is not the gospel. . . . This should encourage us, for it demonstrates focus of concerned people who have means to help those thatCopy the translatability of the Christian gospel is not just who are economically, politically, socially, and spiritually theoretical hope but a descriptive fact. The church is disadvantaged. Mission covers the whole of humankind already the most ethnically, culturally, and linguistically and nature, from “creation to consummation.” It is not diverse movement on the planet” (2010, 325). Because the endeavor of human ingenuity. It is the act of divine of the translatability of the Christian faith, the unknown love toward human beings and their habitat. “In critical have become known, the overlooked tribal and ethnic contrast to this dominant assumption, mission refers not groups are recognized, the languages limited to oral com- to the geographical expansion of the Christian faith from munication are developed into a written form, and there the West to the non-Christian world, but to its dogmatic is a filial sense of spiritual bond among diverse groups of origins, to the activity of the Father in sending his Son Christians globally. The mission of God in Asia, Africa, and Spirit. God himself has acted and continue to act Latin America, and in the West, in the last three centuries in redemptive mission (Flett 2010, 6). Tennent concurs; and beyond, “proves that Christianity is unable to escape “The word mission was originally about God and His re- the cultural framework of the people it addresses” (San- demptive initiative, not about us and what we are doing” neh 1995, 3). To this, Hill adds, “Christianity, more than (2010, 54). This theological understanding of mission is a Islam, has been more than happy to translate its Scrip- critical framework to be embraced by the global church, tures into other languages, and this has had the effect and the church in the majority world in particular, as not simply of transmitting its own history and culture they emerge as missionaries sending force in this century. but also of transforming it and bolstering the cultures to The Christian’s engagement in various mission activities, which it is transmitted. In this way, Christianity has had and the missionaries’ movement from the West to the a more dynamic and complex role in the transformation rest in the past and from everywhere to everywhere now, of culture than Islam” (2005, 15). has been and always will be an outcome of God’s love and How are these cultures transformed by Christianity? HisContributor concern for humankind. Without clear biblical and The educational system, calendar, economy, language, missiological understanding, mission can be a human- abolition of slavery, value of the family, political sys- centered phenomenon stripped of the intervention of the tems, and the like in the West have been tremendously Trinity in human history. “Our mission has no life of its impacted by Christianity. Since it is a divine revelation, own: only in the hands of the sending God can it truly be it is impossible for Christianity to be subservient to 822 Missions and Globalization any kind of political system. However, by having its to the East. In the early 1990s, globalization and “interna- adherents in the world, as “salt and light” Christianity tionalization” were introduced into missions’ vocabulary. was the cause and sustenance of democracy (Maritain Globalization referred to the expansion of the Gospel, 2011). And the message of the Gospel has given solace, and internationalization had a more narrow focus, on freedom, and progress to many in the majority world the “internationalization of the mission force” to include who embraced the faith. Even though the modus ope- missionaries from more countries than just those in randi of missionaries’ experience was marked by some North America and Europe. undemocratic actions, for those who know, the truth the Globalization compresses distance, location, and time, truth set them free (John 8:33). so the world has become much smaller. Steger defined globalization as “a multidimensional set of social pro- References and Resources cesses (economic, political, cultural, technological, and Bosch, J. David. 1991. Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shift in ecological) that resists being confined to any single Theology of Mission. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. thematic framework.”78 Globalization can be viewed as Flett, G. John. 2010. The Witness of God: The Trinity, Missio a breakdown of social and technological barriers across Dei, Karl Barth and the Nature of Christian Community. peoples and countries, with movement toward the cre- Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ation of a one-world grid of increasingOnly connection, inter- Hill, Jonathan. 2005. What Has Christianity Ever Done For Us? dependency, and homogeneity. Globalization could be Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. defined as movement toward a one-world culture. Maritain, Jacques. 2011. Christianity and Democracy and The The dynamics of globalization are seen in the rise of the Rights of Man and the Natural Law. San Francisco: Ignatius global South, defined as having 85 percent of the world’s Press. population and 20 percent of its wealth. Two factors have Sanneh, Lamin. 1995. Translating the Message: The Missionary encouraged globalization. First, numerically, the popula- Impact on Culture. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. tion of believers has shifted to the global South. Second, ———. 2008. Disciples of All Nations: Pillars of World Christian- with shifts in demographics and migrations, peoples who ity. New York: Oxford University Press. were once “overseas,” such as Hindus and Muslims, are Tennent, Timothy. 2010. Invitation to World Missions: A Trini- now living in close proximity to Christians. tarian Missiology for the Twenty-first Century. Grand Rapids, GlobalizationCopy may be characterized by the following MI: Kregel. descriptions; —Alemayehu Mekonnen 1. Globalization involves the creation of new, and the multiplication of existing, social networks and Missions and Globalization activities that increasingly overcome traditional po- litical, economic, cultural, and geographical bound- In obedience to the words of Jesus, the church’s mission aries. An example is South Asians networking with to evangelize and make disciples is a global one. Embrac- Europeans to cooperate in ministry. ing this command, the church knows no geographic, 2. Globalization involves the expansion and stretching social, or economic limitations. The Lausanne Commit- of social relations, activities, and interdependencies. tee for World Evangelization identified the church’s mis- As ministry programs begin across social strata, sion as “evangelistic, prophetic, holistic, transformative interdependencies become a necessary part of social and, ultimately church-based.”77 The modern missionary relationships. The blending of cultures and new movement was begun by William Carey at the end of the perspectives enriches ministry activities. 18th century, and the first modern missionaries generally 3. Globalization involves the intensification and ac- came from the United States and Western Europe. In the celeration of social exchanges and activities. Using last half of the 20th century, countries that previously had mobile phones, anyone can connect with other na- received missionaries began sending them in obedience tionalities, which encourages the exchange of ideas to the Great Commission. and enhances ministry projects. In the early 1960s, the term “globalization” was intro- 4. Globalization involves the subjective aspects of duced to explain changes in society, global economics, human consciousness. Thus, it refers to people andContributor increased levels of technology shifting from the West becoming increasingly more conscious of growing manifestations of their own social interdependence

77. Josh Yates, Globalization and the Gospel: Rethinking Mission in the Contemporary World, Lausanne Occasional Paper no. 30 (Pattaya, Thai- 78. Manfred B. Steger. Globalization: A Very Short Introduction (Ox- land: Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, 2004). ford: Oxford Press, 2009). Missions and Literacy 823

and the enormous acceleration of social interac- Testament example of literacy training is the Jewish tions with other cultures and nationalities. In the people developing schools and synagogues to teach all last case, Steger states, “Their awareness of the re- people how to read and understand the sacred scriptures ceding importance of geographical boundaries and when they dispersed into Babylon. Because the Jewish distances fosters a keen sense of becoming part of a people had been corporately taught how to read the global whole.79 scriptures, generations continued to worship God and individually read His Word. This literacy training con- Notable Influences tinued for centuries and was commonly referenced in the As the confluence of globalization and missions oc- New Testament. curs, a strategic leveling will occur between the sending Jesus modeled this practice when teaching in the churches or missionaries and the people to whom they synagogues and speaking parables directed at the scribes go. Globalization will impact mission strategy as sending (soferim or biblical scholars). At the time of Christ, a churches relate to nationals as equal partners, bringing high literacy rate and one common language helped a more focused approach to ministry. National partners propagate the Gospel to the entire Roman Empire. New engage these overseas ministry partners in projects that believers read and understood the New Testament letters meet practical human needs with a spiritual emphasis. for themselves, making their faithOnly and belief personal. Early church leaders taught their congregations to read Christian Philosophy and Mission of Education scripture and study God’s Word. In the first five centu- The globalization of missions will impact both churches ries after Christ, church leaders established centers of that send and those to whom they go as increased lev- learning in Egypt, Palestine, Edessa, Western Europe, els of social and economic interaction will challenge and Ireland. These centers were developed to prepare the worldview of both parties. Globalization influences people for church membership with a foundational worldviews as churches travel to other cultures and do knowledge of faith. Individuals could learn to read, not find what they expected. The rapidity of communica- study, and share their faith. tion and transportation will bring a level of “connected- Church history shows that people without the written ness” that was not available 15 years ago. Word in their language typically do not sustain a church Educational methodology, influenced by the Internet, movementCopy in their country. During the Middles Ages, will be come more pervasive as distance online educa- the Catholic Church established missions across China tion opportunities such as Massive Open Online Class and in Africa but did not translate the Bible into the com- (MOOC) become the preferred delivery tool. Access to mon languages. After a few hundred years, the missions Christian education will increase as more Christian uni- disappeared, with little trace of any impact. Illiteracy was versities expand the scope and reach of their institutions high across most of the world, because of limited access to overseas distance students. This expansion will neces- to higher (or any) education for people of all status levels sitate a greater sense of shared community as students and the high cost of a Bible. Monasteries and other eccle- interact with classmates from different cultures while siastical institutions trained people to read and study in remaining in their host country. Latin, on a limited basis. Without the Bible in their native language, literacy was not sustained among the people. References and Resources Today the leaders and educators of many countries Steger, Manfred B. 2009. Globalization: A Very Short Introduc- equate the English language with prosperity and success, tion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. leading them to seek out English teachers, especially Yates, Josh. 2004. Globalization and the Gospel: Rethinking no-cost or inexpensive Christian English literacy train- Mission in the Contemporary World. Lausanne Occasional ing organizations. Christian missionary organizations Paper, no. 30. Pattaya, Thailand: Lausanne Committee for utilize literacy training as a tool to teach people about World Evangelization. God’s Word and expose them to the knowledge of the —Stephen K. McCord Gospel. Literacy training continues to provide a door into countries that may not be open to overt Christian missionaries. Teaching people how to read and providing Missions and Literacy a written form of their language are tools used to sustain Contributor churches planted all over the world. Bible translators Literacy training has been a key element in sustaining a such as Wycliffe and Pioneer enable individuals around knowledge of God’s Word among His people. An Old the world to study God’s Word for themselves. English teaching and literacy work have been criticized 79. Ibid. for not being real missionary work, because the goal is 824 Missions and Modernization not primarily to plant churches or to purely evangelize. ———. 1964. How to Teach One and Win One for Christ. Grand One concern is that some literacy teachers have inflated Rapids, MI: Zondervan. their “conversions” to please sending churches and Laubach Literacy Ontario. n.d. “Laubach Way to Reading.” maintain support. A second concern is the lack of distinc- Accessed 18 February 2013. http://www.laubach-on.ca/book tion in the stated mission and vision between Christian store/laubach-way-reading. groups and non-Christian groups like the Peace Corps. Lingenfelter, Judith, and Sherwood Lingenfelter. 2003. Teach- Each Christian literacy organization determines how ing Cross Culturally: An Incarnational Model for Learning overtly it broadcasts both locally and to constituents the and Teaching. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. reason for its being in the country and balances the risk of Padak, Nancy, et al. 2000. Distinguished Educators on Reading: such pronouncements against the perception of a send- Contributions That Have Shaped Effective Literacy Instruc- ing church or agency. tion. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Two international organizations focusing particularly ProLiteracy. n.d. Accessed 18 February 2013. http://www.pro on literacy training are TESOL International Associa- literacy.org/. tion and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Scovel, Thomas. 1998. Psycholinguistics. New York: Oxford Cultural Organization (UNESCO). They are resources University Press. for missions and local church activities. Within the ———. 2001. Learning New Languages: A GuideOnly to Second Lan- TESOL International Association, a group called Chris- guage Acquisition. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. tian Educators in TESOL Caucus (CETC) narrows in on Shepard-Wong, Mary, and Suresh Canagarajah, eds. 2009. Christian-focused work. UNESCO hosts the Institute for Christian and Critical English Language Educators in Dialogue: Lifelong Learning to promote adult literacy programs Pedagogical and Ethical Dilemmas. New York: Routledge. in all regions of the world and store literacy facts in a Smith, David, and Barbara Carvill. 2000. The Gift of the database. Multiple literacy stakeholders contribute to Stranger: Faith, Hospitality, and Foreign Language Learning. this UNESCO database to display a global picture of the Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. condition of literacy. This resource provides a broad un- Snow, Donald. 2001. English Teaching as Christian Mission: An derstanding of current literacy programs and lists specific Applied Theology. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press. areas and types of training. ———. 2006. More Than a Native Speaker: An Introduction to Some of the literacy training programs currently used TeachingCopy English Abroad. rev. ed. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Inc. by churches and mission organizations are (1) Adult Stevick, Earl. 1998. Working with Teaching Methods: What’s at Reading and Writing (ARW) for English-speaking, low- Stake? Boston: Heinle & Heinle. level readers or nonreaders; (2) Conversational English Tennant, Agnieszka. 2002. “The Ultimate Language Lesson.” (CE), providing English as a Second Language (ESL) Christianity Today 46 (13): 32. classes for non-English-speaking people; (3) English as a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organiza- Foreign Language (EFL) for English taught in countries tion. n.d. “Effective Literacy Practice.” Accessed 18 February where English is not commonly used; (4) English as a 2013. http://www.unesco.org/uil/litbase/. Second Language (ESL) for English taught/learned in an Yount, William. 1999. Called to Teach: An Introduction to the English-speaking country; and (5) Tutoring Children and Ministry of Teaching. Nashville, TN: B & H Academic. Youth (TCY), helping school-aged children and youth —Steve Yates with their schoolwork.

References and Resources Missions and Modernization American Bible Society. n.d. “Mission: Literacy.” Accessed 18 February 2013. http://record.americanbible.org/content/usa/ Throughout history, people have perceived Christian mission-literacy. mission differently in different eras and situations. This Baurain, Bradley. 2007. “Christian Witness and Repect for is so because theology, as the theoretical foundation of Persons.” Journal of Language, Identity, and Education 6: mission, has redefined the task of mission in different 201–219. periods and settings. Today, the understanding of Chris- Dickerson, Lonna, and Dianne Dow. 1997. Handbook for Chris- tian mission tends to be more extensive and inclusive, as tian EFL Teachers: Christian Teacher-Preparation Programs, various contemporary publications suggest. OverseasContributor Teaching Opportunities, Instructional Materials, Regarding the nature of mission, the Old Testament and Resources. Wheaton, IL: Emis/Billy Graham Center. seems to suggest the invitational nature of mission—the Laubach, Frank. 1943. The Silent Billion Speak. New York: “come structure” or centripetal—while the New Testa- Friendship Press. ment suggests the comissional nature, the “go structure” Missions and Modernization 825 or centrifugal. These two are not antithetical concepts, and with the world. The church is an open community to but rather are complementary. Traditionally, the scope the world and should be an alternative community for rest of mission was divided geographically between Christian and renewal. It exists in the world, but at the same time is and non-Christian regions, and thus the task of missions distinct from the world. The church is called into the world was primarily understood to be turning non-Christian and is sent to and for the world. In calling, the community regions into Christian regions. Mission in the modern of faith educates and equips its people; in sending, it em- era, however, does not refer to geographical divisions. powers them to be the living witness to the Gospel. This is Rather, it is regarded in a broader sense, without physical the educational role of the church and its mission. division. All the regions in the world are mission fields in In modern times, understandings of the missionary this pluralistic era. idea and its work have been modified. Missionary work After the Reformation, the Protestant mission took is understood to be a partnership with a native church, many forms. From the Pietism of the 17th century, to the and a missionary is no longer a one-sided deliverer Moravian missions of the 18th century, to the evangelical of the Gospel, but rather a coworker in the same mis- awakenings of the 18th and 19th centuries, the concern sion field. Furthermore, understanding of culture has about mission occupied an importance place in the become an important feature of missionary work, sup- Protestant church. The Protestant mission that began in porting the belief that there is neitherOnly a superior nor an England in the late 18th century gradually expanded, and inferior culture. Each culture has its own uniqueness finally many Protestant countries began to send mission- and potential to share with others. Mission does not aries to the world. The Protestant mission flourished in abolish culture, but transforms it in the Gospel. This the 19th century, called “the Great Century” for mission. is a significant shift from previous approaches and an Movements such as the faith mission, Bible institute, and important contribution in mission. student volunteer began in the 19th century and grew into the 20th century with abundant missional results. In References and Resources the 20th century, the nature of mission changed, from an Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. Letters & Papers from Prison. Edited by individual dimension to focusing on mission organiza- Eberhard Bethge. New York: MacMillan Publishing Com- tion, as well as from nondenominational to denomina- pany, 1972. tional involvement. Bosch,Copy David J. 1980. Witness to the World: The Christian Mis- In the past, mission was primarily church centered; sion in the Theological Perspective. Atlanta, GA: John Knox that is, it was for planting new churches and supporting Press, 1980. church growth. In missional perspective, the church was ———. 1991. Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology viewed as “the church existing for others.” The missional of Mission. New York: Orbis. church was considered to have more potential to impact Fleming, Bruce, C. C. 1980. Contextualization of Theology. its surroundings, and the growth of the church became Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library. a main subject for mission. Such understandings led to Forman, Charles W. 1957. A Faith for the Nations. Philadel- building up the church-centered missional strategies phia: Westminster Press. and structure. In this more intentional and educational Hiebert, Paul. 1994. Anthropological Reflections on Missiologi- structure, establishing visible churches seemed to be the cal Issues. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. unique goal of mission. However, problems arose when Kane, Herbert. 1978. A Concise History of the Christian World the church became more institutional and began to wield Mission. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. the absolute use of power, even going so far as to be Latourette, Kenneth. 1945. History of the Expansion of Christi- equated with the Kingdom of God. anity. Vol. 7. New York: Harper & Brothers. The relationship of church and mission was redefined Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization. 1978. The in mid-20th century into the mission-centered church, Willowbank Report—Gospel and Culture. Charlotte, NC: wherein the church was “the church with and for others.” Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization. This concept of the church with and for others empha- Lewis, Jonathan. 1984. World Mission. Pasadena, CA: William sizes true coexistence, presupposing equal partnership Carey Library. between the missional church and the local recipient Luzbetak, Louis. 2002. The Church and Culture. Maryknoll, church. God is the sole subject of mission in the mission- NY: Orbis. centeredContributor church. In this sense, mission is understood as Nicholls, Bruce J. 1979. Contextualization: A Theology of Gospel participating in a divine activity of God. and Culture. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Within this relational dyad, the church and the world Niebuhr, H. Richard. 1951. Christ and Culture. New York: do not exist in separate spaces. The church indeed exists in Harper & Row. 826 Missions and the Contribution of Women

Verkuyl, Johannes. 1978. Contemporary Missiology: An Intro- Diggs Moon (1840–1912), a Southern Baptist missionary duction. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. to China; Amy Carmichael (1867–1951), a prolific author —Timothy D. Son and Eun Sik Cho and advocate for young women in India; Gladys Aylward (1902–1970), a British missionary in rural China; and Dr. Helen Roseveare (1925–), a physician who practiced Missions and the Contribution of Women medicine in the Congo. Although the number of female missionaries had From the commencement of the Jerusalem church in increased by the 20th century, women seeking to serve the first century AD, women have been witnesses of the overseas commonly experienced discrimination in their Gospel of Christ. The New Testament records numerous home countries and from male missionaries abroad. For female evangelists, church planters, prophetesses, church this reason, numerous independent women’s missionary leaders, and missionaries. The most recognized of these societies were formed to support and train women for are Anna (Luke 2:36–38), Dorcas (Acts 9:36–42), Lydia missionary service. Between 1858 and 1887, several Brit- (Acts 16:11–15, 40), Damaris (Acts 17:22–34), the daugh- ish missionary societies—the Church Missionary Society, ters of Philip (Acts 21:8–14), Euodia and Syntyche (Phil. the London Missionary Society, the Wesleyan Methodist 4:2–3), Phoebe (Rom. 16:1–2), Junia (Rom. 16:7), and Missionary Society, the Society for theOnly Propagation of the Prisca (Priscilla) (Acts 18:13, 18–19, 24–28; 1 Cor. 16–19; Gospel in Foreign Parts, the United Presbyterian Church Rom. 16:3–5; 2 Tim. 4:19). in Scotland, and the Church Missionary Society—created Women have continued to serve as missionaries, ladies’ auxiliary committees to equip and recruit female evangelists, theologians, and church leaders. Examples missionaries. Equivalent North American mission so- of female missionaries during the third and fourth cen- cieties were launched in the late 19th century. Of these turies are the Eastern Orthodox St. Nino of Cappadocia, societies, the Woman’s Missionary Union, an auxiliary of whose witness led to the conversion of King Mirian III of the Southern Baptist Convention, is still actively engaged Iberia (present-day Georgia), and Anastasia of Sirmium, in the mission education of adults, youth, and children. who boldly preached the Gospel during the volatile reign Other prominent female mission organizations include of the Roman emperor Diocletian. During the follow- the Woman’s Board of Foreign Missions (1840–1935), ing centuries, women were also increasingly involved in the CentralCopy Committee on the United Study of Foreign theological dialogue and education. Prominent examples Missions (1900–1938), and the World Young Woman’s include Argula von Grumbach (1492–1554), the first Christian Association (1890–). female writer of the Protestant Reformation; Jeanne In the 19th century, numerous Catholic communities d’Albrecht (1528–1572), a leader among the French Ref- were also equipping women for foreign missionary service. ormation Huguenots; Margaret Fell Fox (1614–1702), The largest order, the Salesian Sisters of St. John Don Bosco, an early Quaker leader who wrote “Women Speaking also known as the Daughters of Mary Help of Christians, Justified,” defending women in ministry; and Lady Se- was founded in 1872 by St. Maria Mazzarello (1837–1881). lina Hastings (1707–1791), a Methodist revivalist and Originally established to assist John Bosco (1815–1888) in founder of a minister’s training college. his work among the poor in Turin, Italy, the sisters focused The mission movement of the 19th century greatly on providing education for girls and women in poverty. A expanded the number of women missionaries abroad. missionary order, the Salesian sisters currently have more Among Protestants, married women frequently worked than 15,000 members located in 96 countries. Another in- alongside their husbands on the mission field. By the fluential missionary order was the Franciscan Missionaries 1820s, single women were also increasingly being drawn of Mary, founded by Helene Marie Philippine de Chappo- to overseas ministry. Some of the earliest missionary pio- tin (1839–1904), also known by her religious name, Mary neers were Charlotte White (1782–?), a North American of the Passion. Sent originally to India as a novice in 1865, widow, author, and educator in India; Betsey Stockton Mary of the Passion was given permission by Pope Pius (1798–1865), a freed slave who served as a missionary IX in 1877 to establish a new missionary order, called the teacher in Hawaii; and Mary Ann Cooke (1784–1868), a Missionaries of Mary. The order focused on contemplative British educator who founded a school and orphanage for prayer and local service, particularly providing medical as- girls in India. In contrast to the patriarchal restrictions of sistance to local women. Currently there are approximately theirContributor home countries, female missionaries experienced 6,700 Franciscan Missionaries of Mary serving in 76 coun- comparative freedom while overseas. tries. Other Catholic missionary orders for women include By the early 20th century, women missionaries out- the Carmelites, the Claretian Missionary Sisters, the Sisters numbered their male counterparts. Prominent female of Mercy, the Little Sisters of the Poor, and the Sisters of St. missionaries of this period include Charlotte “Lottie” Joseph of the Sacred Heart. Missions and the Education of Women 827

References and Resources far from being achieved.84 Hill and King affirm that, “the Keeley, Barbara Anne, ed. 1997. Faith of Our Foremothers: education that women receive is [a] significant factor de- Women Changing Religious Education. Louisville, KY: West- termining economic growth and the quality of life of their minster John Knox Press. families.”85 The content of this education is significant.86 Tucker, Ruth A. 1988. Guardians of the Great Commission: Many women missionaries went to this part of the world The Story of Women in Modern Missions. Grand Rapids, MI: to educate women in response to this perceived need. Academic Books. They felt driven to address the significant need for such —Sarita D.Gallagher education arising abroad.87 Tucker adds: “In some parts of the world it was the work of women who effectively penetrated the cultural and religious barriers with the Missions and the Education of Women Gospel.”88 Educating in the faith is without doubt one of the most important and fundamental channels (faith as Missions all over the world have contributed enormously foundational experience) of education in human values. to the development of society in various spheres. Foreign The ministry that these women performed has been rec- missions, as a coherent and continuous enterprise, arose ognized in almost all areas of the mission field, influenc- out of special religious conditions at the beginning of the ing in particular medicine, education, and translation of 89 Only 19th century. Women involved in missions have not only the Bible. They established schools all over the world, spread the Word of God, but also enlightened the masses including a university of 8,000 students in Seoul, Korea. to lead an ethical and moral life to reach out to godliness. Written materials in hundreds of languages of different The first North American single woman missionary edu- groups became available as a result of the work of these cator, Isabella Thoburn, was sent to India, and the impact women.90 American Protestant women missionaries had of her work on women’s education was overwhelming.80 a great impact on middle-class Syrian women in Leba- Marthal Nalini mentions that, even though there was op- non. Educational institutions were the most important position to educating women, Isabella was convinced that site of encounters between missionaries and women in the Middle East. It has been suggested that young Arab God meant her to consecrate her life to educating the women took from the education they received there ideas women of India; she labored over thirty years to make that they used to create their own sense of identity.91 her vision of the new Indian Christian women a reality. In Copy The African saying “Educating a woman means edu- the process of realizing her vision, she founded Lucknow cating a village” shows women’s influence in the trans- Women’s College, the first Christian institution of higher mission of values and faith in society. Women mission- education for women in Asia.81 aries have devoted their female resources92 to the task of She adds: “This was her ideal . . . to seek ways of helping educating women for good and the fight against evil. more women to become educated.”82 The motto of the There is still a great need for women missionaries who college founded by Isabella was “We receive to give.”83 will continue to be instruments of education and healing Recently, interest in the status of women’s education around the world has been growing. There have been in- 84. National Women’s History Museum, “The History of Women and ternational forums, seminars, and cooperative programs Education” (2007), 1, http://www.nwhm.org/online-exhibits/education/ introduction.html (accessed 29 July2013). promoting equality of opportunity for women’s educa- 85. M. Ann Hill and Elizabeth M. King, Women Education in Developing tion and participation in society. In Latin America, all Countries (Washington, DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction nations are familiar with the principles, yet they are still and Development, 1993), xiii, http://books.google.com.gt/books?hl=es&lr= &id=DL8uSGzj8YIC&oi=fnd&pg=PR12&dq=social+gains+from+female+ education&ots=S23DvqKMM2&sig=OcrGatg-TIAmU43WTnzdAwza9qc 80. W. C. Barclay, History of the Methodist Missions, the Board of Mis- #v=onepage&q=social%20gains%20from%20female%20education&f=false sions of the Methodist Church (New York, Board of Missions of the Meth- (accessed 30 July 2013). odist Church, 1957), 502. She was sent by the Women’s Foreign Missionary 86. Geeta Gandhi Kingdon, “Education of Women and Socio-Economic Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Development,” in Reason and Revelation: New Directions in Bahá’í 81. Marthal Nalini, “Gender Dynamics of Missionary Work in India Thought, ed. Seena Fazel and John Danesh (Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, and Its Impact on Women’s Education: Isabella Thoburn (1840–1901)—A 2002), 241. Case Study,” Journal of International Women’s Studies 7, no. 4 (2006): 87. Ruth A. Tucker, Hasta lo último de la tierra (Miami: Editorial Vida, 267, http://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol7/iss4/18 (accessed 30 July 2013). Dr. 1988), 263. Marthal Nalini has been a permanent faculty member in the Department 88. Ibid., 265. of History, Ethiraj College for Women, Chennai (India) for 22 years. She 89. Ibid. specializesContributor in American women in India (1870–1948), with special empha- 90. Ibid., 266. sis on Isabella Thoburn. 91. Ellen Fleischmann, “The Impact of American Protestant Missions in 82. Ibid., 266–268. Lebanon on the Construction of Female Identity, c. 1860–1950,” Islam and 83. Carolyn De Swarte Gifford, “Isabella Thoburn (1840–1901),” in Christian–Muslim Relations 13, no. 4 (2002): 411. Something More Than Human, ed. Charles E. Cole (Nashville, TN: United 92. Resources such as their love, care, sensibility to help others, empa- Methodist Board of Higher Education and Ministry, 1986), 229. thy, readiness to listen, eagerness to share their life and knowledge, etc. 828 Missions and Theological Education for women around the world in the service of Christ. of Christian virtues in the academy and then the rise of Women are needed to support each other, sharing their the university as the center of theological learning. In experiences and their own ways of thinking and living the the 19th century, with the professionalization of clergy Gospel message in cross-cultural educational ministry. roles a practical and vocational theological education model emerged in the university setting. Thus we have References and Resources two approaches to theological education, sometimes Barclay, W. C. 1957. History of the Methodist Missions. New characterized by the phrase “Athens and Berlin” (Kelsey York: The Board of Missions of the Methodist Church. 1993). Kelsey argues for a “dialectical” approach between Fleischmann, Ellen. 2002. “The Impact of American Protestant Athens and Berlin, which combines the best of both Missions in Lebanon on the Construction of Female Identity, worlds, rather than a synthesis of them. A further “con- c. 1860–1950.” Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations 13 (4): fessional” model emerged, sometimes called “Geneva,” 411–426. which focuses on knowing the content of the faith as it Gifford, Carolyn De Swarte. 1986. “Isabella Thoburn (1840– is handed down in the creeds. It could be argued that all 1901).” In Something More Than Human, edited by Charles these models have moved the task of theology away from E. Cole, 211–228. Nashville, TN: United Methodist Board of its original locus in the missionary congregation. Higher Education and Ministry. In the contemporary world, at leastOnly two factors have Hill, M. Ann, and Elizabeth M. King. 1993. Women’s Education brought the question of the interaction of mission and in Developing Countries. Washington, DC: The International theological education to the fore. First, there is the extraor- Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Accessed 30 dinary expansion of the church into the global South, such July 2013. http://books.google.com.gt/books?hl=es&lr=&id= that we can now understand all theology to be necessarily DL8uSGzj8YIC&oi=fnd&pg=PR12&dq=social+gains+from contextual (Bevans 2002, 3), since the worldwide church +female+education&ots=S23DvqKMM2&sig=OcrGatg-TIA is now polycentric. One of the consequences of the rapid mU43WTnzdAwza9qc#v=onepage&q=social%20gains%20 expansion of the church is that, as some have said of it from%20female%20education&f=false. in Africa, it can be “a mile wide but only an inch deep.” Kingdon, Geeta Gandhi. 2002. “Education of Women and Thus theological education can be understood as mission Socio-Economic Development.” In Reason and Revelation: (Penner [2005] 2009). The second factor is the breaking New Directions in Bahá’í Thought, edited by Seena Fazel and down Copyof Christendom in the West and the recovery of John Danesh, 229–243. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press. the missio Dei as the fundamental task of the Christian Nalini, Marthal. 2006. “Gender Dynamics of Missionary Work church—that it is “missionary by her [sic] very nature.” in India and Its Impact on Women’s Education: Isabella Thus Andrew Kirk rightly asks (1997, 2), “How should Thoburn (1840–1901)—A Case Study.” Journal of Interna- one reinvent theology and theological education so that tional Women’s Studies 7 (4): 266–289. they flow naturally from an integral perspective on God’s National Women’s History Museum. 2007. “The History of constant will and activity in the world?” Women and Education.” Accessed 29 July 2013. http://www There is no current consensus on an answer to this .nwhm.org/online-exhibits/education/introduction.html. question. Robert Banks (1999) reviews several models Tucker, Ruth A. 1988. Hasta lo último de la tierra. Miami, FL: that attempt to relate theological education to the mis- Editorial Vida. sion of God—mission-oriented, apprenticeship, praxis- —Ana María E. Campos oriented—and then proposes his own missional model, defined as “theological education that is wholly or partly field based, and that involves some measure of doing Missions and Theological Education what is studied” (1999, 142). He calls this the “Jerusa- lem” model, locating its inspiration in the early church. It could be argued that since the very beginning of the Cronshaw (2012) develops this further, adding his own Christian church, it has always generated theology by particular contextualization in Australia and an “ashram” being “on the way.” Certainly the example of the apostle model, with “New Delhi” as its designation. The most Paul in his Epistles underlines the process by which comprehensive overview of the issues raised by mis- theology is created by the everyday controversies of an sion and theological education is found in articles in the expanding Christian community. Thus the mission of Handbook of Theological Education in World Christian- GodContributor (missio Dei), which the church, when being faithful, ity , published to coincide with the centenary celebrations joins in, and the task of theological reflection are inti- of the 1910 Edinburgh World Missionary conference in mately connected. Inevitably the picture became more 2010. The articles have a broad ecumenical reach and complex through the Patristic period and the coming deal with related subjects such as postcolonialism, gen- of Christendom, with the importance of the formation der, race, power, and migration. Missions as Christian Practice 829

References and Resources Because of this truth, the topic of missions becomes an Banks, Robert C. 1999. Reenvisioning Theological Education: integral subject in Christian education precisely because Exploring a Missional Alternative to Current Model. Grand it is the task to which all Christian education ultimately Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. points: “The risk of viewing everything as mission is a Bevans, Stephen B. 2002. Models of Contextual Theology. Rev. risk worth taking. If God’s mission brings into existence and expanded ed. Faith and Cultures Series. Maryknoll, NY: and gives ongoing life to the Church community, every Orbis. aspect of that community’s life is in some sense mis- Cronshaw, Darren. 2012. “Reenvisioning Theological Educa- sional. . . . The community is missional when it is helping tion and Missional Spirituality.” Journal of Adult Theological to further the Kingdom of God in its midst. Clearly this is Education 9 (1): 9–27. occurring, potentially at least, when the faith community Kelsey, David H. 1993. Between Athens and Berlin: The Theo- is educating.”94 logical Education Debate. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Among the numerous benefits of introducing missions Kirk, J. Andrew. 1997. The Mission of Theology and Theology as into Christian education is granting participants expo- Mission. Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International. sure to the grand scope of God’s redemptive plan for the Penner, Peter F., ed. (2005) 2009. Theological Education as Mis- planet. This, in turn, can support the development of a sion. 2nd ed. Schwarzenfeld, Germany: Neufeld Verlag. global perspective of the faith as well as a more coherent, 95 Only Werner, Dietrich, David Esterline, Namsoon Kang, and Joshva biblical worldview. Furthermore, “as Christian educa- Raja, eds. 2010. Handbook of Theological Education in World tors articulate the relationship between cross-cultural Christianity: Theological Perspectives—Regional Surveys— perspectives and the significance of the Cross of Calvary Ecumenical Trends. Regnum Studies in Global Christianity the stage is set for others to connect that meaning with Series. Oxford: Regnum. their personal lives and to commit themselves to become —Nigel Rooms one in Christ.”96 And herein lies perhaps the most im- portant motivation for including the study of missions in Christian education, because doing so facilitates the Missions as Christian Practice maturation of a robust passion for evangelism and the pursuit of unity among the body of Christ. Both of these, When the resurrected Jesus gathered with His disciples ultimately,Copy keep the mission of the church in the very on a mountainside in Galilee, he directed them: “Go heart of Christian education. therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of References and Resources the Holy Spirit” (Matt. 28:19). His exhortation did not Brekenridge, Lillian. 2001. “Cross-Cultural Perspectives on conclude there, however, and the Lord continued His Christian Education.” In Introducing Christian Education, command by specifying that a central aspect of making edited by Michael J. Anthony, 45–52. Grand Rapids, MI: disciples was “teaching them to observe all that I have Baker Academic. commanded you” (Matt. 28:20). D’Orsa, Jim, and Therese D’Orsa. 2008. “Education in Mission: In this charge, Christ not only framed His purpose Mission in Education.” Paper presented at the Australian As- and vision for the church, but also dictated central sociation of Mission Studies Conference, October. aspects of its praxis, its methodology. “The sending of Estep, James R., and Michael Anthony. 2008. A Theology the Son by the Father becomes the paradigm for the for Christian Education. Nashville, TN: B & H Publishing Son’s sending of the church.”93 Within this paradigm, Group. the church is called to exercise its role in God’s King- Wisdom-Martin, Sandy. 2012. “Mission Education in the Local dom of making disciples of all nations sacramentally Church.” In Christian Education Leadership: Making Disci- (baptism) and pedagogically (teaching). In this, mission ples in the 21st Century, edited by Bernard Spooner, 109–124. and education were united into a singular endeavor that Coppell, TX: Christian Leadership Publishing. gives clear guidance to the responsibility of the church —Stephen L. Woodworth to act holistically toward the world it aims to serve. To summarize the essence of this notion more succinctly, 94. Jim D’Orsa and Therese D’Orsa, “Education in Mission: Mission in Christian education is intended to always be missional, Education” (paper presented at the Australian Association of Mission Stud- and mission is intended to always be educational. ies Conference, October 2008), 10. Contributor 95. Sandy Wisdom-Martin, “Mission Education in the Local Church,” in Christian Education Leadership: Making Disciples in the 21st Century, ed. Bernard Spooner (Coppell, TX: Christian Leadership Publishing, 2012), 111. 96. Lillian Brekenridge, “Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Christian Edu- 93. James R. Estep and Michael Anthony, A Theology for Christian Edu- cation,” in Introduction to Christian Education, ed. Michael J. Anthony cation (Nashville, TN: B & H Publishing, 2008), 242. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001), 51. 830 Modalities of Learning

Modalities of Learning Observe how your students wrestle with new tasks and interact with their world in order to teach them using the If educators are to successfully address the needs of stu- modality each student employs. By understanding your dents, they have to understand what “individual” means. students’ preferred modalities, you can keep your ex- They must relate teaching style to learning style. pectations realistic, become a campaigner at school, and Modalities of learning are the sensory channels through teach them coping skills for situations that are not geared which a person gives, receives, and stores information. to their individual modality styles. Perception, memory, and sensation comprise the concept Also, trying different modalities of learning may pre- of modality97 through which a person learns most easily. vent your students from feeling frustrated when they are These senses include visual, auditory, tactile/kinesthetic, not doing schoolwork that lives up to their potential. At smell, and taste.98 On the other hand, one’s learning style the same time, it may improve the students’ accomplish- is a particular way in which the mind receives and pro- ments and feelings of achievement. It is important to cesses information.99 Those who learn better by looking avoid negative labels for any learner.104 are considered visual students. They learn best through The more that senses or modalities can be activated, words or drawings. Those who learn best by listening are the more learning will take place.105 Good teaching considered auditory students. Those who need to move methods use the senses, and these can Onlybe used more than to learn are considered kinesthetic students, and those once in the same lesson. For instance, those involved in who like to touch refer to the tactile sense.100 Therefore, impromptu dramas are using the three senses: listening to be an effective teacher and teach in the way that stu- to what is said, moving so that their role is as realistic as dents learn, it is very important to discover the students’ possible, and looking at the expressions of others to act modalities of learning.101 Rose (1985) presents a table that according to what they see.106 identifies characteristics that may be observed in students Modality-based instruction is an effective means to who learn best through their senses.102 reach all learners. It consists of organizing around the Some researchers, including Reiff, Eisler, Barbe, and different modalities to accommodate the needs of all Stronck,103 have concluded that in any given classroom, learners. Most students learn with all their modalities, the students would be approximately: but some students may have unusual strengths and weak- nessesCopy in particular modalities. For instance, students 25–30 percent visual learners strong in the visual modality will be frustrated or con- 25–30 percent auditory learners fused by just verbal explanations. 15 percent tactile/kinesthetic learners Stafford and Dunn affirm this approach: “Children 25–30 percent mixed modality learners enter kindergarten as kinesthetic and tactual learners, moving and touching everything as they learn. By sec- Therefore, only 30 percent of the students will remember ond or third grade, some students have become visual most of what is said in a classroom lecture, and another learners. During the late elementary years some students, 30 percent will remember primarily what is seen. These primarily females, become auditory learners. Yet, many modalities of learning are exemplified in the Bible where adults, especially males, maintain kinesthetic and tactual God instructed the Israelites in Deuteronomy 6:4–9 strengths throughout their lives.”107 about the importance of teaching their children, but also The goal of Christian education is to help students grow how to do it: using the senses in the teaching process. in the image of Jesus Christ.108 It is crucial to understand the urgency to teach them in the way they learn. If there is no learning, then there is no room for changing their lives. 97. Collin Rose, Accelerated Learning, 5th ed. (Bucks, England: Accel- erated Learning Systems, 1985), 123–124. References and Resources 98. Marlene LeFever, Estilos de aprendizaje, trans. Kerstin Andreas de Lundquist (Miami, FL: Editorial Patmos, 2003), 150–154. Carter, C., J. Bishop, and S. L. Kravits. 2006. Keys to Success: 99. C. Carter, J. Bishop, and S. L. Kravits, Keys to Success: Building Building Successful Intelligence for College, Career, and Life. Successful Intelligence for College, Career, and Life (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2006), 53–83. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. 100. LeFever, Estilos de aprendizaje, 150–154. 101. To help understand how a student learns best, there are learning 104. Carter, Bishop, and Kravits, Keys to Success, 56–83. styles tests to determine the strongest modality they have. There are just a 105. S. D. Powell, “Learning Modalities,” PBS Parents (July 2013), http:// few questionsContributor to answer, and the test should take approximately two min- www.education.com/reference/article/learning-modalities/. utes to complete: http://www.ldpride.net/learning_style.html and http:// 106. LeFever, Estilos de aprendizaje, 150–154; Rhode Island Department sunburst.usd.edu/~bwjames/tut/learning-style/stylest.html. of Labor and Training, “Learning Style, Discover Your Child’s Preferred,” 102. Rose, Accelerated Learning, 123–124. http://www.dlt.ri.gov/lmi/pdf/LearningStyle.pdf (accessed 25 July 2013). 103. J. Reiff, Learning Styles: What Research Says to the Teacher? (Wash- 107. Rita Stafford Dunn and Kenneth J. Dunn, Teaching Secondary ington, DC: National Education Association, 1992); and D. R. Stronck, Students through Their Individual Learning Styles: Practical Approaches for “The Educational Implications of Human Individuality,” American Biology Grades 7–12 (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1993). Teacher 42 (1980): 146–151. 108. Ephesians 4:12–13 (RVR 60). Monastic Missions 831

Dunn, Rita Stafford, and Kenneth J. Dunn. 1993. Teaching Sec- ary efforts, their most significant and lasting impact on ondary Students through their Individual Learning Styles: Prac- Christian education occurred during the Middle Ages, tical Approaches for Grades 7–12. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. roughly between AD 500 and 1000. Early Christianity LeFever, Marlene. 2003. Estilos de aprendizaje. Translated by had expanded with the Roman Empire, which by the Kerstin Andreas de Lundquist. Miami, FL: Editorial Patmos. third century included Northern Africa, Asia Minor, and Powell, S. D. 2013. “Learning Modalities” education.com, 24 all of Western Europe. However, a series of invasions July. http://www.education.com/reference/article/learning by various “barbarians” led to the collapse of Roman -modalities/. dominion in Europe, with a corresponding deterioration Reiff, J. 1992. Learning Styles: What Research Says to the of the church and Western civilization in general. As a Teacher. Washington, DC: National Education Association. result, education and other foundational components of http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED340506. Roman, Western civilization declined and almost disap- Rhode Island Department of Labor and Training. n.d. “Learn- peared. ing Style: Discover Your Child’s Preferred.” Accessed 25 July Beginning in the mid- to late fifth century, mission- 2013. http://www.dlt.ri.gov/lmi/pdf/LearningStyle.pdf. ary monks began the effort to reclaim Western Europe Rose, Collin. 1985. Accelerated Learning. 5th ed. Bucks, Eng- for the church and in so doing managed to restore and land: Accelerated Learning Systems Ltd. preserve the essential aspects of civilization,Only which were Stronck, D. R. 1980. “The Educational Implications of Human in danger of being lost forever. There were two key Individuality.” American Biology Teacher 42: 146–151. trajectories involved in this missionary movement: the “What’s Your Learning Style?” n.d. LDPride.net. Accessed 29 Benedictine missionary movement and the missionary July 2013. http://www.ldpride.net/learning_style.html. efforts of Irish monasteries. “What’s Your Learning Style?” n.d. Accessed 26 July 2013. The Irish movement was the direct result of the earlier http://www.educationplanner.org/students/self-assessments/ evangelization of Ireland by St. Patrick. From 432 until learning-styles.shtml his death in 461, Patrick ministered throughout Ireland, —Ana María E. Campos evangelizing and establishing monasteries across the country. A century before the arrival of Benedictines in England, Patrick’s monasteries focused on developing the Moldova and Christian Education mindCopy as well as nurturing the soul. Because it had never been incorporated into the Roman Empire nor suffered Moldova is a part of Romania that was separated from the looting and cultural devastation inflicted during the the mother country after World War II and taken by the “barbarian” invasions, Ireland became a significant Eu- Soviet Union. The present republic became independent ropean repository for the classical literature and wisdom in 1991 and consists of the Romanian regions Bessarabia of the Graeco-Roman and Judeo-Christian cultures. Its (Basarabia), northern Bukovina, and Transnistria. There- monasteries became centers for a broad theological and fore, its Christian history is one with Romanian Christian general education, as well as the source of missionary history. In the Republic of Moldova, there are two official efforts beginning in the mid-sixth century. Patrick’s suc- Orthodox churches, the Romanian and the Russian, cessors, Columba (531–597) and Columban (c. 530–615), with their respective canonical jurisdictions. They have initiated the Irish missionary movement that also went their own theological schools, seminaries, and university into England, as well as Scotland, France, Switzerland, centers, among which the oldest and most famous are in and even back to Italy. Columba went to Scotland, where Cernăuţi and Chişinău. he and his followers established 23 missions, as well as Religious education was introduced as an optional an additional 38 in northern England. Columban led subject in the Moldavian schools in 2010. There are two missions to France, where he established monasteries in syllabuses: Orthodox-Catholic and evangelic. The two Brittany and Luxeuil, later traveling to northern Italy, Orthodox churches, Romanian and Russian, are the where he founded the well-known monastery at Bobbio. main promoters of religious education in the country, The Benedictine movement originated in the Monte through liturgical life, preaching, parish catechesis, and Cassino monastery, which had been established by St. school teaching. Benedict of Nursia in the early sixth century (c. 529). —Hrisanti Bulugea Although he did not intend to found an order, Benedict’s Contributor “Rule” eventually defined a number of autonomous or- ders or congregations, all of which were united by their Monastic Missions common allegiance to his institution and rule. In 496, a monk from one such monastery (St. Andrews) in Rome Although various monastic orders of the Catholic Church led 40 monks, at the behest of Pope Gregory, to evange- have been engaged since their inception in mission- lize England. Establishing a Benedictine monastery in 832 Monastic Practices of Formation as Christian Practice

Canterbury, this effort by St. Augustine of Canterbury Monastic Practices of Formation contributed to the firm establishment of the Roman as Christian Practice Church in England, with the Benedictine monks found- ing many of the episcopal sees of England. Benedictine The “Rule” of Saint Benedict does not make provisions monks and monasteries then spread from England to for the training of persons in the monastic life who Germany, and from there to Denmark and Scandina- themselves do not commit to living in a monastery. But via, as well as Iceland. In these countries, as well as in evidence of monastic oblates—those who do not take, or England, the monasteries soon became educational and even seek, monastic vows, but nevertheless commit to a cultural centers, reestablishing that which had been lost way of life influenced by their relationship with a mon- during the barbarian invasions. astery—dates back at least to the 11th century.109 Francis The educational contribution of these monastic mis- of Assisi, in establishing the Franciscan mendicant order, sions began with classical scholarship and academics. is traditionally regarded as founding a “third order” of In addition to preserving classical literature through the Franciscans, who led secular lives but committed to the painstaking copying of manuscripts and the building of teachings and spirituality and good works of the order. In libraries, missionary monks also made significant con- addition to Benedictine oblates and third order Francis- tributions to literacy throughout Europe by establishing cans, numerous other forms of lay ordersOnly exist, including schools as well as creating regional vernacular alphabets third order Dominicans, lay Carmelites, and lay Cister- for language groups throughout the continent that did cians. What unites these diverse groups is that they are a not have a written form of their language. In addition to community of persons committed to living according to preserving classical scholarship and providing traditional the spirit and the wisdom of a religious order, while lead- academic programs, the monks were known for teaching ing a secular (i.e., nonconsecrated) life. people the “practical arts.” Wherever they went, monks Because of its spiritual nature, the process of becoming brought knowledge of new and more effective agricul- a lay monastic or member of a third order involves more tural techniques, introducing new crops, methods of than merely joining the local community. Most groups irrigation, animal husbandry, and production methods require a period of prayerful discernment, followed by that greatly enhanced the standard of living around mis- a period of formation: training not only in an academic sion works. They also provided valuable technical advice sense,Copy but also in adopting a new way of life in conformity to local populations. This guidance included metallurgy, with the teachings and ideals of the order. Formation as mineral mining, glassworks, and clock making. a lay monastic is therefore similar to the formation pro- Many historians have claimed that contemporary cess for those entering into full monastic or consecrated Western culture owes its survival and existence to the religious life. But oblate or third order formation is chal- efforts of monastic missions in the early part of the lenging, in that the persons being formed generally do Middle Ages. Whether one agrees with that or not, it not live together and may only see each other once or is easy to affirm Thomas Woods’s statement that “the month or even less frequently. Therefore, face-to-face monastic contribution to Western civilization . . . is im- meetings are considered essential to the formation pro- mense” (2005, 45). cess; when communities gather, the novices join with the professed members in prayer, study, and work (often in References and Resources service to the religious order). By studying the teachings Cahill, Thomas. 1996. How the Irish Saved Civilization: The and charisms (gifts) of the order and seeking to model Untold Story of Ireland’s Heroic Role From the Fall of Rome the character of lay monastic life while the community is to the Rise of Medieval Europe. New York: Anchor Books. gathered, lay monastics then seek to apply this training to McCarthy, Daryl. 2007. “Hearts and Minds Aflame for Christ: the ordinary nature of their lives in between each com- Irish Monks—A Model for Making All Things New in munity meeting. Additional support may be provided the 21st Century.” In Pursuit of Truth: A Journal of Chris- through spiritual direction or ongoing contact via e-mail tian Scholarship (28 September). Accessed April 24, 2007. or social media. http://www.cslewis.org/journal/hearts-and-minds-aflame Lay monastics, like consecrated monastics, mark -for-christ-irish-monks%E2%80%94a-model-for-making their progress in their order through ceremonial acts -all-things-new-in-the-21st-century/. such as being received as novices or making temporary Schaff,Contributor Philip, and David Schaff. 1910. History of the Christian or lifelong promises to the order. Formation does not Church, Vol. 4. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. cease once a lay monastic makes such promises; rather, Woods, Thomas. 2005. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing. 109. Gervase, Holdaway, OSB, The Oblate Life (Collegeville, MN: The —John Lillis Liturgical Press, 2008), 33. Monasticism, Phenomenon of Lay 833 conversion is a lifelong process, described in the “Rule” “Monastic formation” refers to the process by which a of Saint Benedict as conversatione morum or fidelity to novice, or newcomer, is trained in the life of a monk. As monastic life.110 Therefore, lay monastic groups often the “Rule” suggests, formation is understood as taking will continue to provide instruction to professed mem- time, involving mastering knowledge of monastic rule, bers; professed members also may become involved in but also persistence in living the day-to-day life of a monk training subsequent novices. in community. The period of formation is intended as a Former archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams time for discernment, in which the novice may consider describes Benedictine formation in this way: “the Rule whether he or she is truly called to monastic life, and envisages holiness as a set of habits—like goodness likewise the members of the monastery discern whether in general, of course, but not reducible to goodness the novice is a good fit for inclusion in the community. only. The holy person is not simply the one who keeps Even before admittance into the novitiate, the prospec- the commandments . . . but one who struggles to live tive monk must exhibit sincerity and a genuine desire to without deceit . . . who makes peace by addressing the pursue monastic life. Benedict recommends letting the roots of conflict in him- or herself, and . . . attempts newcomer wait at least “four or five days” before admit- to contribute their distinctive gifts in such a way as to tance into the guest quarters for a few more days, before sustain a healthy . . . community.”111 This summarizes finally being accepted into the novitiate.Only the goal of lay monastic formation: to live a holy life, Although different monastic orders (and even differ- habitually, under the guidance of a third order commu- ent foundations within the same order) have a variety nity and thereby be equipped to manifest such holiness of formation programs, the basic outline of the process in an ordinary secular life. Formation, therefore, is the as found in the “Rule” of St. Benedict remains in effect process of seeking to cultivate such a habitual life of in most communities in the third millennium. Persons holiness, even within the foibles and failings of a sinful interested in the monastic life typically will visit one or character. Needless to say, such a formation can never more monasteries to explore that interest, often meeting be completed, never be perfected, and must continue with a vocations director or novice master to engage in a throughout the lay monastic’s life span. process of discernment. Typically, candidates will need to undergo physical and psychological examinations. References and Resources OnceCopy accepted as a postulant, the candidate moves into Fry, Timothy, et al., eds. 1981. The Rule of St. Benedict in Latin the monastery and enters into the daily life of a neophyte and English with Notes. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. monastic. After a specific period of time (e.g., six months) Holdaway, Gervase, OSB. 2008. The Oblate Life. Collegeville, he or she is accepted as a novice, entering a more formal MN: The Liturgical Press. formation process that includes not only the normal Tvedten, Benet. 2006. How to Be a Monastic and Not Leave routine of the monastery, but also classes intended to Your Day Job: An Invitation to Oblate Life. Brewster, MA: instruct the newcomer in the history, theology, and Paraclete Press. practices of the monastery. The novitiate may last two or —Carl McColman more years before the novice may request permission to make his or her initial promises. Such promises often are for a limited period of time, such as one year. The junior Monasticism, Phenomenon of Lay monk will repeat the promises annually while continuing to persevere in the study and practice of the life. Three or “Do not grant newcomers to the monastic life an easy more years may pass before the junior monk may request entry,” warns St. Benedict in his “Rule” for monaster- to make solemn vows. When permission is granted, the ies.112 He goes on to stipulate the qualities that a mon- profession of solemn vows marks the completion of the astery should identify in its new novices: perseverance, formation process and the monk’s lifetime commitment eagerness for God, obedience, and patience. The “Rule” to the life. spells out a process lasting at least a year, in which new- Becoming a monk involves more than simply learning comers are to live in the monastery, enduring its hard- about the history, values, and practice of monasticism. ships and trials, and receive instruction in the “Rule” at It also involves learning the liturgy (e.g., how to chant), least three times before receiving permanent membership learning the dynamics of communal living, accepting the inContributor the community. limitations of the enclosure and monastic stability, adapt- ing to the monastic horarium (daily schedule), and inte- grating the rhythm of work and prayer in daily life. Thus, 110. “Rule” of Saint Benedict, 58.17. 111. Rowan Williams, “Shaping Holy Lives,” in The Oblate Life, 154. monastic formation is very much a process of socializa- 112. “Rule” of Saint Benedict, 58.1. tion and adaptation to a set of sociocultural norms that 834 Mongolia and Christian Education often are significantly different from the culture at large. denominations like the Korean Methodist, Korean Pres- For this reason, monastic formation involves far more byterian, and Onnuri represented. Nevertheless, some than simply learning a set of theoretical or even practical Mongolian churches present themselves as independent. principles. It involves reshaping one’s identity through The Seventh-Day Adventists, the Church of Jesus Christ adopting an entirely new culture. The lengthy period of of Latter-day Saints, and Jehovah’s Witness also have a contemporary monastic formation (six or more years) is strong presence. designed to permit this kind of radical transformation as Christian education occurs in local churches through a lived experience. both adult and children’s education programs, using “Integration into a brotherhood like ours is a slow various methods: small groups, Sunday school classes, process,” acknowledges “The Rule of the Society of Saint seminars, TEE, etc. Different materials are used, such as ,”113 an order of Anglican men. Mo- SEAN’s (Study by Extension for All Nations) TEE, Navi- nastic formation allows that slow process to unfold in a gator’s From Creation to Christ, and specific denomina- comprehensive and holistic manner, enabling the new tional materials. Youth With A Mission (YWAM) centers monk to embrace his or her vocation in its fullness. provide training through their discipleship training and other schools. References and Resources Language constraints limit ChristianOnly literature and Casey, Michael, OCSO. 2012. The Art of Winning Souls: Pastoral training materials, which need to be translated or de- Care of Novices. Collegeville, MN: Cistercian Publications. veloped. Very few resources are available for Christian Cumming, Charles, OCSO. 1986. Monastic Practices. Kalama- education. zoo, MI: Cistercian Publications. Leadership development and theological education Fry, Timothy, et al., eds. 1981. The Rule of St. Benedict in Latin occur through a variety of formal and informal programs. and English with Notes. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. Operation World states that there are eight Bible colleges, Society of Saint John the Evangelist North American Congrega- mostly denominational. The actual figure is closer to 15, tion. 1997. The Rule of the Society of Saint John the Evangelist. but many of these are institutes offering one- to two-year Cambridge, MA: Cowley Publications. training programs. The Union Bible Training Center and —Carl McColman the Mongolian Theological Education by Extension are interdenominationalCopy and two of the oldest, largest, ac- credited programs. Mongolia and Christian Education Although the constitution allows for religious free- dom, many laws and policies have been developed that Christianity made a brief appearance in Mongolia dur- actually hinder religious freedom, making Christian ing the 13th century, when a few Mongolians followed education difficult. Nestorianism and Roman Catholicism. Yet Tibetan Bud- dhism and Shamanism dominated as Christianity failed References and Resources to take root. The next missionary outreaches were made Christianity and Mongolia: Past and Present. 2006. Proceedings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by the Swedish, of the Antoon Mostaert Symposium on Christianity and Russians, and London Missionary Society. However, Mongolia, August. communism all but eliminated Christianity during the Leatherwood, Rick. 2006. Glory in Mongolia. Pasadena, CA: 20th century. Following the establishment of democracy William Carey Library. in 1991, there was an influx of missionary activity. The —Pieter F. Theron church in Mongolia is only 22 years old, and the majority of Christians are first-generation believers. According to Operation World, there are approxi- Montenegro and Christian Education mately 46,459 Christians in Mongolia (less than 2 percent of the population). The main denominations represented “Black Mountain” is the literal meaning of the name of are Roman Catholic, Russian Orthodox, Lutheran, and one of the smallest (population 670,000) and youngest Presbyterian, with various evangelical and charismatic postcommunist nations on the coast of the Adriatic Sea groups, like the Christian and Missionary Alliance, in southeastern Europe. It became an independent state SouthernContributor Baptists, and Assemblies of God. Korean mis- after the controversial and close referendum about sepa- sionaries planted many of the churches, with Korean ration from Serbia, brokered by the European Union in 2006. Its previous independence was lost nearly 90 years 113. “The Rule of the Society of Saint John the Evangelist,” 73. earlier when it was incorporated into the former Yugo- Montessori, Maria 835 slavia at the end of World War I. The majority religion A Woman Ahead of Her Time is Christian Orthodox (72 percent of the population), Since a typical medical practice was not an option for formally under the jurisdiction of the Serbian Orthodox women, Maria became a university lecturer, but also Church, although growing Montenegrian nationalism worked at a clinic for developmentally challenged chil- has given birth to a small and struggling national Monte- dren. Her keen abilities to watch and listen to them en- negro Orthodox Church. Close to 20 percent of the popu- abled her to develop methods and materials that taught lation are Sunni Muslims, and 3.5 percent are Catholics, those “uneducable” children to read, much to the aston- mostly Albanian and some Croatian. Protestant Christi- ishment of government officials. anity historically never entered the region, although after In 1898, through a relationship with colleague Guiseppi the recent democratic opening, several small but active Montesano, Maria gave birth to a son, Mario. In order evangelical churches have been established. They have not to have to abandon her scientific work, which would as a rule active Sunday school programs, patterned after have been expected of a wife and mother at that time, Western practices and using teaching materials available Maria remained single. Mario was raised outside of in the Serbian language. Rome; Maria visited him from time to time. When he Orthodox churches have no systematic program for was 15, Mario realized that Maria was his mother and the education of children and youth. Religious literature, came to live with her. Mario becameOnly her close colleague including textbooks, is imported from Serbia, as both and personal assistant. They became inseparable until her countries use the same language and (Cyrillic) alphabet. death in 1952; he died in 1982. Catholic churches do educate their younger generation in Montessori made her first trip to the United States Christian faith and provide various compensatory edu- in 1913, upon the invitation of Alexander Graham Bell. cational courses for adult believers as well. The Croatian Her second trip, in 1915, brought her celebrity status. Catholics rely on the considerable variety of instructional In the 1930s, Maria and Mario were forced to flee to materials available in their language. Unlike in some Amsterdam from the fascist regime in Spain, where she neighboring postcommunist nations, religious education had been teaching her approach to education in church is not available in public schools. There are no private re- settings. From there, in 1939, she was invited to teach ligious schools in the country, and ministers are educated in India. During World War II and its immediate after- outside Montenegro. math,Copy mother and son were interned in India for seven —Peter Kuzmic years, though they traveled freely within India, training hundreds of teachers in her method. While there, due to the significant presence of Hinduism and Buddhism, Montessori, Maria she removed all aspects of religious education from her curriculum, something she regretted later in life. She Maria Montessori was born in Chiaravalle, Italy, in 1870, was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1949, 1950, and died in Amsterdam in 1952. Described as a “genius and 1951. world educator,” Montessori developed a method of edu- cation based on a foundation of love, for persons and for The Montessori Method God. Children accomplish this through concentration, As a scientist, Montessori studied children. She noticed coordination, order, independence, and respect.114 that they would effortlessly absorb knowledge from their surroundings, as if they were teaching themselves. This The Education and Formation of Maria Montessori insight informed the rest of her life’s work. She observed: The Montessori family moved from rural Italy to Rome “When the children had completed an absorbing bit of when Maria was a young child, affording her educational work, they appeared rested and deeply pleased. . . . They advantages. Her mother had a progressive, political bent exhibited a great affability to everyone, put themselves that likely became a catalyst for Maria’s own forward out to help others and seemed full of good will.”115 thinking. Despite her father’s disapproval, at age 13 she She concluded that the needs and development of the enrolled in a boys’ technical school to study engineering. child should drive education, rather than education being After seven years of study, she transferred to medical imposed by adult assumptions. Thus, she established school, which she completed by age 26, becoming the the first Casa dei Bambini, Children’s House, in Janu- firstContributor woman physician in Italy. ary 1907, to create a controlled environment in which

114. Jacqueline Cossentino, “Ritualizing Expertise: A Non-Montesso- rian View of the Montessori Method,” American Journal of Education, no. 115. With permission of Montessori: The International Montessori Index 111 (2005): 216. (2012), www.montessori.edu/info.html. 836 Montessori, Maria children could live and learn. There, the child was the concepts on the child prematurely, but introducing them teacher. Her observations led to her method. when ready. In 1909, Dr. Montessori’s approach was published in Late in life, Montessori called for a prepared environ- Italian; in 1912 this was translated into English as The ment to be present in the church: to have an atmosphere Montessori Method. Her method has become the single in which children live and move and have their being.119 largest pedagogical strategy, with 8,000 certified schools She felt that the teacher needed a godly interior life and in at least 14 countries on six continents. Thousands should see the child as Jesus did. More important for of other schools use these methods to varying degrees, her than what to teach was when and how to teach. This though without certification. meant watching and listening to the child as well as fol- As Montessori observed children, she noted four six- lowing the lead of the child, especially the young child.120 year planes, from birth to six years. Each plane subdi- Montessori wrote that the “deepest longing of the vided into a time of acquisition, then perfection.116 She child’s soul—if he could only articulate it—would be ex- designed an atrium, a place set apart, where children pressed: ‘Help me to help myself.’”121 For this to happen, moved about, working with self-correcting materials. The she advocated having an environment that contains only children showed discipline when they were able to manage the content of what the child should absorb. “It becomes their own behavior. Intervention was needed only when therefore a question of the attitude ofOnly the adult toward offensive behavior occurred. For Montessori, discipline the children. The adult becomes an obstacle when he tries came through liberty, and liberty is activity. A silent and . . . to do what in fact can only be done by the child.”122 immovable child is “annihilated, not disciplined.”117 This did not mean, she insisted, that the child be left An atrium for the youngest children (three to six years) alone to find his or her own way regarding religion, but includes at least one three-hour period of uninterrupted that the child should be guided rather than directed. work, in which children may self-select materials, pro- The direct influence of Maria Montessori in the field viding they have been shown the materials’ function and of Christian education is most clearly evident in Sofia proper use. The environment is wall-to-wall learning ma- Cavalletti’s Catechesis of the Good Shepherd, Jerome terials, with no deadening materialism present. “It is the Berryman’s Godly Play, Sonya Stewart’s Young Children environment that educates, not the teacher directly; more and Worship, and Upper Room’s Way of the Child. precisely, it is the child’s inherent formative energies, Copy finding material in the environment to act upon purpose- Critique of Her Method fully, that calls or brings forth the child’s true nature.”118 Christian educators should note that in the early years Free play for Montessori was defined as purposeful choice of her writing, Montessori indicated that, through the rather than random choice. proper environment, the child could become “new,” in Every level of atrium is designed to provide learning a way, able to save herself or himself. Her later work no tasks that include practical skills, movement, language, longer espoused that position, though her strong empha- sensate development, numeration, and global awareness. sis on the love of God could lead her to be viewed as a The values that permeate her method are joy and dignity: universalist. joy that shows the child to be peaceful, calm, even serene, and dignity that comes from the child learning without Most Notable Publications the intervention of an adult. The Secret of Childhood. Translated and edited by Barbara Bar- clay Carter. London: Longman, 1939. Montessori’s Contribution to Christian Education The Absorbent Mind. Wheaton, IL: Theosophical, 1949. Montessori’s high view of the child is significant for The Child in the Church: Essays on the Religious Education Christian education. She saw the child as remarkably of Children and the Training of Character. Edited by E. M. capable and noticed certain sensitive periods in a child’s Standing. St. Paul, MN: Catechetical Guild, 1965. life: times when the child seemed ready to grasp con- cepts. Montessori watched for those times, not imposing References and Resources Berryman, J. 1980. “Montessori and Religious Education.” Reli- 116. Note the similarity to Piaget’s stages of assimilation and accommo- gious Education 75 (3): 294–307. dation. Piaget enrolled in Montessori’s course in 1934 and became the first president of the Swiss Montessori Society. 117.Contributor Maria Montessori, The Montessori Method, trans. Anne Everett 119. Maria Montessori, The Child in the Church: Essays on the Religious George (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1912), 86, http://digital.library Education of Children and the Training of Character, ed. E. M. Standing (St. .upenn.edu/women/montessori/method/method.html. Paul, MN: Catechetical Guild, 1965), 44. 118. Ron Miller, “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational 120. Ibid., 55. Vision of Maria Montessori,” Encounter: Education for Meaning and Social 121. Ibid., 56. Justice 17, no. 2 (2004): 20. 122. Ibid., 55. Moore, Allen J. 837

Cossentino, J. 2005. “Ritualizing Expertise: A Non-Montesso- and Schools, National Association of Schools of Music rian View of the Montessori Method.” American Journal of (NASM), The Association for Biblical Higher Education Education 111 (February): 211–244. (ABHcE), Washington Higher Education Coordinating Elkind, D. 1967. “Piaget and Montessori.” Harvard Educational Board (HECB), Council of Christian Colleges and Uni- Review 37 (4): 535–545. versities—Affiliate member (CCCU), and the Associa- May, S. 2007. “Maria Montessori.” Christian Educators of the tion of Theological Schools (ATS). 20th Century. http://www.talbot.edu/ce20/educators/catholic/ MBI has a Chicago campus, a Spokane campus, re- maria_montessori/. gional classrooms (in Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Miller, R. 2004. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educa- Wisconsin), and an online presence. Current enrollment tional Vision of Maria Montessori.” Encounter: Education for statistics (2013) for Moody Bible Institute are 3,408 un- Meaning and Social Justice 17 (2): 14–21. dergraduates, 414 graduate students; and 1,255 continu- Montessori, M. 1912. The Montessori Method. Translated by ing education students, for a total enrollment of 5,077. Anne Everett George. New York: F. A. Stokes. http://digital Undergraduate (BA) degrees are offered in Bible, bib- .library.upenn.edu/women/montessori/method/method.html. lical studies, communications, educational ministries, ———, ed. 1965. E. M. Standing The Child in the Church: Essays missionary aviation technology, music, pastoral studies, on the Religious Education of Children and the Training of sports ministry and lifetime fitness,Only theology, and world Character. St. Paul, MN: Catechetical Guild. missions and evangelism. Graduate degrees offered in- ———. n.d. “Women’s Intellectual Contributions to the Study clude MD, MTh, and MA. of Mind and Society.” http://www.webster.edu/~woolflm/ Scripture Press grew out of the classrooms at MBI and montessori2.html. developed into a separate organization in 1933. Although “Montessori, Maria: A Brief Biography.” n.d. http://www it began with the production of Sunday school and vaca- .montessori-namta.org/NAMTA/geninfo/mmbio.html. tion Bible school curricula, today it publishes a broad Trabalzini, P. 2006. Personal communication with author, 5 spectrum of ministry-related literature. Moody Press October, at Opera Nazionale Montessori, Rome, Italy. began publishing Bibles in the late 1940s and began its —Scottie May textbook publishing program in 1955. Since the institute is a nonprofit organization, all revenue from the sale of CopyMoody Press books is rechanneled into other MBI Moody Bible Institute ministries. Moody Monthly magazine, formerly the Chris- tian Workers’ magazine, has a circulation of more than The Moody Bible Institute (MBI) is said to have begun in 200,000 each month. 1886 under the name Chicago Evangelization Society. In MBI does not charge tuition, and the school will not the summer of 1870, Dwight L. Moody met Emma Dryer, turn the earth on any new construction until the funds an educated woman who had a passion for ministry and have been raised for that addition. education. Dryer proposed the idea of a coeducational training institution in Chicago. The Bible classes were References and Resources first conducted in the temporary Northside Tabernacle Getz, Gene A. and James M, Vincent. 1986. MBI, the story of and eventually in the new YMCA building. Moody Bible Institute, Chicago, IL: Moody Press, On 5 February 1887, Moody met with a group in his —Larry H. Lindquist room at the Grand Pacific Hotel in Chicago, where a constitution for the school was presented and adopted. A committee was appointed to secure a charter, which bears Moore, Allen J. the date 12 February 1887. The stated design of the new institute in 1888 was “to give thorough instruction in the American educator and theologian Allen Moore con- Word of God, and practical training in the various forms sistently focuses on “discerning the presence of Christ of Christian work” (Getz and Vincent, 1986, 25). in the empirical, historical, and the social reality of the MBI began offering students a five-year BA degree world” (Moore 1967, 150). Significant issues addressed in in 1966 through a combination of courses at MBI and his work include young adults, sexuality, family, media, 60 hours of liberal arts courses at an accredited college religious education as an academic discipline, theological orContributor university. In 1986, MBI students could complete education, culture and religion, practical theology as a an entire BA degree in four years through an arrange- framework for religious education, Methodist education, ment with two Chicago-area universities. As of 2013, and Wesley studies. Born 7 September 1927 in Waco, accreditations and affiliations include the Higher Learn- Texas, Moore grew up in Methodist faith communities ing Commission–North Central Association of Colleges that integrated personal religious experience with social 838 Moore, Allen J. concern and mentored his religious calling, which led to tion for Ministry (APEM), earlier known as the Associa- his being licensed to preach at age 16. Major academic tion for Professors in Practical Fields (APPF). In 1978, he influences on Moore’s thought include Boston University received the Association for Theological Schools Award School of Theology (Donald Maynard, John for Theological Scholarship and Research. Green, Clifford Moore, Walter Holcomb, and L. Harold At Claremont, Moore developed the course Theology DeWolf), Seward Hiltner, Gibson Winter, Ross Snyder, and Human Sexuality, which was influential in shaping Mary Elizabeth Mullino Moore, George Albert Coe, Har- similar courses at other Methodist schools (Johnson- rison Elliott, George Herbert Mead, Reuel Howe, Lewis Siebold, 1999, 66). Moore’s work in sexuality and family Sherrill, and John Wesley. extended beyond the Claremont campus. From 1968 to Moore earned his undergraduate degree from South- 1972, he served as consultant to the U.S. Navy Chaplains western University in 1949, where he was introduced to Corps in family life, sexual development, and young religious education by B. F. Jackson (Johnson-Siebold adulthood. In 1970, Moore was the chair of the Research 1999, 64). He received his MA in sociology and psychol- Conference on the Future of the Family in St. Louis. Prior ogy of religion from Baylor University in 1950 and a BD to the 1972 General Conference of the United Methodist from Perkins School of Theology at Southern Methodist Church, Moore served as a member of the General Com- University in 1953 (Johnson-Siebold 1999, 64). In 1963, mittee on Family Life and chair of theOnly Drafting Commit- he completed his PhD at Boston University. During his tee on the Resolution on the Family (Moore 2003). doctoral studies, Moore became increasingly concerned Moore’s work on cultural and religious dynamics in about his grounds for understanding religious educa- young adult development significantly influenced sub- tion and came to see practical theology as offering the sequent research in that area (Foster 2003). During the needed framework, as he engaged the works of Ross “sexual revolution” he was one of the few theologians to Snyder and Seward Hiltner. His dissertation was en- reflect on human sexuality and willing to do so publicly titled “The Relation of Christian Education to Pastoral (Moore 1967). His work on the intersection of culture, Theology: With Reference to the Function-Centered education, and theology has become influential in un- Theology of Stewart Hiltner.” derstanding religious education as a mode of social re- During his PhD studies, Moore was the executive construction (Rogers 2003). Perhaps this is best captured administrator of the Denton Wesley Foundation and in ReligiousCopy Education as Social Transformation (Moore instructor in religion at North Texas State University 1989), in which he reclaims the social progressivism of and Texas Women’s University. In 1958, Moore be- George Albert Coe and Harrison Elliot and reenvisions came the director of young adult work and senior staff religious education in light of practical theology. Many of the National Young Adult Research Project of the see Moore’s leadership in recovering practical theology General Board of Education of the Methodist Church as one of his most important contributions to religious (Johnson-Siebold 1999, 65). During this time he was education. The use of cultural, religious, and educational the Methodist representative to the National Council categories not only helps to clarify social issues, but also of Churches’ Task Force on Human Sexuality and a to understand how educators facilitate the construction delegate to the White House Conference on Youth of meaning and alternative, faithful ways of living in in- (Johnson-Siebold 1999, 66). dividuals and communities of faith. In 1963, Moore joined the faculty of the School of The- ology at Claremont (now Claremont School of Theology, Most Notable Publications CST) and in1967 was promoted to professor of theology, Moore, A. J., J. L. Adams, H. Cox, Lynn, R. M. E. Marty, personality, and education. In 1988, Moore began service H. Moody, J. Pike, H. Rogers, and R. L. Rubenstein. 1967. as academic dean of CST and became vice president for “The Playboy Panel: Religion and the New Morality.” Play- academic affairs and dean, as well as E. Stanley Jones boy, June, 18–22. Professor of Christian Mission and Education in 1991. ———. 1969. The Young Adult Generation: A Perspective on the He also held an appointment as professor of religion at Future. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. the Claremont Graduate School. Moore retired from ———. 1976. “Choosing Values in a Media Environment.” En- Claremont in 1994. gage/Social Action 4 (6): 17–23. Moore has helped shape several scholarly organiza- ———. 1978. “Religious Education as Living Theology: Some tions.Contributor He was a founding member of the Association Reflections on the Contributions of Ross Snyder.” Religious of Professors and Researchers in Religious Education Education 73 (5): 541–550. (APRRE) and served as its vice president in 1969 and ———. 1984. “Religious Education as a Discipline.” In Chang- president in 1970 and 1971. Moore also served as vice ing Patterns of Religious Education, edited by M. J. Taylor, president of the Association for the Professional Educa- 89–105. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. Moore, Mary Elizabeth Mullino 839

———. 1987. “Teen-age Sexuality and Public Morality.” Chris- teaching and youth leadership. Though her church was tian Century 104 (25): 747–750. racially segregated, as a young person she held a firm ———. 1989. “A Social Theory of Religious Education.” In Re- conviction that segregation was wrong. Growing up in a ligious Education as Social Transformation, edited by A. J. church of 5,000 members made Mary Elizabeth acutely Moore, 39–61. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. aware that people with diverse experiences, perspec- ———. 1991. “Recovery of the Teaching office: Insights from tives, and backgrounds could live together harmoni- Education.” In By What Authority: A Conversation on Teach- ously. When Moore, being female, encountered unex- ing among United Methodists, edited by E. Box Price and pected discrimination while serving as president of her C. R. Foster, 155–176. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. district’s Methodist Youth Fellowship, she turned the ———. 1998. “Some Distinctive Characteristics of Methodist opposition into motivation, forging new opportunities Theological Education.” Quarterly Review 18 (3): 211–226. for the youth group. ———. 2003. “One Hundred Years of the Religious Education As a teen, life-shaping spiritual experiences at a girl’s Association.” Religious Education 98 (4): 426–436. camp, along with active participation in numerous church projects deepened Moore’s sense of call. While References and Resources thoughts of serving as a pastor emerged at this time, the Foster, Charles R. 2003. E-mail to author, 14 January. negative attitudes toward women Onlyin church leadership Johnson-Siebold, J., ed. 1999. “Personal Narratives about the prevented her seriously considering pursuing formal History of Methodist Christian Education in the Twenti- ministerial education. Instead, Moore chose psychology, eth Century.” United Methodist Association of Scholars in completing bachelor’s (1966) and master’s (1968) degrees Christian Education. Photocopy available at the General at Southern Methodist University (Dallas). Commission on Archives and History of the United Meth- Love of working with youth led Moore to acquire a odist Church, Drew University. position as education and youth assistant (1973) at the Moore, A. J. 1967. “The Playboy Panel: Religion and the New Trinity UMC in El Paso. Through this ministry role and Morality.” Playboy, June, 18–22. an eventful summer course in Christian education at ———. 2003. Telephone interview with R. G. Litchfield, 22 Perkins School of Theology, Moore came to recognize January. her calling to ordained ministry. Rogers, Frank. 2003. E-mail to author, 17 January. ACopy year later, Mary Elizabeth entered a seminary with —Randy G. Litchfield the intention of pursuing pastoral studies. However, a “nagging within” turned her attention toward doctoral studies in theology and education, which incorporated Moore, Mary Elizabeth Mullino her interests in systematic theology, religious education, and psychology. With fresh vocational clarity, Moore Mary Elizabeth Mullino Moore (1945–) is a teacher pursued further studies at Claremont School of Theology, and scholar of practical theology and religious educa- earning a masters in religious education (1977) and PhD tion from North America. Her early passion for justice, in theology and education (1981). In 1976, Mary Eliza- equality, and harmony amid diversity propelled her into beth married Allen J. Moore, professor of theology, per- a vocation of advancing the unifying cause of Christ. sonality, and education at Claremont School of Theology. Her compassionate vision and prophetic voice offer wisdom and hope for sustaining and expanding the Contributions to Christian Education world-repairing work of Christian religious education The Jewish concept tikun olam, “to repair the world,” in the 21st century. which represents God’s call for human response to the brokenness of creation, is the driving force behind Early Background and Education Moore’s leadership in Christian education. This purpose Mary Elizabeth was born on 16 January 1945 and was defines her life’s work: educating for justice, compassion, baptized as an infant. She grew up in a large United peace, and harmonious unity amid diversity. Methodist congregation in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Al- Moore taught at Claremont School of Theology, then though she wished for siblings, close relationships with Candler School of Theology (1999–2008), and in 2009 her parents as well as aunts, uncles, and cousins served began working in her current position as dean and pro- asContributor the formative spiritual experience through which she fessor of theology and education at Boston University came to know God’s love as an abiding presence. School of Theology. Moore resonated deep spiritual attunement in her Mary Elizabeth’s publications, written over 30 years, youth through active participation in Sunday school include 10 books as well as numerous book chapters, 840 Moral and Ethical Development journal articles, dictionary articles, works of poetry and History visual media, teaching resources, and book reviews. In Plato, whose work included some of the earliest treat- Education for Continuity and Change (1983), she put ments of morality and ethics, asserted the goodness forward a “traditioning” model of Christian education of virtue, or justice. He insisted that this ideal was an that invites novelty and creativity through critical en- absolute value that remained fixed and unchanging, re- gagement with and among the past, present, and future. gardless of context, and that the ideal of justice could be Within the academy, Moore has sponsored numerous taught by asking appropriate questions to help illuminate religious forums addressing critical issues such as youth truth. This pedagogical technique of Socratic question- spirituality, justice, ecological sustainability, ecumenical ing, as opposed to providing answers, was intended to and interfaith dialogue, and women in leadership. Her lead learners to uncover truth for themselves (Kohlberg leadership roles within the United Methodist Church 1970). Aristotle also subscribed to the notion of virtue include deacon (1997–present), diaconal minister (1977– and maintained that inherent in each human life was the 1997), and minister of Christian education and board of potential to realize one’s purpose, to which he referred ordained ministry (1996–2005). as an ultimate good. Ethical development involved the Her leadership in professional guilds is marked by a process of coming to know and understand the self and, longing for ecumenical and interfaith connections and commensurately, to know and understandOnly what thoughts collaboration, expanding frontline engagement with peace and actions would lead to the realization of one’s unique and justice movements, broadening public discourse via telic purpose (Palmer 2001). Later, St. Augustine posited a public church, birthing transformative pedagogies, and that the nature of humankind is to both want and not empowering the advancement of practical theology. Her want what is good, that is, God’s will. By God’s grace, service as president (1997–1998) of the Association of then, an individual may join his or her will with the Professors and Researchers in Religious Education, presi- purposes of God, resulting in the resolution of the innate dent (1998–2002) of the Association of Practical Theology, conflict between the human desires (Wetzel 2008). president (1999–2001) of the International Academy of Practical Theology, and president and chair (1989–1994) Common Theories of the Board of Directors for the Religious Education Asso- The notion of morality and ethics as an expression of ciation is just an example of her extensive guild leadership. characterCopy that is developed from one’s sense of purpose Her research projects and extensive service on editorial and, similarly, unique private identity, has continued boards, such as of the International Journal of Practical to be woven throughout contemporary discussions. Theology (2002–present), the British Journal of Religious Erikson (e.g., 1968) believed that adolescence marked a Education (2003–present), and the Journal of Religious reorganization of the individual’s sense of identity. This Education (Australia, 1998–present), further demon- developmental stage was characterized by introspection strate her influence. and was successfully resolved when the individual could make commitments to meaningful personal beliefs that Most Notable Publications were consistent with one’s sense of self. Erikson main- Moore, Mary Elizabeth Mullino. 1983. Education for Continu- tained that negotiating this task resulted in the acquisi- ity and Change: A Traditioning Model for Christian Religious tion of the ego strength of integrity, or being true to Education. Nashville, TN: Abingdon. oneself (Bergen 2008). ———. 2004. Teaching as a Sacramental Act. Cleveland, OH: In his observational studies, Piaget (1965) crafted a Pilgrim. theory of moral development postulating that children Moore, Mary, Elizabeth Mullino, and Almeda Wright. 2008. developed increasingly sophisticated understandings of Children, Youth, and Spirituality in a Troubling World. St. morality as they interacted with others in games with Louis, MO: Chalice Press. rules. Children moved from an initial stage of blindly ac- —Beverly C. Johnson-Miller cepting any rule to a final stage in which they were able to negotiate rules in a manner perceived as just. Building upon Piaget, Kohlberg’s (1970) theory of moral develop- Moral and Ethical Development ment borrowed from a Platonic framework, asserting not that children should be taught what morality was, but in- “MoralContributor and ethical development” broadly refers to the stead that they should be challenged to discover morality, systematic development of character. This character de- or justice, through a process of introspection. Kohlberg’s velopment is specifically focused on discerning what is theory presupposed progressive stages: preconventional, good and selecting an appropriate course of correspond- which focused on punishment and reward; conventional, ing action (Palmer 2001). which focused on good behavior to protect one’s social Moral Philosophy 841 image; and postconventional, which focused on virtue in Moral Philosophy the form of justice for all people as the highest form of ethical behavior (Bergen 2008). Moral philosophy involves the analysis of concepts of right and wrong, good and evil, virtue and vice, justice Kohlberg and Christian Applications and injustice, as well as law, crime, and punishment. Al- Although highly influential, Kohlberg’s work has been though generally pertaining to the behavior of humans, criticized for promoting individual human judgments it encompasses moral theory and applied ethics. Meta- about right and wrong behavior over more orthodox cri- ethics or moral theory is the theoretical meaning and teria. Without doubt, Christian educators share an interest reference of the good, the right, the just, and the virtuous; in explicitly teaching Christian values in their work with applied ethics governs applications rather than theory. learners. This common interest, along with a sincere desire Ethics seeks to resolve questions dealing with human mo- to follow Christian precepts, calls for a careful examination rality: concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, of these Christian ideals. Kohlberg’s preconventional stage virtue and vice, crime and punishment. of morality does not seem inconsistent with the apostle Moral theory (meta-ethics) is the study of higher the- Paul’s description of the Law of Moses and its purpose oretical questions about the subject matter of ethics. as a precursor to faith. In fact, Paul noted that these rules Among the questions of meta-ethicsOnly are those that con- passed down from God to Moses for His people served as sider whether there are any moral truths, whether morality a guardian, or disciplinarian, until the Messiah came to is objective, whether morality can be known, and whether make justification by faith possible (Gal. 3:23–24). More- it amounts to anything more than mere consensus or a over, Jesus protested bitterly against Pharisaical adherence perverse attempt to derive an “ought” from an “is.” to the letter of the Law when doing so contradicted the A principal source of doubt among contemporary underlying intent of the Law (e.g., Matt. 23:23–39). This ethicists can be linked to David Hume’s view that “ought” complaint suggested a deep dissatisfaction with the focus statements should not be derived from “is” statements,123 of morality that is typical of Kohlberg’s conventional and that there is nothing rational about ethics in general.124 stage. Finally, Christ provided several examples of a moral Cognitivism and noncognitivism are questions that relate philosophy that were considered quite scandalous by the to this moral skepticism. Noncognitivism is the claim religious leaders of His time. For instance, Jesus repeatedly thatCopy when we regard something as right or wrong, this is violated expectations regarding appropriate behavior on neither true nor false. We are in the business of expressing the Sabbath, in a manner that is very reminiscent of Kohl- emotions about these matters. Aside from David Hume, berg’s postconventional stage of moral development (e.g., A. J. Ayer, in Language, Truth and Logic (1936), and Matt. 9:2–8; Mark 2:27). Arguably, Christian educators can C. L. Stevenson125 also propose this theory. This position help to facilitate moral and ethical development by pre- has been derided as the “boo-hurrah” theory of ethics. senting learners with multiple and repeated opportunities Cognitivism can be seen as the claim that when we to consider the teachings of Christ. talk about right and wrong, we are talking about matters of fact and contingently also matters that are real and References and Resources knowable. Critics of emotivism point out that there are Bergen, D. 2008. Human Development: Traditional and Con- often differences between statements of feeling and moral temporary Theories. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Pren- statements, though they may sometimes overlap. For ex- tice Hall. ample, the sentence “Slavery was good in ancient Rome” Erikson, E. H. 1968. Identity, Youth and Crisis. New York: has two senses: one describing the attitudes of ancient Norton. Rome and another suggesting that slavery was objectively Kohlberg, L. K. 1970. “Education for Justice: A Modern State- good in ancient Rome, which need not follow from the ment of the Platonic View.” In Five Lectures on Moral Educa- view that most people may have felt it was a good at that tion, edited by N. Sizer and T. Sizer, 57–60. Cambridge, MA: time. In other words, there is a difference between the Harvard University Press. attitudes and feelings of the time and moral statements. Palmer, D. 2001. Looking at Philosophy. 3rd ed. Mountain Many of our moral statements aim to be objective, not View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company. Piaget, J. 1965. The Moral Judgment of the Child. New York: Norton. 123. David Hume, 1739: A Treatise of Human Nature, 2nd ed., ed. L. A. Contributor Selby-Bigge and P. H. Nidditch (New York: Oxford University Press). See Wetzel, J. 2008. “Augustine.” In The Oxford Handbook of Reli- Treatise III, 1, i, 469. gion and Emotion, edited by J. Corrigan, 349–363. New York: 124. David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, ed. Tom Beauchamp (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1751). Oxford University Press. 125. C. L. Stevenson, Ethics and Language (New Haven, CT: Yale Uni- —Angela L. Watson versity Press, 1944). 842 Moral Philosophy merely statements of feeling. Furthermore, although our Utilitarianism rejects the view that the end does not statements may sometimes have an element of feeling or justify the means. Indeed, the theory regards the end recommendation, they need not always have this qual- as of key importance. Elizabeth Anscombe (a Christian ity. It is sometimes thought that G. E. Moore’s Principia Cambridge philosopher) dubbed the theory consequen- Ethica (1903) proposed the naturalistic fallacy. Moore tialist126 because of its propensity to use any means to was seen to reject naturalism in ethics, in his “Open achieve better ends and criticized the theory as unjust. Question Argument.” However, Moore’s idealism took (This is called the argument from injustice.) There are the objection in another direction, locating morality out- act utilitarians and rule utilitarians, maximizers, satifi- side the human person. It therefore cannot be seen as like cers, preference utilitarians, hedonistic utilitarians, and Hume’s, Ayer’s, or Stevenson’s account. Noncognitivism social utilitarians, like John Stuart Mill. All agree that is certainly at odds with the natural law tradition (which ethics is a calculus and the Pauline principle, or the idea finds its expression in many cultures, at many times, and that the end does not justify the means, a nonsense. is thus often referred to as the philosophia perennis). Utilitarianism is therefore at odds with those theories It is also at odds with espoused by many that insist, at some level or other, that there are morally writing in the Aristotelian and Thomistic traditions. Vir- significant distinctions to be drawn between intention tue ethics, generally an extension of the Aristotelian tra- and foresight, acts and omissions, andOnly matters govern- dition, the Thomistic tradition, and the natural law tra- ing the human virtues, which may be undermined by dition, is also at odds with noncognitivism about ethics. ad hoc determinations of maximific value, particularly Likewise, the Kantian tradition is also generally regarded when there are fundamental problems with performing as not hostile to Christianity; it seeks to supply a categori- the calculus. cal imperative to allow some objectivity in moral decision Christian teachers need to be aware of the history of making. Unlike the Aristotelian and Thomistic tradition, moral philosophy if their teachings are not to fall into it is not teleological in character. In some ways, however, irrelevance. Students, often immersed in modes of think- its requirement that a man “act only according to that ing that deserve reasoned responses, may be oblivious to maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it the arguments that Christian moral philosophers them- should become a universal law without contradiction” is selves supply. The natural law tradition, virtue ethics, not dissimilar to the Christian “do unto others” principle. and ThomisticCopy tradition, incorporating the development Perhaps the most important and influential contem- of a genuine as distinct from a faux human rights ethic, porary normative ethic is utilitarianism. According to are among the ways that supply a coherent foundation this theory, ethics is ultimately an exercise in calculation. for understanding right and wrong, good and evil, virtue Although not skeptical in character, it is not clear what it and vice. Divine revelation amplifies the natural moral is that should be maximized, minimized, or “satisficed,” law and explains most fully how individuals, families, and and this fact has raised a catalog of objections, from arbi- societies are best ordered to attain their true end, which trariness, to incommensurability, to contingency, which is, according to Christian doctrine, union with God. suggest that the calculations promised by utilitarians conceptually and practically cannot in fact be performed. References and Resources The dominant moral theory of our time in the West, it Anscombe, G. E. M. 1958. “Modern Moral Philosophy.” Phi- is often rejected by thinkers writing in the natural law, losophy 33: 1–19. virtue ethics, and Kantian traditions as suffering from a Aquinas, T. 1920. The “Summa Theologica” of St. Thomas Aqui- number of defects. The foremost of these is that it appears nas Literally Translated by Fathers of the English Dominican to suffer from injustice. If a moral agent must always Province. London: Burns, Oates and Washbourne. maximize, it would appear that he or she is constrained Ayer, A. J. (1936) 1952. “Critique of Ethics and Theology.” In to maximize good consequences at the expense of justice. Language, Truth and Logic. New York: Dover Publications. Thus a sheriff faced with a riot if an innocent man is not Hare, R. M. 1952. The Language of Morals. Oxford: Clarendon lynched would be obliged to hang the innocent on this Press. account. Although the utilitarian is wont to alter his or Hume, David. 1739. A Treatise of Human Nature. 2nd ed. Edited her act-utilitarianism to a rule-uilitarianism, it fails to ac- by L. A. Selby-Bigge and P. H. Nidditch. Oxford: Clarendon count for what really is wrong with killing the innocent, Press. whichContributor in addition to longer-term bad consequences like ———. 1751. An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals. undermining faith in the sheriff and the law, also con- Edited by Tom Beauchamp. Oxford: Oxford University Press. stitutes an attack on the innocent, who has a dignity all of his own. All manner of injustice appears to be neces- 126. G. E. M. Anscombe, “Modern Moral Philosophy,” Philosophy 33 sitated in the name of maximizing good consequences. (1958): 1–19. Morality as Human Flourishing 843

Laing, Jacqueline A., and Russell Wilcox. 2013. The Natural between students on specific topics. The earliest texts Law Reader. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. came from Scotland or England, most prominently Wil- Moore, G. E. (1912) 2005. “Editor’s Introduction.” In Ethics, liam Paley’s Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy edited by William Shaw. Oxford: Clarendon Press. (1785), which upheld utilitarianism. Eventually these Stevenson, C. L. (1937) 1963. “The Emotive Meaning of Ethical were replaced by American texts that addressed conten- Terms.” In Facts and Values. New Haven, CT: Yale Univer- tious social issues, such as the moral status of slavery, sity Press. usually discussed in a chapter on property. Usually they ———. 1944. Ethics and Language. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni- were didactic manuals, in which practical concerns took versity Press. prominence over theoretical speculation. —Jacqueline Laing Among the most widely used text was The Elements of Moral Science (1835) by Brown University’s president, Francis Wayland. As the title suggests, Wayland and Moral Philosophy as Capstone Course many others who authored such texts argued for a “scien- tific” understanding of public and private morality. Way- American colleges and universities during the late 18th land considered moral philosophy “the science which and early 19th centuries featured a required senior classifies and illustrates moral law.”Only Influenced by think- capstone course on moral philosophy. It was typically ers such as Joseph Butler and Scottish commonsense re- taught by the college’s president, who often was a cler- alists, Wayland and others gave a prominent place to the gyman. It was intended as the climax of the curriculum, role of conscience, seen as a “moral faculty” by which “we providing an integrated interpretation of life and “a last discern the moral quality of actions” and become aware word of advice” before students entered the workforce. of our obligations. These thinkers generated detailed According to Frederick Rudolph, the course “justified” “rules for conduct” in relation to God and to our fellow and “rationalized” the entire curriculum by asserting the human beings in every sphere of life. For Wayland, since “unity of knowledge” and “sent the young graduates out the “Author of the Universe” is the same “Author of the into the world with a reassuring sense of their fitness to Scriptures,” it follows that “the truths of revealed religion play a role in upholding the moral order.”127 In the 19th harmonize perfectly with those of natural religion.” Some century, Daniel Gros of Columbia College stated that recentCopy scholars argue that these Protestant moral phi- the goal of this course was “to instill into the minds of losophers who developed “the science of duty” reflected a youth . . . the principles of morality and rectitude which culturally necessary project that attempted to harmonize will given them a true and happy direction in the pur- the rise of Enlightenment science with the chief tenets of suit of all public and private virtues, and by the exercise Protestant theology. According to Allen Guelzo, their ef- of which they may become useful to themselves, good fort “to scientize and naturalize Christian ethics” formed members of society, and ornaments to their country.”128 part of a strategy to demonstrate that “the inner world of Therefore, the course blended moral exhortation with human conduct was also governed by scientific principles examination of the full range of human relations and that wholly accorded with Christianity.”129 social, political, and economic institutions. It reflected —Jeffrey P. Greenman the strongly Protestant and evangelical consensus of American higher education in this period by its empha- sis on inculcating Christian virtue into a publicly non- Morality as Human Flourishing Christian society. After the Civil War, factors such as the growth of specialized academic knowledge, the shift What if the purpose of a school was to make students in faculty members’ focus toward research rather than happy? Or rather, to train them to become adults who instruction, and the introduction of the free elective knew what happiness was? For 3,000 years eudemonia, system gradually led to the widespread abandonment of or happiness in the sense of human flourishing, has been the moral philosophy capstone. advocated as a vision for moral development, and it is The course was taught with very significant reliance advocated as a central goal within Christian education on a main textbook, supplemented by the teacher’s lec- (Langer, Hall, and McMartin 2010). tures and personal commentary as well as formal debates While happiness, in the Aristotelian use of the word, Contributor is distinctly different from hedonism, the pursuit of plea- 127. Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum: A History of the American Under- graduate Courses of Study since 1636 (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1977), 5. 129. Allen C. Guelzo, “‘The Science of Duty’: Moral Philosophy and the 128. Mills, Barry. 2001. “President’s Speeches and Remarks.” Bow- Epistemology of Science in Nineteeth-Century America,” in Evangelicals doin College. http://www.bowdoin.edu/president/speeches/2001/convoca and Science in Historical Perspective, ed. David N. Livingstone, D. G. Hart, tion-01, n.p. and Mark Noll (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 271–272. 844 Morality as Human Flourishing sure, modern positive psychologists and ancient philoso- Beauty and Justice phers state that people want to be happy and to flourish Third, the curriculum must train students to experience in life (Spears and Loomis 2009). Because flourishing in and reflect on justice and beauty, because these twin excel- life is an innate human desire, White (2007, 25) argues lences will train students to transcend themselves (Garrett that “one of the purposes of education in a democratic 2009). “Beauty draws us away from ourselves toward God society is to equip people for a flourishing life.” and our fellow human beings” (Garrett 2009, 154). Beauty can inspire the imagination to envision greater good for Human Purpose humanity. Great art, because it can inspire the imagina- Human flourishing is based on the idea that everything tion through its depiction of the beauty inherent in life, has a central purpose. The purpose of a pair of scissors can instill in students the virtues of honesty, humility, and is to cut. When that purpose is achieved, self-fulfillment, courage, which lead to human flourishing (Evans 2009). and therefore flourishing, is achieved. While humans possess greater complexity than a pair of scissors, they Freedom of Choice still have a central purpose to fulfill. Entwistle and Mo- Fourth, human flourishing is best achieved when stu- roney (2011), in an integration of positive psychology dents experience the freedom to choose their own des- and theology, define human purpose as reflecting the tiny. Hart (2009, 392) notes that “a significantOnly aspect of Imago Dei, the image of God to the world. Human flour- well-being is related to an individual’s freedom to choose ishing is achieved when an individual fulfills her or his in what way to promote their sense of well-being from a destiny by reflecting God. set of ‘capabilities.’” To train students to achieve their central purpose and flourish as human beings, several factors must be in- Purpose and Meaning in Life cluded in Christian education. Sheldon (2009) states that Fifth, Cooling (2011, 23) states that “flourishing is in- human flourishing must be viewed as a complex process, timately associated with finding meaning and purpose with many interconnected levels and factors. in life.” Students need a greater life purpose than finan- cial success or material well-being (Langer, Hall, and Virtue McMartin 2010). Within Christian education, students First, human flourishing can only be achieved if students can beCopy taught to discover their purpose and meaning develop an excellence in character. Aristotle (1962) divided by connecting their life narratives to the story of God excellence, or virtue, into two categories: intellectual virtue found in the Bible. and moral virtue. Virtue will lead to human flourishing because “virtues characterize human activities that cohere Suffering with human design” (Langer, Hall, and McMartin 2010, A final area is suffering. According to Bauer, McAdams, 354). Intellectual virtues, such as humility and courage, and Pals (2008), suffering individuals can create purpose facilitate the innate purpose of human reasoning. Moral and meaning in their lives by constructing narratives of virtue is “a state of moral excellence consistent with the human flourishing based on redemptive themes. By recog- design purposes of the human beings” (Spears and Loo- nizing the redemptive themes within their life narratives, mis 2009, 213). Aquinas delineated four primary moral suffering becomes a pathway to transformation. By recog- virtues, from which all other moral standards are derived: nizing suffering as the plan of God in their lives, it becomes prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude. Character a pathway to a greater understanding of God and their development in Christian education can be based on these place in the world. Suffering can also point to sin, realign virtues because they are transcendent, comprehensive, worldviews, and produce excellence in character (Hall, and authoritative. When habits based on these virtues are Langer, and McMartin 2010). Cooling (2011) furthers this learned and practiced during childhood, moral character is discussion by emphasizing the importance of including an formed, which in turn will create human flourishing. eternal orientation within Christian education.

Community of Caring Impact on Christian Education Second, students must be in a community of caring in Human flourishing as moral development impacts Chris- which they see virtue modeled by their teachers and have tian education in two significant areas. First, it gives opportunitiesContributor to practice virtue through service learning Christian education a clear distinction from secular and simple rituals. When virtue is taught through repeti- education. The purpose of many public schools today is tive physical experiences, the desires of the student are to create students who “can compete well in the global formed, and her or his imagination becomes oriented economy” (Evans 2009, 82). The effect of this limited toward virtue (Smith 2009). educational vision is standardized schools, technical Moran, Gabriel 845 studies, and success based solely on improvement in Research.” Studies in Philosophy and Education 28: 391–402. yearly quantitative test scores (Spears and Loomis 2009). doi:10.1007/s11217-009-9128-4. Christian education rejects this educational vision as un- Langer, Richard, M. Elizabeth Lewis Hall, and Jason McMartin. worthy of students or educators, and instead advocates 2010. “Human Flourishing: The Context for Character De- training each student to become “a better person through velopment in Christian Higher Education.” Christian Higher the development of knowledge, skills, sentiments, virtues Education 9: 336–360. doi:10.1080/1563759.2010.492738. and wisdom” (Spears and Loomis 2009, 176). Christian Sheldon, K. M. (2009). Providing the scientific backbone for education is unique in its aspiration to provide each stu- positive psychology: A multi-level conception of human dent with a personal sense of calling and a transcendent thriving. Psychological Topics, 18, 267–284. understanding of one’s place in the universe. Smith, James K. A. 2009. Desiring the Kingdom: Worship, Second, human flourishing has practical implications. Worldview, and Cultural Formation. Grand Rapids, MI: Teachers are chosen based on their moral virtue and abil- Baker Academic. ity to create caring communities. Curriculum includes Spears, Paul D., and Steven R. Loomis. 2009. Education rigorous standards that not only correlate with a human’s for Human Flourishing: A Christian Perspective. Downers innate ability to reason, but also emphasize literature, art, Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. and music because of their ability to inspire students to White, John. 2007. “Well-Being and Education:Only Issues of Cul- transcend their generation and appreciate eternal beauty ture and Authority.” Journal of Philosophy of Education 41 and justice. Practical wisdom and the ability to critically (1): 17–28. question underlining assumptions are an integral part of —Wendy Lundberg the methodology. In addition, service-learning opportuni- ties are utilized to turn virtuous habits into lifelong prac- tices. Finally, assessments are quantitative and qualitative, Moran, Gabriel in order to measure mastery of content, virtuous character, and a student’s deepening understanding of her or his life American Dr. Gabriel Moran (b. 1935) is professor purpose. Through these practical procedures, Christian emeritus in the Department of Humanities and the Social education can transform its students, to create flourishing Sciences at New York University, a Roman Catholic, and humans capable of achieving Aristotelian happiness. a prolificCopy scholar and teacher in the areas of Christian and religious education. References and Resources Moran was born in New Hampshire. He attended the Aristotle. 1962. The Nichomachean Ethics. Translated by Mar- University of New Hampshire and the Catholic Univer- tin Oswald. New York: Bobs-Merrill. sity of America (Washington, DC) where, in 1958, he Bauer, Jack J., Daniel P. McAdams, and Jennifer L. Pals. 2008. graduated Phi Beta Kappa and summa cum laude with a “Narrative Identity and Eudaimonic Well-Being.” Journal of BA in philosophy. Between 1954 and 1985, Moran was a Happiness Studies 9: 81–104. vowed member of the religious order of Christian Broth- Cooling, Trevor. 2011. “Transforming Faith: Teaching as a ers. He earned an MA and PhD, both in religious educa- Christian Vocation in a Secular Worldview-Diverse Cul- tion, from the Catholic University of America. ture.” Journal of Education & Christian Belief 14 (1): 19–32. Moran’s university teaching career began in 1962, Entwistle, David N., and Stephen K. Moroney. 2011. “Integra- instructing undergraduate philosophy and theology at tive Perspectives on Human Flourishing: The Imago Deo De La Salle College (Washington, DC). He later taught and Positive Psychology.” Journal of Psychology and Theol- graduate theology, religious education, and the history of ogy 39 (4): 295–303. education at Manhattan College (Bronx, NY), New York Evans, William. 2009. “Iris Murdoch, Liberal Education and Theological Seminary, and New York University. He Human Flourishing.” Journal of Philosophy of Education 43 held visiting professorships at more than 20 institutions (1): 75–84. and has extensive administrative experience (director of Garrett, Stephen M. 2009. “Beauty as the Point of Connection graduate theology at Manhattan College, president of the Between Theology and Ethics.” European Journal of Theology Brothers of the Christian Schools, director of the Institute 20 (2): 149–158. of Religious Education at Boston College, and chair of the Hall, M. Elizabeth Lewis, Richard Langer, and Jason McMartin. cultural foundations department at NYU). Contributor2010. “The Role of Suffering in Human Flourishing: Contri- butions from Positive Psychology, Theology, and Philoso- Contributions to Christian and Religious Education phy.” Journal of Psychology and Theology 28 (2): 111–121. Moran is interested in a crucial set of questions that chal- Hart, Caroline Sarojini. 2009. “Quo Vadis? The Capability lenges assumptions to facilitate clearer, deeper conversa- Space and New Directions for the Philosophy of Educational tions, exploring a history and geography of terms and 846 More, Hannah how we use them when arguing for, against, and through and, in turn, itself. It is motivated by a with-end-and- our changing, often competing, views of Christian and without-end interplay. It proceeds by a hermeneutics of religious education. For Moran, the aim is transforma- suspicion, in order to bring to the surface and critique tion: education as revelation. Among his influences is the reasons and how we think and act the way we do. Karl Rahner and his mentor, Gerard Sloyan, who helped Not swayed by party politics, it investigates assumption, him critically engage a changing ecclesiology. The great- bias, meaning, and context, but does so in small dosages est influence on him was his wife, Maria Harris, who and for the right reasons. These language forms illustrate challenged him to explore the rich bond of incarnational Moran’s philosophy that no one holds a monopoly on theology and religious education, uniting curriculum and education. Moran (2008) says: transformative learning. Perhaps the most important lesson is that history is not The Potency of Language: Interplay and Revelation a straight line of progress and that the relation between teaching and learning remains problematic. The purpose Language is the conduit to intelligibility; it structures of engaging a variety of writers from other times and how we see the world and makes it understandable. For other places is not to find confirmation of what the reader Ludwig Wittgenstein (1954), the potency of language lies already thinks. It is rather to make the reader aware that in inter/outer relationships with other words and mean- there may be other ways of seeing the issueOnly that are worth ings—its family resemblances—much like traits inherited considering . . . . “[T]eaching” is showing someone how to and/or skipped from relatives. For Moran, this potency live, including how to die. is accessed through interplay—a creative wrestling of the meaning and legitimacy of words and thinking trajecto- References and Resources ries. Teaching is showing someone how to do something, Moran, G. 1979. Interplay: Religion and Education. Winona, how to choreograph the mind and body. MN: St. Mary’s Press. ———. 1986. “Interest in Philosophy: Three Themes for Reli- Teaching the Conversation: Three Language Forms gious Education.” Religious Education 81 (3): 424–445. To teach the conversation of emergent revelation, Moran ———. 1989. Religious Education as a Second Language. Bir- identifies three language forms. mingham, AL: Religious Education Press. ———.Copy 1996. A Grammar of Responsibility . New York: Cross- Homiletic road Press. The purpose of homiletic language is to show someone ———. 1997. Showing How: The Act of Teaching. Valley Forge: the anticipated goal or finish line (telos). This teaching Trinity Press. language is motivated by an end-in-view approach. It is ———. 2002. Both Sides: The Story of Revelation. New York: used in sermons, catechetical directories, lectures, and Paulist Press. storytelling. It tells a story of inspiration and imagina- ———. 2007. Fashioning a People Today: The Educational In- tion and charges people to move from words to deeds. sights of Maria Harris. New London, CT: Twenty-Third. Though a worthwhile form of pedagogy, it must not ———. 2008. Speaking of Teaching: Lessons from History. Lan- be the sole language employed. Otherwise, this idolatry ham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. breeds stagnation, exclusivity, and fear tactics rather than ———. 2009. Believing in a Revealing God. Collegeville, MN: integration, fellowship, and growth. The Liturgical Press. ———. 2011. Living Nonviolently: Language for Resisting Vio- Therapeutic lence. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. The purpose of therapeutic language is to show someone Parmach, R. 2011. “Interplay: The Life and Legacy of Ga- the possibility of healing, renewed strength, and a return briel Moran.” http://www2.talbot.edu/ce20/educators/view to wholeness (integrity). This teaching language is mo- .cfm?n=gabriel_moran. tivated by a no-end-in-view approach. It is teaching to Wittgenstein, Ludwig. 1954. Philosophical Investigations, trans- remove obstacles and grounded in counseling, spiritual lated by G. E. M. Anscombe (1953) direction, and therapeutic models. Its tone centers on —Robert J. Parmach praise, thanksgiving, confession, forgiveness, mourning, and emotional assessment. According to Moran (1997), “theContributor aim is not achieving an object of choice but reestab- More, Hannah lishing the ability to choose.” British author and educational and moral reformer Academic Hannah More (1745–1833) was a precocious child, who The purpose of academic language is to show someone at age four taught herself to read by listening to her how to reflect upon homiletic and therapeutic languages older sister. By her early teens, she knew French, Latin, Motivation for Learning 847

Italian, and Spanish. When only 13, More joined her women to inadequate education and produced morally older sisters to form a boarding school for educating indifferent and intellectually inferior wives and mothers. young women in Bristol. At the age of 17, she composed Strictures was directed to upper-class women, though its her first major work, Sacred Dramas (1782), based on popularity spread to middle class readers as well. More’s five Old Testament stories, to instruct her students in premise was that women could influence the behavior of the importance of morality. Visits to London brought men, but they first must be morally reformed themselves. about new friendships with the literary elite, including Her broad corpus of writings included many dramas; a Dr. Samuel Johnson. highly successful and popular novel, Coelebs in Search of More experienced a spiritual awakening sometime in a Wife (1808); and the Cheap Repository Tracts (1795– the late 1780s that reflected strong evangelical convic- 1798). More contributed 49 of the 114 tracts, which tions. She was influenced by the writings of Richard stressed the importance of morality and the “reformation Hooker, Richard Baxter, and Philip Doddridge. Also sig- of manners” in her native England. These tracts served nificant was her reading of John Newton’s Cardiphonia. as an impetus for the Religious Tract Society, founded Once she had heard Newton preach, she began reading in 1799. More had many critics, often due to her socially his sermons, and he became one of her primary spiri- conservative writings and efforts to enforce a higher tual counselors. More was also very appreciative of the moral standard reflecting the teachingsOnly of scripture. She poetry of William Cowper, who with Newton produced was attacked by some for her subversive behavior, which the Olney Hymns (1779). Her friendship with William encouraged women to read and to speak out in public as Wilberforce and other members of the Clapham Sect sen- she herself was doing, yet within the structures of patri- sitized her moral convictions. Reflective of her growing archy. This, in part, earned her the derisive title “bishop evangelical piety, which stressed active engagement with in petticoats.” More struggled physically throughout her the world, Hannah and her sister, Martha (Patty), were life and spent her last 20 several years in declining health. motivated to establish a school for poor children in Men- Nonetheless, she left a powerful legacy that emphasized dip in 1789. The example of the charity schools of Robert a biblical morality that sought to abolish slavery and re- Raikes and Sarah Trimmer, combined with Wilberforce’s form the manners of especially upper-class citizens. personal urging, inspired the sisters to develop a school in a region that was marked by poverty and inadequately ReferencesCopy and Resources served by local clergy. While the evangelicals of the Demers, Patricia. 1996. The World of Hannah More. Lexington: Church of England supported Sunday school, the more University Press of Kentucky. conservative wing perceived it as dangerous, because it Ford, Charles H. 1996. Hannah More: A Critical Biography. resembled the more “enthusiastic” piety of expanding New York: Peter Lang. Methodism. The sisters’ successful initial effort was soon More, Hannah. n.d. Strictures on the Modern System of Female expanded to 12 schools. The curriculum focused on the Education (various editions). development of reading to foster greater awareness of Stott, Anne. 2003. Hannah More: The First Victorian. Oxford: morality while intentionally neglecting instruction in Oxford University Press. writing, for fear it would create greater awareness of their Wolffe, John. 2007. The Expansion of Evangelicalism. Downers poverty. The Bible and the hymns of Isaac Watts were Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. central to the curriculum, which recognized that children —Tom Schwanda learn best when education is enjoyable. To encourage this atmosphere, physical punishment and rote learning were avoided in favor of dialogical education. Additional Motivation for Learning classes were later established in the evening for adults to learn sewing and knitting. Initially More faced criticism Educators since the beginning of time have blamed from the local farmers, who feared that education would lack of motivation for students’ low performance and weaken the discipline and production of the children, underachievement. Students lacking motivation are who would want to improve their position in life. often told: “You did not try hard enough.” However, More’s most significant publication on education students who are properly motivated “display interests was her two-volume Strictures on the Modern System in activities, work diligently, feel more confident, stick ofContributor Female Education: With a View of the Principles and with tasks, and perform well“ (Schunk, Pintrich and Conduct Prevalent among Women of Rank and Fortune Meece 2008, 3). Whether the educational setting is secu- (1799), which went through seven editions in its first lar or Christian, motivation is something teachers want year of publication alone. This book, which reflected her students to demonstrate. What is motivation? Can it be evangelical theology, accurately diagnosed the context of taught or developed? What are Christian principles and late 18th-century culture, which restricted the average models of motivation? 848 Motivation for Learning

Definitions The writers of the Epistles also referred to spiritual or The term “motivation” comes from the Latin word mo- motivational growth. Paul referred to the growth process vere, meaning “to move.” Therefore, one definition of when he wrote, “When I was a child, I spoke as a child, I motivation is “something that gets us going” (Schunk, thought as a child, I reasoned as a child. When I became a Pintrich, and Meece 2008). Good and Brophy define man a put childish ways behind me” (1 Cor. 13:11, NIV). motivation as “a hypothetical construct used to explain Earlier in 1 Corinthians, Paul referred to baby Christians the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of goal who were saved by grace but still infants in Christ, not directed behavior” (1990, 360). ready for solid food due to their continued worldly mo- tives and actions (1 Cor. 3:1–2, NIV). John identified other Theories of Teaching and Developing Motivation stages, such as “little children,” “young men,” and “fathers” There are several theories and models of motivation. One (1 John 2:12–13, NIV). In other words, scripture identifies theory is a goal-directed approach, defined by the eminent stages of maturity in terms of intentions and motivation. psychologist Abraham Maslow (1968, 1970), who pro- Selig and Arroyo (1989) derived four basic levels of posed a hierarchy of needs that all individuals strive to motivation that correspond with both secular and scrip- attain. The base level or goal is survival, the basic needs for tural descriptions of motivational growth. While children existence such as food and shelter. The next level of need and youth typically go through these Onlystages successfully is for safety, a sense of security, structure, and consistency given the right environments and support, many adults in one’s environment. Belonging and love are the next level still find themselves going in and out of these stages, of needs, leading to the need for self-esteem or acceptance which are: of one’s self. A social environment in which one feels ac- cepted, appreciated, and needed is necessary for learning Level 1—Me Oriented: The individual is mostly after to occur, according to Maslow’s model (Yount 2010). self-gratification. The best way to motivate people Albert Bandura (1986) developed his observation learn- at this level is to set clear rules and fairly immediate ing model and identified several motivational processes consequences. Verbal affirmation, paired with tan- that could account for the learning of a task and eventual gible rewards, will help them achieve the next level. performance of a behavior. The motivational processes Level 2—Approval Oriented: The individual has pro- include external incentives, such as those that produce gressedCopy beyond simple gratification and is more sensory satisfaction, concrete or tangible rewards, and interested in the approval of those important in his social affirmation. Incentives for performing a task could or her life. Privately affirming the individual for be vicarious if the individual observed someone else being successes and encouraging improvement is a way to reinforced for the same behavior. Bandura also identified foster growth to the next level. self-incentives, whereby the individual reinforces himself Level 3—Relationship Oriented: The desire to be valued or herself for performing a task successfully. Bandura later by others and competent as an important member (1997) developed models that delved deeper into motiva- of a group is the main motivating factor at this level. tion, such as self-efficacy, the person’s perception of his or The individual seeks respect and desires relation- her competence to be successful in certain areas of life such ships with others based on mutual acceptance and as education. Students who feel confident of their math trust. Affirmation from peers and authority figures abilities due to past successes in that area, for example, concerning the practicing of values in a group con- are more likely to do well as they proceed to higher levels, text will encourage development to the next level. despite temporary setbacks or failures. Level 4—Others Oriented: For Christians, this means love and obedience to God and loving others as Christian Perspectives and Applications themselves. However, accountability to coaches or Christian teaching consistently refers to motivation. Jesus, mentors is important even at this level, as humans for example, made it clear in the Sermon on the Mount are prone to slip to lower levels without good counsel. (Matt. 5–7, NIV) that obeying the Ten Commandments and following religious principles on the surface was not References and Resources as important as performing “acts of righteousness” with Bandura, A. 1986. Social Foundations of Thought and Action. the correct motives. It is not enough, for example, to give Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. to theContributor needy; one should give in secret out of a higher love ———. 1997. Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York: and faith in God. While secular theorists, such as Maslow, Freeman. believe that one’s own needs must be met before meeting Good, T. L., and J. E. Brophy. 1990. Educational Psychology: A “higher order needs,” Jesus said, “Seek first his kingdom Realistic Approach. New York and London: Longman. and his righteousness and all these things [basic needs] will Maslow, A. H. 1968. Toward a Psychology of Being. 2nd ed. New be given to you as well” (Matt. 6:33, NIV). York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Multicultural Theological Education 849

———. 1970. Motivation and Personality. 2nd ed. New York: Multicultural Theological Education Harper & Row. Schunk, D. H., P. R. Pentrich, and J. L. Meece. 2008. Motiva- Central to any educational enterprise that claims to be tion in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications. Upper multicultural in its nature and approach is the question Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. of how human diversity affects its mission, policies, pro- Selig, W. G., and A. A. Arroyo. 1989. Loving Our Differences: grams, relationships, and administrative and pedagogi- Building Successful Family Relationships. Virginia Beach, cal practices. Therefore, the term multicultural, at best, VA: CBN Publishing. should include all forms of difference that have an impact Yount, W. R. 2010. Created to Learn: A Christian Teacher’s In- on the unique human transaction we call education. troduction to Educational Psychology. Nashville, TN: B & H Human diversity certainly includes broad cultural, ra- Publishing. cial/ethnic, and religious differences, but it also includes —Alan A. Arroyo and W. George Selig group-specific differences such as gender, class, ableism, age, sexual orientation, and more. The specific concern for and response to an increas- Mozambique and Christian Education ingly multicultural, multiracial, multiethnic society in North America is rather recent in theologicalOnly education. When Mozambique became independent in 1975, the The impact on seminary education of the many different vast majority of the population was illiterate. Educa- waves of immigrants from all over the world that have tion in rural areas was almost nonexistent, with most come to the United States during the last 200 years, not urban schools run by an excessively traditional Catholic to mention the experience of Africans who were brought Church. Many Protestants refused to send their children as enslaved persons beginning in 1619, has only begun to to school, as it was preferable to not study than to become be understood and articulated by theological institutions an assimilado, a Portuguese Catholic. at the dawn of the 21st century. It was not until 2000 that While much effort was put into literacy in the postin- the Association of Theological Schools (ATS) intention- dependence period, all religious communities (including ally concentrated on “race and ethnicity in theological Catholics and Muslims) were excluded from training education” as one of the areas of its work, which was ex- children. So instead of holding Sunday school, many tendedCopy until 2008. In spite of the right convictions among churches engaged in evangelism and training by develop- most theological schools since the civil rights movement ing youth “choirs” or sports teams. in regard to racial justice, inclusion, and reconciliation, Although churches of all denominations grew rapidly those convictions have barely changed the way theo- throughout the difficult days of the mid-1960s through logical education is conceived and done. Although to the late 1980s, few pastors and leaders received any bib- different degrees, most racial/ethnic minorities living lical training. Only one Bible school was open during in the United States continue to be underrepresented in the early days of independence. The situation changed faculties and student bodies in ATS schools; multicultural rapidly following a government request in the early and racial/ethnic issues and concerns occupy at best a 1980s for Protestant churches to help in the country’s marginal place in seminary academic programs and ad- reconstruction. ministrative policies; and the theological curriculum and Today, all churches have training for children and pedagogical practices are still mainly framed within the youth, although it is difficult to find good Portuguese- patterns of white dominant culture. language training materials for Mozambique’s African As theological institutions commit to a multicultural context. There is little training for adults, although more stance for their mission and future, in light of these than 50 Bible schools and several strong TEE programs changing demographics in society, it is crucial for them have emerged to train church leadership. Most of these to be aware that racial/ethnic diversity involves a con- are fairly simple and function in a variety of local lan- cern for both social inclusion and social justice. This guages. A handful of bachelor’s-level programs exist concern demands attention simultaneously to issues of in Mozambique’s major cities. A growing number of racial/ethnic representation and to issues of “disparity” Mozambicans have received master’s and doctoral level and discrimination. Theological institutions that want training, from both Brazil and South Africa. An asso- to advance racial/ethnic diversity should demonstrate ciationContributor of theological schools exists to help training pro- commitment to both in their missions, policies, prac- grams work together to establish quality using agreed- tices, academic programs, course content, and classroom upon training standards. dynamics. At the same time, it is important to recognize —Steve Hardy that multicultural theological education should embrace 850 Multiculturalism in Christian Education diversity beyond race and ethnicity. Precisely because of a particular group and are socially transmitted to social justice is a central concern of the Christian mes- individuals and to which individuals are expected to sage, ministerial formation under this stance advocates conform. All people belong to a variety of cultural groups the common good of all and therefore the elimination of simultaneously, for example, racial cultures, ethnic cul- any form of discrimination (e.g., on the basis of sexual tures, religious cultures, and regional cultures. The part orientation, class, age, religious affiliation, or physical of each of us that relates to the cultural groups to which disability). Other forms of inclusion are also needed in we belong is referred to as “social location.” Each person theological education, and many forms of discrimina- encompasses multiple identities and relates to a diversity tion need to be fought against in theological institutions, of cultural groups, including religion, race, ethnicity, churches, and the broader society. gender, age, social class, nationality, language, ability, Multicultural theological education already has a place sexual identity, and so forth. in seminary education, and much of the future of the Multicultural education promotes practices that rec- latter depends on what place is given to the former. The ognize, value, and affirm the many forms of human dif- good news is that there are already conditions in most if ference and common ground between people, with the not all theological institutions, as well as all their theolog- expressed goal of building more positive and just com- ical disciplines, ripe for planting the seeds of a theologi- munities. Until the mid-20th century,Only much of Ameri- cal education that is truly multicultural. No theological can history and education either minimized or denied school will reject the values of human dignity and human cultural differences. The “melting pot” theory and other equality or the importance of social inclusion and social assimilation models, which envisioned that cultural, ra- justice. The scriptures themselves witness to God’s inten- cial, ethnic, class, regional, and other differences can be tion of creating a diverse world, to the interplay of mul- subsumed under one inclusive identity—while still being tiple cultures and theological perspectives, and to differ- operative in some contexts—are now considered out- ent ways of interpreting God’s presence and action in the moded. Recent work in multicultural education points world. The history of the theological disciplines reminds to the limitations of these perspectives, including their us of the various approaches to study and ways to teach racist bias. More positive approaches to multicultural them in light of different historical circumstances. The education, including those that operate in Christian question is whether or not those in positions of power in contexts,Copy include programs and outreach for specific cul- theological institutions want to embrace fully multicul- tural groups; initiatives that promote unity and focus on tural theological education as central to their mission for “teaching tolerance”; educational programs for margin- the sake of the ministry of the church in today’s world. alized groups that give them voice and promote equity; anti-oppression education and ally training designed References and Resources for the culturally privileged; cultural pluralism models, Aleshire, Daniel O., and Marsha Forster Boyd. 2002. “ATS which strength relationships in diverse contexts; racial Work on Race and Ethnicity.” Theological Education 38 justice and anti-racism training; interreligious hospitality (2): v–vi. and engagement; and initiatives dedicated to peace build- Cascante Gómez, Fernando A. 2008. “Advancing Racial/Ethnic ing in local and global communities. Diversity in Theological Education: A Model for Reflection The ability to recognize and respond to varying aspects and Action.” Theological Education 43 (2): 21–39. of cultural difference and remain engaged long term Esterline, David V., and Ogbu U. Kalu, eds. 2006. Shaping is a learned skill and a basic goal of multiculturalism Beloved Community: Multicultural Theological Education. in Christian education. Christian education that takes Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. multiculturalism seriously helps learners define cultural Foster, Charles R. 2002. “Diversity in Theological Education.” identities, gives voice to the marginalized, and seeks Theological Education 38 (2): 15–37. dialogue between cultural groups. Culturally sensitive —Fernando A. Cascante Gómez Christian education assists learners in the process of personal identity along with faith formation. It is inclu- sive of various learning styles and language differences. Multiculturalism in Christian Education Further, it encourages relationships across cultures that represent cooperation, openness, and respect, and fosters MulticulturalismContributor refers to the coexistence and active a faith commitment to peace and social justice. Finally, engagement of a variety of distinct cultures, including Christian education that takes multiculturalism seriously the body of learned beliefs, traditions, behavior patterns, assists individuals, families, groups, and communities in communication styles, concepts, values, institutions, and the task of raising young people who are secure in their standards that are commonly shared among members own cultural identities and faith communities, and at the Multiple Intelligences, Theory of 851 same time equipped to participate in and contribute to Esterline, David V., and Ogbu U. Kalu. 2006. Shaping Beloved the wider church and the world. Community: Multicultural Theological Education. Louisville, Multiculturalism in Christian education is contextual KY: Westminster John Knox Press. and responsive to the diversity of its environment in Kondrath, William M. 2008. God’s Tapestry: Understanding terms of both the process and content of learning. With- and Celebrating Differences. Herndon, VA: Alban Institute. out minimizing the distinctiveness of each educational Kujawa-Holbrook, Sheryl A. 2002. A House of Prayer for All context, it is possible to point to major characteristics Peoples: Congregations Building Multi-Racial Community. that are widely applicable. For example, does the formal Bethesda, MD: Alban Institute. curriculum include the diversity of cultures represented Lewis, Jacqueline J. 2008. The Power of Stories. A Guide in the community, not only that of majority groups, for Teaching Multiracial and Multicultural Congregations. including race and ethnicity, gender, language, etc.? Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. Does the planning process include input from the vari- Smith, David I. 2009. Learning from the Stranger. Christian ous cultural groups represented in the community? Are Faith and Cultural Diversity. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. there regular opportunities for storytelling and dialogue Talvacchia, Kathleen T. 2003. Critical Minds and Discerning between diverse groups? Is the commitment to multicul- Hearts: A Spirituality of Multicultural Teaching. St. Louis, turalism evident in all publications and resources, includ- MO: Chalice Press. Only ing websites, newsletters, music, study materials, and art- Woo, Rodney. 2009. The Color of Church. A Biblical and Prac- work? Is participation in community-wide celebrations tical Paradigm for Multiracial Churches. Grand Rapids, MI: sponsored by cultural groups encouraged and supported? B & H Academic. Do those in leadership positions reflect the culture of the —Sheryl A. Kujawa-Holbrook wider community? Do the teaching styles of the teachers match the learning, cultural, and motivational styles of the learners? Do teachers have positive attitudes toward Multiple Intelligences, Theory of all learners? Finally, are all teaching and learning materi- als regularly and critically evaluated for bias? The theory of multiple intelligences (MI), originally The story of Pentecost suggests that in our various proposed by Howard Gardner in Frames of Mind: The cultural identities and through our linguistic differences, TheoryCopy of Multiple Intelligences (1983), is a model of we can understand each other. The starting point of intelligence that challenges traditional conceptions that multicultural Christian education is not to perpetuate present it as a singular, unified mental competency, the divisions between people based in fear and violence, measurable using standard psychometric tests. It instead but to recognize, celebrate, and learn from God’s gifts as proposes the existence of multiple forms of relatively embodied in varied cultures, languages, religions, and independent intelligence. Since introducing the theory, races. A great variety of people can become a community Gardner has gone on to write numerous titles and articles if they heed the Spirit, which constantly calls on us to defending and further developing the theory. expand our boundaries and strive to become a house of Gardner defines an intelligence as “a biophysical po- prayer for all peoples. tential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products References and Resources that are of value in a culture.” In addition, an intelligence Anderson, David A., and Margarita R. Cabellon. 2010. Mul- must meet eight criteria: (1) potential isolation by brain ticultural Ministry Handbook: Connecting Creatively to a damage; (2) existence of idiot savants, prodigies, and Diverse World. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic. exceptional individuals; (3) identifiable core operation or Branson, Mark Lau, and Juan Martinez. 2011. Churches, Cul- set of operations; (4) distinctive developmental history tures & Leadership. A Practical Theology of Congregations with definable set of expert “end-state” performances; and Ethnicities. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic. (5) an evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibil- Breckinridge, James, and Lillian Breckinridge. 1995. What ity; (6) support from experimental psychological tasks; Color Is Your God? Multicultural Education for the Church. (7) support from psychometric findings; and (8) suscep- Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. tibility to encoding in a symbol system. Commins, Gary. 2007. Becoming Bridges. The Spirit and Place Satisfying this definition and the criteria, Gardner has Contributorof Diversity. Cambridge, MA: Cowley Publications, 2007. proposed eight distinct intelligences, along with what he DeYoung, Curtis Paul, Michael O. Emerson, George Yancey, regards as a possible ninth: linguistic, musical, logical- and Karen Chai Kim. 2003. United by Faith: The Multicul- mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, tural Congregation as an Answer to the Problem of Race. New intrapersonal, naturalistic, and—the inconclusive candi- York: Oxford University Press. date—existential. These intelligences are often identified 852 Multiple Intelligences, Theory of by their manifestation in socially recognized and valued the psychometricians[’] century long stranglehold on the roles that rely heavily on their unique capacities. Logical- subject of intelligence,” for indeed his work has opened mathematical intelligence is the ability for sustained rea- up the field in ways that have continued to develop, with soning, detecting patterns, and calculating mathematical implications especially for education. problems, evidenced in the work of mathematicians and MI theory has been widely embraced by many educa- scientists. Linguistic intelligence is seen most clearly in tors, and this has taken shape in various applications, the capacity of poets to express their thoughts in written including development of MI curricula in various sub- or spoken language. Innate potential for the mastery of jects, MI classrooms, and MI schools. A key voice on sounds, rhythms, pitches, and tones such that they can MI in education is Thomas Armstrong (2009), who has be composed or performed is musical intelligence, dem- published Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, now onstrated most poignantly by virtuosos. Spatial intelli- in its third edition, a nuts-and-bolts guide with chap- gence, most dramatically expressed by chess masters and ters on lesson planning, teaching strategies, assessment, sculptors, is the potential to relate objects to one another special education, and cognitive skills. The authors of in dimensional space. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is Teaching and Learning through Multiple Intelligences biophysical capacity to control one’s body (and, by ex- (Campbell, Campbell, and Dickinson 2003), also in its tension, manipulate objects) with precision, timing, and third edition, similarly discuss the implicationsOnly of MI trained responses; athletes and surgeons represent this for pedagogy, team teaching, student strengths, curricu- intelligence quintessentially. Interpersonal intelligence— lum, community involvement, and diverse classroom popularly known as relational intelligence—is seen in models, as well as synthesizing some of Gardner’s work high levels of empathy and insight into the motivations on teaching for understanding, performance-based as- and emotions of others, resulting in effective collabora- sessment, and model MI school programs and student tive and persuasive abilities, such as those in sales, poli- outcomes. In addition to these important texts, several tics, and counseling professions capture. A high capacity sourcebooks offer dozens of MI methods and exercises for introspection resulting in deep knowledge of self is for use in the classroom. called intrapersonal intelligence; given the private nature Numerous religious educators have also utilized MI of this intelligence, it is detected through more expressive theory. Bernadette Stankard (2013), author of multiple modes of intelligence in novelists, psychologists, or sages. booksCopy on the use of MI in Christian formation, suggests Naturalistic intelligence has in the history of humanity that each kind of intelligence is a spark of the presence of had definite social value in the roles of botanist and biolo- God that can awaken our potential and offers a catechist’s gist, who display a unique capacity for distinguishing the guide to teaching prayer, the sacraments, the church numerous species—the flora and fauna—of the environ- year, and other topics to those with every combination of ment. Gardner hesitates to present existential intelligence giftedness. Catholic educator Ronald Nuzzi (2005) also as a full-blown intelligence due to lack of neuroscientific connects MI to spiritual giftedness and explores not only evidence that this superior capacity for engaging “the big how the intelligences can be engaged in religious educa- questions” of life—as apparent in religious and philo- tion settings, but their implications for a more people- sophical masters—is linked to certain parts of the brain. centered liturgy of the Mass. Barbara Bruce (2000, 2011) The theory of MI has been criticized especially by approaches the intelligences as different ways of teaching mainstream psychology. One major line of critique has the bible to children and adults and offers sample lessons centered on the matter of definitions, asserting that based on each intelligence. what Gardner calls “intelligences” are more properly Gardner celebrates the reception of his theory but designated “cognitive styles.” Others have criticized the cautions educators against several common misapplica- theory for underestimating the importance of general tions, including attempting to teach all subjects using all processing efficiency (central to traditional measures of the intelligences, trying to activate specific intelligences intelligence) in the different domains Gardner identi- in superficial ways such as adding random movement fies. Several studies have led to assertions that MI theory to unrelated learning, using intelligences primarily as lacks empirical evidence. Notably, these criticisms focus mnemonic devices, conflating intelligences with learning on Gardner’s claims that what he identifies ought to be styles or with desired outcomes such as cooperativeness regarded as intelligences, not on the learning outcomes or self-esteem, and labeling people in terms of “their” of MIContributor applications in education (see below). Gardner intelligences. Gardner demurs from offering overly con- has consistently defended the theory, notably in Howard crete advice for educators, but highlights two clear Gardner Under Fire (2006). Whatever the merits of the implications of MI for education: (1) to be effective, edu- criticism, Gardner is no doubt justified in his assertion cational approaches should be “individually configured” that “the theory of multiple intelligences has helped break rather than uniform, and (2) content should be taught Murray, Andrew 853 in several ways to activate different intelligences. He also While on a trip to Cape Town, Murray met his future expresses hope that the new digital media will make pos- wife, Emma, and they were married in 1856. Murray sible the individualized education that MI suggests. received the honorary degrees of DD from Aberdeen University (1898) and DLitt from the University of the References and Resources Cape of Good Hope (1907). Armstrong, Thomas. 2009. Multiple Intelligences in the Class- room. 3rd ed. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Andrew Murray as Pastor Curriculum Development. At age 20 too young to be given a church in the Cape Col- Bruce, Barbara. 2000. 7 Ways of Teaching the Bible to Adults: ony, Murray was appointed by the governor as the first Using Our Multiple Intelligences to Build Faith. Nashville, minister beyond the Orange River, a territory of nearly TN: Abingdon Press. 50,000 square miles. Murray’s passion, devotion, and love ———. 2011. 7 Ways of Teaching the Bible to Children: Includes were exhibited during his 11 years in Bloemfontein. He 25 Lessons, Plus Activities That Satisfy Different Learning transitioned from Bloemfontein to Worcester in 1860, Styles. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. and to Cape Town in 1864, before finally settling in Wel- Campbell, Linda C., Bruce Campbell, and Dee Dickinson. 2003. lington in 1871. Murray was recognized as a leader of the Teaching and Learning through Multiple Intelligences. 3rd ed. Dutch Reformed Church of SouthOnly Africa, being elected Old Tappan, NJ: Pearson. moderator of the synod an astonishing six times. In 1906 Gardner, Howard. 1993. Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in he retired from active ministry, though his presence was Practice. Reprint ed. New York: Basic Books. still felt until his death at age 88. ———. 2000. Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. New York: Basic Books. Andrew Murray as Evangelist ———. 2006. Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons in Theory and Though Murray’s ministry in Bloemfontein involved Practice. Reprint, New York: Basic Books. harsh conditions and rugged travel, he felt compelled to ———. 2011a. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intel- take his vacations even farther north, in the Transvaal ligences. 3rd ed. New York: Basic Books. region, among the immigrants, preaching and teaching. ———. 2011b. The Unschooled Mind: How Children Think and In 1879, he set out on what some consider his first evan- How Schools Should Teach. 2nd ed. New York: Basic Books. gelisticCopy tour, which lasted two months. Murray would Nuzzi, Ronald. 2005. Gifts of the Spirit: Multiple Intelligences in go on eight of these evangelistic tours, with the final one Religious Education. 2nd ed. Arlington, VA: National Catho- being in 1897. lic Educational Association (NCEA). Schaler, Jeffrey A., ed. 2006. Howard Gardner Under Fire: The Andrew Murray as Missions Advocate Rebel Psychologist Faces His Critics. Chicago, IL: Open Court. Murray’s childhood home was a common stopping place Stankard, Bernadette. 2003. How Each Child Learns: Using for missionaries in southern Africa, and the visits of Scot- Multiple Intelligence in Faith Formation. New London, CT: tish, French, and German missionaries, including Moffat Twenty-Third Publications. and Livingstone, seemed to have a profound impact on ———. 2013. Our Different Gifts: A Catechist’s Guide to Using him. In 1857, Murray was appointed a member of the Multiple Intelligences in Faith Formation. New London, CT: Missions Committee of the Dutch Reformed Church. He Twenty-Third Publications. was active in the education, recruitment, and sending of —Christopher B. James and S. Steve Kang missionaries, along with participating in fund-raising. Much of the Dutch Reformed Church’s ministry to the indigenous peoples of Africa has been attributed to his Murray, Andrew advocacy. His book, The Key to the Missionary Problem, was influential in the aftermath of the New York Ecu- Andrew Murray (1828–1917) was a prominent South menical Missionary Conference in 1900. African pastor, evangelist, mission advocate, and edu- cationalist. When he was age 10, his parents sent him Andrew Murray as Educationalist and his older brother, John, to Scotland for education. Murray was a strong advocate for education, with an In 1845, both boys graduated from Aberdeen with an emphasis on education in both the public school and the MAContributor and departed for Holland to further their educa- home. He was heavily involved in all aspects of educa- tion. From Holland Murray wrote to his parents, “Your tion, including teaching, administration, recruitment, son has been born again.” Three years after arriving, the and fund-raising. While he was at Bloemfontein, Grey brothers were ordained at The Hague and soon returned College was started, and he served as the first rector, with to South Africa, where Andrew faithfully served his Lord. a desire that the boarding school might become fertile 854 Music as Christian Education ground for Christian character. In Cape Town, Murray There are a variety of educational benefits to the use aided in founding the Young Men’s Christian Associa- of music. First, the affective-emotional aspect is con- tion, serving as its first president. He was instrumental nected with the content. Imagine hearing the “Hallelu- in founding the Huguenot Seminary in Wellington, jah Chorus” without being lifted to your feet. Second, which served as a model for boarding schools for girls the communal-cooperative nature of choral-orchestral in southern Africa. Heavily influenced by Mary Lyon music helps students better understand their role in a and the Mt. Holyoke system, Murray requested a teacher larger work. The sum is greater than the individual parts. from Mt. Holyoke Seminary and was sent two women There is an additional value in singing music from other who made a profound impact. Due to the success of the cultures. The Body of Christ is multicultural, and music seminary, the Huguenot College was founded to continue from other cultures will broaden our understanding of the education of women. Murray founded a high school brothers and sisters in other lands (Rev. 7:9–12). One for boys, an institute to train missionaries and mission- particular tribe in New Guinea, for instance, only has ary teachers, and a college to train teachers. His views on two notes in all its songs. Last, music increases retention. education were also influenced by Edward Thring and We are better able to recall the words (content) by sing- Herbert Spencer. ing. Singing the alphabet (John 3:16) or the Lord’s Prayer Murray believed the best pastors should give them- provides a rhythmic mnemonic device.Only selves to the Christian training of the young, and he Through the history of the church, music has been taught that there should be a link among home, school, used to reinforce learning and retention. Hymns and and church. Helping shed further light on how Murray songs were often used to rehearse doctrinal truth (Phil. felt about education, a student once remarked that Mur- 2:5–11), admonish those who had drifted (Col. 3:16), and ray taught him the nobility of the office of the teacher. memorize scripture. How many of us can better recall the Murray’s early writings often addressed Christian edu- Lord’s Prayer by singing the classic music that accompa- cation in the home, with the most well known being nies it? In fact, during times when the vast majority of The Children for Christ. A prolific author, his numerous those in the church were illiterate, music and mosaics books have been published in many languages and read served as curricular vehicles. around the world. In the early church, Gregorian chants were largely memorizedCopy and passed on orally. They were basically the References and Resources words of scripture and rehearsed doctrinal truth, stated Choy, Leona. 1978. Andrew Murray: Apostle of Abiding Love. in unison. The interval of a perfect fifth was acceptable; Fort Washington, Fort Washington, PA: Christian Literature harmony (third) was not, since it reflected the hedonistic Crusade. culture. Psalters were the first “hymnals” and began to Douglas, W. M. 1981. Andrew Murray and His Message: One of unify the church in its use of music. As printing and lit- God’s Choice Saints. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. eracy increased, so too did the unification of church music. Du Plessis, Johannes. 1920. The Life of Andrew Murray of South Gospel music was born out of the revivalist movements Africa. London: Marshall Brothers. and the plight of the African slaves. The focus of Gospel Lindner, William, Jr. 1996. Andrew Murray. Minneapolis, MN: music was on salvation and freedom in Christ. With the Bethany House. influence of various cultures and their musical genres in —Stephen G. Lewis the development of Gospel music, the line between secular and sacred music blurred. Contemporary has been a powerful influence in church music from the Music as Christian Education 1960s to the present. There are few musical genres that are not represented in the work of some Christian musician. Music has the unique physiological characteristic of engaging both hemispheres of the brain. Since Christian References and Resources education is concerned with the whole person, that is, Urang, Gunner. 1956. Church Music—for the Glory of God. cognitive and affective, music is a powerful tool. Too Moline, IL : Christian Service Foundation. often it is seen as a synonymous with worship or sim- —Larry H. Lindquist ply as filler. As Gunner Urang (1956) reflects, “Good churchContributor music is that which does its job reinforcing and emotionalizing the message of the words.” Music has no Music Education chronological boundaries. Although taste and style may vary, each generation has a strong mnemonic connection Since at least midway into the first millennium of Chris- with its music. tianity, music has been the tool of Christian education. Muslim Cultures 855

From the time when most Christians could not read or of Christian education, especially with the introduction write, music and hymnology have served the efforts of of the industry of praise music, which has come to al- Christian education to inform, animate, and encour- most dominate the Western Christian world since 1970. age believers in the truth of the Gospel. Even during Choral music (high and also less formal) has informed the centuries before Christ, Judaism made use of the worshippers and participants of the Christian story. The Psalms—songs in themselves—to instruct and deepen impact of Sunday school–related songs and youth group God’s people in their love and trust of Him. New Testa- singing, and the explosive popularity of “kid’s praise,” ment references to music include Matthew 26:30; Mark should not be overlooked. Singing has enhanced the 14:26; 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26; Ephesians 5:19; Colossians Christian education efforts of vacation Bible schools, 3:16; James 5:13; and a number of references in Revela- Christian camping environments, Bible clubs, children’s tion. The specific use of music in education or instruction church, and neighborhood outreach ministries. As in the is more elusive in the New Testament itself (beyond Eph. earliest times of Christianity, music has become the ser- 5:19), though the early historian Pliny reported about the vant of any effort to instruct in Christian theology, living, earliest Christians that, among other things, “They sing and evangelism. responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god” (Epistulae 10.97). In 1889, Edward Steele noted: “It is impossible References and Resources Only to set as the true standard of musical education anything Drake, Joshua F. 2010. Recovering Music Education as a Liberal lower than the best existing products of the art. In the Art. Memphis, TN: BorderStone Press. first place, the best is the true standard in music for the Gangel, Kenneth O. 2009. “Teaching Through Music.” In 24 same reason as in any other pursuit requiring an enthu- Ways to Improve Your Teaching. www.Bible.org. siasm for excellence.” Luther had music close to his heart Marzolf, Dennis. 1999. “Luther in the Pew: Song and Worship.” and naturally (as a German) held music education to be Reformation and Revival (Winter): 106–119. http://www essential in his view of Christian education. He offered .biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/ref-rev/08-1/8-1_marzolf.pdf. deeper reflections on the importance of joining musical Steele, Edward S. 1889. “Music and Christian Education.” Bib- education with the task of overall Christian teaching. An- liotheca Sacra (January): 142–170. http://www.biblicalstudies other view, from a modern scholar, is offered by Joshua .org.uk/pdf/bsac/1889_142_steele.pdf. Drake (2010), who views music theory itself as part of Copy —Neil C. Damgaard God’s general revelation. Hymn-learning and singing and use in worship and liturgy served as one of the main tools for instruction Muslim Cultures during the long centuries before the Reformation. After that time, Reformation-based churches placed focus Within the league of Arab states, as well as African and on the psalter, then hymn and “spiritual song” singing Asian nations that claim that Muslims (people who prac- within their congregations. With the invention of the tice Islam) make up the majority of their population, peo- pipe organ and other similar instruments, church wor- ple are normally allowed to practice their own religion ship was greatly enhanced, and instrumental “Christian” even if it differs from Islam. In nations that claim to be of music joined the large repertoire of vocal music available a singular faith, contract workers from distant nations are to use in instruction. Church-based instrumental music, often permitted to privately practice their religion while highlighted by German and baroque-era composer and working in the country. organist Johann S. Bach, added to the culture of reli- This article focuses on Christian education in Mus- gious music alongside the church’s efforts to educate in lim-dominated communities. In Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jor- Christian truth. The song-service itself became a means dan, Lebanon, Pakistan, Palestine, Sudan, Syria, and of educating in Christian history, tradition, doctrine, and other Muslim majority countries, there are indigenous sanctification. Gangel (2009) identified basic principles Christians. In these nations, church buildings are per- of music in Christian education: utilization of simple mitted, and Christians teach their children the prin- instruments, teaching the unknown by appealing to the ciples of Christianity. In some other Islamic countries, known, focus on “listening” activities, remaining positive such as Algeria, citizens are turning to Christ and and encouraging, effective use of grouping, use of song- petitioning the government to allow them to license booksContributor and Christian folk music, and so forth. Integra- churches. In all these situations, church leaders are tion of pedagogical goals within worship has opened the continuously developing age-specific literature for the door for more creative use of music while worshippers believers in their churches. express their love of God. In more recent decades, many In the Arab world and beyond, those who face the instrumental innovations have accompanied the efforts greatest difficulty in obtaining Christian education are 856 Mystagogy newcomers to the Christian faith from other religions. to Bible learning, and encounters with God the Father, the Pressure may come from families or governments to Son, and the Holy Spirit are discussed and encouraged. revert to the former faith. While constitutions and inter- Loyalty to Christ, sharing the Gospel, and speaking up for national agreements promise religious freedom, chang- the faith are practices that are taught and modeled. ing from Islam to another religion is not an included In Christian education, the Christian life is experi- protected right. enced in community with other believers. Sharing the Increasingly, where this sort of pressure and persecu- pleasures and pressures of living for Christ in family and tion appears, evangelical Christian friends quietly ad- society, believers are able to effectively encourage and vocate for those who are new to faith in Christ. Where strengthen one another and create alternatives that pro- training in biblical leadership is accessible to newcomers, mote hope for each generation. they are developing their own specific education for liv- —Richard Kenneth Hart ing as followers of Christ in their unique communities and contexts. As we look at Christian education in Muslim domi- Mystagogy nant societies, we briefly answer three questions: What is taught? Where does the teaching happen? What are the From the Greek word mystagogia (“introductionOnly into outcomes? the sacred rites”), mystagogy refers to instruction given Christian education is understood to mean the prin- to the recently baptized on the meaning of baptism and ciples taught and learned that enable one to survive, the Eucharist, often by retrospective reflection upon thrive, and maintain a credible witness for Christ in one’s the symbols and ritual actions used in these rites. Thus, context. In Christian education, principles are taught that in contrast to the sermon given at the main Sunday help women and men, girls and boys understand and service, mystagogy consists of “any homiletic material practice their faith at every age. which takes as its starting point and principal theme the While principles such as respect for others, love for interpretation of a liturgical action rather than a text of parents, and kindness to friends are shared by the gen- scripture. Such a homily may have a lection attached to eral culture, only Christian education teaches about the it . . . although the presentation of material will not be sources that are available through Christ to consistently determinedCopy by it” (Day 2005, 46). succeed in these behaviors. In Christian education, the A number of mystagogical homilies have survived believer explores Bible truths that point to promises of from the early Christian period, most dating from the late Christ’s help in practicing love, forgiveness, and service fourth and early fifth centuries. From the Greek-speaking in relationships. East, this includes homilies ascribed to Promoters of Christian education are always deep- (though possibly belonging to his successor, John), John ening their knowledge of the Bible through reading, Chrysostom, and Theodore of Mopsuestia, and from the reflection, discussion, and prayer with others. The goal Latin-speaking West, works of Ambrose and Augustine. is to develop the insights needed to help children and In this period, mystagogical instruction commonly took adults understand Bible content, sense the presence of the form of a series of five to seven homilies given by the God, and consider ways God might want them to live for bishop in the week after baptism. These works show a Him. Venues for this teaching include homes, schools, certain amount of variation in the ordering and deliv- churches, cultural centers, parks, camps, playing fields, ery of sacramental instruction, probably in response to sporting events—basically anywhere that people can local needs; thus, for example, John Chrysostom and meet and learn together. Theodore of Mopsuestia give substantial instruction on Viewed from the perspective of society, one of the baptism preceding the rite. outcomes of Christian education is the practice of good Mystagogical teaching follows and is the continuation citizenship. A contribution that Christians make in many of the catechetical instruction given prior to baptism. Muslim societies, from Egypt to Indonesia, is Christian Catechetical instruction focuses on the delivery of cer- primary and secondary education that is open to anyone. tain simple truths of the faith that can readily be grasped While studying together, students learn the principles of through words, so that one may profess this faith at bap- Christian ethics that lead to care and respect for others. tism. Baptism and the Eucharist invite one into fuller par- ManyContributor graduates are influenced by these views in their ticipation in the mystery of salvation, but the fullness of adult lives. what is offered there cannot be simply reduced to words Through Christian education, local and denominational or grasped in a single moment. church leaders provide opportunities that nurture whole Baptism and the Eucharist use visible, material things families. History from a Christian perspective, gateways to reveal and invite participation in divine realities, Mystery 857 whose fullness is not yet perceived and which by nature References and Resources are invisible. Because these material elements are being Charpin Ploix, Marie-Lucie. 2005. Maxime le Confesseur: La used in a way different from their ordinary use, they can- Mystagogie. Paris: Migne. not be treated as self-explanatory. Their significance for Day, Juliette. 2005. Proclus on Baptism in Constantinople. Nor- believers also cannot be given abstractly and ahistorically, wich, UK: SCM-Canterbury Press. but must instead be made plain through teaching that Hahn, Scott, and Mike Aquilina. 2003. Living the Mysteries: shows both their connection with past events in the his- A Guide for Unfinished Christians. Huntingdon, IN: Our tory of redemption and the way forward to communion Sunday Visitor. with God and eternal life. Hawkes-Teeples, Steven, ed. 2011. Saint Symeon of Thessa- To describe the passage from the dominion of sin lonika: The Liturgical Commentaries. Toronto: Pontifical to communion with God, mystagogical homilies make Institute of Mediaeval Studies. extensive use of figurative language concerning oppos- Mazza, Enrico. 1989. Mystagogy: A Theology of Liturgy in the ing states (darkness/light, danger/salvation, death/life, Patristic Age. New York: Pueblo. burial/resurrection, stripping off/putting on), creating Roten, Philippe de. 2005. Baptême et mystagogie: Enquête sur strong ethical boundaries through the use of opposing l’initiation chrétienne selons; Jean Chrysostome. Münster: terms. The dynamic character of progress toward salva- Aschendorff. Only tion is emphasized through the use of Old Testament ty- Satterlee, Craig A. 2002. Ambrose of Milan’s Method of Mysta- pology. Thus, for example, Cyril of Jerusalem can regard gogical Preaching. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. the waters of creation and the passage through the Red Spinks, Bryan D. 2006. “Baptismal Rites, Commentaries and Sea during the Exodus as prefiguring and being fulfilled Mystagogical Catecheses: The Fourth and Fifth Centuries.” in Jesus’s baptism and, ultimately, in the believer’s im- In Early and Medieval Theologies and Rituals of Baptism: mersion in water during the baptismal rite. The saving From the New Testament to the Council of Trent, 38–67. Bur- power of the events in redemptive history is thus made lington, VT: Ashgate. present in the events of the believer’s own baptism. —Byard Bennett In looking back at one’s baptism, the believer is in- vited to discern these previously unseen connections. Seeing the action of the crucified and risen Christ in CopyMystery and through the elements and actions of the rite makes the recipients conscious of the benefits that they now Pedagogically mystery communicates that the learning possess and will possess as a result of Christ’s death and process is more than rational and analytical thought and resurrection. This experience of a deeper solidarity with more than the accumulation of information and facts. the Lord in His suffering, sacrificial death, and present Education must also be attentive to the knowledge that reign also invites one’s own self-giving to God and ser- comes through love and contemplation. Biblically, mys- vice to one’s neighbor. tery can refer to paradox, such as when Paul spoke of The previously existing forms of mystagogical instruc- the nature of the cross (1 Cor. 2:1–5). Neither Jews nor tion appear to have declined after the middle of the fifth Greeks could logically grasp the unfathomable nature of century. New forms emerged in the Greek East during God’s saving act through Jesus Christ. Mystery can also the Byzantine period, in which mystagogical explanation express the secrets of that which is hidden. For Paul the was extended to a wider variety of liturgical actions and great mystery was that “Christ [is] in you, the hope of elements, including vestments, iconography, and church glory” (Col. 1:27). The apostle employed the same term architecture. in relation to the allegory between the marriage of hus- In the 1940s, Romano Guardini noted the pastoral band and wife and the relationship between Christ and importance of the ancient forms of mystagogy and urged the church (Eph. 5:32). Musterion, the Greek word for a return to similar practices. Karl Rahner subsequently mystery, was later translated into Latin as sacramentum developed a modern theological rationale for mystagogy or sacrament. When C. S. Lewis seeks to explain com- by analyzing the nature of fundamental human experi- munion, he declares that Jesus’s “command, after all, was ence. In the Roman Catholic Church following Vatican Take, eat: not Take, understand” (ch. 19, 2002). II, the revival of interest in the catechumenate led to Many people are fearful of mystery, and while there theContributor introduction of the Rite of Christian Initiation of have been aberrant expressions that have led some Adults (1972), which recommends that mystagogical astray, the above scripture demonstrates that there is also instruction concerning the sacraments should begin at a biblical manifestation of mystery. Educators should Easter and continue “for a suitable period” culminating therefore follow Paul’s example of seeking to be “servants in Pentecost. of Christ and stewards of God’s mysteries” (1 Cor. 4:1, 858 Mystery

NRSV). Historically, the best models of education find Mark 4:38; Luke 10:25), illustrates “teaching for mystery” no contradiction between doctrine and biblical teaching more specifically through His use of parables (e.g., Matt. and mystery and contemplation. Examples as diverse as 13; Mark 4; Luke 15–16). Parables have an allegorical or Bernard of Clairvaux in the 12th century; the Puritans, symbolic nature that requires greater reflection and won- Dutch, and German Pietists in the 17th century; and der. One of the best-known examples of allegory is John early evangelicals of the 18th century all confirm this. Bunyan’s epic Pilgrim’s Progress. Jesus also frequently Significantly, believers from the Christian East (i.e., the employed the use of questions (e.g., Matt. 16:15; Mark Orthodox Church) have never separated doctrinal teach- 10:51; Luke 6:46, 9:25; John 1:38; etc.) and silence (e.g., ing from contemplative experience. All of these divergent Matt. 21:23–27, 27:12–14). traditions acknowledge that there are limits to human Educators seeking to cultivate a greater appreciation reason, and that it is more important to experience God for mystery can encourage their students as well as them- than to be able to explain something about God. selves to grow in the attitude of humility and childlike Richard Osmer (1992) contrasts “teaching about mys- wonder and play. This prerequisite reminds all learners tery” and “teaching for mystery.” Christianity and theol- of the limitations of human achievement and compre- ogy both recognize the necessity of mystery. No one can hension, the importance of ambiguity, and a proper adequately explain the doctrines of the Trinity, incarna- reverence and awe before God. TeachersOnly can also create tion, atonement, or a person’s communion with God opportunities for silence, contemplation of God, and through prayer and worship. God is ineffable and beyond more meditative and prayerful methods of reading scrip- human knowledge, yet at the same time He graciously ture that instead of offering explanation, create greater reveals the most significant aspects necessary for us to opportunities for experience. know, love, and serve Him. While there is an impor- tant place for this “teaching about mystery” within the References and Resources educational life of the church, the “teaching for mystery” Boyer, Steven B., and Christopher Hall. 2012. The Mystery of provides a more helpful foundation upon which to begin. God: Theology for Knowing the Unknowable. Grand Rapids, “Teaching for mystery” affirms that this is the natural MI: Baker Academic. state of young children. The innate wonder, imagination, Cavalletti, Sofia. 2002. The Religious Potential of the Child 6 to and curiosity of a child are naturally attracted to mystery. 12 YearsCopy Old. Translated by Rebekah Rojcewicz and Alan R. One of the keys to guide adults into appropriating mys- Perry. Chicago: Liturgy Training Publications. tery comes from observing young children at play and Lewis, C. S. 2002. Letters to Malcolm: Chiefly on Prayer. New worship. Osmer employs paradox and parables in his York: Mariner Books. model of “teaching for mystery.” Through “reframing” Marty, Martin E. 2007. The Mystery of the Child. Grand Rapids, of what the students already know and by presenting MI: Eerdmans. the “contraries of insight” (i.e., employing paradox as Osmer, Richard R. 1992. Teaching for Faith: A Guide for Teach- two different perspectives are communicated concur- ers of Adult Classes. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox rently), he challenges learners to see the subject through Press. different eyes. Jesus, as Rabbi or “Teacher” (Matt. 19:16; —Tom Schwanda

Contributor N Only Narrative Theology, book. Rather, it is inviting those who hear the story into Biblical Foundations of the fullness of the story, complete with all its messiness and complexity. It is not plugging God’s story into my Narrative theology is a branch of theology that under- story as if my story were primary. Rather, it seeks to fit stands we are storied people, and that stories have the my life into the story of God. It understands that God’s power to shape our lives. It recognizes that we use stories story is primary. Consequently, all other stories must be to construct meaning and then to communicate that subsumed into the biblical story, for it is the only true meaning to another. These stories help us organize and one. Narrative theology understands that God’s story make sense of the experiences of life. The sharing of sto- makes an absolute, tyrannical claim upon us: it insists ries is a fundamental way of expressing to others who we thatCopy it is the only real world. We are to be either its are, as well as making sense of our world to others. Narra- subjects or rebels. tive theology believes that a primary purpose of theology As Christian educators, our job is to help people in general is to help us reflect on life. learn to reframe their lives in light of God’s story. In Historically, narrative theology has gone through other words, to be Christian is to live in God’s narrative. several transformations. At its worst, narrative theolo- Through stories, songs, creeds, sacraments, and so forth, gians saw the biblical story as just one of many stories we help students come to understand God’s story, to that guide us. They believed that all stories have equal bring their stories in line with God’s story, and to find power; none is more important than any other. How- their true identity and character as children of God. ever, at its best, narrative theology sees the world as a story written by God. As such, it finds its ultimate focus References and Resources in Jesus Christ—His life, death, and resurrection as seen Anderson, Herbert, and Edward Foley. 1988. Might Stories, through the pages of scripture. In doing so, it enables Dangerous Rituals: Weaving Together the Human and the the church to read the Bible as a single story with Christ Divine. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. at its center. Barnes, Elizabeth. 1995. The Story of Discipleship: Christ, Hu- The Hebrews understood this implicitly as they were manity and Church in Narrative Perspective. Nashville, TN: regularly reminded to “tell this to your children,” to Abingdon Press. invite future generations to enter the story. And as the Hauerwas, Stanley, and L. Gregory Jones. 1989. Why Narrative? story was shared, those who heard it were challenged Readings in Narrative Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. to think about their faith within the story of God’s Lodahl, Michael. 2008. The Story of God: A Narrative Theology. redemptive acts. So in one important sense, narrative Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press. theology is a way of doing God-talk, in which we do not Loughlin, Gerard. 1996. Telling God’s Story: Bible, Church, and communicateContributor that God-talk is isolated propositions that Narrative Theology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University have been stripped of their richness and context, result- Press. ing in nothing more than a “how-to” manual or rule —James K. Hampton

— 859 — 860 Narrative Theology, Congregational Applications of

Narrative Theology, An Example of Narrative Theology in the Christian Congregational Applications of Education of Children In The Complete Guide to Godly Play, Jerome Berryman Narrative Theology (2002) offers a narrative methodology for sharing bibli- Narrative theology presupposes that “it is in the read- cal stories with children that invites them to enter God’s ing, telling and interpretation of narratives that hu- story and encourages them to be the agents of their own mans derive their communal and personal identity as meaning-making in relationship to it. Biblical stories, from well as provide a basis for meaningful activity in the the Creation through Jesus’s life, death, and resurrection, world.”1 Advocated by Christian theologians such as to the Acts of the apostles, are told using manipulative H. R. Niebuhr, Hans Frei, and Stanley Hauerwas,2 materials. Wondering questions are posed following the among others, Christian narrative theology emphasizes story, and children are invited to respond through artistic the primacy of the biblical story in the development of media. This process encourages children to develop their Christian faith over the theological and/or doctrinal own relationship to God’s story and to shape their own life propositions derived from the Christian scriptures. stories through it as they mature within the Christian com- While there is debate within religious academia over the munity. Berryman asserts that “through story, we invite scope and limitations of narrative theology, the applica- one another to make meaning of our worldOnly and ultimately tion of narrative theology to the education and forma- of our lives. . . . To carry stories within us is to become tion of disciples within congregational life continues to wisdom-bearers, God-bearers.”5 have pedagogical implications for Christian educators in the 21st century. An Example of Narrative Theology in the Christian Education of Adults Narrative Theology in Christian Education Thomas Groome applies a similar narrative methodology The pedagogical foundation of narrative theology in the with adults. He refers to the encounter between the bibli- congregational setting asserts that God’s story found in cal story and the life stories of adults: the Bible is the meta-narrative through which the life stories of individual Christians are formed: Story symbolizes the faith life of the Christian community over history and in the present . . . [and] reflects the prom- isesCopy and demands that arise from the Story to empower God is revealed through human stories. God is a particu- lar agent that is known and revealed in his story. Inas- and mandate Christians to live now for the coming of 6 much as God is the giver of all human life-stories, they God’s reign for all creation. are manifestations of his grace and are measured by the demands of his intentions. Human life-stories are implic- Narrative theology stresses the power and possibility of itly co-authored by God.3 human agency through active dialogue with Christian scripture: Furthermore, “God’s historical liberating action in Jesus Christ is the final authority and foundation of Christian [The dialogue’s] purpose . . . is to enable participants to faith. In the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, critically appropriate the faith community’s Story/Vision God provides us with the basis for understanding, inter- with their own lives and contexts . . . [so that] they make preting and applying our faith story.”4 The relationship it their own, judge and come to see for themselves how their lives are to be shaped by it and how they are to be between God’s story revealed in the Christian Bible and reshapers of its historical realization in their place and the life stories of disciples within the congregation is the time . . . to personalize and interiorize it as their “ultimate focus of narrative pedagogy for the Christian education myth” of meaning and ethic of life.7 of both children and adults. Strengths and Limitations of Narrative Theology 1. “Narrative Theology” in The Global Dictionary of Theology, eds. Wil- in Congregational Life liam Dryness and Veti-Matti Kärkkäinen, (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Christian education based on narrative theology offers Press), 2009, 598. 2. See H. R. Niebuhr, “The Story of Our Lives,” Hans Frei, “Apologet- a powerful way to shape disciples of Jesus through deep ics, Criticism and the Loss of Narrative Interpretation,” in Why Narrative? Readings in Narrative Theology, eds. Stanley Hauerwas and L. Gregory JonesContributor (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans), 1989. 5. Jerome Berryman, The Complete Guide to Godly Play, Volume I: How 3. John Navonne, SJ, Seeking God in Story (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, to Lead Godly Play Lessons (2002), 28. 1990), 6. 6. Thomas Groome, Sharing Faith: A Comprehensive Guide to Religious 4. John Westerhoff, III, Will Our Children Have Faith?, rev. ed. (Har- and Pastoral Education (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 215. risburg, PA: Morehouse, 2000), 32. 7. Ibid., 250. Narrative Theology, Philosophical Foundations of 861 engagement with God’s story as found in both testa- the philosopher Wittgenstein, working on problems of ments of the Christian Bible. Following the “plot line” epistemology, argued that truthfulness of religious lan- of the Christian scriptures, disciples are encouraged to guage cannot be evaluated in terms of so called rational find their life story within God’s story and God’s story or moral generalizability (a philosophical chimera, ac- within their own. While there is great power for con- cording to Wittgenstein), but rather through the very version and transformation within this process, there particularities that liberalism had rejected. The meaning are also significant limitations. The focus on personal of the Christian use of the word “God,” for example, is meaning-making can result in individualism, relativism, inextricably bound up with how it is used in contexts and an uncritical oversimplification of the complexities including Christian worship, along with the stories it tells of God’s story. Furthermore, focus on the biblical nar- and enacts, and with practices like hospitality, reconcilia- rative alone does not provide for engagement with the tion, and justice, which are emblematic of it.8 creedal, doctrinal, and denominational propositions of This is how stories returned from exile to the church. the Christian tradition. No longer dismissing narrative as rhetorical (even child- ish) window dressing on rationally defensible doctrinal References and Resources points, the stories of God once again “are the point.”9 Berryman, Jerome. 2002. The Complete Guide to Godly Play. Hence, the Bible may be reimaginedOnly from a list of ide- Vol. I, How to Lead Godly Play Lessons. New York: More- ational precepts to the storybook of God’s Salvation. Wor- house Education Resources. ship escapes its narrow orientation to the production of Dryness, William, and Vetti-Matti Kärkkäinen, eds. 2009. human experience and becomes again the enactment or “Narrative Theology.” In The Global Dictionary of Theology, performance of Christian stories, centrally those of the edited by Dryness, Kärkkäinen, Juan F. Martinez, and Simon life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. Christian practices Chan, 598–601. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. are stories embodied in daily life. Moral actions are made Groome, Thomas. 1991. Sharing Faith: A Comprehensive Guide intelligible through stories, and indeed, with help from to Religious and Pastoral Education. New York: HarperCollins. Augustine, human consciousness itself may be theorized as Hauerwas, Stanley, and L. Gregory Jones, eds. 1989. Why Nar- fundamentally storied.10 Ultimately, even salvation may be rative? Readings in Narrative Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: narratively construed, consisting of “initiation of a people Eerdmans. intoCopy [the Christian] story.”11 This characterization of salva- Navonne, John, SJ. 1990. Seeking God in Story. Collegeville, tion also plots the educational task of the church. MN: The Liturgical Press. Because of their historical association with children, Westerhoff, John, III. 2000. Will Our Children Have Faith? Rev. Christian educators have always told stories. They rightly ed. Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse. intuit the relationship between story-formed imaginations —Elizabeth Leggett Windsor and the emergence of distinctive character in the young congruent with Christian plot lines. Contemporary chil- dren’s educators such as Berryman and Cavalletti extend Narrative Theology, these insights by suggesting that playful engagement with Philosophical Foundations of Christian stories (including by way of their liturgical per- formance) also equips children to imaginatively interpret Contemporary theological interest in narrative or “story” the challenges and meanings of existence.12 emerged in the second half of the 20th century. For much Storied approaches to Christian education are not lim- of the previous century, theological liberalism had de- ited to children. Groome commends critical-constructive voted itself to overcoming all of Christianity’s seemingly dialogue between learners’ lived experience (their own embarrassing parochialisms—God’s intimate involve- ment with the creation of the world, God’s covenant 8. Michael Harvey, “Wittgenstein’s Notion of ‘Theology as Grammar,’” Religious Studies 25, no. 1 (March, 1989): 89–103. association with geopolitically insignificant Israel (not 9. Stanely Hauerwas, The Peaceable Kingdom: A Primer in Christian to mention the problem of the Jewishness of God’s Son), Ethics (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1983), 26. 10. Alisdair MacIntyre, “The Virtues, the Unity of a Human Life, and insistence upon the uniqueness of Jesus as the incarna- the Concept of a Tradition” and Stephen Crites, “The Narrative Quality of tion of God, the exclusive claims for Jesus’s death and Experience” in Why Narrative?, eds. Stanley Hauerwas and Gregory Jones resurrection in relation to human redemption—striving (Eugene, OR : Wipf & Stock Publishers, 1997) 11. Stanley Hauerwas, “The Gesture of a Truthful Story,” in Theological toContributor explain how Christianity was in fact a rationally and Perspectives on Christian Formation: A Reader on Theology and Christian scientifically defensible moral system when liberated Education, eds., Jeff Astley, Leslie Francis, and Colin Crowder (Grand Rap- ids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996), 103. from its anachronistic fussing over miracles, migrations, 12. Jerome Berryman, Godly Play: A Way of Religious Education (San family feuds, healings, and blood sacrifices. By contrast, Francisco: Harper, 1991) 862 National Institute for Christian Education, Australia stories) and the “Story/Vision of the Christian Tradition” out the 1960s and 1970s; there are currently more than to appropriate it to their communal or personal lives.13 80 CPCS/CEN schools serving approximately 23,000 Wimberly, seeking to ward off nihilism to build hope students. By 1991, CPCS supporters were drawn from in African American Christian communities, advocates across the spectrum of Protestant denominations, though the practice of “story-linking” among the stories of black the movement retains a broadly Calvinist orientation. learners, biblical stories, and stories of African American NICE was originally governed by an independent council exemplars who embodied in their lives Christian courage, elected by member schools and later by a subcommittee hope, and identity as God’s beloved.14 Barnes, a narrative of the CEN board. theological ethicist, notes the biblical writers’ practice of NICE incorporated the resources of the Institute for “story-interlacing” (e.g., the Exodus stories interlaced Christian Education (ICE), established in Victoria in with the Jesus’s stories) for the purpose of deepened 1979. ICE offered a graduate diploma in curriculum stud- theological interpretations. She shows how this interlac- ies, focused on school-based curriculum development, ing continues in classical and contemporary literature, and conducted courses on school sites in Melbourne, drama, film, and visual art.15 Others invite the linking with limited distance programs for teachers in Sydney of storied practices as between the Eucharist and the just and Darwin. ICS lecturers Dr. Doug Blomberg and Dr. nurturing, husbandry, and distribution of food crops.16 Stuart Fowler were appointed to theOnly initial faculty of Entering into stories requires imagination. Fortunately NICE; they were soon joined by Dr. Ian Lambert. Pro- stories, because they make no pretense of authority, fessor Kerry Kennedy was executive officer, followed by disarm ideological defenses and invite hearers to place Andrew White. Blomberg was appointed academic dean themselves within the drama. Yet human comfort with in 1999 and was succeeded as principal by Dr. Richard or even yearning for stories also may be problematic. Edlin. Mr. Ken Dickens became principal (and chief Christian educators rightly assist learners toward both executive officer of CEN, reflecting the more symbiotic appreciation for the power of narrative to shape human relationship with NICE) in 2009, with Dr. Geoff Beech in life and critical awareness of how social location influ- the role of academic dean. ences what stories are told and heard and by what criteria stories are acclaimed as true. Programs —Fred P. Edie NICECopy provides professional development across Austra- lia through workshops and distance courses for teachers and others concerned to develop Christian perspective National Institute for and practice in education. Visits by lecturers to regional Christian Education, Australia centers for individual and group tutorials and intensive workshops were features of the early years; since the late History 1990s, residential schools have also been utilized, in a The National Institute for Christian Education (NICE) hybrid delivery mode. Courses are primarily online, with was established in 1991 by Christian Parent Controlled supplementary on-site seminars; classes comprise inter- Schools Ltd. (CPCS, now Christian Education National, national as well as Australian students. There are more CEN), an alliance of school associations whose origi- than 20 part-time lecturers, also located across Australia nal impetus came from post–World War II Reformed and overseas. migrants from the Netherlands. These schools were of- Accreditation of programs supported by private Chris- ficially nondenominational and sought to create stronger tian institutions in disciplines other than theology was links among the family, the school, and the wider Chris- initially difficult, as there is a limited tradition of private tian community, under the impetus of the vision that higher education in a jurisdiction in which governments faith would be determinative in curricular, pedagogical, bear regulatory authority. Cooperation between NICE and management decisions. The first school opened in and the Institute of Christian Tertiary Education (ICTE, 1962, and a significant number were established through- affiliated with Christian Community Schools) in the Col- lege of Christian Higher Education (CCHE), formed in 13. Thomas Groome, Sharing Faith: A Comprehensive Approach to 1995, facilitated the accreditation of degrees through the Religious Education and Pastoral Ministry (San Francisco: Harper, 1991). New South Wales state government. These programs in- 14. Anne Streaty Wimberly, Soul Stories: African American Christian clude the graduate diploma in educational studies (1995), EducationContributor (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 2005). 15. Elizabeth Barnes, The Story of Discipleship: Christ, Humanity, and master of education (1998), graduate diploma of educa- Church in Narrative Perspective (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1995), 9. tion, bachelor of education (conversion), and master of 16. Fred P. Edie, Book, Bath, Table, and Time: Christian Worship as Source and Resource for Youth Ministry (Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 2007), education (leadership). The goal of CCHE was “to pro- see chapter 7. mote scholarship and research based on the acceptance National Institute for Christian Education, Australia 863 of the supreme authority of the Bible in all aspects of life; in professional practice rather than in primarily a theo- Jesus Christ as Lord; and the faith-based character of all retical framework. While all the resources of educational learning,” necessitating the integration of Christianity research in secular and Christian contexts are diligently and scholarship (1996, 3). The college also sought to pro- exploited, the goal is to graduate not expert theorists vide its students with “foundations for thinking critically but prayerfully reflective practitioners. This orientation about faith and education as well as the opportunity for derives to a significant degree from a reformational advanced study, and knowledge and skills that will assist Christian perspective on the primacy of ordinary experi- them in the development of appropriate learning experi- ence and the understanding that theorizing involves an ences for their students” (3). After CCHE was wound up abstractive focus on limited aspects of experience. As- due to changes in governmental regulations, the rela- sessment thus utilizes assignments directly applicable to tionship with ICTE continued through NICE’s role as a students’ day-to-day professional tasks. teaching agency of Morling College, to which accredita- A significant concern has been not to substitute the tion was transferred. presumed certainties of theological investigation for the Collaboration with ICTE and others is highly valued primary revelation of God in Christ, scripture, and cre- and was encouraged through the Scholarly Conference ation. As indicated, the Bible is the “supreme authority” for Christian Teacher Educators, initiated by NICE in for interpreting experience, but thisOnly confession entails 1992 to support the development of faculty in various caution lest a particular interpretation interpose as a institutions. In the mid-1990s, NICE partnered with veil between scripture and its readers/hearers. Neither Wesley Institute for Ministry and the Arts in developing is scripture to be mistaken for a textbook providing in- and helping to staff a graduate diploma in education for corrigible data to be synthesized with the outcomes of that institution. In 1997, NICE entered into an agreement theoretical investigation where there is no conflict, and with the Institute for Christian Studies (ICS), Toronto, with the outcomes to be rejected where there is. Hence, to provide distance courses that were offered in North professional development is not a matter of adding theo- America, laying the foundation for ICS’s more extensive logical or biblical material to secular sources or focusing commitment to distance education. Programs were also on biblical literacy in isolation from concrete educational offered in South Africa and Kenya, in collaboration with problems. Biblical literacy is foundational, if a biblical the Heidelberg Institute and Scott Theological College, perspectiveCopy is to permeate curriculum and pedagogy, but respectively. NICE was an initiator of the Macquarie it is not the purpose of a program for professional educa- Christian Studies Institute, Sydney. tors to make this its central goal, as there are many other institutions (theological and Bible colleges) established Educational Philosophy with this goal. This is an important reason why NICE Commitment to biblically based courses is not intended has not supported distinguishing its programs by use of to curtail teachers’ responsibility to critically examine the qualifier “Christian” for its degrees, for this would their own presuppositions. Rather, they are encouraged be to ignore the fundamental conviction, undergirding to clarify the application of these in developing a coherent the very existence of Christian schools, that all academic educational philosophy, enabling them more effectively to programs have a religious orientation, and could suggest nurture pupils as responsible Christian citizens, workers, that it is a specific subject matter rather than an orienta- and family and church members. Fundamental to this tion to all subject matter that is at issue. goal is an approach for which Stuart Fowler coined the The current principal and CEO of CEN, Ken Dickens, term “religio-criticism” (Fowler, Van Brummelen, Van affirms that NICE is more than a provider of postgradu- Dyk, 1990, 54). This required interrogation of convictions ate programs: it is the guardian of the intellectual capital about the source of order and meaning (i.e., religious com- of CEN, accumulated through scholarly endeavor over a mitments) that underpinned proposals or prescriptions period of 50 years, and also works with the other mem- for educational practice. These presuppositions are often bers of school communities besides teachers: parents, unarticulated and must be made explicit if their impact is administrative staff, board members, and students. It to be identified. Thus, programs were designed “to support produces resources for schools, publishes books and a courses of study that expose students to a wide range of journal, facilitates an educators’ professional organi- ideas, practices and perspectives and to develop students’ zation, contributes to educational debate, encourages competenceContributor in critically examining the curriculum, teach- educational research, and engages in tertiary collegial ing, practices and administration of schools, and in par- interchange. Dickens (2013) states that NICE “is commit- ticular of Christian schools” (CCHE 1996, 4). ted to helping people to think, act and teach in ways that A feature of the original ICE graduate diploma that take seriously the public truth of the Christian gospel and continues to inform NICE courses was their grounding its implications for all of life. Its strong biblical statement 864 Natural Law of belief affirms the historic doctrines of the faith. As an preserved and forbidding that it be disturbed.19 The eter- educational institution, however, NICE is particularly nal law drives all motion and acts of the universe. Bodies concerned with biblical teaching about knowledge, hu- obey the direction or tendency of their natures. manity, creation, and culture.” The natural law tradition has been a mainstay of Chris- tian philosophical thought. The doctors of the church References and Resources have always regarded the desire for truth as a founda- College of Christian Higher Education Inc. 1996. “Master of tional aspect of Christianity. Because God’s word is Truth Educational Studies: Submission with Amendments Novem- (cf. John 17:17), the human search for truth, philosophy ber 1996.” Sydney, NSW. pursued in accordance with the precepts of reason, can Dickens, Ken. 2013. Personal communication with author. only help to understand revelation better. Fowler, Stuart, Harro W. Van Brummelen, John Van Dyk. 1990. Sacred scripture says: “Happy the man who meditates Christian schooling: Education for Freedom. Potchefstroom on wisdom and reasons intelligently, who reflects in his University for Christian Higher Education, South Africa. heart on her ways and ponders her secrets. . . . he places National Institute for Christian Education. n.d. “History.” his children under her protection and lodges under her http://www.nice.edu.au/History.aspx. boughs; by her he is sheltered from the heat and he dwells in the shade of her glory” (Sir. 14:20–27).Only Christian Education National. http://www.cen.edu.au/ St. Augustine of Hippo is famous for his dictum, ‘Lex —Doug Blomberg iniusta non est lex,’ which highlights the idea that law and bindingness are closely linked and that where a law becomes unjust, it begins to resemble oppression rather Natural Law than genuine law. “What are states without justice but robber bands enlarged?” he asked. Some thinkers con- The idea that there are laws of nature—universal, time- flate natural law with divine law. But both Augustine and less, objective, and in principle knowable—characterizes Aquinas held that since human reason could not fully the thinking of many peoples throughout history. The comprehend the eternal law, it is supplemented by divine pre-Christian Cicero said of the natural law: “For there is revelation or revealed divine law. a true law: right reason. It is in conformity with nature, is St. CopyThomas Aquinas, like Augustine, taught that all diffused among all men, and is immutable and eternal; its human or positive laws were to be judged by their con- orders summon to duty; its prohibitions turn away from formity to the natural law. An unjust law is not a law, in offense . . . . To replace it with a contrary law is a sacrilege; the full sense of the word. It retains merely the “appear- failure to apply even one of its provisions is forbidden; no ance” of law insofar as it is duly constituted and enforced one can abrogate it entirely.”17 in the same way a just law is, but is itself a “perversion of These laws govern not merely the physical universe, law.” Natural law originates in the nature of things and but also the moral. Closely related to the notion of a thus constitutes an arbiter of socially constructed law. mind-independent moral and physical reality is the re- Given that law has the common good as its purpose, its lated though separate idea that these laws derive from an subject matter is the realm of human acts. The content of eternal source. Both Plato and Aristotle are regarded as the natural law is therefore determined by a conception thinkers representative of the natural law tradition, Plato of what things can achieve true happiness. The state then because of his metaphysics rooted in a higher law, having is an institution directed at perfecting its members and implications for the soul and for the world of the forms, allowing them to achieve true happiness. including the good, the beautiful, and the true. “It is bet- Francisco Suárez and Francisco de Vitoria20 analyzed ter to suffer than to do evil,”18 Socrates said before being the concept of natural law and extended the idea of the executed. Aristotle’s teleological metaphysics suggests ius gentium, highlighting the basic human rights and the purpose and order in the universe knowable by humans. natural pacts of peoples in the New World. Paul’s Epistle The Greek and Roman natural law ideas are developed by to the Romans is widely regarded as biblical authority doctors of the church. for the natural law: “For when the Gentiles, which have St. Augustine defines the eternal law as divine reason not the law, do by nature the things contained in the law, and will commanding that the natural order of things be 19. St. Augustine in his works translated by Peter Holmes and Robert ContributorErnest Wallis, and revised by Benjamin B. Warfield. From Nicene and Post- 17. Cicero, (1998). The Republic, The Laws (trans. N. Rudd) (Oxford: Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. 5., ed. Philip Schaff (Buffalo, NY: Christian Oxford University Press. Rep. III), 22,33. Literature Publishing Co., 1887). 18. Plato. Plato in Twelve Volumes, Vol. 3 translated by W.R.M. Lamb 20. Francisco de Vitoria: political writings, translated by Jeremy Law- (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press) London, William Heinemann rance, ed. Jeremy Lawrance and Anthony Pagden (Cambridge University Ltd. 1967), 469a. Press, 1991). Near East School of Theology 865 these, having not the law, are law unto themselves: Which Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 1st series, vol. 5, edited by shew the work of the law written in their hearts, their Philip Schaff. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing. conscience also bearing witness, and their thoughts the Blackstone, William. 1979. Commentaries on the Law of Eng- mean while accusing or else excusing one another (Rom. land. Facsimile ed. 4 vols. With introductions by Stanley N. 2:14–15). St. Paul’s words were understood in the same Katz. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 4 vols. Volume way by St. Hilary of Poitiers, St. Ambrose, and St. Augus- 1, chapter i. tine, and there seems no reason to doubt the correctness Carr, Craig L., ed. 1994. The Political Writings of Samuel Pufen- of their interpretation. dorf. New York: Oxford. Hugo Grotius, a Protestant thinker, based his interna- Cicero. 1998. The Republic, the Laws. Translated by N. Rudd. tional law on natural law, most particularly his idea of the Oxford: Oxford University Press. freedom of the seas and .21 Similarly, Sam- Finnis, J. 1980. Natural Law and Natural Rights. Oxford: Clar- uel von Pufendorf (Carr, 1994) sought to establish his endon Press. vision of individual human rights in Lutheran theology. Freeman, M. D. A. 1994. Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence. Despite some claims to the contrary, Thomas Hobbes London: Sweet and Maxwell. and John Locke are not standard exponents of the natural Grotius, H. 1814. On the Law of War and Peace. London: A.C. law tradition. Their accounts are neither teleological nor Campell. Only grounded in metaphysics. Theirs is a social contractarian Hobbes, Thomas. (1651) 2006. Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, account. Hobbes regards humans as joining together in a & Power of a Common-Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civill. social contract or consensus for the purpose of “getting Mineola, NY: Yale University Press. themselves out from that miserable condition of Warre,” Hittinger, R. A. 1989. Critique of the New Natural Law Theory. life being “solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short.”22 Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. The English common law is often said to be founded Kant, I. 1785. The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. on the natural law. According to William Blackstone, Translated by M. Gregor and C. Korsgaard. Cambridge, UK: natural law determines the content of the common law Cambridge University Press. properly understood. It also settles the realm of equity.23 Laing, Jacqueline A., and Russell Wilcox. 2013. The Natural It is not, however, the same as the positive laws of Eng- Law Reader. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. land, and this is in keeping with the Thomistic account of Locke, J. 1690. Two Treatises of Government. Edited by P. Las- 24 Copy the natural law as it relates to the realm of equity. lett. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Insisting on objectivity, universality, and timeless re- Scott, J. B. 1934. The Spanish Origin of International Law: Fran- alities, the natural law tradition provides a foundation for scisco de Vitoria and His Law of Nations. London: Humphrey Christian education and rational discourse across diverse Milford. worldviews. For the purposes of general education, it al- Sophocles. 2004. Antigone. Translated by R. C. Jebb. London: lows discussion among Christians, non-Christians, and Duckworth. those of no faith. Entrenched as it is in truth eternal, it Suarez, Francisco. 1944. Selections from Three Works of Fran- supplies the rational basis for all respectful discussion cisco Suarez. Oxford: Clarendon Press. among peoples. —Jacqueline Laing

References and Resources Aquinas, T. 1920. The “Summa Theologica” of St. Thomas Aqui- Near East School of Theology nas Literally Translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province. London: Burns, Oates and Washbourne. The Near East School of Theology (NEST) is an intercon- Augustine. 1887. “The Various Kinds of Laws: Article 2. Whether fessional Protestant seminary located in Beirut, Lebanon, There Is in Is a Natural Law?” Translated by Peter Holmes and that serves the evangelical churches of the Middle East. Robert Ernest Wallis. Revised by Benjamin B. Warfield. In The primary purpose of the school is to train pastors and church workers for ministry in the churches and other 21. H. Grotius, On the Law of War and Peace (London: A.C. Campell, evangelical schools and organizations in the Middle East. 1814). 22. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, & Power of a It is also concerned with continuing education for pastors Common-Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civill (Mineola, NY, 2006; orig. 1651), and church workers in active service and with theological pt. 1, ch. 14 (p. 72); p. 1, ch. 13 (pp. 21, 70). education of the laity. Contributor23. William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Law of England, facsimile ed. with introductions by Stanley N. Katz. (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1979), 1:1. History 24. T. Aquinas, The summa theologica of St. Thomas Aquinas literally translated by fathers of the English Dominican province (London: Burns NEST, in its present form, is the result of a merger be- Oates and Washbourne Ltd., 1920), Summa II II Q120. tween the Presbyterian School for Religious Workers 866 Near East School of Theology Library in Beirut and the Congregationalist School of Religion tian faith as contained in the Holy scriptures and ex- in Athens. The former, originally named the Lebanon pressed in the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed and Theological Seminary, was founded in Mount Lebanon the Apostles’ Creed. It is a seminary in the heritage of in 1869 for the purpose of training native preachers and the Protestant Reformation in its Lutheran, Reformed, teachers of the evangelical faith. It changed locations Anglican, and Episcopal traditions. The churches in the several times within Lebanon and eventually settled Reformed tradition (Arab Presbyterian, Armenian Con- in the capital city of Beirut (1912). The Seminary in gregational) find their theological identity expressed in Athens was what remained of four evangelical seminar- the major confessions and catechisms of the Reformed ies founded among the Protestant Armenians in Asia tradition. The Lutheran Church represented in the semi- Minor (as of 1839). The Armenian seminaries, founded nary subscribes to the Augsburg Confession (1530). The by the New England American Board of Commissioners Episcopal Church is “part of the Anglican Communion for Foreign Missions in several locations in Ottoman and is faithful to the Anglican tradition, with strong em- Turkey, had to close down and relocate after the Arme- phasis on the Book of Common Prayer and the historic nian massacres during World War I. Negotiations be- ecumenical creeds of the undivided church of the early tween the Presbyterian mission and the American board centuries” (NEST Catalogue 2011–2012, n.d., 16). The took place in the late 1920s, and it was decided to merge mission statement affirms that the seminaryOnly “aims at the two theological seminaries in Beirut under the name training men and women to be faithful witnesses to God’s Near East School of Theology. The merger took place in truth revealed in Jesus Christ in the power of the Holy 1932. At first it was a seminary for Arab Presbyterians Spirit, for the renewal of person and the transformation and Armenian Congregationalists; in 1950, the Angli- of communities and societies” (NEST Catalogue 2011– can Diocese of Jerusalem was invited to join, and later, 2012 n.d., 16). NEST welcomes candidates from other in 1967, the Lutheran Church of Jordan and the Holy Middle Eastern churches, as well as any person seeking Land joined. Thus, NEST comprises three Protestant to learn about Protestant theology and faith, irrespective families: Reformed (Presbyterian and Congregational- of his or her religious affiliation. Students from beyond ist), Episcopal, and Lutheran. the Middle East who have a special interest in biblical studies against the cultural background of the Middle Academic Programs East andCopy Islamic or Oriental and Orthodox churches, are NEST is the only Protestant seminary in Lebanon that also welcome. NEST is a member of the Association of is accredited by the Ministry of Higher Education in Theological Institutes in the Middle East (ATIME) and Lebanon. It offers degrees both at the bachelor’s and the cooperates closely with the Fellowship of the Middle East master’s levels: BTh, MDiv, and master of sacred theol- Evangelical Churches (FMEEC) and the Middle East ogy in two tracks: theology and Christian education. In Council of Churches (MECC). addition, NEST offers a diploma in theological studies for persons with a serious interest in theological stud- References and Resources ies who, for reasons of employment or time limitation, The Near East School of Theology Catalogue 2011–2012. n.d. are not able to pursue a complete degree program. In Beirut, Lebanon. addition, NEST collaborates with Haigazian University Sabra, George. 2009. Truth and Service: A History of the Near in Beirut in a joint degree program in Christian educa- East School of Theology. Beirut: Antoine. tion (BACE) and has cross-registration agreements with —George F. Sabra the neighboring American University of Beirut and the Lebanese American University. NEST also runs a pro- gram called Studies in the Middle East, which is designed Near East School of Theology Library for expatriate students and or pastors on sabbatical in- terested in spending a semester or a year in Lebanon to When the Near East School of Theology (NEST) was deepen their knowledge of Eastern Christianity, Islam, founded in 1932, it was the result of the merger of two and Christian-Muslim relations. To that end, NEST predecessor institutions, the Beirut School for Religious has established exchange agreements with faculties of Workers—originally founded as the Lebanon Seminary theology and church organizations in Germany, Austria, in 1869—and the Athens School of Religion, the succes- Switzerland,Contributor France, and Denmark. sor institution of several Armenian Protestant seminaries in Asia Minor, the oldest of which dated back to 1839. Christian Philosophy and Mission of Education The merger of the two seminaries in 1932 meant also the NEST defines itself as an interconfessional Protestant merger of their two libraries. The American missionaries, seminary of the churches that confess the historic Chris- who had founded the various theological seminaries in Nebreda, Alfonso M. 867

Asia Minor and Lebanon, had brought with them their memorialized his life and vocation: “Even before his last own books, acquired many others during their stay in nine months, he experienced himself many long days of the Near East, and bought many books and manuscripts loneliness in different hospitals. There he learned to un- from the various countries they lived in or visited in the derstand the loneliness of the sick, to feel compassion for region. Several missionaries and pastors, as well as for- them, to suffer together. . . . He felt a deep concern for the eign mission agencies stationed in the country, later do- church and the Society of Jesus. . . . I also admired in him nated their libraries to the seminaries. All of these ended the fact that he ‘was soul.’ He would give life wherever he up forming the collection of the library of NEST. went. This . . . is what he wants to be. ‘Be soul, give life, At present, the NEST Library contains some 43,000 light and deep joy.’” volumes, most of which are in English. There is a signifi- cant collection in Arabic, as well as French, German, and Significant Contributions to Christian Education Armenian. The library also houses a rare book room with As a religious educator, Nebreda built on the works of a collection of 293 manuscripts in separate physical vol- Josef Andreas Jungmann, a professor at the Univer- umes. These are mostly in Arabic ( 253), but there are also sity of Innsbruck who was known for his leadership in some in Syriac, Hebrew, Armenian, Turkish, and Persian. the kerygmatic renewal of catechesis, and his student, One of the most significant manuscripts is the Protestant Johannes Hofinger, SJ, recognizedOnly for introducing the Arabic Bible translation, known as the Bustani-Smith- renewal movement in the United States and organizing van Dyck translation. The American Protestant mis- the International Catechetical Study Weeks between 1959 sionaries completed the translation of the Bible, from the and 1968, held in Nijmegen, Eichstatt, Bangkok, Kati- original languages, into Arabic in 1865. This translation gondo, Manila, and Medellin. For Nebreda, the task of became the most popular and most widespread Arabic “handing down the faith” to nonbelievers involved three translation in the whole region, and it still is. movements or stages: pre-evangelization, evangelization, The library is fully automated. It subscribes to religion and catechesis. His anthropological approach to cateche- databases and e-journals, being one of only two libraries sis intentionally located inquirers to the faith within their in the whole of Lebanon to have access to them. social and cultural contexts. In Kerygma in Crisis, he critically engaged the salient issues and challenges faced References and Resources by Copynon-Christians who hear, accept, and live the good Sabra, George. 2009. Truth and Service: A History of the Near news, as well as the catechists who minister to them. He East School of Theology. Beirut: Antoine. viewed “educating for faith,” particularly among youth, —George F. Sabra through the wider lens of “communication,” which took into account its diverse and contextual forms, rather than through the perspective of more traditional content- Nebreda, Alfonso M. driven methods of teaching or instruction. For him, the formative dimension of living and acting, being and Early Background and Education doing of the Christian message toward conversion—as Alfonso M. Nebreda, SJ, was born in the Basque city of one unconditionally embraces God in Jesus Christ—was Bilbao, Spain, on 11 May 1926 to a devout Roman Catho- clearly central and more relevant than mere transmission lic family, the ninth of 12 children. In 1945, he entered of religious content. This educational vision informed the novitiate of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) in Salamanca and formed his practice of catechetical, liturgical, and and on 21 September 1947 took his first religious vows. leadership formation. In 1950, he was sent to Japan as a missionary, spend- On 15 August 1965, Nebreda was appointed the first ing his early years learning the Japanese language. He director of the East Asian Pastoral Institute (EAPI), cur- earned a number of academic degrees: a master of arts rently located on the campus of the Ateneo de Manila in classics from the Pontifical University of Salamanca; a University in the Philippines, by Fr. Pedro Arrupe, SJ, licentiate in philosophy from the University of Comillas, superior general of his order. EAPI’s mission is rooted Santander; a graduate degree in literature and a licentiate in the pastoral vision of the Second Vatican Council, and in theology from what was then a newly founded faculty it was founded in response to the catechetical, liturgical, of theology at Sophia University in Tokyo; and a doctor- and formational needs of the churches in Asia and Ocea- ateContributor in theology at the Gregorian University in Rome. On nia. Originally established in 1953 as a center of research 24 March 1957, he was ordained priest by Archbishop and publications by Nebreda’s predecessor, Fr. Johannes Peter Tatsuo Doi of Tokyo, who subsequently became Hofinger, SJ, EAPI provides spiritual renewal, pastoral the first cardinal of Japan. Nebreda died on 8 October training, and leadership formation to lay, religious, and 2004, and at his funeral mass, Fr. Javier Garralda, SJ, clergy. It offers professional diplomas and graduate de- 868 Nelson, C. Ellis grees in pastoral studies and serves as a “meeting place” Significant Contributions to Christian Education for the churches in the region. Nelson was actively involved in Christian education ministry in local and denominational settings. He gained Most Notable Publications experience in youth ministry while in seminary and after Nebreda, Alfonso. 1964a. “Living Faith: Major Concern of Reli- graduating was involved in ministry with college students gious Education.” In Pastoral Catechetics, edited by Johannes at the University of Texas. For a time, he also served as Hofinger, SJ, and Theodore Stone, 121–143. New York: chaplain at Austin’s State School for the Blind and taught Herder and Herder. religious education at APTS and Bible at the University ———. 1964b. Jalones para una evangelizacion en Japon: el of Texas. In 1945, he became director of youth work for universitario japones frente al mensaje. Rome: Pontifical the Board of Christian Education in the Presbyterian Gregorian University. Church, U.S.A. While teaching in higher education ———. 1965. Kerygma in Crisis? Chicago: Loyola University settings, he also invested himself in strengthening the Press. church’s educational ministry efforts through service on ———. 1969. “Fundamental Catechesis.” In The Medellin Papers: numerous denominational and professional boards and A Selection from the Proceedings of the Sixth International in curriculum development. Study Week on Catechetics held at Medellin, Colombia, August Nelson taught in a variety of higherOnly education set- 11–17, 1968, edited by Johannes Hofinger, SJ, and Terrence J. tings: APTS (1940–1945, 1948–1957), Union Theologi- Sheridan, 26–54. Manila: East Asian Pastoral Institute. cal Seminary in New York (1957–1974), and Louisville ———. 1977a. “Education for Faith.” In Youth Ministry: A Book Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1974–1981). Even in of Readings, edited by Michael Warren, 39–46. New York: retirement he kept an active teaching schedule at many Paulist Press. seminaries and universities in the United States and in ———. 1977b. “Faith and the Adolescent.” In Youth Ministry: Australia. He returned to APTS as a research professor in A Book of Readings, edited by Michael Warren, 12–38. New 1990 and held that position until his death in 2011. York: Paulist Press. Among his many interests, Nelson was concerned with issues of moral development and faith formation. References and Resources One of his major contributions to the field of Christian Basabe, Fernando M. 1967. Japanese Youth Confronts Religion: educationCopy was his efforts to help church leaders better A Sociological Survey, in Collaboration with Anzai Shin and understand and appreciate the power of the congregation Alfonso M. Nebreda. Tokyo: Sophia University, in coopera- to form the faith and morality of its members through tion with C. E. Tuttle Company, Tokyo and Rutland, VT. socialization. Influenced by writers of previous genera- Garralda, Javier, Fr. 2004. “Homily for the Funeral Mass of Fr. tions, such as Horace Bushnell, George Albert Coe, and Alfonso Nebreda, SJ.” Tokyo, Japan, 12 October. Paul Vieth, Nelson shifted the emphasis from “instruc- Tacorda, Linda. 1995. “Alfonso M. Nebreda, SJ and the Mis- tion toward faith” to “nurture toward faith.” This was sionary Problem of Evangelization.” Excerpt from PhD diss., not to discount the importance of instruction in the Pontifical Salesian University, Rome. faith, but to recognize the power of socialization as the —Faustino M. Cruz experienced context within which instruction took place to shape the faith of those in the community. To Nelson, Christianity needed congregations to form people’s faith. Nelson, C. Ellis This attention to the field of sociology as foundational to educational ministry was an important challenge to Early Background and Education the dominant developmental psychology influence in C. Ellis Nelson (1916–2011) was a Christian educa- the field in the 1960s through 1990s. In particular, his tion leader in the Presbyterian Church, U.S.A. Born in book Where Faith Begins (1967b) introduced many to Galveston, Texas, Nelson grew up in a family that was this perspective, and his later book How Faith Matures actively involved in the life of the local church. He at- (1989) provided more evidence for the importance of tended Lamar Junior College and Texas A&M College, understanding the formative power of socialization in initially pursuing studies in engineering. With a sense of general and the congregation in particular. calling to ministry, he transferred to Austin College and Nelson’s investment in ministry, teaching, adminis- wentContributor on to earn a BD at Austin Presbyterian Theological tration, and writing had a deep impact not only within Seminary (APTS), also earning an MA in education from his denomination, but also within the field of Christian the University of Texas. He was ordained to the ministry education as a whole. His insights continue to challenge in 1940 by the Presbyterian Church, U.S.A. us today. Neo- 869

Most Notable Publications The capital theses in the philosophy of St. Thomas are not Nelson, C. Ellis. 1967a. “Religious Education in an Era of Radi- to be placed in the category of opinions capable of being cal Pluralism.” Religion in Life 36 (1): 128–139. debated one way or another, but are to be considered as ———. 1967b. Where Faith Begins. Louisville, KY: John Knox the foundations upon which the whole science of natural Press. and divine things is based; if such principles are once re- moved or in any way impaired, it must necessarily follow ———. 1968. “The Relation of Seminary Training to Congrega- that students of the sacred sciences will ultimately fail to tional Education.” Religious Education 63: 301–308. perceive so much as the meaning of the words in which ———, ed. 1988. Congregations: Their Power to Form and Trans- the dogmas of divine revelation are proposed by the mag- form. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press. istracy of the Church. ———. 1989. How Faith Matures. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. Pius X’s purpose was to stem the tide of social and ———. 1992. Growth in Grace and Knowledge: Lectures and intellectual modernism that was threatening to challenge Speeches in Practical Theology. Austin, TX: Nortex Press. the traditions of the church, using the idea of perpetual philosophical principles rooted in Thomism to establish References and Resources an absolute framework that would preserve the historic Prevost, R. n.d. “Carl Ellis Nelson.” Christian Educators of the traditions of the Roman CatholicOnly Church (Garrigou- 20th Century. http://www.talbot.edu/ce20/educators/protes Lagrange 2012, 307–315). tant/carl_nelson/. This theological development was paralleled by the —Kevin E. Lawson development of a distinctive educational agenda, for example, that of neo-Thomist Réginald Marie Garrigou- Lagrange (1877–1964). The neo-Thomists’ approach Neo-Thomism to education wanted to discipline the student’s mind to the rigors of Aquinas’s theology (and its reliance on As the term suggests, neo-Thomism is a modernized Aristotelian realism), which would affirm the perma- expression of St. Thomas Aquinas’s (1225–1274) phi- nent nature of the Catholic faith, as well as integrate the losophy and theology, including renewed presentations student’s intellectual, moral, and spiritual life. Given the of its educational implications. To properly comprehend perennialCopy nature of predetermined truth, such as “The its educational implications, it is crucial to briefly map Twenty-Four Thomistic Theses,” students were required the philosophical landscape of neo-Thomism. Aquinas only to absorb the predetermined content and integrate it was one of the leading figures of a medieval theological into their lives, preparing them for service in the Roman tradition known as Scholasticism. Thomism, the phi- Catholic Church. The content of instruction was cen- losophy specifically derived from the writings of Thomas tered almost exclusively on dogma and tradition deemed Aquinas, is part of the Scholastic tradition. Hence, while worthy by the church and appropriated by rote memori- all Thomists belong to the Scholastic tradition, not all zation through repetition and drill. The neo-Thomistic Scholastics are Thomists. philosophy and educational agenda were commonly Aquinas’s teachings have grown in popularity over the referred to as manual theology. last four centuries. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dominican order taught his philosophically informed Critique and Alternatives theology through special courses, known as manuals (a How do we appropriate Aquinas’s philosophical and term that became acquainted with neo-Thomism in the educational tradition into the 20th and 21st centu- 20th century). However, it was not until the 19th and ries? Neo-Thomism represents only one response to 20th centuries that Thomism received favorable attention this question, and in the latter half of the 20th century from the papacy. For example, Pope Pius X (1835–1914) its popularity and influence waned. After Vatican II affirmed a perennial philosophy of education based in (1962–1965), the Roman Catholic Church moved away part on Scholasticism and his interpretation of Aquinas’s from neo-Thomism in more progressive philosophi- works (Loemker 1973). Pius X published “The Twenty- cal and educational directions. Other appropriations of Four Thomistic Theses” in 1914, setting forth 24 proposi- Thomas Aquinas’s legacy began to embrace not merely tions that form the philosophical and theological funda- his conclusions, but also his intellectual processes. For mentalsContributor of the Roman Catholic Church’s teaching. Pius example, neoscholasticism attempted to resurrect me- X’s high regard for Aquinas is seen in this proclamation. dieval scholasticism within the context of the modern made one month before the release of the “Theses” (Pius world, reviving what is best in scholastic tradition, which X, Doctoris Angelici, 29 June 1914): included Aquinas. Nouvelle Theologie is a movement 870 Netherlands and Christian Education against manual theology and education, by theologians with other religions. Within the Christian population, such as Bernard Lonergan (1904–1984) and Karl Rahner 25.7 percent are Roman Catholic and 17.4 percent Prot- (1904–1984), advocating that the legitimate educational estants.25 The largest Protestant group is The Protestant legacy of Thomas Aquinas is not the mere recitation of Church of the Netherlands (PKN). There are also Baptist, conclusions based on his writings—an absolute frame of evangelical, and Pentecostal churches. Some Pentecostals philosophical presuppositions—but the embracing of the joined with Full Gospel churches to form The United intellectual process of Aquinas—doing theology within a Pentecostal and Evangelical Churches (VPE). Some Bap- Thomistic frame comprising standard but not absolute tist churches allied with traditional evangelical groups to propositions. This distinction between neo-Thomists and form the Cama/Parousia. their antithesis can be depicted as follows: Christian education is offered both by state universi- ties, which are more academic, as well as by private col- Neo-Thomism leges and seminaries. The latter are generally ministry- Philosophical absolutes based on St. Aquinas: oriented. Offered programs include diploma; certificate; Theological is essentially static and bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees, both full- Education is memorization time and part-time. Critics of Neo-Thomism Radbout University Nijmegen and Onlythe Universities of Philosophical assumptions based on St. Aquinas: Tilburg and Utrecht are Catholic. Free University Amster- Doing theological inquiry in light of Aquinas’s dam, Protestant Theological University, Theological Uni- methods versity of the Christian Reformed Churches in Apeldoorn, Education is dialogical and constructive and Theological University Kampen are linked with Prot- estant groups. Tyndale Theological Seminary, Amsterdam A unique educational appropriation of Aquinas is pre- Bible Academy, Cornerstone Bible College, De Christelijke sented by Jacques Maritain (1882–1973), who is neither a Hoge School Ede, Evangelische Hogeschool Amersfoort, neo-Thomist nor a neoscholastic, demonstrating that the and Foundation University are evangelical. endeavor to appropriate Aquinas’s legacy into contempo- —Samuel C. Lee rary Christian education continues. Copy References and Resources Neugarten, Bernice L. Doran, Robert M., and Frederick E. Crowe, eds. 1993. Collected Works of Bernard Lonergan: Topics in Education. Toronto: Early Background and Education University of Toronto Press. Born Bernice Levin, Neugarten (1916–2001) grew up Garrigou-Lagrange, Réginald Marie. 2012. “Reality: A Synthesis in the small town of Norfolk, Nebraska, located at the of Thomistic Thought.” Createspace Independent Publish- eastern terminus of the Fremont, Elkhorn and Missouri ing Platform (Amazon). Valley Railroad (FE&MV), more popularly known as the Goodrich, Rachael M. 1958. “Neo-Thomism and Education.” Cowboy Line, which served the Black Hills gold rush of British Journal of Educational Studies 7(1): 27–35. the 1870s. She was an exceptionally bright student who Loemker, Leroy E. 1973. “Perennial Philosophy.” In Dictionary passed through the public school system and into gradu- of the History of Ideas, 457–463. New York: Scribner. ate work in record time, earning her MA in educational Maritain, Jacques. 1943. Education at the Crossroads. New psychology by age 21. Since she was so young and looked Haven, CT: Yale University Press. her age, Neugarten found it impossible to secure a teach- McInerny, Daniel, eds. 1999. The Common Things: Essays on ing position in the public schools. Dr. Robert Havighurst, Thomism and Education. Mishawka, IN: Maritain Press. then head of the Committee on Child Development at the —James Riley Estep Jr. University of Chicago, offered her a graduate assistant- ship. While at the university, she earned her PhD in 1943, but she got married and put her own career ambitions on Netherlands and Christian Education hold to raise a family with her husband. In 1951, Havi- ghurst asked her to teach a brand new course on aging. Christianization of the Netherlands took place between the She began to specialize in the area of adult development 6th Contributorand 9th centuries. During the 16th and 17th centuries, and aging and became the first person at the University of the Netherlands embraced the Protestant Reformation. Chicago to receive tenure in the nascent field. Currently, 37 percent of the Dutch population is not affiliated with any given religion, 47 percent are Chris- 25. Jason Mandryk, Operation Mobilization: The Definitive Prayer Guide tians, 6 percent are Muslims, and the rest are affiliated to Every Nation (Colorado Springs: Biblica Publishing, 2012), 624. Neuropsychology, Christian Contributions to 871

Contributions to Christian Education ———. 1996. The Meanings of Age: Selected Papers of Bernice L. Along with her mentor, Robert Havighurst, and William Neugarten. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. E. Henry, Neugarten launched the famous Kansas City —Stephen D. Lowe Study of Adult Life (1952–1962). This began a long and fruitful career that included several published books and about 150 peer-reviewed articles. Her research convinced Neuropsychology, her that middle age and old age reflect continued person- Christian Contributions to ality development, not a terminal period of stability. Her classic work Middle Age and Aging (1968) set out her evi- Through technological advances, such as PET scans, dence and convinced present and future generations that MRIs, fMRIs, and other forms of measuring brain activ- middle age was a time of distinctive realignment of the ity during and/or immediately following cognitive tasks, personality that prepared the person for the adaptation neuropsychology has increased its influence in a wide needed to navigate older adulthood. Her research pro- variety of disciplines—biology, philosophy, psychology, duced terminology still in use today, such as “young-old” theology, education, and even English and mathemat- and “old-old” to distinguish between the periods previ- ics—over the past 30 years. ously simply designated as “old age.” She also coined the Only concept of “on-time” and “off-time” regarding the timing Seminal Secular Research (Penfield, Kandel, of life events beginning with middle age. Neugarten may Merzenich, Rizzolatti) have brought her own life experiences into her research, Early seminal research correlated specific regions of the since she was “off-time” in regard to her age in graduate brain with specific types of sensory processing (Penfield school and “off-time” in regard to putting on hold her and Erickson 1941; Penfield and Rasmussen 1950; Pen- academic career in order to start a family. Thus, she was field 1975), resulting in the labeling of the somatosensory able to show through her own experiences as well as her (incoming) and motor (outgoing) cortices to align brain research that adult development has a highly individual- processing with specific body parts. During the 1970s, istic and idiosyncratic aspect to it to be considered when Michael Merzenich began to realize that the brain is “plas- discussing general patterns and stages of development. tic,” meaning that dependent upon experiences, areas of Neugarten received many honors for her contribu- theCopy brain can change (Doidge 2007). He was conducting tions, including the American Psychological Associa- postdoctoral research at Johns Hopkins University in at- tion’s Gold Medal Award for her body of work in 1996; tempts to map out the auditory cortex in a similar manner she organized the White House Conference on Aging in to Penfield’s mapping of the sensory cortices and working 1982 and was a member of the National Advisory Coun- with the brains of macaque monkeys and kittens. Early cil of the National Institute on Aging. studies that he submitted for publication rejected the word Her contribution to the field of Christian education “neuroplasticity” because that was considered impossible was made indirectly through the exposure that many (Merzenich, Knight, and Roth 1973; Merzenich and Reid Christian educators had to her work over the years. Her 1974). In his autobiography, Eric Kandel, Nobel prize win- views on the dynamic quality of the aging process, which ner for studies in the neural correlates of memory, states makes possible continued growth and significant contri- that when he was in medical school, the concept of neu- butions into old age, correlates well with biblical teaching roplasticity was considered a myth: brains were malleable on the subject. Psalm 92:12–14 teaches that the righteous only through childhood and adolescence (Kandel 2006). “flourish like the palm tree and grow like a cedar in In the 1990s, at his lab in Parma, Italy, Giacomo Riz- Lebanon. They are planted in the house of the Lord; they zolatti and his researchers serendipitously discovered flourish in the courts of our God. They still bear fruit in groups of neurons that responded to actions when they old age; they are ever full of sap and green.” Caleb at the were enacted by the macaque monkeys, as well as when age of 85 declared, “I am still as strong today as I was in they observed the researcher doing the very same activity the day Moses sent me; as my strength was then, so my (Gallese et al. 1996). These neurons, called mirror neu- strength is now, for war and for going out and coming rons, have extraordinary implications for emotions and in” (Josh. 14:11). functions such as ascribing intention to others, empathy, and perceiving future intentions of others. ReferencesContributor and Resources Neugarten, Bernice L. 1964. Personality in Middle and Late Life: Christian Contributions to Development Empirical Studies. Ann Arbor, MI: Atherton Press. of Neuropsychology ———. 1968. Middle Age and Aging: A Reader in Social Psychol- Although the neuropsychological theories of neuro- ogy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. plasticity, memory research, and mirror neurons have 872 Neuropsychology, Christian Contributions to implications for humans in general, for the Christian Guidance for the Christian Educator educator, these scientific discoveries are both promising As research in the neurosciences becomes more prevalent and disputed. Many Christians have taken these initial in fields such as education and theology, Christian edu- secular studies and conducted studies that identified cators in schools, homes, and churches need to examine the implications these discoveries have for the Christian the scriptural correlates and pedagogical applications of faith. For example, researchers Andrew Newberg and neuroscience. For example, the theory of neuroplasticity Eugene D’Aquili, using PET scan technologies, con- demonstrates the biological elements of Romans 12:2: ducted research with both Tibetan monks and Catholic “Do not conform to the pattern of this world, but be nuns to identify specific areas of the brain that were ac- transformed by the renewing of your mind. Then you will tive when the participants indicated they were “deeply be able to test and approve what God’s will is—his good, connected” to God, or in the case of the Tibetan monks, pleasing and perfect will.” As we engage in specific expe- a higher power (1998). Newberg and D’Aquili identi- riences, they create or reduce the connections between fied an abnormal lack of activity in the parietal lobe, an neurons and among neural networks. Those experiences area of the brain associated with body-space awareness. that are repeated become myelinated and more apt to be Mario Beauregard and Vincent Pacquette conducted chosen pathways in the future; those that are abstained research specifically with Carmelite nuns, using fMRI, from will atrophy over time and not beOnly chosen pathways for a similar purpose. However, they found myriad brain in the future. Are our minds then “renewed” by the ex- areas associated with mystical experiences (Beauregard periences we intentionally choose, with the help of the and Pacquette 2006). Holy Spirit? Are the spiritual disciplines that we observe In addition to neurological correlates and their asso- methods by which we make choices to submit to the Lord ciation with the Christian faith, the study of neuropsy- and learn more about His ways? chology has also introduced a plethora of studies chal- In addition, mirror neurons are providing insights into lenging the widespread belief in a dualistic perspective the biological substrates of empathy and attribution of of what it means to be human, the concept that humans intent. One particular study demonstrated that students are composed of two independent substances: a physi- will follow the gestures of a teacher to a greater degree cal body and an immaterial soul (Murphy 2006; Brown, than the words she chooses (van Gog et al. 2009). This Murphy, and Maloney 2006; Jeeves 2004; Green 2008; directly affects the methodology employed by the teacher 26 Copy Corcoran 2006). According to Nancy Murphy, “we and/or the pastor or parent. Matching our outward be- don’t have souls, we are souls” (2006, 3). Each of these haviors to our words matters biologically, and with the Christian theologians, philosophers, and psychologists active, scholarly conversation about the connect between has embraced a monistic perspective of human nature, the brain and the soul, neuropsychology may have an meaning that humans are composed of only one sub- impact on the souls of our students. stance: the physical. The “soul” as we commonly define it is simply the functioning of the material substance of the References and Resources brain. Neuroscientific research is developing closer ties Beauregard, M., and V. Pacquette. 2006. “Neural Correlates of with theology—so close, in fact, that Andrew Newberg a Mystical Experience in Carmelite Nuns.” Neuroscience Let- recently published a text entitled Principles of Neurotheol- ters 405 (3): 186–190. ogy (2011), indicating in his opening pages that research- Brown, W. S., N. C. Murphy, and H. N. Maloney. 2006. What- ers are already using this term in scholarly conversation, ever Happened to the Soul? Scientific and Theological Por- and it behooves us to have a text that more clearly defines traits of Human Nature. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. what is intended by the use of “soul.” Cooper, J. W. 2000. Body, Soul, and Life Everlasting: Biblical However, there are still other Christian philosophers Anthropology and the Monism- Dualism Debate. Grand Rap- and theologians who continue to defend the widespread ids, MI: Eerdmans. lay support for a dualistic understanding of human na- Corcoran, K. 2006. Rethinking Human Nature: A Christian ture (Cooper 2000; Evans 1977), postulating a hypothesis Materialist Alternative to the Soul. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker of holistic dualism, or the concept of a “separable” soul, Academic. one that is fully aligned with the physical body while the Doidge, N. 2007. The Brain That Changes Itself: Stories of person remains in the body, but is separable at the time Personal Triumph from the Frontiers of Brain Science. New of death.Contributor York: Penguin. Evans, C. S. 1977. Preserving the Person: A Look at the Human Sciences. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. 26. A full discussion of applications of Biblical anthropology to Chris- tian education is located in this encyclopedia under “Anthropological Gallese, V., L. Fadiga, L. Fogassi, and G. Rizzolatti. 1996. “Action Contributions.” Recognition in the Premotor Cortex.” Brain 119: 593–609. New England Primer, The 873

Green, J. 2008. Body, Soul, and Human Life: The Nature of textbook, and appealed to local pride by calling it The Humanity in the Bible. Grand Rapids, MI : Baker Academic. New England Primer. By all estimates, the first printing Jeeves, M. 2004. From Cells to Souls, and Beyond: Changing took place between 1687 and 1690. Portraits of Human Nature. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. While Harris continued to publish this work after re- Kaas, J. H., R. J. Nelson, M. Sur, C. S. Lin, and M. M. Mer- turning to England in 1695, it achieved its greatest popu- zenich. 1979. “Multiple Representations of the Body Within larity in New England. Bookshops kept the primer perma- the Primary Somatosensory Cortex of Primates.” Science 204 nently in stock, and it soon became revered as the primary (4392): 521–523. schoolbook of the Protestant dissenters in New England. Kandel, E. 2006. In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Throughout the 18th century, it was by far the most Science of Mind. New York: W.W. Norton. prominent text, and its widespread use continued well into Merzenich, M. M., P. L. Knight, and G. L. Roth. 1973. “Co- the 19th century. Conservative estimates reveal that an chleotopic Organization of Primary Auditory Cortex in the average of 20,000 copies of The New England Primer were Cat.” Brain Research 63: 343–346. sold annually for about 150 years after its first printing. If Merzenich, M. M., and M. D. Reid. 1974. “Representation of this is indeed the case, about three million copies were sold the Cochlea within the Inferior Colliculus of the Cat.” Brain during this century and a half of widespread usage. Research 77 (3): 397–415. While the content changed overOnly the years, certain Murphy, N. 2006. Bodies and Souls, or Spirited Bodies? Cam- elements remained consistent throughout the various bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. editions. The primer began with the alphabet, including Newberg, A. B. 2011. Principles of Neurotheology. Burlington, letters, two-letter combinations, and sometimes words VT: Ashgate. from one to five syllables in length. Following this, short Newberg, A. B., and E. G. D’Aquili. 1998. “The Neuropsycho- poetic rhymes, accompanied by illustrations, were de- logical Basis of Religions, or Why God Won’t Go Away.” signed to help children remember their letters. The first Zygon 33 (2): 187. of these, “In Adam’s Fall, We Sinned All,” was the only Penfield, W. 1975. The Mystery of the Mind: A Critical Study short poem that remained unchanged through all of the of Consciousness and the Human Brain. Princeton, NJ: various editions. In many editions, this was followed by Princeton University Press. a poem about John Rogers, the supposed first English Penfield, W., and T. C. Erickson. 1941. Epilepsy and Cerebral ProtestantCopy martyr under Queen Mary I. This was accom- Localization: A Study of the Mechanism, Treatment and Pre- panied by a picture of Rogers being burned at the stake, vention of Epileptic Seizures. Springfield, IL: C.C. Thomas. surrounded by his wife and nine small children. Penfield, W., and T. Rasmussen. 1950. The Cerebral Cortex of After this, all editions included catechisms, typically Man: A Clinical Study of Localization of Function. New York: the Westminster Shorter Catechism and/or John Cot- Macmillan. ton’s specialized “Spiritual Milk for Babes.” The Shorter van Gog, T., F. Paas, N. Marcus, P. Ayres, and J. Sweller. 2009. Catechism consisted of 107 questions covering basic “The Mirror Neuron System and Observational Learning: Christian doctrine, the answers ranging in length from 8 Implications for the Effectiveness of Dynamic Visualiza- to 100 words. “Spiritual Milk for Babes,” printed in about tions.” Educational Psychology Review 21 (1): 21–30. 1641, was designed for the capacities of younger chil- —Laura Barwegen dren, consisting of 64 questions, with answers ranging in length from 1 to 84 words. Finally, most editions featured the well-known “Dialogue between Christ, Youth, and New England Primer, The the Devil,” a lengthy poem depicting a rebellious young person responding to the competing appeals of Satan and The most popular American primer for school and home Christ. The verses communicated the fearful end of those in the 17th and 18th centuries, The New England Primer who resist Christ in their younger years. When the youth served as the most prominent nonbiblical resource for attempts to delay obedience until a later time in life, Christian education in this era. The first edition was Death comes and carries the young person’s soul to hell. produced by Benjamin Harris, a London printer who was Other common features included the Ten Command- a fierce proponent of Protestantism and militantly anti- ments, the Lord’s Prayer, the Apostles’ Creed, names Catholic. When the Catholic James II rose to power after of the books of the Old and New Testaments, lists of theContributor death of Charles II, Harris left for Boston. Arriving numbers, lists of proper names for men and women, and in 1686, he set up a printing shop and sought a market a number of prayers and poems for children. Various il- for his instructional manual for Protestant children, The lustrations and woodcuts added to the primer’s popular- Protestant Tutor. To make it more marketable, he short- ity. One poem, consisting of the famous rhyme, “Now I ened its length, emphasized its character as a potential lay me down to sleep, / I pray the Lord my soul to keep, 874 New Testament

/ If I should die before I wake, / I pray the Lord my soul documents written by different authors. By the year AD to take” became quite popular in 18th- and 19th-century 367, the list of books in the New Testament as we know editions of the primer and beyond. The theme of death them had been determined, being acknowledged by Atha- was actually quite pervasive in many of these poems and nasius, bishop of Alexandria (AD 296–373) as the canon of prayers, reflecting the urgency of early spiritual aware- scripture. The word testament represents the Greek word ness in a culture marked by high child mortality rates. diathēkē, meaning “settlement, covenant.” The Old Testa- Because of its longevity, The New England Primer also ment or former covenant takes its character from Moses serves to demonstrate some of the changing ideals of dif- giving the Law at Mount Sinai (Exod. 20:1–24:7), which ferent eras. Alterations in many of the editions reflected precedes and anticipates the New Testament or the new changing religious and political opinions over the years. covenant (Jer. 31:31–34; Matt. 26:28; Mark 14:24; 1 Cor. Between 1740 and 1760, many of the mundane verses of 11:25). This is the new covenant inaugurated by the death earlier years were replaced with more distinctly religious of Jesus in His own words: “This cup is the new covenant fare. For example, for the letter “M,” “The moon gives in my blood” (Luke 22:20). The language of the New Testa- Light / In time of night” became “Moses was he / Who ment is koine (lit. “common”) Greek, the dominant tongue Israel’s Host Led Thro’ the Sea.” For the letter “T,” “Time of the Eastern Mediterranean region after the conquest by cuts down all / Both great and small” became “Young Alexander the Great (c. 356–323 BC). Only Timothy / Learnt sin to fly.” Political sentiment in the The contents of the New Testament are not arranged late 1700s also paralleled the fight for American inde- chronologically but according to their literary classifica- pendence. For example, as republican sentiment began tion. The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John are to erode allegiance to the king of England, verses such placed first in the New Testament because they narrate as “Our King the good / No man of blood” became by the life of Jesus, the main and most important charac- 1797 “The British King / Lost states thirteen.” Similarly, ter in the New Testament. The term Gospel is from the patriotic themes began to emerge more distinctly. While Greek euangelion, which means the proclamation of “good the letter “W” had earlier been linked to “Whales in the news.” These four Gospels are theological biographies that sea / God’s voice obey,” by 1794 this section read, “By prove Jesus is the Jewish Messiah (Matt. 1:16, 16:13–17; Washington / Great deeds were done.” Mark 8:27–30; Luke 9:18–21), the Savior of the world While it is difficult to precisely trace its decline, (LukeCopy 1:69, 24:47), and the Son of God (John 5:16–30), The New England Primer had certainly fallen out of and that God’s Kingdom was present through him (Matt. widespread usage by the mid-19th century. Explicitly 12:28; Luke 11:20). Jesus’s death is understood as sacrificial doctrinal content became more problematic within the and substitutionary (Matt. 26:17–29; Mark 14:12–25; Luke common school movement. Editions were continuously 22:7–23; see also 1 Cor. 11:23–26), and His resurrection published until at least 1886, but its use as a schoolbook is widely attested by witnesses (Matt. 28; Mark 16:1–8; diminished as other texts, including Noah Webster’s Luke 24; John 20–21; Rom. 10:9; 1 Cor. 6:14, 15:5–8,15). Blue-Backed Speller and William Holmes McGuffey’s After the Gospels, the Books of Acts is a historical narra- Eclectic Readers, took its place. tive celebrating the deeds of early Christian leaders. It is a continuation of Jesus’s earthly ministry, describing the References and Resources beginnings and growth of the early Christian movement. Avery, Gillian. 1994. Behold the Child: American Children and Acts 1:8 is programmatic for the Book of Acts. The Holy Their Books, 1621–1922. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Spirit will empower believers to be witnesses in Jerusalem, University Press. Judea, Samaria, and to the ends of the earth. The book ends Ford, Paul Leicester. 1962. The New England Primer: A History with the apostle Paul’s preaching activity in Rome. of Its Origin and Development. New York: Teachers College, Following the Book of Acts are 21 Epistles, represent- Columbia University. ing the writings of the apostles whose activities are de- Weikle-Mills, Courtney. 2012. Imaginary Citizens: Child Read- scribed in Acts. Epistles are letters that address particular ers and the Limits of American Independence, 1640–1868. issues in the early Christian movement. For example, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Paul wrote letters to the churches he founded to address —David Setran ecclesiastical issues such as divisions (1 Cor. 3), errone- ous practices (1 Cor. 12–14), or doctrinal aberrations Contributor(Gal.), or simply to introduce himself and prepare the New Testament recipients for his arrival (Rom.). Some of the New Tes- tament Epistles are personal (1, 2 Tim.; Philem.). The In Christian education, it is important to recognize that Epistles are ordered in the New Testament according to the New Testament is an anthology comprising 27 separate the importance of the characters in the Book of Acts. For New Zealand and Christian Education 875 example, the apostle Paul’s letters are placed first after the on the scene relatively recently. The Dutch explorer Abel Book of Acts, because his activities dominate the second Tasman sighted the country on 13 December 1642, but a half of Acts. They are arranged in descending order of maritime altercation with the Maori prevented him from length; Romans is longest, so it is first, and Philemon is making landfall. More than a century later, on 7 October shortest, so it is last. Hebrews is placed after Paul’s epis- 1769, a young boy on board Lieutenant James Cook’s tles because of its association with Paul. The remaining Endeavour sighted land. Cook landed and over the next Epistles are arranged in order of the apostolic names in six months circumnavigated and plotted the coastline of Galatians 2:9 (James 1 and 2; Pet. 1, 2, 3; John). The final New Zealand.27 The waters of the southern ocean proved Epistle is Jude, who is mentioned in the list of apostles in plentiful for whalers, who made their settlements in the the Gospels (Luke 6:16 [Judas son of James]; John 14:22 Bay of Islands while plying their trade and cohabitating [Judas, not Judas Iscariot]) but omitted in Galatians, with the Maori. In December 1814, Samuel Marsden, perhaps why it is the last Epistle in the New Testament. second chaplain to the colony of New South Wales, estab- The book of Revelation is the final book of the New Tes- lished a mission in the Bay of Islands under the auspices tament. It consists of three literary genres: letter, prophecy, of the Church Missionary Society (a Church of England and apocalypse. It is a letter in that it names its author and affiliate) on 23 December 1814. Marsden, minister and audience and contains a greeting (1:4–6) and a closing pastoralist, met two Maori chiefs inOnly Port Jackson, and it (22:21). It was to be circulated among “the seven church was they who ignited his sense of mission to the Maori. that are in Asia” (1:4) with a specific message to each of Between 1814 and 1837, Marsden made seven trips to them (chs. 2–3). It is considered prophecy: “Blessed is the New Zealand, and the mission became firmly established one who reads the words of this prophecy” (1:3; see also under the leadership first of Rev. John Gare Butler, who 22:6–7, 18–19). Its contents were to be read and kept, and was replaced by Rev. Henry Williams. In 1815, Marsden it was intended to encourage and correct its readers. The established a seminary at Parramatta, and many Maori book of Revelation is considered apocalyptic literature. The chiefs and their sons attended it.28 The evangelical mis- Greek word apokalypsis means “revelation, disclosure” and sion of Marsden was complemented by the advent of a is used in the very first verse of the book: “The revelation of Catholic mission under Bishop Jean Baptiste Pompallier Jesus Christ” (1:1). Revelation indicates information that in 1838. Both missionary strands were keen to make con- was previously hidden but is now disclosed. The content of verts,Copy and a variety of texts were produced and circulated this book describes events that unfold in the cosmic battle in the Maori language. between God and Satan, anticipating the defeat of Satan in For a time the country was divided into six provinces, the end of time (20:10) and God’s creation of a new heaven each of which developed its own education system, bor- and earth (21:21). rowing heavily from English theory and practice, and in 1876, when the provinces were abolished and a single References and Resources government formed, the need for a unified educational Achtemeier, Paul J., Joel B. Green, and Marianne Meye Thomp- system became imperative. However, the House of Rep- son. 2001. Introducing the New Testament: Its Literature and resentatives could not agree on the level of religious Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. influence that should be operative in the establishment Aune, David E. 1987. The New Testament in Its Literary Envi- of primary schools. As a result of the inability to reach ronment. Library of Early Christianity. Philadelphia: West- an acceptable agreement, it was deemed best that a “free, minster. compulsory and secular system of primary schools be set Beale, G. K. 1999. The Book of Revelation NIGTC. Grand Rap- up. This was done. As a result of this decision, financial ids, MI: Eerdmans. support was withdrawn from private Church schools.”29 Fitzmyer, Joseph A. 1998. The Acts of the Apostles AB 31. Gar- The argument for a secular system was that the State, den City, NY: Doubleday. as represented by schools, should not attempt to offer a Green, Joel B., Scot McKnight, and Howard I. Marshall. 1991. competitive system of values in opposition to any fam- Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. Downers Grove, IL: In- terVarsity Press. 27. John Mackey, The Making of a State Educational System: The Pass- —John A. Bertone ing of the New Zealand Education Act, 1877 (Glasgow: Geoffrey Chapman, 1967), 3–4. 28. Charles Andrew Sharp, “Marsden, Samuel (1765–1838)” http:// Contributor www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/marsden-samuel (accessed 04/02/2013). New Zealand and Christian Education 29. Patrick Joseph Lynch, “Affidavit Presented to the High Court, Wel- lington on behalf of the New Zealand Catholic Education Office—Histori- cal Overview of the History of Integrated Schools in New Zealand,” http:// In contrast to the Maori, who have been in Aotearoa New www.nzceo.catholic.org.nz/media/rsources/brief-history-of- (accessed Zealand for around a thousand years, Europeans arrived 04/02/2013). 876 Newman, John Henry ily or religious group. As such, the basic literacy taught Newman, John Henry in a school could be supplemented by the family or by a religious minister in a Sunday school. The state, in the John Henry Newman was born in London on 21 Febru- minds of the framers of the legislation, was a disinter- ary 1801, the eldest son of a banker of Dutch ancestry. ested party in the religious adherence of its subjects. It He is perhaps most famous for his conversion to Roman was also believed that a unified system would be cheaper Catholicism, which developed out of his leadership of the to maintain. Oxford movement within the Church of England. This Post–World War II migration put enormous pres- 19th-century movement (1833–1845) sought to restore sure on the independent schools, but it was only after to the Anglican Church the High Church ideals of the protracted negotiations between church leaders and the 17th century. Newman is credited with coining the term government that the Private Schools Conditional Inte- via media to describe the theological and historical posi- gration Act was passed into law, in 1975. This law created tion of the Anglican Church. a partnership between church and state and allowed for Following the collapse of the family business in 1816, the integration of private schools into the state system Newman converted to a form of evangelical Calvinism in a way that did not violate their autonomy and pre- and entered Trinity College, Oxford. After graduation in served their “special character.” In 1977, Wesley College, 1821, he was elected fellow of Oriel (1822)Only and ordained Paerata, Auckland, was the first private school to be inte- an Anglican priest in 1824. He was made vice principal of grated into the state system, and between 1979 and 1984, Alban Hall in 1825 and vicar of St. Mary’s in 1828. the Catholic school system was progressively integrated.30 During his early Oxford years, Newman fell into the Due to significant debts and the need to bring all facilities Low Church or evangelical camp, far to the left of the up to state level, it is hardly surprising that the individual High Church or pro-Catholic position. He later came to agreements drawn up have had to be revisited numerous disagree with his teacher, Walter Mayers, who believed times to ensure that the integrated schools are treated as that it was impossible for Anglicans to come to a theologi- state schools and assisted in the repayment of loans. cal consensus. In the 1820s, Newman moved away from In 1988, the Association of Integrated Schools (AIS his evangelical foundation. He began reading classical An- NZ) was formed by the non-Catholic integrated schools, glican sources such as the Book of Homilies and the Book which in 2013 numbered 66. These schools are mainly of CommonCopy Prayer. Newman believed that a theological Christian, Rudolf Steiner, or Montessori. Effectively, and ecclesiastical unity could be attained in England if there are currently three types of schools in New Zea- governed by scripture. In the late 1820s, after losing his land: private, which 4 percent of children attend; state fellowship at Oriel, Newman began a study of the church integrated, which serve about 10 percent of the school fathers, which fed directly into the Oxford movement. population; and state, serve 6 percent of the school-aged As Newman searched for an Anglican consensus, his population.31 preaching took on divisive ecclesiastical overtones and led to his dismissal as secretary of the Church Mission- References and Resources ary Society in 1830. He subsequently resigned his post Lynch, Patrick Joseph. n.d. “Affidavit Presented to the High as select preacher of the university and spent some time Court, Wellington on Behalf of the New Zealand Catholic traveling in southern Europe. He would remain a part of Education Office: Historical Overview of the History of Inte- the Church of England until 1843, though, searching for grated Schools in New Zealand.” http://www.nzceo.catholic a consensus for via media. The Oxford movement pub- .org.nz/media/rsources/brief-history-of- . lished Tracts for the Times (1833–1841), 27 of them writ- Mackey, John. 1967. The Making of a State Educational Sys- ten by Newman, setting forth its ecclesiastical agenda. tem: The Passing of the New Zealand Education Act, 1877. Newman’s “Lectures on the Prophetical Office of the Glasgow: Geoffrey Chapman. Church Viewed Relatively to Romanism and Popular Sharp, Charles Andrew. [1966]. “Marsden, Samuel” (1765– Protestantism” of 1837 and 1838 are the foundation for 1838).” In An Encyclopedia of New Zealand. http://www his understanding of this consensus. This work would .teara.govt.nz/en/1966/marsden-samuel later (1877) be revised and published as The Via Media of the Anglican Church. As early as 1843, though, New- http://new-zealand-high-schools.com/new-zealand-education man had conceded that an ecclesiological via media Contributor—Michael A. Kelly may not be possible, but he continued to strive toward a theological consensus. In 1838, Newman completed Lectures on Justification, 30. Ibid., 6. 31. http://new-zealand-high-schools.com/new-zealand-education (ac- which sought a third option somewhere between the cessed 04/02/2013). Protestant emphasis on justification by faith alone and Nicaragua and Christian Education 877 what he called the Roman Catholic justification by obe- Atlantic coast in 1849. On the Pacific coast, the Central dience. Concerning the Protestant position, he asserted American Mission was established in 1901, followed by that it is not faith that justifies but God’s grace that allows the Assemblies of God (1912) and Baptists (1917). the fruit of faith. He liked the Roman Catholic view, but Among a population of 5.8 million, 57.1 percent are thought it lacked completeness. While obedience is im- Catholic, 28.3 percent are Protestants, and 12.5 percent portant, it is the grace that allows this action that brings are secular. Episcopal, Anglican, and Moravian com- one to justification. munities predominate on the Atlantic coast. Catholics Interwoven within Newman’s desire to revive and and evangelicals are prevalent in the Central and Pacific reform the Anglican Church are educational principles, regions. Among Protestants, Pentecostal churches have laid out in The Idea of a University (1873). This work experienced the most growth. defends the place of liberal arts in university life and In the last two decades, independent ministries and consists of two previously published works: Discourses mega-churches of the prosperity theology have emerged. on the Scope and Nature of University Education (1852) There are three evangelical universities: Universidad and Lectures and Essays (1859). Personal interaction Politécnica de Nicaragua (1967), Universidad Evan- between student and teacher is of utmost importance. In gélica Nicaragüense (1994), and Universidad Martín fact, Newman lost his tutorship at Oriel College over this Lutero (2002). There are also threeOnly Catholic universi- issue. He wanted more direct contact with the under- ties: Universidad Centroamericana (1960), Universidad graduates. He believed that university graduates should Católica Redemptoirs Mater (1992), and Ave Maria be able to think clearly and exactly. Within the university University (1999). context, he wanted each branch of knowledge to hold its With a few exceptions, Catholic and Protestant ground while at the same time pursuing truth. schools are geared mainly for monetary profit and not Newman officially joined the Roman Catholic Church for the Christian formation of the learner. The Consti- on 9 October 1845 and rose to the level of cardinal in tution guarantees freedom of worship, and in practice 1879. Proceedings for his canonization began in 1958, the government respects it. There is no official church; and he was declared Venerable in 1991. however, the Catholics enjoy a close relationship with the government. References and Resources AmongCopy the Protestants, Sunday school is the key Bailey, Richard, ed. 2007. Continuum Library of Educational educational agency. Priests and pastors are trained at Thought. Vol. 8, John Henry Newman, edited by James Ar- seminaries of pastoral theology. In the last 15 years, both thur and Guy Nicholls. London: Continuum International Catholic and Protestant TV programs and radio stations Publishing Group. have sprung up. Blehl, Vincent Ferrer. 2001. Pilgrim Journey, John Henry New- man 1801–1845. New York: Paulist Press. References and Resources Cornwall, John. 2010. Newman’s Unquiet Grave: The Reluctant Araica Salas, Roger. 1999. Los Hijos de la Misión: Anecdotario Saint. London: Continuum. de los primeros cien años de la Misión Centroamericana en Dark, Sidney. 1934. Newman. London: Duckworth. Nicaragua. Managua: Imprimátur Artes Gráficas S.A. Ker, Ian. 1990. The Achievement of John Henry Newman. Notre Arellano, Jorge Eduardo. 1986. Breve Historia de la Iglesia en Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. Nicaragua (1523–1979). Managua: Editorial Manolo Morales. Lefebvre, Philippe, and Colin Mason, eds. 2007. John Henry Argüello, Mario. 2011. José Santos Mendoza Barrera. Precur- Newman: In His Time. Oxford: Family Publications. sor de la Iglesia Evangélica Independiente, el protestantismo Martin, Brian. 1982. John Henry Newman: His Life and Work. en el Pacífico de Nicaragua, un estudio sociológico entre New York: Oxford University Press. 1880–1918. Managua: PBS. Turner, Frank M. 2002. John Henry Newman: The Challenge to CIEETS. 1993. Revista de Historia del Protestantismo Nica- Evangelical Religion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ragüense. Managua: CIEETS. —Timothy M. McAlhaney García Macías, Moisés. n.d. Llegada del Evangelio a Nicaragua. Managua: UPOLI. Pixley, Jorge. 1988. La cantera de donde fuimos sacados. Mana- Nicaragua and Christian Education gua: Centro Inter-Eclesial de Estudios Teológicos y Sociales Contributor (CIEETS) The first Catholic church in this area was established Zamora Centeno, Eugenio. 1999. Las ideas bautistas y el ideal in Granada in 1524. The Moravian missionaries from protestante. Managua: Imprimátur Artes Gráficas S.A. Germany established the first Protestant church on the —Jorge A. Ponce 878

Nicene Creed it was not ecumenically authorized. It remains an object of theological controversy, becoming the chief cause The antecedents of the Nicene Creed (from the Latin of schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman credo, “I believe”) are informal Christian confessions Catholic Churches. from the first 150 years of Christianity, centering on the Despite the dispute over the origin of Holy Spirit’s person and work of Jesus Christ. As early as the New procession, the Nicene Creed is more strictly ecumenical Testament, creedal statements are found on Christ’s than any other creed, used as the baptismal confession death and resurrection (1 Cor. 15:3–6), exaltation to the of faith in Eastern Orthodox churches and recited in right hand of God (Rom. 8:34), and final judgment of the preparation for the Eucharist in the East and West. As living and the dead (2 Tim. 4:1–2). Later, through the a liturgical confession, the Nicene Creed has been the influence of the baptismal formula “Father, Son and Holy church’s principal way to educate believers in the basics Spirit” (Matt. 28:19), confessions began to take a more of Christian faith. Examples of how the early church used Trinitarian pattern. Beginning with concise and balanced nascent versions of this creed in catechetical instruction statements on the Triune persons, each article developed include Augustine’s Sermon to Catechumens and Cyril of as the church reflected on the Christian narrative and Jerusalem’s Catechetical Lectures. Because it is the baptis- confronted internal and external theological challenges. mal creed in the Eastern Church, it is centralOnly to Orthodox The Nicene Creed developed from a late third- or early catechisms: The Russian Catechism, The Christian Cat- fourth-century Syro-Palestinian baptismal creed, rewrit- echism of the Orthodox Catholic Greco-Russian Church, ten at the Council of Nicaea in 325 to combat the Arian and The Greek Orthodox Catechism. heresy. , which wanted to protect Christian Historically, as the creed has been explained article by monotheism and maintain the distinct persons of the Fa- article in catechetical instruction, following the organiza- ther and Son, taught that Christ was an exalted creature tion of the baptismal formula, every major doctrine in of God and not God. In response, the Nicene Council Christian theology is addressed: under God the Father, added language to this baptismal creed to make explicit (a) the divine nature/attributes and Trinity, (b) creation, the full deity of Jesus, declaring Christ to be “consub- (c) providence, and (d) fall/sin; under Jesus Christ, (e) the stantial” or “coequal” with the Father, “begotten before divine and human natures in the one person of the eternal all worlds,” “very God of very God,” and “begotten, not Son ofCopy God and (f) the work of Christ: His incarnation, life, made” by the Father. death, resurrection, and exaltation; under the Holy Spirit, Further revisions of the Nicene Creed took place at (g) the person and work of Holy Spirit, (h) the nature and the Council of Constantinople in 381. Details were added mission of the church, (i) salvation, and (j) last things: about the Virgin Mary’s role in the incarnation and death, the second coming of Christ, bodily resurrection of Christ’s crucifixion. Statements on Christian belief in one the dead, final judgment, and heaven and hell. baptism, one church, the resurrection of the dead, and life everlasting were included. More important, the Council References and Resources expanded the statement on the Holy Spirit, making the Kelly, J. N. D. 1972. Early Christian Creeds. London: Longmans. Spirit more fully an equal member of the Trinity. To Pelikan, Jaroslav. 2005. Credo: Historical and Theological Guide combat the Pneumatomachian (“fighters of the Spirit”) to the Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradi- heresy, which denied the full deity of the Holy Spirit, the tion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Council described the Spirit as “the Lord, the giver of life Willis, David. 2005. Clues to the Nicene Creed: A Brief Outline who proceeds from the Father, who is worshipped and of the Faith. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. glorified together with the Father and the Son, the one Young, Frances. 1991. The Making of the Creeds. Philadelphia: who spoke through the prophets.” Trinity Press International. One final revision to the creed took place in the West- —Christopher T. Bounds ern church. Through the Trinitarian influence of Augus- tine and other Latin theologians, the language of the Holy Spirit’s procession from the Father alone was changed to Nigeria and Christian Education include the (“and the Son”). This informal inser- tion amended the creed to include the Spirit’s procession The modern advent of Christianity in Nigeria began in “fromContributor the Father and the Son.” After the Third Synod of 1842 with the arrival of European Methodist missionar- Toledo in 589, the filioque appeared in the creed as an ies in Badagry, Lagos. Within five years CMS (Anglican), interpolation, but by the 11th century it became an of- Presbyterian, and Baptist missionaries had also arrived ficially sanctioned part of the Western text. The Eastern and established mission stations in southwest Nigeria. By Church, however, never recognized the filioque because the 1860s, Roman Catholic orders had established mis- Nipkow, Karl Ernst 879 sions in the southeast. The mission schools progressed to Nipkow, Karl Ernst teacher training and ministerial training colleges, such as CMS Grammar School, Lagos (1859), and Hope Waddell Born in 1928, Nipkow was a German Protestant scholar Training Institute, Calabar (1895). These mission schools in the field of practical theology and religious education. provided the only available formal education and trained He studied Protestant theology, English and German candidates for the civil service. Currently, “Christian philology, and pedagogy at the Universities of Heidelberg religious knowledge” is a subject taught in public grade and Marburg, gaining his doctorate in 1959 for a thesis schools, which retain a vestige of the mission school on individuality as a pedagogical problem in Pestalozzi, culture. Furthermore, many churches have established Humboldt, and Schleiermacher. He worked as a high private schools, from primary to tertiary, and about half school teacher before becoming professor of education of the 51 accredited private universities are Christian.32 at Hannover University. In 1968, he moved to Tübin- Major denominations (and their universities) include gen University, as professor of practical theology in the Anglican (Ajayi Crowther University), Roman Catholic Faculty of Protestant Theology, a position he held until (Madonna University), Methodist (Wesley University his retirement in 1994. His chief historical theological of Science and Technology), Baptist (Bowen Univer- influences were Martin Luther, Jan Amos Comenius, and sity), Apostolic Church (Samuel Adegboyega University), Friedrich Schleiermacher; among recentOnly theologians he ECWA (Bingham University), Seventh-Day Adventist was influenced by Trutz Rendtorff and Dietrich Rössler (Babcock University), and Assemblies of God (Evangel and their account of the nature of Christianity. University). There are also African Instituted churches Nipkow is regarded as the most influential German re- such as Cherubim and Seraphim, Church of the Lord— ligious educationalist of his generation. Through his pub- Aladura, Celestial Church of Christ, and Christ Apostolic lications he raised the subject of religious education to a Church (Joseph Ayo Babalola University), in addition to new academic level. His “Grundfragen” (basic problems many younger, independent Pentecostal denominations, of religious education) demonstrated that an adequate such as Redeemed Christian Church of God (Redeemer theory of religious and Christian education needs to in- University) and Winners’ Chapel (Covenant University). clude an international ecumenical horizon and an analy- In largely Islamic northern Nigeria, limited missionary sis of developments in society (and educational politics), educational activity resulted in a wide literacy and school andCopy to take account of the pedagogical responsibility of enrollment gap between the North and mainly Christian the church. His work is marked by commitment to the South. Despite official religious freedom in Nigeria, there church and the insights that theology brings to education. is frequent religious violence in the North, and some In later writings, Nipkow focused on human develop- northern states have adopted Islamic Sharia law, which in ment (particularly the work of James Fowler), to support principle is not binding for non-Muslims but in practice the idea of lifelong religious learning, and on moral and is restrictive. religious pluralism as a major challenge for religious edu- Church-based Christian education is through adult cators. In his opinion, a denominational based religious and child Sunday schools, volunteer-led youth ministry, education, accessible to every pupil who is interested as well as midweek Bible studies. Scripture union and in religious issues, is the best possible way of fostering student ministries such as NIFES and SCM participate “identity and dialogue” with other faith traditions. He in discipleship-focused Christian education in Nigeria. stressed the “open-mindedness” of Christian faith re- There are many Bible colleges in addition to several garding pluralism. One of his most important contribu- graduate-level theological seminaries, such as the ECWA tions to religious education in Germany was his framing Theological Seminaries in Jos and Igbaja, the Baptist of an integrative theory of Protestant stewardship of Theological Seminary, Ogbomosho, and The West Afri- education, which focused both on religious education in can Theological Seminary, Lagos. school and on educational work within the church (so called Gemeindepädagogik). This comprehensive under- References and Resources standing of education (Bildung) was adopted by the Prot- Fafunwa, A. B. 1974. History of Education in Nigeria. London: estant Church in Germany (EKD). One of his latest books George Allen & Unwin. dealt with peace education, and draws on his experience Isichei, E. 1995. A History of : From Antiq- of growing up during World War II. Contributoruity to the Present. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Professor Nipkow was widely influential in church —Agametochukwu Iheanyi-Igwe affairs. He was a member of the synod of the EKD and chaired the Advisory Commission of the EKD on Issues 32. Nigerian Universities Commission. http://www.nuc.edu.ng/pages/ of Young People and Education (1988–2003), which pro- universities.asp duced a number of important policy documents; he also 880 Nisibis, School of chaired the board of the Comenius-Institute and the Prot- the teachings of the Church of the East, also called the estant Centre for Research and Development in Education “Persian Church.” From the late fifth century until the (1970–1993). He was also one of the original founders of early seventh century and the rise of Islam, the School of the International Academy of Practical Theology (IATP) Nisibis was a major center for training Eastern Christian and a long-term member of the International Seminar of leaders and was also a model for future scholastic institu- Religious Education and Values (ISREV). Among his out- tions in the East and West. standing academic pupils are Reiner Preul, Christoph Th. The school’s most notable director (called an “ex- Scheilke, and Friedrich Schweitzer. egete”), Abraham of Bet Rabban (exegete, c. 510–569), taught many bishops and other leaders in the Church of Notable Publications the East. In one document of the history of the school, All of the following were published by Gütersloher Ver- Abraham is held up as an exemplar of virtue, a quality lagshaus in Gütersloh, Germany. that was foundational to the school’s philosophy of edu- cation. In another document, he is compared to the bib- Grundfragen der Religionspädagogik. 3 vols. [1975] 1982. lical Abraham, who also “begot spiritual sons without Bildung als Lebensbegleitung und Erneuerung. 1990. limit” (Becker 2008). One of the school’s last recorded Bildung in einer pluralen Welt. 2 vols. 1998. exegetes, Henana of Adiabene (exegete,Only c. 571–605), was Pädagogik und Religionspädagogik zum neuen Jahrhundert. 3 more controversial. He was expelled from the school vols. [2005] 2010. for teaching ideas contrary to Theodore of Mopsuestia, Der schwere Weg zum Frieden: Geschichte und Theorie der Frie- but was later reinstated despite his views. Henana was denspädagogik von Erasmus bis zur Gegenwart. 2007. officially condemned by a council in 605. After this, the School of Nisibis declined, and there is scant reference References and Resources to it in any sources after 610. Nonetheless, its legacy Schlenker, Claudia, and Reinhold Boschki, eds. 2001. Brücken continued to have influence, especially on the Church zwischen Pädagogik und Theologie: Mit Karl Ernst Nipkow im of the East. Gespräch. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus. Schweitzer, Friedrich, ed. 2008. Religionspädagogik und Zeit- Structure and Philosophy of Christian Education geschichte im Spiegel der Rezeption von Karl Ernst Nipkow. The SchoolCopy of Nisibis had a threefold hierarchy of Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus. teachers: the elementary instructor, the reader, and the —L. Philip Barnes and Bernd Schröder exegete, who was the sole head of the school. Other staff roles were present, including a steward, who was in charge of discipline and the daily tasks involved in run- Nisibis, School of ning the institution. A distinctive feature of the School of Nisibis was that students lived in dormitories and studied History together. Two canons, established in 496 and 602, shaped Nisibis (modern-day Nusaybin in eastern Turkey) was a the life of the community. Roman frontier town near the border of the Persian Em- Students began their training by learning to read Greek pire. In the mid-fourth century, it was besieged several and Syriac. Eventually they learned how to interpret times, and it was eventually ceded to the Persians by the scripture; the school’s hermeneutical methodology was Roman emperor Jovian in AD 363. Roman citizens were based heavily on the teachings of Theodore of Mop- required to leave the city, and many moved across the suestia, whose analysis of biblical texts emphasized their border to Edessa, where a Christian school was founded. historicity. Though scriptural interpretation was the The “Persian School,” as it was called, taught the exegeti- main emphasis of the school, students were also taught cal methods of Theodore of Mopsuestia (from the School basic Aristotelian logic and the forms of composition of Antioch) and eventually came under fire for being and debate. One of the genres associated with the School associated with Nestorianism, recognized as a Christo- of Nisibis is the “cause” genre, a form of literature that logical heresy at the Council of Ephesus in 431. At the sought to explain the origins of certain rituals and holi- command of the Byzantine emperor Zeno, the Persian days in hopes that they would be embraced. School of Edessa was closed in 489. At the school, education included training in virtue. Narsai,Contributor who had been the head of the Persian School, Students not only pursued intellectual rigor, but also moved to Nisibis, and with the help of the local bishop, practiced moral rectitude. A well-disciplined student was Barsauma, he reestablished the school there. The School to study hard and tame the desires of the flesh through of Nisibis continued to teach Nestorian theology and was imitation of Christ. In this way, the canons of the school influential in Syriac Christianity, especially in shaping reflected monastic rules. However, unlike some examples Nominal Christians 881 of monastic life, the School of Nisibis was highly social; where the church is “more than one generation old” all learning and discipline happened in community. (LOP 23, 1980). In addition, the term is difficult to quan- In the School of Nisibis, and other institutions mod- tify based on inferences, statistics, or other descriptors. eled after it, Greek philosophy and science had an entry Subsequently, great caution should be exercised in the point to the Arab world. Its model of communal learning application of these generalized descriptors. The LOP 23 also influenced the establishment of Jewish academies (1980) identified the following types of nominalness in in Mesopotamia. Cassiodorus, a sixth-century Roman the individual’s relationship to the local church: writer and statesman who was devoted to Christian edu- cation, was influenced by the methodology of Nisibis and A. One who attends church regularly and worships based his monastic school, the Vivarium, on it. Through devoutly, but who has no vital personal relation- these streams of influence, the School of Nisibis impacted ship with Jesus as Savior and Lord. early Christian education in both the East and West. B. One who attends church regularly but for cultural reasons only. References and Resources C. One who attends church only for major church Becker, Adam H. 2006. Fear of God and the Beginning of Wis- festivals (Christmas, Easter, etc.) and ceremonies dom: The School of Nisibis and the Development of Scholastic (weddings, baptisms, funerals). Culture in Late Antique Mesopotamia. Philadelphia: Univer- D. One who hardly ever attends Onlychurch, but maintains sity of Pennsylvania Press. a church relationship for reasons of security, emo- ———. 2008. Sources for the Study of the School of Nisibis. Liver- tional or family ties, or tradition. pool, UK: Liverpool University Press. E. One who has no relationship to any specific church Vööbus, Arthur. 1965. History of the School of Nisibis. Louvain, and who never attends but yet considers himself a Belgium: Peeters. believer in God (in a Protestant traditional sense). —Michael D. Langford (LOP 23, 1980)

Noted Christian educator Tim Keller says the follow- Nominal Christians ing about nominal Christians: Webster’s dictionary defines the term nominal as an ad- InCopy a revival, sleepy Christians wake up, nominal Chris- jective that means “existing or being something in name tians get converted, and non-Christians get reached. A or form only.” Similarly, it defines the noun Christian sleepy Christian may believe they’re a Christian, but they don’t have a real sense of God’s holiness, their own sin, as “one who professes belief in the teachings of Jesus or the depth of His grace. They may be a moralist or a Christ.” Therefore, a nominal Christian is one who pro- relativist or living inconsistent lives. Nominal Christians fesses belief in the teachings of Jesus in form only, lacking may be going to church, but have never really been con- substance or authenticity. victed of sin or received salvation personally. When sleepy In 1980, a global gathering of Christian leaders com- and nominal Christians get revived, attractive and bold prising scholars and practitioners came together to draft in their witness, people who would never have believed “Christian Witness to Nominal Christians among Prot- before begin to get converted. (Keller 2013) estants” (referred to here as Lausanne Occasional Paper no. 23, LOP 23), which sought to define the term nominal Interestingly, Keller’s observations from a practitio- Christian and identified a nominal Christian as ner’s experience are supported by the research on teenag- ers by sociologist Christian Smith. Smith has coined the one who, within the Protestant tradition, would call him- term “moral therapeutic deism”; the following descrip- self a Christian, or be so regarded by others, but who has tion explains one of its elements: no authentic commitment to Christ based on personal faith. Such commitment involves a transforming personal This is not a religion of repentance from sin, of keeping relationship with Christ, characterized by such qualities the Sabbath, of living as a servant of a sovereign divine, as love, joy, peace, a desire to study the Bible, prayer, fel- of steadfastly saying one’s prayers, of faithfully observing lowship with other Christians, a determination to witness high holy days, of building character through suffering, faithfully, a deep concern for God’s will to be done on of basking in God’s love and grace, of spending oneself earth, and a living hope of heaven to come. (1 Corinthians in gratitude and love for the cause of social justice, etc. Contributor10:1–12; Romans 2:28,29; Revelation 2:4, 5; 3:1; Matthew Rather, what appears to be the actual dominant religion 15:8, 9; Hebrews 10:25). (LOP 23, 1980) among U.S. teenagers is centrally about feeling good, happy, secure, at peace. It is about attaining subjective The Lausanne leaders recognized that the size and well-being, being able to resolve problems, and getting scope of nominality can exist in any culture or context along amiably with other people. (Smith 2010, 48) 882 North America and Christian Education

Both Keller’s and Smith’s descriptions help to define In rural areas, an apprenticeship model of Christian for- what a nominal Christian is and the variations and mation is dominant. combinations that reflect the five types identified by the The Dutch established the oldest denomination with a LOP. The implications for the Christian educator are continuous ministry in North America in 1628 (Brouwer significant for understanding the particular cultural con- 1977). But Anglican, Presbyterian, Methodist, Roman text and how a Gospel-centric approach can effectively Catholic, and other denominations soon joined the be applied through ministries that focus on evangelism, Dutch Reformed on the continent. discipleship, the local church, and so forth. Strategies for addressing nominal Christianity and its derivatives must Denominations begin with prayer. Churches must hold to a high view of Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant denomina- scripture, and the priesthood of all believers needs to be tional and nondenominational church bodies constitute embraced with greater intentionality toward evangelism the Christian religious landscape in the United States and discipleship at both the corporate and individual today. These include Baptist, Congregational, Episcopal, levels. Within the particular cultural context, the living Lutheran, Mennonite, Methodist, Pentecostal, Reformed, church must identify and incorporate relationship-build- and other Protestant communions. ing models based on the genuine investment of time. This Only sharing of life together can enable a supportive, grace- Christian Education filled environment to address people’s subjectivities while The dominant Protestant pattern of Christian educa- objectively providing a space for the Holy Spirit to pen- tion in North America was initially an extension of the etrate the heart and mind with the truth of the Gospel. continental model of church, home, and school (Lynn 1964). Christian education in the United States was References and Resources shaped by the Sunday school movement begun by Robert “Christian Witness to Nominal Christians among Protestants.” Raikes in England in the 1780s (Kennedy 1966; Lynn 1980. Report of the Consultation on World Evangelization, and Wright 1971). In 19th-century frontier communi- Pattaya, Thailand, 16–27 June. Lausanne Occasional Paper 23. ties, Sunday schools were often the precursors of both http://www.lausanne.org/en/documents/lops/66-lop-23.html. churches and schools. With the rise of public education, Keller, T. 2013. “Questions for Sleepy and Nominal Christians.” amongCopy Protestants a dual pattern of public school and Redeemer City to City blog, 11 March. http://redeemercity Sunday school emerged alongside church and home. For tocity.com/blog/view.jsp?Blog_param=468. Roman Catholics, there was a parallel pattern of parish- Smith, C. 2010. “On ‘Moralistic Therapeutic Deism’ as U.S. related parochial schools and Confraternity of Christian Teenagers’ Actual, Tacit, De Facto Religious Faith.” Religion Doctrine (CCD). Some Protestant bodies also established and Youth, 46–57. http://www.ptsem.edu/uploadedFiles/ academies and Christian day schools rather than send School_of_Christian_Vocation_and_Mission/Institute_for their youth to public schools. _Youth_Ministry/Princeton_Lectures/Smith-Moralistic.pdf. Through the first half of the 20th century, this pattern —Daniel Bennett grew and flourished. Cracks soon appeared, however. Changing patterns of family life and an increase in the divorce rate weakened the influence of the family, and North America and Christian Education legal challenges in the courts helped to strengthen the constitutional separation of church and state. With the North America includes Canada, the United States, and end of Christendom in the latter half of the 20th century, Mexico. Thus, any discussion of Christianity in North the threefold pattern of church, home, and school was America must attend to the unique historical influences pretty well eroded, leaving churches to carry more of the and cultural practices of these three countries. responsibility for faith formation. Canada, the northernmost country, reflects the The dominance of the schooling model of Christian French and British influences of its history. Catholicism education also began to weaken. The effectiveness of and Protestantism are the two major Christian bodies. the Sunday school and traditional methods of Christian Patterns of Christian education are similar to those education was questioned. The small group movement found in its most immediate neighbor to the south, the tended to shift the focus from knowledge to relationships. UnitedContributor States. A religious socialization or faith enculturation approach In terms of Christianity, Mexico—the southernmost of gained traction, challenging the assumptions of the the three countries—is divided between Roman Catholi- schooling model (Nelson 1967; Westerhoff 1970). cism and Protestantism, with evangelical and Pentecostal After World War II, Protestant Christian educators— groups having the strongest presence among Protestants. Warren Benson, Iris V. Cully, Frank E. Gaebelein, Lois Northern Ireland and Christian Education 883

LeBar, Randolph Crump Miller, Lewis J. Sherrill, James Lynn, Robert W., and Elliott Wright. 1971. The Big Little D. Smart, and D. Campbell Wyckoff—shaped the field of School: Sunday Child of American Protestantism. New York: Christian education. Whereas Protestantism had tended to Harper & Row. dominate North American society in general and Christian Marty, Martin E., with Jonathan Moore. 2000. Education, Reli- education in particular, the influence of Vatican II sparked gion, and the Common Good: Advancing a Distinctly Ameri- a burst of creativity and leadership by Roman Catholic re- can Conversation about Religion’s Role in Our Shared Life. ligious educators like Mary Boys, Thomas Groome, Maria San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Harris, Gabriel Moran, and Michael Warren. Nelson, C. Ellis. 1967. Where Faith Begins. Richmond, VA: Today the field of Christian education faces a number John Knox Press. of challenges and opportunities. Economic pressures Westerhoff, John H., III. 1970. Values for Tomorrow’s Children: and changing priorities continue to drive downsizing An Alternative Future for Education in the Church. Philadel- of denominational staff and elimination of positions phia and Boston: Pilgrim Press. in education and youth ministry at the congregational level. In addition to the reallocation of financial and staff In addition to these references, several works offer helpful resources in response to economic pressures on the pro- overviews of recent patterns in Christian education: Educating duction of existing print-based curricula, new electronic in Faith: Maps and Visions, by Mary C.Only Boys (Harper & Row, and digital technologies are driving the development 1989); Models of Religious Education: Theory and Practice in of new educational resources. Some theological schools Historical and Contemporary Perspective, by Harold W. Burgess have discontinued their degree programs in Christian (Victor Books/SP, 1996); and Mapping Christian Education: education due to declining interest and enrollment. Dis- Approaches to Congregational Learning, edited by Jack L. Sey- affection is some quarters with the very term “Christian mour (Abingdon Press, 1997). education” has led to a search for more meaningful lan- —George Brown Jr. guage, such as “Christian formation,” and “discipleship.” In the United States, Protestantism’s hegemony in the religious arena lasted well into the 20th century. In the first Northern Ireland and half of that century, Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish was Christian Education the way the religious landscape was popularly understood. Copy Religious pluralism now describes the religious landscape. The state of Northern Ireland was established in 1921, under the terms of the Government of Ireland Act of Religious Freedom 1920, which divided the island of Ireland into two parts, The separation of church and state in the Constitution of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland (which in 1948 the United States of America represents a unique context became the Republic of Ireland). for religious expression. Unlike in Great Britain, where Christianity is the predominant religion in both ju- religious education is part of the school curriculum, risdictions, tracing its roots back to the fourth century there has been a tension between religious beliefs and to Celtic Christian missionaries, and in particular to the education. Religious instruction was understood to be mission of St. Patrick. The continuing Christian nature a responsibility restricted to churches and families, not of society is borne out by the 2011 census figures: of a an appropriate subject for the schools. By the end of the total population of 1.8 million, 45 percent are Catholic 20th century, some were beginning to argue for a differ- or brought up Catholic, and 48 percent are Protestant, ent relationship between religion and education (Marty brought up Protestant, or belong to a Christian-related and Moore 2000). denomination. The largest Protestant denomination is the Presbyterian Church, with which 19 percent of References and Resources the population is affiliated, followed by the (Anglican) Brouwer, Arie R. 1977. Reformed Church Roots: Thirty-five For- Church of Ireland with 14 percent; 0.8 percent of the mative Events. New York: Reformed Church Press. population describe themselves as belonging to “other Kennedy, William Bean. 1966. The Shaping of Protestant religions and philosophies.” Education: An Interpretation of the Sunday School and the At the inception of the state, schooling was organized Development of Protestant Educational Strategy in the United on denominational lines. The original intention of the ContributorStates, 1789–1860. Monographs in Christian Education, no. new government was to end denominational schooling 4, edited by C. Ellis Nelson. New York: Association Press. and bring education under public control and introduce a Lynn, Robert W. 1964. Protestant Strategies in Education. religiously integrated system of schooling. The churches, Monographs in Christian Education, no. 1, edited by C. Ellis particularly the Roman Catholic Church, rejected the Nelson. New York: Association Press. arrangement on the grounds that it would establish a 884 Northern Ireland and Christian Education secular system of education that was inappropriate to ity). By contrast, religious education in Catholic schools the needs of the society and contrary to public demands. (where the subject is simply designated “religion”) has The state educational system did, however, become ac- remained resolutely confessional: the chief aim of the ceptable to the Protestant churches in 1930, when an school and its chief energies are directed to the religious Amending Act provided for religious education in the nurture of pupils. Schools regard themselves as faith form of Bible instruction by teachers to be included in the communities charged by parents and the church with school curriculum. As a result of this (and certain rights the responsibility of fostering discipleship and religious of representation on school management committees), commitment to Catholicism. the Protestant churches “transferred” their schools to Official commitment to the principle of nondiscrimi- state control. Consequently, since 1930 a dual system of nation and to freedom of religion and conscience were education, comprising state schools and Roman Catholic written into the constitution of Northern Ireland at its schools, developed at both primary and secondary levels; foundation. The Northern Ireland Constitution Act of a third “integrated” sector of education emerged in the 1973, which replaced the 1920 Act, empowered the courts 1980s to provide “education for all.” Its growth has been to review and if necessary to strike down discrimination modest, and it currently accounts for about 5 percent of against “any person or class of persons on the grounds of the school population. religious or political belief” (Section 17).Only There is no state Although the state always covered the cost of staffing religion or established church in Northern Ireland, and in church schools, over the years the level of funding to unlike in the Republic of Ireland, no privileged position Roman Catholic schools has increased, and since 1993 all has ever been accorded to any particular religion in the costs have been met entirely by the state (see Schedule 3 constitution (see 1937 Irish Constitution). of the Education (NI) Order 1993). Political controversy A process of educational reform, initiated in the mid- surrounds the funding of Catholic schools in Northern 1980s by the then Conservative government in West- Ireland, as it contrasts with the lower level of financial minster under Mrs. Thatcher, eventually extended to support available to Catholic schools in other parts of the Northern Ireland; one of its results in relation to religious United Kingdom. The accusation is made that current education was the production by the Catholic Church arrangements privilege the Catholic church over Prot- and the Protestant churches of a “Core Syllabus,” with estant denominations, which as a result of transferring prescribedCopy content to be covered in all schools. This their schools into the state system enjoy fewer rights in core, which is exclusively Christian, is intended to be relation to education and have seen Christian influence augmented by other material appropriate to the type and eroded in schools as they have become increasingly secu- form of religious education practiced in the school. The lar, a consequence of being required to serve the general content of the “Core Syllabus” is organized under three population, unlike Catholic schools, which are legally headings: (1) “The Revelation of God” (teaching about constituted to serve the interests of the church and the God, the Bible and the life and teaching of Jesus); (2) Catholic population. “The Christian Church” (from its New Testament origins Religious education has evolved differently in state to the present day); and (3) “Morality” (respect for God, schools and in Catholic schools. This reflects the dif- self, others, and the environment). Although the syllabus ferent aims and emphases of the two sectors. Although has been successful in raising the profile and status of at one time it may have been applicable to speak of religious education in schools, particularly state schools, religious education in state schools as providing a form it has also attracted considerable criticism. It is accused of Christian nurture, this is no longer the case (unless by its critics of being heavily doctrinal and religiously Christian nurture is equated with a focus on Christian- conservative, as well as failing to address sufficiently the ity in the curriculum and not also requiring, as typical issues raised by community conflict, such as sectarianism in cases of nurture, some formal attempt to foster, en- and religious prejudice. courage, and require the practice of religion). As soci- ety became more secularized in the 1970s, the aims of References and Resources religious education in state schools were modified to fit Barnes, L. P. 1997. “Reforming Religious Education in North- a less uniformly religious population. Religious educa- ern Ireland: A Critical Review.” British Journal of Religious tion came to justify itself on strictly educational grounds Education 19 (2): 73–82. andContributor to pursue exclusively educational aims, such as the ———. 2007. ‘Religious Education in Northern Ireland.” In advancement of religious knowledge and understanding Religious Education in Europe: Situation and Current Trends (though given that the majority of religious education in Europe, edited by E. Kuyk, R. Jenson, D. Lankshear, E. L. teachers in state schools are religiously committed, Manna, and P. Schreiner, 230–236. Oslo: IKO Publishing. there is generally a positive attitude toward Christian- —L. Philip Barnes Nouwen, Henri 885

Norway and Christian Education added to his life and ministry experience, serving as a pastor in the mines, a chaplain in the army, and a chap- Christianity was introduced to Norway in the 9th century lain to immigrants to the United States on the Holland- by contacts from the west (British Isles) and the south American Line. (Denmark and Germany). The position of Christianity The next phase of Henri’s life can be summarized in was solidified at Stiklestad in 1030, when king, and later the phrase “Menninger Clinic.” At the encouragement saint, Olav was killed in battle. By the 13th century the of Dr. Gordon Allport, he enrolled in a fellowship at the church was firmly established. famed clinic in Topeka, Kansas. From 1964 to 1966, he Of Norway’s population of five million, 77 percent are participated in clinical pastoral education, research, and members of the Church of Norway (2011). In 2012, the writing. He envisioned taking his combination of religion Roman Catholic Church had 102,000 members, the Pen- and psychology back to the Netherlands and beginning tecostal churches 39,000, and the Evangelical Lutheran a religious education program. It was during these years Free Church of Norway 19,000. These, together with that Nouwen’s social conscience was heightened, includ- other denominations, run and support university col- ing his participation with Martin Luther King Jr. in the leges, boarding colleges, kindergartens, and a few private civil rights march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama. primary and secondary schools. Henri’s plans to return to the NetherlandsOnly were under- All primary and secondary pupils take the subject RLE cut by an invitation from Notre Dame in 1966 to teach (religion, philosophies of life, and ethics), in which the psychology. He did so until 1968, when he did return to main world religions and secular worldviews are dis- the Netherlands, to teach pastoral psychology and work cussed in an objective, critical, and pluralistic way, with on a doctorate in theology, which he received in 1971. By respect. As it is nonconfessional, all take part, although the end of this period, he was firmly convinced that he students may be exempted from working methods that was to teach in a seminary, and he accepted Yale Divinity they (or their guardians) find offensive to their own be- School’s invitation to do so (1971–1981). This ministry liefs or as supporting a certain stance. Nurturing the faith connected him with students of many faith backgrounds is explicitly the role of the family and faith community, and also enabled him to deepen his scholarly interests as organized around certain activities (choir, camps, etc.) or a fellow at the Ecumenical Institute in Collegeville, Min- age groups. nesota.Copy During this period (1981–1982), he made visits to Norway has religious freedom, freedom of worship, Central and South America, where his sense of solidarity and freedom of conscience. with the poor was firmly established. —Marit Hallset Svare In 1983, he accepted an invitation to teach at Harvard Divinity School, a position that allowed him the luxuries of travel and writing, but ended up only creating a deep Nouwen, Henri struggle in his soul: the loss of a sense of “home.” Grow- ing popularity as a speaker and writer did not provide the Henri Nouwen was born in Nijerk, Holland, on 24 relief he so greatly needed, and some believe that he never January 1932. He was the oldest of four children, and completely regained the sense of peace he had before this he deeply loved his siblings and parents, Maria and Lau- time. The death of his mother in 1978 must be included rent, throughout his life. Raised in the Roman Catholic among the severe “pains” he experienced during his Church, Henri showed an early interest in the priesthood, roughly 20 years in teaching. He resigned from Harvard often “playing church,” complete with vestments and a in 1985. child-sized altar made for him by his grandmother. This The final leg of Henri’s race included a chance meet- fascination became vocational as Henri grew into young ing with Jean Vanier, founder of L’Arche, an interna- adulthood. He attended the minor seminary at Apel- tional movement devoted to the welcoming and care doorn (where his uncle was president), then went on for of people with various disabilities. Some believe that an additional six years of study in the major seminary Ri- Vanier recognized Nouwen’s own needs (for he was jsenburg/Driebergen. He was ordained a priest on 21 July suffering from depression) and invited him to become 1957 and appointed to serve in the diocese of Utrecht. the chaplain to the L’Arche community of Daybreak, Along the way, he came to believe that the study of just outside of Toronto, Canada. This proved to be psychologyContributor would enhance the theological training he both healing and a ministry for Nouwen. The deep was receiving in the seminary. Immediately after his or- friendships he formed at Daybreak (e.g., Adam Arnett) dination, Henri was allowed to study psychology at the brought about a profound, if not complete, recovery University of Nijmegen, where he graduated in 1963 as from his severe depression. He remained a member of a psychologist. While engaged in these studies, he also the community until he died unexpectedly of a heart at- 886 Nurture tack in the Netherlands, while en route to Russia to tape damentally good and have the potential to grow in that a documentary on Rembrandt’s painting of the Prodigal goodness. Through God’s grace, children can become Son, which had captured his attention as a paradigm of more fully who they really are. Infant baptism testifies “coming home” and which he wrote about in his book to that conviction, and scripture defends the convic- The Return of the Prodigal Son. tion that children are to grow in piety and righteousness Nouwen’s contributions to Christian education are be- under the patient influence and example of their parents. yond calculation. His personal teaching in local churches The home, therefore, was to be the primary context for and religious conferences, along with his books, audio Christian nurture. recordings, and videotapes, have made him one of the The Christian nurture movement was comforting to best-known spiritual guides of the 20th century and into parents who wanted to believe that their children could the 21st. It is almost impossible to look into Christian share in their baptismal covenant. It was reassuring for spiritual life today without quickly finding his name and parents to believe that a child’s faith, character, and con- sensing his influence. Friends of Henri now perpetuate sciousness could be cultivated or nurtured over time. But his legacy in a variety of ways, including the Henri Nou- many who were influenced by Bushnell’s understanding wen Society and its related online presence. of Christian nurture neglected nurture’s demands. Bring- ing up children in the Christian faithOnly requires commit- References and Resources ment. Parents have to promise at their infants’ baptism Ford, Michael. 1999. Wounded Prophet: A Portrait of Henri J. M. that they will by their prayers and example help their Nouwen. New York: Doubleday. children to grow in the full stature of Christ. Christian Nouwen, Henri. 1972. The Wounded Healer. New York: nurture calls for a radical transformation in the lives of Doubleday. parents. Growing in Christ involves a struggle with evil ———. 1992a. Life of the Beloved. New York: Crossroad. and transformation in a family’s moral and spiritual ———. 1992b. The Return of the Prodigal Son. New York: life. Christian nurture, therefore, according to Bushnell Doubleday. proved too demanding. ———. 1997. Bread for the Journey. San Francisco: Harper San- In the beginning of the 20th century, liberal theol- Francisco. ogy gave way to a neoorthodox movement, which in O’Laughlin, Michael. 2004. God’s Beloved: A Spiritual Biogra- ChristianCopy education turned from an emphasis on family phy of Henri Nouwen. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. and nurture to church and instruction. Faith as belief in —Steve Harper intellectual propositional truths and the content of Chris- tian tradition replaced the religious affections and the intuitive way of knowing. It put an end to thinking too Nurture highly of children and their innocence. While affirming God’s immanence, a new emphasis was placed on God’s The concept “nurture” first appears in the Christian transcendence, human sin, and God’s grace. education literature of the 19th century and is associ- But the neoorthodox attempt to reform Christian edu- ated with Horace Bushnell (1802–1876), a New England cation as nurture also proved to be inadequate, and at the Congregational pastor and liberal theologian who wrote close of the 20th century, Christian nurture reappeared, Christian Nurture (1861). based on the assumption “that this time as Christian formation. However, its theological a child is to grow up a Christian, and never know himself presuppositions and educational understandings vary. as being otherwise” ([1861] 1947, 4). While some in the nurture/formation school assume Christian education, understood as nurture, was a the dominant context is family, others focus on the reaction to the dominant conservative, evangelical theol- church as a community of faith. While some still focus ogy of the previous century, with its dogmas stressing the their educational ministry on a Sunday school, others absolute sovereignty of a transcendent God, original sin, strive to be intentional about every aspect of the church’s and the depravity of human nature, and the necessity of life and mission. instruction in these propositional truths in preparation In describing the process of formation/nurture and for an identifiable, emotional conversion experience the roles of children and adults, some use the metaphor initiated by the Holy Spirit during late childhood (matu- of an adult as a gardener, the child as a seed, and the rity),Contributor to be followed by moral indoctrination. nurturing process as the gardener caring for each seed by To counter these propositional truths, liberal theology providing a healthy environment for its natural growth proposed a number of opposite theological assumptions and development. Adults are to do things for children. about God, human nature, and the Christian life of faith. Others prefer the metaphor of a pilgrimage. The child For example, Bushnell believed that children are fun- is a pilgrim and the adult a co-pilgrim. The process is a Nurture as Metaphor 887 shared journey together over time in community. Adults Nurture as Metaphor are to do things with children. While most question the assumption that adults need This powerful metaphor derives from the image of a to form or shape children into some predetermined de- mother nursing her baby (Latin nutrire, to suckle or nour- sign, they would acknowledge that adults and children ish). It is often applied to an approach to the bringing up need to be open to each other’s influence. Children are by of children and the enculturation of adults that sees these nature dependent, nonproductive (they play), and nonra- processes as forms of “nourishing.” While maintaining a tional (imaginative), and adults are independent, produc- marked difference in status between teacher and learner, tive, and rational. As they mature, children need to give the trope suggests less control or domination than al- up their childishness (St. Paul), and as adults mature they ternatives such as “shaping” or “formation.” Within the need to become more childlike (Jesus). world of the metaphor, learners, like nursed children, Increasingly there is also acknowledgment that while possess some independence, as they are helped to develop formation/nurture is a natural process and occurs in according to their own nature with the assistance of the every dimension of our life experience (home, church, nourishing input provided by their teachers.33 neighborhood, mass media, and so forth), we need to be- This imagery may have been in the mind of Hor- come intentional in making sure that adults and children ace Bushnell, whose influential 1861Only volume Christian share a life together that participates in and practices Nurture identified the largely nonverbal processes of the Christian life of faith. But even as we rediscover the childrearing, which constitute Christian paideia (rather role of nurture in and as formation, there are still those than Didache) and represent the incarnation, revelation, who believe our understanding of nurture or formation and expression in the parent-child relationship of God’s should include critical reflection on life experiences in love and work of discipline. “Nurture or cultivation,” the light of the Gospel and instruction in the knowledge Bushnell argued, involves the “Christian life and spirit and skills necessary for living the Christian life. of the parents” flowing into the child and blending with Finally, the theology that undergirds nurture/forma- his character to “beget their own good within him.” With tion acknowledges that we are all saints and sinners, regard to our children, Bushnell insists, “we preach too that we are surrounded by the influences of those angels much, and live Christ too little.”34 and demons within and around us. As infant baptism NurtureCopy is now often used, however, as a technical is advocated, the faith of parents and congregations term for more overt forms of education (teaching or become more significant. It is through God’s grace that instruction) that intend and/or result in religious com- we are made aware at baptism that through God’s action mitment. “Religious nurture,” understood as induction in Christ Jesus we have been born again as saints who or education into religious beliefs, attitudes, values, may still sin but can both discern and do God’s will. and dispositions to experience and act in religious Our lives are not determined by heredity or experience. ways, is a major responsibility of religious bodies. It is Every soul is free to accept or reject the influences that sharply distinguished from the “nonconfessional” (in comprise our lives. the sense of nonevangelistic and non-nurturing) type Christian education understood as nurture is alive and of religious education that is permitted in certain state well, especially among those who are theologically pro- schools, whose main task is education about religion. gressive. It is also different than that presented by Horace In this context, nurture has often been criticized as Bushnell in the 19th century. The history of its changing an uneducational activity; by comparison with liberal understandings and its various expressions still informs models of education that involve the open questioning Christian educators in the 21st century. of a variety of options rather than the inculcation of one set of beliefs and forbid “the presentation of particular References and Resources commitments as if they were not radically disputable on Bushnell, Horace. (1861) 1947. Christian Nurture. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 33. Nicholas Wolterstorff distinguishes (a) child-centered nurture ap- Coe, George A. 1929. What Is Christian Education? New York: proaches modeled on growth and maturation, which are intrinsically per- missive in satisfying the learners’ interests rather than imposing on them; Scribner. from (b) the formation and molding approaches that lead to socializing Nelson, C. E. 1967. Where Faith Begins. Louisville, KY: John learners into particular (society-determined) shapes. Both may be included Knox Press. in a God-centered education that leads learners into a life of keeping faith Contributor with God. Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Educating for Life: Reflections on Smith, H. Shelton. 1941. Faith and Nurture. New York: Scribner. Christian Teaching and Learning (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, Westerhoff, John H. (1976) 2012. Will Our Children Have 2002), ch. 7. 34. Horace Bushnell, Christian Nurture (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book Faith? 3rd ed. New York: Morehouse. House, 1979), 30, 61; cf. Edward Farley, “The Strange History of Christian —John H. Westerhoff III Paideia,” Religious Education, 60, 5 (1965): 339–346. 888 Nurturing Children in Faith rational grounds.” One particular critic, however, later Nurturing Children in Faith came to recognize induction into certain social practices that constitute a flourishing life as a priority in educa- Christian theology teaches that children are to be nur- tion, admitting that even religious education crucially tured into faith. Nurture tends to be seen principally as requires “directly introducing pupils to the kinds of the domain of the home and the church, a distinct means practices” that are involved in religion, as well as getting of caring for the whole child that is different from educa- them to reflect critically on them.35 tion or evangelism. We may argue that all education must initiate (“nur- A key image for Christian nurture is the outward and ture” or “form”) learners into certain ways of believ- visible action of welcoming children seen in the welcome ing, thinking, speaking, valuing, and experiencing as of Christ Himself, who took little children in his arms a condition of their engaging in any critical evaluation (Mark 9:36, 37). Held in tension with this acceptance is or rational disputation at all. Criticism requires a par- the belief that we are called to be transformed and grow ticular platform or point of view; there is no view from into God’s likeness (2 Cor. 3:18). This paradox of becom- nowhere. And critical attitudes and cognitive skills have ing what we already are is reflected in the human search themselves to be transmitted to, and shaped and sharp- for identity and in the prayer of St. Augustine: “Lord, ened in, the critic. thou hast made us for thyself; and ourOnly hearts are restless On the other hand, Christian nurture can, and mostly till they rest in thee.” should, have a critical dimension that leads to critical Part of the church’s task is to model and teach what openness in the learner. The outcome then is neither a this means for all Christians on their journey of faith. completely uncommitted mind or heart, nor a rigidly Crucially, it involves accompanying children and young closed one, but rather interdependent, self-critical, and people of all faiths and none in their search for self and reflective Christians who are open to evidence and argu- identity, offering the Christian story and the resources of ment and to other worldviews. the church to do so. We may note that moral nurture has not suffered the An early proponent of Christian nurture was Horace criticisms that have been applied to religious nurture. Bushnell, whose book (1847) effectively turned the cur- Schools are strongly urged to develop in their students rent of Christian thought toward the young and was particular moral values and dispositions, not just to teach instrumentalCopy in refocusing the energies of the church them about moral claims. toward young people. Nurture is a key task of all Christian churches; follow- References and Resources ing is a specific example regarding one denomination, the Astley, Jeff. 1994. The Philosophy of Christian Religious Educa- Church of England. tion. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. Astley, Jeff, and Leslie J. Francis, eds. 1994. Critical Perspectives Nurture in the Church of England on Christian Education: A Reader on the Aims, Principles and A recent key document encouraging the nurture of chil- Philosophy of Christian Education. Leominster, UK: Grace- dren in the Church of England is Children in the Way wing Fowler Wright. (1998), exploring a model of children as fellow pilgrims Bushnell, Horace. 1979. Christian Nurture. Grand Rapids, MI: alongside adults in the church. It was followed in 1991 Baker Book House. by All God’s Children?, which addressed the question of Hull, John M. 1984. Studies in Religion and Education. Lewes, children and evangelism. In 1996, Youth A Part offered a UK: Falmer. theology for youth work and ways of working spiritually, Scott, Kieran. 2001. “To Teach Religion or Not to Teach Reli- relationally, and in partnership with young people. These gion: Is That the Dilemma?” In Religious Education as Practi- reports, and others published since, have proposed much cal Theology, edited by Bert Roebben and Michael Warren, that still needs to be embraced by the church. The chal- 145–173. Leuven: Peeters. lenges they presented, though taken up in part, are still Thiessen, Elmer J. 1993. Teaching for Commitment: Liberal Ed- far from being universally resolved. ucation, Indoctrination, and Christian Nurture. Leominster, Within the Church of England and in many worldwide UK: Gracewing; Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queens Christian denominations, nurture has been enabled by University Press. being one of the five marks of mission articulated by Contributor—Jeff Astley the Lambeth Conference (2008), which reaffirmed the church’s understanding that God’s mission, in which the 35. Paul H. Hirst, “Education, Catechesis and the Church School,” Brit- church through Christ has been called to participate, is ish Journal of Religious Education, 3, 3 (1981): 87; “Education, Knowledge and Practices,” in Beyond Liberal Education, ed. Robin Barrow and Patricia White (London and New York: Routledge, 1993), 198. Nurturing Children in Faith 889 holistic (body, mind, and spirit) and concerned with the 2. preparation for and follow-up to baptism, which of- totality of God’s creation. The five marks of mission are fers outworking of the public promises made; 3. the importance of Christian formation and disciple- 1. to proclaim the good news of the kingdom; ship and the roles of mentoring and teaching; 2. to teach, baptize, and nurture new believers; 4. the place of children and young people in worship, 3. to respond to human need by loving service; both as participants and as initiators; 4. to seek to transform unjust structures of society; and 5. the equipping and training of clergy and laity to 5. to strive to safeguard the integrity of creation and nurture faith; sustain and renew the life of the earth. 6. the encouragement and equipping of families to share faith in the home; and The Church of England, in its “Going for Growth 7. exploring the role of godparents in the care and Strategy” (2010), articulates the second mark of mission nurture of faith. in more detail as being: References and Resources a primary strand of the mission of the Church concerned All God’s Children?: Children’s Evangelism in Crisis. 1991. A Re- with education and learning, requiring us to consider port from the General Synod Board of Education and Board what Christian education is offered to children and young Only of Mission. London: Church House Publishing. people in church and in school. It calls us to look at how children and young people learn, and their capacity to offer Bushnell, Horace. 1849/1979. Christian Nurture. Grand Rapids, models of discipleship, nurture others in faith, offer new MI: Baker Book House. insights and challenge and change those around them. Children in the Way: New Directions for the Church’s Children. 1998. A Report from the General Synod Board of Education. This raises issues for the church, including London: Church House Publishing. Youth A Part: Young People and the Church. 1996. London, 1. the place of outreach and evangelism and the ethi- Church House Publishing. cal issues surrounding this; Copy —Howard Worsley

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Contributor O Only Oak Hill Theological College soldiers. In 1992, the so-called Lincoln Report threatened to remove the college’s official accreditation as an autho- Foundation rized training institution for the Church of England and Oak Hill Theological College is an Anglican evangelical effectively close it down, citing, among other things, the seminary in North London (UK), linked to the University lack of a theology department at Middlesex University. of Middlesex. It was founded in 1932 by Charles Baring Although some have seen the removal from the faculty Young, a Conservative politician, philanthropist, and that year of the firmly conservative lecturer Gerald Bray educationalist, who also founded Kingham Hill School as one reason for the college’s survival at a time when in Oxfordshire. Oak Hill was set up with the hope that women’s ordination was being accepted in the denomi- it would be a Protestant and evangelical institution, nation,Copy there was also a concerted defense of the college’s training men for Anglican ministry along the same sort credentials and financial viability in the church press and of conservative theological lines as Ridley Hall in Cam- in General Synod. bridge and Wycliffe Hall in Oxford. Herbert William Hinde, vicar of St. Mary’s, Islington Notable Programs and Faculty (1921–1932), one of the leading men in the college’s Oak Hill today offers a range of academic and vocational foundation and its first principal (1932–1945), declared courses, including bachelor’s degrees in theological and that it existed to support a ministry that was “unasham- pastoral studies, theology and world mission, and youth edly Protestant and therefore does not seek to explain and children’s ministry, as well as master’s and doctoral away the term or try to make out that it is obsolete, but degrees. Each course carefully integrates biblical stud- will fearlessly proclaim the Gospel and base all its teach- ies (with a strong emphasis on original language study), ing on Holy Scripture.” The Protestant character of the systematic and historical theology, and pastoralia, with college, emphasizing both the Bible and the Thirty-nine students expected to achieve competence in each area. Articles of Religion alongside the 1662 Book of Common As an accredited college for ordinands in the Church Prayer, was of prime importance to evangelicals who had, of England, Oak Hill continues to be responsible for in 1928, successfully defeated the authorization of a new training Anglican ministers (with additional specifically and more Anglo-Catholic prayer book. vocational education), but does so alongside a number of students from several other evangelical denominations. Development Notable alumni and former staff include George As the college grew in numbers, a chapel was added in Carey (former archbishop of Canterbury), Bishop Mau- 1957, and in 2000 a new purpose-built academic center rice Wood, Bishop Michael Baughan, Professor J. I. was established on the extensive grounds of the estate. Packer, Professor Gerald Bray, Alan Stibbs, and Dr. InContributor the 1980s and 1990s, the college developed initia- Elaine Storkey. The list of former principals includes tives in off-site theological education by extension, and New Testament scholar Professor David G. Peterson, also forged an ongoing link with the Uganda Martyrs who was also formerly vice principal of Moore Theo- Seminary in Namugongo, Uganda, after its principal and logical College in Sydney, Australia, with which Oak 17 students were murdered and its library destroyed by Hill enjoys close ties.

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References and Resources biblical narrative and historical confessions of the com- Heinze, R., and D. Wheaton. 2002. Witness to the World: A His- munity of faith. tory of Oak Hill College 1932–2000. Carlisle, Milton Keynes, Quite often, Christian education objectives incorporate England: Paternoster. developmental stages and theories as a basis for relating the lesson to appropriate levels of understanding. This www.oakhill.ac.uk practice can serve as a means of connecting God’s truth —Lee Gattis to life and life to action and therefore should involve cognitive, affective, moral, social, and physical aspects, as well as faith development; however, the foundational Objectives objective should remain to connect the individual’s story to God’s ongoing story of reconciliation and redemption. Objectives for teaching are valuable tools for making sure —Trevecca Okholm that a lesson meets its established goal. For an individual lesson, objectives should be set only after the teacher has read, reflected on, and prayed over the text to be taught. Ockenga, Harold John That should always be the starting point. All too often, Only when a curriculum publisher lists the objectives for a les- Harold John Ockenga (1905–1985) was an American son first, the teacher may all but forget the text other than evangelical pastor at Boston’s famous Park Street Church. as proof for the objectives. A central figure in the midcentury rise of a group known The most effective use of objectives for children’s as the neoevangelicals, he is often remembered for his and youth curriculum is to have a developmentally ap- role in helping launch the National Association of Evan- propriate scope and sequence that builds on both the age gelicals and the periodical Christianity Today. In addition level expectations and entire biblical narrative in a cycli- to these feats, Ockenga was also a key player in evangeli- cal pattern of increased content and depth. For example: cal seminary education and the general 20th-century re- the objectives for teaching the story of creation for naissance in evangelical scholarship. preschoolers might include understanding the concept that God created all things (including the child) and Early CopyBackground and Education that God loves all that God creates, whereas for sixth Born to Herman and Angie Ockenga in 1905, Harold graders the objectives might include articulating God’s John Ockenga was raised in a middle-class family in plan and purpose for creation and God’s mission in the Chicago. Angie Ockenga was the predominant force in world, as well as understanding one’s responsibility to her son’s early spiritual development; intently committed care for God’s creation. to the pursuit of holiness, she attended prayer services at A model for elementary school age objectives for both Methodist and Presbyterian churches with Harold a church ministry should include several levels and and his siblings in tow. Despite this frequent church at- multiple learning intelligences, such as what the child tendance and 11-year-old Harold’s response to an altar is expected to learn, to explore, and to experience. For call at a Methodist meeting, Ockenga cited events sur- example, the objectives for third-grade learners might rounding a 1922 New Year’s Eve conference in Gales- be to learn to read and use the Bible for themselves; burg, Illinois, as the pivotal moment in his spiritual life. explore ways to critically reflect on faith and begin to Sensing a call to the pastorate and following the advice develop a Christian worldview; and experience op- of a mentor, Ockenga decided against attending the Uni- portunities to serve in their church’s worship, such as versity of Chicago in favor of a small Methodist college reading the scripture, lighting candles, and singing in in Indiana called Taylor University. Following an under- a choir or mixed age worship team. Fifth-grade learner graduate career that found him engaged both academi- objectives might be to learn to articulate faith answers cally and with one of the college’s roving evangelistic (apologetics); to experience Christian stewardship and teams, Ockenga pursued further education at Princeton service in the community; and to explore God’s purpose Theological Seminary. Subsequent to that institution’s and participation in all of life (physical and emotional fundamentalist-modernist controversy, Ockenga’s loy- as well as spiritual). alty to professors like J. Gresham Machen and Cornelius TheContributor basis for all teaching objectives should be a form Van Til prompted him to transfer to the incipient West- of shared praxis (to form habits and establish customs) minster Theological Seminary to finish his degree. After in which the learning environment creates space for the completing a PhD at the University of Pittsburgh special- learner to critically reflect on present life experience izing in the work of Bentham and Marx, Ockenga ac- and knowledge within a framework of the truths of the cepted the pulpit at Boston’s historic Park Street Church. Old Testament 893

Significant Contributions to Christian Education tence and helped it develop into one of the premier evan- Harold Ockenga’s primary contributions to Christian gelical seminaries in the United States. His work there education occurred in the realm of seminary education. is memorialized by the Ockenga Institute, an arm of the In 1947, at the prompting of radio evangelist Charles seminary committed to his personal values of missions, Fuller, Ockenga founded and served as the first president church renewal, and cultural transformation. A cursory of Fuller Theological Seminary in Pasadena, California. review of his biography finds him at the center of what Modernistic approaches to biblical interpretation and a have become two of the six largest evangelical seminaries general fundamentalist disengagement with academia in North America. By this metric alone, Ockenga’s im- following the Scopes “monkey trial” were two of the pact on 20th-century seminary education is considerable. broad cultural forces that prompted Ockenga’s actions, while intramural conflicts such as the Princeton-West- Most Notable Publications minster seminary split also impacted Fuller’s creation. Ockenga, Harold. 1937. These Religious Affections. Grand Rap- The implementation of the Servicemen’s Readjust- ids, MI: Zondervan. ment Act (known popularly as the GI Bill) was perhaps ———. 1946. Our Evangelical Faith. Grand Rapids, MI: the most significant factor in Ockenga’s educational Zondervan. entrepreneurship. He recognized both that the return- ———. 1950. “Christ for America.” UnitedOnly Evangelical Action, ing servicemen would create an influx of potential stu- 15 January, 2, 4, 15. dents and that an increase in college degrees would alter ———. 1972. Faith in a Troubled World. Wenham, MA: Gordon the educational pedigree of the American populace in College Press. general. In notes he scribbled to himself about Fuller’s founding, Ockenga postulated that the American church References and Resources would need “ministers equipped to face the naturalism, Carpenter, Joel. 1997. Revive Us Again: The Reawakening of secularism, and evolutionary compasses” inculcated by American Fundamentalism. New York: Oxford University most colleges and universities. Press. Ockenga’s influence on Fuller Seminary began with Hart, D. G. 2002. That Old-Time Religion in Modern America: its conception. Although Charles Fuller originally asked Evangelical Protestantism in the Twentieth Century. Chicago: the Boston pastor to helm a theological college, Ockenga IvanCopy R. Dee. convinced the radio evangelist that seminary education Lindsell, Harold. 1951. Park Street Prophet: A Life of Harold was a greater need. Ockenga’s motivation for proposing Ockenga. Wheaton, IL: Van Kampen. the seminary combined a healthy dose of the traditional Marsden, George. 1987. Reforming Fundamentalism: Fuller evangelical zeal for personal conversions and corporate Seminary and the New Evangelicalism. Grand Rapids, MI: revivals with a distinctively midcentury belief in the role Eerdmans. of the Christian Gospel as the last hope for preserving Ockenga, Harold. 1950. “The Need for and Purpose of Fuller Western civilization. Beyond conceiving of the seminary Theological Seminary.” Unpublished notes in the Ockenga and articulating its purpose, Ockenga also lent his exten- Papers at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary in Ham- sive professional network to Fuller’s early success. Using ilton, MA. social capital he had accrued through years of intellectual ———. 2005. “The Challenge to the Christian Culture of the advocacy and patronage, Ockenga recruited some of the West.” In The Columbia Documentary History of Religion in premier evangelical scholars of the day, including Carl America Since 1945, edited by Paul Harvey and Philip Goff, F. H. Henry and Wilbur Smith. After setting the tone 8–13. New York: Columbia University Press. for the seminary at the inaugural convocation with his Rosell, Garth. 2008. The Surprising Work of God: Harold John address, “The Challenge to the Christian Culture of the Ockenga, Billy Graham, and the Rebirth of Evangelicalism. West,” Ockenga eventually served as Fuller’s president- Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. in-absentia for a total of 11 years and as a board member —Philip D. Byers for another 8. His educational leadership was not limited to Fuller. Following the 1969 merger of the Gordon Divinity Old Testament School (Massachusetts) and the Conwell School of The- ologyContributor (Pennsylvania), Ockenga was named the founding “Old Testament” (OT) is the title the church has given president of the resulting institution, Gordon-Conwell to the sacred scripture, or Hebrew Bible, of the Jewish Theological Seminary. His reputation provided the fledg- nation. This distinguishes it from the “New Testament” ling institution with mainstream evangelical credibility. (NT), the books or letters written in Greek during the Ockenga led the seminary for the first 10 years of its exis- first century AD and eventually accepted by Christians 894 Online Education as additional to the final corpus of divine revelation. with postmodern linguistics, many recent publications When the first Christians began to meet and worship, on biblical hermeneutics have moved beyond a focus on the Jewish Old Testament, especially its Greek version, literal, grammatical-historical exegesis to more emphasis was their scripture. This was the case until the NT books on theological/Christological and spiritual/devotional or were completed and circulated and had been received even mystical approaches to the OT. as inspired revelation and added to the OT to make the For Christian education in the current climate, the full canon of the Holy Bible. Jesus and the authors of the OT remains an indispensable part of the Judeo-Christian NT allude to, cite, quote, or paraphrase OT excerpts fre- scriptural heritage. A Christian, if nothing else, follows quently. How they use the OT (literally and logically or Jesus as the Christ/Messiah foreshadowed in the OT. analogically, in or out of context) is currently a topic of His teachings are only known through the NT, where heated debate. He unhesitatingly affirms the OT as something He is Long before the OT became part of Christian or Jewish fulfilling (e.g., Mark 12:10; Luke 4:21) and its laws as theological training, ancient Jewish society looked to the having permanent value (Matt. 5:18). How Christians are wisdom traditions behind the OT books for educational expected by God to appropriate all these laws, directly or philosophy, practices, and principles. Before the inven- indirectly, is perhaps the most perpetual and problematic tion of the printing press (ca. AD 1440), Bibles were rare crux interpretum of the church. Only and expensive, since they were copied by hand and some- times beautifully illustrated. For most believers, learning References and Resources the OT came through hearing it read, quoted, and taught. Basinger, David, and Randall Basinger, eds. 1986. Predestina- Yet exactly how the OT is supposed to be understood and tion & Free Will: Four Views of Divine Sovereignty & Human used by Christians has remained controversial since the Freedom. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. early church. Jewish scholars also continue to debate the Bright, John. 1997. The Authority of the Old Testament. Milton proper and past relationship between Judaism and its oral Keynes, UK: Paternoster. and written Law (Torah). As early as the late first or early Crenshaw, James L. 1998. Education in Ancient Israel. New secondcentury AD, a Christian bishop named Marcion York: Doubleday. seriously questioned the value of the OT theologically. Evans, Craig. 2000. “NT Use of the OT.” In The IVP New Marcion could not equate the OT God with the NT God DictionaryCopy of Biblical Theology, edited by Brian S. Rosner, or Jesus. His challenge to the inspiration of the OT, based T. Desmond Alexander, Graeme Goldsworthy, and D. A. on a literal reading, in part influenced the rise of a prefer- Carson, 464–467. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. ence among other church fathers for spiritual, Christo- Harris, R. Laird. 1977. Inspiration and Canonicity of the Bible. logical, and allegorical interpretations. Further, they were Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. moved to begin thinking about the need to formulate Neusner, Jacob, and William Scott Green. 1989. Writing with an official list of which OT books should comprise the Scripture: The Authority and Uses of the Hebrew Bible in the inspired canon of scripture. Torah of Formative Judaism. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. This uneasiness over the nature of the OT has persisted Seitz, Christopher R. 2011. The Character of Christian Scrip- to one degree or another throughout church history and ture. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. into the present day. While the Catholic, Protestant, and —W. Creighton Marlowe Orthodox divisions of the church still work with differing sets of books considered canonical or deutero-canonical, each contains the same core of 66 books (39 OT and 27 Online Education NT). This OT has long been officially established, after some measure of debate over a few books, as divinely Distance education is defined as “the process whereby revealed scripture, but concerns about how it should the education of a student occurs in circumstances be interpreted and integrated into Christian beliefs and where the educator and the student are geographically behaviors remain acute. Marcion’s rejection of the OT separated, and the communication across this distance is still viewed as heretical by consensus, but many Chris- is accomplished by one or more forms of technology” tians continue to identify with his struggle to take it at (Rubiales et al. 1998, 32). Over the past 150 years, face value. Debates over between groups with the emergence and transformation of technology, withContributor so-called Calvinistic as opposed to Armenian ten- distance education has evolved through multiple gen- dencies have drawn heavily on the exegesis of OT pas- erations, including correspondence, telelearning, and sages. A case in point is the more recent open theism online and mobile education. controversy, the proponents of which use OT texts often All generations of distance education are still used to illustrate their claims. Consequently, in connection (Garrison and Anderson 2003); however, with the Online Education for Theological Schools 895 rapid emergence of technology and the Internet, online to what both Christian and secular scholars have under- education is the most frequently implemented form. stood as essential for quality distance education (Rovai, Online education has been defined in a number of Baker, and Cox 2008). ways. Paulsen (2003) suggests that online education is characterized by (a) teacher-learner separation, (b) References and Resources educational organization influence in planning and Bernard, Robert M., Philip C. Abrami, Yiping Lou, Evgueni student support, (c) computer network usage to dis- Borokhovski, Anne Wade, Lori Wozney, Peter Andrew seminate educational material, and (d) two-way com- Wallet, Manon Fiset, and Binru Huang. 2004. “How Does munication via computers and computer networks. By Distance Education Compare to Classroom Instruction? the beginning of the 21st century, over half of all higher A Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Literature.” Review of education institutions offered online courses, and over a Educational Research 74 (3): 379–439. http://p2048-www quarter of American students were taking online classes. .liberty.edu.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login?url=http://search Offering courses via the Internet is more commonplace .proquest.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/docview/214115057 than offering traditional courses at some colleges and ?accountid=12085. universities. Some higher education institutions are Garrison, D. Randy, and Terry Anderson. 2003. E-Learning in exclusively online institutions (e.g., Capella University, the 21st Century: A Framework forOnly Research and Practice. Kaplan University, and Walden University). London: Routledge/Falmer. Christian colleges and universities have taken advan- Paulsen, M. F. 2003. Online Education and Learning Manage- tage of distance education to expand their educational ment Systems. Global e-learning in a Scandinavian perspec- reach globally and fulfill their mission to equip students tive. Oslo: NKI Forlaget. to influence the world for Christ. Over a century ago, Rovai, Alfred P., Jason D. Baker, and William F. Cox. 2008. Moody Bible Institute pioneered Christian distance edu- “How Christianly Is Christian Distance Higher Education?” cation by offering independent correspondence courses. Christian Higher Education 7 (1): 1–22. http://ejournals.ebsco Today, many Christian higher education institutions .com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/direct.asp?ArticleID=4BBF92 offer distance education courses and programs in a vari- 001892AD1593FB. ety of formats; online courses and programs are the most Rubiales, David, Melvin T. Steely, Craig E. Wollner, James T. readily offered. Liberty University, a Christian liberal arts Richardson,Copy and Mark F. Smith. 1998. “Distance Learning.” university located in central Virginia, offers more than Academe 84: 30–38. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40251264. 100 accredited online programs and had expanded its —Amanda J. Rockinson-Szapkiw reach to over 80,000 online students by 2012, in an effort to fulfill the mission of training individuals to reach the world for Christ. Online Education for Efforts have also been made to promote quality and Theological Schools effective Christian distance education. In 1971, the As- sociation for Christian Distance Education (ACCESS) The Expansion of Online Education convened in Chicago to celebrate the 70th anniversary Various delivery formats for distance or online educa- of Moody Correspondence School; it became an orga- tion, including fully online courses and modular or nized professional association, incorporated in 1977, hybrid courses that require both online and on campus with the mission of promoting quality Christian distance components, have continued to grow in popularity at education. ACCESS offers a research repository of best college and graduate school levels, expanding in number practices for Christian distance education, networks and use throughout the global education community in and forums for Christian distance education profes- the 21st century. The continuing progressive develop- sionals, annual conferences, and promotion of Chris- ment of computer technologies is a major reason for tian distance education through partnerships. Further, the exponential growth in online education for colleges, researchers from Christian institutions have focused on seminaries, and other schools offering studies in bibli- identifying what constitutes effective distance education cal and theological curricula. The expansion of online pedagogy and argue that it “center[s] on the appropri- education was influenced by potential and existing stu- ate and strategic use of interactivity among learners, dents’ need for affordability in educational courses and withContributor the material leading to learner engagement, deep programs. Online delivery allows students to maintain processing, and understanding” (Bernard et al. 2004, current residences and employment, so they do not incur 408). With an intentional focus on interactivity emerges the expenses involved in pursuing programs that require a sense of community. Community has been identified campus residency. Online courses are often asynchro- as the heart of Christian school ethos and also central nous, providing students with flexibility in planning 896 Online Education for Theological Schools workable schedules for completing assignments, thereby the technological aspects of pedagogy with more person- allowing educational pursuits to align well with personal alized communicative learning methodologies. agendas for work, family time, church involvement, and other activities. Integrating Learning and Formation in Online Education Communication and Communion in Online Education Educators in online contexts for theological education Online education for theological schools provides aca- seek to promote authentic academic and relational in- demic studies and training programs designed to prepare teraction to achieve both intellectual communication individuals for careers in ecclesial ministry, local and and spiritual communion in online learning contexts. global missions, and other related professions. Students Educators in online theological settings are challenged are required to participate in both intellectual and spiri- to provide rigorous academic study that combines ad- tual communion with the online learning community equate research and critical and analytical thinking with as they are developing high-level skills in interpersonal the added dimension of a faith-based worldview and communication, including the ability to share thoughts, relational integrity in the learning process. In addition, ideas, perspectives, and opinions via verbal or written online learning contexts are most effective when student- means and to listen and respond sensitively to individuals to- student, student-to-instructor, andOnly instructor-to-stu- and groups. The idea of communion derives, in Christian dent interactions encourage the authentic experience of theology and history, from the sacrament of the Mass, the community that combines the academic learning process Holy Eucharist, or Holy Communion, in which people with spiritual formation. of faith share a common theological reality based on Ideally, instructors want to balance the contemplative biblically derived beliefs and practices, including their and active aspects of online education, providing op- understanding of relationship with God and with one portunities for students’ reflection and prayerfulness by another; and from a shared experience of koinonia or fel- utilizing learning methodologies that encourage students’ lowship in the context of community. Online education intellectual excellence and spiritual growth. For example, in a theological school context therefore includes both assignments that balance computer-based interaction communication and communion due to the context of with contexts for learning that do not require computer education deriving from shared, faith-based values. The time Copyprovide students with variety in their academic online educator in a theological school context maintains and formational experiences. Instructors’ engagement as a pneumatology affirming the reality of the Holy Spirit’s timely responders to online discussion and as proactive presence, activity, and guidance in the online setting. The listeners during live online discussion increases student pursuit of knowledge and wisdom, while developing re- engagement and quality of learning. Instructors have the lational qualities of listening, understanding, and respect responsibility to model sensitive listening and respond- for others, is considered essential to the processes of both ing skills for online students, which increases interactive learning and formative spirituality in online settings. sharing and the understanding that God is present and active in online learning contexts. Challenges to Learning in Online Settings Historically, traditional theological education requires References and Resources face-to-face classroom interaction among instructors Crabtree, Mara Lief. 1999. “Communication or Communion? and students as well as the faith community aspects Promoting Authentic Interaction in Online Education for of corporate prayer, worship, and other disciplines of Theological Schools.” Paper presented for the International shared Christian life. One criticism of online theological Online Conference for Teaching Online in Higher Educa- education is a concern that the experience of commu- tion, 9 November. nity is compromised because instructor and students do Farley, Edward. (1983) 2001. Theologia: The Fragmentation and not have the opportunity for face-to-face interaction. A Unity of Theological Education. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. major continuing challenge in online education for theo- Holdener, Jean M. 2011. Instructional Design: Seminary Faculty logical schools is the need to balance current standards Teaching Experience and Spiritual Formation in an Online in the use of technology with the equal need for per- Environment. Ann Arbor, MI: ProQuest. sonalized, interactive learning that allows students and Kalicky, Chris. 2011. “Developing a Useful Teaching Delivery instructorsContributor to form an authentic community of learning Selection Model for Theological Seminaries Using Technol- in a computer-based context, one that allows for corpo- ogy as a Medium.” Journal of Adult Theological Education 8 rate engagement in various forms of worship and prayer. (2): 166–185. The burgeoning field of educational technology provides Messer, Donald E. 1995. Calling Church and Seminary into the platforms for online education with the goal of balancing 21st Century. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. Online Education, Growth of 897

Moore, Michael G., and Greg Kearsley. 2011. Distance Edu- While the growth of online learning exceeded higher cation: A Systems View of Online Learning. Belmont, CA: education enrollment in general during the past decade, Wadsworth Publishing. the rate of growth has slowed. Almost 70 percent of Nghi, Tran. 2011. “Transformative Learning in Online Theo- chief academic officers at higher education institu- logical Education: A Case Study of an Online Program at tions report that online learning is critical to their a Theological Seminary.” PhD diss., University of North long-term institutional strategy.4 With the emergence Texas. of nearly ubiquitous networked computing, thanks to Peterson, Rodney L., with Nancy M. Rourke, eds. 2002. Theo- smartphones and mobile tablets and high-speed cellular logical Literacy for the 21st Century. Grand Rapids, MI: and WiFi connectivity, educators should expect to see Eerdmans. increasing demand for online and blended educational Werner, Dietrich, David Esterline, Nansoom Kang, and Joshva resources and opportunities available online. In addi- Raja, eds. 2010. Handbook of Theological Education in World tion, major educational initiatives such as OpenCourse- Christianity: Theological Perspectives, Ecumenical Trends Ware and Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are Regional Surveys. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. being led by recognized institutions such as MIT, Yale —Mara Lief Crabtree University, University of Notre Dame, and Stanford University. Such initiatives furtherOnly place online educa- tion within the mainstream of higher education, unlike Online Education, Growth of previous incarnations of distance learning, which were often on the fringes of institutions. Online education, the latest incarnation of distance, cor- respondence, or nontraditional education, is one of the Christian Online Learning fastest growing sectors in higher education. State and pri- Lest one dismiss online education as a mere fad limited vate universities, Christian and secular, have embraced to for-profit colleges or large state universities, Chris- the Internet and made educational materials, courses, tian institutions were pioneers in pre-Internet distance and even full degree programs available online. education. In 1901, the Moody Correspondence School (now Moody Bible Institute) was created for “the benefit Enrollment Trends of thoseCopy of both sexes who cannot, for financial or other Online education emerged as the dominant form of reasons, attend the Institute personally. The purpose is distance education after the opening of the commercial to give them, as far as possible, all the advantages of the Internet and development of the World Wide Web. systematic methods of study pursued here.”5 Beginning The annual Babson Survey Research Report into online with two courses—Bible Doctrine and Practical Christian learning defines online courses as “those in which at Work—the correspondence school grew and expanded, least 80 percent of the course content is delivered online” and now Moody Bible Institute offers fully online un- while “blended (sometimes called hybrid) instruction dergraduate and certificate programs. While Moody was has between 30 and 80 percent of the course content one of the pioneers in formal correspondence education, delivered online.”1 From 2002 to 2011, the number of it merely continued the tradition begun by the apostle students enrolled in online, degree-granting, postsecond- Paul, who circulated letters to be read aloud to the early ary education grew from 16.6 million to nearly 21 million Christian churches. students. More dramatically, in 2002 the online enroll- In 2012, the Association of Theological Schools in ment as a percentage of total enrollment was less than 10 the United States and Canada modified its accreditation percent, but by 2011 it was 32 percent.2 Nearly one-third standards to permit select master of arts programs to of all students enrolled in higher education are currently be offered fully online.6 This marked the first time that taking online courses. According to the same survey, ATS-accredited schools could offer fully online seminary the number of institutions offering full online programs degrees and reflects the growth and acceptance of online has doubled in the past decade, to 62.4 percent, while education. Currently over a thousand online undergradu- the number of schools with no online courses has been ate and graduate degrees are offered by accredited Chris- halved, to 13.5 percent.3 tian colleges and universities, Bible colleges, theological

Contributor 4. Ibid. 1. I. Elaine Allen and Jeff Seaman, Changing Course: Ten Years of 5. Moody Bible Institute, “History of the Moody Bible Institute” (2013), Tracking Online Education in the United States (Babson Park, MA: Babson http://www.moody.edu/edu_MainPage.aspx?id=3474. Survey Research Group, 2013). 6. The Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Can- 2. Ibid. ada, “FAQs about Accreditation” (2012), http://www.ats.edu/Accrediting/ 3. Ibid. Pages/FAQs.aspx. 898 Online Education, Instructional Design for seminaries, virtual K–12 schools, and homeschooling “Divine Pedagogy” as a model for online Christian edu- programs.7 If Christian education follows a pattern simi- cation, explaining this concept thus: lar to that of the larger educational sector, online educa- tion will continue to expand from K–12 through colleges Just as the divine adaptation involved accommodation on and seminaries and ultimately into churches for training God’s part, requiring the translation of the transcendent divine truths into the humble language of the human au- and discipleship. dience, so online adaptation calls upon theological educa- —Jason D. Baker tors to accommodate traditional practices to a new virtual environment. (Gresham 2006, 25)

Online Education, What this divine pedagogy provides is a situated frame- Instructional Design for work for recognizing how Christians can understand and focus their role in ID. Instructional design (ID) is the process of creating courses to make learning more efficient and effective, The ID Processes while at the same time reducing the potential difficulties “The greatest objective of instructional design is to serve associated with learning (Morrison, Ross, and Kemp, the learning needs and success of studentsOnly through effec- 2006). A key tenet of ID is to “focus on what the learner tive presentation of content and fostering of interaction” needs to know while avoiding nonessential content that (Chaudry and Rahman 2010, 194). Therefore, ID is based is only nice to know” (Morrison, Ross, and Kemp, 2006, on an analysis of the learning need. Part of this analysis 3). Multiple, functional roles are needed in the ID pro- is examining learner characteristics such as culture, age, cess, including designer, project manager, technologist, gender, and learning styles (Morrison, Ross, and Kemp editor, and subject matter expert (SME). Together this 2006). Instructional design also recognizes the situational team collaborates in the process of designing educa- aspects of learning; thus, instructional designers must tional instruction. contemplate the context in which learners are likely to participate in their educational pursuits. For example, Theoretical Concepts learners in foreign countries may not have access to li- Instructional design is not a learning theory or a learn- braries,Copy so designers must make sure that the ID process ing style, although learning theories and styles intimately provides access to the necessary online databases. impact design. Learning theories are concepts that “link The SMEs are the content experts involved in the ID observed changes in performance with what is thought to process. Together SMEs and designers synthesize their bring about those changes” (Driscoll 2004, 9). Learning individual expertise into an effective vehicle to moti- style is related to a preferential pedagogical practice. In- vate student learning. Aspects of this synthesis are the structional design uses learning theories as best practices merging, collaborating, and packaging of curriculum to in the process of addressing an individual learning style emphasize teacher-student and student-student interac- in order to offer an effective learning environment and tion (Hye-Jung and Rha 2009). As part of designing for educational product. teacher-student interaction, IDs must incorporate pur- The theory of transactional distance assumes that dis- poseful processes that allow teacher feedback before the tance always exists between teacher and student (Moore end of a project. Feedback immediacy affords the learner and Kearsley 2012). That distance is not a matter of being an opportunity to assimilate new information and strate- in proximity, but rather the type of distance between gies into his or her current learning experience. teacher and learner. Transactional distance in this con- text exists in both residential and online classrooms. It Implications of ID in Christian Education Online can be spatial, cultural, temporal, or, as Gresham (2006) Instructional design is not inherently a Christian or noted, pedagogical. The goal of ID is to specifically limit religious practice; however, it has key implications for or decrease the pedagogical distance between teacher Christian education online. First, ID in a Christian con- and learner. Gresham (2006) expanded on this concept text should recognize the need to instill a Christian ethos to explain how ID and transactional distance can be situ- throughout the course design. Maddix and Estep (2010) ated in a Christian context. He used what he termed the noted that in order to nurture spirituality in online de- Contributorgree programs, professors (and designers) must do more than simply digitize current methodologies. Instead, new 7. Jason D. Baker, “Christian Online Degree Directory,” in Baker’s Guide to Christian Online Learning (2013), http://www.bakersguide.com/ methods for nurturing spiritual formation must be cre- directory/. ated, because the medium itself is new. One way to do Online Education, Spiritual Formation in 899 this would be to translate the classroom practice of soul mensional construct rather than as whole-person trans- projects into a version compatible with online education formation. Understanding spiritual formation from (Wilhoit et al. 2009). this point of view focuses the issue more squarely on A second implication for ID in Christian education an integrated rather than a truncated view of spiritual online is to go above and beyond the letter of the law (e.g., growth and development. the Americans with Disabilities Act). As Christians, we recognize that all individuals are created in the Imago Dei, Whole-Person Formation and because of this, each and every person has great value. The spiritual dimension of a person cannot realisti- Creating new and effective means for designing rich, well- cally reside apart from the whole person if one is to planned education is an opportunity to reflect the love of consider the totality of redemption. Seen from a holistic our Lord and reach out to those who are often overlooked. or ecosystems perspective, the spiritual component lies Finally, a Christian ethos of ID can aid in our mandate within a multidimensional construct. Those dimen- to make disciples of all nations. Technological advances sions include the physical, intellectual, emotional, social, afford us the opportunity to use technology and ID to moral, and spiritual. Ward notes: “Ecology refers to the reach countries that are closed to the message of the interdependence of each component in the creation with Gospel of Christ. We can use these technological ad- respect to each other component” Only(1995, 14). Similarly, vancements to train indiginous pastors and missionaries Roehlkepartain and colleagues have pointed out: “Spiri- from our current location at our university. Instructional tuality by its very nature begs us to take a holistic view of design with the vision of making disciples of all nations persons” (2006, 181). Spiritual formation then is part of transforms theory into a practice that transforms. the larger ecology of faith that contributes to forming us into the image of Christ. References and Resources One of the ways in which that ecology is played out Chaudry, M., and F. Rahman. 2010. “A Critical Review of can be through online education, a venue that is generally Instructional Design Process of Distance Learning System.” viewed as digital or electronic content housed under the Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education (TOJDE) 11 provision of a course or learning management system. (3): 193–205. Ally defines it as “the use of the Internet to access learn- Driscoll, M. 2004. Psychology of Learning for Instruction. 3rd ed. ingCopy materials; to interact with the content, instructor, and Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon. other learners; and to obtain support during the learn- Gresham, J. 2006. “The Divine Pedagogy as a Model for Online ing process, in order to acquire knowledge, to construct Education.” Teaching Theology and Religion 9 (1): 24–28. personal meaning, and to grow from the learning experi- Hye-Jung, L., and I. Rha. 2009. “Influence of Structure and In- ence” (2004, 5). teraction on Student Achievement and Satisfaction in Web- Online education is embodied learning, in that we use Based Distance Learning.” Journal of Educational Technology each dimension of the person when we engage in the & Society 12 (4): 372–382. learning process. Hess (2000) notes that the individual Maddix, M., and J. Estep. 2010. “Spiritual Formation in On- is very much interacting with the medium of technology line Higher Education Communities: Nurturing Spirituality through the use of the mental, physical, emotional, and in Christian Higher Education Online Degree Programs.” spiritual dimensions. Christian Education Journal 7 (2): 423–434. Moore, M., and G. Kearsley. 2012. Distance Education: A Sys- Facilitating Spiritual Formation Online tems View of Online Learning. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Since spiritual formation is as much a part of whole- Morrison, G. R., S. M. Ross, and J. E. Kemp. 2006. Designing Ef- person transformation as the other dimensions, we fective Instruction. 5th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. know that our ecosystem (including online interaction) Wilhoit, J., D. Setran, D. Ratcliff, D. Haase, and L. Rosema. contributes to facilitation of growth and development. 2009. “Soul Projects: Class-related Spiritual Practices in Using the model of bio-ecology, we are aware that the Higher Education.” Journal of Spiritual Formation & Soul more diverse the environment, the greater the likelihood Care 2 (2): 153–178. of a stronger, healthier, and more sustainable organism —Kenneth C. Law and Benjamin K. Forrest (Loreau and Mazancourt 2013; Morin 2000; Flombaum and Sala 2008; Tilman, Reich, and Knops 2006). Simi- Contributor larly, a well-balanced online learning environment can Online Education, Spiritual Formation in be a powerful contributor to our spiritual growth and development, if those ecosystems include a diversity of Spiritual formation in the Protestant tradition has his- experiences, interactions, course delivery, student popu- torically been viewed from the perspective of a one-di- lations, learning styles, and spiritual disciplines. There 900 Oral Cultures, Christian Education in is reciprocity between learners in an online course and Ecology Letters 16 (24 January):1. Accessed 20 March 2013. those components within an individual’s ecosystem, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.12073/full. which serves to encourage growth and development of Magnusson, D., and V. L. Allen. 1983. Human Development: the whole person. An Interactional Perspective. New York: Harcourt Brace One of the instigators of spiritual growth is social Jovanovich. reciprocity. This type of interaction is at the core of what Morin, P. J. 2000. “The Complexity of Codependency.” Nature social scientists understand to be one of the most signifi- 403: 718–719. cant contributors to human growth, including emotional, Roehlkepartain, E. C., P. E. King, L. M. Wagener, and P. L. psychological, and social development (Bronfenbrenner Benson. 2006. The Handbook of Spiritual Development in 1979; Lerner 2002; Magnusson and Allen 1983). The Childhood and Adolescence. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. interaction within one’s social network, however distant, Tilman, D., P. B. Reich, and J. M. H. Knops. 2006. “Biodiversity is known to affect behavior, thoughts, and even spiritual and Ecosystem Stability in a Decade-long Grassland Experi- development (Cristakis and Fowler 2009). Cristakis and ment.” Nature 441: 629–632. Fowler point out that “religious sensibilities are partially Ward, T. 1995. Foreword to Nurture That Is Christian. Edited hardwired in our brains, and they are related to our de- by J. Wilhoit and J. Dettoni, 7–17. Wheaton, IL: Victor sire for social connection to others, not only a spiritual Books. Only connection to God” (2009, 246). In an online classroom —Mary Lowe context, formation is achieved in part through direct en- gagement by individuals within a diverse environment. Oral Cultures, Christian Education in Conclusion Spiritual formation, as a part of whole-person trans- The earliest glimpses of education in scripture reveal a formation and change, is understood in the totality of people who taught God’s law as they rose in the morning, development and sanctification. The implications of the walked along a path during the day, and retired to sleep ecosystem approach for understanding spiritual forma- at night.8 In the Gospels, Jesus taught illiterate crowds tion in online education provide us with a model for un- by using stories, word pictures, and familiar concrete derstanding how formation occurs. If student formation references.Copy At a time when only 5 to 20 percent of people empowered by the Holy Spirit takes place in a variety of could read, the early church relied primarily on oral com- settings and contexts, then the virtual community, char- munication for both evangelism and discipleship.9 acterized by texts, images, sounds, and mental constructs, Today the presence of thousands of church and acad- can be considered a viable means of formative experience. emy publishing houses and the proliferation of linear, propositional approaches to education for all ages re- References and Resources veal an assumption of widespread literacy. Education Ally, M. 2004. “Foundations of Educational Theory for Online is approached primarily as a cognitive exercise relying Learning.” In Theory and Practice of Online Learning, edited on printed curriculum and texts. These assumptions, by T. Anderson and F. Elloumi, 3–31. Athabasca, AB: Atha- however, are faulty. With orality determined by “the basca University. reliance upon the spoken rather than the written word,” Bronfenbrenner, U. 1979. The Ecology of Human Development. it is estimated that 70 percent of the world’s population Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. still operates as an oral culture.10 Only 2 percent of the Cristakis, N., and J. Fowler. 2009. Connected: The Surprising world’s population is considered highly literate—that is, Power of Our Social Networks and How They Shape Our people who spend considerable time every day using and Lives. New York: Little, Brown. developing reading and writing skills and who depend on Flombaum, P., and O. E. Sala. 2008. “Higher Effect of Plant those skills for communication.11 Species Diversity on Productivity in Natural Than Artificial Walter Ong argues that “cultural chauvinism” causes Ecosystems.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci- literate people to see oral cultures as less developed and ences 105 (16): 6087–6090. Hess, M. E. 2000. “Attending to Embodiedness in Online, Theologically Focused Learning.” Accessed 4 September 8. Deuteronomy 6:4–9. 2006. http://www.luthersem.edu/mhess/dayton.pdf. 9. Ben Witherington, New Testament Rhetoric: An Introductory Guide Contributorto the Art of Persuasion in and of the New Testament (Eugene, OR: Cascade Lerner, Richard M. 2002. Concepts and Theories of Human Books, 2009), 1. Development. Florence, KY: Psychology Press. 10. Grant Lovejoy, “The Extent of Orality,” Journal for Baptist Theology and Ministry 5, no. 1 (2008): 121–133. Loreau, M., and C. Mazancourt. 2013. “Biodiversity and Eco- 11. Office of Population Research, Oral and Literate Populations (Prince- system Stability: A Synthesis of Underlying Mechanisms.” ton, NJ: Princeton University, 2004), http://[email protected]. Oral Roberts University 901 intelligent.12 To associate education only with literate set- a university for God that would be based on the power tings creates a hierarchy of learning that diagnoses oral of the Holy Spirit and would send students educated in cultures with a social deficiency and prescribes literacy as numerous disciplines to extend the healing power of God the only cure. In contrast, missionaries and cultural an- into the entire world. The first students were admitted in thropologists discovered long ago the rich contributions 1965, with the first partial class graduating in 1968 and oral cultures make to the learning process. For centuries the first full class graduating the following year. ORU re- Christian missions have championed literacy; however, ceived a full 10-year accreditation from the North Central they also have adapted teaching to honor the strengths Association of Colleges and Schools in 1971. and capacities of oral learners. ORU experienced explosive growth during the 1970s, Western educators are beginning to see the merits of which included the addition of the Michael Cordone Sr. oral approaches to education, both for communicating School of Dentistry and the ORU School of Medicine in with people in oral cultures and for challenging liter- 1978 and the O.W. Coburn School of Law in 1979. The ate teachers and students alike. Regardless of literacy City of Faith Medical and Research Center was opened rates or levels of education, songs and dances, rituals, in 1981, in part to provide training for the university’s drama, stories, proverbs, art, and music, all experienced health-care educational programs. However, an eco- in community,13 serve as effective methods for teaching. nomic downturn in the 1980s and Onlyscandals surrounding Research focusing on the growing reality of multicultural some televangelists (Roberts was not among these) led to contexts in North American education supports embrac- financial difficulties, which in turn led to the closing of ing a praxis-based, holistic pedagogy (thinking, doing, the dental school in 1986, the transfer of the law school feeling) in the church and the academy.14 to Pat Robertson’s CBN (now Regent) University in 1986, and the closing of the medical school and the City of References and Resources Faith in 1989. Lingenfelter, Judith, and Sherwood Lingenfelter. 2003. Teach- Oral Roberts served as the president of ORU from its ing Cross-Culturally: An Incarnational Model for Learning founding until 1993, at which time his son Richard was and Teaching. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. named the second president. Oral Roberts was given the Lovejoy, Grant. 2008. “The Extent of Orality.” Journal for Bap- title chancellor. Richard Roberts served as president until tist Theology and Ministry 5(1): 121–33. 2007,Copy when severe financial difficulties and a complex Moon, Jay. 2010. “Discipling Through the Eyes of Oral Learn- scandal led to his eventual resignation. In the following ers.” Missiology: An International Review 38(2): 127–140. months, several momentous events occurred, includ- Office of Population Research. 2004. Oral and Literate Popula- ing a large infusion of funds from the Green family of tions. Princeton University. http://[email protected]. Oklahoma City (founders of Hobby Lobby and Mardel Ong, Walter. 2002. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of stores); administrative realignments that separated the the Word. New York: Routledge. finances and governance of Oral Roberts Ministries from Witherington, Ben. 2009. New Testament Rhetoric: An Intro- ORU; fund-raising campaigns that in conjunction with ductory Guide to the Art of Persuasion in and of the New the Green family gift lifted ORU out of debt; the replace- Testament. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books. ment of ORU’s board of regents with a new board of —Ellen L. Marmon trustees led by Mart Green; and the election of ORU’s third president, Mark Rutland, who assumed the role in 2009. Rutland served as president until 2013, when the Oral Roberts University university’s fourth president, William “Billy” Wilson, was elected by the trustees. History In the spring 2013 academic term, total enrollment Oral Roberts University (ORU) is a private interde- stood at 3,169, including 2,631 undergraduate and 538 nominational, charismatic Christian, comprehensive lib- graduate students, representing 48 states and 62 nations. eral arts university located in Tulsa, Oklahoma. It was founded in 1963 by evangelist Granville Oral Roberts Educational Programs (1918–2009) in response to a divine command to build ORU is organized into six colleges: arts and cultural studies, business, education, nursing, science and engi- 12. Walter Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word neering, and theology and ministry. In the academic year (NewContributor York: Routledge, 2008), 18. 13. Jay Moon, “Discipling Through the Eyes of Oral Learners,” Missiol- 2012–2013, ORU offered more than 60 undergraduate ogy: An International Review 38, no. 2 (2010): 127–140. major programs and 13 graduate programs (including 14. Judith Lingenfelter and Sherwood Lingenfelter, Teaching Cross-Cul- turally: An Incarnational Model for Learning and Teaching (Grand Rapids, 2 doctoral programs), as well as degree completion and MI: Baker Academic, 2003). online degree programs. 902 Ordinary Theology

The university is accredited by the Higher Learning 3. Excellence with Integrity: “We strive to operate with, Commission of the North Central Association of Col- and instill in our students, excellence with integrity leges and Schools. In addition, several programs are ac- in all personal, academic, professional, and corpo- credited by other national accreditation bodies, including rate endeavors.” the Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education, the 4. Caring Community: “We are dedicated to providing Council on Social Work Education, the National Associa- a safe, caring, and Godly environment that encour- tion of Schools of Music, the Association of Theological ages unity in diversity. We believe that all people Schools in the United States and Canada, the Engineering have been created in the image of God and deserve Accreditation Commission of the Accreditation Board of to be respected.” Engineering and Technology, the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, and the Association Students sign an “Honor Code Pledge” that reflects the of Collegiate Business Schools and Programs. moral and vocational ethos of ORU as articulated in the ORU participates in several intercollegiate sports in mission and core value statements. For a significant por- the Southland Conference. Men’s and women’s programs tion of its history, ORU enforced rather strict dress codes include basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, tennis, and for male and female students, as well as a strict hair code track and field. In addition, ORU fields men’s baseball for men. However, in the 21st century,Only the dress and hair and women’s volleyball teams. codes have undergone several revisions that have loosened the requirements significantly to reflect societal norms. Philosophy of Education In many ways, ORU’s educational philosophy is a re- References and Resources flection of the personal testimony and ministry of Oral www.oru.edu/facts_about_oru Roberts. Roberts received a miraculous healing from tu- www.orugoldeneagles.com berculosis and was healed of stuttering as well. His early Oral Roberts University Catalog, 2012–2013. ministry was noted for its emphasis on divine healing —Jeffrey S. Lamp crusades and on the manifestation of supernatural gifts of the Holy Spirit. A portion of the divine commission Roberts testified to having received from God serves CopyOrdinary Theology as the founding vision of ORU: “Build Me a university, build it on My authority, and on the Holy Spirit. Raise Ordinary theology is a field of theological research and up your students to hear My voice, to go where My light reflection pioneered by Jeff Astley at the North of England is dim, where My voice is heard small, and My healing Institute for Christian Education in Durham, UK, starting power is not known, even to the uttermost bounds of in the 1990s. Since the publication of the first major work, the earth. Their work will exceed yours, and in this I am Ordinary Theology (Astley 2002), the field has broadened well pleased.” The mission statement of the school has and widened, with a range of scholars and practitioners changed form over the years, but it has remained es- presenting research and reflection from a number of per- sentially the same, and currently reads, “To build Holy spectives (Christie 2012; Astley and Francis 2013). Spirit-empowered leaders through whole person educa- Astley’s definition of ordinary theology is “the theo- tion to impact the world with God’s healing.” logical beliefs and processes of believing that find expres- Several core values guide the educational mission of sion in the God-talk of those believers who have received ORU. The current catalog lists them as follows: no theological education.” These beliefs and practices are researched using qualitative techniques, including inter- 1. Christian Distinctiveness: “We are a God-centered views with the primary subjects, members of congrega- university that upholds a Christian worldview with tions without formal theological education. a charismatic emphasis. We endeavor to live in the As theology it sits squarely in the practical and con- power of the Holy Spirit and to become service- textual field. It proceeds dialogically or in conversation: oriented leaders who go into every person’s world All real theology . . . arises in a dialogue between “us” with healing for the totality of human need.” (our lives and experiences) and “them” (the Christian 2. Whole-Person Education: “We seek to develop the tradition). This dialogue—or, to use more informal Contributorwhole person in spirit, mind, and body, thereby language, this conversation—is between the “interpreta- preparing ourselves and our students to be pro- tions,” the implicit or explicit questions and answers, fessionally competent leaders who are spiritually of Christian Faith, on the one hand, and those of our alive, intellectually alert, physically disciplined, and human experience and life, on the other. (Astley 2002, 3; socially adept.” emphasis in original) Ordinary Theology, Implications for Adult Christian Education 903

Since part of the context of Christian theology is its the person and work of Christ, and she shows that these learning context, ordinary theology is rightly concerned “pew” theologians, while often heterodox, ask important with Christian pedagogy, because all the concepts, argu- and sometimes ignored questions that are not dealt with ments, attitudes, and practices of religion are learned. in their clergy’s attempts to teach the faith. Ordinary Such learning needs to be carefully distinguished from theology takes a different approach, starting “where we education (Astley 2002, 4–5). are” and not where we would like to be. It puts the reality Astley develops a sophisticated defense of the use of belief and practice in a congregation in dialogue and of the word “ordinary” in this kind of theology (2002, conversation with those who are trained in the academic 45–52). “Ordinary” is set over against the specialized, and systematic approach to theology. The hope is that the academic, and even the systematized. It is the usual, through the conversation, the theology of both partners the normal, the common: that which is properly orderly may be transformed. (from the Latin root of the word) (48). In a popular intro- duction to the field, we meet the interviewee, “Barbara” References and Resources (Astley and Christie 2007, 3), who feels “ill-equipped to Astley, Jeff. 2002. Ordinary Theology: Looking, Listening and talk about her faith” while it is evident that she had “a Learning in Theology. Explorations in Practical, Pastoral and deep love for the Christian gospel.” As she speaks of the Empirical Theology. Aldershot, UK:Only Ashgate. ministers she has known, she says, “You know, religion is Astley, Jeff, and Ann Christie. 2007. Taking Ordinary Theology really for the clergy; they just let us have a lend of it.” She Seriously. Cambridge, England: Grove. realizes now, after many years of churchgoing, that Astley, Jeff, and Leslie J. Francis, eds. 2013. Exploring Ordinary Theology: Everyday Christian Believing and the Church. very few of the [church] members were ever asked what Explorations in Practical, Pastoral and Empirical Theology. they were thinking: “We’re not important enough to be Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. listened to.” The reason for this was clear enough, she Christie, Ann. 2012. Ordinary Christology: Who Do You Say thought: it was because they were “just ordinary.” And what they were thinking was just too ordinary to count. I Am? Answers From the Pews. Explorations in Practical, (Astley and Christie 2007, 4; emphasis in original) Pastoral and Empirical Theology. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. —Nigel Rooms The characteristics of ordinary theology are that it is Copy learned and learning theology, so ordinary theologians can reveal “a great deal about theology as process” (Astley Ordinary Theology, Implications 2002, 60). It is tentative in that ordinary believers “speak for Adult Christian Education hesitantly” about what they believe (61). It is a lay theol- ogy, and one could argue from the interview above that Ordinary theology is “the theological beliefs and pro- it exists because of the clericalism of the church and the cesses of believing that find expression in the God-talk of shift of the locus of theology to the academy in the Chris- those believers who have received no theological educa- tendom era. Other terms that Astley uses for ordinary tion” (Astley 2002, 3). (See also Ordinary Theology.) This theology are “significant, meaningful, subterranean, reli- article further explores the implications of the seemingly gious, kneeling, celebratory, mother-tongue and onlook” unsystematic and often inchoate and heterodox beliefs of theology (2002, 64ff.). ordinary believers for Christian education in the church. Astley is aware that doing theology in this way “from It seems the first impulse of many clergy and theolo- below” is open to a number of criticisms, not least from gians on meeting such a phenomenon is to censure or the academy. He defends it against being too varied, challenge and then want to change the views and beliefs confused, incoherent, unsystematic, concrete, anthropo- of ordinary believers. Given how strongly these views morphic, biographical, personal, subjective, relative, and are held, even after many years of listening to sermons uncritical (2002, 125–145). and singing of hymns, this seems to be a rather fruitless Ordinary theology then is a plea to listen and then work exercise. Rather, there needs to be a mutual dialogue or in conversation and dialogue with those congregational conversation between the ordinary theologians and those members whose beliefs and practices have largely been who could be deemed “professional” custodians of the ignored in the history of Christendom. Every minister tradition and the creeds. knowsContributor heterodox views exist in his or her congregation, Astley develops this theme in an essay focusing on the and most spend large amounts of time and effort trying required conversation between ordinary believers and to overcome them or to make them more orthodox. Ann the Christian tradition (Astley and Francis 2013, 45ff.). Christie (Astley and Christie 2007; Christie 2012) has Theological educators need to start with people’s ordi- extensively researched ordinary theology as it relates to nary theology: the real beliefs of real Christians. These 904 Origen are functional beliefs that “work” for the individual and Astley, Jeff, and Ann Christie. 2007. Taking Ordinary Theology have been tested and tried over years of often difficult Seriously. Cambridge, England: Grove. experience. Thus the educator needs to be a mediator or Astley, Jeff, and Leslie J. Francis, eds. 2013. Exploring Ordinary translator of the tradition, able to speak in a way people Theology: Everyday Christian Believing and the Church. can hear and understand. Ministers and other theological Explorations in Practical, Pastoral and Empirical Theology. professionals are required to step down from their place Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. of privilege and learn alongside ordinary theologians. Christie, Ann. 2012. Ordinary Christology: Who Do You Say Given the importance of imagination and vision and I Am? Answers From the Pews. Explorations in Practical, the use of metaphor in forming theological reflection fol- Pastoral and Empirical Theology. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. lowing Killen and De Beer (1994) and others, the church Killen, Patricia O’Connell, and John De Beer. 1994. The Art of needs to move beyond enculturation or the “faith com- Theological Reflection. New York: Crossroad. munity approach” to Christian education, useful as it is. Walton, Roger. 2011. “Disciples Together: The Small Group Astley advocates that the conversation between ordinary as a Vehicle for Discipleship Formation.” Journal of Adult theology and the tradition proceed through “nurturing Theological Education 8 (2): 99–114. the character and capacities of spiritual vision and imagi- —Nigel Rooms nation” (Astley and Francis 2013, 52). There is evidence Only that such engagement is easier for some personality types than for others (87ff.). Origen Thus ordinary theology speaks to the debate about church-leaving and de-conversion (Astley and Francis Early Life and Education 2013, 33ff.). There is a connection between not taking the Origen Adamantius (“hard as iron”) was born into a ordinary, often heterodox beliefs seriously enough and Christian family in Alexandria, Egypt, around AD 185. the way in which persons with such beliefs drift from and His father, Leonides, was martyred in 202 or 203 during then leave the church as the questions they have are not the persecution under Septimius Severus. Due to the con- being addressed. fiscation of his father’s estate, Origen had to rely on the Ordinary theology also has implications for much of patronage of a wealthy Christian woman to complete his the pedagogical process and effort that the church in- education,Copy subsequently working as a teacher preparing vests in small group process. There is a growing body of students for the study of Greek literature. research critically reflecting on the role of small groups in Christian formation (Astley and Francis 2013, 179ff.; Later Life and Teaching Career Walton 2011). A study finds that groups, while they may Adopting an increasingly ascetic life, Origen shifted his have formed to meet a felt need in the believers (such as focus from teaching Greek literature to serving as a cate- understanding the Bible better), continue in the Bible chist. This allowed him to devote his undivided attention to studies with a “rather ill-defined sense of duty” (Astley the study and exposition of the scriptures, using the various and Francis 2013, 201). The importance of group rela- exegetical resources available to him at Alexandria (e.g., the tions and “fellowship” takes over. However, if used as a works of the Jewish writer Philo and various explanations in starting point for engaging with their ordinary theology, Greek of Hebrew words, which had been compiled by local this relationality may not be so unhelpful, for it offers Jewish writers). As his reputation grew, he was able to focus a hospitable place, if allowed, for people to share their on providing more advanced instruction to educated stu- fears, doubts, “daft questions,” and struggles. If the small dents. Origen used the analytical tools provided by Greek group can embrace tentativeness and diversity as well as philosophy and literary criticism to resolve quandaries that story, then it can be a place of profound learning. arose from the reading of the scriptures. (For example, what Ordinary theology therefore grounds in empirical does it mean to say that God “hardened Pharaoh’s heart,” research much of the direction of travel in adult faith and how is this compatible with the assumption that one formation in the church over the last 50 or so years since must have free will to be morally responsible for one’s Paulo Freire. It begins with the learners and their real actions?) Discussions of this type also allowed Origen to lived experience and faith, transforms the teacher into a examine and refute claims about the origin and nature of learner, and grows the church as a learning community. the world that had been made by Valentinus, Marcion, and Contributorvarious Gnostic teachers of the second century, which Ori- References and Resources gen regarded as contrary to the basic beliefs that comprised Astley, Jeff. 2002. Ordinary Theology: Looking, Listening and the church’s rule of faith. Learning in Theology. Explorations in Practical, Pastoral and Around 215, Origen seems to have left Alexandria, Empirical Theology. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. eventually settling at Caesarea in Palestine, where he was Orphaned, The 905 given the freedom to preach and teach and was subse- Martyrdom (c. 235), Against Celsus (c. 248), and On First quently ordained. His ordination in Caesarea provoked Principles (c. 229), a work of speculative theology whose a hostile response from his former bishop, Demetrius of teachings later became controversial and were anathema- Alexandria. Origen continued to travel widely, teaching tized in the sixth century. and working to resolve conflicts over theological ques- tions. Imprisoned and tortured in 250–251 during the References and Resources Decian persecution, he died after his release from prison Crouzel, Henri. 1989. Origen. Edinburgh: T & T Clark. in 253 or 254 and is said to have been buried in Tyre. Dively Lauro, Elizabeth Ann. 2005. The Soul and Spirit of Scrip- ture within Origen’s Exegesis. Leiden: Brill. Significant Contributions to Christian Education Hanson, R. P. C. 2002. Allegory and Event: A Study of the Origen is best known for his contribution to the study and Sources and Significance of Origen’s Interpretation of Scrip- interpretation of the biblical text. In his Hexapla, he ar- ture. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ranged the text of the Old Testament in six columns, giving Martens, Peter W. 2012. Origen and Scripture: The Contours of the Hebrew text, the Hebrew text in Greek characters, and the Exegetical Life. New York: Oxford University Press. the Greek translations of Aquila, Symmachus, the Septua- —Byard Bennett gint, and Theodotion, noting the variants, additions, and Only lacunae found in each translation. Origen’s biblical com- mentaries also make use of textual, grammatical, and rhe- Orphaned, The torical criticism to shed light on the meaning of the text. Origen’s biblical commentaries commonly interpret The Bible abounds with numerous references to orphans. Old Testament persons and events typologically (i.e., as Whether the term is being used to speak of the wayward signifying and preparing for the advent of Jesus Christ), spiritual condition of God’s children in a metaphorical since Origen regarded Christ as the center of history and sense (Exod. 4:22; Lam. 5:3; John 14:18) or the literal, the fulfillment of the plan and purposes of God for the physical state of a child without parents, the biblical mes- world. Origen also offered nuanced interpretations of the sage is unified in God’s undeniable care and concern for figurative language of the Bible; he saw such language as the fatherless (Ps. 10:14; Hosea 14:3; Isa. 1:17). the means by which the mind could be led onward by WhileCopy the overwhelming majority of references to the Spirit from what is seen to conceive of things unseen. orphan care are found in the law code of the Old Origen believed that the scriptures could often be read on Testament,15 the New Testament contains one of the more than one level. Even where a literal understanding most explicit and frequently cited commands when the of the text seemed to involve contradictions or be impos- apostle James writes, “Religion that is pure and undefiled sible, one could still arrive at an edifying interpretation of before God, the Father, is this: to visit orphans and wid- the text through the use of allegory. ows in their affliction, and to keep oneself unstained from Although Origen made important contributions to the the world” (James 1:27, ESV). development of Christology and Trinitarian theology, his According to estimates provided by UNICEF, UNAID, most significant (and controversial) contribution to the and WHO (2010), the most widely accepted and circu- theological tradition was his understanding of the human lated statistical data regarding the number of orphans person. In opposition to Gnostic teaching, Origen em- globally is 153 million.16 This number includes children phasized the freedom and capacity for moral change and who have lost one or both parents. When one refers to spiritual progress within the human person. This inner the number of children who have lost both parents (fre- freedom made it possible for the mind to ascend toward quently referred to as “double orphaned”), this number is God through prayer, leading to the illumination of the un- typically reduced to 17.8 million.17 These numbers have derstanding, the purification of the will, and the elabora- both grown exponentially in recent decades as a result of tion and development of spiritual senses able perceive the the HIV/AIDS pandemic, which has decimated families light and sweetness of God. This same freedom also made across the continent of Africa. it possible for the soul to descend through sin into a bestial or even a diabolical state. These teachings of Origen exer- 15. Stephen G. Dempster, “Orphans,” Baker Evangelical Dictionary of cised a significant influence on spiritual teachers of later Biblical Theology, ed. Walter A. Elwell (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book centuries, such as Antony of Egypt and . House, 1996). Contributor 16. UNICEF, UNIAD, and WHO, “Children and AIDS: Fifth Stocktak- ing Report” (2010). For a comprehensive discussion of these statistics, see Most Notable Publications Jedd Medefind, “On Understanding Orphan Statistics,” Christian Alliance for Orphans’ White Paper (2012). Besides numerous commentaries and homilies on books 17. UNICEF, “Statistical Data on Orphans,” http://www.unicef.org/ of the Bible, Origen’s major works include Exhortation to media/media_45279.html (accessed 20 July 2013). 906 Orthodox Christian Education Commission

In recent years, traditional models of institutionaliza- .org/wp-content/uploads/Christian-Alliance-for-Orphans tion, adoption, and the creation of large-scale orphanages -On-Understanding-Orphan-Statistics_.pdf have undergone critical scrutiny.18 In their place, new Shipitsyna, Ludmila. 2007. Psychology of Orphans. Lincoln, NE: models have emerged that emphasize holistic means of iUniversity Press. orphan care centered on the support and establishment Singletary, Jon. 2009. “Hope for Orphans: A Model of Care for of biological familial connections.19 In these models, care Vulnerable Children.” Family and Community Ministries 23 is given to orphans by their native culture and commu- (2–3): 31–32. nity, where a surviving family member, or members, are UNICEF, UNAID, and WHO. 2010. “Children and AIDS: Fifth equipped to provide ongoing oversight of the child in Stocktaking Report.” http://www.unicef.org/publications/ regard to health, shelter, and education. files/Children_and_AIDS-Fifth_Stocktaking_Report_2010_ As is true of any child who has endured significant EN.pdf trauma and loss, orphans have unique psychological, —Stephen L. Woodworth spiritual, emotional, and developmental needs, which must be considered in the creation of any model of Chris- tian education directed at a vulnerable demographic. Orthodox Christian While an exhaustive discussion of the variables that Education CommissionOnly contribute to the health of a particular orphan is beyond the scope of this article,20 consistent factors to consider One great challenge for Orthodox Christian education in are the age of the child; the amount of time spent with a the United States is to meet the needs of all the diverse natural parent; the duration of institutionalization; and ethnic jurisdictions that are part of the American church. biological considerations such as drug or alcohol abuse Other Christian churches certainly include varied by natural parents, terminal diseases such as HIV/AIDS, ethnic groups among their members. But many Ortho- and a mental or physical disability. dox people have relatively recently been the victims of With these considerations in view, any form of religious strife, or even brutal persecution, in their na- Christian education for orphans must be holistic in its tive countries. Their ties to their particular customs and approach, taking account of the care and restoration languages, so harshly repressed and so often secretly sus- of the whole person. Whenever possible, priority must tainedCopy only by their churches, are strong indeed. be given in the educational process to involving any The ethnic Orthodox have come to the United States at members of the family of origin. This will not only aid various times. In 1741, the first Orthodox divine liturgy children in their physical and emotional development, was offered on a ship off the coast of Alaska. Twenty- but spiritually as well, since any familial metaphors, and three years later, Greek colonists settled in Saint Augus- their ability to be understood, are central to an educa- tine, Florida. tional endeavor that seeks to develop mature members But the largest numbers of Orthodox came in the mid- of the family of God. 19th and early 20th centuries, seeking a better life than their economically hard-pressed homelands could offer. References and Resources They were from many backgrounds—Greek, Russian, Dempster, Stephen G. 1996. “Orphans.” In Baker Evangelical Serbian, Ukrainian, Syrian, Romanian, Bulgarian, and Dictionary of Biblical Theology, edited by Walter A. Elwell, Lebanese among them—and like many new immigrants, 650–652. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. they took menial jobs in coal mines, in steel or textile Hammer, Stephen, Aaron Greenberg, and Ghazal Keshavar- mills, and on farms. zian. 2009. “Religious Communities Take the Lead.” Family With their limited knowledge of English and of the and Community Ministries 23 (2–3). American way of life, these new arrivals could not imme- Medefind, Jedd. 2012. “Christian Alliance for Orphans: White diately immerse themselves in the culture around them, Paper on Understanding Orphan Statistics.” Christian Al- however grateful they were to have arrived in a land of so liance for Orphans http://www.christianalliancefororphans much freedom and opportunity. They stayed for the most part in their separate ethnic enclaves. 18. Stephen Hammer, Aaron Greenberg, and Ghazal Keshavarzian, “Re- Their churches continued to be central to their lives. ligious Communities Take the Lead,” Family and Community Ministries 23, The church was the gathering place for a community nos. 2–3 (2009): 54. 19.Contributor Jon Singletary, “Hope for Orphans: A Model of Care for Vulnerable that shared specific memories and traditions. It was Children,” Family and Community Ministries 23, nos. 2–3 (1 June 2009): at church that the immigrants’ children learned their 31–32. 20. For a more detailed discussion of these variables, see Dr. Ludmila parents’ language and customs, as well as the ways of Shipitsyna, Psychology of Orphans (Lincoln, NE: iUniversity Press, 2007). Orthodox worship. Orthodox Church Seminaries 907

But many of the children wanted more than anything faith as something that could stand up to questioning and to be American, to speak English exclusively. Some were probing, while still presenting God’s holy and limitless quite ready to abandon the faith of the “old country.” mystery as being far beyond human comprehension. Their parents were for the most part not trained teach- Traveling to parishes for regional teacher training ers, and there were no up-to-date, engaging materials in was another element of the commission’s work. At these English to teach them the faith. So there was not much gatherings, teachers could offer assessments of the curric- incentive for them to investigate the faith for themselves. ulum “from the field” and could practice current teaching As decades passed, new arrivals in the United States methods. Members of several jurisdictions attended and found settled Orthodox communities, quite at home discussed common issues. in the American culture. These communities were still Many activities from the commission’s early years strongly ethnic. Several Orthodox churches—each repre- continue. Some things are new: extensive online materi- senting a different ethnic tradition—might be built on the als, programs designed to supplement graded-classroom same street. Their congregations usually had little contact education with projects involving the whole parish, and a with each other. But they did share the hope of seeing fol- rediscovered emphasis on the family as the primary place lowing generations continue in the Orthodox faith. to develop an experiential faith. In the mid-1950s, a group of clergy and educators Orthodox Christianity is fundamentallyOnly experiential, came together to address that shared hope and to discuss with its physical elements of icons, incense, bowing and principles of teaching and children’s spiritual growth. kissing, bread, and wine. These things are meant to re- They considered the place of Bible study, ethics, doctrine, mind people of God’s real presence in every moment of and liturgical worship in the lives of children, intending human life, while acknowledging the One who is abso- to create a single program of religious education to serve lutely transcendent. all the ethnic Orthodox groups and national jurisdictions. This experiential understanding of God forms the The group was convened by Sophie Koulomzin, a Rus- basic educational philosophy of the Orthodox Church. sian-born teacher who had studied religious education The national groups within Orthodoxy are still far from in the United States. She asked friends at the National perfectly united. Yet they are bound together by this com- Council of Churches to help the group’s members better mon understanding of who God is and what He does. understand educational methods being used in this coun- Copy —Valerie G. Zahirsky try. In 1957, after many meetings and much study, the Orthodox Christian Education Commission was formed. The commission’s early goals were necessarily mod- Orthodox Church Seminaries est. As Mrs. Koulomzin once said, “We had no money, no budget, no staff, no address.” With characteristic The seminaries of the Orthodox Church throughout the optimism, she added, “But none of that worried us.” She world teach the same core subjects. Scripture, dogmatics, and the others were determined to find ways of offering church history, liturgics, liturgical theology, patristics, Orthodox children and adults a vision of the Christian spirituality, pastoral theology, canon law, and music are way of life. She oversaw the commission’s first effort, among those subjects found in the curriculum of every a twice-yearly printed bulletin with articles on various theological school. These subjects reveal only part of aspects of Christian education, which was sent to all the what the seminaries see as their central task: to produce jurisdictional offices. church leaders, clergy and lay, who have completed seri- The next few years saw the production of teacher ous academic schooling, have been trained in service and training manuals and an extensive set of guidelines for ministry, and are grounded in prayer. teaching preschoolers. By the early 1960s, a full scope and The importance of that grounding is reflected in the sequence chart and curricular materials for elementary emphasis on the church’s daily and annual liturgical cy- through high school levels were available and selling well cles, which are important not only because a priest must to all the Orthodox jurisdictions. know the services to perform them, but also because any Publication of three periodicals—for children, ado- future leader, male or female, should care about and be lescents, and college students—was the next big project. faithful in worship. Many seminaries, such as Saint Tik- The two for younger children gave families suggestions hon’s in Pennsylvania, Saint John of Damascus Institute forContributor celebrating church feasts at home as well as in church near Tripoli, Lebanon, and several in Eastern Europe, are and related saints’ lives to children’s experiences through associated with monasteries, which contributes to the stories, activities, and poetry. The college-age periodical centrality of prayer in their life. A saying from the Desert offered discussion of the Orthodox faith and social is- Fathers underscores the point: “The theologian is one sues. Its intention was to have college students see their who prays, and the one who prays is a theologian.” 908 Oser, Fritz K.

In training seminarians for service, the Orthodox These efforts enhance the core academic programs of are grateful for programs initiated by other Christians, the seminaries, which are fairly similar. Holy Cross Greek such as clinical pastoral education, internships at hospi- Orthodox School of Theology in Massachusetts offers a tals and institutions, and training programs in various typical choice of degrees. The master of divinity is the ministries. These, in addition to specifically Orthodox most popular, preparing men for ordination and both programs, give students the experience and education men and women for other kinds of ministry. The master they need to minister. of theological studies offers a general study of Orthodox Ecumenical participation is another area in which theology to those who are not seeking to serve the church many Orthodox seminaries have worked with other faith in ministry. The master of theology is for those who groups, finding it an excellent way to broaden students’ have received the master of divinity and want to teach or knowledge of those groups. At the same time, Orthodox pursue a PhD. Within these degree programs are various students may be from ethnic backgrounds that are unfa- specialized tracks of study. miliar to many they meet at ecumenical gatherings. So The populations of Orthodox seminaries are changing. the broadening of perspective is mutual, from the Ortho- There are more married students, many of whom come dox to others and from others back to them. The hope with their families; more converts; and more enrollees that Christ’s church may be truly united is at the base of who have already had careers in fieldsOnly other than church this participation. work. There are also more people taking schools’ online The ethnic character of many Orthodox churches courses or completing the distance learning programs of- necessitates special training for seminarians. So, for fered in Finland and other countries. example, a young female graduate of Saint Vladimir’s Orthodox seminaries all over the world are attempting Seminary in New York now is a lecturer there in Malay- to develop students who will act on the words of a profes- alam, a major language of southern India. Seminarians sor of theology in Lebanon: “It is not simply important to who serve churches in that area will need knowledge of know about Christ; it is also important to love Christ, and the language. love the world He redeemed.” Orthodox seminaries try faithfully to respond to the —Valerie G. Zahirsky conditions around them, which sometimes have been literally life-threatening. The school at Kazan, Rus- Copy sia, opened in 1732. Because of its location in an area Oser, Fritz K. populated largely by non-Christians, it developed expert teaching on Islam so that students would receive au- Fritz K. Oser is the originator of religious judgment the- thentic knowledge of the beliefs of Muslims, unclouded ory. He was born on 15 July 1937. He started his career by misinformation or prejudice. Despite such peaceful as a music teacher, earning his diploma in 1962 from a efforts, the seminary’s life was violently interrupted by teacher’s school in Solothurn, Switzerland (1952–1957). the Bolsheviks, who in 1917 closed it and imprisoned He then continued his educational pursuits at the Uni- several bishops associated with it. These men were later versity of Basel, studying the philosophy of Karl Jaspers, executed, having given their students an example of education, and linguistics. In 1964 he graduated from the adhering to the faith even under threat of death. Such Institut Catholique in Paris, completing the necessary hardship and deprivation followed these events that the requirements to become a teacher in a secondary school. school was not able to reopen until 1997. After lecturing in theory in Lucerne (1966–1969), Oser Other seminaries, such as Saint Herman’s in Alaska, entered the University of Zurich in 1969. While there address local social problems. Alcoholism is a serious he served as an assistant (1972–1979), completing his concern for the native Orthodox population, so the MA in 1973 and his PhD in 1975. From 1976 to 1977, school’s students take part in an alcohol awareness pro- he conducted a research project in the United States, gram started by the diocese of Alaska, which gives them where he came into contact with such noted individuals specific training in dealing with the issue. as Kohlberg, Argyris, and Kegan at Harvard, as well as In Albania, all practice and expressions of religion Fowler at Boston College. Based on his postdoctoral stud- were outlawed by the communists for decades; it was ies at UCLA and Harvard University, Oser was granted a the harshest repression in Europe. The Resurrection of postdoctoral degree in education in 1979. He also holds a ChristContributor Theological Academy, opened in the 1990s, has doctorate honoris causa in theology from the University stressed evangelization, so that graduates can help people of Mainz in Germany. recall and value their heritage (Christianity came to the He began teaching at the University of Fribourg country in the fourth century) and rediscover a Christian in Switzerland in 1979 and was named professor of way of life. education in 1981, as well as the director of the univer- Other Faiths, Approaches to 909 sity’s Pedagogical Institute. At Fribourg, he foundered References and Resources several conferences and organizations on campus and Belzen, Jacob A. 1998. “The Psychology of Religion in Europe— held numerous administrative posts, culminating with A Contextual Report.” Pastoral Psychology 46 (3): 145–162. his appointment as chair of the Department of Educa- Habenicht, Donna. 1996. “Research on Religious Judgment, tion and Educational Psychology from 1999 to 2001 Part I: A Conversation with Professor Fritz K. Oser, Univer- (www.unifr.ch/pedg/staff/oser/oser.htm; Oser, Dick, sity of Fribourg, Switzerland.” Journal of Research on Chris- and Patry 1992, xix). tian Education 5 (2): 235–248. ———. 1997. “Research on Religious Judgment, Part II: A Con- Oser’s Religious Judgment Theory versation with Professor Fritz z Oser, University of Fribourg, Oser has focused his career on the advancement of edu- Switzerland.” Journal of Research on Christian Education 6 cational psychology, developmental theory, and educa- (1): 65–78. tion in general, especially instruction. His main work is Oser, Fritz, and Paul Gmünder. 1991. Religious Judgement: A Der Mensch—Stufen seiner religiösen Entwicklung, pub- Developmental Approach. Birmingham, AL: Religious Edu- lished in 1988 and translated into English in 1991 as Re- cation Press. ligious Judgement: A Developmental Perspective, wherein Oser, Fritz K. 1991. “Toward a Logic of Religious Develop- he presents his theory of “religious judgment,” which he ment.” In Stages of Faith and ReligiousOnly Development, edited describes as “questions of how individuals experience by James W. Fowler, Karl Ernst Nipkow, and Friedrich religion and use religion to create meaning and find Schweitzer, 87–132. New York: Crossroad. direction”; that is, religious meaning-making (Oser and Oser, Fritz K., Andreas Dick, and Jean-Luc Patry, eds. 1992. Gmünder 1991, 5). He further explains that, “We mean Effective and Responsible Teaching: The New Synthesis. San reasoning that relates reality as experienced to something Francisco: Jossey-Bass. beyond reality and that serves to provide meaning and Oser, Fritz K., Wolfgang Edelstein, and Peter Schuster. 2001. direction beyond learned content” (Oser and Gmünder Moral Education in School. Darmstadt: Beltz. 1991, 6). For example, when one addresses the problem Oser, Fritz K., and W. George Scarlett. 1991. New Directions for of evil, how do religious concepts such as change, provi- Child Development: Religious Development in Childhood and dence, theocracy, or divine will factor into our response Adolescence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. to real-life situations? Reich,Copy K. Helmut, Fritz K. Oser, and W. George Scarlett, eds. Oser advocates that humans develop their religious 1999. Psychological Studies on Spiritual and Religious Devel- judgment through five orientations (stages) that build opment. Lengerich, Germany: Pabst Science Publishers. an increasingly complex rubric of judgment (Oser and Streib, Heinz. 2003. “Religion as a Question of Style: Revising Gmünder 1991): the Structural Differentiation of Religion from the Perspec- tive of the Analysis of the Contemporary Pluralistic-Reli- 1. Absolute heteronomy—“Deus Ex Machina” gious Situation.” International Journal of Practical Theology 2. “Do Ut Des” 7 (1): 1–22. 3. Absolute autonomy, i.e., deism —James Riley Estep Jr. 4. Mediated autonomy and salvation-plan orientation 5. Intersubjective religious orientation Other Faiths, Approaches to His work has been compared to that of Sundén and Vergote, but Oser’s theory is more focused and specifi- The relationship between Christianity and other reli- cally described in developmental terms (Belzen 1998). It gions is one of the most discussed and controversial is also placed in the developmental category because of issues in contemporary theology. The reasons for this its similarity to Kohlberg’s theory of moral development are many and varied: the diminishing numerical success and Fowler’s faith development theory (Streib 2003). of Christian mission, particularly among adherents of However, one distinction between Oser and Kohlberg is Islam and Hinduism; the increasing strength of nation- that Oser regards religion as essential for moving to the alism and the concomitant identification of the Chris- highest level of judgment, whereas Kohlberg often dis- tian church with the West and hence with colonialism counted the contribution of religion to moral reasoning. and imperialism; psychological and sociological stud- InContributor terms of his contribution to the field, Oser has been ies suggesting that the different religions each satisfy described as an “original thinker around whom a whole the same personal and social needs; the immigration center has developed in recent years where psychological into the West of adherents of non-Christian religions investigations of certain aspects of human religiosity are who are self-confident about their religious beliefs and taking place” (Belzen 1998, 150). way of life; and the increasing attraction of relativism 910 Overseas Council International to anthropologists, philosophers, and more recently, The challenge for Christian educators is to uphold and theologians. The growth of militant secularism has also proclaim the universality of the challenge of Christ and been influential in convincing some Christians that they the need for Christian mission, while developing in church should cast competition aside and unite with adherents members the values of love, humility, and tolerance. of other religions both to advocate and pursue common religious values and to provide a united front against References and Resources social and political marginalization in society. Another Barnes, L. Philip. 1990. “Relativism, Ineffability and the Appeal influential factor has been accusations that claims to to Experience: A Reply to the Myth Makers.” Modern Theol- religious uniqueness invariably lead to religious intoler- ogy 7 (1): 101–114. ance, an argument (though unconvincing philosophi- D’Costa, Gavin. 1986. Theology and Religious Pluralism. Ox- cally) used by secularists to erode further and limit the ford: Blackwell. influence of Christianity in public life. Kraemer, H. 1938. The Christian Message in a Non-Christian What is often overlooked in contemporary debates is World. London: Edinburgh House Press. that Christianity emerged in a pluralist religious context, —L. Philip Barnes and for over three centuries Christians were subject to persecution and social disadvantage for confessing the Only sole Lordship of Christ. In 1 Corinthians 8:5, the apostle Overseas Council International Paul refers to the “social existence” of “Gods many and Lords many,” while confessing that “there is no God but In 1974, a small group of businessmen established Over- one,” the God and Father of the Lord Jesus Christ. Belief seas Council to provide student scholarships for Seoul in the uniqueness of God’s revelation and act of redemp- Theological Seminary in Korea. “International” was tion in Christ is central to Christian belief and practice. added to the name as assistance was extended to train- Jesus is the “only begotten” Son of God and God’s agent ing programs in Brazil, Colombia, India, and elsewhere, of salvation. The resurrection of Jesus distinguishes Him and affiliates were organized. Charles Spicer served for from all other religious leaders and founders of reli- over 20 years as OCI’s founding president, passing away gions. Christians look to the historical events of the life, in 2005. ministry, sacrificial death, and resurrection of Jesus as Spicer’sCopy conviction was that “as the seminaries go, so universal in significance and application. God has acted goes the church.” The OCI website notes that the most in a particular history and in a particular person to fulfil effective pastors, teachers, and evangelists are those who His purposes; hence theologians speak of the “scandal of “receive training that is culturally relevant and biblically particularity” and of the way in which all religious beliefs sound.” OCI has focused its energy on building partner- and commitments have to be revised and corrected by ships with key evangelical training programs located reference to the self-revelation of God in Christ. where the church is developing most rapidly. Although there is a range of ways of conceptualizing Since its founding, OCI has invested over $100 million the different theological interpretations of other faiths in global theological education in the form of student by Christians, much recent discussion has focused on scholarships and campus, library, and faculty develop- the typology of exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism. ment, drawing on a funding base that continues to come Exclusivism is the view that Christianity is true, all other from individuals and family foundations from the busi- religions are false, and salvation is restricted to those ness community. who hear and respond positively to the Gospel. Inclusiv- The council’s staff team includes regional leaders who ism connotes that Christ is the normative revelation of provide perspective on the realities of global theologi- God, though salvation, while dependent on Christ, is cal education. Its global network allows it to offer con- possible outside the Christian church. Finally, pluralism sultancy and training to partner programs through its is the view that all religions mediate the presence and Institute for Excellence. In partnership with schools, its salvation of God. Pluralism is difficult to sustain philo- community center projects support the practical doing of sophically and theologically. Philosophical difficulties ministry while students are still in training. focus on the issue of reference and how contrary and OCI’s international partners function as independent even contradictory beliefs in the different religions can organizations. These include OC Team (UK), ReSource be construedContributor as possessing a common referent, namely Leadership (Canada), Overseas Council Australia, Over- God; whereas theological difficulties focus on the radical seas Council New Zealand, and Overseas Council Eu- reinterpretation of Christian belief and worship that is rope. Information on OCI and its partners can be found necessary to effect the conclusion that each and every on their websites. religion mediates salvation. —Steve Hardy Oxford University 911

Owen, John an invitation to serve as president of Harvard University in 1670. He energetically promoted religious toleration John Owen was a 17th-century English pastor, theolo- in England in the latter years of his career. He also at- gian, and educator who served the cause of nonconfor- tempted to enlist the assistance of Richard Baxter in mity during the tumultuous days of the English Civil uniting nonconformists in advocacy for toleration. Owen Wars and Interregnum period. wrote a personal note of thanks to King Charles II when the monarch issued the Royal Declaration of Indulgence Early Life and Education in 1672. He published and preached for another decade, John Owen was born at Stadhampton in Oxfordshire until his death in 1683. in 1616. He received his bachelor’s (1632) and master’s (1635) degrees from Queen’s College at Oxford. Like Significant Writings many students and faculty with Puritan convictions, John Owen was a prolific author of influential theo- Owen was forced to leave Oxford in 1637 due to the new logical treatises that continue to be read by theologians regulations enforced by Archbishop William Laud. He and students of 17th-century history. His A Display of made a respectable living serving as a chaplain in the Arminianism (1642) was a critical analysis of Armin- home of Sir Robert Dormer, First Earl of Carnarvon. ian theology. The Death of Death inOnly the Death of Christ (1647) presented an extensive analysis of the atonement Significant Contributions from a Reformed perspective. Specifically, Owen de- Owen occupied a number of important positions during fended the Reformed concept of particular atonement. the English Civil Wars and the Cromwellian Protector- He contributed a reflection on the nature of sanctifica- ate. He served as a pastor in the community of Coggeshell tion in Of the Mortification of Sin in Believers (1656). in Essex during the 1640s. He preached several times for Owen attacked the religious repression of the Resto- the Parliamentary armies under Lord Thomas Fairfax ration monarchy in On Apostasy (1676). His seven- and was ultimately asked to preach before Parliament the volume Commentary on Hebrews is still considered a day after Charles I was executed. He never once referred classic of exegesis and exposition. to the previous day’s execution in his sermon. Owen was elected to Parliament but was quickly reassigned to ReferencesCopy and Resources accompany Oliver Cromwell on his Irish campaign as Ferguson, Sinclair B. 1987. John Owen on the Christian Life. Cromwell’s personal chaplain. Owen provided leadership Carlyle, PA: Banner of Truth. in reorganizing the affairs of Trinity College in Dublin Owen, John. 1966. The Complete Works of John Owen. 16 vols. during this campaign. He also accompanied Cromwell Edited by William H. Goold. Edinburgh: Banner of Truth on his campaign in Scotland in 1650. Upon his return Trust. to England, Owen was appointed by Cromwell to be the Packer, J. I. 2010. A Quest for Godliness: The Puritan Vision of dean of Christ Church Cathedral (1651) and vice-chan- the Christian Life. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books. cellor of Oxford University (1652). Despite his support of Toon, Peter. 1971. God’s Statesman: The Life and Work of John Cromwell, Owen opposed proposals that Cromwell take Owen. Milton Keynes, UK: Paternoster Press. the title of king. It was possibly because of this opposition Trueman, Carl R. 2007. John Owen: Reformed Catholic, Renais- that Owen lost his vice-chancellorship under Cromwell’s sance Man. Surrey, UK: Ashgate Press. son, Richard. He also lost some support among Presby- —Scott Culpepper terian leaders because of his role in the drafting of the Congregationalist Savoy Declaration in 1658. Owen’s loss of Presbyterian support resulted in his losing the deanery Oxford University of Christ Church. Like other nonconformists in Restoration England, History Owen spent his final years laboring under governmental Oxford University’s long history ensured that it played restrictions and arguing for religious toleration. Owen a part in the theological debates of the Middle Ages moved to Stadhampton, where he preached until 1662. and the Reformation. In the post-Reformation era, its The Clarendon Codes ultimately impeded his ability to scholars contributed to the translation that became the preachContributor freely, so he decided to move to London. During Authorized Version of the Bible (or King James Version) this period, Owen had two opportunities to leave Eng- in 1611, and later the Oxford University Press secured land for the American colonies. The first was an invita- one of the valuable licenses to print the text. After the tion to assume the pulpit of the Congregation Church in Enlightenment, the university’s religious character di- Boston in 1663. Owen declined this invitation, as well as minished. but even in the 20th century, it contributed 912 Oxford University to world Christianity through such figures as C. S. Lewis a divergence between academic and pastoral theology. In and, in a more limited way, to biblical studies through any event, the rediscovery of Aristotle at the start of the such scholars as B. H. Streeter. 13th century created a ferment and widened the grounds The university came about through the rise of small of intellectual and theological enquiry. and obscure associations of teachers and learners and is By the 1250s, the arrangement of the university into first referred to by name as “the University of Oxford” in faculties put the Faculty of Arts below the Faculties of writs and ordinances in the year 1238. Unlike the Univer- Theology, Law, and Medicine. Then, as now, students sity of Paris, which is of similarly ancient origin, Oxford with a knowledge of law were remunerated better than was not then a cathedral town with a bishop overseeing those with a knowledge of theology (Lyte 1886, 53). a cathedral school. Whereas the University of Paris was Then, as now, there was a danger that arid philosophical brought into being by papal recognition of resident theo- speculation was more valued than the text of scripture logical teachers, Oxford developed more gradually and (Lyte 1886, 56). Then, as now, there was competition be- spontaneously. The predominant position of the church tween universities, and Paris was Oxford’s main rival. In in the Middle Ages ensured that intellectual concerns Paris, Thomas Aquinas (1225–1275) taught and offered a of many kinds were focused on biblical exposition or synthesis of—or at least showed compatibility between— theology or studies preparatory to them. From the 12th Aristotle’s voluminous writings andOnly the full range of century, the complete course of instruction included the Christian doctrine. Championed by the Dominicans, of teaching of grammar, rhetoric, and logic (called the triv- whom he was one, Aquinas’s texts were taught in Oxford ium) and arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy until challenged by the Franciscan Duns Scotus, who is (called the quadrivium), but “the object of grammar was thought to have lectured in Oxford 1300–1301. to read Holy Scripture better . . . that of rhetoric and logic While Oxford played its part in the theology of the to understand the Fathers of the Church and to confute Middle Ages and rivaled and often superseded Paris in heresies” (Lyte 1886, 6). importance, the internal functioning of the university Oxford’s system of academic degrees dates back to the strengthened the power of the chancellor while recog- second half of the 12th century and the graduate, named a nizing the partial independence of its multiple colleges, master, was so-called because the title indicated the right which cohered under a complex collection of statutes to teach. The term bachelor was used “to denote a student and regulations.Copy These colleges have the appearance of who had ceased to be a pupil, but had not yet become a monasteries, and with communal eating, quadrangles, teacher” (Lyte 1886, 7) and in this way became a step chapels, and enclosed gardens, reveal their connections on the road to the higher degrees of master or doctor. with the medieval church. Its all male teachers were re- The conferring of degrees was a way of signifying public quired to be ordained, and its degrees were conferred in competence and orthodoxy. Even during an age when the name of the Trinity. It was here that William Wycliffe the pre-Reformation church dominated society, there (1320–1384), master of Balliol College, translated parts were disputes. These might occur between mendicant of the Bible into English and so helped to initiate proto- religious orders (like the Dominicans or Franciscans) and Protestantism, which pressed for reform by challenging teachers licensed by the university or between specula- the landholdings and wealth of the church. In the period tive philosophical expositions and more pastoral expo- before the Reformation, Oxford was asked to provide sitions of scripture. Although “one of the first courses scholars to argue for the nullity of the marriage that of lectures given at Oxford was in Theology [when] Henry VIII wanted dissolved. Cambridge, founded by Alexander Neckham, from St Albans, is recorded as giv- scholars who had left Oxford after a dispute in the mid- ing biblical and moral lectures as early as 1193, on the 13th century, was more amenable to the doctrines of the Psalms of David and the Wisdom of Solomon” (http:// Reformation, as is shown by the welcome and profes- www.theology.ox.ac.uk), the use of debatable questions sorial chairs it gave to Erasmus and later Martin Bucer. (quaestiones) as a teaching tool led to rational attempts to Indeed, while Latimer, Ridley, and Cranmer, the Protes- harmonize disagreements between biblical and patristic tant martyrs, were all educated at Cambridge, they were sources, and this tendency culminated in the Sentences of burned at the stake in Oxford. Peter Lombard, who compiled a set of questions arranged Oxford played a role in the Civil War (1642–1651) around central doctrinal topics (Asztalos 1992, 412). The by being staunchly royalist and therefore Anglican, or abilityContributor to teach on the Sentences might be made a pre- Anglican and therefore royalist. Its curriculum was still condition to the study of scripture and the granting of largely classical and linguistic and had little or no sci- degrees, a device intended to bring the mendicant friars ence in it. It continued to be the training ground of the (many of them eloquent preachers) in line with the uni- higher clergy, though aristocratic wastrels treated its ed- versity’s rising power. Here, perhaps, is the beginning of ucation as one of their rights. We have insights into the Oxford University 913 university’s condition through the biography and works J. R. R. Tolkien, who wrote Lord of the Rings, which had of men like Samuel Johnson, who attended for a year in many Christian themes woven into the epic tale. While 1728. We know that Edward Gibbon described his year Lewis was teaching at the university, the humanist A. J. at Oxford in 1752 as “idle and unprofitable,” and Roy Ayer was promoting logical positivism, and in the lat- Jenkins, one-time chancellor of the university, thought ter part of the 20th century, Richard Dawkins, also an that in the 18th century Oxford was “little more than a Oxford professor, revived blatant atheism with a series seminary for the Anglican Church” (Jenkins 1996, 19). of books and public debates that were notable for their It nurtured John Wesley and George Whitefield, the almost pathological hatred of all religion. former being elected a fellow of Lincoln College. But The federal character of the university persists, and a these were exceptions, who were mocked for their sol- number of religiously orientated colleges or permanent emn good works and the founding of the “Holy Club.” private halls (e.g., Blackfriars [Roman Catholic], Wycliffe Moderate and socially conformist Anglicanism was the Hall [evangelical], and Regents Park [Baptist]) belong order of the day, and we know that the poet Shelley was within the structure and prepare their students for uni- expelled in 1811 for challenging it by writing a tract in versity exams and degrees. support of atheism. Not until the 19th century did the modern university Notable Academic Programs Only begin to take shape. German scholarship showed a se- The theology faculty is large and active and has a series of riousness and thoroughness that was largely lacking in ongoing projects of various kinds, which are described on Oxford, and with the founding of the University of Berlin its website (http://www.theology.ox.ac.uk). in 1810, the humanities were displaced from their central It is impossible to list all the notable academic pro- position. Science became the driving force for a new con- grams of the university, given that it is ranked among ception of human knowledge: post-Enlightenment: ratio- the top three in the world. It has many Nobel Prize nal, without subservience to ancient texts of any kind and winners (http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_the_university/ stressing research as much as teaching (Schwehn 2002, oxford_people/oxonian_award_winners/index.html) 55). Oxford noted these changes and began to alter its among alumni or staff and a huge range of research in own constitution and basis of employment (Engel 1975, hand. There are many libraries at the university, since 344). Previously, university teachers had all been in holy mostCopy of the 38 colleges have their own, and so do many orders, but with reforms in the 19th century, it became of the departments. The Bodleian Library (dating back at possible to avoid ordination as a condition of employ- least to 1598) is one of the finest in existence and holds ment. The Victorian age brought in new technology and modern books in many languages as well as hundreds of empirical enquiry. ancient manuscripts and rare books. The university has What concerned the clergy of Oxford at the time when a strong Web presence and growing online resources. It the Great Reform Bill of 1832 was extending voting rights offers the full range of academic degrees (its doctorate in parliamentary elections was the possible dominance of by thesis being a DPhil rather than a PhD) and is not the church by the state. William Gladstone, himself an closed to visiting scholars. It has about 21,000 students, Oxford man and four times prime minister, had argued of whom nearly half are postgraduates. that the Anglican church is like the soul of the nation, but his idealistic vision found little resonance elsewhere Summary of Christian Philosophy and Mission (Gladstone 1838). Instead, the Oxford movement, led of Education by John Henry Newman, argued for a theological posi- It would not be true to say that Oxford now has a Chris- tion that at least in part appeared to reverse many of tian philosophy or mission, even if this was true at the the beliefs supposedly settled during the Reformation time of its founding. It is a secular university, though when Britain politically disengaged from Rome. Anglo- one with a long Christian tradition and a commitment to Catholicism, which stemmed from the movement, was excellence and open academic inquiry. attractive, apart from its rituals and sacraments, to its adherents because it could claim the church should be References and Resources free of interference from the state: no secular parliament Asztalos, M. 1992. “The Faculty of Theology.” In A History of should determine the contents of the Prayer Book (as the University in Europe, edited by H. De Ridder-Symoens, wasContributor to happen in 1928) or endorse the appointment of a 1: 409–440. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. bishop or archbishop. Engel, A. 1975. “The Emerging Concept of the Academic Pro- In the 20th century, Christians all over the world began fession at Oxford 1800–1854.” In The University in Society, to be aware of the writings of C. S. Lewis, a fellow and edited by Lawrence Stone, 1: 686–712. London: Oxford tutor of Magdalen College, and his friend and colleague, University Press. 914 Oxford University as a Model for Christian Education

Gladstone, W. E. 1838. The State in Its Relations with the Oxford theologian William of Ockham (1285–1347) Church. 2 vols. London, John Murray. developed “Ockham’s Razor,” a method of using the Jenkins, Roy. 1996. Gladstone. London: Papermac. principle of economy to cut unnecessary premises from Maxwell Lyte, H. C. 1886. A History of the University of Oxford: philosophical and theological reflection. His innovations From the Earliest Times to the Year 1530. London: Macmillan. in relating philosophy to theology marked the beginning Schwehn, M. R. 2002. “Where Are the Universities of Tomor- of the via moderna movement, which eventually replaced row?” In Religion, Scholarship and Higher Education: Perspec- medieval scholastic theology. tives, Models, and Future Prospects, edited by Andrea Sterk, John Wycliffe (1330–1384) preempted later Enlighten- 50–59. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. ment trends by criticizing skeptical philosophical move- —William K. Kay ments that separated natural and supernatural knowl- edge. His lasting legacy began with criticizing Roman Catholic dogmas by appealing to the sole authority of Oxford University as a Model scripture well before the Protestant Reformation. After for Christian Education resistance to his teachings cost him his Oxford position, the Lollard movement spread his teachings. Wycliffe’s Historical Overview and Christian Tradition ideas influenced John Huss and his CzechOnly Hussite move- Since its origins in the 13th century as part of the rise ment, another foreshadowing of the Reformation. of European universities, the University of Oxford has From Oxford’s early Christian humanist rejection of contributed a distinctive English impulse to Christian Scholasticism through Wycliffe’s Lollard movement, the education. Merton College, the first of Oxford’s colleges Reformation spread to England long before the birth of the under the university to establish a charter, was designed Anglican Church. The 16th century brought the transition. as a “secular” seminary to educate men for service to William Tyndale (1494–1536), reformer, Bible translator, both church and state. The desire to broaden the scope and martyr, studied at Magdalen College at Oxford. His of Christian education beyond the church to the whole contributions to the field of biblical translation in clear of society marked a focus on the development of leaders English remain the basis of the AV and RV translations beyond the clergy. As a center of advanced education from to this day. The trigger of the Tudor Reformation, Henry the medieval to the modern world, Oxford reflected ten- VIII’sCopy famous divorces, obscured deeper causes of Eng- sions inherent in faith-learning integration: faith versus land’s phase of the Reformation. The break from papal reason, theology versus science, freedom of thought versus authority occasioned the development of the Anglican faithfulness to Christian orthodoxy, and, as the centuries episcopacy as the official Church of England, Thomas progressed, “mere Christianity” versus sectarian disputes. Cranmer’s Book of Common Prayer (1549–1952), and Roman canon law was a major subject of study among the Thirty-Nine Articles as Anglicanism’s rule of faith. clergy in training at Oxford beginning with the early en- Learned divines from Oxford and Cambridge contributed trance of the Franciscan and Dominican friars during the leadership and writings to the Anglican movement, which university’s first century (1200s). From the beginning, ten- mediated between Catholicism and Calvinism, as well as sion existed between the embrace of Christianity and aca- to the Puritan movement, which believed Anglicanism did demic freedom in the growing branches of human knowl- not take the Reformation far enough. edge. The relationship between Christianity and education In the 17th century, Oxford-forged learning and emerges when observing connections with Oxford-associ- theological depth produced Puritan divine John Owen ated Christian leaders and movements throughout history. (1616–1683), who came to prominence during Oliver Oxford gained prominence by the mid-13th century. Cromwell’s Civil Wars. Owen provided the Noncom- Robert Grosseteste (1170–1253), the first famous Oxford formist Puritan movement with leadership at Oxford; theologian, demonstrated faith-learning integration as he he produced prolific theological writing and even served interacted with Aristotle’s natural science and philosophy briefly in Parliament. The tensions inherent in faith- while also producing biblical and theological commen- learning integration at Oxford produced the distinctive taries. As a reformer, Grosseteste stirred controversies English theological method seen in Puritan-Anglican among royal and papal officials by resisting abuses of divine Richard Hooker (1554–1600), who emphasized power for personal gain. Duns Scotus (1265–1308) was scripture’s primacy, with support from the church fathers the Contributorfirst Oxford theologian to influence European theo- and human reason. The Anglican and Puritan move- logical debates in Paris, the center of medieval theology. ments paved the way for Wesley’s Methodist revival. The originality of Scotus’s commentaries on Abelard’s Eighteenth-century Oxford was the true birthplace of Sentences advanced the scholastic movement of medieval the evangelical revival movement of Methodism, which theology, bringing Oxford into international significance. brought church reform and social change to England Oxford University as a Model for Christian Education 915 and America. Led by John Wesley (1703–1791), Charles Lewis’s famous children’s series The Chronicles of Narnia. Wesley (1707–1788), and George Whitefield (1714– The worldwide reach of these Christian works of imagi- 1770), the movement began during their university days nation, now transposed into film, shows the educational at Oxford in a collegiate spiritual accountability group power of faith through literature and the arts. called the Holy Club. Wesley’s Oxford studies eventu- ally resulted in his theological method, now called the Contemporary Status and Legacy “Wesleyan quadrilateral” because of its integration of Oxford has often been a supporter of the status quo in scripture, tradition, reason, and experience. Wesley in- both church and state, but it has also been a center for tegrated learning and practical religion in the service of faith development in the midst of academic freedom. Re- spiritual life and social impact. peatedly leaders and movements arose to call for reforms In the 19th century, Oxford don John Keble (1792– that ranged from spiritual to social and political. The 1866) led a reforming protest against the declining revival movements that academic freedom created room emphasis on doctrine and discipline in the growing Lati- for countered periods of subservience to the status quo tudinarian movement. The Colleges of Oxford warned that stagnated faith. The tension between Christian faith students of the dangers of the rising tide of deism from and freedom of inquiry allowed for both challenges to the inroads of Enlightenment philosophy, which threat- faith and reforms to occur throughoutOnly Oxford’s long his- ened traditional orthodoxy. The Oxford movement arose tory, right into the secular modern and postmodern eras. (1833–1845) in response, led by John Henry Newman Oxford’s embrace of historic Christian orthodoxy and (1801–1890) and others, whose pamphleteering in the freedom to integrate advancing insights shines in con- Tractarian controversy unsuccessfully sought a reform temporary scholars like Alister McGrath. With Oxford of the Church of England. Newman’s time at Oxford in- doctorates in molecular biology and historical theology, spired his famous book, The Idea of a University, one of his magnum opus, three-volume Scientific Theology can the most significant treatises on Christian education ever be seen as an exemplar of the entire tradition of Christian written. In addition to faith-learning integration, New- education at Oxford. The project of scientific theology es- man emphasized the spiritual formation potential of the tablishes a rapprochement between two cultures of mod- tutorial system of Oxford within its colleges. ern learning, the natural sciences and the humanities, By the end of the 19th century, converging trends mar- whereCopy Christian theology locates its disciplinary home. In ginalized Christian voices at Oxford. By the 20th century fact, McGrath’s scientific theological method provides for the Christian traditions of Catholicism, Anglicanism, the faith-learning integration of all three cultures of mod- Presbyterianism, Methodism, and others retreated from ern learning, including the social sciences. Within the national influence and focused on internal movements of tensions of the Oxonian tradition, true interdisciplinary education and pastoral ministries. European social and faith-learning integration can occur: faith integrates with political changes, and the growth of academic disciplines, reason, theology with science, and faithfulness to Chris- pluralized Oxford. The University Reform Act of 1854 tian orthodoxy is compatible with freedom of inquiry. and the University Test Act of 1871 officially secularized In the 21st century, vital Christianity has endured the university and opened enrollment to students of all at Oxford and still thrives, as seen in new movements faiths. Women finally gained admission to the university like the Oxford Centre for Christian Apologetics under in a move of welcome progress. But after two world wars Wicliffe College, led by Alister McGrath and American and the postmodern undermining of all social traditions apologist Ravi Zacharias. The Oxford Inter-Collegiate in the 1960s, only isolated pockets of Christian faith re- Christian Union serves Christian students from the Uni- tained ground within several colleges of Oxford. versity of Oxford’s various colleges. The Oxford Christian One shining light was C. S. Lewis (1893–1963), a tutor Mind Programme focuses on Christian formation in the and fellow of Magdalen College. After converting from context of a University of Oxford education. Oxford is atheism through the influence of fellow scholars like also the home of the Oxford Centre for Mission Studies. J. R. R. Tolkien, Lewis became one of Christianity’s best- The University of Oxford has also influenced Chris- known 20th-century apologists for classical orthodoxy, tian education in the United States. For example, Oxford or “mere Christianity.” His popular writings in apologet- Graduate School, the American Centre for Religion and ics, science fiction, and fantasy literature had an endur- Society Studies in Dayton, Tennessee, is an independent ingContributor impact in the Western world. Lewis and Tolkien Christian graduate research institution founded in 1980 met for years at an Oxford pub in a Christian literary by Hollis L. Green. The tutorial method of Oxford Uni- support group called the Inklings. From weekly install- versity inspired Oxford Graduate School’s educational ments shared during meetings came Tolkien’s fantasies approach, which has held annual research seminars at The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings trilogy, as well as Oxford’s Bodleian Library since its inception. Drew 916 Oxford University as a Model for Christian Education

University in Madison, New Jersey, also retains influence References and Resources from Oxford in its degree programs and its university Cameron, Euan. 1999. Early Modern Europe: An Oxford His- crest, which is fashioned to reflect the formal education tory. Oxford: Oxford University Press. that John Wesley received at the University of Oxford. Cross, F. L., and E. A. Livingstone, eds. 2005. The Oxford Dic- tionary of the Christian Church. 3rd rev. ed. Oxford: Oxford Conclusion and Summary University Press. The University of Oxford has a rich Christian history Harrison, Brian Howard. 1984–2000. The History of Oxford and continues a Christian legacy in a variety of centers, University. Vols. 1–8. Oxford: Oxford University Press. programs, and influences. For remaining a place where Evans, G. R. 2010. The University of Oxford: A New History. Christian faith and the world’s preeminent scholarship London: I. B. Tauris. have been integrated over the centuries, the University of McGrath, Altster E. 2001–2003. A Scientific Theology. Vols. Oxford holds a distinctive place in the history of Chris- 1–3. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. tian education. —David C. Ward and Joshua D. Reichard Only

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Contributor P Only Pacific Islands and Christian Education Christian liberal arts education. Christian Leaders Train- ing College in Papua New Guinea, although not desig- This region comprises Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia nated a university, has achieved government registration including Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, to offer degree courses, as recently as 2012. Both face- Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, as well as Australia and New Zealand. to-face and distance learning options exist in this region Education in the islands was initiated and developed by and increasingly so with technological advances, but at Anglican, Methodist, Presbyterian, and Roman Catholic a much slower pace than in Australia and New Zealand. Christian missions, with a focus on primary and second- ary levels. Theological education started in the early 1800s, References and Resources also by these missions, but at a rudimentary level, with Sherlock,Copy C. 2009. Uncovering Theology: The Depth, Reach and an emphasis on agricultural in the islands. Only in recent Utility of Australian Theological Education. Hindmarsh, times has Christian higher education been offered in the South Australia: ATF Press. islands, and for many years Australia and New Zealand Werner, D., D. Esterline, and N. Kang, eds. 2010. Handbook of were the only local destinations for those seeking educa- Theological Education in World Christianity: Theological Per- tion beyond secondary level. It was limited to ministerial spectives—Regional Surveys—Ecumenical Trends. Regnum training and so did not offer a broad range of courses. Studies in Global Christianity. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. Despite freedom of religion and no official opposition —Leslie J. Crawford to Christian education, even today Christian universities are almost unknown in most of the countries included in this region. Christian higher education providers in Packard, Frederick Australia and New Zealand are primarily focused on theological education. Several evangelical institutions in Frederick Adolphus Packard, although relatively un- Australia and New Zealand, such as Tabor Adelaide and known in the 21st century, was a major figure in Prot- Laidlaw College, are aspiring to this category of educa- estant Christian education in the 19th. Born on 25 tion, as they broaden their course offerings, but have September 1794 to Rev. Asa and Nancy Quincy Packard not yet achieved it, because the use of “university” as a in Marlboro, Massachusetts, he graduated from Harvard designation is highly defined and protected in these two College in 1814 and studied law in Northhampton, Mas- nations. Both countries require government registration sachusetts, before taking up its practice in Springfield, of higher education providers and accreditation of higher Massachusetts, in 1819. At the same time, he assumed education courses, which demands threshold standards editorial responsibilities for The Hampshire Federalist be met in order to operate. (later The Springfield Republican), a position that pre- ContributorThe Pacific Islands University in Mangilao, Guam, sumably prepared him for his life work. He married serving Micronesia, is the only accredited (TRACS) Elizabeth Dwight Hooker, daughter of Hon. John and Christian educational institution with that designation Sarah Dwight Hooker, and they had three children. in the islands. In 2009, it changed its name from Pacific Participation in a national Sunday school convention Islands Bible College to reflect its increasing emphasis on led to an invitation from the American Sunday School

— 917 — 918 Paideia

Union (ASSU) to become its recording secretary and edi- of Prison Discipline and Philanthropy (later called The tor of its publications, a position he held from 1829 until Prison Journal). his death in 1867. In this role he oversaw the publication Frederick Packard was described by his peers as a of a number of widely distributed journals, including vigorous advocate and leader of the Sunday school. His Sunday School Journal (later Sunday School World), leadership, however, ended prematurely after a long bout Youth’s Friend, and Child’s World and more than 2,000 with cancer, in 1867. books. He also wrote more than 50 books, ranging from —Charles R. Foster The Teacher Taught and The Teacher Training to The Union Bible Dictionary and The Life of Robert Owen. As an editor, Packard significantly shaped the popular Paideia religious literature of evangelical Protestant Christianity. As a writer, he helped establish standards for the organi- Paideia is the transliteration of the equivalent Greek zation and conduct of Sunday schools and the training of word and the root of the English pedagogy. Thus, it con- volunteer teachers. Thousands of Sunday schools estab- cerns the training or discipline that is associated with lished by ASSU missionaries across the country, and es- the nurture of children. Paideia, a noun, is employed six pecially on the frontier of the expanding nation, provided times in the New Testament (Eph. 6:4;Only 2 Tim. 3:16; Heb. a ready audience for ASSU publications. Since the ASSU 12:5, 7, 8, 11). Its root, paideuo, is a verb found 15 times involved the collaboration of most evangelical Protestant in 13 passages (Luke 23:16, 22; Acts 7:22, 22:3; 1 Cor. denominations, its explicitly nondenominational, moral, 11:32; 2 Cor. 6:9; 1 Tim. 1:20; 2 Tim. 2:25; Titus 2:12; religious, and American stance contributed to the appeal Heb. 12:6, 7, 10; Rev. 3:19). of its publications, while at the same time promoting a The multipurpose paideuo is also translated as educat- civically minded evangelical Christianity. In other words, ing, instructing, correcting, rebuking, and punishing, as an editor Packard helped shape the popular national among other meanings. The term is often compared and discourse on the role of religion in what Martin Marty contrasted with andragogy, and it is notable that the fa- called the formation of A Righteous Empire and Sidney ther of contemporary adult education, Malcolm Knowles, Mead described as The Nation with the Soul of a Church. concluded, “Andragogy is simply another model of as- The ASSU published school textbooks, so it was sumptionsCopy about adult learners to be used alongside the probably inevitable that Packard, in 1838, was drawn pedagogical model of assumptions” (Knowles [1970] into a contentious public debate with Horace Mann, 1980, 43). Paideia, therefore, is applied to disciplining secretary of the newly established Massachusetts Board adults as well as children. This is evidenced by only 2 of of Education, over the implementation of an 1827 state the 19 references cited above referring directly to chil- law requiring schools to be nonsectarian. Packard had dren, with Proverbs 3 and Hebrews 12 also referring to a proposed an ASSU publication by John S. Abbot, The familial setting that implies children. Child at Home, be included on an approved list of books for public school libraries. Packard’s argument reflected Foundations of Paideia the view of most of the evangelical Protestant community Discipline, according to Mitchell (2010), operates in that teaching the “principles of piety” inevitably favored educative and corrective modes. Since it is virtually syn- “some particular tenet.” Mann rejected the book, how- onymous with discipline, paideia also incorporates both ever, on the basis that its nondenominational, evangelical modes. Its use in Hebrews 12:5–11 proactively lays the Protestant perspective was still sectarian. Mann’s views foundation for discipline by acknowledging that in pre- prevailed, but their debate foreshadowed the continuing paring for the struggle against sin, paideia is educative. struggle over these two visions of religion in American Conversely, in verses 5 and 6, paideia is corrective as the public education. author addresses rebuke and punishment. Packard embodied the reform impulse in evangeli- cal Protestantism, not only in his commitment to the Paideia as Preparation for Learning salutary influence of the Sunday school on the life of “Discipline is the process of preparing and equipping a the nation, but also through his involvement in the disciple-follower for the learning to come through the prison reform movement of the day. As a member of the acquisition of the necessary prerequisite competences” PhiladelphiaContributor Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public (Mitchell 2010). Creating an atmosphere in which a stu- Prisons, in 1841 he authored Report on the Practicability dent can learn requires a disciplined approach to learn- and Necessity of a House of Refuge for Colored Juvenile ing that takes the condition and situation of the student, Delinquents and after 1845 helped edit ASSU’s Journal the teacher, and the content into consideration. Mitchell Palmer, Parker 919

(2010) observes that to address these conditions, in Prov- References and Resources erbs 2 Solomon anticipates the fulfillment of three requi- Estes, D. J. 1997. Hear, My Son: Teaching and Learning in Prov- sites in the engagement of the learning process. Students erbs 1–9. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. must choose to accept their teacher’s words, focus their Knowles, M. S. (1970) 1980. The Modern Practice of Adult senses, and apply their hearts to the task of learning. Pai- Education. Rev. and updated ed. Chicago: Association Press. deia in the educative mode provides the essential training Logan, S. P. 1986. “The Background of ‘Paideia’ in Hebrews.” that equips a student with the attitudes and aptitudes PhD diss. (retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses, necessary to engage the teaching-learning process. no. 303509944). Mitchell, M. R. 2010. Leading, Teaching, and Making Disciples: Correction in Discipline World-class Christian Education in the Church, School, and One of the goals of training is to prevent learners from Home. Bloomington, IN: CrossBooks. making, and suffering from the consequences of, poor —Michael R. Mitchell and Benjamin D. Espinoza choices. When they fail to follow proper instruction, however, Mitchell (2010) suggests a simple five-function guide for the process of correction in discipline. The Palmer, Parker instructor engages the pupil in confrontation, counsel, Only consequence, coventry, and conciliation—and it is no Parker J. Palmer was born in 1939 in Chicago, Illinois. He surprise that each is evident in specific biblical utiliza- is widely respected as an author, educator, and activist. tions of paideia. Palmer has authored several best-selling books and more The author of Hebrews suggests that paideia is initi- than a hundred essays, which have had an impact on ated when teachers confront their students with the folly hundreds of thousands of people around the world. His of their choice(s). Solomon acknowledges the need for speaking and writing create an honest space for listeners this attention, noting, “When the sentence for a crime and readers to reflect on their inner journey of recon- is not quickly carried out, the hearts of the people are ciliation with the true tensions within themselves, their filled with schemes to do wrong” (Eccles. 8:11). Second, students, and their discipline. in correcting pupils through counsel, Paul explained that “like a father with his children, we exhorted each of you” EarlyCopy Background and Education (1 Thess. 2:11–12). In the advice given by the scriptures Palmer attended Carleton College, where he received his we find the function of paideia center stage (2 Tim. 3:16). undergraduate degree in philosophy and sociology, and Third, while paideia is not retributional, it does promote then took classes at Union Theological Seminary in New the utilization of consequence. In the biblical praxis of York. He earned his PhD in sociology from the Univer- paideia, the student is disciplined to prevent the suffer- sity of California at Berkeley in 1970. After spending two ing that is the result of wrongdoing (see 1 Cor. 11:32). years as a community organizer in Washington, DC, he Fourth, corrective paideia involves coventry, the isola- was offered a faculty position at Georgetown University. tion of those, such as Hymenaeus and Alexander (1 Tim. In 1974, he took a one-year sabbatical at Pendle Hill, a 1:20), who rebel against the principles of Christ’s lifestyle. Quaker Retreat Center, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Paul warns believers that, while affirming the need to em- Palmer’s time at Pendle Hill was transformational both brace pupils’ great (com)missional mandate, they need vocationally and personally. Over the next 10 years, he to avoid the bad company that corrupts good character took on greater responsibilities at Pendle Hill and was (1 Cor. 15:33). Finally, conciliation comes from Romans appointed the dean of studies. Palmer soon became a 12:18, in which Paul admonishes readers to live at peace much-sought-after speaker, facilitator, and consultant. with all. His guidance delineates a behavioral objective He served for many years as a senior associate for the and describes the culmination of corrective discipline. American Association of Higher Education and also spent time as a senior adviser to the Fetzer Institute. In Conclusion: The “Stages” of Paideia Paideia is accomplished in a learner’s life in three stages: Significant Contributions to Christian Education preparation, participation, and production. Preparatory Palmer is a member of the Religious Society of Friends, training, such as the discipline exercised in the nurture of also known as Friends Church or Quakers. His religious children,Contributor readies students for the teaching-learning ad- convictions are seen in his writings, as he often wrestles venture before them. Participatory learning experiences with complex topics like pedagogy of the soul, the chal- that generate mindful analyses, heartfelt assessments, and lenges between the inner and outer life, and living an life-altering actions are the heart of paideia, producing active life as a truly spiritual exercise. He founded and disciples who worship Jesus. continues to serve as senior partner of the Center for 920 Palmer, Phoebe Worrall

Courage and Renewal, which offers programs that assist Over the next four decades, Palmer’s influence and educators, physicians, and clergy in “rejoining soul and ministry experienced unprecedented growth. As a theo- role” in their vocational endeavors. The mission of the logian, she moved from composing Christian poetry to center is to “nurture personal and professional integrity writing substantive articles and books, the most impor- and the courage to act upon it.” tant being The Way of Holiness (1843), articulating a theology of the “shorter way” in the Wesleyan experi- Most Notable Publications ence of holiness, and The Promise of the Father (1859), Palmer’s best known work is arguably The Courage to arguing for the right of women to speak in religious Teach: Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teacher’s assemblies and showing how women are equal to men in Life (2007). His most recent book, Healing the Heart of church work. As an editor, she took a little-read periodi- Democracy: The Courage to Create Politics Worthy of cal, Guide to Holiness, and in 10 years made it one of the the Human Spirit (2011), has received significant praise. most widely circulated religious monthlies, with more Among his other publications are The Heart of Higher than 37,000 subscriptions. As a revivalist, she began by Education: A Call to Renewal (2010), The Promise of speaking to her husband’s Methodist class meeting, then Paradox: A Celebration of Contradictions in the Christian expanded to preaching in camp meetings and church Life (2008), A Hidden Wholeness: The Journey Toward revivals throughout the United StatesOnly and Great Britain. an Undivided life (2004), Let Your Life Speak: Listen- As a philanthropist, she distributed Christian tracts in the ing for the Voice of Vocation (2000), The Active Life: A poorest areas of New York City and then spearheaded the Spirituality of Work, Creativity and Caring (1999), and establishment of the Five Points Mission. The Company of Strangers: Christians and the Renewal of At the heart of Palmer’s theology was a critical appro- America’s Public Life (1993). priation of John Wesley’s doctrine of Christian perfec- tion. First, while Wesley maintained a tension between References and Resources gradual process in sanctification and an instantaneous Palmer, P. J. 2000. Let Your Life Speak: Listening for the Voice of moment of Christian perfection of love in this life, his Vocation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. focus was inevitably on process. In contrast, Palmer fo- ———. 2007. The Courage to Teach: Exploring the Inner Land- cused almost exclusively on the instantaneous, teaching scape of a Teacher’s Life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. believersCopy to expect perfection in the present moment. —Peter Osborn Second, whereas Wesley admitted a Christian could experience entire sanctification at conversion or soon after conversion, he presented it as the ultimate goal of Palmer, Phoebe Worrall Christian life, one that most believers would not gain until death or just before death. Palmer, instead, saw Methodist Episcopal Church laywoman, writer, editor, entire sanctification as the real beginning of salvation revivalist, and practical theologian Phoebe Palmer was and as the normative Christian experience. Finally, born in New York City on 18 December 1807 to Henry Wesley’s general advice for seeking entire sanctification and Dorthea Palmer. Her father was an immigrant was to actively “wait” for God in the means of grace. from England, where he had been converted through Palmer, however, developed a systematic, three-step the preaching of John Wesley and became a committed process to appropriate sanctification immediately: “en- Methodist. At an early age, Palmer embraced her parents’ tire consecration” of life to God, the exercise of faith in Methodism, and she remained committed to it through- the biblical promises of God to sanctify those who have out her life. In 1827, she married physician and Method- laid their lives “on the altar,” and the necessity of giving ist layman Walter C. Palmer. They had six children, three public testimony to the experience. of whom died in infancy. Palmer’s “shorter way” theology of holiness was em- Palmer interpreted the death of her three children as a braced by the National Camp Meeting Association for sign from God to surrender everything she deemed im- the Promotion of Holiness and spawned hundreds of portant, to walk in complete obedience to Christ, and to local and regional camps that focused on the experience spend the time she would have given to her dead children of entire sanctification. Palmer had a variety of means of “working for Jesus.” On 26 July 1837, at 9:00 p.m., believ- communicating her message of holiness, but the most ing Contributorthat God had accepted her commitment as a “living effective was her “Tuesday Meetings for the Promo- sacrifice,” she testified to “entire sanctification,” a heart tion of Holiness.” Including men and women, clergy cleansed from the power and nature of sin, set free to love and laity, Methodists and non-Methodists, these small God and neighbors with all her being. group meetings included Bible reading; teaching on Parables 921 holiness; times of prayer; and most important, personal to reduce competition among Christian denominations. testimonies of the experience of entire sanctification. The Each was assigned a region to evangelize. As a result, Tuesday Meeting and its basic format spread throughout new incoming churches were often met with resistance the United States and found fertile soil in Great Brit- and restricted geographically to urban areas and remote ain, India, and New Zealand. Through these meetings, highland regions. Churches of all denominations are now Palmer influenced denominational leaders of her day present throughout the nation. and the founders or early presidents of the University of According to the 2000 Census, 96 percent of Papua Michigan, Northwestern University, Syracuse University, New Guineans identify themselves as members of a Boston University, University of Georgia, American Uni- Christian church; many citizens, however, combine versity, and Drew University. their Christian faith with traditional indigenous beliefs. Religious affiliation of the population is as follows: References and Resources Roman Catholic 27 percent, Protestant 69.4 percent Oden, Thomas C. 1988. Phoebe Palmer: Selected Writings. New (evangelical Lutheran 19.5 percent, United Church 11.5 York: Paulist Press. percent, Seventh-Day Adventist 10 percent, Pentecostal Raser, Harold E. 1987. Phoebe Palmer: Her Life and Thought. 8.6 percent, Evangelical Alliance 5.2 percent, Anglican New York: Edwin Mellen Press. 3.2 percent, Baptist 2.5 percent, andOnly other Protestant 8.9 White, Charles E. 1986. The Beauty of Holiness: Phoebe Palmer percent), Baha’i 0.3 percent, and indigenous beliefs and as Theologian, Revivalist, Feminist, and Humanitarian. other 3.3 percent. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Freedom of religion is a supported constitutional —Christopher T. Bounds right. The prevalence of Christianity is acknowledged, however, in the preamble to the national constitution and in the many schools and health services currently Panama and Christian Education run by Christian organizations. Religious education is highly valued, and local ministers teach weekly classes in Christianity arrived in Panama in 1510, when the Span- all public schools. Of the six national universities, two are ish founded the city Santa Maria la Antigua. Facts about run by Christian denominations. Christian education on the isthmus are scarce. In the Copy 1950s, Protestant Christianity arrived in the form of vari- Resource ous denominations: Mennonites, Methodists, Presbyteri- Kananamur, David, Charles Yala, and Quinton Clements, eds. ans, and so forth. Due to a collegial impetus, the mission- 2003. Building a Nation in Papua New Guinea: Views of the aries decided to work together and promote institutes Post-Independence Generation. Canberra, Australia: Panda- and seminaries for basic education. Between the 1950s mus Books. and the 1980s, there was a great boom in the centers for —Sarita D. Gallagher Christian education, but soon interest dwindled, and currently there is no seminary or formal institute in the evangelical Protestant line, even though there are some Parables Catholic ones. The Universidad Santa Maria la Antigua is directed by Jesuits and offers a three-year degree in theol- “Parable” is often used to identify a short fictitious story ogy. In Panama there is freedom of worship; 70 percent used to make a moral point. This understanding of the of the population identifies itself as Roman Catholic, 15 term is no doubt influenced largely by the parables of percenet as “evangelical,” and 2 percent as Baha’i. Jesus narrated in the Gospels. The term itself is a trans- —Ariel Moreno literation of the Greek word parabolē, which could be used to refer to the literal placement of two things side by side, and by figurative extension of this meaning, to a Papua New Guinea and comparison. When surveying the use of parabolē within Christian Education Christian scriptures, it quickly becomes apparent that it has a wider range of meaning than is usually appreciated. In the 19th century, explorers, entrepreneurs, and mis- Most of Jesus’s parables are short narratives that con- sionariesContributor were drawn to resource-rich Papua New Guinea. vey a dominant point of comparison, often likening the During the following century, waves of Dutch, Germans, Kingdom of God to an object, which is in turn related British, French, and Australians established colonies and to a broader concept. For example, in the parable of the introduced Christianity to the local animistic communi- lost sheep, the shepherd’s search for a single sheep is ties. A “spheres of influence” act was introduced in 1890 compared to God’s desire for and joy over the repentance 922 Parables of one sinner (Luke 15:3–7; cf. Matt. 8:10–13). Some of it, he condemns the antagonist and thus unwittingly Jesus’s parables contain allegorical features. For instance, himself. As this last case in particular illustrates, bibli- in the parable of the wicked tenants, certain narrative cal parables have great instructive value in allowing the actors are intended to correspond to outside figures in audience to see from a different perspective than would a one-to-one manner: the vineyard stands for Israel, the be possible through the mere use of referential language. vineyard owner for God, the tenants for Judean religious With regard to Christian education, three dominant leaders, and the “beloved son” for Jesus (Mark 12:1–12; concerns need to be kept in mind when attempting to in- cf. Isa. 5:1–9). Aside from their more common appear- terpret and apply biblical parables: (1) historical context, ance as narratives, Jesus’s parables can sometimes take (2) central theme, and (3) narrative context. To illustrate the form of very brief analogies, as in the following pair these three concerns, we may use the aforementioned of rhetorical questions: “Can a blind person guide a blind parable of the lost sheep, which appears in the Gospels person? Will they not both fall into a pit?” (Luke 6:39; of Matthew (18:12–14) and Luke (15:1–7). First, regard- Matt. 15:14; cf. Mark 7:15). Through His parables, Jesus ing historical context, first consider a parable’s historical communicates how God relates to humanity and how setting and relationship to events. In the parable of the humans ought to relate to one another. His parables often lost sheep, the imagery of shepherding is easily related subvert conventional wisdom (e.g., Luke 10:30–36) and to the everyday agrarian life of ruralOnly Galilee. The par- can be cryptic in order to invite deeper reflection on their able specifically refers to Jesus’s mission to outcasts such meaning (e.g., Mark 4:9–10). as tax collectors and prostitutes, who were commonly Aside from the Gospels, the only occurrence of parabolē known and socially labeled as “sinners.” This theme is in the New Testament is found in the book of Hebrews. ubiquitous across all four Gospels (e.g., Mark 2:15; Matt. The author twice uses parabolē in the sense of “figure” 11:19; Luke 7:34; John 4:5–30), and there is little doubt or “type.” In chapter 9, he describes the outer compart- concerning its basis in the life of Jesus. Second, regarding ment of the tabernacle as a barrier to access to the Holy the central theme, it was common in patristic exegesis of Holies. The outer tabernacle is a “type” (i.e., a spatial to allegorize parables by drawing lines of connection metaphor) for the time period of the first covenant, from each of their internal elements to specific points of which must give way to the new covenant (9:9). His sec- Christian theology. Without absolutely denying the pres- ond use of the term occurs in his section in chapter 11 on ence ofCopy some intentionally implied allegorical features, it the triumphs of faith. As one of many examples, he lists is advisable in contemporary interpretation to look in- Abraham’s willingness to offer up Isaac as a sacrifice and stead for the central thrust of a given parable. This is the briefly implies that his receiving him back from the verge interpretive crux and should be the primary point from of death was a “type” (parabolē) for resurrection (11:19). which application is made. Thus, in the present parable, In both cases, the author uses a “parable” to connect the the primary comparison is the “lost sheep” with a “sin- significance of Jesus back to past Hebrew narratives. ner,” and the central theme is God’s unabashed rejoicing As in the New Testament, within the Septuagint (the over the repentance of the one lost sinner. Third, when Greek version of Jewish scripture) there is a broad range we move to narrative context, we pay closer attention to of usage for parabolē—often translating the Hebrew term literary placement and specific wording. By doing so, we mashal. In wisdom literature, we find the use of “par- see that the parable of the lost sheep has a different shade able” in reference to proverbs and more particularly to of meaning in each Gospel. In Matthew, the parable is the wisdom acquired in learning to interpret them (Prov. preceded by Jesus’s command to welcome “little ones” 1:6). The Wisdom of Sirach of the Apocrypha repeat- (i.e., children and/or disciples) and his warning against edly emphasizes this point, stating that “the mind of the causing them to sin (18:5–10). The parable is followed by wise person ponders a parable” (3:29; cf. 1:25, 13:26). instructions for church discipline, in which one who sins Prophetic oracles may also be identified as parables. is given three successive chances to repent (18:15–17). Balaam’s oracle of blessing on Israel, in which he com- The link among the three sets of sayings is found in Mat- pares Israel to a well-watered cedar tree and to beasts thew’s unique closing line for the parable: “So it is not the of prey, is introduced as a parable (Num. 24:3). will of your Father in heaven that one of these little ones gives an allegorical parable of judgment, in which a vine should be lost” (18:14). In the Gospel of Luke, the parable representing King Zedekiah is uprooted—that is, exiled takes on a different coloring. It is immediately preceded for breakingContributor covenant (17:1–21). The best known parable by Jesus’s religious opponents “grumbling” against his in the Hebrew Bible is the prophet Nathan’s story of a table fellowship with sinners, and it is addressed specifi- rich man who slaughters the only lamb of a poor man (2 cally to the former (15:2–3). It is immediately followed by Sam. 12:1–7). The short story is a condemnation of King the parables of the lost coin and the lost (prodigal) son, David’s adultery with Bathsheba, but when David hears which includes a jealous brother who is implicitly com- Parables, Children’s Understanding of 923 pared to Jesus’s opponents (15:8–32). Thus, in Luke the the attributes that are being displaced toward God in the parable of the lost sheep focuses externally as a rebuke to example given above. those who begrudge Jesus’s acceptance of sinners, while Children can misunderstand metaphors by failing to in Matthew it takes on the internal focus of making every abstract displaceable attributes properly. McGrady ex- effort to restore the sinner. In both cases, rejoicing over plored children’s handling of metaphors in relation to repentance is emphasized, and the parable could be ap- recognition and comprehension. plied in either direction according to the gospel version McGrady distinguished three levels of recognition. used. To summarize, biblical parables take on a variety First, do children appreciate that there is a cognitive con- of forms, and in Christian education special attention flict resulting from a rejection of a literal interpretation? should be given to a particular parable’s central theme, Second, are they aware that an idea has been displaced along with it historical and literary contexts. from a native to a novel domain? Finally, do they search for vehicle, tenor, and ground of a metaphor? References and Resources McGrady tested his ideas with a group of 58 pupils in Crossan, John Dominic. 1992. “Parables.” In Anchor Bible Dic- their first, third, and sixth years of secondary education. tionary, edited by David Noel Freedman, 5: 235–238. New They were given a test to discover their Piagetian level of York: Doubleday. operational thinking: Only Gowler, David B. 2000. What Are They Saying about the Para- bles? New York: Paulist Press. • four common religious metaphors (e.g., Jesus is the Schipper, Jeremy. 2009. Parables and Conflict in the Hebrew Lamb of God); Bible. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University. • four probably unfamiliar religious metaphors (e.g., —S. Brian Pounds the potter and the clay of Jer. 18.6); • two parabolic statements of Jesus (the camel and the eye of the needle and the parable of the treasure in Parables, Children’s Understanding of the field—Matt. 13.44); • parental metaphors of the divine (e.g., God as father Metaphor Comprehension and as a woman feeding her child); and Considerable investigation into children’s understand- •Copy important religious questions. (Pupils were required ing of metaphors has been carried out (see Hyde 1990, to take the metaphors previously provided and appendix h), focused in the field of language develop- elaborate on them in terms of their usefulness in ap- ment as a whole and in the field of religion. Language proaching these questions.) development, especially in its connection with Piagetian models of intellectual operations, is a rich source of in- Pupils were interviewed, and typed transcripts were sight into the growing minds of children. In the field of submitted to a panel of judges for scoring. Judges gave a religion, metaphor is central to the expression of many mark of 0, 1, or 2 for each element of the test. ideas, and it has been argued that religion must make use Taking all the pupils together, the mean score for rec- of metaphors since it addresses truths and beings whose ognition of metaphors was 1.47, which suggests that most functions transcend normal categories (Ramsey 1957; pupils recognized most metaphors. The comprehension Evans 1986). scores were lower. Here the mean was 1.01. McGrady Many of these issues have been addressed in a series of reported that “metaphorical recognition scores . . . were papers by McGrady (1987, 1994a, 1994b). He accepts the high across the post-primary school grades and ap- terminology of metaphors adopted by Richards (1936). proached fluency by the 6th year” (sixth-year pupils were One such term is “tenor” and another is “vehicle”; they on average 16.74 years old). Also, “metaphorical compre- are drawn from different domains. The basis of the com- hension scores were lower than those for recognition but parison is the “ground.” Thus the metaphoric statement increased uniformly with successive grade level. Partial “God is my rock” (Ps. 18.2) has “God” as the tenor and metaphorical comprehension of a range of religious “rock” as the vehicle, and the implied ground is the “im- material was firmly established by third year” (third-year mutability,” “reliability,” and “indestructibility” of each. pupils were on average 14.78 years old). The metaphor works because a word originating in These figures can be expressed in another way. Only oneContributor domain is used in another domain, and attributes 3.45 percent of the whole sample could provide a fluent belonging to its use in the native domain are displaced to translation of the metaphor of Jesus as “the Lamb of God” the vehicle domain. The point to notice, however, is that and, initially surprisingly, unfamiliar metaphors were some attributes are not displaceable. For instance, rocks better understood. Thus a third of pupils (32.7 percent) are often jagged and brown in color, but these are not fluently translated the metaphor of God as a potter mold- 924 Parables, Children’s Understanding of ing the clay, 10 percent of first-year pupils, 30 percent • 1 = The child can only repeat facts or elements of the of third-year pupils, and 61 percent of sixth-year pupils parable and shows no more than literal appreciation being successful. of it. Variations in metaphor comprehension were found in • 2 = The child can make an application in a simple the parabolic statements. While 84.5 percent were able to way that shows a movement in the direction of translate the camel going through the eye of the needle understanding the allegorical meaning of a parable. metaphor, only 44.8 percent were able to do the same • 3 = The child shows an understanding of the alle- with the metaphor of the treasure in the field. gorical meaning of the parable.

Parable Comprehension On the basis of this analysis, Murphy produced the fol- The understanding of parables is linked to the under- lowing findings: standing of metaphors, although research has so far dealt with the two topics separately. McGrady extends • Children move steadily to level 3 as they grow his findings to draw out implications for understanding older. Bar charts show quite obviously that there is of parables and theological models. Murphy (1979) in- a progression from literal appreciation to nonliteral vestigated children’s understandings of parables without appreciation. Only looking directly at metaphor, though he did take into • Children’s performance varied between parables. account children’s understanding of word meanings, For instance, the same 100 children performed their concept of historical time, and their ability to order very much better on the good Samaritan than on events sequentially in time. He interviewed 440 children the rich fool. in the age range of six to 11 years. • In some cases, children’s understanding could be In 1977, Murphy reported on the responses of 200 chil- improved by using a modernized version of the dren aged between six and eleven years. These children Bible, but a modernized version made no difference were from four schools, 50 from each school, and each was in the case of the good Samaritan—probably because randomly selected after the exclusion of children deemed of the very good level of understanding already by the school to be in need of remedial education. achieved. The children were asked what a parable was; if they • ChildrenCopy who completed the multiple choice ques- did not know, they were given an explanation and an tionnaire produced higher levels of comprehension example (the story of the boy who cried “Wolf!”). They than those who were interviewed. were then read four New Testament parables from a • The analysis suggested there was no difference be- typed sheet, which each child was able to follow from tween the children from the different schools. his or her own copy. After this, each child was asked a series of questions to see how well the parables had been Murphy’s careful procedure and his setting of levels understood. Then the child told the parable back to the suggests that children pass through an initial process in experimenter. If at any stage the child seemed to have which they simply know the events of the story and their forgotten the main facts of the parable, it was repeated. sequence. This level or stage seems to be an essential By this means it was made clear that any differences in prerequisite for more mature understanding. The teach- responses were not caused by failures of memory. ing of parables and religious stories may, then, proceed To test for the way responses were elicited, some chil- through a stage in which children are not expected to dren were given a multiple choice questionnaire in place go beyond the literal meaning. In other words, it may of a semistructured interview, though the printed ques- be a perfectly adequate educational aim to ask young tions were the same as those in the interview, and the children to hear and repeat the events of a story that they multiple choice answers were the same as those that were will later be able to endow with greater significance. All most frequently given by children during interviews. The of the parables Murphy used contain what appear to be parables used were the rich fool, the good Samaritan, the simple factual accounts of events; they make no reference Pharisee and the tax collector, the sower, the two houses, to magic or fantasy, and this makes them easier to under- and the lost sheep. The parables were told from Shirley stand at the literal level. Steen’s (1973) A Child’s Bible, but modernized versions These findings support the use of the Bible with young of theContributor first three parables were also used. people, though they also show that teaching methods Children’s responses to parables were graded on a and biblical translations need to be suited to particular three-point scale by two independent judges: age groups. Parables, Jesus’s Use of 925

References and Resources swered, ‘To you it has been given to know the secrets of Evans, G. R. 1986. “Patristic and Medieval Theology.” In The the kingdom of heaven, but to them it has not been given. Science of Theology, edited by P. Avis, 3–103. Basingstoke, . . .The reason I speak to them in parables is that seeing UK: Marshall Pickering. they do not perceive, and hearing they do not listen, nor Hyde, K. E. 1990. Religion in Childhood and Adolescence. Bir- do they understand.’” Jesus explained that the parables mingham, AL: Religious Education Press. reveal truth to the responsive, yet at the same time con- McGrady, A. G. 1987. “A Metaphor and Model Paradigm of ceal truth from those who reject Him. Religious Thinking.” British Journal of Religious Education The parable also issued a powerful call to make a deci- 9: 84–94. sion about the person of Christ. Jesus spoke the parable of ———. 1994a. “Metaphorical and Operational Aspects of Reli- the rejected son (Matt. 21:33–45) in the hearing of certain gious Thinking: Research with Irish Catholic Pupils, Part 1.” religious leaders who were rejecting Him. In that parable, British Journal of Religious Education 16: 148–163. Jesus warned of the judgment to befall those who reject ———. 1994b. Metaphorical and Operational Aspects of Reli- God’s Messiah. He then explained the parable, and “they gious Thinking: Research with Irish Catholic Pupils, Part 2.” knew he was talking about them” (v. 45). This was an British Journal of Religious Education 17: 56–62. opportunity for those leaders to repent and believe, but ———. 1996. “Measuring Religious Thinking Using Piagetian they did not. Parables helped perpetuateOnly Jesus’s teaching. Operational Paradigms.” In Research in Religious Educa- The simple stories captured listeners’ interest and imagi- tion, edited by L. J. Francis, W. K. Kay, and W. S. Campbell, nation. Being so memorable, these mental “visual aids” 97–112. Leominster, UK: Gracewing. could easily be passed on to others by Jesus’s disciples. Murphy, R. J. L. 1977. “Does Children’s Understanding of When Jesus taught in parables, He usually addressed Parables Develop in Stages?” British Journal of Religious a central problem or question. One can find the problem Education 16: 168–172. in the parable’s context, usually the preceding verses. ———. 1978. “A New Approach to the Study of the Develop- The three parables in Luke 15—the lost sheep, the lost ment of Religious Thinking in Children.” Educational Stud- coin, and the prodigal son—are all designed to answer ies 4: 19–22. the question, “What is God’s attitude toward sinners?” ———. 1979. “An Investigation into Some Aspects of the De- The Pharisees and scribes had condemned Jesus, saying, velopment of Religious Thinking in Children Aged between “ThisCopy man welcomes sinners and eats with them” (v. 2). Six and Eleven Years.” PhD diss., University of St Andrews. These parables show God’s attitude toward sinners in Ramsey, I. T. 1957. Religious Language. London: SCM. contrast with the Pharisees. While the Pharisees hated Richards, I. A. 1936. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Oxford: Ox- lost sinners, Jesus showed that God loves sinners and ford University Press. actively seeks the lost. —William K. Kay Jesus used parables to teach truth by transference. He used something in the known realm to teach a spiritual truth in the unknown realm. Therefore, interpreting the Parables, Jesus’s Use of parable depends on understanding the “known” illustra- tion. His first-century Jewish listeners commonly un- A parable is a “metaphorical narrative.” A “metaphor” is derstood His cultural references. But people today often a figure of speech that describes a subject by comparison need to do some background research. For example, the with another otherwise unrelated object. That is, “A is parable of the tares (Matt. 13:24–30) elicits the question, like B,” which does not mean that “A is identical to B” in “What are tares?” Tares are weeds that resemble wheat all respects. New Testament parables do not define things and were often used as chicken feed. Allowed to grow precisely, but rather use comparisons to describe some to maturity, tares could be distinguished from the wheat aspect of how God acts or interacts with human beings. and separated at harvest. The parable reveals that there Each parable usually makes only one main point, focused will be false, counterfeit movements in the Kingdom of up one central theme, the Kingdom of God/Heaven, and God that will be indistinguishable from true followers of illustrates various truths about God’s reign, including Christ until “harvest” (judgment). both present and future aspects. In nine parables in Matthew’s Gospel, Jesus begins Jesus spoke in parables to make it easier for people with the words “The Kingdom of Heaven is like” (e.g., toContributor understand His message. According to the Gospels, Matt. 13:24, 31, 44, 47). Likewise, in Mark’s Gospel, however, He surprisingly did not expect everyone to parables are associated with the Kingdom of God. Jesus understand them. This is clearly expressed in Matthew was referring to various characteristics of God’s Kingdom 13:10–13: “Then the disciples came and asked him, ‘Why in both the present and future ages. For example, in the do you speak to them [the crowds] in parables?’ He an- parable of the sower (Mark 4:1–20), there is fundamental 926 Parachurch Children’s Organizations insight into the coming of the Kingdom of God. Its com- model of ministry that worked with local congregations, ing into the world is like seed sown by a farmer, and in but not within local congregations. the appropriate time, there will be a harvest at the second Christopher P. Scheitle argues that there are eight coming. Whoever knows this realizes that salvation has sectors of parachurch ministries, with very different come in the person of Jesus. Even though the kingdom foci: (1) charismatic evangelism; (2) relief and develop- has come in with a veil, the harvest of the end is prepared ment; (3) education and training; (4) publishing and by the sovereign word and act of God in Jesus the Christ. resources; (5) radio and television; (6) missions and This parable stresses both the present act of sowing the missionary; (7) fellowship and enrichment; and (8) word of the Kingdom of God and the future aspects of the fund-raising and grant-making.1 Parachurch ministries harvest of the kingdom (the 3rd, 60th, and 100th times). for children tend to fall into two categories: charismatic Jesus explains that teaching on the Kingdom of God is evangelism and education and training. The goal is never merely cognitive, but also volitional; unless one to teach children about salvation found through Jesus acts on His teaching by becoming an obedient disciple, Christ. Two of the most popular parachurch children’s one has not truly understood His message. Parables drive ministries are Awana and Child Evangelism Fellowship. home a lesson and either attract or repel. Those who are Both ministries’ primary emphasis is evangelism; both not prepared to accept Jesus often become even more focus on education and training as toolsOnly either to fur- hostile toward Him (Mark 12:12), but others are con- ther evangelize or to support one’s conversion. vinced and repent. Awana References and Resources Awana, an acronym for part of 2 Timothy 2:15, “ap- Barclay, William. 1999. The Parables of Jesus. Louisville, KY: proved workmen are not ashamed,” began in 1941 as a John Knox Press. children’s program at the North Side Gospel Center in Blomberg, C. L. 1990. Interpreting the Parabels. Downers Chicago. The congregation’s senior pastor, Lance Lathan, Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. joined with the youth director, Art Rorheim, to develop Hultgren, Arland J. 2000. The Parables of Jesus: A Commentary. a weekly program that would appeal to churched and Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. nonchurched children. Other local churches learned Jeremias, H. 1963. The Parables of Jesus. New York: Charles aboutCopy the program’s success and asked how the program Scribner’s Sons. could be duplicated in their own congregations. In 1950, Longenecker, Richard N. 2000. The Challenge of Jesus’ Parables. Latham and Rorheim founded Awana as a parachurch Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. children’s ministry. Currently, “Awana serves the local Snodgrass, Klyne. 2008. Stories with Intent: A Comprehensive church by providing integrated programs for ages 2 to Guide to the Parables of Jesus. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. 18 that introduce kids, and often their parents, to Jesus —John A. Bertone Christ and build a biblical foundation for faith.”2 The ministry’s first goal is evangelism, which it achieves by partnering with local churches. “Awana Parachurch Children’s Organizations helps local congregations and parents work together to develop spiritually strong children and youth who faith- Parachurch ministries are Christian nonprofits that do fully follow Jesus Christ.”3 Awana achieves this goal by not operate under the control of a particular denomi- partnering with local churches and providing them with nation or congregation. The prefix para means either a program that offers “a proven approach for evangeliz- “beside” or “beyond.” Therefore, some parachurch min- ing and disciplining kids in the church and community.”4 istries see themselves working beside local congrega- The educational focus is Bible study, through fast- tions to achieve similar goals or support the work of the paced games and Bible memorization. “Every Awana church. Others see themselves as providing a service leader would probably say in unison that memorizing beyond the reach of the local congregation. Scripture is at the very heart of Awana.”5 Students re- Although there is a long history of Christian organiza- ceive Bible verses every week and are encouraged to tions working beside churches within various Christian traditions, the modern parachurch movement can be 1. Christopher Scheitle, Beyond the Congregation: The World of Chris- tian Nonprofits (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 60–61. tracedContributor back to the beginning of the Sunday school move- 2. Awana, http://awana.org/about/about-awana,default,pg.html. ment in London in 1780. While the Sunday school has 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. become somewhat synonymous with churches, it began 5. Art Rorheim, Mr. Awana: Sixty-Plus Years of Changing the World for as a movement outside of the church and provided a Christ (Larkspur, CO: Grace Acres Press, 2011), 63. Parachurch College Ministries 927 memorize not only verses but larger sections such as too young to make that decision. It wasn’t until college chapters or entire books. All staff members also memo- that he committed his life to Christ. “Later as a pastor rize sections of the Bible as a regular part of their study Mr. Overholtzer read one of Charles Spurgeon’s sermons and training together. which stated, ‘A child of five, if properly instructed can Students are incentivized through awards and prizes. as truly believe and be regenerated as an adult.’ The Lord Each week Awana students participate in three age- used this statement in Mr. O’s life to lead him to begin appropriate stages of the ministry. Younger children the ministry of Child Evangelism Fellowship when he was have game time, handbook time, and large group time. 60 years old.”8 Older students participate in interaction time and small CEF trains people to evangelize to children. They help group and large group time. The large group time serves train local churches to form small groups in public el- as a weekly worship activity. Students are then given ementary schools and give tools to children so that they Bible memory verses and other activities to be completed can evangelize to their friends. CEF also produces Bible throughout the week. curriculum and devotional books for children. Local congregations are assisted by local Awana In 2013, CEF had more than 1,800 missionaries over- missionaries, who help them set up and run an Awana seas, approximately 1,600 of whom are nationals of those program. Congregations also receive training and assis- countries. In the United States and OnlyCanada, 700 full-time tance from various training conferences and opportuni- workers and an estimated 40,000 volunteers serve the ties for pastors and lay leaders. While local churches ministry. CEF is currently ministering in more than 179 are encouraged to incorporate Awana programs into countries and in every state in the United States. their regular church life, the program remains distinctly Awana through curriculum, the use of uniforms, and References and Resources awards for achievement. Rorheim, Art. 2011. Mr. Awana: Sixty-Plus Years of Changing “Awana believes that parents should be the primary the World for Christ. Larkspur, CO: Grace Acres Press. spiritual influence in a child’s life. Together with these Scheitle, Christopher. 2010. Beyond the Congregation: The organizations, our hope is to further that principle World of Christian Nonprofits. New York: Oxford University throughout the Christian community.”6 Student receive Press. take-home cards, which they cover during the week with Copy their parents. In addition, there is an Awana at Home Awana. Accessed 7 April 2013. http://awana.org/about/about program that provides parents with 24 lessons, which -awana,default,pg.htmlAccess include games, Bible stories, video, and devotional mate- Child Evanglism Fellowship. Accessed 5 April 2013. http:// rial. Awana at Home is meant to be done in conjunction www.cefonline.com with one’s local church and/or an Awana missionary. —Annie A. Lockhart-Gilroy By 2013, Awana had grown to serve nearly two mil- lion kids ages 2 to 18 each week. This includes 1.07 mil- lion in 102 countries outside of the United States. More Parachurch College Ministries than 12,000 local congregations offer Awana programs in all 50 states. Parachurch ministries are Christian nonprofits that do not operate under the control of a particular denomi- Child Evangelism Fellowship nation or congregation. The prefix para means either Founded in 1937 by Jesse Irvin Overholtzer, “Child Evan- “beside” or “beyond.” Therefore, some parachurch min- gelism Fellowship, also known as CEF, is a Bible-centered, istries see themselves working beside local congrega- worldwide organization composed of born-again believ- tions to achieve similar goals or support the work of the ers whose purpose is to evangelize boys and girls with church. Others see themselves as providing a service the Gospel of the Lord Jesus Christ, disciple them in the beyond the reach of the local congregation. Word of God and establish them in a Bible believing Although there is a long history of Christian organiza- church for Christian living.”7 tions working beside churches within various Christian Overhotlzer grew up in a religious family and wanted traditions, the modern parachurch movement can be to commit his life to Christ at the age of 12. However, traced back to the beginning of the Sunday school move- whenContributor he approached his mother, she told him that he was ment in London in 1780. While the Sunday school has become somewhat synonymous with churches, it began 6. Awana, http://awana.org/about/about-awana,default,pg.html. as a movement outside of the church and provided a 7. Child Evangelism Fellowship, http://www.cefonline.com/ index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=31:history&Ite mid=100189. 8. Ibid. 928 Parachurch College Ministries model of ministry that worked with local congregations, IVCF had expanded from its roots in Great Britain to but not within local congregations. Canada and the United States in the late 1920s and 1930s, Christopher P. Scheitle argues that there are eight as the precipitous decline of both the YMCA and the Stu- sectors of parachurch ministries with very different dent Volunteer Movement created an opening for a new foci: (1) charismatic evangelism; (2) relief and develop- evangelical campus ministry. IVCF reasserted evangelical verities, including the inspiration of Scripture, the deity of ment; (3) education and training; (4) publishing and Christ and the vicarious sacrifice. . . . [T]hey were more resources; (5) radio and television; (6) missions and focused [than Campus Crusade for Christ] on helping missionary; (7) fellowship and enrichment; and (8) students approach Christianity from intellectual and aca- 9 fund-raising and grant-making. Parachurch college demic perspectives.13 ministries tend to focus on charismatic evangelism (al- though some have missions as a secondary focus), with The IVCF grew quickly during the 1940s and estab- the majority of them evangelical in their theology. lished chapters in the West, Midwest, and Northeast Religious conservatives have been very concerned about United States. “Under the leadership of C. Stacey Woods, the teaching in universities. Creators of these ministries IVCF balanced a variety of objectives: evangelism, disci- saw campuses as fertile ground for a fight for the moral pleship, apologetics, and leadership training. Evangelism fiber of culture. They viewed college campuses as places and missions, however, were paramount among IVCF’s 14 Only where students would be exposed to too many things that early priorities.” InterVarsity continues to serve these would lead them astray. “Fundamentalists alleged that priorities by educating members through large group modernist professors were importing dangerous German fellowships once a week and small group meetings and philosophies into American lecture halls, turning pious studies throughout the week. Its members also see mis- Christian students into what Bob Jones termed ‘campus sion work to urban centers and across the globe as essen- shipwrecks’ and state universities into—in the worlds of tial to their education and ministry as Christians. William B. Riley—‘hot-beds of skepticism.’”10 Bill Bright, By 2012, InterVarsity had grown to 39,000 core stu- the founder of Campus Crusades for Christ, said the col- dents and faculty in 893 chapters on 576 campuses. These lege campus might well be America’s “Trojan Horse” by include specialized affinity groups for student athletes, which these thoughts slip into American culture. This nurses, fraternity members, etc. More than 2,200 stu- led to the motto of the crusade, “Win the campus today; dents participated in international mission projects and 11 Copy win the world tomorrow.” Whether fighting the notion 100 books were published at InterVarsity Press in 2012. of liberal theology, communism, or secularization, the most popular parachurch college ministries have fought Campus Crusades for Christ for “biblical Christianity.” Two of the most popular Bill Bright created Campus Crusade for Christ (CCC) parachurch college ministries are InterVarsity Christian in 1952. It began with a rally on the campus of UCLA. Fellowship and Campus Crusades for Christ (the latter is From the beginning, CCC focused on evangelism now named Cru in the United States of America). through rallies and one-on-one encounters. It often sought out high-profile converts who would attract InterVarsity Christian Fellowship more students, looking for male leaders who were star The InterVarsity Christian Fellowship began with stu- athletes, fraternity leaders, and student body leaders. dents at the University of Cambridge, England, in 1877. The CCC tried to cultivate male leaders and focused on “There, a group of students began to meet together, in winning men for Christ. spite of disapproval of some University officials, to pray, At that time, evangelical leaders were afraid that com- to study the Bible and to witness to fellow students.”12 munist and antireligious ideologies were taking root in When similar groups began on different campuses, they American universities. Bill Bright planned to create a joined together to form the British Inter-Varsity. (Varsity ministry that would “launch a two-pronged offensive is the term for British college students and “inter” means against ‘the present pagan condition of our campuses.’”15 “between.”) InterVarsity spread throughout Great Britain CCC focused on evangelism, but then followed up with before coming to North America. It is seen as one of the converts with one-on-one discipleship. It borrowed this reasons for an evangelical resurgence within U.S. culture: approach from the Navigators and used materials from the Navigators for following up with converts. As of 9. Scheitle, Beyond the Congregation, 60–61. 2013, Campus Crusade for Christ provided evangelism 10.Contributor John G. Turner, Bill Bright and Campus Crusade for Christ: The Renewal of Evangelicalism in Postwar America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 41. 11. Ibid., 41. 13. Turner, Bill Bright and Campus Crusade for Christ, 70. 12. “InterVarsity’s History,” http://www.intervarsity.org/about/our/ 14. Ibid. history (accessed 1 April 2013). 15. Ibid., 43. Parachurch Youth Organizations 929 and continued training to high school, college, and increasing amounts of time in peer-to-peer relation- graduate school students and faculty around the world ships.16 At the same time, public policy shifts removed In 2013–2014, InterVarsity had 949 chapters on 616 religious education from schools, leaving “a vacuum of campuses. Many campuses have more than one chapter, religious and moral instruction.”17 which may include separate outreaches to international Described as “the youth problem,” many viewed the students, sororities and fraternities, and ethnic minority growing adolescent subculture as rebellious or delin- groups, as well as career-specific graduate student chap- quent. Churches largely ignored the cultural shifts, and ters. During the 2013–2014 school year, 40,299 core stu- by the mid-1940s the appeal of denominational youth dents and faculty were actively involved in InterVarsity societies had waned. By contrast, the parachurch youth (Intervarsity, 2014). organizations that emerged between the 1930s and 1960s embraced youth culture and capitalized on ado- References and Resources lescents’ increasing independence, concern for identity Dunn, Charles. 1980. Campus Crusade: Its Message and Meth- formation, and desire for personal relationships. “[T]he ods. Greenville, SC: Bob Jones University Press. movement included leaders from evangelical churches Hummel, Charles E. 1958. Campus Christian Witness: An Inter- who felt their churches had lost the vision and/or ca- Varsity Christian Fellowship Manual. Chicago: InterVarsity pacity to evangelize the new generation for Christ,” 18 Only Press. Mark Senter observed. These organizations functioned Hunt, Keith, and Gladys Hunt. 1991. For Christ and the Uni- nearly exclusively outside the more formal church envi- versity: The Story of InterVarsity Christian Fellowship of the ronment, thus the label “parachurch” (para, from Latin, U.S.A., 1940–1990. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. meaning “alongside”).19 InterVarsity Christian Fellowship. n.d. “Vital Statistics.” Ac- cessed 17 September 2014. http://www.intervarsity.org/about/ Miracle Book Club our/vital-statistics. Widely regarded as the first major parachurch organiza- ———. n.d. “InterVarsity’s History.” Accessed 1 April 2013. tion for adolescents, the Miracle Book Club started in http://www.intervarsity.org/about/our/history. 1933 when Evelyn McClusky agreed to lead a teen Bible Marsden, George. 1994. The Soul of the American University: study class in her home in Portland, Oregon. The gather- From Protestant Establishment to Established Unbelief. New ingsCopy were generally balanced between social interaction York: Oxford University Press. (including singing and group rituals) and biblical teach- Quebedeaux, Richard. 1979. I Found It! The Story of Campus ing, for which McClusky was quickly regarded for her ex- Crusade for Christ. New York: Harper & Row. ceptional storytelling abilities and conversational style.20 Scheitle, Christopher. 2010. Beyond the Congregation: The Using the Bible (i.e., the “miracle book”), McClusky’s World of Christian Nonprofits. New York: Oxford University aim was largely intrapersonal conversion; her club’s goals Press. included helping participants understand the true mean- Turner, John G. 2008. Bill Bright and Campus Crusade for ing of Christ living in them, implement a new Christian Christ: The Renewal of Evangelicalism in Postwar America. lifestyle, and be able to witness to peers. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Six chapters developed locally by June 1935, all meet- —Annie A. Lockhart-Gilroy ing in homes, not churches or schools.21 McClusky, responding to numerous requests, produced Torch and Sword (1937) as a training manual, after which the club Parachurch Youth Organizations

Social Context 16. Mark H. Senter III, When God Shows Up: A History of Protestant As adolescence emerged as a distinct life stage in the Youth Ministry in America (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2010), 194–198; Andrew Root, Revisiting Relational Youth Ministry: From a early 20th century, the public high school quickly be- Strategy of Influence to a Theology of Incarnation (Downers Grove, IL: IVP came the central social institution of American teenag- Books, 2007), 31–35. 17. Senter, When God Shows Up, 213. ers. The nation was growing into technological mod- 18. Ibid., 64. For a summary of 20th-century adolescent culture and ernization and scientific advances (by-products of the youth spirituality, see Root, Revisiting Relational Youth Ministry, ch. 1 Industrial Revolution), and public education intro- and 2. 19. For a summary of parachurch ministries beyond those detailed here ducedContributor curriculum (such as business and economics) to (e.g., InterVarsity Christian Fellowship, Student Venture, High School prepare workers for a commercialized society. Extracur- Crusaders, High Light Clubs), see Senter, When God Shows Up, 228–231. 20. Senter, When God Shows Up, 216–217; Christian Education Journal, ricular activities and entertainment options (e.g., school ser. 3, 1, no. 1, 2003: 71. dances, movies, athletics) blossomed, and teens spent 21. Senter, When God Shows Up, 216. 930 Parachurch Youth Organizations movement grew quickly. In 1938, McClusky guessed that with a vision for youth evangelism.28 The events pro- there may have been a thousand clubs.22 vided entertainment that resonated with contemporary youth culture and placed traveling evangelists and Young Life musicians squarely in front of teens, including Rev. As a Presbyterian youth minister in the late 1930s, Jim Billy Graham, YFC’s first full-time evangelist. Steeped Rayburn adopted Miracle Book Club’s model for an in patriotic messages, the rallies drew parallels between outreach ministry to teens outside the church’s normal America’s recent military victories and a crusade to realm of influence.23 In early 1941, the club folded into “win” adolescent souls for Jesus Christ.29 the Young Life Campaign, his own initiative, and Young The emphasis on large, adult-led rallies was short lived, Life was incorporated that October.24 Unique to Ray- giving way to smaller, youth-led club programs centered burn’s approach was the emphasis on intimate personal on discipleship and relational evangelism. Jack Hamilton relationships between adults and youth. He believed was named YFC’s club programs director in 1950. Some adults needed to “win the right to be heard” before 700 clubs were active by 1952 and nearly 2,000 four years the message of salvation through Jesus Christ could be later. The Campus Life programs (as they came to be shared.25 Young Life biographer Emile Cailliet observed known) featured an attractive, if not entertaining, combi- that “Jim [Rayburn] resolved to accept their language, nation of singing, games, student testimonies,Only and musi- preferences, peculiarities, ways of thinking, and so on; to cal performances; Bible quiz competitions (culminating familiarize himself with their tradition, share their values, in a national tournament) were common for a short learn to speak their vernacular, and somehow move into period. Organized through 200 local offices, Campus Life their understanding.”26 remains a foundation of YFC’s ministry, while programs He found success in engaging teens in a relaxed atmo- for at-risk youth, teen mothers, and urban youth have sphere, in the evenings, and away from the school envi- also been added.30 ronment.27 Integrating songs, skits, games, Bible study, and social conversation, Rayburn’s club model became Fellowship of Christian Athletes the prototype for parachurch and congregation-based As a college athlete during the 1940s, Don McClanen youth ministries for decades. noticed the increasing prominence of athletics and de- Two other strategies were paramount to Young Life’s velopedCopy a vision for a Christian-based sports association. success. First, small groups (called Campaigners) pro- With sufficient support from high-profile coaches and vided Bible study, discipleship, and accountability for athletes, McClanen finally launched Fellowship of Chris- new and maturing Christians. Second, Young Life started tian Athletes (FCA) in November 1954.31 FCA first staged a resort-style camping ministry with the purchase in 1946 a series of national events, featuring well-known athletes of Star Ranch in Colorado. Three camps were added in sharing faith testimonies. the following decade, and Young Life currently oper- In 1956, 256 teens and young adults gathered for inten- ates two dozen properties, attracting some 100,000 teens sive evangelism training (which grew in successive years) annually. The organization has more recently expanded to launch FCA programs in their communities.32 In the to junior high students (Wyldlife), single teen mothers 1960s, club programs (called “huddle groups”) emerged (YoungLives), and youth with disabilities (Capernaum). in local high schools, which often included Bible studies or talks delivered by sports personalities.33 The initiative Youth for Christ became instrumental to FCA’s success, as entire sports Youth for Christ International (YFC) formed in June teams became ready-made groups, with a “coach, fac- 1945, formalizing various grassroots efforts intent on ulty member, or parent with a common love for athletic reaching “youth for Christ” with a unifying organiza- competition” serving as “a built-in point of contact.”34 By tional structure. For several years, Jack Wyrtzen (in 1969, huddle groups numbered 1,000, doubling by 1977, New York) and Torrey Johnson, YFC’s first president and ballooning to 8,000 by 2003, establishing FCA as “the (in Chicago), had organized Saturday evening rallies that drew thousands, combining radio broadcasting 28. Root, Revisiting Relational Youth Ministry, 49; Senter, When God Shows Up, 83–84. 22. Ibid., 84. Many historians treat parachurch youth participation 29. Jon Pahl, Youth Ministry in Modern America, 1930 to the Present reportsContributor with suspicion. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2000), 59. 23. Emile Cailliet, Young Life (New York: Harper & Row, 1963), 11. 30. Ibid., 67. 24. Senter, When God Shows Up, 219. 31. Ibid. 25. Cailliet, Young Life, 62–63. 32. Ibid., 185. 26. Ibid., 13. 33. Senter, When God Shows Up, 226. 27. Ibid.; Root, Revisiting Relational Youth Ministry, 49. 34. Ibid., 227. Parents as Teachers 931 largest and most visible national Christian presence” in Senter, Mark H., III. 1992. The Coming Revolution in Youth American high schools.35 Ministry. Wheaton, IL: Victor Books. ———. 2010. When God Shows Up: A History of Protestant Youth Youth With A Mission Ministry in America. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Youth With A Mission (YWAM), founded by Loren —Mark J. Jackson Cunningham in 1960, deserves mention among para- church youth ministries. Unlike the club models, which often relied on adult-youth relationships, Cunningham Paraguay and Christian Education believed youth themselves could become global evange- lists through peer-to-peer relationships. Concerned that At the end of the 19th century, after a devastating war left young people attending rallies had limited opportunity its population decimated, the Paraguayan government to engage in evangelism, his vision was to harness the invited the first non-Catholic groups into the country to enthusiastic energy for service and send groups of young establish private schools. Among the first to receive this people around the world to spread the Gospel. invitation were the Methodists, who sent two missionar- Throughout the 1960s, YWAM sponsored 5,000 short- ies in 1886 to start a school.38 Several other missions and term missionaries a year, growing to 14,000 by 1990, and denominations followed suit. Today there are about 150 36 Only39 38,000 by 2000. YWAM’s ministries are determined by evangelical Christian schools in Paraguay. specific needs of local communities and include, for ex- Most evangelical churches founded by foreign mis- ample, human services, counseling, public health, evan- sionaries established a Sunday school, where children gelism, and church planting. To train growing numbers and adults were taught Bible stories, biblical doctrines, of staff, YWAM maintains a global network of educa- and moral conduct. Regarding theological education, tional centers, including Discipleship Training Schools. starting in the 1950s the Baptists, the Mennonites, the Assemblies of God, the Church of God, and several Lasting Impact other denominations established institutions to train While most parachurch youth organizations grew quickly their pastors. When through an interdenominational ef- in their early years, some have struggled to maintain fort in 1994 the Evangelical University of Paraguay was long-term momentum. For many of them, the 1980s and founded,Copy three theological centers joined to become the 1990s brought financial challenges, leadership transi- School of Theology at that university, offering govern- tions, and the reexamination of ministry priorities.37 Two ment-accredited careers and titles. The newest initiative continuing concerns, even expressed in the earliest days, in theological education is the Instituto Aquila y Priscila are the extent to which unchurched youth are reached (as (founded in 2012), a decentralized effort to offer courses opposed to teens involved in other ministries) and the to pastors and leaders at their place of ministry. inability to connect teens with local churches. Even so, these evangelistic ministries are highly regarded for their References and Resources significant impact in responding to cultural shifts taking Deiros, Pablo A. 1992. Historia del Cristianismo en América La- place in 20th-century America. tina. Buenos Aires: Fraternidad Teológica Latinoamericana. Plett, Rodolfo. 1987. El Protestantismo en el Paraguay: su aporte References and Resources cultural, económico y espiritual. Asunción: Instituto Bíblico Atcheson, Wayne. 1994. Impact for Christ: How FCA Has In- Asunción. fluenced the Sports World. Grand Island, NE: Cross Training —Martin H. Eitzen Publishing. Cailliet, Emile. 1963. Young Life. New York: Harper & Row. McClusky, Evelyn M. 1937. Torch and Sword. Oakland, CA: Parents as Teachers Miracle Book Club. Pahl, Jon. 2000. Youth Ministry in Modern America, 1930 to the The significant roles of parents as teachers of their Present. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. children are clearly emphasized by the Bible. In the Root, Andrew. 2007. Revisiting Relational Youth Ministry: Old Testament, we can see how Moses commanded the From a Strategy of Influence to a Theology of Incarnation. people of God to teach their children to love God with ContributorDowners Grove, IL: IVP Books. 38. Pablo A. Deiros, Historia del Cristianismo en América Latina (Bue- 35. Ibid., 226, 287. nos Aires: Fraternidad Teológica Latinoamericana, 1990), 681. 36. Mark H. Senter III, The Coming Revolution in Youth Ministry 39. Esteban Missena, national director of the Association of Christian (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1992), 28. Schools International, personal communication with author, 27 March 37. Senter, When God Shows Up, 280–290. 2013. 932 Pastor as Teacher the totality of their lives (Deut. 6:6–9, 11:18, 20, 30:14, Dobson, James C. 1992. The New Dare to Discipline. Wheaton, 32:46). He encouraged them to instruct their children at IL: Tyndale House Publishers. home and outside of it with a variety of approaches and ——— . Bringing Up Boys. 2001. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House means. The same message is also asserted by the book Publishers. of Wisdom. Parents are responsible for bringing up Downs, Perry G. 1994. Teaching for Spiritual Growth. Grand their children to be disciplined and make wise decisions Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House. (Prov. 13:24, 22:6). Parrett, Gary A., and S. Steve Kang. 2009. Teaching the Faith In the New Testament, Jesus urged parents to inform Forming the Faithful. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic. their children with God’s truths. Children need to see Stonehouse, Catherine. 1998. Joining Children on the Spiritual their parents exercise self-controlled living (Matt. 18:6– Journey. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books 9). Leading children to have a relationship with Jesus Ward, Ted. 1979. Values Begin at Home. Wheaton, IL: Victor Christ was highly praised (Matt. 19:13–15). The apostle Books. Paul insisted that the early church nurture its children in Westerhoff, John, III. 1980. Bringing Up Children in the Chris- the teaching and advice of the Lord so that they would tian Faith. Minneapolis, MN: Winston Press. be exempted from resentment and discouragement (Eph. ———. 1983. Will Our Children Have Faith. Toronto: Anglican 6:4; Col. 3:21). Book Centre. Only Children need to learn from their parents about faith Wolterstorff, Nicholas. 1980. Education for Responsible Action. in God, life values, communication, discipline, and —Binsen Samuel Sidjabat practical skills. Parents can teach their children through stories and instruction; engaging in dialogue; conducting training and exercise; giving assignments, guidance, and Pastor as Teacher advice; and modeling. Horace Bushnell (1861) strongly stated that parents must guide their children to have faith A symbolic thread of the shepherd-king woven through- in Jesus Christ by right instructions and demonstration out the tapestry of scripture (1 Chr. 17:6; Ps. 23; Jer. 6:3, of good examples. John Westerhoff III (1980, 1983) has 23:4; Mic. 5:5–6; Nah. 3:18; John 10:11; Rev. 7:16–17) is reemphasized the same message to the modern church. the same one used to create a mantel for the pastor as He understands that the faith of children will grow bet- teacher.Copy The New Testament reference to “shepherd” ter through socialization. Ted Ward (1979) and Nicholas (Eph. 4:11; Acts 20:28), is literally the role of “pastor” Wolterstorff (1980) point out that in moral formation, (Eph. 4.11) and “teacher” (Eph. 4:11; Titus 1:9; 1 Tim. children need both explanation and models. According 3:2, 5:17). Pastors of the church are to be shepherds to James Dobson (1992, 2001), to discipline children responsible to the chief shepherd (1 Pet. 5:1), who says, parents must apply punishment and rewards in balance. “shepherds after my own heart who will lead you with Many parents do not fulfill their task as teachers be- knowledge and understanding” (Jer. 3:15). cause of ignorance and lack of competence. The church and Christian faith communities therefore need to equip Biblical Theology of Pastor as Teacher them through seminars workshops, or small group fel- Shepherds or pastor-teachers taught based on knowledge lowships. It is necessary for them to understand that from God (Jer. 9:24–27). God Himself teaches (Ps. 25:8, nurturing children is a divine calling from God (Parrett 12, 27:11), so Jesus being called “teacher” comes as no and Kang 2009). Parents desperately require guidance surprise (Matt. 4:23, 5:2, 7:29, etc.). God’s spokespersons, in enabling children to creatively handle the destructive the priests and prophets, taught, the prophets being prin- influences of media technology. Helping single parents cipally forth-tellers, expositors of God’s teaching from bring up their children is another needs as divorces the Pentateuch (Lev. 10:11; Deut. 24:8, 33:8–10; 2 Chron. among church members increase. Informing parents 17:7–9; Ezek. 44:23; Mic. 3:11). Teaching based on the with faith about the moral development of their children Old Testament (Rom. 15:4; 1 Tim. 1:8–10; 2 Tim. 3:16) is is necessary (Downs 1994; Stonehouse 1998). Finally, referred to as “the faithful word” (Rom. 6:17, 16:17; Eph. parents need encouragement to consistently witness for 4:21; Col 2:7; 2 Thess. 2:15; 2 Tim. 2:2; Titus 1:9). Jesus Christ in the midst of religious pluralism and to face Teaching impacts the intellect, which in turn affects pressures from other faith communities. being and behavior. “Sound” teaching indicates one who Contributorliterally had good hygiene; he was healthy or well (1 References and Resources Tim. 1:8–10; Matt. 6:22–23). Titus 1:9 and 2:1 emphasize Bushnell, Horace. 1979/1861. Christian Nurture. Grand Rapids: hygienic doctrine; the verses serve as bookends around Baker Book House. unsound living (Titus 1:10–16). Teaching can be either Pastoral Education, Clinical 933 positive or negative (Rom. 15:4; Col. 2:22), requiring that mind (Heb. 13:17). Pastoral oversight (Acts 20:28) is to be teaching based on scripture’s text was to be evaluated (1 respected for the people’s own best interests (Heb. 13:17). Cor. 12:10, 14:29; 1 Thess. 5:21–22). Self-reflection is the responsibility of a pastor to his Teaching will either be right or wrong, good or bad. own teaching (1 Tim. 4:16). Paul makes a point of saying Rejection of unsound teaching (1 Tim. 6:2) is a pastor’s “this is not about me” (1 Tim. 1:12–17). In fact, he ends responsibility. Pastors defend their people against teach- with a hymn in verse 17, punctuating the truth. A pastor ers whose motives are self-centered or money-centered should live an earnestly devout life (2 Tim. 3:12), under- (1 Tim. 1:7; Titus 1:11). Pastors must point out doctrine standing that teaching is lived theology (Titus 2:12). that is strange (Heb. 13:9), going against the doctrine A teacher is entrusted with authority (1 Tim. 4:11; of Christ (2 John 9–10). Pastors must identify certain Titus 2:15), guarding the doctrinal treasure with the help groups (Rev. 2:14), their teaching (Rev 2:20, 24), and in- of the Holy Spirit (2 Tim. 1:14). A pastor reads (2 Tim. dividuals (2 Tim. 2:16–19) who may dissuade the church 4:13) for the purpose of preaching, instruction, interpre- from truth (Eph. 4:14). False teaching will occur (2 Pet. tation, application, and refutation. 2 Timothy 2:14–15 2:1), its origin being obvious (1 Tim. 4:1). Good pastors explains the importance of pastoral detail. Pastors are must replace bad pastors (Jer. 23:1–4), actively refuting wary of extremes or disputes about words. An obsession unsound doctrine and teaching about Jesus (Acts 28:30– over trivialities, focusing on the minor,Only and quibbles over 31). Teaching is based on Jesus’s person and work (Acts minutiae (1 Tim. 1:6, 6:20; 2 Tim. 2:16; Titus 3:9) are no 4:2, 18), and teaching about Jesus is usually contentious good whatsoever, and can literally cause a catastrophe. (Acts 5:21, 24, 5:42). The corrective to the extreme is hard work. Diligence, documented approval, avoidance of shoddy workman- Biblical Philosophy of Pastor as Teacher ship, and cutting straight lines are the imperatives that Pastoral authority is from Heaven (Gal. 1:12; 1 Cor. produce strong doctrine. 12:28). A pastor’s teaching is dependent upon the Holy Spirit (1 Cor. 2:13; 2 Tim. 1:14; 1 John 2:27). Pastoral References and Resources teaching is a gift (Eph. 4:11), the gift of teaching to be Chapell, Bryan. 2005. Christ-Centered Preaching: Redeeming used (Rom. 12:7; 1 Tim. 4:11, 13) the Expository Sermon. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. Teaching is intentional. It includes planning ahead for Richards,Copy Lawrence O., and Gary J. Bredfeldt. 1998. Creative what will be said later (1 Cor. 11:17, 34; 1 Thess. 4:2; 2 Bible Teaching. Rev. ed. Chicago: Moody Publishers. Thess. 3:6–15). Knowing what an audience can handle —Mark Eckel is significant. Paul knew that the Corinthians were mere infants, unable to handle more than breast milk (1 Cor. 3:1–3). Pastor-teachers view themselves as responsible Pastoral Education, Clinical for the education of their people (1 Tim. 2:7; 2 Tim 1:11). The connection to fathers as teachers is important to Clinical pastoral education (CPE) is a graduate-level identify (1 Cor. 4:17; Eph. 4:21; Col. 1:28, 2:7; 2 Thess. course in pastoral care that uses an action-reflection 2:15). Teaching demands both tact (1 Tim. 3:2; 2 Tim. model of learning to train seminarians, clergy, and other 2:2) and confrontation (2 Tim. 1:13–14). A pastor holds qualified persons who are in, or preparing for, profes- to The Truth and encourages teaching in community, sional ministry. It is an intense educational experience; actively refuting unsound doctrine (Tim. 1:9) students learn by working in a clinical setting doing pas- The New Testament description of leaders (Acts toral care with people who are dealing with illness, suf- 20:28–31; 1 Pet. 5:1–4) warns against the negative, high- fering, death, and other life issues. Students practice their lighting the positive. Shepherds were to keep watch, be skills and develop pastoral relationships, then reflect on on their guard, serve as overseers, be willing, be eager, their experiences to learn more about effective ministry setting examples. God’s people were often referenced as and themselves. Most CPE programs take place in hospi- sheep needing a shepherd (Matt. 9:36): one of Jesus’s final tals or other health-care facilities. Other CPE settings are commands to Peter (John 21:15–17). prisons, nursing homes, parishes, and the military. CPE began in 1925 at Worcester State Hospital in Christian Practice of Pastor as Teacher Worcester, Massachusetts, when Rev. Anton Boisen—an Disciple-making,Contributor literally learning, being the primary ordained Presbyterian minister—became the hospital task of the church, is fostered through the continuous chaplain. Boisen had been hospitalized at Worcester process of teaching (Matt. 28:19). Church people should for psychotic breaks. Through his own healing process, not choose pastors who only tell them what they want to he came to believe that crises in one’s life hold creative hear (2 Tim. 4:3). Pastors have people’s eternal welfare in possibilities for religious and spiritual growth. Boisen, 934 Pastoral Institutes (Catholic Universities) the “father” of CPE, believed that the basis for spiri- rubrics for each level of ACPE training: Level I, Level II, tual healing was not found in theories, but in the “liv- and Supervisory Education. ing human documents”—within people and within the There are approximately 350 ACPE-accredited CPE tested insights of those who had gained wisdom through centers and about 600 ACPE-certified supervisors in their ministry with real people. In 1925, Dr. Richard the United States. Currently,113 member theological C. Cabot, the “father” of medical social work, and Boi- schools and 23 faith groups and agencies are active sen’s colleague, wrote a plea for theological students partners with ACPE. In addition to supervisors, ACPE to undertake a clinical internship year modeled on the comprises clinical members, students, retired supervi- medical residency. Theological students would work in sors and clinical members, and ACPE networks. Since a clinical setting with patients. They would learn how to 1967, nearly 150,000 units of CPE have been offered apply their theoretical knowledge effectively in practice. to approximately 65,000 people, who represent many That summer, Boisen invited four theological students to different ethnic and cultural groups and faiths from the join him, and CPE was born. Over time, this theological United States and many other countries. CPE is increas- education movement expanded and evolved into four ingly multicultural, multifaith, and multivalent in its different “schools” of CPE, which joined together in 1967 educational methods and clinical settings. It remains to form the Association for Clinical Pastoral Education, a vital means of theological educationOnly and training for Inc. (ACPE), the major certifying and accrediting agency those entering pastoral ministry. for CPE in the United States. It certifies supervisors and accredits CPE centers nationally. References and Resources The ACPE’s educational standards require that a unit Boisen, Anton. 1936. Exploration of the Inner World. New of CPE consists of a minimum of 400 hours of super- York: Willett, Clark & Company. vised ministry. Of these 400 hours, at least 100 must Hall, Charles E. 1992. Head and Heart. Decatur, GA: Journal of be education with the peer group and supervisor(s), Pastoral Care Publications. including didactics about theoretical material; analysis Hemenway, Joan E. 1996. Inside the Circle: A Historical and of and reflection on actual pastoral cases (usually called Practical Inquiry Concerning Process Groups in Clinical Pas- “verbatim seminars”); and process groups for learning toral Education. Decatur, GA: JPCC Publications. through reflection about one’s self as a professional pas- King, StephenCopy D. W. 2007. Trust the Process: A History of Clini- toral caregiver, one’s theological dynamics, and more. cal Pastoral Education as Theological Education. Lanham, The remaining 300 hours are spent in the clinical set- MD: University Press of America. ting doing pastoral ministry with people; students learn —R. Kevin Johnson and Beth Faulk Glover to apply their education in real life. They learn pastoral care from the people to whom they are ministering and the staff with whom they are working. Many seminaries Pastoral Institutes in the United States grant between six and eight credits (Catholic Universities) for one unit of CPE. Some seminaries and faith groups/ denominations may require at least one unit of CPE for Second Vatican Council and Religious Education graduation and/or ordination. In 1963, Pope John XXIII convened all the Catholic bish- There are three curricular areas mandated by ACPE. ops of the world, meeting as the Second Vatican Council. Pastoral formation includes developing self-reflection, By that time, a religious education movement in some pastoral identity, and authority, and gaining knowledge parts of the Catholic world, particularly the German- through receiving feedback and critique of pastoral work. speaking lands and the Low Countries, had already led to Pastoral competence includes learning a wide range of a consciousness of the emerging cultural context in which pastoral skills, including spiritual/pastoral assessment the church lived. Already this movement had spread and crisis ministry. It also includes acquiring a basic beyond its origins to English-speaking lands, Mediter- knowledge of major faith traditions and developing the ranean Europe, mission territories, and beyond. The cultural and religious competence and humility necessary council became the vehicle by which the wider church to interact with people of different faiths, philosophies, came to enter into the insights of this new and growing and existential beliefs. Pastoral reflection includes utiliz- understanding, making the character of the Second Vati- ing Contributorthe clinical method of learning, theological reflection, can Council fundamentally pastoral, focused on engaging and developing the capacity to accurately self-supervise the faith in context. With 2,860 bishops from all over the one’s pastoral work and relational dynamics. There are world, the Second Vatican Council was by far the larg- specific outcomes and objectives under these general est of the 21 such councils in the history of the Catholic Pastoral Institutes (Catholic Universities) 935

Church. Encountering their own great diversity led the tical theological in their orientation, focused on meet- assembled bishops to encourage each other to better ing needs for research and training related to religious know their particular contexts, as they moved beyond an education and the “pastoral care of special groups of the assumption of cultural sameness or irrelevance for the faithful as the different circumstances of individual na- proclamation of the Gospel. They encouraged institutes tions or regions require” (Christus Dominus 1965, 44). designed to explore social questions and new methods The flurry of activity in this direction was further sup- of pastoral work, as well as offices of pastoral sociology ported after the council as attention specifically turned (Christus Dominus 1965, 16, 17): to practical theological questions, including pressing questions of enculturation (Rahner 1963). Just as the [Bishops] should be solicitous for the spiritual, intellectual council was primarily pastoral, the theological response and material welfare of the priests so that the latter can was primarily practical theological. Previous theological live holy and pious lives and fulfill their ministry faithfully approaches were no longer used, not so much because and fruitfully. Therefore, they should encourage institutes they were deemed to have been theologically weak, but and hold special meetings in which priests might gather because they were seen as overly abstract and speculative from time to time both for the performance of longer exercises and the renewal of their spiritual life and for the in a time when theology needed to become more practical acquisition of deeper subjects, especially Sacred Scripture and socioculturally engaged. Only and theology, the more important social questions, and The style of discussions of the bishops at the council— the new methods of pastoral activity. . . . The forms of the within geographic and cultural groupings—encouraged apostolate should be properly adapted to the needs of the collaboration across dioceses, within a country, and even present day with regard not only for man’s spiritual and in an entire world region. Such collaboration was often moral circumstances but also for his social, demographic, in relationship with a Catholic university at the begin- and economic conditions. Religious and social research, ning or emerged eventually over time. Those connected through offices of pastoral sociology, contributes much to to universities frequently developed undergraduate and the efficacious and fruitful attainment of that goal, and it graduate training. is highly recommended. Most such pastoral institutes focused in some way The goal was more effective religious education, some- on the formation of catechetical leaders and supported thing the bishops commended to themselves as central researchCopy that would lead to more effective catechesis, to any undertaking to prepare pastoral agents (Christus including related work of enculturation and pastoral Dominus 1965, 14): planning. A model in this was the long-established Pas- toral Institute (now Institute for Practical Theology) of Bishops should take pains that catechetical instruction— the University of Vienna, where Rahner served during which is intended to make the faith, as illumined by the 1940s. Associated with the Archdiocese of Vienna teaching, a vital, explicit and effective force in the lives of and the University of Vienna, the roots of this institute men—be given with sedulous care to both children and go back to 1774, where the first university-level profes- adolescents, youths and adults. In this instruction a suit- sorship in pastoral theology was created. Through the able arrangement should be observed as well as a method influence of the University of Louvain, centers for so- suited to the matter that is being treated and to the char- cioreligious research were established throughout Latin acter, ability, age, and circumstances of the life of the stu- America in the 1960s, including CISOR in Venezuela dents. . . . Moreover, they should take care that catechists and CERIS in Brazil, along with numerous centers of be properly trained for their function so that they will be thoroughly acquainted with the doctrine of the Church pastoral formation. In most cases, the centers had formal and will have both a theoretical and a practical knowledge or informal links with universities and the local dioceses of the laws of psychology and of pedagogical methods. of bishops’ conferences. When CARA, the Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, began in the United Flowing from the Council’s vision of the centrality of States in 1964, the intent was similar; by 1989, it had religious education and the need for new methods and become associated with Georgetown University and over training, pastoral institutes were created in various regions time conducted a considerable portion of its work for and dioceses of the world. These were typically, but by no the U.S. bishops’ conference and individual dioceses and means always, in relationship with Catholic universities. religious orders. Contributor The typical form of these pastoral institutes can be seen Context and Aims in the AMECEA Pastoral Institute, the East Asian Pasto- The development of pastoral institutes had begun even ral Institute, and the university-based centers of graduate before the council concluded. Such institutes were prac- study created in the United States. Gaba, Uganda, was 936 Pastoral Institutes (Catholic Universities) the original site of a pastoral institute established in 1967 many years by Thomas Groome, it first offered a PhD in and sponsored by the Association of Member Episcopal religious education in 1977. Conferences in Eastern Africa (AMECEA). It moved to Such institutes include all those associated with AGPIM, Eldoret, Kenya, in 1976. Since 2008, it has been formally the Association of Graduate Programs in Ministry, which associated with the Catholic University of Eastern Africa represent degree-granting ministerial programs at Cath- (CUEA) and offers a number of degree programs in olic universities, programs that are generally oriented catechesis, ministry and management, counseling, and toward forming religious educators and have a strong peace building. emphasis on practical theological education. In addition Catholic ecclesiology fosters structures that create to these degree-granting programs that grew out of ad- connections across the globe and can foster a resulting vanced catechetical training programs in the years after transfer of ideas. This happens both vertically, though the council, other programs at Catholic universities are the hierarchical structures of the church, and horizon- oriented more toward pastoral research. The Institute for tally, principally but not exclusively through the religious Church Life at the University of Notre Dame, founded by orders. The East Asia Pastoral Institute is an excellent Theodore Hesburgh, CSC, the long-serving president of example of the kinds of development from these con- the university, is perhaps the most staffed and developed nections. This pastoral institute was also established of the non-degree-granting pastoral institutes.Only Numerous before the Second Vatican Council, in 1953, by Johannes other pastoral institutes exist in the United States, tied to Hofinger, SJ (1905–1984), an Austrian Jesuit who had dioceses, groups of dioceses, and Catholic colleges and been deeply influenced by the catechetical movement, universities, or in various states of evolving relationships. including by Josef Jungmann, SJ (1889–1975), one of the Today, most of the approximately 228 Catholic colleges intellectual leaders of the movement (Jungmann [1936] and universities in the United States have organizational 1962). Numerous institutes followed in Asia, such as components designed to connect with the local church the Melanesian Institute for Pastoral Studies and Socio- and pastoral needs. cultural Service, founded in Papua New Guinea in 1970 Additional, specialized ministries of enculturation, (Mantovani 1994). The focus was on catechesis and cul- study, and formation have grown up around specific ture, training, and research. pastoral needs and groups, particularly the Latino/a Loyola University Chicago’s Institute of Pastoral Stud- community.Copy The Southeastern Pastoral Institute (SEPI) ies (IPS) began in the summer of 1964 with catechetical was founded by Mario Viscaino, SchP, in 1979 to serve training in pastoral theology, a field that Karl Rahner, the Catholic dioceses of the southeastern United States. SJ, soon suggested be called “practical” rather than It soon developed ties to Dominican-sponsored Barry “pastoral” theology (Marmion and Hines 2005, 79). The University, also in Miami. Other pastoral institutes advanced training offered at IPS was unusual before the focused on Hispanic/Latino ministry were created else- council, but quickly became the standard within Catholic where around the country, though not always as success- catechetics in the United States. Analogous efforts began fully (Matovina 2011). Another institute focused on the at the same time at Fordham University, resulting in the needs of Latinos/as began in California, the Instituto Fe Graduate School of Religion and Religious Education. y Vida, under Carmen Cervantes (Matovina 2011). Here In New Orleans, the Catechetical and Pastoral Institute the focus was on young people within a Latino/a context, (CPI) of the Archdiocese of New Orleans was set up to with a strong emphasis on catechesis and enculturation. offer summer training for catechetical leaders and others. This was also the case with MACC, the Mexican Ameri- Loyola University New Orleans took on its sponsorship can Cultural Center, now the Mexican American Catho- in 1978, and in 1983 the now-renamed Loyola Insti- lic College, originally connected to the Archdiocese of tute for Ministry (LIM) began offering its courses on a San Antonio but also with ties to higher education, in satellite basis around the country and beyond. In 1992, various ways, throughout its history (Matovina 2011). it received the resources and mission of the formerly The impact of these pastoral institutes continues to stand-alone Institute for Pastoral Life in Kansas City, a be felt, long after their first flowering in the decades joint effort of midwestern archdioceses, allowing LIM to after the Second Vatican Council. They are now a per- strengthen its continuing education programming. These manently established part of the Catholic scene, critical pastoral institutes were well-established by the 1980s, for religious education in a Catholic context almost particularlyContributor within Jesuit universities, and they all had anywhere in the world. a strong focus on religious education. Perhaps the most important from the standpoint of advanced study was the Developments and Prospects Institute for Religious Education and Pastoral Ministry Pastoral institutes are here to stay. Those based solely (IREPM) of Boston College. Founded in 1970 and led for in particular dioceses are considerably less stable than Pastoral Institutes (Catholic Universities) 937 those related to a Catholic university. Some of these, LaMagdeleine, D. 1986. “U.S. Catholic Church-related Jobs as such as the Greco Institute in the Diocese of Shreveport, Dual Labor Markets: A Speculative Inquiry.” Review of Reli- may ultimately not be sustained or may have their spon- gious Research 27 (4): 315–327. sorship passed on to a Catholic university. Those being Lemay, J. 1984. “Gaba—A Story of Renewal.” African Ecclesial served and in leadership at these institutes have moved Review 26 (1–2): 22–31. from being priests and women religious to ordinary Mantovani, E. 1994. 25 Years of Service: The Melanesian Insti- laypeople in the Catholic church and beyond seeking tute: Its History and Its Work. Goroka, Papua New Guinea: preparation for church leadership, particularly in the Melanesian Institute. intersection of catechesis and culture as well as related Matovina, T. 2011. Latino Catholicism. Princeton, NJ: Prince- areas of ministry. ton University Press. Just as religious education sustains faith communities, Marmion, D., and M. Hines. 2005. The Cambridge Guide to those structures that provide for pastoral institutes criti- Karl Rahner. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. cally sustain faith communities. Pastoral institutes based McVey, C. 1991. “The Conference of Asia-Pacific Pastoral In- in a Catholic university context mark an important new stitutes.” SEDOS Bulletin 23: 105–108. development for sustaining Catholic faith communities Meili, J. 2005. East Asian Pastoral Institute: A Power-house of and provide a religious education and formation model Intercultural and Interreligious DialogueOnly. Interreligious Dia- that is outside diocesan structures, though in close com- logue. Kriens, Switzerland: Brunner Verlag. munion with them. In this, Catholic universities take on a O’Neill, P. 2000. “The Library of the Southeast Pastoral Insti- role similar to that of religious orders—one of horizontal tute.” American Theological Library Association Summary of rather than vertical connections across Catholic faith Proceedings, 97–101. communities. As relatively autonomous structures, pas- Polak, R. 2008. “Recovering Practical Theology: Two Disciplines toral institutes at Catholic universities have the necessary on the Way to Each Other at the University of Vienna.” Inter- flexibility and relational ties critical for effectiveness and national Journal of Practical Theology 12 (1): 150–172. sound religious education. In the future, they will likely Rahner, K. 1963. The Christian Commitment: Essays in Pastoral become even more important for religious education Theology. New York: Sheed & Ward. and the general resourcing of Catholic faith communi- Rooney, P., OP. 1965. “The Loyola Institute of Pastoral Stud- ties. Those that are most successful will be grounded in ies.”Copy Worship 39 (3): 165–169. a practical theological approach that sees theology as Salaun, N. 1969. Catechist Research. Kampala, Uganda: Gaba sapiential wisdom (Farley 1983) and is interdisciplin- Pastoral Institute. ary in its methods. They will become more diverse and Smith, A. 1967. “Africa’s New Pastoral Institute.” African Eccle- find specific, appropriate means to combine formation sial Review 9 (4): 317–321. and education with research and publication in ways Uzukwu, E. 1982. “Africa’s Right to Be Different, Part 1: Afri- that unite the interests of staff with the needs of the local can Rites in the Making.” Bulletin de Theologie Africaine 4 church. In the years to come, having one or more of these (8): 243–276. institutes with strong collaborative but not ownership Vonck, P., WF. 1986. “The AMECEA Pastoral Institute (Gaba).” ties with local diocese(s) will be ever more common for African Ecclesial Review 28 (1–2): 45–46. Catholic universities around the world. Internet Resources References and Resources Asian Pacific Cultural Centers. http://eapi.admu.edu.ph/con Christus Dominus: Decree Concerning the Pastoral Office of Bish- tent/asia-pacific-catholic-cultural-centers ops in the Church Proclamed by His Holiness, Pope Paul VI on Asian Social Institute with MS Sociology, Major in Pastoral So- October 28, 1965. http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_coun ciology. http://www.asinet-online.org/index.php?option=com cils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19651028 _content&view=article&id=34&Itemid=163 _christus-dominus_en.html. Catholic Pastoral Institute of Korea. http://www.uiw.edu/ Farley, E. 1983. Theologia: The Fragmentation and Unity of pastoral/ Theological Education. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. Diocese of Laredo Pastoral Institute. http://www.dioceseof Gaba Pastoral Institute. 1972. “Gaba Pastoral Institute.” African laredo.org/?i=228&/Pastoral-Institute Ecclesial Review 14 (2): 156–159. East Asia Pastoral Institute. http://eapi.admu.edu.ph/content/ Imbelli,Contributor R., and T. Groome. 1992. “Signposts Toward a Pastoral eapi-story Theology.” Theological Studies 53: 127–137. Gaba Campus Eldoret. http://www.cuea.edu/gaba/ Jungmann, J., SJ. (1936) 1962. The Good News Yesterday and GSRRE History, http://www.fordham.edu/academics/colleges Today. Translated and edited by William Huesman, SJ. New __graduate_s/graduate__profession/graduate_school_of_r/ York: Sadlier. current_students/about_us/gsrre_history_88378.asp 938 Payne, Daniel Alexander

Institute for Theological and Pastoral Studies (Elms College/ the Lutheran Church in 1837. He served a Presbyterian Diocese of Springfield, MA), 2002. http://www.elms.edu/ church in Troy, New York, and in 1839 he was ordained about-elms/catholic-identity/institute-for-theological-and by the Franckean Synod of the Lutheran Church. On -pastoral-studies.xml the day of his ordination, he preached a strong sermon Melanesian Institute for Pastoral and Socio-Cultural Services. against slavery based on biblical exegetical principles. His http://www.mi.org.pg/ service in Troy was terminated due to illness, and he left Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture, Nanzan University, for Philadelphia. Nagoya, Japan. http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/en/ Payne affiliated with the African Methodist Episcopal Pastoral Institute of the University of the Incarnate Work, San Church in 1841. From the beginning, he was a spokes- Antonio (1968/1972). http://www.uiw.edu/pastoral/ person for an educated ministry, which was not at the Singapore Pastoral Institute. http://www.catholicspi.org/ forefront of the leadership’s interests. He documented —Bryan T. Froehle his advocacy in “Five Essays on the Educated Ministry,” published in the denomination’s journal. After serv- ing congregations in Washington, DC and Baltimore, Payne, Daniel Alexander Maryland, he was appointed historiographer of the AME Church, and in 1853, he was electedOnly to the office Daniel Alexander Payne, an African American, was born of bishop. In 1856, Payne was appointed to the board of a free person of color to London and Martha Payne on Wilberforce University, an institution of the Methodist 24 February 1811 in Charleston, South Carolina. His el- Episcopal Church. In 1863, he became the president of ementary education was at the Minor’s Moralist School, Wilberforce when the university was sold to the AMC which was created by black men to educate orphaned Church due to loss of funding from its southern sup- and indigent black children. Payne was there for two porters. With that election, he became the first African years and then studied with Thomas Bonneau (one of the American to be president of an institution of higher founders of the school) for three additional years. Payne education in the United States and thus made a con- was exposed to the basics: reading, writing, and arithme- tribution to Christian theological education as well as tic as well as the histories of Greece, Rome, and England. liberal arts education. Although his initial education was completed with Bon- As Copypresident of Wilberforce, Payne traveled to Europe neau, Payne continued to devour books as he worked in in 1867 to solicit funds for the support of the school in carpentry, tailoring, and the shoe industry. In his auto- the aftermath of the American Civil War. While there he biography, he described being called by God to become traveled in England, France, and Amsterdam. He heard a teacher. He left carpentry and opened a school. With a and spoke with ecclesial and government officials. In paucity of students, he was not able to support himself addition, he continued his own education by studying and was forced to close, but he reopened the school a French and attending theological and academic lectures. few months later, with greater success. This educational Payne also preached and made presentations in Protes- adventure came to an end due to a bill initiated in the tant congregations and general ecclesiastical meetings. General Assembly of South Carolina in December 1834, Moreover, he observed the education of French protes- which became law on 1 April 1835: An act to amend the tant girls in Paris. Law Relating to Slaves and Free Persons of Color, which While he encouraged the development of a number stated that persons who taught any slave to read or write of special Christian education classes for congregants, would be convicted, fined, and/or imprisoned. Payne had Payne’s views on Christian education were specifically to close his school. discussed in his Domestic Education, which addressed Through his acquaintance with Dr. John Bachmann, the important role of Christian education in the home, a Lutheran pastor in Charleston, South Carolina, Payne with particular emphasis on parental involvement. He received letters of recommendation and a scholarship also noted the special education and formation of girls. to study at the Lutheran seminary in Gettysburg, Penn- For Payne, “Christian education is divinely designed not sylvania. His intention was to study theology to further to confer exclusive privileges upon any chosen people; prepare for the vocation of teaching. During his stud- but to enlighten, improve, and develop into perfection ies, he opened a Sunday school for black children in the humanity as a whole unbroken unit, consequently to communityContributor and enlisted his fellow seminary classmates develop into the highest possible human perfection every as Sunday school teachers. He also established a class child of Adam.”40 for women in moral and mental improvement. After two years of theological studies, Payne had to leave the 40. Daniel A. Payne, Domestic Education (Nashville, TN: AME Sunday seminary and was licensed by the Franckean Synod of School, 1888), 6. Peckham, John 939

After his presidency at Wilberforce, Payne continued the preaching ministry of the church should be expanded to fulfill his responsibilities as bishop of the church, with (Canon 10) and that the laity should confess their sins at visitations, preaching, and representing the AME Church least once a year to their priest in preparation for receiv- at national and global conferences. In 1881, Payne was ing the Eucharist (Canon 21). This increased concern a delegate to the World Methodist Council, London, that the laity know and understand what God requires of England, and in 1893 he was a representative of the AME them, leading to renewed teaching efforts in the church. Church for the World Parliament of Religions in Chi- In 1281, at the Council of Lambeth, a catechetical manual cago. Two months later, on 29 November 1893 he died was prepared by the council for pastoral use. Peckham’s in his home in Ohio. For Daniel A. Payne, knowledge vision for the educational needs of the church was laid out was power, which was demonstrated in his life and work in the chapter known as Ignorantia Sacerdotum. His sylla- in the church. bus for the church’s teaching ministry was more extensive than those that had come before, including the creed (14 References and Resources articles), the Ten Commandments, the Seven Works of Payne, Daniel A. 1862. Welcome the Ransomed; or, Duties of the Mercy, the Seven Vices, the Seven Virtues, and the Seven Colored Inhabitants of the District of Columbia. Baltimore, Sacraments. These were to be taught by parish priests to MD: Bull and Tuttle. the laity four times a year in the Onlyvernacular. This cur- ———. 1866. The Semi-centenary and the Retrospection of the riculum became the model for the teaching expectations African Methodist Episcopal Church. Baltimore, MD: Sher- of dioceses across England, influencing the development wood & Co. of catechetical resources for pastoral use over the next ———. 1885. Treatise on Domestic Education. Cincinnati, OH: couple of centuries. For example, Bishop John Stafford Printed by Cranston & Stowe for the Author. of Bath and Wells had Peckham’s decree translated into ———. 1888. Recollections of Seventy Years. Nashville, TN: Pub- English and a copy placed in every church in his diocese. lishing House of the A.M.E. Sunday School. Peckham’s decree impacted the scope of instruction of ———. 1891. History of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. other major works that followed, including John Mirk’s Nashville, TN: Publishing House of the AME Sunday School Instructions to Parish Priests and Archbishop Thoresby of Union. York’s development of the first catechism in the vernacu- —Nelson T. Strobert lar Copyfor lay use in 1357 (the “Lay Folks Catechism”). This marks the first officially sanctioned catechism in England in the vernacular, and it bears the imprint of Peckham’s Peckham, John vision of instruction. So influential was Peckham’s model of catechetical Early Background and Education instruction that, in the early 15th century, in the face of John Peckham (Pecham) (1230–1292) was born in Sus- challenges from Lollard preaching and teaching, Arch- sex, England. He became a Franciscan about 1250 in bishop Arundel issued decrees restricting the preaching Oxford and studied there and at the University of Paris and teaching of the clergy to the scope of Peckham’s syl- under Bonaventure, becoming a lecturer in theology labus (Foss, 1989). there. His study interests also included the sciences, including optics and astronomy. Around 1270, he References and Resources returned to England and became a faculty member at Douie, D. L. 1952. Archbishop Peckham. Oxford: Clarendon Oxford; for a short time he served as provincial min- Press. ister of the Franciscans in England. Following a period Foss, D. B. 1989. “John Mirk’s Instructions for Parish Priests.” as a lecturer at the papal palace in Rome, he returned In The Ministry: Clerical and Lay, edited by W. J. Sheils and to England in 1279 and was appointed archbishop of D. Wood, 131–140. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell. Canterbury. In this role he sought to reform the church, Knowles, M. D. 1942a. “Some Aspects of the Career of Arch- fighting against corruption in ecclesial appointments bishop Pecham, Part I.” The English Historical Review 57 and practices and strengthening the preaching and (225): 1–18. teaching ministries of the church. ———. 1942b. ‘Some Aspects of the Career of Archbishop Pecham, Part II.” The English Historical Review 57 (226): SignificantContributor Contributions to Christian Education 178–201. Peckham was arguably the church leader who had the Peckham, J. L. 1934. Archbishop Peckham as a Religious Educa- greatest impact on the development of the teaching min- tor. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. istry of the church in England in the later Middle Ages. Simmons, T. F., and H. E. Nolloth, eds. 1901. The Lay Folks’ The Fourth Lateran Council had decreed in 1215 that Catechism, or the English and Latin Versions of Archbishop 940 Pedagogy

Thoresby’s Instruction for the People; Together with a stories and parables, modeling behaviors for the disciples, Wycliffite Adaptation of the Same, and the Corresponding adapting the way that He communicated to the specific Canons of the Council of Lambeth. London, New York: audience (e.g., Pharisees, Sadducees, The Woman at the C. Scribner & Co. Well, the disciples), and blending lessons with hands- —Kevin E. Lawson on experiences.41 Over the past centuries, a number of related terms have emerged, such as andragogy, critical pedagogy, ecopedagogy, ubuntugogy, and heutagogy. All Pedagogy fit under the broad category of pedagogy, in that they involve the study of teaching and learning, but they place Translated from the Greek, pedagogy means “to lead the a special emphasis on certain perspectives, philosophies, child.” The term is most often used to describe the art methods, and strategies. and science of teaching and learning. It is not exclusive to the teaching of children, but is also used in reference References and Resources to teaching people of diverse ages and backgrounds and Compayré, Gabriel, and William Harold Payne. 1903. The His- in different environments (school, church, community). tory of Pedagogy. London: S. Sonnenschein & Co. The term is often used in reference to the many meth- Fryar, Jane L. 1992. Go and Make Disciples:Only The Goal of the ods and strategies used by teachers to help students learn. Christian Teacher. St. Louis, MO: Concordia Pub. House. As a result, one may refer to “good pedagogy” as those Gangel, Kenneth O., and Howard G. Hendricks. 1988. The methods or strategies that are most likely to aid students Christian Educator’s Handbook on Teaching. Wheaton, IL: in a given context to learn. Pedagogy is used in reference Victor Books. to relational aspects of teaching like building positive Horne, Herman Harrell, revised and updated by Angus M. relationships with learners; creating a positive and safe Gunn, 1998. Jesus, the Teacher: Examining His Expertise in learning environment; gaining the attention of learn- Education. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications. ers prior to the start of a lesson; and teaching in a way Loughran, John. 2006. Developing a Pedagogy of Teacher Edu- that takes into account the interests, personal histories, cation: Understanding Teaching and Learning about Teach- learning styles, strengths, and challenges of individual ing. London: Routledge. learners. Many of these relate to what some refer to as Mayer,Copy Richard E. 2011. Applying the Science of Learning. Bos- the art of teaching, but they also venture into the science ton: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. of teaching. Pedagogy as the science of teaching draws —Bernard Bull from research in educational psychology and develop- mental psychology and on different teaching strategies to teach in a way that aligns with what is often referred to Pedagogy, Critical Liberative as best practice. From a Christian perspective, the science of teaching seeks to understand how God designed the Pedagogy is teaching or the principles behind teach- human faculties and teaching in a way that honors and ing. In Christian education, critical liberative pedagogy makes good use of that design. involves principles of critique, Christian hope, and lib- Pedagogy focuses on the how of teaching and learning eration informing the way teaching is conducted and the more than on the what (content) of teaching and learn- content of education. It is both the act of teaching and the ing. As a result, from a pedagogical perspective, preparing principles on which that teaching rests. to teach involves not just selecting content, but also plan- Critical pedagogy is a part of secular education, and ning out the entire lesson, including answers to a variety has been since Paulo Freire’s education of and with poor of questions. What do I want the students to learn? How farmers in Brazil. Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed is will I help them learn it? How will I know when or if they a classic example of critical pedagogy. Other educators, learned it? The study of pedagogy explores the effective- such as Henry Giroux and bell hooks, are also contribu- ness of a variety of strategies: lectures, discussion-based tors to this critical method of teaching and learning. This learning, project-based learning, experiential learning, strategy for teaching draws on movements and ideologies learning in groups, self-paced learning, and other teach- working for social justice, such as Marxism, feminism, ing and learning methods. postcolonialism, radical democracy, and antiracism. InContributor Christian education, many turn to the Bible for ped- agogical models and strategies. For example, one might examine the way in which Jesus taught the disciples in 41. Jane Fryar, Go and Make Disciples: The Goal of the Christian Teacher (St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House, 1992); Herman Horne, order to extract certain principles or specific practices. Angus Gunn, and Herman Horne, Jesus, the Teacher: Examining his Exper- This includes things like communicating lessons through tise in Education (Grand Rapids. MI: Kregel, 1998). Penitentials 941

These movements and ideologies inform the students, Freire, Paulo. 2001. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. 30th anniv. ed. content, and method of education in critical pedagogy. Translated by Myra Bergman Ramos. New York: Continuum. At the root of a critical liberative pedagogy is the Giroux, Henry A. 2011. On Critical Pedagogy. Critical Peda- understanding that there are some members of society gogy Today Series, edited by Shirley R. Steinberg and Ana who are oppressed by others, and that there is some- Maria Araujo Freire. New York: Continuum. thing wrong with this situation. The telos of education Groome, Thomas H. 1991. Sharing Faith: A Comprehensive Ap- is to transform the situation of those who are oppressed. proach to Religious Education and Pastoral Ministry, the Way Sometimes this includes emphasis on the individuals, of Shared Praxis. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. sometimes on society as a whole. These pedagogies do hooks, bell. 1994. Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Prac- not view reality as a fixed entity, but rather as available tice of Freedom. New York: Routledge. for change, which comes from critical awareness and Palmer, Parker J. 1998. The Courage to Teach: Exploring the engagement. Because reality is open to transformation, Inner Landscape of a Teacher’s Life. San Francisco: Jossey- there is hope and expectation as a necessary base upon Bass. which the pedagogy operates. The context of the learner Parker, Evelyn L. 2003. Trouble Don’t Last Always: Emancipa- is a primary starting point for education, and that context tory Hope Among African American Adolescents. Cleveland, is open to critique by students and teacher. Every model OH: The Pilgrim Press. Only of critical pedagogy is also critically self-conscious of the Warren, Michael. 1987. Youth, Gospel, Liberation. San Fran- power dynamics of education, which causes the teacher cisco: Harper & Row. to consider his or her position of power carefully and to —Emily A. Peck-McClain seek justice within the classroom. Christian critical liberative pedagogies combine critical pedagogy with liberation theology. Liberation theology Penitentials gained notoriety in the 1960s and 1970s. Gustavo Gutier- rez, a Catholic priest in Peru, is thought to have founded Penitentials are handbooks for guiding confessors, usu- liberation theology in Latin America in the 1960s. In the ally priests, dating from around the sixth century. These United States, James Cone started black liberation theol- manuals listed various sins and the appropriate penance ogy in the 1960s. Liberation theology has continued to to Copyobtain forgiveness for each sin. They contained rules be explored and expanded through the work of other provided by councils or bishops concerning satisfaction theologians. For example, Dolores Williams, a woman- for sins. Penance was and is a practice and a sacrament ist theologian, provided an important corrective to the in the Roman Catholic Church, and other Christian patriarchal aspects of liberation theology with her book traditions observe various forms of it. The word pen- Sisters in the Wilderness (1995). Liberation theology un- ance comes from the words “pain” (pena) and “to hold” derstands that Jesus came not for those in power, but for (teneo). It is described by Ambrose (Evans, 2004) as those without power. This theology includes a hermeneu- mourning over one’s past sins and committing not to tic of suspicion toward both the Bible and church tradi- repeat them (see the recently translated 14th-century tion. These authoritative texts and traditions are available work Handbook for Curates, by Guido of Monte Rochen, to alternative interpretations that challenge rather than listed below). maintain social power dynamics. Contemporary Christian education scholars whose Historical Background work is based on principles of critical liberative pedagogy In the early centuries of the church, penance was a pro- include Parker J. Palmer, Walter Brueggemann, Michael cess of restoration to communion and part of the pro- Warren, Thomas Groome, and Evelyn Parker. Their work cess of Christian initiation. It had a public and liturgical explores methods of education for Christians that take character in the early church. In the third and fourth seriously the call from Jesus for equality and justice in the centuries, penance became increasingly prominent and Kingdom of God. They seek justice in their methods of more systematized. In the Celtic church around the teaching, the content of education, and the telos, or goal, fifth century, monastic centers developed the practice of education for both teacher and students. They do so of private confession, involving penitential acts for for- not because of a commitment to an ideology, but rather giveness (“Penance, Celtic” 1990, 938). The exact origin becauseContributor of their faith in Jesus and His liberative ministry. of penitentials is difficult to pinpoint, but they began to appear and spread in Wales and Ireland, then England References and Resources and Germany and beyond. These books prescribed that Brueggemann, Walter. 1978. The Prophetic Imagination. Phila- penance was to be administered privately to a priest delphia: Fortress. (McNeill and Gamer 1965, 4, 7, 28). The earliest known 942 Penitentials penitential is probably the Penitential of Finnian, writ- discretio or discernment emphasized a good moral peda- ten sometime before the Irish missionary Columbanus gogy that fosters the growth of an individual’s conscience wrote his around AD 591 (Payer 1984, 9). Public pen- (Connolly 1995, 104, 195). The truly moral life was a ance continued, largely associated with Lent (McNeill “life-long project,” and the penitentials proposed pen- and Gamer 1965, 29). ance as an attitude of life (104, 148). The priests and people of the early Irish church had a First Confession for children is a rather late devel- vivid understanding of God’s relationship with human- opment in the Roman Catholic Church, but it became ity and an awareness of their own sinfulness. Connolly accepted that children should prepare for First Com- (1995) has argued that the Irish monastic church had key munion by making confession. There is debate about insights into the “mystery of divine forgiveness,” with a the theological rationale for the sequence of the two. detailed and particular understanding of the Christian Church documents specify that the sacraments should moral life. The druidism of pre-Christian Ireland empha- be entered into at the age of discretion (around seven). sized learning and schooling, and this may have had an It has been the practice in many places to delay first effect on monasticism and the practice of penance. Large penance until two or three years after First Commu- numbers of nonclerical students came to the monasteries nion (Grigassy 1990, 187–189). Today the Catechism to study, many of whom were penitents seeking the heal- of the Catholic Church claims thatOnly penance makes ing and spiritual direction that was offered (5–6, 10–11). sacramentally present Jesus’s call to conversion. It is These manuals prescribed penitential acts such as an acknowledgment of sin, but also of the holiness of prayer, fasting, repeated singing of the Psalter, pil- God and God’s mercy. It is also called the Sacrament of grimage, almsgiving, as well as some ascetic practices, Reconciliation, because it imparts the love of God who some quite severe. They put forth a schema of virtues reconciles (see the Catechism of the Catholic Church, and vices, such as gluttony, lust, avarice, covetousness, listed below). Modern-day Christians may be put off anger, vanity, and pride (Connolly 1995, 14, 21). The by penitential prescriptions, but Connolly argues that penitentials were widely influential in the church at this penitentials offer a symbolic challenge for the sacrament time and supplied the basis for the practice of confes- of penance today. Christians like the ancient Celts expe- sion in the West (McNeill and Gamer 1965, 46). Their rienced metanonia, or turning toward God throughout influence and use waned around the ninth century (but their Copylives, a continual conversion. Connolly offers a they continued to appear until the sixteenth century) pilgrimage model for understanding the sacrament. as critics objected to the understanding of penance as The modern confessor can also learn from the Celtic paying debts for sins or tariff penance. Reformation emphasis on hospitality, as the soul friend welcomes the churches for the most part abandoned the penitentials penitent back from isolation, pain, and remorse into full and devised their own practices of confession (McNeill life in the Christian community (1995, 164, 169, 196). and Gamer 1965, 47–50). Confession includes prayerful self-examination and the opportunity to talk about one’s deep questions and con- Catechetical Purpose cerns, to receive spiritual guidance and direction. The practice of confession itself has been a means of Christian education. In preparation for baptism, cat- References and Resources echumens engaged in examination of conscience and Catechism of the Catholic Church. 1995. 2nd ed. http://www confession. Confession has been called “an act of wor- .vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c2a4.htm. ship, a turning to God who alone can overcome the real- Connolly, H. 1995. The Irish Penitentials and Their Signifi- ity of sin” (“Penance” 1990, 934). Penitentials contained cance for the Today. Dublin: Four guidelines for confessors and emphasized their pastoral Courts Press. role as spiritual guides or as anmcharas or soul friends Evans, G. R. 2004. The First Christian Theologians: An Intro- (McNeill and Gamer 1965, 25). They described pen- duction to Theology in the Early Church. Oxford: Wiley- ance as “medicine for the soul” and emphasized healing. Blackwell. Penitentials “educated, instructed, guided and exhorted Grigassy, D. P. 1990. “Children, First Penance.” In The New the priest-confessor in his duties” (Payer 1984, 9). They Dictionary of Sacramental Worship, edited by P. E. Fink, served the catechetical purpose of defining sin and moral 187–191. Collegeville: MN: The Liturgical Press. responsibilityContributor and guiding sexual behavior. Confessors Guido of Monte Rochen. 2011. Handbook for Curates: A Late used scripture during confession to describe God’s love Medieval Manual on Pastoral Ministry. Translated by Anne and forgiveness (9). For Columbanus and other authors T. Thayer. Washington, DC: The Catholic University Press. of the penitentials, the practice of confessing was a means McNeill, J. T. 2012. The Celtic Penitentials and Their Influ- of spiritual growth and development. His concept of ence on Continental Christianity. http://www.forgottenbooks Pentecostal Christian Education 943

.org/info/The_Celtic_Penitentials_and_Their_Influence_on Pentecostal Historical Scholarship Continental_1000661174.php. The second phase of Pentecostal education began in the McNeill, J. T., and H. M. Gamer. 1965. Medieval Handbooks of late 1960s and arose from a desire to preserve the early Penance. New York: Octagon Books. history of Pentecostalism. The remarkable spread of the Payer, P. J. 1984. Sex and the Penitentials: The Development of charismatic movement, in particular, encouraged clas- a Sexual Code 550–1150. Toronto: University of Toronto sical Pentecostals to rediscover their own roots and to Press. confront historiographical models that failed to account “Penance.” 1990. In The New Dictionary of Sacramental for the rise and persistence of the movement. Descriptive Worship, edited by P. E. Fink, 934. Collegeville, MN: The historical studies and social scientific research shifted Liturgical Press. scholarly attention gradually to the Pentecostal move- “Penance, Celtic.” 1990. The New Dictionary of Sacramental ment worldwide and softened the anti-intellectual bias of Worship, edited by P. E. Fink, 938–939. Collegeville, MN: classical Pentecostalism. The Liturgical Press. United States Catholic Conference. 1979. Sharing the Light Pentecostal Biblical Scholarship of Faith: National Catechetical Directory for Catholics in A third wave of Pentecostal education surfaced in the the United States. Charlotte, NC: United States Catholic 1970s among biblical scholars, whoOnly investigated both Conference. the biblical sources most relevant to the Pentecostal self- —Susan Willhauck description and the dominant interpretations of such texts. Questions concerning cessationism, dispensation- alism, Spirit baptism, and hermeneutics led Pentecostals Pentecostal Christian Education to genuine discussions about their concerns. Pentecostal biblical and historical scholarship engaged the wider Since the early 20th century, Pentecostalism has garnered academy and eventually laid the groundwork for the increasing attention with the rise of the charismatic Society for Pentecostal Studies in North America (1970), movement among North American universities; Pente- the first independent academic society among Pentecos- costal academic societies and institutions of higher edu- tals. Similar networks followed in Europe (1979), Latin cation; and Pentecostal scholarship, with its penetration AmericaCopy (1992), Africa (1998), and Asia (1998). of various fields of intellectual inquiry. At the same time, the beginnings of modern-day Pentecostalism also signal Pentecostal Theological Education a persistent stance of anti-intellectualism, a rejection of The fourth wave of Pentecostal education began during higher education and learning, and criticism of the aca- the 1990s, with the emergence of constructive theological demic world. Pentecostals worldwide only gradually have research. Beginning with an emphasis on the distinctives begun to rescript the movement in its intellectual and of the Pentecostal faith, this generation has entered the pedagogical dimensions. broad range of theological disciplines. In a subsequent The history and character of Pentecostal Christian ed- development, a new generation of Pentecostal theolo- ucation can be divided into five periods of development, gians has begun to reconsider traditional doctrines in a each focusing on the formation of a particular vocation: more systematic fashion. The new discussions have led (1) Pentecostal missionaries, (2) Pentecostal historians, to deliberations on the nature of Pentecostal education (3) Pentecostal biblical scholarship, (4) Pentecostal theo- in general and have begun to shape a new form of Pente- logians, and (5) Pentecostal scientists. costal scholarship that goes beyond traditional historical, biblical, and internal theological conversations. The Beginning of Pentecostal Christian Education: Pentecostal Missionaries Contemporary Developments: Pentecostal Scientists The first period, launched at the beginning of the 20th Pentecostal education today has expanded into the century, is synonymous with the training of Pentecostal human and natural sciences. This generation coincides missionaries. Bible institutes and missionary training with the formulation of a new rationale for the vitality schools became particularly dominant in North America, and future of Pentecostal pedagogy, able to overcome as many Pentecostals leaving the country to evangelize the juxtaposition of spirituality and science and to en- theContributor world found themselves in need of instruction and courage Pentecostals to enter scientific careers explicitly training. This generation struggled with the integration as Pentecostals. Contemporary education has moved of Pentecostal eschatology and spirituality, including a into questions of scientific knowledge and methodol- persistent form of anti-intellectualism in the educational ogy, physics, biology, chemistry, psychology, medicine, and academic landscape of the time. anthropology, sociology, and technology. For some, 944 Pentecostal Movement the coming-of-age of Pentecostal pedagogy necessitates works/gifts of the Holy Spirit as depicted in Acts and that Pentecostals ultimately engage in all scientific throughout the New Testament. Within the scope of the disciplines; for others, the increasing exposure of the movement are classical Pentecostal denominations and scientific world to the phenomenon of Pentecostalism neo-Pentecostal (charismatic) congregations, described has only just initiated that journey. Both perspectives as those who accept and practice Pentecostal beliefs and anticipate significant changes in the nature of Pentecos- liturgies, but remain outside the confines of established tal education during the 21st century. Pentecostal denominations. While many megachurches may be Pentecostal or neo-Pentecostal, not all mega- The Future of Pentecostal Education churches fall into this category.42 The intellectual history of Pentecostalism manifests the struggle to find and express a pedagogical model con- Pentecostal Beginnings comitant with the Pentecostal worldview and spiritual- There are numerous Pentecostal denominations, but ity and to integrate such a model into the dominant three are prominent: Church of God (Cleveland), As- Western methodologies. Underlying this “homelessness” semblies of God, and Foursquare Church. Each was of Pentecostal pedagogy is the fundamental theological organized early in the 20th century,43 and they were the commitment of Pentecostals to see education itself as a consequences of two holiness revivals,Only one in Cherokee transformative practice in light of the encounter with the County, North Carolina (1896), and one in Los Angeles, Holy Spirit. Much of this struggle takes place not in the California (1906). Those attending the revivals, disillu- academy but in churches, schools, and homes. The future sioned with what they perceived as a lack of true piety of Pentecostal education depends on the basic formation and devotion in the established churches in America, of congregations, including an increase in literacy, the banded together in prayer. In each revival, those present institution of continuing education, the diversification had a new experience, which they described as baptism of the church curriculum, the building of educational in the Holy Spirit, with evidence of speaking in tongues structures and libraries, and the marrying of faith and as demonstrated in Acts 2. Within a matter of a few understanding in the whole of the Christian life. years, congregations were formed and denominations were established.44 Neo-Pentecostalism resulted from References and Resources similar revivals in mainline denominations in the 1960s Copy45 Jacobsen, Douglas, and Rhonda Hustedt Jacobsen. 2005. “Pen- and 1970s. tecostalism and the Academy.” Pneuma: The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies 27 (1): 106–109. Pentecostal Epistemology and Hermeneutics Johns, Cheryl Bridges. 1993. Pentecostal Formation: A Pedagogy Pentecostals view knowledge as transrational,46 not among the Oppressed. Journal of Pentecostal Theology Sup- locked in reason and logic, but in a dialectical relation- plement Series 3. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press. ship with experience and scripture. Johns and Johns ———. 2005. “Athens, Berlin, and Azusa: A Pentecostal Re- liken this way of knowing to the Old Testament under- flection on Scholarship and Christian Faith.” Pneuma: The standing of knowledge as yada, which they describe as Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies 27 (1): 136–147. a “dynamic, experiential, relational knowledge.”47 They Sepúlveda, Juan. 1999. “The Challenge for Theological Educa- tion from a Pentecostal Standpoint.” Ministerial Formation 42. Megachurches are typically defined as those churches having at- 87: 29–30. tendance of at least 2,000 people per weekend. The approaches to Christian Smith, James K. A., and Amos Yong, eds. 2010. Science and the education are as varied as are the churches themselves, but the tendency is Spirit: A Pentecostal Engagement with the Sciences. Bloom- toward a large variety of offerings and the frequent use of small groups. See John Dart, “Going Mega: The Trend Toward Bigger Churches,” Christian ington: Indiana University Press. Century, 27 July 2010, 22. Yong, Amos. 2007. “Pentecostalism and the Theological Acad- 43. The Church of God was organized in 1902, the Assemblies of God in emy.” Theology Today 64 (2): 244–250. 1914, and the Foursquare Church in 1923. 44. This overview of the history of Pentecostalism is common knowl- —Wolfgang Vondey edge among Pentecostal scholars. For additional information, see Walter J. Hollenweger, The Pentecostals trans. R. A. Wilson (Peabody, MA: Hen- drickson Publishers, 1988); and Charles W. Conn, Like a Mighty Army: A History of the Church of God, definitive ed. (Cleveland, OH: Pathway Press, Pentecostal Movement 1996). 45. See Hollenweger, “Pentecost Outside ‘Pentecost’: Speaking with ContributorTongues in the Traditional Churches of America,” in The Pentecostals. Pentecostalism is a movement, not a denomination. The 46. Jackie David Johns, “Pentecostalism and the Postmodern World- term is broadly defined as including those who embrace view,” Journal of Pentecostal Theology 3, no. 7 (1995): 89. 47. Jackie David Johns and Cheryl Bridges Johns, “Yielding to the Spirit: the idea of baptism of the Holy Spirit as a definite work A Pentecostal Approach to Group Bible Study,” Journal of Pentecostal The- subsequent to salvation and who affirm and practice the ology 1, no. 1 (1993): 112. Pentecostal Movement 945 relate this way of knowing to the work of the Holy Spirit to programs typical of many Protestant congregations. as depicted in the Paraclete passages of John’s Gospel Christian education of children frequently utilizes a club and explain that Pentecostals learn about God through format. Especially prominent in Pentecostal Christian encounter with God, via the Holy Spirit. “The Holy education are the Mpact girls’ clubs (formerly known as Spirit is the presence of God, the means of encoun- Missionettes) and Royal Rangers boys’ clubs. The Chris- ter. The church as community of the Spirit forms the tian education of youth has also abandoned the training context of the encounter. The Scriptures are objective, model and is for the most part no different from that in conceptual, personal word of God and as such govern non-Pentecostal churches. Most churches offer some sort the process by which he is known.”48 of leadership training for women and men. The three A Pentecostal hermeneutic is one of dialogue, which major Pentecostal denominations have for several years occurs within the community of faith and is a conversa- provided higher education through Bible colleges, liberal tion not only between persons, but also between experi- arts universities, and seminaries. ence and scripture. The dialogue is contextual, recog- As is obvious from this brief overview of Christian nizing that, for this global movement, the truth of God education in Pentecostal congregations, there is little that remains fixed, but the application of truth varies between is vastly different from that provided by non-Pentecostal cultures. One constant of a Pentecostal hermeneutic is congregations. This is a troublesomeOnly issue for many an orientation toward praxis. Knowledge for the sake of Pentecostal scholars, who contend that the Pentecostal knowledge is never the goal. Rather, the goal is transfor- worldview and the subsequent Spirit-filled life require mation: of self and society. educational efforts (programs and curriculum) reflective of the distinctives of Pentecostalism.50 Efforts are under Approaches to Christian Education way to develop a pedagogy that is reflective of Pentecos- Not only do Pentecostals view community as the primary talism but also utilizes the significant advances of Chris- context of learning; they also view community49 as an es- tian education philosophy and methodology present in sential source of transmission of the reality of Spirit-filled the 21st-century church. life. The community shares its common story, the story of God, along with the individual stories of members of References and Resources the community. The stories of experience and confession Alvarez,Copy Miguel. 2001. “Distinctives of Pentecostal Education.” then shape the identity and experience of others in the Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 3 (2): 281–293. community. The exchange of stories occurs in communal Anderson, Allan. 2001. “The Fury and the Wonder? Pente- life activities; in small groups; and in worship services via costal-Charismatic Spirituality in Theological Education.” songs, testimonies, and sermons. Pneuma 23 (2): 287–302. Pentecostal Christian education also utilizes a formal Boone, R. Jerome. 1996. “Community and Worship: The Key approach, much like most Protestant churches. Sunday Components of Pentecostal Formation.” Journal of Pentecos- school is a time of education in biblical knowledge and tal Theology 4 (8): 129–142. tends to be age-specific. Many denominations produce Bowers, James S. 1995. “A Wesleyan-Pentecostal Approach to Sunday school curriculum, but churches often use ge- Christian Formation.” Journal of Pentecostal Theology 5 (6): neric curriculum (e.g., Faith Weavers by Group). Small 55–86. groups are utilized as a means of connection, account- Conn, Charles W. 1996. Like a Mighty Army: A History of the ability, and acquisition of both biblical and life-focused Church of God. Definitive ed. Cleveland, OH: Pathway Press. knowledge. Many churches offer gender-specific edu- Dart, John. 2010. “Going Mega: The Trend toward Bigger cational ministry to adults, often depicted as women’s Churches.” Christian Century 27 (July): 22–24. ministry and men’s ministry. In the mid-20th century, Hittenberger, Jeffrey S. 2001. “Toward a Pentecostal Philoso- Wednesday nights were often dedicated to preparation phy of Education.” Pneuma 23 (2): 217–244. for ministry, considered an essential aspect of Christian Hollenweger, Walter J. 1988. The Pentecostals. Edited by Hen- formation in light of the movement’s understanding that drickson Publishers. Translated by R. A. Wilson. Peabody, all believers, regardless of vocation or age, are called to MA: Hendrickson Publishers. spread the message of redemption and deliverance in anticipation of a soon-returning Savior. Much of the 50. See Allan Anderson, “The Fury and the Wonder? Pentecostal- attention to midweek ministry training has given way Charismatic Spirituality in Theological Education,” Pneuma 23, no. 2 (Fall Contributor 2001): 287–302; Miguel Alvarez, “Distinctives of Pentecostal Education,” Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 3, no. 2 (2001): 281–293; James S. Bow- 48. Ibid., 119. ers, “A Wesleyan-Pentecostal Approach to Christian Formation,” Journal 49. For additional insight, see R. Jerome Boone, “Community and Wor- of Pentecostal Theology 3, no. 6 (1995): 55–86; and Jeffrey S. Hittenberger, ship: The Key Components of Pentecostal Formation,” Journal of Pentecos- “Toward a Pentecostal Philosophy of Education,” Pneuma 23, no. 2 (Fall tal Theology 4, no. 8 (1996): 129–142. 2001): 217–244. 946 Peru and Christian Education

Johns, Jackie David. 1995. “Pentecostalism and the Postmodern was Johann Pestalozzi Baptist, a Protestant minister and Worldview.” Journal of Pentecostal Theology 3 (7): 73–96. surgeon of Italian origin, and his mother was Susanne Johns, Jackie David, and Cheryl Bridges Johns. 1993. “Yielding Hotz. In 1751, Pestalozzi’s father passed away, and the to the Spirit: A Pentecostal Approach to Group Bible Study.” family was forced into a modest lifestyle with its share Journal of Pentecostal Theology 1 (1): 109–134. of financial difficulties. Such hardships, however, did Kessler, John. 2010. La Historia de la Evangelizacion en el Peru. not prevent Pestalozzi from receiving the educational 3rd ed. Lima, Peru: Ediciones PUMA. training of an average middle-class Swiss child. His life —Lisa Milligan Long and work were strongly influenced by his religious back- ground. As a devout Christian, he prepared to become a priest, but later abandoned the idea. In 1769, Pestalozzi Peru and Christian Education married Anna Schulthess; a year later, she gave birth to their first and only son, Hans Jakob (named after Jean- Christianity came to Peru in 1532 with the Spanish Jacques Rousseau), who died at a young age. Conquest and the work of the Catholic Church. Even Influenced by the ideas of Rousseau, Pestalozzi under- though Protestantism was present in the 1820s among stood that education should follow nature and should small groups, the Catholic Church is recognized as the unfold children’s inner capacities (EliasOnly 2002, 142). He main church in the country (85 percent of the popula- found his own formal studies disconnected from the tion is Catholic). social problems of his time. Spending vacation time with There is religious freedom in Peru under the constitu- his grandfather, Andreas Pestalozzi, a pastor in the poor tion; however, the Catholic Church holds a privileged po- rural community of Hongg, he was able to observe the sition according to a concordat signed between Peru and conditions of country peasants and later to establish a the Vatican in the 1980s. Nevertheless, Protestant and number of experimental schools for poor children. As evangelical churches have grown quickly in recent years. an educational reformer, Pestalozzi strongly believed in The main evangelical denominations are Assembly the potential of education to improve the individual and of God, Christian and Missionary Alliance Church, Pe- society. He asserted that the main function of education ruvian Evangelical Church, and some neo-Pentecostal was to lead children to develop their natural and innate churches. Representative institutions are CONEP (Evan- abilities.Copy According to John Elias, “Pestalozzi began with gelical National Council of Peru), Compassion, World the principle that human nature is inherently good and Vision, Evangelical Seminary of Lima (SEL), and Saint contains the potential for intellectual and moral develop- Andrews High School (Colegio San Andres). ment that can be achieved through the exercise of love Since Peru is a democratic country, there is also limited and kindness by parents and teachers” (Elias 2001, 142). representation of religion in congress and politics. Edu- For Pestalozzi, teachers were like gardeners, and their cation is provided to all people with no discrimination, role was to provide the best external conditions so that and religious minorities are allowed to attend any school. the inner capacities of children could blossom. Christian education is provided only by confessional in- In 1774, Pestalozzi founded his first school on his own stitutions—Catholic and Protestant—and its distinctive property with the intention of assisting neglected chil- feature is focusing on values according to the Bible. There dren. In the newly founded school, children performed are also some private religious schools, and in 2010 Peru agricultural activities while also receiving training in got its first evangelical university. math, language, religion, and morality. His idea was to provide students with an environment where they References and Resources could live, work, and learn together as a family. Lacking CEHILA. 1984. Historia de la Iglesia en America Latina. San financial funds, the school was closed in 1779. After the Pablo, Buenos Aires: Ediciones Paulinas. project’s failure and throughout the next two decades, Gutierrez, Tomas. 2002. Desafios a la fe cristiana. San Pablo, Pestalozzi worked on refining his thoughts on educa- Buenos Aires: Ediciones AHP. tion through his writings. In 1781, he wrote Leonard —Cesar Morales and Gertrude, drawing from his experience of his school, followed by Christopher and Elizabeth (1782), On Legis- lation and Infanticide (1783), Illustrations for My ABC ContributorPestalozzi, Johann H. Book (1787), and Researches into the Course of Nature in the Development of the Human Race (1797). Three of his Johann H. Pestalozzi (1746–1827) was a Swiss educator most influential works were How Gertrude Teaches Her widely known and respected for his social and pedagogi- Children (1801), Epochs (1803), and Swansong (1826). cal work. He was born in Zurich, Switzerland. His father These last publications further consolidated his theory of Phenomenology 947 education, in which he affirmed that society could only Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich. 2012/1898. How Gertrude Teaches be restored through the educational efforts of parents Her Children. Translated by L. Holland and F. Turner. New and teachers. This is especially clear in How Gertrude York: Forgotten Books. Teaches Her Children, in which Pestalozzi emphasizes ———. 1951. The Education of Man, Aphorisms. New York: the role of the mother, the first educator, in the process of Philosophical Library. educating a child. The interactions between mother and Silber, Kate. 1976. Pestalozzi: The Man and His Work. London: child in different environments—home, nature, church, Routledge and Kegan Paul. etc.—contribute to the process of developing knowledge. —Débora B. Agra Junker As Kate Silber observes, “The mother is the mediator be- tween child and nature; through language and intuition she leads the child to truth, and through his association of Phenomenology her loved person with his environment to universal love” (1976, 176). Pestalozzi posited that the seed of love flour- From the Greek phainomenon, meaning appearance, phe- ishes in the child’s life through her or his relationship nomenology in its strictest sense refers to the science of with the mother. He also believed that the child possessed phenomena or things that appear. The interest in how a divine nature that should be cultivated, first through the things appear in consciousness, ratherOnly than the assump- affective relationship between mother and child, and later tion that they simply appear as they are, separated phe- through the relationship between teacher and child. nomenology from the philosophy of being, or ontology. Rather than asking questions about what it meant to be, Implications for Christian Education phenomenology was concerned with how things come to Pestalozzi was an unconventional Christian who did not be known in consciousness. In the 18th century, Immanuel conform to any particular set of doctrines, yet explic- Kant had refuted the notion that the consciousness was an itly incorporated Christian values in his philosophy of empty vessel that received the true reality of things that education. For example, the love for God and for others came to the consciousness. Phenomenology takes Kant’s occupied a fundamental part in his educational approach. early critique of unencumbered consciousness and claims He affirmed, “Love is the sole foundation on which our that the experience of things is colored by the subject’s nature can be trained to humanness” (Pestalozzi 1951, intention,Copy such that phenomena appear in relation to the 4), and insisted that this love should be manifested first consciousness not as realities that reveal themselves fully toward other human beings before being directed to God. and independently of the subjects’ experience of them. As he stated, “I soon see that the feelings of love, trust, gratitude and the readiness to obey must be developed Husserl in me before I can apply them to God. I must love men As a movement, phenomenology is associated with [sic], trust men, thank men, and obey men before I can German philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859–1938). In aspire to love, trust, thank, and obey God” (Pestalozzi reaction to romanticism, Husserl wanted to reclaim 2012, 283). This understanding remained an intrinsic knowledge from abstraction by grounding it once more part of his love for God, manifested primarily in favor in scientific methods of reduction; however, this also of the poor children whom he educated. At the heart of required establishing philosophy as a reliable foundation Pestalozzi’s pedagogy was a social commitment to foster- for science. Husserl determined that he would use the ing intellectual advancement for all, which included the scientific method to establish a philosophy that could emotional, moral, and social dimensions of their lives. objectively explain the existence of the world. He wanted Ultimately, all these factors combined would not only phenomenology to be a philosophical science that could engender the advancement of the individual, but also prove the existence of the world, a proof science had to lead to the development of the human race. One of his re- assume in order for science to be true.51 markable attributes was to find the unity between theory For Husserl, such a philosophy had to be without the and practice—an ideal to be pursued by all Christians presuppositions that clouded or crowded consciousness. who seek coherence between professed belief and action. He therefore suggested that one must suspend belief in the world such that “the experienced world . . . be References and Resources deprived of its naive acceptance.”52 Following the impli- Elias,Contributor John. 2002. A History of Christian Education: Protestant, cations of Cartesian doubt, in which Descartes doubts Catholic, and Orthodox Perspectives. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company. 51. Romdenh-Romluc Komarine, Merleau-Ponty and Phenomenology of Perception (Florence, KY: Routledge, 2010). Gutek, G. L. 1968. Pestalozzi and Education. New York: 52. Edmund Husserl, Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Phe- Random. nomenology, trans. Dorian Cairns (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1960), 18. 948 Phenomenology everything and then realizes the one thing he cannot ally situated, phenomenological perception was always a doubt is that he is in fact thinking, Husserl suggests that it matter of interpretation. Ricoeur also pushes Heidegger’s is the philosopher’s experience of thinking or meditating notion that experience is mediated by language to de- that occurs independently of the world. The experience velop a theory of symbolism, in which he suggests the of thinking does not, for Husserl, depend on an assump- existence of two interrelated categories of interpretation: tion that the world exists. From this knowledge of the one religious and the other suspicious. The religious form structure of an independent, transcendental conscious- of interpretation seeks to refigure or remember an origi- ness, or “Transcendental Ego,” Husserl reasoned that the nary message. In contrast, the hermeneutics of suspicion “content of one’s own experiences” is indubitable. Hus- designates a form of interpretation actively circumspect serl’s phenomenology therefore positioned knowledge as about the human preconceptions and motivations that something perceived in relation to the experiences of the veil the meaning of a text. For Ricoeur, interpretation is subject and the structures of the subject’s consciousness. always a matter of both affirmation and negation; inter- preting suspiciously between the lines and interpreting Heidegger as though decoding a secret message are always at play Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) paved the way for think- in the movement of self-consciousness.53 It is precisely ing about a phenomenology of language in which lan- through the conflicting experience of suspicion and belief Only54 guage was the mediator of the experience of being, just that the modern subject comes to a more mature faith. as it was the mediator of interpretation. Throughout For theologians, biblical scholars, and Christian educa- most of the 19th century, hermeneutics involved the tors, Ricoeur’s various detours through biblical interpre- interpretation of written texts or speech. For Heidegger, tation and theological concepts make him an intriguing hermeneutics became a means of understanding the figure for thinking about the relationship between a phe- entire world by focusing on “being-in-the-world.” In nomenology of embodied experience as an interpretive his famous Being and Time, Heidegger claimed that the journey into what it means to know oneself in relation to question of ontology was fundamentally a hermeneuti- the world without being all-knowing. In other words, he cal question, in which a level of understanding preexists provides a bridge for deconstructing the Absolute with- cognitive knowing. One could therefore approach the out the arrogance of an absolute deconstruction. question of being-in-the-world as would a subject who It isCopy because knowing becomes a function of the sub- comes to the text with presuppositions and advance un- ject’s experience of its others that phenomenology can derstanding. Thinking about Being was not about an in- inform a Christian ethic and education that conceives the dubitable scientific fact but an ongoing, future-oriented spiritual virtues in relation to immanent goods that pro- interpretation of the experience of being-in-the world. mote and sustain a flourishing humanity. Furthermore, because of its emphasis on the relational experience of in- Merleau-Ponty terpretation as the flourishing ground of consciousness, Where Husserl holds to a notion of an unencumbered phenomenology has the potential to intimately connect “Transcendental Ego” and Heidegger’s phenomenology the reader to the text and its author(s) in an interpre- of being-in-the world slips into abstraction, French phi- tive dance. Such is the view of reader-response criticism, losopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–1961) furthers which asks not “What does the text mean?” but “What their work by emphasizing the concreteness of embodied does the text mean to you?” experience as the basis of consciousness. Merleau-Ponty’s Phenomenology of Perception emphasizes consciousness References and Resources as bound to the context of the subject. Merleau-Ponty Husserl, Edmund. 1960. Cartesian Meditations: An Introduc- rejects a transcendental ideal that is somehow separated tion to Phenomenology. Translated by Dorian Cairns. The from the messy realities of life. For Merleau-Ponty, phe- Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. nomenology must describe an experience of ongoing Komarine, Romdenh-Romluc. 2010. Merleau-Ponty and Phe- perception to the exclusion of absolute objectivity. nomenology of Perception. Florence, KY: Routledge. Ricœur, P., and M. I. Wallace. 1995. Figuring the Sacred: Religion, Ricoeur Narrative, and Imagination. Edited by Mark I. Wallace. Trans- Because of its relationship to interpretation, phenome- lated by David Pellauer. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. nologyContributor was as bound to literature as it was to philosophy. Based on Merleau-Ponty’s theory of embodied percep- 53. Dan R. Stiver, Ricoeur and Theology (New York: Bloomsbury T&T tion, Paul Ricoeur (1913–2005), a French philosopher Clark, 2012), 14. 54. P. Ricœur and M. I. Wallace, Figuring the Sacred: Religion, Narrative, committed to principles of Christian socialism, concluded and Imagination, trans. David Pellauer, ed. Mark I. Wallace (Minneapolis, that because consciousness was embodied and contextu- MN: Fortress Press, 1995). Philosophy and Theology of Education 949

Stiver, Dan R. 2012. Ricoeur and Theology. New York: Blooms- Bautista, Lorenzo. 1996. “The Church in the Philippines.” In bury T&T Clark. Church in Asia Today, edited by Saphir Athyal, 8–11. Singa- —Wesley Nan Barker pore: ACWE. Bolasco, Mario V. 1994. Points of Departure: Essays on Chris- tianity, Power and Social Change. Manila, Philippines: St. Philippines and Christian Education Scholastica’s College. Constantino, Renato. 1982. The Miseducation of the Filipino. The Philippines is the only nation in the East that has im- Quezon City, Philippines: Foundation for Nationalist Studies. bibed a great deal of Western culture and learning and yet Estioko, Leonardo R., SVD. 1994. History of Education: A is very deeply rooted in Eastern tradition (Estioko 1994). Filipino Perspective. Manila, Philippines: Logos Publications. The Western heritage of Christianity and education were Kwantes, Anne C. 1989. Presbyterian Missionaries in the Philip- bequeathed by hundreds of years of Western coloniza- pines: Conduits of Social Change (1899–1910). Quezon City, tion that began in the mid-16th century. Philippines: New Day Publishers. Education under Spain (1521–1899) fulfilled three ———, ed. 2001. Chapters in Philippines Church History. Manila, goals: indoctrination into Roman Catholicism, promo- Philippines: OMF Literature. tion of the Spanish language, and the imposition of the Melendres, Ferdinand V. 2010. My Country’sOnly Godly Heritage: Spanish culture. Spain had contributed to the establish- The History of the Philippines in Biblical Perspective. Quezon ment of the leading Roman Catholic universities. City, Philippines: New Day Publishers. Education under the United States (1899–1930) achieved Suk, John, ed. 2005. Doing Theology in the Philippines. Manila, the establishment of the public school system, the imposi- Philippines: OMF Literature. tion of the English language as the medium of instruction, Tano, Rodrigo S. 1993. “Theology in the Philippine Context: and the evangelization of the Filipinos. As Protestant mis- Some Issues and Themes.” In Theological Education in the sionaries came with the colonizers, mission schools were Philippines Context, edited by Lee Wanak, 17–39. Manila, also founded that bore a distinctly Protestant controlled Philippines: OMF Literature. education from elementary school to the college level (Al- —Joanna Feliciano-Soberano zona 1933). According to government statistics in 1913, the main denominations and mission groups in the coun- Copy try were the Methodists, the Presbyterians, the Disciples of Philosophy and Theology of Education Christ, the Baptists, and the Church of the United Brethren (Kwantes 1989). In the 1950s, a number of fundamentalist Introduction and Pentecostal groups from North America also came, Institutional education may be defined as the intentional, along with some parachurch organizations. deliberate, progressive, and systematic process by which After more than 100 years of Protestant Christianity in the teacher shapes and influences the student, both in the the Philippines, the Roman Catholic Church continues present and for the future. The curriculum is the primary to have an influential voice in the affairs of the gov- instrument; however, social, cultural, economic, political, ernment. Protestant denominations are now clustered religious, and technological contexts also influence and within three main bodies: the Philippine Council of shape formal education. Dewey (1966, 1–41) saw educa- Evangelical Churches, the National Council of Churches tion as a “necessity of life,” possessing “social function,” in the Philippines, and the Philippines for Jesus move- having “direction,” and aimed at “growth.” School and ment. The North American imprints on Christian educa- university education, whether or not they subscribe to tion are still pronounced in most evangelical churches, as a particular philosophy or theology, are shaped and in- a smorgasbord of borrowed evangelistic and educational fluenced by the worldviews of both teacher and student. materials is still being propagated. The curricula of semi- A worldview may be intentional, critical, or organized; naries and Bible colleges are still patterned after the West. it may also be reactionary or ideological, reflective or Bautista (1996) rightly observes that Filipino evangelicals traditional. The history of Christian institutional educa- remain most hospitable to foreign missions and disciple- tion is a record of personal and communal engagement ship programs. Tano (1993) bemoans the slow work of with the scriptures—an engagement that is historical and contextualization in the country. cultural—with the various kinds of knowledge: physical, Contributor religious, historical, scientific, philosophical, theological, References and Resources literary, and so forth. Such a reflection and relationship Alzona, Encarnacion. 1933. The Social and Economic Status constitutes the framework for a Christian philosophy of of Filipino Women 1565-1932. Honolulu, HI: Institute of education, one in which faith and religious tradition are Pacific Relations as important as reason and rational reflection. 950 Philosophy and Theology of Education

Philosophy of Education are explicitly intended to educate,” the discipline and Philosophy is defined as the love and pursuit of wisdom, profession of the philosophy of education would cease while education is essentially concerned with leading to exist. The theoretical shift, such as from modern- pupils out and beyond themselves, both personally and ism to postmodernism, has resulted in an absence of for life in common. In the Western tradition, the affili- conceptual unity about the purpose of philosophy or ation between philosophy and education can be traced its relationship to and how it informs education. This to the pre-Socratic philosophers and is principally as- lack of conceptual and intellectual unity has led, for ex- sociated with Plato and Aristotle. Plato’s Republic and ample, to inquiring whether only human beings can be Aristotle’s Nichomachean Ethics are examples of living educated (Heslep 2009). However, amid the diversity of life personally and communally in an intentional and thought, contemporary philosophers of education, while deliberate way, and both works have shaped the philoso- acknowledging the more traditional issues such as the phy of education. In the Western tradition, Roman, but nature of the curriculum, the purpose of knowing and especially Greek, thought was adopted and reshaped by learning, the aims of education, the moral dimension of Christianity, though when it came to education, ancient teaching, and the liberal arts and the humanities, have Christianity exhibited a special concern with “learning broadened their scope to include issues such as civic and the dogmas—the truths necessary for salvation; and public life; education in multicultural Onlyand multireligious moral training—the laws of Christian behavior” (Mor- societies; and education as effected by issues of gender, rou 1981, 314). However, the question of Tertullian, an power, religion, and feminism. Thus cultural and reli- early Christian thinker—“What has Athens (learning) gious plurality has led to diverse and conflicting ways of got to do with Jerusalem (faith)?”—indicates that the understanding the discipline of the philosophy of educa- relationship between faith and learning was bumpy and tion (see Carr 2005). Christian philosophers of educa- developed gradually. As the Roman state adopted Chris- tion have engaged this discipline, pushing it beyond the tianity, the literary, especially the philosophical, heritage confines of linguistic, empirical, idealistic, rationalistic, of classical Greece was identified as the handmaiden of or exclusively cultural theories of philosophy of educa- Christianity. Indeed, Christians still refer to philosophy tion. They have been anxious to promote a holistic and as the handmaiden of theology. St. Augustine Christian- integral discipline engaging the complexity of the stu- ized Greek ethical and political philosophy and added dent asCopy a person; a knowing, choosing, and acting being significant new elements as a means to expand the created in the image and likeness of God. church’s institutional power (Hogan 1995, 46–47). The new Christian culture of learning was built on classi- Theology of Education cal learning, particularly of Greece, and on biblical and Philosophy of education is an academic discipline usually theological learning. St. Basil of Caesarea encouraged pursued at a graduate level, after suitable preliminary study the young to read Greek literature and accept what was of philosophy, leading to the identification of a philosopher “useful” (Basil 1934, 381). Christians thus began to dis- of education. No such discipline or academic designation tinguish between education as learning and education exists for the theology of education; consequently, one does as formation. The Christian message called for a higher not speak of theologians of education as one can of phi- moral order, but it also emphasized the “regeneration of losophers of education. However, scholars have reflected personality and the reorganization of society” (Eby and on what a theology of education might be or include as a Arrowood 1940, 578). Christian schools were particu- means to distinguish Christian education from education larly influenced by the seven liberal arts, particularly the of other faith traditions, as well as, amid philosophical and trivium and the quadrivium, inherited from the classical cultural pluralism, to highlight the Christian dimension world and constituting the curriculum of schools of the of education. Thus, Hodgson says (1999, 123) it is easier Middle Ages (West 1971, 4). to understand a clear designation such as the “Christian The philosophy of education is influenced by the theology of education.” Other Christian scholars maintain various epochs of history, such as the Reformation, the that the theology of education examines issues such as Enlightenment, Marxism, and postmodernism. It is a indoctrination, catechesis, religious education, and social theoretical reflection on the conceptual framework and education, rendering it a division of practical theology educational practices based in a particular philosophical (Hull 1990, 2). There is a difference between theological schoolContributor of thought—empiricism, idealism, rationalism, education —that is, the academic study of the theological etc.—or philosophers—Aristotle, Kant, Dewey, etc.—or traditions of a particular religion (in the Christian tradi- on cultural and social theories such as multiculturalism, tion, theological education includes biblical, systematic, pluralism, and studies in diversity. As Feinberg (1995, pastoral, moral, and historical theology)—and the theology 26) states, apart from institutions and practices “that of education—that is, the theological reflection of educa- Philosophy, Christian Contributions to 951 tion in a manner analogous to the philosophy of education, Hull, J. 1976. “Christian Theology and Educational Theory: outlined above. Theology and education is a more com- Can There Be Connections?” British Journal of Educational mon subject than theology of education, mainly because Studies 24: 127–143. the separate fields of theology and education are supported ———. 1990. “Theology and Education.” In Christian Perspec- by neither a unifying formal discipline—theology of edu- tives for Education: A Reader in the Theology of Education, cation—nor a scholarly designated profession—theologian edited by Leslie Francis and Adrian Thatcher, 1–19. Leomin- of education. “For the theology of education to be taken ster, UK: Gracewing. seriously, theologians need to be convinced that the subject Morrou, H. I. 1981. A History of Education in Antiquity. Lon- matter of education is worthy of theological scrutiny and don: Sheed & Ward. educationalists need to be convinced that the methods of West, A. F. 1971. Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools. theology are worthy of serious consideration within the New York: AMS Press. educational arena” (Francis 1990, 349). Some theologies —Mario O. D’Souza of education explore the religious dimension of educa- tion (Hodgson); others examine the relationship between theology and educational theory (Hull 1976); and still Philosophy, Christian Contributions to others investigate the relationship between theology and Only education in a particular Christian tradition, for example, Christian contributions to the teaching and develop- Catholicism, and through a diversity of issues and contexts ment of philosophy are plentiful, especially because of (see Carey and Muller 1997). In the context of intellectual the dominant place of Christian thought within Western and cultural diversity, Christian institutions continue to culture in general. Arguably, Christian belief in an intelli- formulate a formal relationship between theology and edu- gible, created world—one brought into being by a caring cation, other than theological education. Scholarship indi- God who established orderly natural law—has been at cates that more attention is paid to employing the methods the root of much of Western philosophy and its develop- of the various fields of theology to the study and practice of ments into subfields. Many of the distinctly Christian Christian education, such as Christian education and the approaches to philosophy took an apologetic direction; moral life or the aims of Christian education as informed that is, they sought to make a case for Christian thought by theology or biblical studies. by Copyengaging prevalent philosophical problems or trends. For Justin Martyr (100–c. 165), who intentionally References and Resources dressed in philosophers’ attire, Christianity was philo- Basil. 1934. Saint Basil: The Letters. Translated by Roy J. Defer- sophically defensible and provided a clear understand- rari. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ing of the logos, or rational principle of the universe Carey, P. W., and E. C. Muller, eds. 1997. Theological Education discussed by his unbelieving contemporaries. He linked in the Catholic Tradition. New York: The Crossroad Publish- the philosophical concept of logos with Jesus, called the ing Company. Word in John 1, to demonstrate the connections be- Carr, W., ed. 2005. Routledge/Falmer Reader in Philosophy of tween ancient wisdom and biblical revelation. Similarly, Education. London: Routledge/Falmer. many early Christian thinkers, such as Clement of Alex- Dewey, J. 1966. Democracy and Education. New York: The Free andria (c. 150– c. 215), Saint Augustine (354–430), and Press. Boethius (c. 480– c. 524), found themes in Platonism or Eby, F., and C. Arrowood. 1940. The History and Philosophy Neoplatonism helpful, because they helped break him of Education Ancient and Medieval. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: free from the Manichean heresy, allowing him to view Prentice-Hall. evil not as a substance but as a privation or adultera- Feinberg, W. 1995. “The Discourse of Philosophy of Educa- tion of goodness. This allowed him to understand how tion.” In Critical Conversations in Philosophy of Education, a good God could create a good world without creating edited by Wendy Kohli, 24–33. New York: Routledge. evil directly. While intellectual historians often cite the Francis, L. 1990. “Theology of Education.” British Journal of rhetorical question—“What has Athens to do with Jeru- Educational Studies 38 (4): 349–364. salem?”—of Tertullian (c. 160–c. 225) as an example of Heslep, R. 2009. “Must an Educated Being Be a Human Being?” a theologian who rejects philosophy, this does not tell Studies in the Philosophy of Education 28: 329–349. the whole story. To be sure, Tertullian thought Greek Hodgson,Contributor P.C. 1999. God’s Wisdom: Toward a Theology of Edu- philosophy—especially Platonism—spawned most of cation. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. the Christian heresies, but he drew from classical Hogan, P. 1995. The Custody and Courtship of Experience: rhetoric and Stoic philosophy in his work. Thus, while Western Education in Philosophical Perspective. Dublin: The Christian thinkers cautioned against problematic ideas Columbia Press. in specific philosophical movements, they rarely advo- 952 Philosophy, Christian Contributions to cated a wholesale rejection of wisdom or clear thinking, This perspective led to both the importance of analysis even when their approach to the formation of belief in of language (important in modern Anglo-American Christianity was fideistic (i.e., belief formed without analytic philosophy) and later naturalistic approaches regard to historical or philosophical evidence). to science. Ockham’s disagreements with the papacy led In the medieval period, Anselm of Canterbury (c. 1033– to his excommunication, which mitigated his influence 1109) developed the ontological argument for the exis- in the Catholic tradition. Nevertheless, Martin Luther tence of God, which attempts to establish God’s existence (1483–1546) famously rejected Thomistic Aristotelian- rationally. His a priori argument sought to show the in- ism early in his academic career and claimed Ockham coherence of the idea that the greatest conceivable being as a major philosophical influence. There is a subtle might not have being. Though controversial in its own but important difference between a Lutheran approach time, philosophers of various sorts (including atheists) in to philosophy, wherein faith and reason are explored subsequent centuries continued to examine, rework, and in interactive but not synthesized ways, and Reformed, contend with the ontological argument. Despite the pref- Catholic, and American evangelical philosophy, in which erence for Plato in the first several Christian centuries, there is a greater integration of faith and various aca- medieval thinkers eventually had to confront the ideas of demic disciplines. Hence, when Lutherans do philosophy Aristotle. Through the Crusades, Europeans encountered they have tended to do so as philosophers—albeitOnly within Arab translations of Aristotelian writings. Some of the a discernible Lutheran ethos that values interactive rather new ideas they read were compatible with Christianity, than integrative engagement. like the concept of telos, or an intelligent design to the While older scholarship assumed that the Renais- natural world. Other ideas, such as the eternal existence sance and Reformation era involved a near-unanimous of the material world, conflicted with the biblical notion rejection of Aristotle, recent research demonstrates of creation ex nihilo, the belief that God spoke the world that, while many rejected the pedantic Aristotelianism into existence out of nothing. In response, Thomas Aqui- of Thomistic scholasticism, many humanistic Aristote- nas (1225–1274) developed a synthesis of Christian and lians championed the value of Aristotle in the original Aristotelian ideas that became virtually synonymous with languages, free from medieval accretions and com- Western Christian philosophy among Roman Catholic mentaries. Reformers in Geneva and Wittenberg, for thinkers. Aristotelian logic and categories became part example,Copy maintained the value of Aristotle, especially of the intellectual toolbox for medieval scholastics in Aristotelian logic. Nonetheless, during the 16th century, Thomas’s wake, and his five arguments for God’s ex- many claimed to draw from both Plato and Aristotle, to istence demonstrate the importance of Aristotle to his the extent that the ideas of these ancient philosophers Christian philosophy. were compatible with biblical teaching. For instance, In the centuries following Aquinas, theologian-philos- the Reformed historian and translator of Plato’s Works ophers began to contribute original ideas on epistemol- (1578) Jean de Serres (1540–1598) summarized his ogy and metaphysics. John Duns Scotus (c. 1265–1308) approach to harmonizing Plato and Aristotle with the addressed philosophy not simply as an adjunct to apolo- motto Plato docet; Aristoteles probat: Plato teaches good getics, though he wrote on this too. For instance, Scotus concepts, but Aristotle has the best approach to logic defended the historical evidence for the Resurrection and epistemology. In any case, Reformation universities through the reliability of scripture and his own form of eventually placed an emphasis on the value of studying an a posteriori argument for God’s existence as a neces- the empirical, natural world, which helped move Eu- sary cause of the world. Nevertheless, whereas Aquinas rope further toward the age of scientific discovery. assumed there was significant overlap between phi- The continental philosophical tradition emerged out losophy and theology, between nature and grace, Scotus of a Christian milieu that adopted Luther’s independent maintained a sharper distinction between revealed and spirit yet discarded most of his doctrine. Many of the natural knowledge. This preserved the importance of major German philosophers during the modern era revelation over philosophical theism in the realm of the- were the sons of Lutheran pastors, or at least grew up in ology, but suggested that the natural world ought to be pietist Christian homes. Kant, Nietzsche, and Heidegger understood on its own terms, apart from its relationship are prime examples. Simultaneously, several Christian to the divine. William of Ockham (c. 1288–c. 1348) took thinkers with Lutheran backgrounds took issue with the this Contributorfurther and influenced a philosophical perspective Enlightenment’s intellectual arrogance, rationalism, and known as nominalism. Ockham believed that univer- antisupernaturalism. Most important among counter- sal ideas do not have their own reality; they are terms Enlightenment thinkers were the Christian existentialist used by human knowers to sort out the natural world. Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) and the Radical Pietists Philosophy of Education, C. S. Lewis’s 953

Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788), who anticipated the several apologists in an effort to verify the historical Res- importance of language and subjectivity in continental urrection account, along the lines of analytic philosophy. philosophy, and Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743–1819), Likewise, James K. A. Smith (1970–) contributed signifi- who believed Enlightenment thought was dangerously cant insights regarding the implications of continental reductionistic and nihilistic. philosophy for Christian thought. It is too soon to tell A robust challenge to modern secularism came from whether these or other scholars will have the contempo- Roman Catholic thinkers in the 19th century. Pope Leo rary impact of Augustine and Aquinas, but there is no XIII issued the encyclical letter Aeterni Patris (1879), shortage of Christian philosophers attempting to do just which challenged students of the church to study medi- that in Christian colleges and universities today. eval philosophy, especially Aquinas, in order to combat the secularism of the modern world. Several impor- References and Resources tant Catholic philosophers and historians of philosophy Allen, Diogenes, and Eric O. Springsted. 2007. Philosophy for emerged in the following century. For example, Étienne Understanding Theology. 2nd ed. Louisville, KY: Westmin- Gilson (1884–1978) produced important work on me- ster John Knox Press. dieval philosophy, and F. C. Copleston’s (1907–1994) Brown, Colin. 2010. Christianity and Western Thought. Vol. 1, multivolume history of philosophy has served as an im- From the Ancient World to the Age ofOnly Enlightenment. Down- portant resource for philosophers of various traditions. ers Grove, IL: IVP Academic. In addition to these authors’ helpful historical writings, Copleston, Frederick. 1946–2003. A History of Philosophy. 11 they were original philosophers in their own right. vols. New York: Doubleday. Reformed philosophers like Alvin Plantinga (1932–), Gilson, Étienne. 1955. History of Christian Philosophy in the whose career included teaching at Calvin College and Middle Ages. London: Sheed and Ward. the University of Notre Dame, represent the important Hoitenga, Dewey, Jr. 1991. Faith and Reason from Plato to place of the Reformed tradition within the world of Plantinga: An Introduction to Reformed Epistemology. New Christian philosophy. He is the most notable represen- York: SUNY Press. tative of the perspective known as Reformed epistemol- Milbank, John. 1999. “Knowledge: The Theological Critique of ogy. This school of thought draws from philosophical Philosophy in Hamann and Jacobi.” In Radical Orthodoxy, and epistemological themes in John Calvin (1509–1564) editedCopy by John Milbank, Graham Ward, and Catherine Pick- and the commonsense realism of Thomas Reid (1710– stock, 21–37. Oxford: Routledge. 1796), but is its own distinct and fascinating contribu- Schmitt, Charles B. 1983. Aristotle and the Renaissance. Cam- tion to philosophy. For Reformed epistemologists, a be- bridge, MA: Harvard University Press. liever may be justified in holding beliefs about God that —Jeff Mallinson are properly basic; that is, they do not require an argu- ment or some other foundational belief to be intellectu- ally warranted. As far as distinctly Christian philosophy Philosophy of Education, C. S. Lewis’s goes, Roman Catholic and Reformed philosophers of religion tend to dominate the conversation. Neverthe- “The task of the modern educator is not to cut down less, members of various traditions continue to produce jungles but to irrigate deserts.” Thus writes C. S. Lewis stimulating new work and gather in vibrant academic in The Abolition of Man. To put it another way, Lewis associations, including the Evangelical Philosophical also wrote, “The real way of mending a man’s taste is not Society, founded in 1974, and the Society of Christian to denigrate his present favorites but to teach him how Philosophers, founded in 1978. to enjoy something better.”55 In this way he expressed Christian philosophers have endeavored from the be- the task of education. But if that is the task of the educa- ginning to explain and defend their faith using the tools tor, what is the purpose of education? Citing Aristotle of prevailing philosophy. So it is today: philosophers gen- and Milton, Lewis wrote that the purpose of education erally fall either into the analytic camp, which dominates is to produce the good citizen. “Aristotle says that the the Anglo-American philosophical conversation, or so- aim of education is to make the pupil like and dislike called postmodern thought, better identified as continen- what he ought” (Eth. Nic. 1104 B).56 “The purpose of tal philosophy. In both camps, Christian philosophers haveContributor entered the dialogue not to simply assimilate Chris- 55. C. S. Lewis, An Experiment in Criticism (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge tianity into the prevailing ideology, but to make the case University Press, 1961), 112. 56. C. S. Lewis, The Abolition of Man or Reflections on Education with for Christianity in that context. For instance, Lutheran Special Reference to the Teaching of English in the Upper Forms of Schools thinker John Warwick Montgomery (1931–) influenced (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 10. 954 Philosophy of Education, C. S. Lewis’s education has been described by Milton as that of fitting criteria rather than the impressions they make in the a man ‘to perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously mind of the beholder. all the offices both private and public, of peace and war.’ Primary experience of literature was far more important . . . the purpose of education is to produce the good man than reading what someone else said about it. Lewis “never and the good citizen. . . . The ‘good man’ here means the seemed concerned about exams, nor about the fashionable man of good taste and good feeling, the interesting and currents of opinion on a work, nor about whether one had interested man.”57 covered the secondary material sufficiently.”62 Lewis considered faith to be central in education, as in Three of Lewis’s essays especially reflect the essence of all areas of life: “I believe in Christianity as I believe that his educational philosophy. His most important writing the Sun has risen, not only because I see it, but because­ by about education, “Our English Syllabus,” encourages stu- it I see everything else.”58 In the modern age, most people dents to ask, “What do I most want to know?” or “What think they are at the center of the world, whereas in me- part of reality can I get to know?” rather than “What kind dieval thought, God was at the center and human beings of job can I get after college with this degree?” “The Par- were very much subject to God.59 The medieval values of thenon and the Optative” emphasizes the importance of courage, chivalry, humility, sacrifice, patience, and many learning the basics (the grammar) of any given subject be- more virtues are natural consequences of placing God at fore moving to appreciation. “DemocraticOnly Education” tells the center rather than our emotions or mankind itself. us that the best education is not egalitarian, but aristocratic: Having been educated in subjects representative of “Equality . . . has no place in the world of the mind. Beauty the liberal arts (history, philosophy, Greek and Latin is not democratic. . . . Virtue is not democratic. . . . Truth texts, English language, and English literature), Lewis ap- is not democratic.”63 Genuine democratic education—that proached education in much the same way as he had been is, the education that will preserve democracy—will be educated. He wanted a strong liberal arts foundation, “ruthlessly aristocratic.”64 The more egalitarian a society built on the model of the medieval trivium: grammar becomes, the more likely education is to be left behind.65 (the building blocks of a subject), logic (how the parts Lewis especially deplored two forms of amateur phi- of a subject fit together), and rhetoric (how one presents losophy, the approach to a subject that uses one’s aca- what one learns). demic field to promote a particular view of life. In his Lewis once favorably described the qualities of the essay Copy“Historicism,” Lewis defined a historicist as one 16th-century writer John Gower: “The heart is insular who believed that he had discovered the inner meaning and romantic, the head cool and continental: it is a good of a particular part of history on the basis of his learn- combination.”60 Lewis also wrote, “For me, reason is the ing rather than on the basis of the facts.66 A historicist natural organ of truth; but imagination is the organ of studies the past not just to learn historical truth, but meaning. Imagination, producing new metaphors or re- also to learn metaphysical or transcendent truth.67 By vivifying old, is not the cause of truth, but its condition.”61 this method, some use history as an opportunity to re- The best education speaks both to heart and mind, imagi- educate people according to their philosophy. He once nation and reason, and it offers truth in place of emotion remarked, in a letter about the great difference between or personal opinion. historians and the writings of those people about whom The doctrine of objective truth, objective value, and the historian wrote, that the former often contradicted objective morality, what Lewis called the Tao, therefore the latter.68 Lewis described scientism as “the belief formed an important part of his educational philosophy. that the supreme moral end is the perpetuation of our Objects are true, good, or beautiful based on objective own species, and that this is to be pursued even if, in the process of being fitted for survival, our species has to be stripped of all those things for which we value it—of pity, 57. C. S. Lewis, “Our English Syllabus,” in Rehabilitations, ed. Walter Hooper (London: Oxford University Press, 1939), 81–82. 58. C. S. Lewis, “Is Theology Poetry?” The Weight of Glory and Other Ad- 62. Paul Piehler, e-mail correspondence with author, June 2002. dresses (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1980), 106. My thanks to Margaret 63. C. S. Lewis, “Democratic Education,” in Present Concerns, ed. Walter Humphreys for suggesting this quotation here. Hooper (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986), 34. 59. C. S. Lewis, The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and 64. Ibid. See also C. S. Lewis, The Screwtape Letters & Screwtape Proposes Renaissance Literature (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, a Toast (New York: Macmillan, 1959 and 1961), 166ff. 1964), 74ff. 65. C. S. Lewis, “Historicism,” in Fern-Seed and Elephants and Other 60. C. S. Lewis, The Allegory of Love, 222, cited in Peter Bayley, “From Essays on Christianity, ed. Walter Hooper (Glasgow: William Collins Sons MasterContributor to Colleague,” 66. In James T. Como, ed., C. S. Lewis at the Breakfast & Co. Ltd., 1975), 81ff. Table and Other Reminiscences (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 66. Ibid., 44. Lewis also writes about the difficulty of achieving a philoso- 1992), second edition.. phy of history, “Historicism,” 59. See also “De Descriptione Temporum,” 3. 61. C. S. Lewis, “Bluspels and Flalanferes: A Semantic Nightmare,” in 67. Lewis, Discarded Image, 174. Rehabilitations, ed. Hooper, 265 revise to 157. See especially Peter Schakel’s 68. Letter to his brother Warren, written from Magdalen College, Ox- Imagination and the Arts in C. S. Lewis (University of Missouri Press, 2002). ford, in Letters of C. S. Lewis, 12 December 1927, 249. Philosophy of Education, Catholic 955 of happiness, and of freedom.” 69 Lewis elsewhere called it Philosophy of Education, Catholic developmentalism, an “extension of the evolutionary idea far beyond the biological realm . . . as the key principle Introduction of reality.”70 A Catholic philosophy of education can be described as Education, for C. S. Lewis, kept God at its center; up- a rational, systematic, intentional, and deliberate reflec- held the liberal arts; filled young minds with the objective tion on education, informed by scripture, Christian faith, truth of a discipline; especially read primary documents; and the traditions and the intellectual life of the Catholic combined reason with imagination; deplored egalitarian- Church, and on the other hand, by the life of reason and ism; and left philosophy to the philosophers, religion to the development of knowledge in all its breadth and di- the theologians, and utility to the vocational schools. mensions, or learning and education in general. The re- lationship between education and philosophy is intrinsic, References and Resources as philosophical currents, such as theories of knowledge, Heck, Joel D. 2006. Irrigating Deserts: C. S. Lewis on Education. moral philosophy, and metaphysics, influence education. St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. A Catholic philosophy of education is not an autono- Lewis, C. S. 1936. The Allegory of Love: A Study in Medieval mous discipline, just as education, whatever its affiliation Tradition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. or confession, is not an autonomousOnly discipline. Catholic ———. 1939a. “Bluspels and Flalanferes: A Semantic Night- education is governed by Christian teleology, that is, with mare.” In Rehabilitations, edited by Walter Hooper, 133– the ultimate end of the human person as created in the 158. London: Oxford University Press. image and likeness of God. As Maritain says (1962, 41): ———. 1939b. “Our English Syllabus.” In Rehabilitations, edited “If the conception of . . . human life, human culture, and by Walter Hooper, 79–93. London: Oxford University Press. human destiny is the basis of all education, we must insist ———. 1961. An Experiment in Criticism. Cambridge, UK: that there is no really complete science of education . . . Cambridge University Press. except such as is correlated with and subordinate to the ———. 1964. The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval science of theology.” A Catholic philosophy of education and Renaissance Literature. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge encompasses the person as a knower in relation to the University Press. various levels of the created order and the knowing and ———. 1966. “A Reply to Professor Haldane.” In Of Other knowledgeCopy that emerges as a result of interaction with Worlds, edited by Walter Hooper, 74–85. New York: Har- these orders. court Brace & Co. ———. 1975. “Historicism.” In Fern-Seed and Elephants and “Catholic” and the Philosophy of Education Other Essays on Christianity, edited by Walter Hooper, The Catholic philosophy of education, like the phi- 44–64. Glasgow: William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. losophy of education, has evolved into a distinct field of ———. 1980. “Is Theology Poetry?” The Weight of Glory and scholarship and grown in relation to the historical evolu- Other Addresses. New York: Simon & Schuster. tion of the Catholic Church as an institution amid and in ———. 1982. “The Parthenon and the Optative.” In On Stories response to historical, cultural, scientific, and intellectual and Other Essays on Literature, edited by Walter Hooper, changes. The great thinkers who have shaped the Catho- 109–112. New York: Harcourt Brace. lic philosophy of education, such as St. Augustine, St. ———. 1986a. “Democratic Education.” In Present Concerns, Thomas Aquinas, St. John Baptiste de la Salle, and John edited by Walter Hooper, 32–36. New York: Harcourt Brace Henry Newman, would not consider themselves Catholic Jovanovich. philosophers of education per se, but their intellectual ———. 1986b. “Modern Man and His Categories of Thought.” schema and thought have contributed to the develop- In Present Concerns, edited by Walter Hooper, 61–66. New ment of a Catholic philosophy of education. The various York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. epochs of Catholicism contribute to the distinctiveness ———. 1996. The Abolition of Man or Reflections on Education of its educational practice and make up the edifice of a with Special Reference to the Teaching of English in the Upper Catholic philosophy of education, marked by the distinc- Forms of Schools. New York: Simon & Schuster. tion and relationship between philosophy and theology. Lewis, W. H. 1993. Letters of C. S. Lewis. New York: Harcourt Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical Aeterni Patris—On the Res- Brace. toration of Christian Philosophy—promulgated in 1879, Contributor—Joel D. Heck sets the stage for particular attention to and articulation of a Catholic philosophy of education. As Pegis says 69. C. S. Lewis, “A Reply to Professor Haldane,” in Of Other Worlds, ed. (1955, 42), this encyclical is founded on the belief that Walter Hooper (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1966), 76ff. 70. C. S. Lewis, “Modern Man and His Categories of Thought,” in Present “the idea that the light of divine truth helps the human Concerns, ed. Hooper (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986), 63. intellect to philosophize in a better way, and does this 956 Philosophy of Education, Catholic without in the least coloring or compromising the spe- moral philosophy. While Maritain’s educational philoso- cific nature of philosophy.” So, a Catholic philosophy of phy is founded on the liberal arts and the humanities, he education would include the nature of the student as a sees education, in ultimate terms—he wrote at the height person, the personality and character of a truly educated of the terrors of World War II—as the increasing acquisi- person, how a person’s personality and character are tion of wisdom and the internal and spiritual freedom of formed and educated, and the role and responsibilities of the student as a person (see Maritain 1943, 48 and 102). those who educate. Maritain moves beyond a narrow conception of Western education by stressing that a Christian education must Some Catholic Philosophers of Education attend to the whole of human culture. The relation between philosophy and education changes when Christian is added to that relationship. Accord- Catholic Philosophy of Education Today ingly, what a student must learn and understand and The period between the encyclical Aterni Partris (1879) what a teacher must teach are transformed into questions and the close of the Second Vatican Council (1965) that require careful attention. St. Augustine, influenced marked a flourishing of the Catholic philosophy of edu- more by Plato than Aristotle, affirms the primacy of cation and Catholic philosophers of education. Works scripture, but also other learning and knowledge con- by Redden and Ryan (1949), Ryan (1950),Only and McLean tributed by pagan authors. For Augustine, the wealth of (1962) are some examples. With the close of the council, knowing and learning must be affirmed as a means of and a move from a classical and fixed worldview to one understanding the created order, and all as a means to- governed by history and culture, Catholic education ward ultimate understanding of the mysteries contained shifted its reliance from philosophy to theology. This in scripture. In Augustinian thought, the teacher plays a significant shift led to Elias (1999) wondering “What- fundamental role, and words and teaching are a means ever Happened to a Catholic Philosophy of Education?” of drawing out the truths contained in our minds as a Bernard Lonergan, another theologian and philosopher result of divine illumination. As Gallagher says (1956, in the Thomist tradition, affirmed the interdependence 49): “Augustine accounts for learning, then, in terms of philosophy and education (see Lonergan 2000, 5). of the theory of divine illumination which he develops For Lonergan, the shift from a classical worldview to out of the Platonic and Plotinian [philosopher Plotinus] historicalCopy mindedness necessitates that a Catholic phi- doctrines of reminiscence and illumination.” The Au- losophy of education, no longer secured upon eternal gustinian version of education is succinctly described by classical principles, must now focus on how human per- the title of Jacobs’s essay (2008): “Augustine’s Pedagogy sons live their lives in concrete historical contexts and of Intellectual Liberation: Turning Students from the how they choose and appropriate the good; the good ‘Truth of Authority’ to the ‘Authority of Truth.’” St. comes out of “human apprehension and choice” (Lo- Thomas Aquinas, influenced by Aristotle, begins with nergan 2000, 32). For Christians, Lonergan’s method the primacy of the senses; his famous dictum that “there is of great significance, as it sets out to distinguish sub- is nothing in in the intellect that is not first in the senses” jectivity—an authentic personal appropriation of values sets the stage for Aquinas’s decidedly Aristotelian bent. and knowledge of a faith and religious tradition—from However, while he begins with the senses, his ultimate subjectivism—an inwardness and selfishness wherein search is for the ontological structures of knowing and the self becomes the ultimate judge and standard of knowledge; that is, how the intellect transforms sense the good and of values. The Roman Congregation for knowledge into intellectual knowledge, or knowledge Catholic Education has issued a number of documents devoid of matter. Broadly, education for Aquinas, as on the nature and distinctiveness of Catholic education. Wallace says (1977, 188), must focus on “virtuous liv- What has changed is a move from an explicit Thomistic ing” and “contemplation of the truth” and is a “life-long reference point to education. The documents do speak process of self-activity, self-direction, and self-realization of a particular Catholic educational philosophy as the that nonetheless requires mature guidance.” St. Thomas’s point where “faith, culture and life are brought into har- educational philosophy moves beyond simple discovery; mony,” a philosophy “based on the nature of the human for him the moral and intellectual integrity of the student person” that “must be open to a religious dimension” are dynamic forces, and students become the cause of (CCE 1988, 34 and 63). theirContributor own learning through incremental understanding. The Thomistic philosopher Jacques Maritain made a References and Resources fundamental contribution to a Catholic philosophy of Congregation for Catholic Education (CCE). 1988. The Reli- education secured upon his philosophical corpus, rang- gious Dimension of Education in a Catholic School. Rome: ing from aesthetics and epistemology to metaphysics and Congregation for Catholic Education. Philosophy, Process-Relational 957

Elias, J. L. 1999. “Whatever Happened to a Catholic Philosophy ism. Clark Pinnock, Gregory Boyd, William Hasker, and of Education?” Religious Education 94 (1): 92–110. Thomas Jay Oord are largely representative of open and Gallagher, D. A. 1956. “Saint Augustine and Christian Human- relational theology. These movements are collectively ism.” In Some Philosophers on Education: Papers Concerning known as “process-relational.” the Doctrines of Augustine, Aristotle, Aquinas & Dewey, ed- ited by Donald A. Gallagher, 46–66. Milwaukee, WI: Mar- The Aims of Education quette University Press. Whitehead was concerned about the nature and methods Jacobs, R. M. 2008. “Augustine’s Pedagogy of Intellectual Liber- of education in both England and America. In The Aims ation: Turning Students from the ‘Truth of Authority’ to the of Education (1929, 1957), Whitehead proposed an educa- ‘Authority of Truth.’” In Augustine and Liberal Education, tional process that emphasizes three stages: romance, pre- edited by Kim Paffenroth and Kevin L. Hughes, 111–123. cision, and generalization. In the romance stage, the stu- Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. dent is enamored of and engaged with the subject matter. Lonergan, B. 2000. Topics in Education. Toronto: University of In the precision stage, the student is taught, sometimes by Toronto Press. discipline or rote, concrete facts and skills. In the general- Maritain, J. 1943. Education at the Crossroads. New Haven, CT: ization stage, the student comes to apply ideas, knowledge, Yale University Press. and skills to broader life situations Onlyand cross-disciplinary ———. 1962. “Philosophy and Education.” In The Education of problems. Whitehead’s other books, including Religion in Man: The Educational Philosophy of Jacques Maritain, edited the Making (1926) and Adventures of Ideas (1933), have with an introduction by Donald Gallagher and Idella Galla- also had both religious and educational impacts. Further, gher, 39–43. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Cobb’s book Becoming a Thinking Christian (1993) influ- McClean, G. F., ed. 1962. Philosophy and the Integration of enced Christian education within mainline Protestantism. Contemporary Catholic Education. Washington, DC: Catho- lic University of America Press. Impact on Christian Education Pegis, A. C. 1955. Christian Philosophy and Intellectual Free- Process-relational philosophy has had an impact on dom. Milwaukee, WI: The Bruce Publishing Company. Christian education on several fronts, primarily in main- Redden, J. D., and F. A. Ryan. 1949. A Catholic Philosophy of line protestant churches and seminaries and in Protestant Education. Milwaukee, WI: The Bruce Publishing Company. dayCopy schools. Three guiding principles inform a process- Ryan, J. J. 1950. Beyond Humanism: Towards a Philosophy of relational approach to Christian education: God and Catholic Education. New York: Sheed & Ward. reality are internally interrelated, reality is fundamentally Wallace, W. 1977. The Elements of Philosophy: A Compendium creative and free, and human beings participate in con- for Philosophers and Theologians. New York: Alba House. structing the future (Goggin 1995, 136). In terms of epis- Wise, J. 1947. The Nature of the Liberal Arts. Milwaukee, WI: temology, process-relational philosophy emphasizes the The Bruce Publishing Company. processive nature and interrelatedness of all things, in- —Mario O. D’Souza cluding not only the academic subject matter, but human beings and God as well. Thus, the nature of knowledge is not understood in terms of inert facts, but in terms of Philosophy, Process-Relational novelty, creativity, and constructivism. Concerning the teaching and learning process, White- In the early 20th century, the Harvard mathematician head argued for nondualism, thus shifting the focus away and philosopher Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) from mind-body dichotomies to a more holistic sense of proposed a new metaphysic called “process philosophy.” the education of the human person. Such a holistic ap- This was in response to the eclipse of Newtonian physics proach, which accounts for not only mind but also spirit, by the new physics of Einstein and Heisenberg. In his has been attractive to Christian educators, including both seminal treatise, Process and Reality (1929, 1979), White- process and open theists (Goggin 1995). On these fronts, head proposed a new way of understanding reality that process-relational philosophy has left a profound mark affirms events over substances and becoming over being. on Christian education in American mainline Protestant- Process philosophy came to influence the liberal wings ism and evangelicalism. of Western Protestantism and synthesized with Chris- tianContributor thought, giving birth to process theology. White- References and Resources head’s metaphysic was expanded by Charles Hartshorne, Cobb, J. B. 1993. Becoming a Thinking Christian: If We Want John B. Cobb Jr., and others, and eventually influenced Church Renewal, We Will Have to Renew Thinking in the broader Christian movements, namely open theism and Church. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. relational theology within contemporary evangelical- 958 Piaget, Jean

Goggin, H. 1995. “Process Theology and Religious Education.” naturalistic observation of children who were conducting In Theologies of Religious Education, edited by James Michael various experiments investigating concepts like object Lee and Randolph Crump Miller, 236–267. Birmingham, AL: permanence and conservation of liquid. Religious Education Press. Key concepts in Piaget’s theory are schema, assimila- Whitehead, A. N. (1926) 1996. Religion in the Making. New tion, accommodation, and equilibration. Schema refers to York: Fordham University Press. the cognitive framework children use to interpret or make ———. (1929a) 1957. The Aims of Education and Other Essays. sense of the social and physical world around them. As- New York: Free Press. similation involves fitting new information into a child’s ———. (1929b) 1979. Process and Reality: An Essay in Cosmol- existing schema; accommodation involves modifying or ogy. Corrected ed. Edited by David Ray Griffin and Donald forming a new schema to organize new information. W. Sherburne. New York: Free Press. Adults, and to an extent even peers, play significant roles ———. 1933. Adventures of Ideas. New York: Free Press. in each stage of cognitive development by introducing —Joshua D. Reichard children to new ideas and information, causing them to reach the point of equilibration, “the balance between the processes of assimilation and accommodation” (Singer Piaget, Jean and Revenson 1996, 128). Only Piaget’s theory of cognitive development has influ- Early Background and Education enced the development of educational programs for chil- Swiss biologist and developmental psychologist Jean dren from preschool through adolescence. Piaget placed Piaget was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, on 9 August strong emphasis on early childhood experiences, positing 1896. From an early age Piaget was fascinated with ob- that interactions with peers and activities facilitated by serving and studying the natural world around him. At adults are highly formative in children’s cognitive and the tender age of 10, he wrote his first scientific paper, on moral development. Primarily, Piaget was not concerned an albino sparrow, and by age 15 he had published several with what children know, but how they learn. While Piag- articles on mollusks. While Piaget’s initial training was in et’s ideas and theories were controversial when first pub- biology, he also focused on philosophy and psychology. lished and remain debated today, given his use of small After earning his PhD in zoology from the University of sampleCopy sizes and the clinical method of his research, he Neuchâtel in 1918, he studied psychology for a semester remains one of the leading child psychologists of the 20th at the University of Zürich, and after developing an inter- century (Singer and Revenson 1996). est in psychoanalysis, moved to Paris to study abnormal psychology at the Sorbonne. Most Notable Publications Piaget married Valentine Châtenay in 1923, and they Piaget published hundreds of articles and more than 50 had three children. While Piaget held many prominent books in his career, which spanned six decades, but his professional positions over the course of his academic seminal works include The Moral Judgment of the Child and professional career, the cognitive and moral devel- (1932/1997) and The Origins of Intelligence in Children opment of his own children was a significant focus of his (1952/1974). Piaget referred to his collective theories on early research. After devoting more than half a century child development as “Piaget’s Genetic Epistemology.” to establishing the field and furthering the study of child psychology, Piaget died in Geneva, Switzerland, on 16 References and Suggested Readings September 1980 at the age of 84. Evans, Richard I., and Eleanor Duckworth. 1973. Jean Piaget: The Man and His Ideas. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. Significant Contributions to Christian Education Piaget, Jean. 1952/1974. Origins of Intelligence in Children. Perhaps Piaget’s most significant contribution to the field Madison, CT: International Universities Press; 2nd edition. of child psychology is his stages of cognitive develop- ———. 1925/1997. The Moral Judgment of the Child. New York: ment. Piaget theorized that children’s cognitive processes Free Press. develop through a series of stages that are sequential and Singer, Dorothy G., and Tracey A. Revenson. 1996. A Piaget invariant. These stages begin at birth and include (a) Primer: How a Child Thinks. New York: Plume Printing. sensorimotor (0–2), (b) pre-operational (2–6 or 7), (c) Smith, L. 1997. “Jean Piaget.” In Biographical Dictionary of Psy- concreteContributor operational (6 or 7–11 or 12), and (d) formal op- chology, edited by N. Sheehy, A. Chapman, and W. Conroy, erational (11 or 12 and up). Piaget developed these stages 634–638. London: Routledge. using information generated from clinical interviews and —Lucinda S. Spaulding Pietists 959

Pietists Tradition: Lutheran Pietism Emphasis: Devotional study Pietism is one of the most influential traditions in the history of Christianity. Though it was born out of the Figure: August Hermann Francke (1663–1727) Lutheran tradition in Germany in the 17th century, its Institution: Halle School geographical influence was not limited to continental Eu- Tradition: Halle Pietism rope, but extended into Russia, England, and eventually Emphasis: Repentance/Christian living even to the early United States, as European and English settlers colonized the Western Hemisphere (Stoeffler Figure: Nicolas Ludwig von Zinzendorf (1700–1760) 1976). Theologically, it is the basis for the modern evan- Institution: Hernhutt gelical approach to spiritual formation, providing most of Tradition: Moravian its assumptions and methods (Randall 2006). Emphasis: Joy/love/experience Pietism is often characterized as a movement commit- ted to devotional Bible study, small groups, and an ex- Figure: Johann A. Bengel (1687–1752) periential faith. This image is often perpetuated in class- Institution: University of Tubingen rooms as well as textbooks. Pietists have been described Tradition: Württemberg PietismOnly as otherworldly or anti-intellectual and more concerned Emphasis: New Testament/theology with the salvation of the soul than rigid, academic study of the biblical text. However, such a description is incom- Figure: Christoph Oetinger (1702–1762) plete and too simplistic. It does not express the depth and Institution: University of Tubingen breadth of the pietistic tradition. Tradition: Württemberg Pietism Unlike Luther, Pietism did not challenge the Roman Emphasis: Theology/philosophy Catholic tradition, but rather built upon the tradition of Luther. For example, Philip Jacob Spener, the founder of Figure: Gerhard Tersteegen (1697–1769) Pietism in Germany, was a Lutheran; and his Pia Desid- Institution: Krefeld Mennonite Church erea (Pious Desires) (1675) shares significant commonal- Tradition: Radical Pietism (mysticism) ity with the early writings of Martin Luther on the subject Emphasis:Copy Inner peace through spiritual direction of spirituality. Spener’s notion of the collegia pietatis was indeed a practical application of the Reformation’s theol- Figure: Gottfried Arnold (1666–1714) ogy of regeneration (Herzog 2003, 13). Institution: Mennonite churches Pietism did not reject Luther’s reformation; it matured Tradition: Radical Pietism (Anabaptist/mysticism) from it. It was Pietism, not the Reformation, that gave Emphasis: Subjective religious experience/Antistate the Bible to the people, in part based on the priesthood of church believers (Weborg 1986, 205–206). The fervor of Pietism was a reaction to the creedal, doctrinaire formality of the The spectrum of Pietism in spiritual formation ranged state protestant, Lutheran church of Germany, which from the more experiential to the more academic en- rarely addressed personal life and spiritual matters. gagement with scripture, but the majority was centrally For example, rather than studying scripture indirectly located within the tradition. The early Pietists—Spener, through church dogma, Pietist August Hermann Francke Francke, and Zinzendorf—stood at the center, balanced and the Halle School advanced a more direct approach to on their approach to academic and experiential engage- the study of scripture. ment of scripture, with Zinzendorf leaning slightly more The pietistic tradition comprised a much broader toward the mystic tradition. As time passed, the Pietist spectrum of voices than is often thought (Erb 1983; tradition began to polarize. More academic in their ap- Herzog 2003). While Pietism became a discernible re- proach were those like Bengel and Oestinger, as opposed ligious movement with Spener, its origins extend back to those who were more mystical, like Arnold and Ter- to before 1660; for example, Johann Arndt (1555–1621) steegen, in their use of scripture. had pietistic themes in his writing, but no movement Pietism rested in the center of the academically in- was based on them (Weborg 1986, 192–197; Lund 1989, clined Lutheran tradition and the experientially mo- 230–232).Contributor The contributors to the pietistic tradition can tivated mystics/enthusiasts. If it were not for classical be organized as follows: Pietism’s commitment to the biblical text, its experiential element could have deteriorated into mere subjectivism Figure: Philipp Jakob Spener (1635–1705) (Halbrook 1981, 17). Furthermore, the Pietists’ commit- Institution: collegia pietas ment to an experiential engagement of the biblical text 960 Pilgrimage as Christian Practice shielded them from the Lutheran tendency for purely ac- ence of alternative sacred geography. Others describe pil- ademic or dogmatic study of scripture (Stoeffler 1973, 9). grimage as a threshold experience or a catalyst that points Although Pietism waned as a movement over 200 years to a new reality or as a process of inner transformation. ago, its influence is still seen in contemporary Christian In the language of spiritual formation, human life is often education’s emphasis on the group study of scripture. considered a spiritual journey or pilgrimage. Within the Christian tradition, the concept of pilgrimage provides References and Resources a framework for understanding the role of Christian Erb, Peter C., ed. 1983. Pietists: Selected Writings. New York: education, or growth in faith, as a sacred journey toward Paulist Press. God’s Kingdom. At the same time, Christian pilgrimage Estep, James. 2012. “Scripture and Spiritual Formation in the is also considered a spiritual practice that transforms the German Pietist Tradition.” Christian Education Journal, Se- individual pilgrim as she grows in her understanding of ries 3, 9 (supp.): S94–109. Christ and the way of God’s people. Halbrook, Thomas, ed. 1981. Pietism. Nashville, TN: Broadman The practice of pilgrimage is found in nearly every Press. major religion of the world. It is likely that the practice Herzog, Frederick. 2003. European Pietism Reviewed. San Jose, began very early in human history as people traveled CA: Pickwick Publications. to sacred nature sites, and later localOnly shrines, to bring Lund, Eric. 1989. “I. Second Age of Reformation: Lutheran offerings and to pray to the gods for protection or heal- and Reformed Spirituality.” In Christian Spirituality, edited ing. For millennia, humans have continued to embark by Louis Dupré and Don E. Saliers, 213–239. New York: on pilgrimages, seeking enlightenment or healing, or to Crossroad. fulfill an obligation. Today, millions of pilgrims around Randall, Ian M. 2006. “Christ Comes to the Heart: Moravian the world travel to sacred sites annually: religious houses, Influence on the Shaping of Evangelical Spirituality.” Journal local shrines, monasteries, nature sites such as mountains of European Baptist Studies 6 (3): 5–23. and springs, and burial places. Stoeffler, F. Ernest. 1973. German Pietism during the Eighteenth Among the first pilgrims associated with Christian- Century. Studies in the History of Religions, vol. 24. Leiden: ity were the wise men (the Magi) who visited the infant E. J. Brill. Jesus, as found in the second chapter of the gospel of ———. 1976. Continental Pietism and Early American Christian- Matthew.Copy The story of the Magi contains many of the ele- ity. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ments of a classic pilgrim narrative of a long journey un- Weborg, John. 1986. “Pietism: ‘The Fire of God Which . . . dertaken in faith to a place of spiritual significance. The Flames the Heart of Germany.” In Protestant Spiritual first Christians traveled to sites associated with the life Traditions, edited by Frank C. Senn, 183–216. New York: of Jesus and the early martyrs. Unlike the Buddha or the Paulist Press. Prophet Muhammad, Jesus did not specifically command —James Riley Estep Jr. his followers to go on pilgrimage. Initially, some of his sayings were interpreted in a way that in fact discouraged followers from participating in traditional Jewish ritu- Pilgrimage as Christian Practice als, such as venerating the tombs of the prophets. Over time, however, stories associated with Jesus, such as his The word “pilgrimage” derives from the Latin peregrinus, journey with travelers down the road to Emmaus, were meaning “stranger.” On a pilgrimage the sacred traveler interpreted in ways more favorable to the tradition of is a stranger in several ways: a stranger to the companions pilgrimage. Soon a supportive infrastructure of churches, he meets along the way, a stranger to places visited, and guesthouses, and monasteries was built to support pil- a stranger to his inward journey of meaning and trans- grims in their travels. formation. On some level, pilgrimage always connotes By the 10th century in Europe, as the violence between a life-changing spiritual journey that engages the body, Christians and Muslims in the Holy Land escalated, it mind, and spirit. In pilgrimage as a communal practice, became prudent for Christian pilgrims to seek out other pilgrims experience transformation through the relation- holy sites. Although Europe had pilgrimage sites for hun- ships formed along their journey, through sharing and dreds of years, the growth of additional sites throughout listening to stories, and in dialogue with their tradition in the 11th and 12th centuries was rapid. Rome and Santi- searchContributor for deeper insights and spiritual growth. Some pil- ago de Compostela emerged as two of the most important grims are directed toward specific destinations, such as a pilgrimage sites in Western Christianity. In 12th-century dwelling place of a saint or a holy place that evokes prayer England, Canterbury became a major site in Britain as and reflection. For some the passage is symbolic, of the pilgrims made their way to the site where Thomas Becket journey of a soul to God, and primarily an inward experi- was murdered and buried. The Canterbury Tales by Plato 961

Geoffrey Chaucer famously tells the story of a group of Kujawa-Holbrook, Sheryl A. 2013. Pilgrimage—The Sacred Art. pilgrims from London to Canterbury and the tales they Journey to the Center of the Heart. Woodstock, VT: Skylight tell each other along the way. Paths. By the 14th century in Europe, cataclysmic events Webb-Mitchell, Brett. 2007. School of the Pilgrim. An Alterna- such as the bubonic plague (1347–1351), a century of tive Path to Christian Growth. Louisville, KY: Westminster warfare and social unrest, as well as a diminished view John Knox Press. of the church due to papal corruption all influenced the —Sheryl A. Kujawa-Holbrook religious lives of people, including their attitudes toward pilgrimage. As the Canterbury Tales suggest, by the later middle ages the pilgrimage was not considered a test of Plato devotion for all Christians. For some, it became an op- portunity for adventure and romance in ways not illus- Plato (428–347) was born into an aristocratic and politi- trative of a spiritual journey. Although there were always cally involved Athenian family, during the turmoil of the Christians critical of pilgrimage, or its abuses, by the era Peloponnesian War. As a young man, he became a stu- of the Reformation the criticisms that the practice was dent of Socrates, whose death sentence from the demo- corrupt, unscriptural, and superstitious had gained wider cratic rulers for corrupting youth Onlyaffected him deeply. public support. The humanist Erasmus (c.1466–1536) He traveled widely for 12 years, including visiting Italy to and reformers such as Martin Luther (1483–1546) were study with the Pythagoreans and going to Egypt. On his highly critical of pilgrimage, including practices associ- return, he founded the Academy, an institute for research ated with it, namely the veneration of relics, the belief in and teaching; Aristotle was his most famous pupil. All but purgatory, and prayers for the dead. one of his works were in the form of dialogues, in which Although the theological rationale behind Christian Socrates featured. Education—the “care of souls”—is a pilgrimage changed for some adherents by the 16th cen- prominent theme and framework throughout his corpus. tury, the pilgrimage tradition continued. Puritan John The dialogues themselves are dramatizations of peda- Bunyan’s (1628–1688) allegorical journey of the soul, The gogical interactions. As in so much else, Plato’s writ- Pilgrim’s Progress, first published in 1678, became one ings—Republic and Laws most explicitly—are a signifi- of the classics of Christian pilgrimage literature. A new cantCopy fount for sustained reflection on a systematic project development in Christian pilgrimage beginning in the of education. Whereas the former is often read as a politi- 19th century was the evolution of sites associated with cal treatise, it may also be understood as a psychological miraculous apparitions, such as the appearances of Mary investigation of the structure of the soul. Both may be at Lourdes and Fatima. In response to the atrocities of true, if a parallel between soul and state is intended: the the two world wars, the international pilgrimage site of former addresses in microcosm what appears in macro- Taizé in France was founded by Roger Schutz-Marsauche cosm in the polis as three types of person. Thus, rulers (1915–2005), known as Brother Roger. Similarly, the is- possess the virtue of wisdom or knowledge, auxiliaries land of Iona off the west coast of Scotland is the site of an are characterized by courage and resoluteness, and work- ecumenical community founded in 1938 by a pastor of ers display moderation. The fourth virtue, that of justice, the Church of Scotland, George MacLeod (1895–1991). is exemplified when the three parts of the soul and the The late 19th and early 20th centuries also witnessed the state, respectively, function in harmonious relations with revival of medieval pilgrimage sites in Britain, among one another. them the Shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham in Norfolk. Our focus is not an exposition of Plato’s philoso- Despite variations in practice and the popularity of loca- phy—of what he really meant—but the manner in which tions over time, the Christian tradition of pilgrimage has elements of it were appropriated or repudiated by Chris- survived for more than 2,000 years and thrives today. tians. Whereas, as Robin Barrow (2007) says, it is diffi- cult to discern other than indirect Platonic influences in References and Resources contemporary education, this should not be surprising, Forest, Jim. 2007. The Road to Emmaus. Pilgrimage as a Way of for Plato’s influence on Western culture has been so per- Life. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. vasive as to become part of the framework within which Foster, Charles. 2010. The Sacred Journey. The Ancient Prac- rather than about which we think. Contributortices Series. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. Platonism influenced Christianity profoundly, ini- George, Christian. 2006. Sacred Travels. Recovering the Ancient tially through figures such as and Practice of Pilgrimage. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books. Origen (posthumously excommunicated because of his Jones, Tony. 2005. The Sacred Way. Spiritual Practices for Ev- advocacy of the Platonic doctrines of the preexistence eryday Life. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. and transmigration of souls); then, in the fourth century, 962 Plato the (who used Platonic concepts gencies, in which knowledge delivers the virtuous life that in formulating the doctrine of the Trinity); and subse- remains putatively the ultimate goal. These contingencies quently and most significantly, Augustine of Hippo, via include the turmoil of historical occurrences Plato had the writings of Neoplatonists (Plotinus and Porphyry). encountered when younger, but particularly the vagaries It was largely due to Augustine that Platonism provided of individual lives. philosophical conceptions for the church until the as- James K. A. Smith’s (2009) critique of worldview- cendancy of Aristotle through his adoption by Thomas oriented education in Christian colleges points to Plato Aquinas (1225–1274), though Platonic ideas continue as the instigator of “a broadly ‘rationalist’ or ‘intellectual- to be prominent. Augustine says that it was in reading ist’ picture of the human person” that infects Protestant the “books of the Platonists” that he was taught “to seek Christianity in particular. It affects what we understand incorporeal truth, so I saw your ‘invisible things, under- “it means to be or become a Christian” and “accounts for stood by the things that are made’” (Confessions 7, 20). the shape of so much Protestant worship as a heady affair Augustine’s assertion that Plato was paene Christianus fixated on ‘messages’ that disseminate Christian ideas (“almost a Christian”) was in tune with the efforts of the and abstract values” (42). Given this impact on worship, Church Fathers to accommodate classical scholarship to it would be surprising if this did not affect religious edu- Christianity—and vice versa—as at least an apologetic cation generally. However, it is the veryOnly identification of strategy. Platonism gave definitive shape to the “liberal Forms with ideas or absolute values in the mind of the arts” curriculum of medieval universities in the form of Creator that has made Platonism so attractive to Chris- the trivium and quadrivium, an influence that continues tians for so long. This is in tandem with the rooting of a to this day; Classical Christian schools, for example, are person’s understanding of the Forms in Plato’s innova- classical in pedagogy insofar as the trivium is applied de- tion in Greek thought of the notion of the immortal soul, velopmentally, and in content when the “great books of the necessity of which the Forms may also play a role in the Western world” constitute the curriculum. establishing (on one reading of his notion of anamnesis as Plato’s most significant legacy for (Christian) educa- it appears in Meno). That Plato proposes a supernatural tion is his construal of what constitutes the life most realm to which we may eventually ascend (for Plato, this worth living and how this might be nurtured, viz., by is also a return) to witness the pristine Forms resonates a process of critical self-examination in dialectical en- loudlyCopy with many Christians’ conceptions of Heaven; that gagement with others in pursuit of transcendent truths it is the spiritual discipline of dialectic that enables us to (though the dialogues, instructively, often end without escape the darkness of the cave to see the sun once more resolution of the issue at hand, in puzzlement—aporia— perhaps finds its analogue in the belief that rigorous im- that provokes ongoing reflection). His conviction that mersion in systematic theology is the way in which we the intellect is paramount in this process earns him the may come closest to God. approbation of the many who have learned to celebrate As with much that Plato has written, and as already rational knowledge as the zenith of human achievement noted, interpretations of the Myth of Reminiscence dif- and the opprobrium of those who decry this “intellec- fer—including whether it is to be taken at all seriously. tualism” as a repudiation of Hebrew anthropology. As That it was taken seriously by Augustine, however, is a teacher, he challenged the credentials of the Sophists sufficient for us to consider it, for Augustine baptized it and their commitment to rhetoric (“the shadow play of by an appeal to “divine illumination”; it remains an inner words”), when one’s thoughts should “constantly dwell process, but it is not a matter of anamnesis in precisely upon the nature of reality” (Sophist 268, 254). This exem- Plato’s terms. It is not a human teacher functioning as plifies Plato’s distrust of appearances, the ever-changing midwife in a student’s recognition of a priori principles world of ordinary experience, and mere skillfulness in or the retrieval of memories from a past existence (which place of deep understanding. His Theory of Forms pro- would in fact be a posteriori), but God the Teacher Him- pounds ideal essences as the goal of knowing (noesis); the self. Yet as an inner rather than experiential process, Analogy of the Line describes an ascent from a lower to there is something highly mystical and thus extremely the highest level of understanding by a careful sifting of personal in learning, which supports the solitary, con- valid reasons, in which the one Form of each category of templative strand in monastic formation and its heirs. It the shifting particulars of daily life may be attained by is a grasping of principles that hold universally beyond articulatingContributor its defining features, thus providing the jus- experience of particulars, fundamentally a beholding of tification that lifts understanding beyond mere conven- Good in the world of Forms (and of God in Aquinas’s tion, opinion, or belief. A systematic, coherent account of “”). mathematical—specifically, geometrical—precision (in- Plato’s construct of the “immortal soul”—in Phaedo, spired by ) promises control over contin- for example, and perhaps in Meno—enabled (along with Plays, Medieval Everyman 963 other influences, of course) the development in Christi- Smith, James K. A. 2009. Desiring the Kingdom: Worship, anity of a soul/body dualism. The initial supposition is Worldview, and Cultural Formation. Grand Rapids, MI: repudiated by much recent biblical scholarship, however, Baker Academic. and its dualistic entailment is regarded as contradicting —Doug Blomberg the integral anthropology of the scriptures. This dualism that has readily lent itself to a view of the body as evil (as well as incapable of delivering knowledge) and the Plays, Medieval Everyman soul as good, with a consequent educational emphasis on suppression of the former in order that the latter might Everyman is a medieval morality play first published be- be exalted. tween 1495 and 1520. It is widely thought to be the finest For Plato, the good is immutable; this notion radi- of all surviving morality plays. cally influenced postbiblical Christian conceptions of God (the perfectly good), away from the Hebraic con- Morality Plays viction that God manifests truly in historical events. Medieval morality plays were theatrical productions In education, the conviction that valid knowledge as created with the intention to both teach and entertain. a good is similarly unchanging—a system of proposi- They are distinguished by “the dramatizationOnly of a spiri- tions obtaining at all times and in all places—has been tual crisis in the life of a representative mankind figure taken to imply that learning is fundamentally a passive in which his spiritual struggle is portrayed as a conflict reception of static truths authoritatively delivered. Phil- between personified abstractions representing good and lips and Soltis (2009) interpret Plato in this light, not- evil” (Bevington 1975, 792). While there is some debate, withstanding the disavowal that teaching is a matter of many scholars believe that morality plays began with the transmission in Symposium (175d), the vivid interplay preaching friars of the Dominican and/or Franciscan or- of personal opinions ending in aporia in so many dia- ders as early as the 13th century, as a way of illustrating logues, and his repudiation of the mantle of systematic sermons and teaching a largely illiterate people. The use philosopher (Letter VII). A more Socratic interpretation of allegory and the personification of Vices and Virtues, of Plato recognizes that people normally have the capac- which are hallmarks of morality plays, helped to simplify ity to learn and the responsibility to use this capacity potentiallyCopy complex theological doctrines. in pursuit of true knowledge. The divided line depicts Morality plays were not associated with any specific not just a catalog of kinds of belief, but a developmental religious holiday, which made them exceedingly mobile. trajectory and pedagogical program (Egan 1983); the Part of their popularity could have resulted from the fact teacher’s task is one of reorienting learners, “turning that acting troupes and guilds could use these plays as a souls around” (metastrephein) or effecting a conversion way to make a living year-round. Morality plays were also (metanoia, Republic VII.527), so that they come to gaze short, usually around an hour in length. on the proper objects. Subject matter is crucial, with Most morality plays are centered around an Every- the teacher playing a facilitative (maieutic) role; despite man type of character, who often undergoes a spiritual Plato’s protestations, the student does have a relatively death and resurrection. Plays such as The King of Life, passive role in some of what are evidently Christian Everyman, and The Castle of Perseverance (c. 1405–1425), adoptions of his epistemology (see De Boer 1983). which is the earliest known English morality play, are prime examples. They likely evolved out of “mystery” References and Resources and “miracle plays,” which traditionally dealt with bibli- Augustine. 1997. Confessions. London: Hodder and Stoughton. cal subjects and the lives of saints, respectively. These Barrow, Robin. 2007. Plato: His Precursors, His Educational were often performed in pageants and later were popular Philosophy, and His Legacy. London/New York: Continuum with traveling acting guilds. They were at their height of International. popularity throughout England and Western Europe in Cooper, John M., and D. S. Hutchinson, eds. 1997. Plato: Com- the later 14th–16th centuries, around the same time as plete Works. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett. morality plays, but whereas mystery and miracle plays De Boer, Peter P. 1983. Shifts in Curricular Theory for Christian were more concerned with establishing a Christian faith Education. Grand Rapids, MI: Calvin College. in their audiences, morality plays “aim rather at ethical Egan,Contributor Kieran. 1983. Education and Psychology: Plato, Piaget cultivation” (Chambers [1903] 1963, 151). and Scientific Psychology. London: Methuen. Morality plays faded from favor as professional theater Phillips, D. C., and Jonas F. Soltis. 2009. Perspectives on Learn- came into its own. By the early 17th century, most mo- ing. Edited by Jonas F. Soltis. 5th ed. Thinking About Educa- rality plays were no longer being performed even at the tion Series. New York: Teachers College Press. amateur and educational levels. However, Shakespeare 964 Pluralism and Christian Education was almost certainly influenced by morality plays, as they Davidson, Clifford. 1992. “Everyman.” In International Dic- were very commonly performed in his region of England. tionary of Theatre: Plays, edited by Mark Hawkins-Dady, 1:235–236. Chicago: St. James Press. Everyman Harris, John Wesley. 2003. “Morality Play.” In The Oxford The most well known and highly regarded medieval Encyclopedia of Theatre and Performance, edited by Dennis morality play is Everyman (c. 1495–1520). Though its Kennedy, 2:881–883. Oxford: Oxford University Press. authorship is unknown, it is thought to be adapted from “Morality Play.” 1983. In The Oxford Companion to the The- an earlier Flemish play, Elkerlijc. atre, 4th ed., edited by Phyllis Hartnoll, 560. Oxford: Oxford Everyman is an allegory, much like John Bunyan’s Pil- University Press. grim’s Progress. In the story, the main character, Everyman, Wickham, Glynne. (1974) 1987. The Medieval Theatre. 3rd ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. (First pub- has to overcome his weaknesses in order to win a place in lished by Weidenfeld and Nicholson). heaven but no separate sins are specified. Summoned un- —Jeffrey Tirrell expectedly by Death, Everyman tries to find a companion to travel with him beyond the grave. He is rejected in turn by Fellowship, Kindred, and Goods, and finally discovers Pluralism and Christian Education his Good Deeds—but she cannot help him because she is Only bound hand and foot by his “sin.” However, she calls her sister, Wisdom, who takes Everyman to Confession, and The dawning of the 21st century witnessed a world that his repentance frees Good Deeds, who is the only one of had, relatively speaking, become a small place because of his qualities that can follow him beyond the grave. All his the immense movement of people around the globe. For physical powers then leave him one by one, but after his some, it involved choice and adventure as they looked final descent into the earth an angel is heard confirming for new regions to extend their opportunities for work that he has achieved salvation. (Harris 2003, 882) and career, or just to experience different lifestyles. However, some were the victims of natural disasters or Everyman is intended to warn its audience about the their countries had become war zones, thereby uprooting shortness and uncertainty of life, contrasted with the cer- and destroying their lives. As a result, they were forced tainty of judgment. It does end hopefully, however, with to fleeCopy their homelands and seek refuge or asylum in a a clear message to audiences to spend time on Earth well number of countries that were culturally, religiously, by cultivating “good deeds” and a repentant spirit. and linguistically different from their own. Not surpris- Everyman is thought to be a possible influence for two ingly, this led to “them” and “us” tensions, as diverse later, better known plays, Dr. Faustus by Christopher cultural and religious traditions encountered, engaged, Marlowe and Macbeth by William Shakespeare. It is also or opposed one another. This happened especially when one of the only medieval morality plays to be revived and the situation was exacerbated by social and economic staged in the 20th century, with several new versions of factors. Some new arrivals found it easier to fit into the the play being written during the 1950s–1980s. Produc- mainstream culture, but others, due to the circumstances tions of it can still be found in Europe and the United of their arrival, immediately became marginalized and States today. disadvantaged. Nevertheless, the emergence, globally, of multifaith, multicultural, and multilinguistic societies has References and Resources become a significant feature of this century. Barnet, Sylvan, Morton Berman, and William Burto, eds. 1962. A further feature, particularly in Western Christian The Genius of the Early English Theater. New York: Mentor cultures, is the identifiable change in people’s relation- Books. ships with their religious traditions. Improved access to Bevington, David. 1975. Medieval Drama. Boston: Houghton education, as well as the rapid and innovative develop- Mifflin. ment of media and communications technology, has Cawley, A. C., ed. 1965. Everyman and Medieval Miracle Plays. meant that, around the world, people are much more London: Dent. informed than they have ever been before. This has led Cavill, Paul, Heather Ward, Matthew Baynham, and Andrew to a situation in which people have become critical of Swinford. 2007. The Christian Tradition in English Lit- and disenchanted with a number of institutions that erature:Contributor Poetry, Plays, and Shorter Prose. Grand Rapids, MI: are foundational to the societal structures that encom- Zondervan. pass their lives, including their faith traditions. In the Chambers, E. K. (1903) 1963. The Medieval Stage. Oxford: Ox- Christian world, many adherents have become skeptical ford University Press. about what they perceive to be unconvincing answers to Pluralism and Christian Education 965 significant and/or soul-searching questions, and this has the public discourse in secular societies (2008, 20). The led to a distancing of many Christians from the institu- relativity apparent in secular societies, which reflects tional churches (see, e.g., Dixon, Kunciunas, and Reid a tolerance of all beliefs, is based more on indifference 2008; Rainer 2003; Tacey 2003). As a result, a majority than acceptance, and Habermas (2008) argues that this of children in the Western world have little engagement has led to a split on value conflicts that require political with religion, and many remain unchurched. This creates legislation, for instance, the legalization of abortion, vol- yet another dynamic in Christian schools. untary euthanasia, and bioethical issues of reproductive While these conditions do pose real challenges for medicine. Further, he points to the fact that in multifaith Christian educators, this era should also be recognized societies, when people from different religious traditions as an exciting period in the history of Christianity. There become next door neighbours, they challenge each other is a new consciousness emerging at a grassroots level to “face up to the practice of a rival faith” (20). Clearly, that reflects a movement in the contemporary world by these factors imply that Christian education in religiously individuals seeking meaning and purpose beyond that diverse communities needs to generate an empathetic which has been offered through traditional frameworks. understanding about religious difference, including the It is grounded in the totality of a human experience varying levels of importance given to religion among dif- that lies beyond the dualism of the worldview that was ferent faith and cultural traditions.Only framed by 20th-century education. This vital resurgence It is beyond doubt that interfaith and multifaith orga- of interest is a spiritual search in which many are seek- nizations and activities have become more pronounced ing answers to traditional teachings as well as ethical and in many societies today,71 and this provides opportunities moral questions that have arisen as a result of the explo- for Christian educators to have a voice. In particular, they sion in knowledge and technology. Studies of spirituality need to recognize that, alongside teaching about their have moved out of theology and religion into secular own tradition, they should aim for an interspiritual ap- spheres, and spirituality has become a word much used proach to education that is inclusive of different beliefs in public discourse, particularly among parents, religious and practices. Ultimately, all education should promote leaders, and professionals who work with young people. among students a deep sense of peace and harmony, an For instance, there have been emerging problems among issue that is particularly pertinent in a world divided by adolescents relating to physical and mental health; fam- religiousCopy extremism and terrorism. In addition, the com- ily structures; education and careers; as well as some plementarity of worldviews from Eastern and Western aspects of youth culture and lifestyles, such as risk taking, cultures should be acknowledged. Such an undertaking violence, and self-harm. Amid the responses that have would enhance an understanding of the human condi- been actioned to meet these challenges, attention is being tion and lead to the consideration that, while other views given to spiritual well-being, which does not always in- may perceive reality through different cultural windows, clude a religious context. they also serve to emphasize other aspects of the total If Christian education systems are to reflect and human experience. This would make them complemen- respond to the societies they serve, and if they aim to tary rather than wrong. As Hull has observed: prepare their students to live meaningful and purposeful lives, the education offered must be aware of, proactive In spite of the difficulties in encountering them, we should to, and able to counter ideas and trends that are influen- take heart from the fact that the many human worlds re- tial in the lives of their students. This is, indeed, a trying main human. After all, what we have in common as human task, since it requires policy makers, curriculum writers, beings should enable us to enter every human world for nothing that is human is foreign to us. (2009, 32) and classroom practitioners to be in a state of constant alertness. It is especially significant in the current social These, then, are some of the issues and challenges for and political climates at local and global levels, where dif- Christian education as it relocates itself in a postsecular, ferent perspectives on the roles of religion and spiritual- pluralistic, and globalized world. ity in society have begun to attract ongoing attention in the public arena. Indeed, Habermas notes this trend and References and Resources identifies it as postsecularity: “Global changes and the Dixon, R., A. Kunciunas, and S. Reid. 2008. “Research Project visible conflicts that flare up in connection with religious on Catholics Who Have Stopped Attending Mass: Final Re- issues give us reason to doubt whether the relevance of Contributor port, February 2007.” Fitzroy, Victoria: Australian Catholic religion has waned” (2008, 17). Bishops Conference, Pastoral Projects Office. Habermas also points to the fact that church leaders and religious groups have become more influential in 71. For instance, a Google search of the word interfaith recorded assuming the role of communities of interpretation in 7,890,000 hits and of multifaith recorded 1,270,000 hits. 966 Poetry as Christian Practice

Habermas, J. 2008. “Notes on Post-Secular Society.” New Per- lish the expectation: reading, reflection, and response to spectives Quarterly 25 (4): 17–29. revelation is necessary (Ps. 139:23–24). Hull, J. 2009. “Religious Education as Encounter: From Body The interpretation of people’s words is important. Ec- Worlds to Religious Worlds.” In Religious Education as En- clesiastes uses poetry to examine naturalism, showing that counter: A Tribute to John Hull, edited by Siebren Miedema, its insufficient view of the world must be corrected (1:2, 56–86. Verlag GmbH, Germany: Waxmann. 3:19–21, 9:1, 10). Laments from Job (chapter 3) or Psalms Rainer, T. S. 2003. The Unchurched Next Door. Grand Rapids, (88) must be understood in the energetic, emotive spirit MI: Zondervan. of the Eastern mind-set. Song of Solomon uses poetic ter- Tacey, D. 2003. The Spirituality Revolution: The Emergence of minology for physical affection between Solomon and his Contemporary Spirituality. Pymble, Sydney, NSW: Harper- bride. Jeremiah uses animal husbandry to communicate Collins. Israel’s sin (2:23–25). Isaiah uses Middle Eastern vineyards —Marian de Souza to explain Israel’s rootedness to God (Isa. 5:1–5). Response to the wonder-awe of the mysteries of life, the immensity of creation, and the ineffable nature of Poetry as Christian Practice God must be part of the poetic interpretive process (Ps. 104, 149, 150). Poetry demands an attention to people’s Our little systems have their day; Only emotions (Ps. 13:1–2). Personal-relational-historical con- They have their day and cease to be; nections from the reader to the author are necessary They are but broken lights of thee, (Ps. 57). Imagination is necessary to understand poetic 72 And thou, O Lord, art more than they. connections (Hab. 3:17–19). Repetition of truth through poetry strengthens Christian teaching processes (Deut. Every writer, including a poet, has a point of view. The 32; Jud. 5; 1 Sam. 15:22–23; Col. 3:16; 1 Tim. 3:16). poet addresses the subjects of God, life, humans, ethics, Word pictures are used to make readers visualize or the afterlife. The poet allows feeling about thinking, (see), empathize (feel), and synthesize (fuse) their worlds. wrestles ambiguity within reality, expresses life through Advertisements in television, radio, magazines, and bill- symbols, employs imagery about substance, and stresses boards explain what is obvious: pictures are important. experience as trustworthy. A word paints a thousand pic- When Isaiah (44:6–20) sarcastically belittles idol makers, tures. Poetry is premised upon the visual power of verbal Copy the visual imagery in the poetic diatribe reverberates off connections in the human imagination. the page. Zoomorphism, personification, metaphors, and anthropomorphism bring words to life. Christian teach- Biblical Theology of Poetry And we must extinguish the candle, put out the light and ing should utilize the power of poetry both inside and relight it; outside of the Bible. Forever must quench, forever relight the flame. There we thank Thee for our little light, that is dappled Christian Practice of Poetry with shadow. As kingfishers catch fire, dragonflies draw flame; And we thank Thee that darkness reminds us of light. As tumbled over rim in roundy wells O Light Invisible, we give Thee thanks for Thy great glory!73 Stones ring; like each tucked string tells, each hung bell’s Bow swung finds tongue to fling out broad its name; When a person points to an object, the focus is not on Each mortal thing does one thing and the same: the finger but upon its intended target. For the Christian, Deals out that being indoors each one dwells; poetry is not an end in itself but a descriptive pointer to- Selves—goes itself; myself it speaks and spells, 74 ward Heaven (Ps. 141:2, 142:2) or a marker of experience Crying What I do is me: for that I came. on earth (Ps. 19:1–6). Unbelieving poets may accept the Methods of teaching could employ poetry in various mythical muse as their director; the Christian believes ways. Hopkins’s poem above explains that everything in God’s Spirit communes with the poet’s spirit (Ps. 32, 51), God’s world has purpose; its meaning is tied up in what responding to the vagaries and vicissitudes of life. God it is, what it was intended to be. The design of God’s uses poetry to communicate His Truth to people within creation cannot be overlooked. In another way, poetry His revelation to them. Jesus’s famous words—“Haven’t can be used to compare and contrast point of view. The you read?!” (Matt. 12:3, 5, 19:1; 21, 16, 42, 22:31)—estab- Contributorpoetry of the skeptic William Ernest Henley’s “Captain of My Fate” can be seductive. But Alfred Lord Tennyson’s 72. Alfred Lord Tennyson, “In Memoriam: A.H.H. The Prelude.” 73. T. S. Eliot, “The Rock.” 74. Gerard Manley Hopkins, “As Kingfishers Catch Fire.” Poland and Christian Education 967 eternal view in “Crossing the Bar” gives one pause when land fell under the influence of the Soviet Union, and its the poems are placed side by side. The e.e. cummings authorities struggled with Christianity. The removal of poem “pity this busy monster manunkind, not” could religious education from schools was a manifestation of be held up next to Shakespeare’s seven stages of a man this struggle (Siedlarz 1996). Currently, the Polish state in As You Like It and Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Conqueror fully respects the right of every individual person to the Worm.” The images by themselves are stark, showing freedom of conscience and religion. Approximately 93 human-centered, earthbound views of people. A compar- percent of Polish citizens declare themselves to be Roman ative, distinctive Christian view would be obvious. Sym- Catholic, 0.8 percent define themselves as Protestants bolism, imagery, and figures can be aptly used in worship (mainly of the Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Con- and teaching. Allowing words to be heard, to be given fession), 0.2 percent are Orthodox, and 0.8 percent are honor, would benefit all who listen, giving credence once members of other confessions (CBOS 2012, 2). again to the importance of expression and memory. Po- Systematic Christian education takes place mainly in etry addresses wounds too great to bear, helps to deepen schools and has a confessional character. According to the understanding of the tear, cleansing the wound. Polish law and the concordat with the Vatican, this also Poetry stimulates imagination and activates possi- applies to public schools (Krukowski 1993). This is be- bilities. It exposes ideas in different ways. Poetry builds cause Catholic schools constitute a smallOnly percentage of all theological vocabulary. Creating connections with people schools in Poland. The confessional character means that happens through poesy. People’s perspectives are broad- not only is religious knowledge imparted in schools, but ened through different thinking processes in poetry. efforts are also undertaken to deepen the faith and regular Transformation—people changed in their thinking and religious practices. Approximately 95 percent of children living—is the ultimate outcome of Christian teaching (Ps. and 90 percent of young people participate in this kind of 119:103; Jer. 15:16; Ezek. 3:2). education, although this percentage is decreasing slightly. A closer and more direct preparation for the sacraments Tell all the Truth but tell it slant— takes place in the parish. The concept of Christian educa- Success in Circuit lies tion is individually defined by each religious community, Too bright for our infirm Delight which subsequently informs the authorities of its deci- The Truth’s superb surprise. sions. The Catholic Church has a Catechetical Directory As Lightning to the Children eased Copy that defines parish catechesis and religious education at With explanation kind The Truth must dazzle gradually schools (Konferencja Episkopatu Polski, 2001). There Or every man be blind.75 are also find Christian universities in Poland. Among the most important Catholic universities are John Paul II References and Resources Catholic University of Lublin, Cardinal Stefan Wyszynski Auden, W. H. 1990. The Dyer’s Hand and Other Essays. New University in Warsaw, John Paul II University in Cracow, York: Vintage Books. and the Papal Faculty of Theology in Wroclaw. Catholic Gioia, Dana. 2002. Can Poetry Matter? Essays on Poetry and faculties of theology can also be found at state universi- American Culture. Minneapolis, MN: Graywolf Press. ties. The other Christian communities have the Christian —Mark Eckel Theological Academy in Warsaw.

References and Resources Poland and Christian Education CBOS. 2012. Zmiany w zakresie wiary i religijności Polaków po śmierci Jana Pawła II. Warszawa: Fundacja Centrum Bada- The first Christian missionaries arrived in the Polish nia Opinii Społecznej. lands in the middle of the 10th century. However, the Konferencja Episkopatu Polski. 2001. “Dyrektorium katechety- dynamic Christianization of Poland began in 966 when czne Kościoła katolickiego w Polsce,” Kraków, no. 21, 24–29. Prince Mieszko I was baptized and the first church http://www.cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2012/K_049_12.PDF structures were formed. Catholicism has always been a Krukowski, J. 1993. Kościół i Państwo: Podstawy relacji dominant religion, but in the 16th century Poland be- prawnych. Lublin: Redakcja Wydawnictw KUL. came a place of refuge for many Protestants persecuted Siedlarz, J. 1996. Kirche und Staat im kommunistichen Polen inContributor various European countries. After World War II, Po- 1945–1989. Paderborn-München-Wien-Zürich: http://www .con-spiration.de/texte/english/2006/johnpaul-e.html. 75. Emily Dickinson, “Tell It Slant.” —Paweł Mąkosa 968 Pontifical Universities

Pontifical Universities Catholic Church. For example, bishop candidates are fairly often selected from priests who are doctors of Pontifical universities are academic institutes that have sacred theology (STD) or canon law (JCD). Ecclesiasti- been established or approved directly by the of cal judges and attorneys are required to hold at least a the Roman Catholic Church. As described in the Apostolic licentiate in canon law (JCL). Constitution Sapientia christiana of Pope John Paul II in —Roger Schroeder 1979, these academic institutes are “concerned particu- larly with Christian revelation and questions connected therewith and which are therefore more closely connected Pope Innocent III with her mission of evangelization” (par. 9). They usually consist of three main ecclesiastical faculties (theology, Early Background and Education philosophy, and canon law) and at least one other faculty. Pope Innocent III was born 16 July 1160 as Lotario dei Following a European system, the pontifical universities Conti De Segni in Anagi, Italy (Ott n.d.), into a presti- grant the baccalaureate, the licentiate, and the doctorate. gious family; his father was Count Traismund of Segni The largest concentration of pontifical universities is from the house of Conti, and his mother was Caricia found in Rome. The Pontifical Gregorian University, Scotti. Lotario was educated in bothOnly Rome and Paris, which is under the direction of the Jesuits and traces its studying theology and jurisprudence as a student of origins to the mid-16th century, was officially declared a canon law. His uncle, Pope Clement III, elevated him pontifical university in 1873. The Gregorian University, to Cardinal-Deacon in 1190. Cardinal Lotario retired including the renowned university-level associate institu- to write and meditate during the papacy of Celestine III tions of the Pontifical Biblical Institute and the Pontifical (1191–1198). In 1198, at the age of 37, he was elected Oriental Institute, is the largest pontifical university in pope and succeeded Celestine III. Rome. Individual Roman pontifical universities and their Pope Innocent III served in the pontificate for 19 years, associated institutes are highly regarded for their major until his death in 1216. During this time he was consid- contributions and research in specific areas, such as ar- ered the most powerful man in Europe, commanding chaeology, the Bible, education, church history, Islam, lit- monarchs as well as the Catholic Church. His priorities urgy, missiology, Mariology, marriage and family, moral were Copyconsolidating the power of the papacy versus the theology, sacred music, and spirituality. Outside of Rome empire and the threats to Christianity from heresies and there are more than 50 independent pontifical universi- from Jewish and Islamic influences. He is credited with ties in about 30 countries. Brazil, France, Spain, and the heightening the sacramentality of the church by clarify- United States have four or more pontifical universities ing and elevating the importance of the sacraments of each. A number of institutions in Europe ceased being baptism, Eucharist, penance, and marriage. Innocent III pontifical universities during and after the period of the convened the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, the 12th Protestant Reformations. council in the history of the Christian Church. The coun- Institutions or faculties at nonpontifical universi- cil set forth specific criteria for believers, including defi- ties may also be given charters by the Holy See to grant nitions of sacraments; admonitions against heresy; and pontifical degrees, usually in one or two particular areas. higher expectations for the clergy in behavior, preaching, In this case, they are designated “pontifical faculty” or and level of education and learning. “pontifical institute” to distinguish them from a “pontifi- cal university.” In addition, some Roman Catholic educa- Significant Contributions to Christian Education tional institutions are affiliated with a pontifical univer- Innocent III had convoked the council a full two years sity, which grants degrees through them. For example, before it was actually convened, which made it possible the Pontifical Urbaniana University in Rome, under the for more than 1,200 bishops and prelates to be in at- authority of the Congregation for the Evangelization of tendance. The council itself lasted less than a month, but Peoples, has affiliations with many seminaries and insti- Innocent III had an agenda that, according to some, was tutes of theology, philosophy, canon law, and missiology. a turning point for religion, politics, and law in medieval The Vatican’s Agency for the Evaluation and Promotion Europe (Small 1991). The 70 canons that resulted from of Quality in Ecclesiastical Universities and Faculties the Fourth Lateran Council contained the basis for ex- (AVEPRO)Contributor was established in 2007 by Pope Benedict panded, free Christian education in Europe. XVI to foster an appropriate quality of education for Canons 9, 10, and 11 made specific reference to lan- pontifical degrees according to international criteria. guage and education of the bishops, priests, and oth- A pontifical degree is considered excellent prepara- ers and commanded that “in every cathedral church tion for service in ecclesiastical offices of the Roman a suitable benefice be assigned to a master who shall Porter, Noah 969 instruct gratis the clerics of that church and other poor of 1828.” In these reports, the faculty forcefully defended students.” In other canons, the pope established a higher the classical curriculum and traditional goals of residen- expectation for the clergy in behavior and dress, and he tial colleges. Their central argument was that the primary continued to stress the importance of education, even to goal of collegiate study was not to learn facts but to train bishops who exhibited a “lack of learning, which must be the mind, providing a foundation for any future vocation. absolutely condemned in them and is not to be tolerated The authors also reiterated the importance of the faculty in the future” (Schroeder n.d.). The specific requirement acting in loco parentis as surrogates for family authority that the education of the clergy and other “poor students” and influence. These reports and their eloquent defense be provided free of charge amplified Pope Innocent III’s of liberal arts education had a significant impact on other impact on the development of cathedral schools for the colleges in the United States during the 19th century and teaching of language, science, and theology in Europe. had an abiding influence on Porter’s own educational leadership of Yale 40 years later. Most Notable Publications Innocent III is considered the author of the canons of the Significant Contributions to Christian Education Fourth Lateran Council as well as 79 sermons. He also Porter’s greatest contributions to Christian education produced literary works and theological treatises, includ- were his writings (discussed below)Only and his leadership of ing “On the Suffering of Humanity” and works on tran- Yale during a transformative period in American higher substantiation and liturgy, which are considered valuable education. After his undergraduate and theological stud- records of the form of the Roman Mass during the 13th ies at Yale, he served as a minister for 15 years before century (Ott n.d.). returning to Yale as Clark Professor of Moral Philosophy and Metaphysics in 1847. For the next 20 years, he taught References and Resources undergraduate students, helped to inaugurate the first Ott, M. n.d. “Catholic Encyclopedia: Pope Innocent III.” New PhD program in the United States, and worked on his Advent. Accessed 25 May 2013. http://www.newadvent.org/ own philosophical writings. He also wrote increasingly cathen/08013a.html. about educational matters, and he eventually became the Schroeder, H. J. n.d. Internet Medieval Sourcebooks Project. Ac- logical choice for the next president of Yale, despite the cessed 25 May 2013. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/ desireCopy among some of the alumni to select a younger and lateran4.asp. more innovative leader. He was appointed in 1871 and Small, Carola. 1991. “The Fourth Lateran Council of 1215: A held the position until 1886. Turning Point in the History of Medieval Europe.” Religious Porter was a pioneer as a scholar, but his presidency Studies and Theology 10: 66–78. is best remembered for its conservatism, and especially —Angelique Montgomery-Goodnough for resisting the growing emphasis on research and specialization when many of his peers at other universi- ties were strongly promoting these changes. Although Porter, Noah Porter encouraged advanced scholarship at the graduate level and had sponsored one of the first PhD disserta- Early Background and Education tions in the United States, he wanted to preserve the Noah Porter was born in Farmington, Connecticut, in traditional goals of undergraduate education. He feared 1811. His ancestors were among the first generation that the research agenda of the university would trump of English Puritans who settled in the New World in the educational concerns of the college, leading to a sep- the 1630s, and his father was a prominent minister in aration of faculty from students and destroying the co- Farmington, who often hosted distinguished clergy and herence of the curriculum and college community. Por- government officials from across New England. He at- ter was also concerned that as modern science rejected tended Yale (class of 1831), where he followed a tradi- traditional religion, new gods would fill the vacuum, tional curriculum rooted in classical languages, ancient and he argued that without a religious foundation and literature, rhetoric, logic, and mathematics. This basic purpose, college education would only be a collection curriculum had a long and stable history in American of disconnected facts, lacking true understanding of the colleges, but in the early decades of the 19th century, beautiful but fallen world God had made. thereContributor were increasing pressures to include “modern subjects.” While Porter was an undergraduate, the Yale Most Notable Publications faculty responded to these pressures in a widely read Porter’s best known philosophical work is The Human booklet entitled Reports on the Course of Instruction in Intellect (1868), which also became an important text in Yale College, commonly known today as the “Yale Report the early development of modern psychology in the United 970 Portugal and Christian Education

States. An abridged version, The Elements of Intellectual includes Presbyterian, Baptist, Methodist, Congrega- Science (1871), and a subsequent companion work, The tional, Lutheran, Assemblies of God, Brethren, Church Elements of Moral Science (1885), were widely used as of the Nazarene, and Mennonite Brethren. college textbooks throughout the country into the early decades of the 20th century. His most influential work Typical Means of Educating Christians in Portugal on higher education was a collection of journal articles he The Roman Catholic Church provides for the education wrote for the New Englander, which were subsequently of young people through its program of catechism. In ad- collected and published as The American Colleges and the dition, there are private alternatives to the public school American Public (1870). Also notable is the collection of system for Roman Catholics, Protestants, and evangeli- his baccalaureate sermons, Fifteen Years in the Chapel of cals. One method for educating Christian children that is Yale College (1888). One of his most enduring contribu- gaining popularity is home schooling. In terms of higher tions, however, was his service as the general editor of education, the Catholic University of Portugal has four Webster’s American Dictionary of the English Language for major regional centers. Three prominent Evangelical over 25 years, beginning with the significantly expanded schools of higher learning are the Portuguese Bible Insti- “unabridged” edition in 1864 and concluding with the first tute, the Baptist Seminary, and the Bible Institute of the edition of Webster’s International Dictionary in 1890. Assemblies of God. Only References and Resources Religious Freedom in Portugal Levesque, George. 2007. “Noah Porter Revisited.” History of Church and state were formally separated during the Higher Education Annual 26: 29–66. Portuguese First Republic (1910–1926), a separation re- Merriam, George S., ed. 1893. Noah Porter: A Memorial by iterated in the constitution of 1976. The 2001 Religious Friends. New York: Scribner. Freedoms Act provided qualifying religious groups with Porter, Noah. 1868. The Human Intellect: With an Introduction benefits previously reserved only for the Catholic Church. upon Psychology and the Soul. New York: Scribner. Private Christian education and homeschooling are both ———. 1870. The American Colleges and the American Public. legal in Portugal. The public secondary school curricula New Haven, CT: C. C. Chatfield. include an optional course that provides religious in- ———. 1880. The Christian College: An Address Delivered at struction.Copy The course can be taught by Catholic teachers Wellesley College, May 27, 1880 at the Laying of the Corner- and also other religious groups, including evangelicals. stone of Stone Hall. Boston: Frank Wood. —Gary Philip Camlin ———. 1888. Fifteen Years in the Chapel of Yale College, 1871– 1886. New York: Scribner. —George Levesque Portuguese Bible Institute

History Portugal and Christian Education The Portuguese Bible Institute (PBI) began the fall of 1974 as a ministry of the Greater Europe Mission, through dis- Christianity’s Beginnings in Portugal tance education, with nine centers in various parts of the Portugal is predominantly a Roman Catholic Country. country. The basic goal was to provide a context in which According to the 2011 Census, 81 percent of the popula- Christians could learn the essentials of God’s Word and tion of Portugal is Roman Catholic, but only about 19 receive training in evangelism and church growth. Mis- percent attends mass and takes the sacraments regularly. sionaries, aided by national pastors, conducted regular Portugal’s Christian heritage goes back to the time when classes for lay leaders and young people. Initial steps its territory was part of the Roman Empire. Evangeli- were taken toward having a residential school when the cal Christianity began to blossom especially during the first building and property, located in a town on the out- period before and after World War II. Although there skirts of Lisbon and originally used as an orphanage, was has been steady growth of evangelical Christianity, it still donated to Greater Europe Mission by a Dutch founda- constitutes only a small percentage of the population (es- tion in 1973. The Portuguese Bible Institute was legally timates vary between 1 and 3 percent). recognized by the Portuguese government in April 1976; Contributorin the fall of 1977 the residential school was established, Main Denominations and Institutions providing a more formal context in which leaders could In addition to the Roman Catholic Church and the Angli- be trained for ministry in the local church, as well as in can Church, there are many protestant denominations in parachurch organizations. Over time, the school acquired Portugal. The list, which is not intended to be exhaustive, three additional contiguous properties and constructed Postmodernism 971 other buildings to provide a library, classrooms, offices, ernism. In Christian circles, the notion has had mixed and dormitories. In 2007, the property was donated by reviews. Unfortunately it has sometimes been used as a Greater Europe Mission to the Portuguese Bible Institute catchall term for all the evils of contemporary society and (PBI), and in 2011 the school was granted autonomous culture. In this regard, the “post” in postmodernism im- status by Greater Europe Mission. plies a radical continuation of modernist relativism and secularism. Some of this sentiment stems from Friedrich Academic Programs Nietzsche’s full-scale assault on the notion of “truth” as Throughout its years of ministry, thousands of students both arbitrary and illusory. This type of nihilistic leaning have taken advantage of the diverse course offerings of has fostered the idea that anything postmodern must in- the school, ranging from basic level to master’s level edu- clude a denial of truth, and hence, the truth of God. cation. PBI continues to minister to the general Christian Others, however, see the religious potential in post- community through a basic course of study, offered both modernism, viewing it as a critique of extreme modern at its main campus and by extension. In addition, PBI biases toward empiricism and rationalism. Here, post- has two principal courses for training Christian leaders modernism is seen as the attempt to move beyond the and biblical scholars: a vocational bachelor’s program, hubris and pretension of human reasoning as the pri- accredited by the European Evangelical Accrediting As- mary or sole means to discover truth.Only This type of radical sociation, and a master’s program, accredited through suspicion of modernism can be readily observed in the North-West University in South Africa. This latter course writings of French philosophers Jean-François Lyotard, of study prepares students not only in Portugal, but also Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Emmanuel Lévi- in other Portuguese-speaking countries such as Angola nas, along with American philosopher Richard Rorty, and Mozambique. among others. A critical appropriation of these strains of postmodernism provides an instructive critique to those Mission Statement and Core Values who have wittingly or unwittingly embraced a paradigm The Portuguese Bible Institute is an interdenominational of knowledge that is too restrictive to allow space for school, firmly maintaining an evangelical perspective Christian truth. This version of postmodernism ques- in regard to doctrine and practice. Its professors and tions the modernist optimism of human ability, knowl- students represent a variety of denominations and back- edge,Copy and progress. It brings to the forefront both the grounds, but all are focused on the glory of God and the finiteness and basic corruption of humankind. But in so mission that Jesus Christ left for His church. PBI also doing, it opens the door to the possibility of the religious, provides a multicultural context, in which teachers from and in turn, Christianity. several countries join Portuguese nationals with the pur- The postmodern critique of modernism provides rich pose of preparing men and women for ministry. The mis- opportunities for Christian multivalent learning that sion of the Portuguese Bible Institute is to equip servants would extend beyond the limitations of the propositional, of God for the work of God, in collaboration with local rational, or empirical means of learning. Postmodernism churches and with the ultimate goal of glorifying God in is not about denying reality; it is rather affirming that every aspect of its ministry. Its core values include a focus reality is broader than the epistemological confines of on the Bible as the written revelation of God, a focus on modernism. Further, it radically questions the confident the priorities of the Kingdom of God and the mission of optimism of individual knowledge and its presumed the church, pastoral care of its staff and students, consis- objectivity and provides a call for contextually based tent ethical practices, academic excellence, teamwork and community learning that would not only include human interdenominational partnerships, cultural relevance, reasoning abilities but also comprise the imagination and leadership that multiplies its ministry through the and emotions. It suggests that reality cannot be reduced lives of others. Through the years of its ministry, PBI to rational, objective discourse; it is always contextu- has seen graduates serve in many capacities and in many ally situated and embedded. Hence, a Christian appro- parts of the world for the glory of God, strengthening the priation of this understanding allows for a priority of the local church and reaching others for Christ. Holy Spirit’s work through scripture in community and —Gary Philip Camlin practice, without exclusive emphasis on cognitive-based Contributor learning through logical propositions. Postmodernism References and Resources Benson, Bruce Ellis. 2001. “Postmodernism.” In Evangelical One of the most ambiguous, controversial words that Dictionary of Theology, 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker has come into us in the past several decades is postmod- Academic. 972 Power in Christian Education

Downing, Crystal L. 2006. How Postmodernism Serves My 2004). Yet, when organizing education for transforma- Faith: Questioning Truth in Language, Philosophy and Art. tion, serious thought should be given to the role and Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic. exercise of power, whether from a traditional or critical Grenz, Stanley J. 1996. A Primer on Postmodernism. Grand point of view. Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. First, educators are granted significant powers, since Michener, Ronald T. 2007. Engaging Deconstructive Theology. presumably they will determine the goal and path of Aldergate, UK: Ashgate. education that they consider beneficial for students. Es- ———. 2008. “Kingdom of God and Postmodern Thought: pecially in a traditional pedagogy, this may well overem- Friends or Foes?” Perichoresis 6 (2): 219–239. phasize the leadership role of the educator. Smith, James K. A. 2006. Who’s Afraid of Postmodernism: Tak- Second, educators are expected to initiate the transfor- ing Derrida, Lyotard, and Foucault to Church. Grand Rapids, mation of students, focusing not merely on accumulat- MI: Baker Academic. ing knowledge, but also on issues of moral, social, and —Ronald T. Michener spiritual formation. Such formative efforts can be quite invasive. Within the corporate environment, such man- agement of thought reform has been characterized as a Power in Christian Education “colonization of the affective domain”Only (Tourish 2013, 53ff.) and a “usurpation of first the body, then the mind, Western culture is deeply ambivalent about power. On and now the heart of the workers” (Dehler and Welsh the one hand, power and authority are easily ascribed to 2010); parallels with the educational context are not dif- experts and scholars, and they are (sometimes begrudg- ficult to imagine. ingly) acknowledged in business and politics, while Third, if a student willingly participates in the edu- on the other hand, power and authority are seriously cational process, this exercise of power will generally be contested in issues of morality and religion, considered experienced as beneficial; but if the student participates to be areas of pure personal freedom. Various pedago- begrudgingly or even unwillingly, the educator’s efforts gies reflect this: traditional classroom practices will are likely to be experienced as seduction, manipulation, generally rely unproblematically on the authority of the or even subjugation (Lips-Wiersma, Dean, and Forna- teacher and the tradition he or she represents (Downs ciari 2009).Copy 1994), while emancipatory or liberation pedagogies tend to contest traditional authority as oppressive Power and Educational Strategies (Freire 1985, 2000). This is not to argue against the educational goal of trans- formation, since transformation is uniformly deemed Power and Authority necessary within all Christian traditions, nor that the In a Christian context, authority and power are often exercise of power should be avoided, since it is precisely contrasted: authority represents the legitimate exercise the exercise of power, whether legitimate or not, that of leadership, and power represents coercive and thus provides cohesion and stability to a group or church. illegitimate leadership. Although this is considered to Rather, it is to argue for awareness of the role of power in reflect Christ’s teaching about service rather than about Christian education. exercising authority (Matt. 20:20–28), it also reflects an Power is part of many psychological learning mecha- older systems theory of power that accounts for power nisms, such as group affiliation, role modeling, peer only when something in the organization goes amiss; that pressure, identity construction, performance assess- is, it construes power as deviant (Clegg, Courpasson, and ment, reward systems, selective communication, and Phillip 2006, 111ff.). However, power can also be used for even physical pressure. It also plays an important role in beneficial ends, as the frequent references to the power of socializing processes, in which a delicate balance between God, of the Holy Spirit, or of the scriptures by Christian personal and group norms is negotiated (Tourish 2013, authors indicate (see, e.g., Howell 2003; Blackaby and 51–52). This is certainly relevant to Christian processes Blackaby 2004). In fact, power is an important aspect of of formation and discipleship. almost all human relationships and contributes signifi- Also, learning is usually not merely an individual ef- cantly to the cohesion and stability of groups and com- fort; it takes place within the context of a community or munitiesContributor (Stagaman 1999). group. Thus, a social theory of learning should account for factors such as group pressure, power, identity con- Power and Transformation struction and meaning-making strategies (Wenger 1998, Transformation is an important goal in Christian edu- 9–12). Moreover, as students mature, they are increas- cation, both in the church and in schools (Winkelmes ingly able to take charge of their own educational goals Practical Theology 973 and practice, so that adults should take greater responsi- Practical Theology bility for their learning than teenagers or young children (Knowles, Holton, and Swanson 2005). Christian educa- Practical theology is an interdisciplinary approach to tion does not simply present a particular faith tradition, theology that emphasizes attention to concrete situations but involves learners in a process of identity formation and practices in the discernment of faithful practice and centered on Christ and the church. Christian education the development of theological norms. While for centu- leads people to discover and understand the significance ries the discipline was conceived of as the application of of life through the lens of Christian sources and tradition. Christian theology to ministry, since the 1960s, practical In these strategies, power cannot be avoided, nor theology has come to be understood as critical, theological is power something one simply has by virtue of one’s reflection on practice oriented toward renewed forms of educational position or knowledge. Rather, it is an aspect practice. Some in the field, such as Don Browning (1996), of educational relationships that should not be merely have asserted that all theology, properly understood, is assumed; the educator should reflect on and negotiate practical theology, envisioning it as a fundamental theo- it purposely with those whose transformation is sought. logical discipline that encompasses historical, biblical, and systematic studies; situates them in the concrete contexts References and Resources from which they arise; and orientsOnly them toward their Blackaby, H. T., and R. Blackaby. 2004. Called to be God’s proper, practical ends. Along with Browning, Johannes Leader: How God Prepares His Servants for Leadership. Nash- van der Ven (1998), Richard Osmer (2008), and others ville, TN: Nelson. have made specific methodological proposals for the Clegg, S., D. Courpasson, and N. Phillip. 2006. Power and Orga- movements involved in practical theology, but the general nizations, Foundations for Organizational Science. London: pattern consistently begins by attending to contemporary Sage. practices and situations in a movement from practice-to- Dehler, G. E., and M. A. Welsh. 2010. “The Experience of Work: theory-to-practice rather than the theory-to-practice di- Spirituality and the New Workplace.” In Handbook of Work- rection of the applied theology model. Also basic to prac- place Spirituality and Organizational Performance, edited by tical theological method is its interdisciplinarity; it draws R. Giacalone and C. Jurkiewicz, 59–72. New York: Sharpe. on classic theological disciplines as well as the social sci- Downs, P. G. 1994. Teaching for Spiritual Growth. Grand Rap- encesCopy and other human disciplines and brings them into ids, MI: Zondervan. critical dialogue and relation. Often practical theology is Freire, P. 1985. The Politics of Education: Culture, Power, and undertaken by Christians seeking to guide the life of the Liberation. Translated by D. Macedo. South Hadley, UK: church, but scholars with varied critical/religious perspec- Bergin & Garvey. tives, scopes of interest, methods, and aims are present ———. 2000. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Translated by M. Berg- within the field, which is itself referred to with nuances man-Ramos. 30th anniv. ed. New York: Continuum. of meaning as pastoral theology and empirical theology. Howell, D. N. 2003. Servants of the Servant: A Biblical Theology James Poling and Donald Miller (1985) capture some of of Leadership, Theology. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. this diversity in six types of practical theology, which they Knowles, M. S., E. F. Holton, and R. A. Swanson. 2005. The distinguish by their differing foci—the church itself or the Adult Learner: The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and church in its relation to society—and their distinct ways Human Resource Development. 6th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier. of relating classic theological and social scientific sources. Lips-Wiersma, M., K. Lund Dean, and C. J. Fornaciari. 2009. Most theological schools still reflect the legacy of Fried- “Theorizing the Dark Side of the Workplace Spirituality rich Schleiermacher’s influential 19th-century theological Movement.” Journal of Management Inquiry 18 (4): 288–300. encyclopedia as it evolved into the four divisions of church Stagaman, D. J. 1999. Authority in the Church. Collegeville, history, biblical studies, systematic theology, and practi- MN: Liturgical Press. cal theology. In this context, practical theology serves as Tourish, D. 2013. The Dark Side of Transformational Leader- a curricular division housing courses in the various prac- ship: A Critical Perspective. New York: Routledge. tical arts of ministry. Edward Farley’s Theologia (1983) Wenger, E. 1998. Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, traces the historical development of this modern fourfold and Identity, Learning in Doing. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge scheme, lamenting the fragmentation of theology and rail- University Press. ing against the “clerical paradigm” that unites it only by Winkelmes,Contributor M. A. 2004. “The Classroom as a Place of Forma- reducing the study of theology to ministerial education tion: Purposefully Creating a Transformative Environment and thereby detaching it from Christian education in the for Today’s Diverse Seminary Population.” Teaching Theol- churches. By contrast, Bonnie Miller-McLemore (2012), ogy & Religion 7 (4): 213–222. defending the theological wisdom of pastoral know-how, —Jack Barentsen argues that the academic reification of theology cannot be 974 Practical Theology in Academic Contexts resolved by a reunification of theology as one thing, but First, the praxis of the Christian faith is the primary only by the recognition of its multiplicity. Related differ- object of study. This praxis can be studied on an individ- ences play out in, among other places, the differing ways ual basis (personal experience of faith), on a communal of understanding the aims of contextual education compo- basis (communal praxis as church), or on a societal basis nents—whether these are seen primarily as an opportunity (faith as practiced in a particular society and culture) (see for applying theology or also for faithfully constructing it, Heitink 1999). Usually, one dimension receives priority, whether ministerial know-how is taken to be knowledge of which influences the selection and ordering of courses a technical or theological nature. in a PT curriculum. Many schools prioritize the church Notable scholars who have made contributions to both dimension, so that typical PT subdisciplines related to the practical theology and religious education include Thomas church (liturgy, homiletics, church development, church Groome, Jack Seymour, Mary Elizabeth Moore, Richard leadership) are central in the curriculum. Osmer, James Fowler, Jennifer Ayres, Gordon Mikoski, Second, theological as well as social scientific perspec- Evelyn Parker, and Anne Wimberly. The richness of tives are required to interpret and evaluate Christian this intersection is nourished, in part, by the correlation praxis. The relationship between these perspectives is between practical theological methods and hermeneuti- an important area of debate within PT. On one end of cal approaches to education, such as Brazilian educator the spectrum, theologians focus on accurateOnly description Paulo Freire’s see-judge-act process for conscientization. of faith praxis (see van der Ven 1998); on the other end, Groome’s (1999) model of Christian religious education, theology and biblical studies provide norms for evaluat- shared Christian praxis, is an influential example. Com- ing and directing faith praxis (see Anderson 2001). The bining a practice-theory-practice movement with dialogue various positions can be identified as moving from praxis between theological and human sources, it leads learners models (mostly empirical), to models of correlation (the- through description of their own action, analysis of that ology and social science as partners), to PT as applied action, consideration of the Christian story and vision, theology (normative-deductive), and even to a habitus dialogue between their experiences and the Christian tra- model (Ballard and Pritchard 1996). One’s position will dition, and choosing a personal faith response. determine the relative weight of theology versus em- pirical research in the curriculum. From a correlational References and Resources perspective,Copy adopted at many schools, PT courses should Bass, Dorothy C., and Craig R. Dykstra, eds. 2008. For Life typically contain elements of Bible and theology, as well Abundant: Practical Theology, Theological Education, and as input from social science methodologies. Christian Ministry. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Third, the goal of PT is variously determined as a de- Browning, Don S. 1996. A Fundamental Practical Theology: De- scription of faith experience (Immink 2005) or an ethical scriptive and Strategic Proposals. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. description of lived faith (Browning 1991); as providing Farley, Edward. 1983. Theologia: The Fragmentation and Unity action guidelines (Forrester 2000; Osmer 2005), encour- of Theological Education. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. aging faithful participation (Owens 2010), or transform- Groome, Thomas H. 1999. Christian Religious Education: Shar- ing practice (Graham 2002); or as fulfilling the Missio ing Our Story and Vision. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Dei (Murray 2001) or as preserving Christian identity Miller-McLemore, Bonnie J. 2012. Christian Theology in Prac- through interpretive leadership (Carroll 2011). The goal tice: Discovering a Discipline. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. of PT will influence how PT instructors and their courses Osmer, Richard Robert. 2008. Practical Theology: An Introduc- envision the contribution of PT to church and society. tion. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Poling, James N., and Donald E. Miller. 1985. Foundations for a Theological Reflection at Three Levels Practical Theology of Ministry. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. Practical theological reflection on lived faith takes place Van der Ven, Johannes. 1998. Practical Theology: An Empirical at three levels. The first level is personal lived faith, Approach. Reprint: Leuven: Peeters Publishers. which informs the lives of both teachers and students. —Christopher B. James The second level is leading others to develop their lived faith. The study of PT provides the knowledge and skill necessary to help individuals, churches, and Christian Practical Theology in Academic Contexts organizations to live their faith. The third level is re- Contributorsearch into lived faith to understand and contextualize Building a Curriculum in Practical Theology current Christian praxis more faithfully in our increas- One’s view of the nature of practical theology (PT) as a ingly complex and changing world. Thus, the instruc- discipline has significant implications for how to teach it tion of PT contains reflection about the needs and in an academic setting. methods for PT research. Practices as Pedagogy, Christian 975

Didactic Considerations References and Resources Since the primary “text” is the (communal) praxis of the Anderson, R. S. 2001. The Shape of Practical Theology: Empow- Christian faith, case studies have a special place in the ering Ministry with Theological Praxis. Downers Grove, IL: teaching of PT, whether drawn from literature, personal InterVarsity Press. experience, or faculty and student research. Case studies Ballard, P. H., and J. Pritchard. 1996. Practical Theology in Ac- can also be used in various types of assignments and ex- tion: Christian Thinking in the Service of Church and Society. aminations. It is as impossible to teach PT without case London: SPCK. studies as it is impossible to teach the New Testament Browning, D. S. 1991. A Fundamental Practical Theology: Descrip- without studying its text. tive and Strategic Proposals. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. Since PT makes use of both theological and social sci- Carroll, J. W. 2011. As One with Authority: Reflective Leader- entific methods, a key didactical aim is to help students ship in Ministry. 2nd. rev. ed. Eugene, OR: Cascade. integrate these into a fruitful perspective on the particular Forrester, D. B. 2000. Truthful Action: Explorations in Practical case being studied. As a general rule, the four tasks of Theology. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. observation, interpretation, evaluation, and application Graham, E. L. 2002. Transforming Practice: Pastoral Theology provide a helpful framework for this integration (Osmer in an Age of Uncertainty. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. 2008). These four steps should be implemented as much Heitink, G. 1999. Practical Theology: OnlyHistory, Theory, Action as feasible in every PT course in the curriculum. Domains, Manual for Practical Theology. Translated by R. Finally, upper level and graduate PT courses gener- Bruinsma. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ally involve some aspect of student field research. De- Immink, G. 2005. Faith: A Practical Theological Reconstruction. pending on one’s orientation toward the relationship Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. between theology and the social sciences, this research Murray, S. R. 2001. Church Planting: Laying Foundations. will tend to be more qualitative (typical of theology stu- Scottdale, PA: Herald Press. dents, whose training is usually focused on the historical Osmer, R. R. 2005. The Teaching Ministry of Congregation. and literary study of Christian sources and tradition) or Louisville, KY: WJK. more quantitative (typical of religious studies and social ———. 2008. Practical Theology: An Introduction. Grand Rap- science students, whose training contains more instruc- ids, MI: Eerdmans. tion on statistical and other quantitative methods) Owens,Copy R. L. 2010. The Shape of Participation: A Theology of (Swinton and Mowat 2006). Developing student un- Church Practices. Eugene, OR: Cascade. derstanding and skills in combining field research with Swinton, John, and Harriet Mowat. 2006. Practical Theology social science and theological analysis is perhaps the and Qualitative Research Methods. London: SCM Press. most challenging task of PT, and indeed of the whole of Van der Ven, J. A. 1998. Practical Theology: An Empirical Ap- theological education. proach. Translated by B. Schultz. Leuven: Peeters. —Jack Barentsen Conclusion Throughout the PT curriculum, students are equipped to provide reflective leadership in a complex world in Practices as Pedagogy, Christian which their theological and leadership expertise is needed not so much to provide solutions, but to interpret events Christian practices as a way of shaping a Christian way of and trends from a spiritual perspective, to find ways to life embody a pedagogy that connects practice, formation, collaborate with others from various disciplines to find and virtue. A body of recent work draws on the tradition solutions, and to consider how to implement these solu- of Christian practices and spiritual disciplines and brings it tions together and bring about change. At the bachelor’s into conversation with more recent work in sociology, phi- level this means the ability to cooperate meaningfully in losophy, philosophy of education, and practical theology, work teams; at the master’s level, this implies the ability enabling fresh connections with pedagogical questions. to lead such work teams. Students can begin to learn such leadership through a variety of didactic forms, including The Nature of Practices lectures, reading groups, case study presentations and An influential definition of social practices is offered by discussions, research assignments, student (group) pre- Alasdair MacIntyre in After Virtue: sentationsContributor and debate, and collaborative projects, which put them to work in ways that parallel to some extent By a “practice” I am going to mean any coherent and their future work environment. complex form of socially established cooperative human 976 Pragmatism

activity through which goods internal to that form of Christian practices may therefore further relate to activity are realized in the course of trying to achieve learning by offering models of formational structures those standards of excellence which are appropriate to, that have been held by the Christian community to be and partially definitive of, that form of activity, with helpful in developing Christian dispositions and that the result that human powers to achieve excellence, and can be applied or adapted more broadly. Christian read- human conceptions of the ends and goods involved, are ing practices developed in the context of Bible reading, systematically extended.76 for instance, offer a model of reading that seeks to form Several key points are compressed here. Practices are the reader in humility, charity, patience, and justice to- not single, lone actions, but rather meaningful patterns ward the text and may offer clues as to how Christians of action pursued over time within a community. Even ought to read other texts. These clues can be taken as when I pray alone, I am not inventing prayer, but join- the starting point for developing pedagogical practices ing a tradition. Practices are adopted in pursuit of a telos, for classrooms that resonate with Christian practice. a goal intrinsic to them: compare engaging prayer in The historical contours of hospitality as a Christian pursuit of communion with God to praying for the sake practice can be used as a guide to developing hospi- of social acceptance; the former goal is more intrinsic to table pedagogical practices in classrooms. Through prayer. Through participating in practices, our capacities such examples, the connection betweenOnly Christian faith are developed, in terms of both action and understand- and pedagogy runs not only through the application of ing. Practices are not mindless behaviors, but sustain Christian beliefs, but also through intentional appro- and are sustained by a developing narrative. In Pierre priation of the history of Christian practice understood Bourdieu’s terms, by regularly participating in socially as Christian pedagogy. structured activities, we acquire a particular habitus, a set of sensibilities, dispositions, and ways of seeing things References and Resources that in turn influences our actions.77 Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cam- bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Christian Practices Dykstra, Craig. 2005. Growing in the Life of Faith: Education Christian practices are ways of structuring life within and Christian Practices. 2nd ed. Louisville, KY: Westminster the Christian community in the pursuit of openness to JohnCopy Knox Press. grace. Lists of Christian practices commonly include MacIntyre, Alasdair. 2007. After Virtue. 3rd ed. Notre Dame, confession, discernment, giving, healing, hospitality, in- IN: University of Notre Dame Press. tentional community, justice seeking, listening, prayer, Smith, David I., and James K. A. Smith, eds. 2011. Teaching and reconciliation, scripture reading, Sabbath, service, testi- Christian Practices: Reshaping Faith and Learning. Grand mony, and worship. It is characteristic of Christian prac- Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. tices that they are intended to master us, to open space Volf, Miroslav, and Dorothy C. Bass. 2001. Practicing Theology: for God’s work among us, rather than resulting in our Beliefs and Practices in Christian Life. Grand Rapids, MI: mastery of them. Eerdmans. Wenger, Etienne. 1998. Communities of Practice: Learning, Practices and Christian Pedagogy Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer- Christian practices may relate to Christian pedagogy in sity Press. several ways. They may be included as elements, such as —David I. Smith when particular practices of scripture reading are incorpo- rated directly into the learning setting. A practices frame promotes reflection on the patterns evident in how these Pragmatism practices are incorporated and the kinds of formation that may result. Practices may also relate to education by Pragmatism is the view that ideas obtain meaning though cultivating and sustaining dispositions that contribute to action, experience, and use. C. S. Peirce’s (1878, §402) learning, for instance when Bible reading habits cultivated famous “pragmatic maxim” states that theories find outside the classroom contribute to a student’s positive meaning in their consequences and “practical bearings.” disposition toward reading in the learning setting. Pragmatism, from the Greek pragma (deed, act), does not Contributorunderstand philosophy as a problem of knowledge, but as one of human experience, culture, and practice. Drawing 76. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue, 3rd ed. (Notre Dame, IN: Univer- on this principle, William James ([1907] 1975, 29) liked sity of Notre Dame Press, 2007), 187. 77. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge, UK: to ask his students, “In what respect would the world be Cambridge University Press, 1977). different if this alternative or that were true?” Contempo- Pragmatism 977 rary researchers call pragmatism “a philosophy of action” Reflective of James’s and Dewey’s cosmopolitan cu- (Biesta and Burbules 2003, 9). riosities, a pragmatic educational theory is deeply com- In “A Short Catechism Concerning Truth,” Dewey mitted to science, democracy, and art. That is, education (1910, 9) notes that when pragmatists speak of prag- is understood in a broad sense as involving all aspects of matism as “true,” they mean that, methodologically, “It human interaction with the world, of which schools are works, it clears up difficulties, removes obscurities, puts just one component. The pragmatic school interacts with individuals into more experimental, less dogmatic, and a variety of cultural institutions; families, religions, gov- less arbitrarily sceptical relations to life; aligns philo- ernments, workplaces, and museums potentially provide sophic with scientific method; does away with self-made educationally rich environments. problems of epistemology; clarifies and reorganizes logi- cal theory, etc.” Pragmatism, Religion, and Theology To put this in Jamesian parlance, theories are instru- A common but mistaken view is that pragmatism is op- mentalities rather than final answers. posed to religion. This owes something to Dewey’s abrupt Terry Lectures, published as A Common Faith (1934); Pragmatism and Education Harvey Cox’s (1965) assertion that urban-secular people Pragmatic principles were put most directly into prac- are pragmatic and thus do not askOnly religious questions; tice by John Dewey (1859–1952), whose pedagogical and Richard Rorty’s (1999) view that religion is a “con- experiments at the Laboratory School of the University versation-stopper.” In fact, Dewey’s and Rorty’s views are of Chicago and extensive publications, coupled with his more nuanced than their polemical one-liners indicate, work as a global educational consultant and a statesman and many pragmatist philosophers value spirituality, for progressive movements, had a significant impact on religion, and faith as essential aspects of human experi- Western educational institutions. Dewey wrote in many ence. William James’s ([1902] 1958) landmark Varieties areas, but his influential educational works include: “In- of Religious Experience is but one of many classic works terest in Relation to Training of the Will” (1896), “My in pragmatism’s canon that demonstrate deep apprecia- Pedagogic Creed” (1897), The School and Society (1899), tion for the character-developing, experience-inducing The Child and the Curriculum (1902), Democracy and quality of religion. Contemporary pragmatism values the Education (1916), and Experience and Education (1938). “wholeCopy person” and offers conceptual tools for support- Another classical pragmatist, William James (1842– ing a morally reflective life (Rosenbaum 2009). Drawing 1910), published his oft-delivered pedagogical lectures on the hospitality incipient in James’s pluralistic vision, in the form of Talks to Teachers (in James 1992, 727). Garrison (2002, 28) writes, “James thought all experience Working from the perspective of biological evolution, potentially religious, or at least spiritual. I believe with he described the human as “primarily a practical being, James that there is an aspect of numinous potentiality whose mind is given him [sic] to aide in adapting him to involved in all aspects of inclusion in education.” this world’s life.” The brain has a practical purpose, and Pragmatism’s spiritual and religious proclivities are thus “ethical utopias, æsthetic visions, insights into eter- especially apparent within the field of educational theory: nal truths and fanciful logical combinations” are contin- scholars working from the perspective of philosophical gent upon something more essential—the mind’s ability pragmatism highlight qualities such as eros (Garrison to produce useful action (1992, 728). Though published 1997), caring (Noddings 1984), moral growth (Dewey in 1899, the book was based on lecture notes from 1891, 1916), the reflective life (Rosenbaum 2009), and rever- the year James and Dewey began corresponding. Indeed, ence (Rud and Garrison 2012) as central to education. Talks to Teachers—with its invocation of laboratory “Good teaching involves forming character, molding des- schools, manual training, habit, native impulses, and the tinies, creating an enduring passion for learning, appreci- interest/effort dyad—provides an interesting precursor to ating beauty, respecting silence, and much more. In some Dewey’s more detailed work in educational theory, much sense, teaching is a spiritual, although not necessarily a of which would be published in the new century. religious, activity” (Rud and Garrison 2012, 1). One rea- Inspired by James’s and Dewey’s legacies, pragma- son pragmatists can make these links is their concern for tism has a long-standing regard for education. Pragma- human life in its fullest context. For this reason, religion tists understand education to be a matter of growth and should not be taught purely cognitively or privately, but thusContributor believe that questions of how to organize schooling “should be part of the regular, integrative curriculum,” are subservient to questions of how human experience including science and art (Miedema 2002, 87). matures. “Learning?—certainly, but living primarily, Attempts to correlate Christian theology with philo- and learning through and in relation to this living” sophical pragmatism have been sporadic. Process the- (Dewey 1899, 24). ology, with its emphasis on ongoing creative change, 978 Pragmatism counts pragmatism as a key philosophical influence. which could spur critical and creative investigations Practical theology, which prioritizes practical knowledge rather than watertight solutions. (phronēsis), has also been philosophically shaped by Christian pragmatists take St. Luke’s axiom to heart: pragmatic concerns (Browning 1996; Viau 1999). The students who are fully qualified become like their allied fields of Christian education and religious educa- teacher—they bear good fruit. tion have given particular attention to the educational theories of John Dewey, who gave a keynote address References and Resources (1903) to the first convention of the Religious Education Biesta, G., and N. Burbules. 2003. Pragmatism and Educational Association. Another speaker at the turn-of-the-century Research. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. meeting was George Albert Coe, one of the first scholars Browning, D. 1996. A Fundamental Practical Theology: De- to integrate Deweyan perspectives into an understanding scriptive and Strategic Proposals. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress of Christian religious education. Edward Scribner Ames, Press. Randolph Crump Miller, and Peter Hodgson have also Cox, Harvey. 1965. The Secular City. London: SCM. incorporated Deweyan insights into their understanding Dewey, John. 1896. “Interest in Relation to Training of the of theology and education. Will.” In The Early Works of John Dewey 5:111–150. Carbon- Dewey’s philosophy of education has been read in dale and Edwardsville: Southern IllinoisOnly University Press. dialogue with various Christian doctrines and theologians, ———. 1897. “My Pedagogic Creed.” In The Early Works of John including the doctrines of creation and revelation, and Dewey 5:84–95. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Il- the work of Friedrich Schleiermacher, St. Benedict, and linois University Press. Rowan Williams (Ghiloni 2012). St. Alberto Hurtado ———. 1899. The School and Society. The Middle Works of John (1935), a Catholic saint from Chile who died in the same Dewey 1. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois year as Dewey, wrote his doctoral research on Deweyan University Press. pedagogy in dialogue with Catholic doctrine. Dewey’s ———. 1902. The Child and the Curriculum. The Middle Works pragmatic insights also can be used for religious education of John Dewey 2. Carbondale and Edwardsville, IL: Southern in schools (Miedema 1995), Catholic education (English Illinois University Press. 2006), and interreligious education (Ghiloni 2011). ———. 1903. “Religious Education as Conditioned by Modern PsychologyCopy and Pedagogy.” In The Middle Works of John A Pragmatic Christian Education? Dewey 3: 210–215. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern A pragmatic Christian education can be seen as an at- Illinois University Press. tempt to take the ancient Didache’s admonition seri- ———. 1910. “A Short Catechism Concerning Truth.” In The ously: speech that is not “fulfilled by action” is empty. Middle Works of John Dewey 6:3–11. Carbondale and Ed- Pragmatic Christian educators believe that the success of wardsville: Southern Illinois University Press. education is demonstrated through “intelligence in ac- ———. 1916. Democracy and Education. The Middle Works of tion” (Dewey 1922, 118)—the idea that knowledge must John Dewey 9. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Il- be dynamic, scientific, and experiential. Furthermore, linois University Press. the “data” for pragmatic pedagogy include what James ———. 1922. Human Nature and Conduct. The Middle Works ([1907] 1975, 39) described as “the rich thicket of real- of John Dewey 14. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern ity”; the full range of concrete human interests, prob- Illinois University Press. lems, and environments. What counts as knowledge is ———. 1934. A Common Faith. In The Later Works of John determined environmentally; there is no one-size-fits- Dewey 9. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois all curriculum. Intelligence is defined in relation to cul- University Press. ture and context; thus, the knowledge and skills needed ———. 1938. Experience and Education. In The Later Works of by Christians in the 21st century may well be unique John Dewey 13. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Il- when compared to the knowledge and skills required by linois University Press. their counterparts in earlier centuries. Therefore, one English, G. 2006. “Functional Democracy and the Development potential feature of a pragmatic approach to Christian of Doctrine: A Participative Approach to Religious Educa- education is a widening of theological source material. tion.” In International Handbook of the Religious, Moral and Rather than beginning with the accuracy of doctrine, Spiritual Dimensions in Education, edited by M. de Souza, the Contributorintegrity of the community, or the unassailability of G. Durka, K. Engebretson, R. Jackson, and A. McGrady, personal insight as guiding assumptions, these would 1:621–633. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. be presented as problems to be tested. Sacred traditions Garrison, J. 1997. Dewey and Eros: Wisdom and Desire in the and spiritual experiences would be seen as hypotheses, Art of Teaching. New York: Teachers College Press. Praxis 979

———. 2002. “James’s Metaphysical Pluralism, Spirituality, and imperative to put into practice the things that have been Overcomign Blindness to Diversity in Education.” In Wil- learned (Phil. 4:9 et al.), is frequently nonexistent in edu- liam James and Education, edited by J. Garrison, R. Podeschi, cational discourse. One reason for this absence is a lack and E. Bredo, 27–41. New York: Teachers College Press. of clarity or agreement on definition. In essence, praxis Ghiloni, A. J. 2011. “Interreligious Education: What Would must have meaning in both its denotative and connota- Dewey Do?” Religious Education 106 (5): 476–493. tive dimensions. It must not only “mean” something de- ———. 2012. John Dewey among the Theologians. New York: finitively specific in the mind of the teacher, but it must Peter Lang. also “mean” something applicably generic in the mind of Hurtado, A. 1935. “El Sistema Pedagógico de John Dewey the learner. ante las Exigencias de la Doctrina Católica [John Dewey’s This brief introduction to a contemporary and Christian Pedagogical System Facing the Demands of the Catholic understanding of praxis attempts to rectify this situation Doctrine].” PhD diss., Catholic University of Leuven. and clarify its definition, describe its purpose, and reflect James, W. (1902) 1958. The Varieties of Religious Experience. upon possible implications for Christian education. New York: New American Library. ———. (1907) 1975. Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Defining Praxis Ways of Thinking. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Delving into the denotative “meaning”Only of praxis yields a ———. 1992. Writings: 1878–1899. New York: Library of simple dictionary definition that indicates involvement America. in the practice of a discipline. According to the Collins Miedema, S. 1995. “The Beyond in the Midst: The Relevance English Dictionary, praxis is a transliteration derived of Dewey’s Philosophy of Religion for Education.” In The from the Greek prassein (deed, action, to do) and denotes New Scholarship on Dewey, edited by J. Garrison, 61–73. “the practice and practical side of a profession or field Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic. of study, as opposed to the theory; a practical exercise; ———. 2002. “James’s Metaphysics of Experience and Religious accepted practice or custom.” Thus, it can refer to the Education.” In William James and Education, edited by implementation and application of the constructs that J. Garrison, R. Podeschi, and E. Bredo, 74–88. New York: underlie a given discipline, a specific activity, or even the Teachers College Press. lifestyle and habits of a given community; thus, praxis is Noddings, N. 1984. Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and theCopy employment of the theories, models, and practices of Moral Education. Berkeley: University of California Press. a given discipline. Peirce, C. S. 1878. “How to Make Our Ideas Clear.” In The Col- lected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, edited by C. Harts- Differentiating Praxis horne and P. Weiss, 5:388–410. Cambridge, MA: Harvard In its connotative “meaning,” an inevitable and under- University Press. standable confusion of praxis with practice occurs. Both Rorty, R. 1999. Philosophy and Social Hope. London: Penguin. terms can refer to a variety of educational applications— Rosenbaum, S. 2009. Pragmatism and the Reflective Life. Lan- for example, to implement a lesson (put it into practice), ham, MD: Lexington Books. to get better at a skill (practice tackling or knitting), or Rud, A. G., and J. Garrison. 2012. “Introduction: Teaching with to participate in the exercise of a field of study (practice Reverence: Reviving an Ancient Virtue for Today’s Schools.” law or medicine). The distinction between the two terms In Teaching with Reverence: Reviving an Ancient Virtue for seems to occur at this junction: praxis refers to the appli- Today’s Schools, edited by A. G. Rud and J. Garrison, 1–16. cation of educational theory in lessons learned, skills ac- New York: Palgrave Macmillan. quired, or worldviews implemented, whereas practice re- Viau, M. 1999. Practical Theology: A New Approach. Translated fers to a method of instruction that fosters improvement by R. Hurley and C. Tanguay. Leiden: Brill. and application. In other words, praxis is the application —Aaron J. Ghiloni of a theoretical lesson or foundation, whereas practice is a method of assimilating lessons learned in order to ready oneself for future opportunities to apply what is learned. Praxis Exploring Praxis “Few educators speak of praxis. . . . Yet while praxis may Of the occurrences of praxis found in six New Testament notContributor be part of many workers overt vocabulary, practice, books (Matt. 16:27; Luke 23:51; Acts 19:18; Rom. 8:13, a pale derivative, is. So, what is praxis and why should 12:4; Col. 3:9; Gal. 3:19), three appear to provide insight educators be concerned with it?” (Smith 2011, para. as to its role: Romans 8:13, Romans 12:4, and Colos- 1). Praxis, even among educators who acknowledge an sians 3:9. Translated “misdeeds” (of the physical body), 980 Prayer as Christian Practice

“function” (of the members of the spiritual body), and practical application or pedagogical focus is rooted in a “practices” (of the old self) respectively, praxis is clearly a simple need to commune with God. This communion reference to the customs, habits, and anticipated behav- is the basis for education, enlightenment, and forma- iors of the community, field, or profession under discus- tion in the Christian faith, which in turn helps shape sion. Applying this understanding to education yields an the worldview through which we negotiate our circum- application of praxis as an expression of the deeds and stances in daily life. doings of an educator who is practicing his or her craft. Prayer is a vital component of Christian education, Matthew 16:27, logically then, assigns praxis as the rubric because it brings enlightenment to the human intellect by which rewards will be based—that is, upon what each and spirit. Martin Luther taught that morning prayer one has “done.” dedicates one’s work and life to God, and mental prayer Praxis thus engages the Christian educator in the ap- or meditation upon scripture, the commandments, and plication of the principles and practices that form the the Lord’s Prayer brings understanding and growth in underlying structure of the discipline. A brief exposure the Christian life.78 The Anglican tradition also practices to the nature of the task before us, by way of a reference daily prayers that are structured for the believer in the to the priest and teacher Ezra, provides a fitting conclu- Book of Common Prayer, which provides prayers for sion to this introduction to praxis. Ezra experienced the morning and evening along with daily reading and recit- 79 Only good hand of God upon him because he devoted himself ing of scripture. This is also meant to promote biblical to studying the law, observing its requirements, and understanding and spiritual growth. In Eastern Orthodox teaching it to the Israelites (Ezra 7:10). In other words, he traditions, doing theology is inseparable from prayer; engaged in the praxis of theological thinking, Christian therefore a theologian must also be a praying person. conventions, and educational excellence. Nonliturgical traditions, such as charismatic and Pente- Doing theology requires thinking Christianly and costal communities, also practice daily prayer; however, clearly, not in futility as the Gentiles did (Eph. 4:17). A it tends to be less formal and more spontaneous, aimed at biblical mind-set, rooted in an evangelical worldview, is a constant dialogue with the Holy Spirit, by which their the foundation for the praxis of Christian education. The capacity to understand truth in scripture and mature in evidence of such thinking is found in the conventions, Christian conduct is increased. No matter the tradition, or (as the Collins English Dictionary defines it): “the the goalCopy is spirit-to-spirit connection with God and dis- way things are usually done within a particular area or cipline of the soul through which one is enlightened to activity”) of the Christian community that consist of the biblical truth and formed in Christian character. There- elements of a life worthy of the calling, as cataloged by fore, whether one practices a daily discipline of recited Paul in Ephesians 4–6. Acknowledging and implement- prayers or spontaneous expressions and petitions, this ing models of education, especially those extracted from continuing communion is needed to mature in the faith scripture (see Biblical Models of Education) satisfies the and increase in understanding of biblical truth. expectation of the conventions and facilitates the praxis Prayer is practiced in various forms, which fall into two of Christian education. categories: individual and communal. Individual prayers deal with the growth and education of the believer, focus- References and Resources ing on elements of faith, empowerment, and conduct in Smith, M. K. 2011. “What Is praxis?” In The Encyclopaedia one’s personal life. Communal prayer is focused on the of Informal Education. Accessed 29 December 2012. http:// education and formation of a body of believers. Litur- www.infed.org/biblio/b-praxis.htm. gical traditions formally incorporate prayers into their Westerhoff, J. 1994. Spiritual Life: The Foundation for Preach- liturgy, reciting them as part of the service. Nonliturgi- ing and Teaching. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox cal traditions also incorporate communal prayer into Press. their services; however, they are not usually formally —Michael R. Mitchell and Benjamin K. Forrest structured and are often spontaneous. Prayer then, both individual and communal, is not only a central practice of the Christian faith but also vital for growth in biblical Prayer as Christian Practice understanding and the formation of Christian character.

Prayer, in its broadest definition, can be viewed in two Contributor78. D. H. Tripp, “Luther,” in The Study of Spirituality, ed. Cheslynn major ways: as a conversation with God or as a forma- Jones, Geoffrey Wainwright, and Edward Yarnold, SJ (New York: Oxford tive disciplining and training of the soul toward growth University Press, 1986), 343–346. 79. A. M. Allchin, “Anglican Spirituality,” in The New Westminster and maturity in the Christian faith. Although the Chris- Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, ed. Philip Sheldrake (Lousiville, KY: tian tradition has many ways of nuancing prayer, each Westminster John Knox Press, 2005). Prayer in Schools 981

References and Resources “Speak to Aaron and his sons, saying, Thus you shall bless Boa, Kenneth. 2001. Conformed to His Image: Biblical and the Israelites: You shall say to them, The LORD bless you Practical Approaches to Spiritual Formation. Grand Rapids, and keep you; the LORD make his face to shine upon MI: Zondervan. you, and be gracious to you; the LORD lift up his coun- Demarest, Bruce A., Brad Nassif, Scott Hahn, Joe Driskill, and tenance upon you, and give you peace. So they shall put Evan Howard. 2012. Four Views on Christian Spirituality. my name on the Israelites, and I will bless them” (Num. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. 6:23–27). Christian parents can begin praying with and Howard, Evan B. 2008. The Brazos Introduction to Christian praying over their children early in the child’s life, that Spirituality. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press. he or she will grow by God’s grace into a mature follower Jones, Cheslynn, Geoffrey Wainwright, and Edward Yarnold, of Christ and that she or he might live a blessed life and SJ. 1986. The Study of Spirituality. New York. Oxford Uni- witness before others. versity Press. It is also through example that children learn the ap- Sheldrake, Phillip, ed. 2005. The New Westminster Dictionary propriate approach for prayer. Prayer should not be looked of Christian Spirituality. American ed. Louisville, KY: West- upon as an encumbrance upon the activity of life. Instead, minster John Knox Press. it should be regarded as a natural accompaniment to daily —Rachel A. Fox living. Prayer is the opportunity to Onlycommunicate directly with God, following great people of God in the scriptures, including Jesus, who approached God to unleash burdens, Prayer, Children and to give thanks, to bless Him with praise, to intercede for others, to ask His forgiveness for confessed sins, to ask Generally, two broad categories are considered when Him to provide for a specific need, to complain about their Christian educators and Christian parents study the sub- circumstances, and to lament their losses. ject of children and prayer. The first is teaching children to pray—that is, instilling in children the value and pur- References and Resources pose of prayer. The second category is teaching children Boa, Kenneth. 2001. Conformed to His Image: Biblical and how to pray—that is, teaching them the scriptural and Practical Approaches to Spiritual Formation. Grand Rapids, traditional forms of prayer that become the foundation MI:Copy Zondervan. for a lifetime of conversations with God. Both of these Hoffman, Lawrence A. 2002. The Journey Home: Discovering categories can be addressed by the instructor concur- the Deep Spiritual Wisdom of the Jewish Tradition. Boston: rently and by example at the earliest moment of a child’s Beacon Press. life and faith development. Thompson, Marjorie J. 1996. Family the Forming Center: A Vi- Teaching children the lessons of prayer begins with ap- sion of the Role of Family in Spiritual Formation. Nashville, propriate modeling both within and outside of the home. TN: Upper Room. In Hebrew, the word horim, referring to parents, and the Wigger, J. Bradley. 2003. The Power of God at Home: Nurturing word morim, referring to teachers, have the same mean- Our Children in Love and Grace. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ing: to teach or to instruct. This instruction is necessary Yust, Karen Marie. 2004. Real Kids, Real Faith: Practices for Nur- to instill both the habit and the ritual of prayer. This turing Children’s Spiritual Lives. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. process acknowledges the omnipresence of God and en- —R. Kevin Johnson courages children to engage in dialogue with God as they do with close friends. Practicing God’s presence by talking to Him teaches Prayer in Schools children that living the Christian life is about com- municating with God and fostering a constant attitude The U.S. Supreme Court has reviewed the question of of prayer. The importance of this fact is not lost on the constitutionality of school prayer on a number of children, whose instructors show through example occasions. In Engel v. Vitale (1962), the Court decided that God both desires and requires the attention of his that it was unconstitutional for a public school in New people. Acknowledging God at meals by beginning with Hyde Park, New York, to start the school day off with a prayer of blessing and concluding with a prayer of a prayer to God. Even though students were allowed to thanksgivingContributor is one way that this is achieved practically abstain from participation if they so decided, the court in the Christian home. ruled that requiring the prayer was an establishment of Christian parents learn from Jewish tradition to be an government-sanctioned religion. example for prayer by saying a blessing over their chil- In the School District of Abington Township, Pennsyl- dren every Sabbath, following God’s command to Moses: vania v. Schempp (1963), the Court considered whether 982 Preaching and Homiletics

Pennsylvania schools could ask public school students Secondary Schools. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/ to read Bible passages and recite the Lord’s Prayer at the policy/gen/guid/religionandschools/prayer_guidance.html” beginning of each day. Parents were allowed to write a —Adam D. Paape note that would excuse their students from this practice. Nevertheless, the Court ruled that the school’s policy was in violation of the First Amendment, because the prac- Preaching and Homiletics tice too closely resembled an establishment of a religious nature, almost appearing to be a religious rite. Therefore, Biblically, preaching is the activity of communicating and the Court ruled in favor of Schempp by an 8–1 vote. proclaiming a message that is derived from the revela- Almost three decades later, Lee v. Weisman (1992) tion of God’s Word. The purpose of such preaching is came to the Court. The case centers on the delivery of to communicate a message that is derived from God’s a prayer at a public high school in Rhode Island. The revelation. The message needs to be communicated in a principal of the high school had a practice of asking local threefold manner: (1) it must accurately correspond with religious leaders to deliver a nonsectarian prayer as an the Word of God, (2) those hearing it understand it, and invocation at high school graduation ceremonies. A par- (3) those hearing it can respond in a relevant manner. ent of a graduating student found this offensive and filed Preaching involves declaring the messageOnly of God’s Word suit. The case was ultimately taken to the U.S. Supreme as the message of the preacher, which is explained and Court, where, in a 5–4 vote, this practice of prayer at pub- applied to the lives of the hearers. The specific purpose of lic school graduation was found to be a violation of the the preaching is to communicate a message derived from establishment clause of the Constitution. Engel v. Vitale a particular text or texts of scripture and to have the Holy (1962) was used as a precedent to support the unconsti- Spirit produce the response appropriate to that message. tutionality of this graduation practice. The message may be evangelistic, wherein the gospel Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe (2000) is proclaimed, or it could be a message that edifies the brought student-initiated, student-led prayer into the body of Christ; however, the purpose is always to deliver discussion. The Santa Fe Independent School District the message as God’s Word to those who are listen- allowed students to lead prayers at high school football ing. Preaching is primarily focused on evangelization, games. The Court ruled this practice to be in violation of whereasCopy teaching is concerned more with edification. The the establishment clause of the Constitution. The Court preacher is not to present a private word of prophecy, decided that a student’s free speech rights were not appli- nor is the message a personal word of encouragement cable in this situation, because praying at a football game or a lecture on the meaning of the Bible. The purpose of was not private speech. Furthermore, because it was also biblical preaching is to have the audience interact with shown that the school had a history of promoting prayer the Word of God. Confidence in the Word of God as in- among its students, and this practice was deemed an off- errant and divinely inspired is essential; it is God’s Word shoot of that prior standard. that must be declared accurately, explained plainly, and In an attempt to provide counsel for teachers of faith related practically. Preaching is to declare God’s Word in public education, the U.S. Department of Education authoritatively with the assurance of its abiding presence. released a document in February 2003 entitled, “Guid- Preaching differs from lecturing, because the lat- ance on Constitutionally Protected Prayer in Public El- ter is focused more on the details of a particular text. ementary and Secondary Schools.” This document makes Lecturing works with the content in particular; thus reference to a number of landmark cases (Lee v. Weis- application is not as urgent since it is the impartation man, Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe, Engel of an intellectual comprehension of truth. Appeal is not v. Vitale, and others) that have influenced the climate of made necessarily to the emotion and the will; rather, school prayer. information is provided with regard to details of the text. Biblically, lecturing is focused on the Word of God, References and Resources whereas preaching also considers the needs, tensions, Engel v. Vitale 370 U.S. 421 (1962). (1962) and questions of one’s audience. Lee v. Weisman 505 U.S. 577 (1992) Homiletics is the theological discipline that strives to Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe 530 U.S. 290 (2000) comprehend the development and purpose of arrang- SchoolContributor District of Abington Township, Pennsylvania v. Schempp ing and preaching sermons. The goal of homiletics is to 374 U.S. 203 (1963) integrate an understanding of the role of the preacher, United States Department of Education. 2003. “Guidance on the delivery of the sermon, and the response of the au- Constitutionally Protected Prayer in Public Elementary and dience. Homiletics is helpful to preachers in a threefold Preaching and Sermons in the Medieval Church 983 manner: (1) it helps them to be spiritually prepared for Preaching and Sermons preaching; (2) it helps them to develop a message that in the Medieval Church is derived from the content of God’s Word; and (3) it helps them to preach the message in a manner that is In the early church and the early medieval period, preach- culturally relevant. ing was mainly viewed as the responsibility of bishops, All preaching must have a biblical and definite reason who taught the foundations of the faith through their for the message. Although the specific purpose of the sermons. But some popular preaching by clergy other preaching may not reflect the exact same purpose as the than the bishop goes back at least to Caesarius of Arles in passage expounded, the fundamental message (the theo- the sixth century. This was reemphasized at the synod of logical proposition) of the passage must never be negated Arles in the early ninth century and was promoted under (cf. Hosea 13:14; Isa. 25:8; 1 Cor. 15:54–55). The purpose Charlemagne in the late eighth and early ninth centuries. is complementary as opposed to being contradictory Examples of it can also be found in Saxon England (AD (disparate). For example, Ephesians 2:1–9 does not dem- 600s–1000s). onstrate an evangelistic purpose, yet the passage could be In 1215, the 9th canon of the Fourth Lateran Coun- used evangelistically because the theological proposition cil decreed that bishops should appoint able preachers it communicates is the universal salvation experience of to assist with the important ministryOnly of preaching the all those who believe in Christ Jesus. Conversely, the pur- scripture, as well as with hearing confession and en- pose of John 4 was not to provide a model for witnessing joining penance for the cure of souls. This prompted or even an authoritative application for witnessing. John a resurgence of the vernacular preaching ministry in 4 may provide one example for witnessing; however, to Europe (d’Avray 1985). What was lacking, however, was preach that John 4 reveals the only manner in which one an organized group of trained preachers to carry out this is to witness would contravene the theological message additional work beyond what was provided by the bishop of the text. The difference between exegesis and homilet- and qualified local priests. This was especially a concern ics is evident in their details and purpose. Exegetically, in larger dioceses, where the bishop was unable to give a preacher develops an outline of a biblical text, then adequate time to each community. discerns the theological proposition, and finally discov- The mendicant orders that began in Europe in the ers the purpose of the biblical author. Homiletically, a earlyCopy 13th century, with Dominican and Franciscan being preacher determines the purpose for the message, then two major examples, were better educated than most of defines the theological proposition, and finally develops the parish priests for this task of preaching. They pursued the sermon structure. learning in their own network of schools to eventually at- tain a license to preach and thus fulfill a critical element References and Resources of their calling. Once licensed, there is abundant evidence Akin, Daniel L., David L. Allen, and Ned L. Mathews, eds. 2010. of their preaching, not only in the urban centers where Text-Driven Preaching: God’s Word at the Heart of Every they lived, but also in outlying villages as they carried out Sermon. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. preaching tours. Their preaching took place in markets; Chapell, Bryan. 1994. Christ-Centered Preaching: Redeeming in private chapels; at preaching crosses in cemeteries; and the Expository Sermon. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. in churches, convents, and castles. Mayhue, Richard, and Robert Thomas, eds. 1992. Rediscovering In their preaching they explained the scriptures and Expository Preaching: Balancing the Science and Art of Bibli- taught about the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, and the Ten cal Exposition. Dallas, TX: Word. Commandments. They also taught on the vices and the McDill, Wayne. 1994. The 12 Essential Skills for Great Preach- virtues, to help people distinguish good from evil and ing. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. the rewards and punishments that accompanied them Olford, David L. 1989. A Passion for Preaching. Nashville, TN: (Pfander 1937). Their preaching incorporated exempla Thomas Nelson. (stories to illustrate their lessons), fables, jokes, proverbs, Olford, Stephen F., and David L. Olford. 1998. Anointed Ex- verse, and songs to catch attention and aid memory. pository Preaching. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman. Examples exist where the Commandments and the Pater Ramesh, Richard. 1995. Scripture Sculpture. Grand Rapids, MI: Noster are in verse form as part of the sermon. Every ef- Baker. fort was made to capture the attention of those present Robinson,Contributor Haddon W. 2001. Biblical Preaching: The Develop- and help them learn what God required of them. There is ment and Delivery of Expository Messages. 2nd rev. ed. Grand good evidence for the popularity of the preaching of the Rapids, MI: Baker. friars, with people flocking to hear them when they came —Ron J. Bigalke into local communities. 984 Presbyterian Church Christian Education

One annual season when the friars were especially scripture should be known among the people so that it active in their preaching ministry was Lent. Following may rightly order and guide the life of the church. The these Lenten sermons, those so moved might seek op- reformers believed that the teaching of scripture was for portunities to make confession and receive penance. This all persons, both lay and clergy, a radical idea at the time was one of the major goals of the preaching event, to of the Reformation. move hearers to repentance so they could make a good Presbyterians claim their Reformation heritage from confession. Controversy developed over this practice, the Swiss stream through figures such as Ulrich Zwingli with many parish priests insisting that confession should (1484–1531) in Zurich and John Calvin (1509–1564) be made to them, not to a traveling friar who might be in Geneva. Calvin fled from persecution in France to more lenient in the penance imposed. It required Syn- Geneva and established that city as a Reformed enclave. odal constitutions in the later part of the 13th century to Calvin was a scholar and teacher and held strongly to open some parishes to the preaching ministry of the friars the belief that the Bible was central to faith and practice. (d’Avray 1985). This controversy also became a motiva- In recognition of its heritage founded in the Protestant tion to improve the education of the secular clergy and Reformation and the church’s high value of scripture, their own preaching efforts. To assist with this improve- an early Latin (the language of the educated) phrase ment, many resources were developed as aids to preach- emerged that has recently gained newOnly traction in the ers. The Dominicans and Franciscans, who were leaders American Presbyterian church—Ecclesia reformata, sem- in this ministry, were some of the most active in writing a per reformanda secundum verbum Dei—meaning “the variety of preaching resources, which were disseminated church reformed and always to be reformed according and used across Europe. These included sermon series on [to] the word of God.” For early Reformed Christians a variety of catechetical topics (e.g., the creed, the Lord’s and even more today, this phrase reminds the hearer that prayer, the Ten Commandments, the seven virtues and the church is not static but rather is to be dynamic, the vices) and collections of exempla to illustrate sermon object of reformation by God according to the Word of ideas. These materials, mostly written in Latin, were cir- God. Followers of Calvin, eventually named “Calvinists,” culated and used as the basis for didactic preaching series moved to France, where they faced persecution (known by priests. In the later medieval era, with the increasing there as the Huguenots). Others moved to Germany, The demand by some bishops that instruction in the basics Netherlands,Copy England, Scotland, and later the American of the faith be carried out from one to four times a year, colonies. Presbyterians are named for their reliance on these volumes were valuable resources for both secular “presbyters” or elders, who are both clergy and laity and clergy and friars in their preaching ministries. share equal power in the governance of the congregation. Wherever Presbyterians or Reformed believers moved, References and Suggested Readings they brought with them this a value on education. The d’Avray, D. L. 1985. The Preaching of the Friars: Sermons Dif- teaching of scripture is central to Presbyterian churches, fused from Paris before 1300. Oxford: Clarendon Press. and congregations today still insist on seminary train- Muessig, C. 1998. “What Is Medieval Monastic Preaching? An ing for their clergy and education to equip the laity for Introduction.” In Medieval Monastic Preaching, edited by leadership in congregations. Congregations tend to place C. Muessig, 3–16. Boston: Brill. a significant value on Sunday school classes for children Owst, G. R. 1926. Preaching in Medieval England: An Intro- and youth and increasingly for adults. Adolescents go duction to Sermon Manuscripts of the Period, c. 1350–1450. through a confirmation program that often includes Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. study as a key component. New officers in the congrega- Pfander, H. G. 1937. “The Popular Sermon of the Medieval tion go through officer training, which includes an edu- Friar in England.” PhD diss., New York University. cational component, and persons who want to join the —Kevin E. Lawson church go through “classes” that orient the new member not only to the congregation but often to the history and theology of the Presbyterian tradition, and it is common Presbyterian Church to hear members refer to the office of the pastor as the Christian Education “pastor’s study.” In its earliest years, all members had to memorize and PresbyteriansContributor come from the Reformed tradition, which be able to recite a catechism, a series of questions and globally claims Congregational, Presbyterian, and Re- answers, before they could join the church or partake in formed churches. The Reformed tradition traces its communion. Church officers would visit individuals in roots back to the Reformation and the conviction that their homes and quiz them to be sure they were worthy, Preseminary Studies 985 and a communion token would be given to those who in denominational identity. As many churches struggle, passed. When communion was shared during worship, Presbyterian churches in Asia, Africa, and Latin America members came forward and exchanged their token for continue to grow with excitement and enthusiasm, and a the bread and wine of the Lord’s table. new trend has emerged of sister churches sending mis- This emphasis on education led to the development of sionaries to the United States to help with much-needed a special office of church educator. Many Presbyterian renewal. No doubt this renewal will continue the deep congregations designate a volunteer or employ someone valuing of Christian education as women and men who to be their “director of Christian education.” The Presby- have been educated in churches, colleges, and seminaries terian Church (U.S.A.), the largest Presbyterian church around the world bring a new, much-needed spirit. in the United States, has a churchwide certification pro- cess whereby persons go through a rigorous program of References and Resources coursework and examinations to be certified as Christian Purdy, John C., ed. 1985. Always Being Reformed. The Future of educators. This certification process is directed and man- Christian Education. Philadelphia: Geneva Press. aged by the denominational office. Loetscher, Lefferts A. 1978. A Brief History of the Presbyterians. The emphasis on Christian education did not stop at 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. the church door. Higher education is a continuing legacy Only—Rodger Nishioka of the Presbyterian value on education. The oldest Pres- byterian College still in existence is Tusculum College, in Greeneville, Tennessee, which opened in 1794. There are Preseminary Studies more than 68 undergraduate institutions in the United States founded by the Presbyterian church and 10 theolog- Preseminary studies, as the name suggests, is a prepara- ical seminaries, the oldest of which is Princeton Theologi- tory undergraduate program offered by universities and cal Seminary in Princeton, New Jersey, organized in 1812. colleges, most often affiliated with a Christian denomina- With this continuing emphasis on Christian educa- tion in the United States and Canada. The Association tion, the Presbyterian church has continually offered its of Theological Schools, the accrediting agency for most members a churchwide curriculum. In 1983, the Presby- graduate seminary programs, no longer prescribes spe- terian Church (U.S.A.) was formed by the reunion of the cificCopy prerequisite courses of study. Individuals desiring Presbyterian Church in the United States (Southern) and to enter the pastoral ministry can prepare for seminary the United Presbyterian Church in the United States of study through several avenues. America (Northern), thereby healing a rift that occurred Seminary entrance requirements vary with denomina- during the Civil War. While its predecessor Christian tional affiliation. Seminaries normally seek mature stu- educators authored such curricula as Christian Faith and dents with superior relational abilities, good communica- Life and the Covenant Life Curriculum, the new reunited tion skills, and a solid basis in the liberal arts or related church wanted to produce a new curriculum. To do this, fields. Students are encouraged to acquire an undergrad- the new gathering of church educators identified five uate education that sharpens their intellectual abilities key characteristics that describe the essence of Presby- and reflective thinking. They should come to a seminary terian Christian education. Presbyterian Christian edu- with an understanding of the world of ideas, nature, cation, they said, is (in order of importance) “biblically and human affairs, along with some facility in biblical grounded, historically informed, ecumenically involved, languages (Hebrew and Greek). The ability to write and socially engaged, and communally nurtured.” The new speak English correctly is also important. Students should denomination chose to emphasize again its historic focus possess a solid core of theological knowledge, combined on the importance of scripture first and foremost and with rich experiences in practical ministry skills. Such a then to note that Christian education does not happen in program is reflected in the following mission statement a vacuum but is shaped by history; shares this history with prepared several years ago by preseminary directors of other Christians, Reformed and otherwise; and is called the Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod: by Christ to be engaged in the world through its ongoing The mission of pre-seminary education is to prepare stu- nurture of children, youth, young adults, and adults in dents for theological studies and pastoral formation at a the community of the church, the body of Christ. seminary of The Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod. This ContributorAs Presbyterians in these days, along with many sister preparation ordinary encompasses biblical knowledge, denominations in the United States, are seeing a steady biblical language competency, and understanding of Lu- decline in membership and resources, sales of church- theran doctrine; competency in communication skills in wide curriculum are also decreasing along with interest reading, writing, speaking, and listening; skills in critical 986 Presidential Transitions

thinking and philosophical inquiry; acquisition of a global Presidential Transitions perspective; the understanding of and appreciation for the Lutheran ethos, identity, and ethic; and helping the stu- Perhaps no other event in an institution’s life cycle is dent perceive, proclaim, teach, and live out the centrality filled with a greater sense of both expectation as well as of the Gospel of Jesus Christ for the whole world. angst than the transition of senior leadership. The depar- ture of the chief executive officer or president presents Some undergraduate programs are more conducive to unique opportunities and challenges—opportunities to pastoral ministry formation, such as social work, com- evaluate and re-engineer the vision and mission of the in- munication, psychology, or counseling. Other areas, stitution—challenges of ensuring continuity and viability such as administration, business, marketing, and even of current operations and future services. There is usu- theater could prove helpful for later parish ministry re- ally a heightened level of risk and uncertainty about the sponsibilities. Studying ancient history can be coupled future when a chief executive officer (CEO) leaves, even with biblical languages; courses in Western philosophy under the best and most anticipated of circumstances. can augment doctrinal studies. Classes in rhetoric and This is true particularly for faith-based schools and performance will aid communication skills and group colleges that depend heavily on senior leadership for vi- dynamics. English, history, philosophy, and social sci- sion, direction, operations, communications, and fund- ences are beneficial prerequisites. Some colleges and Only raising. For most of these entities, the CEO is the face and universities provide majors in theology, evangelism, identity of the institution’s presence as well as the catalyst missions, and/or youth ministry. for fulfilling its mission. Historically, such organizations Extracurricular activities in preseminary programs take on the character and style of the senior leader in a vary with undergraduate institutions. Such activities way that is more defining than in most other settings. should be seen as part of a spiritual formation process for While securing competent leaders has always been de- ministry. Bible study and prayer groups are essential ac- manding, current realities of society and culture, chang- tivities. Lock-ins and retreats with youth are often part of ing demographics, demands for improved accountability, undergraduate experiences and training. Service projects and the economy make finding qualified leaders even and outreach activities supplement many preseminary more challenging. Given the demands placed on leaders, programs. The leadership experiences and camaraderie the average tenure in faith-based educational institutions that develop in these opportunities can be life changing Copy is becoming shorter, making it necessary for governing and ministry enhancing. boards to be more engaged in transition planning. God’s guidance should be sought through prayer and Many organizations are limited in their ability to groom Bible reading along with consultation with church lead- the next generation of leaders due to budget reductions ers and academic mentors. Whoever contemplates serv- that have reduced middle management ranks—the place ing as a pastor desires to perform a “noble task” (1 Tim. from which most senior leaders rise. Also, current leaders 3:1), as St. Paul stated in his letter to the young pastor, are so consumed with the demands of their assignments Timothy. Formation for pastoral ministry is a process that little energy is left to invest in mentoring successors. of growing and becoming the servant-leader whom God Despite the challenges of increased turnover and compe- will use for the extension of His Kingdom. tition for successors, intentionally orchestrating the CEO transition can be one of the greatest opportunities to re- References and Resources energize vision, adapt mission, assess current conditions, Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. 1995. Cost of Discipleship. New York: re-engineer structures, strategically reallocate resources, Scribner Macmillan. and deploy the right people for God’s next season of min- ———. 1996. Life Together. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. istry and service effectiveness. Forde, Gerhard. 1997. On Becoming a Theologian of the Cross. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. The Strategic Role of the Governing Board Foster, Charles, et al., eds. 2006. Educating Clergy: Teaching in Transitions Practices and Pastoral Formation. Stanford, CA: Jossey-Bass. One of the most significant influences on successful tran- Stiegemeyer, Scott, ed. 2008. Formation: Essays for Future Pas- sitions is the role and function of the governing board. tors. Fort Wayne, IN: Concordia Theological Seminary Press. Boards must assume a more proactive role in the leader- Thielicke,Contributor Helmut. 1961. A Little Exercise for Young Theolo- ship of their schools. Rather than merely reviewing and gians. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. commenting and then approving or rejecting, boards Williams, Brian. 2005. The Potter’s Rib: Mentoring for Pastoral must proactively guide, govern, and monitor in order to Formation. Vancouver, BC: Regent College Press. fulfill their stewardship obligations. Board effectiveness —Timothy H. Maschke makes or breaks leadership transitions. Presidential Transitions 987

A CEO transition, when strategically managed by the • a summary of most recent accreditation and/or board, is a providential opportunity to focus the organi- other professional practices benchmarks, particu- zation’s mission for a new generation and address future larly related to quality, marketability, and sustain- opportunities. How the board manages the departure of ability; and current leadership and prepares for the selection, arrival, • analyses of major trends benchmarked against an and installation of the successor sets the standards for individualized at-risk indicator list to help the board an organization’s image, position, and future effective- better understand current conditions. ness. Handled well, transitions equip the organization for a new season of relevance and effectiveness. Handled When this step is completed, the board should have poorly, it can take many years for the organization to an accurate picture of the current conditions into which recover its momentum. a new leader will step. Completion of this stage helps the board better understand and communicate the health Seven Stages for Managing Transitions and condition of the organization and answer the ques- Based on the current research in succession planning, tion, What is our current reality? leadership development, policy board governance, and indicators of organizational effectiveness, as well as the Stage Three: CEO Profile Development—WhoOnly Do We applied experiences of multiple faith-based organiza- Need to Lead Us? tions, seven stages of leadership transition management Anchored to the essentials of effective board governance are recommended to help boards with the responsibility and informed by the organizational assessment, in this of recruiting their next chief executive. third stage the board develops a working profile of the leadership needed to meet current challenges and address Stage One: Board Readiness and Effectiveness— future opportunities. Based on the answer to the question, How Well Are We Leading? Do we need someone to fulfill our vision or someone to help In the this first stage of transition management, the gov- clarify and refine our vision?, the board defines the quali- erning board determines its current levels of operational ties, skill sets, dispositions, and passions needed in the next effectiveness by using best practices, insights, and self- leader. In most cases, it is advisable to include other con- assessments to achieve the levels of function required to stituenciesCopy and stakeholders in the profile development. prepare for and manage the leadership transition process. Since broad ownership of the selection process of the new Boards need to pay special attention to those elements leader is required for his or her success, it is helpful to de- of their oversight that speak specifically to mission, or- velop ways for these constituents to be a part of comment- ganizational core values, fiscal viability, program effec- ing on and recommending the qualifications they feel are tiveness, and executive limitations—all of which impact needed, to lead the organization into the future. mission, corporate identity, and leadership success. The Several key qualities are important for the next genera- most effective boards govern with well-articulated and tion of leaders of faith-based institutions. Among these regularly updated policies. skill sets, experiences, and predispositions are

Stage Two: Organizational Assessment—What Is Our • strategic resource management, Current Reality? • openness to accountability, One of the sobering realities is that many faith-based • entrepreneurship (a disposition to think “outside of boards have only a limited understanding of the actual the box”), condition of their organization’s health and well-being. It • a commitment to collaboration in decision making is essential for governing boards to know where the orga- and team development, nization is in terms of fiscal stability, program effective- • change management, ness, market position, key performance indicator trends, • effective communications, and other ongoing matters before they begin the search • cross-cultural and globalization awareness, for the next leader. The most effective transitions occur • strong board relationships, and when the board focuses on key performance indicators • a deep passion for the core values and stated mis- (KPIs) to accurately assess current strengths and weak- sion of the organization. (Adapted from “Turnover: nessesContributor in the operational, programmatic, and fiscal areas Selecting the Next Generation’s Presidents,” Change of institutional viability. This analysis should include Magazine [September-October 2010].

• a comprehensive review of the past three years of Using these qualities as a baseline, the board develops a audits to identify critical trends; list of the organizational-specific skill sets, corporate cul- 988 Presidential Transitions ture distinctives, leadership style, and executive experi- universities, their recommendations are applicable to ences required of the next leader. Every organization has other nonprofit settings. When this fifth stage is com- a distinctive climate and culture that new leadership must pleted, the board and the departing CEO should feel that understand and embrace. Whether it is a theological un- the question How do we say good-bye? has been answered derpinning, operational style, specialized service niche, with joy and grace. or a myriad of other organizational distinctives, boards must understand these factors, delineate them, and then Stage Six: Laying Firm Foundations—How Do We apply them in the development of the “ideal profile” to Say Hello? ensure the best fit. The outcome of this stage is agree- In this stage, the board strives to enhance a culture ment on the picture of the leader most likely to move the of continuous quality improvement by identifying the organization’s mission forward. Upon its completion, the policies, practices, and relationships needed for the new board should be able to answer the question, Who do we leader’s successful transition. Through the use of 90-day need to lead us? checkpoints, benchmarks, key performance indicators, and transition tools, this stage helps the new CEO and Stage Four: Search and Selection Strategies— board answer the question, How do we lay the founda- Where Is Our Next Leader? tions for both short- and long-term leadershipOnly success? With institutional conditions understood and a work- The relationship between the board and the new CEO ing leadership profile designed to address those condi- during the first months is critical to long-term effective- tions, the board next makes the decision to employ a ness for the leader as well as the organization. In this self-directed process or use an external firm to conduct phase the board develops policies, practices, and proce- the search and selection of the next CEO. Self-directed dures to help it and the new CEO work together produc- searches can be cost effective if board members are will- tively. It is important in the first months to establish clear ing to devote substantial time to the process. However, understandings of performance measurements, organi- even with the most efficient of procedures, self-directed zational priorities, accountability mechanisms, reporting searches often require support staff and a dedicated strategies, and communications expectations. Starting search committee chair, along with substantial institu- strong is the ultimate goal of this stage, with the board tional resource support. In the final analysis, many non- carryingCopy the responsibility to ensure that the new CEO profit boards choose to outsource the search to a reliable is welcomed, oriented, and fully equipped for success by and experienced external agency. No matter what ap- laying the foundations for leadership success. proach is used, it is the governing board’s responsibility to select and install the new CEO. The final decision rests Stage Seven: The Inaugural Year—How Do We Keep It with the governing body to determine who is best suited on Track? to lead the organization into the future. This stage helps This capstone stage of the transition provides the new the board answer the question, Where and how do we find leader and board with tools and strategies for both of our next leader? their annual evaluations. Here performance is measured against established goals to help answer the question, Stage Five: The Leader’s Farewell—How Do We How do we keep it on track? While it is usual for the board Say Good-bye? to monitor and evaluate the success of the new CEO, it In this fifth stage, the board creates checklists and utilizes also is important that the board self-evaluate and be as- tools to ensure that the present leader’s final period is full, sessed by the CEO to ensure a mutual understanding of productive, and meaningful. The governing board needs expectations. In this final stage, principles, practices, and to capture the wisdom and insights of current leadership strategies for monitoring and effecting continuous qual- as well as help the departing CEO finish well by answer- ity improvement are agreed upon. In this inaugural year, ing the question, How do we appropriately recognize ser- recommendations for promoting and supporting innova- vice, identify legacy, and say farewell? Ensuring that the tion and adapting strategic plans are developed. Goals for current CEO is honored and an effective transition out the next fiscal year also are set, and clear understandings of the institution is achieved are the primary objectives of how success is measured are established. of this stage. While adjustments to expectations and evaluation of AContributor helpful resource in saying “good-bye” well is Presi- performance happen throughout the first year, this final dential Transitions in Private Colleges, by Robert And- step in the transition process is important to make any ringa and Allen Splete (2005). The chapter “Departing remaining course corrections, so that the most effective with Style” is filled with excellent advice for both boards working relationships with the board are established. and CEOs. Though written primarily for colleges and Getting it and then keeping it on track is the ultimate Price, John Milburn 989 indicator that the organization has successfully navigated from Brown University (1910) and a master’s in theology, the leadership transition process. a ThD, and a PhD (1911, 1914, 1916) from Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary. Baylor University conferred A Future in Transition a LLD degree on Dr. Price, and he continued graduate Perhaps at no other time has effectiveness of faith-based studies at Mercer University, University of Dubuque, Uni- Christian education institutions been more needed. The versity of Chicago, and Boston University. key to achieving such effectiveness is the quality, per- His early involvement in Sunday school work was evi- formance, and commitment of the next generations of dent; he was elected as the first paid associational Sunday leaders. Governing boards and their CEOs must develop school worker in the Blood River Association in 1912. strategic partnerships to ensure the relevance and success Price served one summer in the mountains of Kentucky of their God-appointed callings. Given the accelerated and later as the secretary for Kentucky Sunday School. rate of turnover, as well as the limited pool of qualified He pastored churches in Kentucky, Rhode Island, and candidates, success in managing leadership transitions Texas. While teaching at Southwestern, Price served Webb must become the highest priority. And it must always be Baptist Church as pastor for 21 years. In 1916, Price mar- remembered that God Himself is the One who ultimately ried Mable Flak in Marlow, Oklahoma, and they had four calls and equips both boards and new CEOs for such im- children: John Milburn Jr., Joe, JamesOnly and Mabel Elizabeth. portant undertakings. Significant Contributions to Christian Education References and Resources In 1915, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary Andringa, Robert, and Alan Splete. 2005. Presidential Transi- asked Price to establish and lead the first school of re- tions in Private Colleges: Six Integrated Phases. Washington, ligious education for Southern Baptists. He continued DC: Council for Christian Colleges and Universities. in that role until his retirement in 1956. During the Khurana, R. 2002. Searching for a Corporate Savior: The Irra- infancy of the religious education school at Southwest- tional Quest for Charismatic CEOs. Princeton, NJ: Princeton ern, Price worked ceaselessly to blend practical biblical University Press. content, academic excellence, and real-world applica- Martin, James, and James E. Samel. 2005. Presidential Transi- tion so Sunday school members would know and obey tion in Higher Education: Managing Leadership Change. theCopy scripture’s teaching. Baltimore: MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Among Dr. Price’s many contributions to Christian Rothwell, W. 2010. Effective Succession Planning: Ensuring education, his was the first American school to grant a di- Leadership Continuity and Building Talent from Within. ploma in religious education (1917); offer a doctor’s de- New York: Amacom. gree majoring in religious education (1919); coordinate —David Gyertson a conference on vocational religious education (1921); teach vacation Bible school among Baptists (1922); and design the first building devoted to teaching religious Price, John Milburn education (1950). Among Southern Baptists, it was the first school of religious education to be accredited (1951). John Milburn Price was a visionary leader who led in the Again, as a visionary pioneer, Price required field work development of religious education training and equip- as part of the degree program and offered credit for age ping at Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary in Ft. group work and recreational leadership. Understanding Worth, Texas. During his tenure of 41 years, Dr. Price the breadth of the educational task of a church, Dr. Price trained ministers to serve in formal and informal religious initiated practical training for religious publicity, visual education roles within local churches. He pioneered Sun- aids, church libraries, and religious counseling. day school work for the Southern Baptist Convention. The spirit and influence of J. M. Price continue in Southern Baptist educational circles through the Terry Early Education and Background School of Church and Family Ministries, which is housed Born 21 November 1884 near Fair Dealing, Kentucky, in the J. M. Price building at Southwestern Seminary. Price was converted at age 14 and joined Pleasant Hope With the foundation laid by Dr. Price, the school con- Baptist Church. After completing his early education in an tinues to offer quality, progressive education to equip ungradedContributor county school in Maple Springs, Kentucky, he and train men and women to disciple the nations. Price received a common school diploma. Price earned a bach- set the standard of excellence in teaching God’s Word elor of science degree from Western Kentucky State Col- through a blend of practical and progressive methods, lege and a bachelor of arts degree from Baylor University which enhanced Southwestern’s curriculum and im- in Waco, Texas (1905, 1907). He earned a master’s degree proved the teaching skills of vocational ministers. 990 Priesthood of Believers

Notable Publications a form of spiritual worship. Peter calls it the holy priest- Price published 15 books and numerous articles in The Sunday hood to distinguish it from Old Testament priesthood. School Builder, published by the Baptist Sunday School Board. Thus he turns the very idea of priesthood on its head, because the believer now becomes the sacrificer as well as Price, John M. 1932. An Introduction to Religious Education. the sacrifice. It is a revolutionary concept, which makes New York: Macmillan. the priest neither an intermediary nor a mediator. In this ———. 1942. Vital Problems in Christian Living. Nashville, TN: sense, every baptism becomes also an ordination and a Sunday School Board of the Southern Baptist Convention. consecration, thus dealing a death blow to the very con- ———. 1946. Jesus the Teacher. Nashville, TN: Convention cept of sacerdotalism that has characterized all religions. Press. The priesthood of believers does not abolish the role ———. 1958. Mastering Life’s Problems. Nashville, TN: Conven- of functions or ministries in the church. Every believer is tion Press. called to a certain role in the community of the faithful, ———. 1959. Formative Factors in Christian Character. Nash- as teacher or evangelist or deacon. Believers are specially ville, TN: Convention Press. equipped by the indwelling Holy Spirit for the edifica- ———. 1963. The Unfolding Life. Nashville, TN: Convention tion of the saints. In the New Testament, priesthood is Press. replaced by servanthood, by which everyOnly believer is not only a servant but the servant of servants. “Servant of Ser- References and Resources vants” was the title assumed by the popes in the Middle Anthony, Michael J. 2001. Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Ages, and it properly applies to all believers. Education. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. There is, however, a ministerial priesthood in the New May, Lynn, ed. 1982. Encyclopedia of Southern Baptists IV. Testament by which certain believers are appointed shep- Nashville, TN: Broadman Press. herds of the flock under the authority of the Great Shep- Price, John M. 1946. Jesus the Teacher. Nashville, TN: Conven- herd. Their office is to guide believers, counsel them, and tion Press. guard them against the corruption of the heretics. These —Stephen K. McCord offices are specifically sanctioned in the New Testament and consist of deacons, pastors, bishops, prophets, and apostles.Copy Their authority is limited and circumscribed. Priesthood of Believers The priesthood of believers is also in contradiction to the esoteric nature of religion in Gnosticism and other The priesthood is one of the oldest religious institutions heresies. In them access to God is limited to the initiates and designates officeholders within the church who and the elites, who understood and were able to interpret perform rituals and sacraments of mediation and bridge the mysteries of religion and transmit their knowledge to building between an invisible God and visible believers. the laypeople. It is also in distinction from Greek philoso- For New Testament Christians, the priesthood of the phy, in which God is both unknowable and inaccessible. Old Testament was abolished. In its place there was only In Christianity, God is both accessible and knowable, not one High Priest, Jesus Christ, and His work of media- only to the priests and the hierarchs, but also to every tion and redemption was completed (“finished”) once believer. It also creates a divide between Christianity and and for all at Calvary. All those who put trust in His other religions, in all of which rituals and incantations are finished work became ipso facto priests, who performed part of the paraphernalia of faith. one of the fivefold ministries: apostle, prophet, teacher, As priests in their own right, believers are required to evangelist, and deacon. All these ministers of the Gospel offer several kinds of sacrifices: were also miracle workers or servants. Peter calls this the royal priesthood, the word “royal” indicating the The offering of oneself as a living sacrifice (Rom. 12:1) kingly status that inheres in Christ’s office as sovereign. The sacrifice of praise The existence of pastors, priests, and ministers in the The ministry of intercession Roman Catholic Church and other denominations is only an administrative arrangement and has no theo- Tertullian, in describing the priesthood of believers, logical significance or value. speaks of the different kinds of priesthood as it relates to TheContributor scriptural text used in the New Testament to vali- believers: the priesthood of martyrdom, the priesthood date the regale sacerdotum, or priesthood of believers, is of death, the priesthood of peace, and the priesthood of 1 Peter 2:4–10 as well as Revelation 1:6, 5:10, and 20:6. righteousness. Romans 12.1 goes further. Every Christian is a priest, in The priesthood of believers marks a change in the the sense that he offers his own life as a living sacrifice as nature of worship itself. Jesus said, “The hour will come Princeton Theological Seminary 991 when the true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit United States. However, the so-called fundamentalist- and in truth.” True worship does not require the assis- modernist controversy of the 1920s eventually led to a tance of priests or the performance of rituals. In the Old split in the faculty, with J. Gresham Machen and several Testament, priests are “set apart” from the lay population other professors leaving to found Westminster Theo- by their rich and ornate vestments and special regalia, logical Seminary in 1929. Princeton Seminary grew over such as the Urim and the Thummim. In the New Testa- the next 50 years, though in a less confessionally con- ment, all believers are set apart from the world by the servative direction, with an increased emphasis on ecu- Blood of the Lamb. menism under President John A. Mackay (1936–1959), as well as the first center for continuing education References and Resources at a seminary (the School of Christian Vocation and Eastwood, C. 1962. Priesthood of All Believers. Minneapolis, Mission) and the endowment of more than 20 further MN: Augsburg Publishing. faculty chairs. Princeton boasts the largest theological Melvin, M. 1996. The Relation between the Universal Priesthood library in the United States. of the Baptized and the Ministerial Priesthood of the Ordained in Vatican Two and Subsequent Theology. Pittsburgh: Mellon Notable Academic Programs University Press. The original curriculum envisagedOnly that each student Vanhoye, A. 1986. Old Testament Priests and the New Priests. would become “well versed in the original languages of Peru, IL: St. Bede’s. the Holy Scriptures” and be able to explain the principal —George Thomas Kurian difficulties that arise when reading scripture, as well as its historical background. Core teaching was given in the Westminster Confession of Faith and associated Princeton Theological Seminary catechisms, in pastoral studies and church government, and in both general and ecclesiastical history, with a par- Foundation ticular focus on “the deistical controversy” of the day in Princeton Theological Seminary was founded in 1812 order to equip graduates to be defenders of the faith. Each by the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church. was also expected to “read a considerable number of the During this period, professional training for medics, bestCopy practical writers on the subject of religion” and to lawyers, and ministers was becoming more common, compose sermons and popular-level lectures. disengaged from the more general educational context of Complaints in the early part of the 20th century that the existing schools and colleges. As the seminary’s first the programs were too detached from the practical work professor, Archibald Alexander, said in 1808, “It is much of ministry for which they were meant to be equipping to be doubted whether the system of education pursued students, and too heavily focused on Hebrew, Greek, and in our colleges and universities is the best calculated to Latin, led to the establishment of a new chair in practical prepare a young man for the work of the ministry.” The theology (i.e., English Bible, homiletics, and evangelism) purpose of the seminary, established alongside the Col- under Charles Erdman. Later, a faculty of religion and lege of New Jersey (later to become Princeton Univer- society was added alongside the more traditional biblical sity) was “to perpetuate and extend the influence of true studies, historical, and theological departments. Today, evangelical piety, and Gospel order” (as particularly seen the seminary has over 500 students, more than 50 faculty in the Westminster Standards) through training pious (predominantly Presbyterian but also from Episcopa- and learned ministers and missionaries. Their education lian, Methodist, Baptist, Lutheran, Roman Catholic, and together in one institution, it was hoped, would foster Greek Orthodox churches), and a range of six degree pro- ministerial friendships and promote church unity within grams (five at master’s level, plus one PhD), describing each generation of students. itself as “a denominational school with an ecumenical, interdenominational, and worldwide constituency.” Development Notable former faculty include the giants of “Old Throughout the various splits in Presbyterianism dur- Princeton” such as Charles Hodge, B. B. Warfield, ing the 19th century, Princeton Seminary remained very Geerhardus Vos, and the controversialist J. Gresham much part of the conservative “Old School” Presbyterian Machen, with the presuppositional apologist Cornelius tradition,Contributor tinged with Scottish Common Sense Realist Van Til and the Reformed theologian Louis Berkof philosophy, though the number of non-Presbyterian among the notable alumni. The later faculty has in- students was also quite high by the end of the century. cluded leading neoorthodox theologian Emil Brunner By its centenary in 1912, Princeton had enrolled over (a visiting professor in 1937–1938), important New 1,000 more students than any other seminary in the Testament critics Bruce Metzger and Bart D. Ehrman, 992 Printing Press specialist in the apocrypha and pseudepigrapha J. H. technology proliferated in Europe during the next several Charlesworth, and former seminary president Iain R. decades. Records show that by 1500 there were more Torrance. The seminary also hosts the Center for Barth than 1,000 printers with print shops in an estimated 250 Studies, established in 1997, to advance the understand- cities scattered throughout Europe. Before the invention ing of the theology of Karl Barth, and the Abraham of practical print technology, it was not uncommon for Kuyper Center for Public Theology. scholars to travel many miles to use libraries that had as few as 20 manuscripts. By 1500, as many as 30,000 manu- References and Resources scripts were available in printed form.85 Calhoun, D. B. 1994. Princeton Seminary: Faith and Learning Gutenberg’s movable print technology had a catalytic 1812–1868. Edinburgh: Banner of Truth. effect on European culture and Christianity. The devel- ———. 1996. Princeton Seminary: The Majestic Testimony opment of the printing press was the world’s first step 1869–1929. Edinburgh: Banner of Truth. into mass communication, and many would argue that Gatiss, L. 2008. Christianity and the Tolerance of Liberalism: it represents a cultural dividing point in human history.86 J. Gresham Machen and the Presbyterian Controversy of Before the invention of print technology, access to knowl- 1922–1937. London: Latimer Trust. edge was only accessible for the religious, academic, and Moorehead, J. 2012. Princeton Seminary in American Religion government elite. Mass printing put knowledgeOnly into the and Culture. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. hands of ordinary people for the first time, and the results Noll, M. A., ed. 2001. The Princeton Theology 1812–1921: were profound. Before the advent of printing technol- Scripture, Science, and Theological Method from Archibald ogy, elders, priests, teachers, popes, and governmental Alexander to Benjamin Warfield. Grand Rapids, MI.: Baker officials acted as human depositories of knowledge and Academic. truth, disseminating their knowledge with spoken words. —Lee Gatiss Print technology allowed those ideas to be transmitted on paper across distance and time in a more durable and efficient medium.87 Printing Press Print technology and its democratization of knowl- edge fueled the Renaissance and Reformation in Eu- Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1397–1468) is credited with the rope, Copyprofoundly changing Western culture. Access to invention of movable type printing technology around the printed texts of ancient Greek literature spurred a AD 1447 in Mainz, Germany.80 Block printing from inked renaissance in philosophy and invention. The transla- wooden characters on fabric or paper existed as early as tion of the scriptures from the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin the 3rd century AD. Chinese alchemist Pi Sheng invented into the common languages of Europe had a seismic a typographic press made of inked baked clay characters in effect on the church. Some, like William Tyndale, who the mid-11th century, producing limited printing capaci- translated the Bible to be printed in English, paid with ty.81 In the early 1440s, Gutenberg embarked on a decade their lives. The works of Luther, Calvin, and other theo- of experimentation, and the result was the first practical logians had their far-reaching effects because of print printing press. From 1450 to 1455, Johann Gutenberg and technology. The invention of the printing press is an Associates used their new printing technology to create the example of the power of an innovative technology to Biblia Latina, which is commonly called the Gutenberg change the world. Many would argue that the same kind Bible.82 The Bible, containing the Latin text of the Old and of profound changes are occurring today because of the New Testaments, was printed on hand-decorated paper advent of digital technology. and bound in two volumes. Some 180 Bibles were com- —James T. Flynn pleted by midsummer of 1456.83 Gutenberg’s technology became known as letterpress or relief printing.84 His technology brought together the Prison Ministry, History of idea of using type and ink on a raised surface attached to a frame with a press to produce printed documents. Print 18th-Century Prison Reforms At the end of the 18th century and the beginning of 80. John W. Kooster, Icons of Invention: The Making of the Modern the 19th, philosophers and politicians in Europe and World from Gutenberg to Gates (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2009), the United States discussed the nature and purpose of 1–2. Contributor 81. Ibid., 2. 82. Margret Bingham Stillwell, The Beginning of the World of Books: 85. Ibid., 12. 1450–1470 (New York: The Bibliographic Society of America, 1972), 1. 86. M. Rex Miller, The Millennial Matrix (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 83. Kooster, Icons of Invention, 9. 2004), 35. 84. Ibid., 11. 87. Ibid., 37. Printing Press 993 punishment; this debate led to a decisive reform of the penitence without the means of regular devotion, would Western penal system. Against the traditional model of be downright solecism.”91 public execution and physical punishment, those think- ers introduced the concept of rehabilitation and hence Education and Prison Ministry fundamentally transformed the prison system of that The concept of prison ministry was then intrinsically time. By the late 18th century, the prison became a new linked to the moral rehabilitation of criminals, and the space in which criminals were held not simply to expect chaplain had a very important role in assessing the actual their trial or execution, but to actually pay their debt to readiness for release of each prisoner. The philosophy of society; thus imprisonment became a punishment in and rehabilitation as it was developed around the peniten- of itself and, by the same token, a means to educate and tiary was based on Christian principles and the virtue rehabilitate criminals. The most famous 18th-century of Christian education. Before that, the chaplain would contributions of the movement were Cesare Beccaria mainly accompany prisoners to the gallows and try to (1738–1794), Essay on Crimes and Punishments (1764); convert them before their execution in order to save John Howard (1726–1790), The State of the Prisons in their souls; with the birth of the penitentiary, the role of England and Wales (1777); and Jeremy Bentham (1748– the chaplain changed dramatically and became part of a 1832), The Panopticon Writings (1786–1787). The word broader educational project based on Christian values. 88 Only penitentiary became the new preferred term to desig- Thus, ESP was presented to the world as the model of nate this type of imprisonment as punishment; Eastern an enlightened Christian ideal that sought to save lost State Penitentiary (ESP), which opened its doors in 1829 human souls through an individual and rational process in Philadelphia, is regarded as the very first penitentiary. of self-examination rather than by violent corporal pun- The founders of ESP, some of them inspired by Quaker ishment. The Bible and other religious tracts were the ideals, went as far as advocating for the practice of strict only literature allowed in the cells, and the only visitors solitary confinement as the best tool to reform criminals. allowed were virtuous men and women who belonged to the Pennsylvania Prison Society (founded in 1787) The Principle of Rehabilitation and came to pray with the inmates. The minister92 led The thinkers who initiated prison reforms in the second services and evaluated the conversion process of each half of the 18th century wrote extensively on the im- inmateCopy in order to recommend his or her release to the portance and benefits of religious and Christian moral prison authorities. instruction in the rehabilitation of criminals. In his Essay The success of this vision has since been questioned on Crimes and Punishments, Cesare Beccaria insists on and criticized. In the U.S. context, the constant increase the necessity of general education to prevent crime and in the numbers of inmates and prisons has proven the considers religion the first step leading to a higher level system of the rehabilitation of criminals by imprison- of civilization.89 More specifically, John Howard insists ment to be flawed and unsuccessful. Nevertheless, the on the necessity to hold religious services in prisons and Inner Change Freedom Initiative and the Prison Fellow- to provide spiritual guidance to prisoners: “A Chaplain ship have revived the principles of a Christian under- is necessary here in every view.—To reform prisoners, or standing of criminals’ rehabilitation and prison ministry. to make them better as to their morals, should always be the leading view in every house of correction, and their References and Suggested Readings earnings should only be a secondary object. As rational Beccaria, Cesare. 1995. An Essay on Crimes and Punishments. and immortal beings we owe this to them.”90 Similarly, New York: Cambridge University Press. Jeremy Bentham argues in his postscript to The Panop- Bender, John. 1987. Imagining the Penitentiary. Chicago: Uni- ticon Writings (1791) that religion is an inevitable part versity of Press. of reform: “The necessity of a chapel to a penitentiary- Bentham, Jeremy. 1995. The Panopticon Writings. London & house, is a point rather to be assumed than argued. Under New York: Verso. an established church of any persuasion, a system of Foucault, Michel. 1979. Discipline and Punish. New York: Vin- tage Books. Hallinan, Joseph T. 2001. Going Up the River. Travels in a 88. The word was originally used for ecclesiastical prisons (already Prison Nation. New York: Random House. in 1421); the expression “penitentiary-house” appeared in the English languageContributor only in 1776. See The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology (New York: HarperCollins, 1995). 89. Cesare Beccaria, An Essav ont Crimes and Punishments (Philadel- 91. Jeremy Bentham, The Panopticon Writings (London and New York: phia: William Young, 1793), 148–157. Verso, 1995), 97. 90. John Howard, The State of the Prisons in England and Wales, 3rd ed. 92. Thomas Larcombe, a Baptist minister, became the first official chap- (Warrington: Williams Eyres, 1784), 40. lain at Eastern State Penitentiary in 1838. 994 Professional Academic Societies

Howard, John. 2010. The State of the Prisons in England and American Academy of Religion Wales. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. Originally called the Association of Biblical Instruc- Johnston, Norman. 2000. Forms of Constraint: A History of tors in American Colleges and Secondary Schools, this Prison Architecture. Urbana & Chicago: University of Illinois society came into being in 1909 with the stated purpose Press. of stimulating teaching and scholarship in religion. It Mauer, Marc. 2006. Race to Incarcerate. New York: The New went through several name changes, responding to the Press. changing nature of the study of religion, eventually Paget, Naomi, and Janet McCormack. 2006. The Work of the adopting the name American Academy of Religion. Chaplain. Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press. Initially consisting of four founding members, the acad- emy has grown to include approximately 10,000 mem- Internet Resources bers, making it one of the largest Christian academic Eastern State Penitentiary. http://www.easternstate.org/. Pro- societies in the world. vides bibliography and other resources. Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. http://www.pewforum Mission/Purpose .org/Social-Welfare/prison-chaplains-preface.aspx. Provides “In a world where religion plays so central a role in social, survey of prison chaplains. political, and economic events, as wellOnly as in the lives of The Philadelphia Prison Society. http://www.prisonsociety communities and individuals, there is a critical need for .org/#!our-history/c11c1. Provides historical background ongoing reflection upon and understanding of religious and publications. traditions, issues, questions, and values. The American Prison Fellowship. http://www.prisonfellowship.org/. bibliog- Academy of Religion’s mission is to promote such reflec- raphy and other resources information about their mission, tion through excellence in scholarship and teaching in programs, and Christian values. the field of religion.”93 —Muriel Schmid Membership The academy has four levels of membership: profes- Professional Academic Societies sional (all those with a professional or scholarly interest in religion,Copy theology, or cognate fields), student (all those Professional academic societies (also called professional enrolled in an undergraduate or graduate program), re- organizations or professional associations) are typically tired (any individual who is retired from an institution or nonprofit organizations that seek to further a particular place of employment), and special international (working profession and the interests of individuals engaged in or residing outside those countries designated as high that profession. Professional academic societies can income by the World Bank). Membership is open to all vary greatly in size, structure, and history, as well as who practice disciplined reflection on religion—both often serving many different, and at times competing, from within and outside of communities of belief and roles. Most professional academic societies have as a practice—and seek to enhance its broad public under- primary purpose to further and strengthen the specific standing. The academy’s website is www. aarweb.org. discipline or field of their membership. Secondary pur- poses are numerous and can vary from society to soci- Association of Practical Theology ety. They include, but are not limited to, encouraging The Association of Practical Theology (APT) is sparked rigorous and sound scholarship; practicing collegial and by the investigation of practical theology as an integra- collaborative engagement with others (including hav- tive hermeneutical endeavor at the heart of theological ing mutual respect for all members regardless of race, education, characterizing not only the ministerial sub- gender, age, and in the case of some Christian organiza- disciplines but also a manner and method of engaged tions, theological perspectives); providing opportunities reflection. for professional networking; providing for the develop- ment of and opportunity for leadership; and providing Mission Statement a support system for like-minded people who often face “The purpose of the Association of Practical Theology similar situations and issues. (APT) is to promote critical discourse that integrates ThereContributor are many different professional academic soci- theological reflection and practice.”94 eties of interest for those in the field of Christian edu- cation. Following is a discussion of some of the more well known societies in which Christian educators often 93. http://www.aarweb.org/About_AAR/Mission_Statement/default.asp. have membership. 94. http://practicaltheology.org/about/. Professional Academic Societies 995

Membership or wherever else it may occur), and all those involved in The association has two levels of membership: regular career youth ministry and in the growth and development (all persons other than students) and student (all those of youth ministry as a recognised profession. Our goal is enrolled in an undergraduate or graduate program). to raise the profile of youth ministry as a calling, career Members can come from all areas of religious and theo- and/or professional enterprise, and to encourage the re- flection on youth ministry and academic discipline that logical study as long as they have an interest in the criti- will support youth ministry at this level.97 cal examination of religious traditions and practices. Its website is www.practicaltheology.org. Membership There is one level of membership for individuals. Mem- Association of Youth Ministry Educators bership is open to all those who can demonstrate an “The Association of Youth Ministry Educators (AYME) involvement in the study, research, or teaching of youth is a professional organization for those who teach youth ministry. The website is www.iasym.net. ministry at the graduate or undergraduate level. AYME seeks to be an organization that encourages and chal- Religious Education Association lenges youth ministry educators, offers opportunities for Founded in 1903, the Religious Education Association youth ministry educators to network with each other, and (REA) was formed to bring togetherOnly people interested in provides an environment to dialogue around the issues the research and study of religious and moral develop- significant to youth ministry education.”95 ment. In 1970, the Association of Professors and Research- ers in Religious Education (APPRE) was formed out of the Mission/Purpose National Council of Churches. APPRE’s aims were similar • “To be encouraged and challenged. to those of REA. This recognition led the two groups to • To set the course for the future of youth ministry merge in 2003, officially becoming REA:APPRE. As their education and its effectiveness. website states, “The Religious Education Association is an • To promote a timeless vision for the Kingdom of Association of Professors, Practitioners and Researchers in God and His ministry with youth. Religious Education.”98 • To experience joy and fellowship with peers.”96 Mission/PurposeCopy Membership There is one level of membership: full member. Members The mission of the Religious Education Association is to must be teaching youth ministry at a college/university/ create opportunities for exploring and advancing the in- seminary (full or part time) or regularly involved in the terconnected practices of scholarship, research, teaching, training of youth ministers in some other setting. The and leadership in faith communities, academic institu- tions, and the wider world community. The Association website is www.aymeducators.org. accomplishes its mission in four ways: International Association for the Study • Through sharing, critiquing and encouraging publica- of Youth Ministry tion of substantive research, probing scholarship and This is an international and ecumenical group of educa- practical approaches to religious education (particu- tors and practitioners who join together biannually to larly through its journal Religious Education); • Through ecumenical, inter-religious, and cross-cul- focus on the furthering of youth ministry globally, pri- tural, interdisciplinary and inter-professional dialogue marily through the academic study and research of youth that stimulates members to recall and examine historic and youth ministry. The focus is on the “why” and “what” traditions and explore fresh visions of religious educa- of youth ministry rather than the “how.” tion for the diverse and ever-changing human family in our complex world community; Mission/Purpose • Through creation of international networks of com- munication, cooperation and support in order to Our aim is to support and develop the professionalisa- strengthen leaders in religious education, and religious tion of youth ministry around the world. In particular, education as a distinctive and vital field; and we focus on furthering the academic study and research • Through interpreting the nature, purposes, and value of youth and youth ministry, the formal teaching and of the field of religious education to the wider society Contributortraining of youth ministry (at universities, seminaries, de- nominations, parachurch organisations, local ministries,

97. http://www.iasym.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=blogs 95. http://www.aymeducators.org/?page=Welcome. ection&id=5&item=37. 96. http://www.aymeducators.org/?page=AYMEMission. 98. http://www.religiouseducation.net/history. 996 Professionalism

and those preparing to become professors, researchers, (NAE) when it was formed in 1929. One of the first or other leaders in religious education.99 commissions formed that year as part of NAE was the Church School Commission. This commission later be- Membership came the National Sunday School Association (NSSA), Membership is open to all who study and research in the which in turn created multiple other commissions, in- areas of moral and religious development. There is only cluding the Research Commission, which was only open one membership category (full), and dues are determined to those persons teaching Christian education in institu- using a sliding scale based on income. Its website is www tions of higher learning. In 1970, the Research Commis- .religiouseducation.net. sion officially changed its name to National Association of Professors of Christian Education (NAPCE). In 1980, Society of Biblical Literature NAPCE severed all ties with NAE and became an inde- The Society of Biblical Literature (SBL) is an interna- pendent association. In 1992, the name was changed to tional organization that exists to critically investigate the the North American Professors of Christian Education. Bible from a variety of academic disciplines. It seeks to And finally, in 2012, the society changed its name to the offer its members opportunities for mutual support, in- Society of Professors in Christian Education, largely in tellectual growth, and professional development. response to the fact that its membershipOnly was becoming more global. Mission/Purpose The mission of the SBL is to “foster biblical scholarship.” Mission Statement This is accomplished by In 1972, the stated purpose of the organization was “fellowship and mutual enrichment among association • advancing academic study of biblical texts and their members.”101 contexts, as well as of the traditions and contexts of biblical interpretation; Membership • collaborating with educational institutions and other Membership is open to professors of Christian educa- appropriate organizations to support biblical schol- tion in colleges and seminaries and to leaders in related arship and teaching; ChristianCopy education organizations, as well as students en- • developing resources for diverse audiences, includ- rolled in a Christian ministry or Christian education-type ing students, religious communities, and the general program. Agreement with the SPCE doctrinal statement public; is expected, although members are no longer required • facilitating broad and open discussion from a variety to sign it. There are two forms of membership: full and of critical perspectives; student. The website is www.SPCEonline.org. • organizing congresses for scholarly exchange; —James K. Hampton • publishing biblical scholarship; and • promoting cooperation across global boundaries.100 Professionalism Membership Membership is open to individuals from all walks of life Though an increasingly nebulous term in today’s digi- who share a mutual interest in the critical investigation of tized society, professionalism can be divided into three the Bible and its influences. There are three membership main areas: (1) institutional credentialing, (2) character/ categories: full (members have full benefits and participa- ethics formation, (3) and code of conduct standards. tion), student (intended for students and undergraduate and graduate institutions who also have full benefits and Institutional Credentialing participation), and public (members receive many bene- In order for people to advance and remain competitive in fits but are not permitted to participate in the governance the job market and beyond, there is a growing expecta- of the society or to propose a paper for an SBL meeting). tion that further academic and career specific degrees and The website is www.sbl-site.org. certifications will be sought. That is, to advance profes- sionally in a field, one must continue to receive approved SocietyContributor of Professors in Christian Education ranking credentials and status. The understanding is The Society of Professors in Christian Education (SPCE) that as one’s body of knowledge and/or technical skill was born from the National Association of Evangelicals increases, that person will be considered more qualified

99. http://www.religiouseducation.net/mission. 100. http://www.sbl-site.org/aboutus.aspx. 101. http://www.napce.org/history.html. Professors/Faculty 997 and thus more worthy of recognition. This notion is sal code of conduct in which care, concern, and ethical perpetuated further by an increase in school and job ap- accountability are extended to all of creation, which in plicants today, many of whom possess these very creden- turn glorifies the creator God and God’s chosen people. tials. From nursery school to graduate programs to career targeted organizations, a vocabulary of assessment has References and Resources become normative in what defines professionalism today. Clark, K. J., and A. Poortenga. 2003. The Story of Ethics: Fulfilling Our Human Nature. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Character/Ethics Formation Donaldson, T., and P. H. Werhane. 2008. Ethical Issues in Many hold that in order to be called professional, one Business: A Philosophical Approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: must be committed to diligence, patience, and spending Prentice Hall. time perfecting one’s craft, as a professional athlete is, for Kant, I. 1948. The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. example. For Aristotle, one becomes ethical by habitua- Translated by H. J. Paton. New York: Hutchinson’s Univer- tion of virtuous behavior. In Nicomachean Ethics, he as- sity Library. serts: “We are what we repeatedly do; excellence then, is McKeon, R., trans. 1941. The Basic Works of Aristotle. New not an act, but a habit.” York: Random House. For many, to be termed professional means to possess —RobertOnly J. Parmach a daily expertise—knowledge and execution of the right thing to do—in an area of specialization. To be profes- sional suggests that one’s character has been formed Professors/Faculty in such a way as to seek truth, excellence, and virtuous behavior, not to surrender to less than one’s aptitude. According to the General Institutional Standards of the The criteria for excellence and aptitude continue to be Association of Theological Schools (ATS), “the members debated. Two fundamental questions remain: (1) Is ethi- of the faculty of a theological school constitute a collab- cal expertise confined to one’s area of specialization, or orative community of faith and learning, and they are indicative of generally accepted societal norms? and (2) crucial to the scholarly activities of teaching, learning, Does one’s religious and/or faith tradition bear on ethical and research in the institution.”102 Professors and faculty formation, or the lack thereof? In addition, Christian and membersCopy engaged in theological education are scholars religious education challenges whether ethical formation and ministerial specialists who have been brought to- understood by secular standards is sufficient to stand gether by an institution for the purpose of teaching and alone, or contrary to Christian and religious models. training students in the areas of theological academics and ministry. Academic professors generally teach in the Code of Conduct Standards areas of Bible, theology, and church history, while practi- Professionalism also indicates that one adheres to high cal or professional professors typically teach in the areas ethical and moral standards and an unwavering code associated with practical theology and ministry. of conduct. The professional citizen is expected to con- Faculty members are expected to possess the compe- duct daily life with a certain mindfulness that reflects tencies and credentials necessary for the oversight of their allegiance to established protocols, conduct, and cat- responsibilities. In graduate theological education, fac- egorically applied rules and guidelines. This deonto- ulty members are normally expected to attain a research logical (duty/obligation based) understanding of how one doctorate or terminal degree in the area of their expertise; should conduct one’s actions is further challenged ethi- generally a PhD for the academic areas and DMin for the cally and legally by the prevalence of online education, practical areas. At times, other qualified individuals who social media interaction, and intellectual property rights have not earned a research doctorate but possess a special litigation. The idea of professional conduct is that one is expertise or skill (e.g., in music, administration, cross- true to oneself, expressed by the clichés “practice what cultural experience) may be asked to serve in a faculty or you preach” and “live by deeds, not simply words.” Im- administrative position. manuel Kant (1948) argued: “If we look more closely at In addition to academic preparation, it is also impor- our thoughts and aspirations, we everywhere come upon tant for theological faculty members to possess the nec- the dear self.” In the context of Christian education, this essary ministerial and ecclesial experience to challenge professionalContributor ethos (being and behaving) is linked with learners to be balanced both in the classroom and in local scriptural teaching. As human beings created by God, all are called to conduct body, mind, and spirit in accor- 102. General Institutional Standards, Bulletin 50, pt. 1 (Pittsburgh: The dance with the stewards of the earth charge presented in Association of Theological Schools Commission on Accrediting, 2012), the book of Genesis. Each person partakes in the univer- G-10. 998 Protestant Catechisms church ministry. As such, faculty members “should en- an educational method in other religions and even in deavor to include, within the teaching of their respective secular contexts. Several Protestant catechisms have at- disciplines, theological reflection that enables students to tained the status of secondary or subordinate doctrinal integrate their learning from the various disciplines, field standards (under scripture) within denominations, most education, and personal formation.”103 notably Luther’s catechisms and the Westminster Shorter Typically, theological schools also expect faculty mem- and Larger Catechisms. With its emphasis on individual bers to participate in other types of intuitional leadership responsibility before God for reading and understanding outside of the classroom, including the development the Bible and responding to God accordingly, rather than of academic policy, participation in academic commit- a more sacerdotal form of spirituality, in which the priest tees, oversight of academic programs and curricula, and and the sacraments are given greater centrality, Protes- general institutional evaluation and planning. In addi- tantism was and has been a key driver of the question and tion, faculty members are expected to engage in research answer catechetical tradition of passing on the rudiments within their field of expertise. Normally, a faculty mem- of doctrine. However, given the Protestant emphasis on ber’s participation in learned and professional societies, the authority of scripture, Karl Barth was right to point research included in scholarly publications, and contri- out that a Reformed confession or catechism, no matter butions to the intellectual life of the church and society how revered, “always stands under anOnly ultimate, articu- are areas of required activity that are evaluated in one’s lated or nonarticulated reservation because it is always application for promotion in rank and tenure. A faculty located at a completely different level from Scripture.” member’s engagement in teaching, learning, research, and ministry is an integral component of a student’s 16th- and 17th-Century Catechisms theological education. In the 16th century, both Luther and Calvin produced catechisms, putting the rediscovered truths of the Refor- References and Resources mation into simple, digestible form for their congrega- General Institutional Standards. 2012. Bulletin 50, Part 1. Pitts- tions. Luther’s Small and Large Catechisms were both burgh: The Association of Theological Schools Commission bound together into the Book of Concord as confessional on Accrediting. standards for the Lutheran church, though the Reformed —Edward W. Watson traditionCopy has not accorded similar status or stature to Calvin’s catechetical output, preferring more consensual and corporately composed documents. Protestant Catechisms One such team effort was the Heidelberg Catechism (1563), the collective authorship of which was pub- Catechism and Scripture licly emphasized so as to stress the unity of Protestants Catechesis is a Greek word (from the verb κατηχέω, from Calvinist, Zwinglian, and Melanchthonian streams katēcheo) meaning careful religious instruction, which within the Palatinate. Indeed, theological loci such as is used eight times in the New Testament itself (e.g., predestination, covenant, and some aspects of sacramen- Acts 18:25; Rom. 2:18; Gal. 6:6). Christians have always tal theology (issues with potential for intra-Protestant been eager to develop effective means of instructing controversy) were substantially played down within the people in the faith, particularly recent converts (either Heidelberg Catechism for the sake of doctrinal harmony children or adults), who early on were known as cat- (although Calvin had not devoted a section to predes- echumens prior to their baptism. Catechesis has often tination in his Geneva Catechism either). As an official consisted of basic training in the essential foundations document, it was intended to replace the profusion of of Christian doctrine, with an especial focus throughout home-made catechisms produced for the instruction of church history on the Ten Commandments, the Lord’s the young, which individual pastors were composing and Prayer, and the Apostles’ Creed as central items for regularly amending themselves, with a more theologi- meditation and memorization. cally consensual and stable form shaped by the theology Protestant catechisms were developed in the 16th and faculty and leading churchmen of the area. 17th centuries as an aid to the basic biblical and doctrinal Pedagogically, the Heidelberg Catechism, “the best education of the laity (as opposed to the more cleri- known among all Reformed confessional writings” cal Contributorfocus of the Tridentine Roman Catechism of 1566). according to Barth, is divided into 129 questions and They utilize a distinctive question and answer format, answers, which can be grouped together into 52 units though this predates Protestantism itself and is used as for the purposes of weekly preaching. These cover is- sues of sin and soteriology, followed by an extended 103. Ibid., G-11. rehearsal of the doctrines contained in the Apostles’ Protestant Interdenominational Church Christian Education 999

Creed. Later questions cover the place and role of good ish anti-Trinitarian group known as the Socinians pro- works, sacramentology, the Ten Commandments, and duced the Racovian Catechism (1605), built around the the Lord’s Prayer. One key distinguishing feature of this threefold office of Christ as prophet, priest, and king to catechism is its threefold structure, as outlined in the promote their own heterodox Christological views, and second question: have been followed by many sects, cults, and denomina- tions since in their imitation of this distinctively Protes- Q. How many things are necessary for thee to know, that tant style of doctrinal education. Today, that catechetical thou, enjoying this comfort, mayest live and die happily? style remains popular in many confessional circles, and A. Three: the first, how great my sins and miseries are; even musical versions of the older catechisms (in several the second, how I may be delivered from all my sins and languages) are in use around the world. miseries; the third, how I shall express my gratitude to God for such deliverance. References and Resources Barth, Karl. 2005. The Theology of Reformed Confessions 1923. Thus, the catechism is divided into three sections, Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. covering man’s misery, deliverance, and thankfulness. Bierma, Lyle. 2005. An Introduction to the Heidelberg Cat- The much later but also highly influential Westminster echism: Sources, History, and TheologyOnly. Grand Rapids, MI: Shorter Catechism (1647) is divided into 107 questions Baker. covering similar ground, and begins with a short and Green, Ian. 1996. The Christian’s ABC: Catechisms and Cat- deservedly famous opening question: echizing in England c. 1530–1740. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Q. What is the chief end of man? See www.songsforsaplings.com for an example of modern mu- A. Man’s chief end is to glorify God, and to enjoy him sical catechesis in the Westminster tradition, which is trans- forever. lated into several African and European languages. —Lee Gatiss One noteworthy development here is that the ques- tion is, in a sense, included in the answer, in a way that it was not in the Heidelberg Catechism. This made it easier CopyProtestant Interdenominational for the catechumen to memorize and recall the correct Church Christian Education responses: the first answer is not simply “to glorify God and enjoy him forever” but “Man’s chief end is to glorify As the general entry on denominations indicates, the God, and to enjoy him forever”— which not only teaches concept only really applies since the 1600s and is very an edifying proposition in and of itself but also makes it confusingly used. This applies even more to these pre- easier to relate to the specific question it is designed to fixes. The prefix “un” seems to be less common, but answer. Although Calvin’s catechism was more about when it or “non-” is used, it may actually refer to some “knowing God” than “enjoying God” (which was, how- institution that does have distinctive doctrines, practices, ever, a staple of patristic and medieval thought, appearing and constituency, so that it is really “denominational” or in Augustine’s De Doctrina Christiana and in Peter Lom- possibly “sectarian” even if unadmitted. bard’s Sentences), Westminster begins with essentially the The prefix “inter-” is used in two distinct ways. Less same question as Calvin, but in this educationally more commonly, it means that organizations from two or more beneficial way. denominational families officially sponsor something that serves them all. This may be as small as two Baptist Wider Use of Catechisms within Protestantism and Anglican congregations jointly sponsoring a week- Other Reformed traditions such as the Church of Eng- long vacation Bible school. At the other extreme, globally land, as well as Methodists and many Baptists, also ad- there are two significant Christian interdenominational opted the catechetical form. The catechism in the Angli- organizations, mostly distinct but with some overlap: the can Book of Common Prayer (1662), intended for weekly World Council of Churches and the World Evangelical use, rehearses the basics of the creed, commandments, Alliance. Their respective statements of faith are not in Lord’s Prayer, and sacraments and also tests whether a disagreement, although the WEA’s is much more com- candidateContributor understands their interpretation before being plete. This reflects the views of those served by the WEA brought for episcopal confirmation. Keach’s Catechism that the WCC constituency, while affirming the Trinity, (1693), from the Particular Baptist stable, exhibits many is less forthcoming on such traditional affirmations as similarities to the Westminster tradition, though with the scriptures being “infallible, entirely trustworthy” or obvious divergences on the subject of baptism. The Pol- Christ’s “virgin birth,” “bodily resurrection,” and “per- 1000 Protestant Interdenominational Church Christian Education sonal return in power.” But the WEA statement still falls The foreign missions that founded schools of higher far short of affirming any traditional denominational education (on the Western model) were more commonly distinctives. Generally, the designations “ecumenical” denominational, but such colleges are now interdenomi- and “evangelical” reflect these two main expressions national (ecumenical variety) or more likely secular and of Protestant interdenominationalism, and most truly often prominent in their African or Asian locations. nondenominational organizations are usually oriented Ironically but understandably, interdenominational toward one or the other. agencies from sending countries that planted congrega- There is also a much smaller number of interdenomi- tions overseas find, like it or not, that they are really just national organizations, often labeled “fundamentalist,” adding to the denominational complexity in the receiv- that were originally more or less part of the same evan- ing country. But then such new denominations are free gelical movement represented by the WEA, but in recent to join with others to form truly interdenominational decades they have differentiated themselves more on agencies in such countries. Both denominationalism and issues of style or by reverting to an emphasis on denomi- interdenominationalism are confusing and ever-evolving national distinctives (such as believers’ baptism or the realities, wherever and whenever they appear. pretribulation rapture). Most interdenominational institutions in historically There are still many other Protestants who prefer not Protestant countries that are focused onOnly Christian educa- to participate much, if at all, in interdenominational ac- tion date only from the 1900s, or in the case of Bible insti- tivity. This may be because they have little opportunity tutes, a few years earlier. Before that, liberal arts and theo- to do so or because they are quite busy enough within logical colleges had denominational foundations, since their own denominations. But it also may be because they required an existing constituency to fund and fill they believe it would be unfaithful to the truth they them. Almost all of these older schools are now ecumeni- believe God has entrusted to their branch of the one cally oriented. (Wheaton, originally Congregationalist, is church. Such a view could be called “confessional” Prot- the rare exception.) In view of the expense of sustaining estantism, of which there are many conflicting varieties. them, the trend toward interdenominationalism (and (The term “sectarian” is today better reserved for those secularism for the colleges) is understandable. A further who equate themselves with the body of Christ, rather motivation was the split within Protestantism, starting than as part of it.) in theCopy 1800s, between what became the ecumenical and The more common use of “inter-,” as well as “non-” or evangelical varieties, as they are now known. The result “un-,” is meant to indicate that the organization in ques- has been the proliferation around North America, and to tion, whatever its origins, is now staffed, directed, and a lesser but growing extent in other parts of the world, of supported by, and serves individuals and larger groups theological colleges, and sometimes liberal arts colleges, that are associated with, two or more denominational that draw staff, students, and supporters from many families. (Henceforth, “inter-” will include those properly denominations and from the small but growing number self-styled “non-” or “un-.”) An organization could have of interdenominational congregations. The result is that become truly interdenominational even if historically and many schools that are still officially denominational now still officially it is associated with a denomination. And may in reality have many more of their staff and students in view of the increasing number of truly interdenomi- from other denominations. The same phenomenon has national congregations (of either the ecumenical or the more recently appeared where there are elementary and evangelical variety), an organization might conceivably, secondary Christian schools. but not likely, serve only other interdenominationals. A form of Christian education institution that has been The great revivals and awakenings of the 1700s in largely interdenominational from their beginnings in the Europe and North America were certainly interdenomi- 1900s are the modern media. Besides evangelizing, inform- national, but the educational institutions deriving from ing, and some pastoring, media have always been a major them were generally denominational, at least for several tool of the educational enterprise. Before 1900, printing generations (as were the older Oxford and Cambridge (apart from the Bible) was mostly denominational, and universities in England). The Bible societies of the early some of that continues, but much curricular material in 1800s began and have remained interdenominational. countries all over the world (whether Sunday school, day The next great wave of interdenominationalism is that school, or college and seminary textbooks) is now inter- of foreignContributor mission agencies. These of course started and denominationally produced. Financially this makes sense. have remained evangelistic, but would soon add a strong Organizations for radio, then television, and more recently educational component, beginning with the congrega- Internet broadcasting have always been mostly interde- tional level and with elementary and secondary schools nominational. This is true even though specific programs and Bible training centers and eventually seminaries. or websites might be denominationally prepared. Protestant Reformation, Education and Literacy during the 1001

Denominationalism only began in the 1600s, and One hundred years after Kempis, the inimitable Eras- pervasive interdenominationalism dates only from the mus (1466–1536) also penned a landmark work of north- mid-1800s or later. Those with confessionalist convic- ern humanism, In Praise of Folly. A humorous work lack- tions may lament this development, but numerous ing the sacred and devotional qualities of Kempis’s The factors at work both in church and the world indicate Imitation of Christ, Erasmus nonetheless echoed many that interdenominational congregations and specialized themes prevalent among the Brethren of the Common institutions are likely to increase in importance for the Life. Included in Erasmus’s list of frequently hilarious foreseeable future. lampoons of medieval religion were the excessive idolatry —Donald Tinder of relics; the worldly, corrupt core of the priestly hier- archy; and the almost intentionally confusing nature of medieval theology. Protestant Reformation, Neither Thomas à Kempis nor Erasmus was a Prot- Education and Literacy during the estant. Kempis lived a century before Luther, and Eras- mus—a contemporary of Luther—never formally re- During the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation jected Catholicism or embraced Protestant teachings. coincided with one of Western Europe’s most important Yet both Kempis and Erasmus reflectedOnly criticisms of the periods in terms of education and literacy. Many areas church, and indeed, medieval society, in ways that often saw significant increases in access to books and school- uncannily mirrored the writings and thoughts of many ing. The struggle between Protestants and Catholics Protestant reformers. reflected broader themes in intellectual and institutional In general, the northern humanist movement pro- life. These intellectual and educational tensions are a cru- vided an important intellectual context for Reformation. cial aspect of studying the Reformation. Beginning with Luther’s famous call for “the priesthood of all believers,” virtually all Protestant reformers em- Humanism and the Northern Renaissance phasized—to varying degrees—the believer’s need for a During the Renaissance, significant changes to European personal relationship with God. While a belief in a per- intellectual culture arose. General dissatisfaction with the sonal relationship with God did not necessarily reflect an wordy, insular, and almost exclusively theological focus anti-RomanCopy Catholic view per se, it did almost inherently of most university training finally led to the “humanist” imply a diminished role for the priesthood. While theol- movement, one of the most powerful intellectual move- ogy and doctrine would remain important to reformers, ments in Western history. Humanism was a response to Protestantism also generally resulted in simpler beliefs, the traditional university, since much university train- a stronger emphasis on personal faith, and less reliance ing still had a strong monastic patina during the later on expert theologians. All of these general qualities of medieval period. As an alternative, humanism sought a the Protestant movement echoed similar themes in the broader and less intensely religious training. While not humanism of the Northern Renaissance. secular per se, Renaissance humanism did embrace a much wider range of foci than had prevailed previously. General Increase in Literacy and Education Humanism greatly appealed to the needs of educated The Protestant movement corresponded with the rise, individuals living in Europe on the cusp of the modern and spread, of literacy and education during the later era, especially the growing classes of civil servants, artists, Middle Ages. For centuries the Germanic “Gothic” north scientists, and merchants. had been dismissed as the boondocks of Western Europe The humanist movement began in Italy, where it closely by many of the elites living in sunnier Italy or southern intersected with the revived interest in ancient Greek and France. In general, the “Dark Ages” had never affected Roman culture. It spread during the 15th century. As it Italy or southern Gaul as much as other areas of Europe. diffused, its charming emphasis on personal feelings and Moreover, many peoples of northern and central Europe interests blended with the distinctive cultures of the Ger- had “barbarian” ancestry, a fact that had continued to manic north. It had an important impact on Christianity. shape many casual attitudes long after the fall of the Groups like the Brethren of the Common Life arose during Roman Empire in the West. Well into the Middle Ages, this period, one of several late medieval movements that the finest art, architecture, and learning of Western emphasizedContributor Christians living lives of simple piety and hu- Christendom still reflected the dominance of Mediter- mility. The 1418 work by Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation ranean culture and geography. of Christ, epitomizes northern humanism’s humble rejec- By the later Middle Ages, however, Europe’s tradi- tion of the rich priestly power and arrogant theological tional geographical paradigm was changing. Northern training that drove medieval learning. and central Europe increasingly hosted vibrant cultures 1002 Protestant Reformation, Education and Literacy during the and economies rivaling those of the south. Learning and move toward “vernacular languages.” For many centu- literacy began to spread through many areas of the North. ries, the church—and Europe as a whole—had benefited The handful of great Western European universities that from the universal (and enforced) use of Latin as Western had arisen during the High Middle Ages (c. 1000–1300) Christendom’s lingua franca. The Latin Bible—known as had dominated learning for many centuries. As might the Vulgate—had stood as the exclusive authorized copy be expected, the first major university in Europe was of the Bible for all Catholic Christendom since the early founded in Italy, at Bologna. Other major universities Middle Ages. Unlike the Byzantine Church in the East, founded during this period included the University of Roman officials had discouraged and even forbidden the Paris and Oxford University in England. translation of Holy Scripture into the vernacular lan- By the early 16th century, however, newer universities guages. During the Reformation, however, the struggle arose, especially in the German states. Indeed, the life over the role of vernacular languages in worship and and career of Martin Luther himself shows the signifi- scripture reading emerged as one of the definitive issues cance of these “new schools.” Martin Luther received his pitting Protestants against Catholics. university training at Erfurt, a German university dating While the development of vernacular languages in- from the late 14th century. More famously, following his volved many components, including the rise of national early years at Erfurt, Luther took a post at the University literatures and idioms, the desire to Onlytranslate the Bible of Wittenberg, the town and school that he later made into vernacular languages was perhaps the most powerful famous. Saxony’s University of Wittenberg had only been aspect of the vernacular languages movement. As literacy founded in 1502, just a few years before Luther’s arrival arose, people naturally wanted to read scripture in their in 1511. Wittenberg’s vibrant and important intellectual own common tongues. This desire for vernacular lan- and religious contributions to the Reformation epitomize guages was also true of worship more generally, since the the growing geographical dissemination of learning and liturgy of the Mass was also exclusively Latin. teaching that was vital to Protestant culture. The move toward using vernacular languages during the Reformation is a crucial aspect of understanding the The Printing Press Protestant movement. Indeed, much of “Christendom” The Reformation benefited enormously from Johann fragmented along ethnic or language lines. Even within Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press in 1452. ProtestantismCopy itself, separate churches formed along It was in primarily in Germanic lands that the print- language lines. Many languages were powerfully shaped ing press had the most influence. A classic “disruptive by translations of scripture out of Latin and into the com- technology,” the printing press was famously opposed mon tongues. By 1525, Lutheran areas of Germany were by many ecclesiastical and lay authorities due to its great featuring services in the German language, beginning a power to disseminate ideas. The printing press also ac- powerful trend that inexorably moved beyond Germany commodated the publication of writings without the into Scandinavia and England. imprimatur of the tightly controlled guilds and colleges In the Protestant North, national churches appeared, that controlled much learning and education throughout formed along language lines. They deeply shaped the the heyday of the Middle Ages. linguistic and ethnic map of Europe to the present day. Along with Protestant writings like those of Luther, The modern forms of many languages in Western Europe scientific ideas also benefited from the powerful new have their roots in these years, when the Bible—Western printing press technology. The German doctor Paracel- civilization’s most important book—was given fixed, ca- sus (1493–1541) found a wide audience for his controver- nonical form in vernacular tongues, therefore influencing sial ideas, which only a century before would have likely literature and speech in ways that are hard to overempha- remained obscure. Often dubbed “the medical Luther” size. Luther’s translation of the New Testament is per- for his scathing attacks on the entrenched physicians in haps the most famous example in this regard, but there Europe’s elite universities, Paracelsus’s brave refutations were many others. Wycliffe’s translation of the Bible into of long-established medical practices—especially those English is another famous example, though it was only equated with the Roman physician Galen—were nearly in 1611 with the King James “Authorized” version of the as disruptive to the scientific circles of the 16th century as Bible that England had a lawfully recognized vernacular Luther’s writings were to ecclesiastical authorities. text of the Bible. Contributor The emphasis on reading scripture for oneself fur- Vernacular Languages thered the important move toward more practical and After 1452, printed books became Europe’s first mass democratic approaches to education that shaped learn- industry, presaging the Industrial Revolution by several ing during the years of the Reformation. An arguably centuries. Printed literature greatly aided in Europe’s unprecedented democratization of literacy ensued. Ev- Proverbs 1003 eryday people had greater access to texts than at any time and accordingly he is recognized as a patron of biblical since at least the fall of the Roman Empire. New and wisdom literature. The Hebrew word mashal, “prov- varied forms of literature appeared. Even in theology and erb,” likely comes from a root meaning “to be like,” religion, many of the Protestant writings were clearer in “to represent,” “to compare with.” Thus, though not grammar, syntax, and meaning than classical medieval always obvious, a proverb often emphasizes “likeness,” texts had been. whereby the true nature of one thing is brought out by In general, Protestants came to emphasize the author- comparing it with another. Some proverbs employ a ity of scripture, as well as the need for each Christian to simile, using “as” or “like” to bring out this comparison. read and study the Bible for himself or herself. Education For example, “as iron sharpens iron, so one man sharp- of the young also became an important emphasis. These ens another” (Prov. 27:17). A simile developed into a themes of practical, common education for spiritual and short story may create a parable (see the parable of the personal benefit would become hallmarks of Protestant vineyard, Isa. 5:1–7). The parable was a favorite teach- education, deeply shaping Western learning in virtually ing method of Jesus, a Jewish sage. all Protestant lands. Protestant approaches to educa- Generally, proverbs are pithy, memorable sayings that tion and training were especially pronounced with the condense the wisdom of experience in “capsule” form. movement of Protestantism into English-speaking North Many proverbs are clever, witty, orOnly stark “one-liners”— America. There, in the English colonies, Protestant though sometimes more than a line in Hebrew—that education gained a stronghold, establishing some of the “hit between the eyes” (Prov. 21:9, 27:15, 16). Proverbs world’s finest universities. are pregnant with meaning, applicable to a wide vari- ety of situations encountered in daily life (Prov. 6:6–9). References and Resources Biblical proverbs contain “didactic” wisdom. They point Chadwick, O. 1965. The Reformation. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. out common pitfalls of life and provide wise instruction Gray, M. 2003. The Protestant Reformation: Belief, Practice and or “stepping stones” that lead to successful living. In Tradition. Brighton; Portland, OR: Sussex Academic Press. short, proverbs are framed as universal lessons on how Jensen, D. 1992. Reformation Europe: Age of Reform and Revo- an individual may go about mastering his or her own lution. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath. life. As keys to success, they often warn of some of the Lindberg, C. 2009. The European Reformation. 2nd ed. Chich- entrappingCopy dangers of life, such as laziness, gossip, anger, ester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. drunkenness, and “foreign” women. Marsden, G. 1994. The Soul of the American University: From Proverbial wisdom divides the world into two broad Protestant Establishment to Established Nonbelief. New York: categories: the wise and the foolish, those who display Oxford University Press.​ upright and righteous behavior and those characterized —David Leinweber by folly. Foolishness is often a matter of being flawed in decision making. The sage sought to drive out foolish- ness. The sayings of the wise often point out that choices Proverbs have consequences: reward results from righteous living; bad choices lead to tragedy and ruin (see Ps. 1, a Wisdom The proverbs of Israel comprise an important part of bib- psalm). The Book of Job, a work of speculative wisdom, lical wisdom literature. The largest concentrated collec- begins to challenge this seemingly simplistic, pietistic for- tion of wisdom sayings in scripture is the Book of Prov- mula of reward always associated with righteous living. erbs. Occurring first in oral form, then written, proverbs The awe, reverence, or “fear of LORD” is the begin- were gathered from sources locally and internationally. ning of knowledge and wisdom” (Prov. 1: 7). In canonical The Book of Proverbs, an anthology of sage teachings, context, proverbs are God-given principles of right and doubtless served as a type of “textbook” of the wise; the wrong to be applied in human relationships. Yet prov- learner is often addressed as “my son(s)” (see 2:1, 3:1, erbs themselves are seldom highly theological, abstract, 4:1, 5:1). Proverbial wisdom is also frequently found in or theoretical; rather, they are usually empirical, utilitar- Ecclesiastes and also occasionally in the Old Testament ian, and grounded in tangible social realities. Proverbs historical and prophetic books (see Eccles. 7:5, 6; 1 Kings are intended to give an individual “know-how,” practi- 20:11; Ezek. 16:44). In the New Testament, Matthew 5–7 cal insight, and skills needed for navigating successfully andContributor the Book of James contain a variety of aphoristic say- through life. Wisdom, however, is not native intelligence; ings in the wisdom tradition. it must be sought and acquired by study, reflecting on the The Book of Proverbs opens mishle shelomoh, “the world of experience and intently listening to the words proverbs of Solomon” (1:1). Solomon’s name is associ- of the wise. In scripture, wisdom is a divine gift, yet it is ated with many of the proverbs within this collection, not usually directly linked with words of divine author- 1004 Psychological Type Theory and Christian Education ity such as the formula, “This is what the LORD says,” means of evaluation and decision making. The two at- frequently found in prophetic literature. titudes (judging and perceiving) distinguish between two Biblical proverbs are not ironclad promises guaranteed ways of living in the outside world. Crucially, these four to work successfully, with no exceptions; rather, proverbs distinctions are descriptive but not evaluative. Extraver- are sage observations on life, generalizations that tend to sion and introversion are equally good but different. hold true in most situations. Hence, proverbs contain few In terms of Christian theology, Jung’s observation nuances or exceptions. Life has surprises, but proverbs causes us to reflect on whether differences of this psycho- are not concerned with reconciling all the phenomena of logical nature reflect divine intentionality in creation and life with logic or divine justice. The concern of proverbs give rise to a theology of individual differences. A strong is with what is generally true. We may illustrate with this reading of Genesis 1:27 suggests that both male and modern example: “One who brushes his teeth daily, a female were created in the image of God. By extension, cavity will not get.” In a similar manner, proverbs usually ethnic difference and psychological type differences may provide “simple” observations, but life itself is often com- be located within the divine image. The theology of indi- plex. Thus each proverb is an invitation to think critically vidual differences, rooted in a strong doctrine of creation about some aspect of life that requires self-improvement. and drawing on the insights of psychological type theory, To the wise, fools are bent on waywardness and self-de- has profound implications for how ChristiansOnly value and struction. Pupils of the wise willing to remove themselves respect as equal introverts and extraverts, sensing types from foolishness will display an attitude and openness to and intuitive types, feeling types and thinking types, correction and redirecting. judging types and perceiving types (see Francis 2005). In terms of hermeneutical theory, Jung’s observations References and Resources cause us to take seriously and to listen carefully to the Gammie, John G., and Leo G. Perdue, eds. 1990. The Sage in distinctive ways in which sensing types, intuitive types, Israel and the Ancient Near East. Winona Lake, IN: Eisen- feeling types, and thinking types read, hear, and inter- brauns. pret scriptures. Rooted in the tradition of hermeneutical Murphy, Roland E. 1998. Proverbs. Word Bible Commentary, theory concerned with “reader perspective,” Francis and vol. 22. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. Village (2008) make a clear case for the conversation be- Waltke, Bruce K. 2004. The Book of Proverbs, Chap. 1–15. tweenCopy the Word of God and the People of God to make NICOT. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. space for and to listen to all four voices of Sensing, In- ———. 2005. The Book of Proverbs, Chap. 15–31. Grand Rapids, tuition, Feeling, and Thinking. This process has become MI: Eerdmans. known as the SIFT method of biblical hermeneutics and —Marvin R. Wilson liturgical preaching. In terms of pedagogical practice, psychological type theory (with respect for a theology of individual differ- Psychological Type Theory ences) offers some profound insight into how Christians and Christian Education learn (including children, young people, and adults). Respect for psychological type differences gives rise to Psychological type theory offers four significant contri- insights concerning learning styles and learning prefer- butions to Christian education: theological, hermeneuti- ences. Good Christian education needs to make ap- cal, pedagogical, and empirical. propriate provision for different psychological types of Psychological type theory has its roots in Carl Jung’s learners. Introverts may learn best by quiet reflection observation and analysis of human behavior (see Jung (reading at home), while extraverts may learn best by ac- 1971) and in the subsequent developments offered by tive engagement (talking in groups). Sensing types may instruments designed to measure type preferences, most learn best by engagement with facts (and welcome details notably the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Myers and and data), while intuitive types may learn best by engage- McCaulley 1985). In its developed form, psychological ment with ideas (and welcome theories and speculation). type theory distinguishes among four sets of bipolar Feeling types may engage best with personal narrative preferences displayed among normal (nonpathological) and with acts of human kindness (inspired by the God of people. The two orientations (introversion and extraver- mercy), while thinking types may engage best with analy- sion)Contributor distinguish between internal and external sources sis and issues of truth and fairness (inspired by the God of of psychological energy. The two perceiving functions justice). Judging types may appreciate best clearly struc- (sensing and intuition) distinguish between different tured curriculum and a disciplined framework, while ways of viewing the world. The two judging functions perceiving types may appreciate best a more spontaneous (thinking and feeling) distinguish between two different approach to learning and a flexible framework. Psychology 1005

In terms of an empirical perspective, measures of suggested that the bias inherent in introspection and psychological type provide a robust and useful method self-reporting might be improved by utilizing anthropo- for profiling church congregations, learning groups, and logical methods to study people in natural environments, participants in special events. It is a matter of empirical thereby attempting to analyze the mind as its contents fact that not all churches attract the same type of people. found expression in observable activity. The doctor and Knowledge about the psychological type profile of indi- physiologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) extended this vidual churches may, for example, help to explain why line of thought from a global focus on observations in re- some programs fit well in one church, while others do alistic settings to a more precise focus on measurement of not, and only some clergy may fit in well, while others do mental processes in controlled settings. Wundt is gener- not (see Francis 2013). ally credited with beginning the first experimental labo- ratory for psychological studies, in which he examined References and Resources physical responses to investigate such topics as sensory Francis, L. J. 2005. Faith and Psychology: Personality, Religion perceptions, focus, memory, and thoughts. From these and the Individual. London: Darton, Longman and Todd. early beginnings, the field of psychology has grown and ———. “The Psychological Type Profile of a Church: A Case now includes many subareas and interest groups (Fuchs Study.” Comprehensive Psychology Vol. 2 (No. 1), n.p., Ar- and Milar 2003). For example, the AmericanOnly Psychologi- ticle 6, http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2466/01.09. cal Association, which claims to be the largest psycho- CP.2.6 logical professional association in the world, has more Francis, L. J., and A. Village. 2008. Preaching with All Our Souls. than 50 divisions for members with diverse interests in London: Continuum. psychology (www.apa.org/about). Jung, C. G. 1971. Psychological Types: The Collected Works, vol. 6. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Psychology and Spirituality Myers, I. B., and M. H. McCaulley. 1985. Manual: A Guide to In general, understanding the relationship between the the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. mind and body has led to psychological studies inves- Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. tigating various aspects of human functioning rang- —Leslie J. Francis ing from physical health to prosocial behaviors and relationshipsCopy to subjective well-being. Various aspects of spirituality have been empirically related to a multi- Psychology plicity of healthy physical and psychological outcomes. For instance, a sense of secure attachment to God has The term psychology suggests the study of the psyche, or been linked to life satisfaction (e.g., Yoon and Lee 2004), the mind. An understanding of psychology is particularly higher self-esteem, less depression (e.g., Maton 1989), relevant in education, in that most educational endeav- and better interpersonal relationships (e.g., Hall et al. ors focus on educating the mind. Christian educators, 1998). Several issues, however, have challenged the study in particular, should concern themselves with matters of of psychology and religion. At its inception, when the psychology because many of the important outcomes we discipline had strong ties to philosophy, theology was hope to achieve deal specifically with supporting learn- still viewed as integral to understanding the nature of ers as they integrate knowledge and understanding into reality. The emergence of modernism, however, exerted behaviors and habits that will form a Christian character. a powerful influence for reexamining past assumptions. This transformed character, presumed to develop in con- According to Fuchs and Milar (2003), William James’s junction with a renewed mind (Rom. 12:2), is ostensibly (1842–1910) seminal text, Principles of Psychology (1890), much more important than, and in fact subsumes, the represented a new and clear division between psychol- intellectual exercise of merely acquiring knowledge. ogy and theology. Although religious issues have since been studied using psychological frameworks, the pre- History dominantly secular perspective within the field has led to The discipline of psychology was founded on an interest some lack of clarity in fully understanding the nature of that lay between two existing fields of study: philosophy the relationship between religious belief and practice and and physiology (Fuchs and Milar 2003). The philosopher psychological health and functioning. ImmanuelContributor Kant (1724–1804) argued against the valid- Further complicating this problem is that views on ity of a purely scientific study of psychology, in that the religious belief and behavior from a psychological per- contents of one’s consciousness must always be filtered spective have often been unfavorable. For instance, through one’s own subjective perspective in making in- studies have suggested a relationship between religious ferences about the mind’s inner workings. Instead, Kant fundamentalism and prejudice. This finding has led some 1006 Psychology to infer that strong adherence to religious beliefs causes reality is configured in their favor, but they are prone to hateful, discriminatory attitudes and behaviors. Correla- give up otherwise. That is, when circumstances become tion, however, does not equal causation, merely the exis- difficult, these individuals interpret negative events as tence of a relationship, and often only one relationship evidence that they may fail, and thus they withdraw ef- that exists within a complex web of relationships among fort and either try to disguise their vulnerability or try to multiple variables that may or may not be known. In the apply themselves in other areas in which they believe they example of prejudice, there seems to be a lack of relation- have been favored (Dweck 2008). ship between religious orthodoxy and discriminatory People who subscribe to incremental theories, on the attitudes, even though fundamentalism and orthodoxy other hand, believe that the nature of reality is malleable have been significantly correlated (Kirkpatrick 1993). and can change. These individuals are inclined to expend This interpretative issue reflects a research challenge effort when circumstances are favorable and to continue common to all scientific inquiry. That is, discerning the to persist when difficulties arise. Incremental theories are true nature of relationships between variables depends on thus extremely valuable in educational contexts, in that both reliable measurement of the variables of interest and they encourage self-control, long suffering, and hopeful- valid interpretations of data analyses. ness, which contribute to resilience and a greater likeli- An additional challenge lies in the research designs hood of success. Considerable empiricalOnly evidence exists themselves. Within the discipline of psychology, scien- documenting the educational benefits of incremental tists have come to accept that even quantitative studies theories for successful educational outcomes. Perhaps are subject to bias, because the personal beliefs of the most interesting, these theories are malleable themselves. researcher always limit the objectivity of that researcher’s That is, if entity theorists are exposed to the implicit agenda, which subsequently subjects the study to the theories model, they are able to adopt the more adap- influence of these inherent biases. The predominantly tive incremental belief system and experience its benefits secular framework employed in most psychological stud- (Dweck 2008). ies has presented an obstacle to full understandings of people of faith (Johnson 2007). Many researchers have Implicit Theories and Applications acknowledged the conflict inherent in assessing the in Christian Educational Contexts psychological functioning of religious subjects without For manyCopy Christian educators, the most important learn- taking into account those subjects’ personal values and ing outcomes are those that support both the acquisition beliefs (Hall et al. 1998; Simpson, Newman, and Fuqua of knowledge and the development of godly wisdom. 2008; Slater, Hall, and Edwards 2001; Watson 2011). Psy- This vision requires not only a mind ready to learn facts, chological researchers sensitive to this problem, however, but also a person willing to be transformed into the like- may not possess the expertise to craft theologically de- ness of Jesus Christ. Helping students to understand that fensible frameworks. Recent work has focused on inter- God is the Creator and Arbiter of reality is the first step in disciplinary studies designed to construct valid models of helping them to understand that they are not victims of healthy psychological development by drawing on both the status quo (Prov. 1:7). Further, illuminating for learn- theological and psychological scholarship that is relevant ers that God has made a plan to rescue them so that they to the research questions of interest (e.g., Watson and can live differently paves the way toward an acceptance Watson 2013; Watson, Watson, and Fuqua 2013). of incremental theories of reality (1 Pet. 2:9). With this foundational understanding, students are able to accept Implicit Theories that while they will encounter difficulties in life, they will Many psychological theories make an important contri- not face these difficulties alone; God will be with them bution to understanding and facilitating optimal learning and will help them to overcome these challenges (Rom. outcomes. The well-established link between implicit 8:31; 1 John 4:4; James 1:2–4, 5). Recognizing these foun- theories and subsequent behaviors in educational set- dational truths of the Christian faith offers students in tings deserves the attention of Christian educators. Carol Christian educational settings an advantage not as readily Dweck (2008) has postulated that the beliefs to which available in secular contexts. one adheres play an important role in determining how individuals interpret feedback and choose to respond. References and Resources Specifically,Contributor people who hold entity theories believe that Dweck, C. S. 2008. “Can Personality Be Changed? The Role reality is fixed and unchanging. Entity theories may apply of Beliefs in Personality and Change.” Current Directions in to one’s perception of any domain, from the nature of the Psychological Science 17 (6): 391–394. world to one’s aptitude to perform a task. Entity theorists Fuchs, A. H., and K. S. Milar. 2003. “Psychology as a Science.” are likely to apply themselves when they perceive that In Handbook of Psychology: History of Psychology, edited by Psychology of Religion 1007

D. K. Freedheim and I. B. Weiner, 1–26. Hoboken, NJ: John cators with a range of theoretical, existential, and social Wiley & Sons. frameworks to draw from in this field. Hall, T. W., B. F. Brokaw, K. J. Edwards, and P. L. Pike. 1998. “An Empirical Exploration of Psychoanalysis and Religion: Historical Eras Spiritual Maturity and Object Relations Development.” Jour- William B. Parsons notes three periods that existed nal for the Scientific Study of Religion 37: 303–313. within the psychology of religion movement.105 The first James, W. 1890. The Principles of Psychology, vols. 1–2. New period (1880 to World War II) defined the importance York: Holt. of the mind intersecting with a number of religious Johnson, E. L. 2007. Foundations of Soul Care: A Christian Psy- phenomena (conversion, mysticism, etc.) and religious chology Proposal. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic. practices (prayer, revivals, social frameworks). According Kirkpatrick, L. A. 1993. “Fundamentalism, Christian Ortho- to Parsons, the second period (postwar through 1960s) doxy, and Intrinsic Religious Orientation as Predictors of expanded methodologies to include empirical, experi- Discriminatory Attitudes.” Journal for the Scientific Study of mental, behavioral, and neoanalytical approaches. Dur- Religion 32: 256–268. ing this period, psychology proved the normative field, Maton, K. I. 1989. “The Stress-Buffering Role of Spiritual Sup- diminishing claims within religious tradition and theol- port: Cross-sectional and Prospective Investigations.” Jour- ogy in particular. Parsons’s third periodOnly (1970s onward) nal for the Scientific Study of Religion 28: 310–323. introduced both a greater range of psychological models Simpson, D. B., J. L. Newman, and D. R. Fuqua. 2008. “Under- (including cognitive neuroscience, evolutionary psychol- standing the Role of Relational Factors in Christian Spiritu- ogy, positive and transpersonal psychology, etc.) and a ality.” Journal of Psychology and Theology 36 (2): 124–134. deeper dialogue with religion and theology, including Slater, W., T. W. Hall, and K. J. Edwards. 2001. “Measuring theological analysis of various psychological theories.106 Religion and Spirituality: Where Are We and Where Are We Parsons’s framework proves helpful in understanding Going?” Journal of Psychology and Theology 29: 4–21. the discipline’s historical progression, though it may tend Watson, A. 2011. “A Developmental Approach to Measuring to flatten certain crucial differences. Peter Homas notes Spiritual Maturity from a Christian Perspective.” Ann Arbor, that the first dynamic approach to the psychological study MI: UMI Dissertation Publishing. of religious experience, led by William James, George A. Watson, A. L., E. W. Watson, and D. R. Fuqua. 2013. “Em- Coe,Copy and William Starbuck, was eclipsed by the popular- pirical Support for a New Measure of Christian Spiritual ity of both Freudian psychology and behaviorism in the Maturity.” Presentation to the American Psychological As- United States. These models provided suspicious, if not sociation, August, Honolulu, HI. outright dismissive, views of religious claims.107 However, Watson, E. W., and A. L. Watson. 2013. “Building Construct James, Coe, and Starbuck proved to be helpful conversa- Validity for a New Measure of Christian Spiritual Maturity.” tional partners with Christian educators in their day and Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning for Chris- may be today as well. tians in Higher Education (Spring): 18–28. Yoon, D. P., and E. O. Lee. 2004. “Religiousness/Spirituality Approaches and Subjective Well-being among Rural Elderly Whites, Af- The psychology of religion can be organized in various rican Americans, and Native Americans.” Journal of Human subthemes, at times guided by therapeutic concerns Behavior in the Social Environment 10: 191–211. rather than educational interventions.108 For Christian —Angela L. Watson educators, the largest categories are (1) foundational is- sues in the psychology and religion dialogue; (2) personal religious experience: spiritual, existential, and develop- Psychology of Religion mental considerations; (3) disciplinary studies in psy-

The psychology of religion (sometimes known as psy- Park, eds., Handbook of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality (New chology “and” religion or religious experience) defines York: Guildford Press, 2005). a branch of study primarily within the psychological 105. William B. Parsons, “On Mapping the Psychology of Religion sciences given to understanding the nature of religious Movement: Psychology as Religion and Modern Spirituality,” Pastoral Psychology 59 (2010): 15–25. experience and behavior, at both personal and social 106. Ibid., 15–18; Don S. Browning, Religious Thought and the Modern levels.104 More recent studies have also integrated the Psychologies, 2nd ed. (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Publishers, Contributor 2000). broader theme of spirituality, providing Christian edu- 107. Peter Homas, “Toward a Psychology of Religion: By Way of Freud and Tillich,” in The Dialogue between Theology and Psychology, ed. Peter 104. C. Daniel Batson, Patricia Schoenrade, and W. Larry Ventis, Re- Homas (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1968), 53–60. ligion and the Individual: A Social-Psychological Perspective (New York: 108. H. Newton Malony, ed., Psychology of Religion: Personalities, Prob- Oxford University Press, 1993); Raymond F. Pakoutzian and Crystal L. lems, Possibilities (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1991). 1008 Psychology of Religion chology and theology; (4) social psychology and the na- within this domain that help people address therapeutic ture of religion; and (5) applying psychology and religion. issues (coping, violence, stress—issues in Christian coun- In the first category, Christian educators can explore seling), as well as educational concerns (learning, integra- their understanding of the nature of psychology, as a tion, growth, etc.). discipline, in dialogue with Christian beliefs and theo- Overall, the discipline of the psychology of/and reli- logical reflection. While a number of texts explore theo- gion offers Christian educators valuable dialogue partners retical underpinnings of psychological research methods, around the issues that often influence their assumptions measurement, and interventions, educators must also about the nature of religious experience and the experi- synthesize psychological theories of their understanding ence of living in Christian communities. Some theorists of God, revelation, grace, faith, salvation, and growth in note that often this approach can involve a presupposi- Christian themes. For instance, recent study in cognitive tion that psychology serves as the dominant partner, a neuroscience raises questions of “how” God influences view of psychology “as” religion.113 However, as deeper or changes people (the nature of divine causation).109 In attention is given to the range of historical approaches, addition, Christian educators may discover theological Christian educators may find a rich array of disciplinary contributions from specific faith perspectives.110 conversation partners in fashioning their understanding Second, Christian educators can explore studies related of the role of religion and religious experience within 114 Only to personality and religious experience for indicators of persons and among communities. different forms of spirituality, the nature of transforma- tion, religious psychopathologies, and the implications References and Resources of any meaningful religiosity within people. In addition, Barrett, Justin L. 2011. Cognitive Science, Religion and Theology: many Christian educators may wish to explore the nature From Human Minds to Divine Minds. West Conshohocken, of religiosity based on developmental capacity and gift- PA: Templeton Press. edness.111 The third approach takes seriously the varying Batson, C. Daniel, Patricia Schoenrade, and W. Larry Ventis. approaches to the psychological study of religion based on 1993. Religion and the Individual: A Social-Psychological Per- disciplinary considerations (mind, emotion, will) as well as spective. New York: Oxford University Press. more general approaches such as neoanalytic theories (fol- Belzen, Jacob A., ed. 2000. Aspects in Contexts: Studies in the lowing Freud and Jung), empirical models (neuroscience), HistoryCopy of Psychology of Religion. Amsterdam: Rodopi B.V. and speculative frameworks (evolutionary psychology) for Browning, Don S. 2000. Religious Thought and the Modern information that assists education. For instance, the ex- Psychologies. 2nd ed. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress panding field of neuroscience offers a number of key issues Publishers. and insights for Christian educators.112 Fowler, James W., Karl Ernsst Nipkow, and Friedrick The fourth approach addresses the role of society Schweitzer, eds. 1991. Stages of Faith and Religious Develop- alongside the experience of the individual from both a ment: Implication for Church, Education and Society. New psychological and a religious perspective. This approach York: Crossroad. may include religious practices (prayer, ritual, etc.), as Homas, Peter. 1968. “Toward a Psychology of Religion: By Way well as the role of religious communities in shaping spiri- of Freud and Tillich.” In The Dialogue between Theology and tuality and morality. The final approach affords Christian Psychology, edited by Peter Homas, 53–81. Chicago: Univer- educators the opportunity to explore various methods sity of Chicago Press. Jeeves, Malcolm, and Warren S. Brown. 2009. Neuroscience, Psy- 109. Robert John Russell, Nancey Murphy, Theo C. Mayering, and chology and Religion: Illusions, Delusions, and Realities about Michael A. Arbib, eds., Neuroscience and the Person: Scientific Perspectives Human Nature. West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Press. on Divine Action ( State: Vatican Observatory along with the Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences, Berkeley California, 1999). Loder, James E. 1998. The Logic of the Spirit: Human Develop- 110. James E. Loder, The Logic of the Spirit: Human Development in ment in Theological Perspective. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Theological Perspective (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998); special issue on Malony H. Newton, ed. 1991. Psychology of Religion: Person- Wesleyan theology and psychology, ed. Brad D. Strawn, Journal of Psychol- ogy and Christianity 23, no. 2 (Summer 2004). Dr. Loder investigates devel- alities, Problems, Possibilities. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker opmental psychology through a Reformed/Kierkegaardian lens. Book House. 111. James W. Fowler, Karl Ernsst Nipkow, and Friedrick Schweitzer, eds., Stages of Faith and Religious Development: Implication for Church, Pakoutzian, Raymond F., and Crystal L. Park, eds. 2005. Hand- Education and Society (New York: Crossroads, 1991); Merton P. Strom- book of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. New York: men, ed., Research on Religious Development: A Comprehensive Handbook The Guildford Press. (NewContributor York: Hawthorn Books, 1971). 112. Justin L. Barrett, Cognitive Science, Religion and Theology: From Human Minds to Divine Minds (West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Press, 2011); Malcolm Jeeves and Warren S. Brown, Neuroscience, Psychol- 113. Parsons, “On Mapping the Psychology of Religion Movement,” 23. ogy and Religion: Illusions, Delusions, and Realities about Human Nature 114. Jacob A. Belzen, ed., Aspects in Contexts: Studies in the History of (West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Press, 2009). Psychology of Religion (Amsterdam: Rodopi B.V., 2000). Public Education, Influence of 1009

Parsons, William B. 2010. “On Mapping the Psychology of this, the philosophical basis for public education does Religion Movement: Psychology as Religion and Modern not necessarily hold this worldview, although Chris- Spirituality.” Pastoral Psychology 59: 15–25. tian educators teaching within the public schools may. Russell, Robert John, Nancey Murphy, Theo C. Mayering, and Other philosophies that undergird the public education Michael A. Arbib, eds. 1999. Neuroscience and the Person: rationale include an essential, or utilitarian, philosophy, Scientific Perspectives on Divine Action. Vatican City State: which states that education is for the purpose of creat- Vatican Observatory along with the Center for Theology and ing citizens who can contribute to the working of so- the Natural Sciences, Berkeley California. ciety; a reconstructivitist philosophy, which states that Strawn, Brad D., ed. 2004. “Wesleyan Holiness through the the purpose of education is to prepare individuals to Eyes of Cognitive Science and Psychotherapy.” Journal of critique and reconstruct society; and a perennialist phi- Psychology and Christianity 23 (Summer): 2, 121–129. losophy, which is designed to promote the furtherance Strommen, Merton P., ed. 1971. Research on Religious Devel- of a common core of academic knowledge passed down opment: A Comprehensive Handbook. New York: Hawthorn from generation to generation (Cremin 1980). These Books. other philosophies can be incorporated into a Christian —Dean Blevins worldview, but the Christian perspective is not a part of the overarching philosophy. Only A second issue where there is tension is the role of Public Education, Influence of teaching scripture. Early in its history, America was a na- tion where the Bible and Christian theology and practices Inception of and Rationale for the were commonly taught (Cremin 1980). In fact, many of Public Common School the early reading texts were taken from scripture pas- Horace Mann (1796–1859) is considered the “father sages, with the design that teaching a child to read and of the public common school era,” which began in the teaching scriptural, moral principles would occur at the mid-1830s and ended around 1900. As the first leader same time. Regardless of whether it was intentionally of the Massachusetts Board of Education, he argued for practiced or not, the Christian faith was accepted by most its establishment in order to discipline the unruly chil- Americans as True. However, in recent decades, a com- dren of the nation into responsible, educated citizens mitmentCopy to Christian principles has been eschewed by (Cremin 1980). With regard to Christian education, the public school system, with the rationale that adher- Mann called for schools to be nonsectarian in nature; ence to them would discriminate against children and however, he clearly stated in his Journal of the Common families who hold to different religious traditions and School that Christian morals grounded the schools, these faiths or to none at all (Haynes 2011). In an effort to be morals were found in the Christian faith, and the Bible as democratic as possible, public schools have sought to was welcome in the schools (Monsma and Soper 2009). not teach about religion at all, resulting in most of the His rationale for arguing for nonsectarian schools was people of this nation not realizing the important and that the Bible disclaimed serving as a mediator between central role that faith has played in many of the academic hostile religious opinions, namely Catholics and Protes- subjects studied, such as history, English/language arts, tants at that time (Monsma and Soper 2009). biology and other sciences, government, social sciences, mathematics, and philosophy. Influence of Public Education on Christian Education A third issue is funding, currently school choice and For Christian educators, public education has had areas government funding. Many Christian educators believe of commonality of purpose, as well as notable tensions. that if all citizens pay taxes, then they should also have The commonalities include educating individuals for the freedom to decide which schools their children will participation and flourishing in a diverse democracy, as attend and to apply the funding to the schools of their well as a focus on the basic skills of academic instruction. choice. Others, however, believe that a democratic gov- For the Christian educator, a pursuit of academic ernment should not fund faith-based schools, regardless knowledge is born from a commitment to a Christian of the faith being practiced, in order to adhere to the con- worldview, seeing all of creation through the lens of stitutional amendment requiring separation of church an accepted Creator, who is sovereign and involved in and state (Smith and Meier 1995; Conway 1992). theContributor working out of the created order. There is a clear, One attempt to find some common ground between linear purpose to knowledge, and it finds its roots in public and Christian schooling is a statement of prin- the Christian tradition. Mankind is part of a larger cos- ciples, signed by organizations as different as the Ameri- mic order, and there is a plan and a purpose in mind can Federation of Teachers, the Christian Coalition, and (Holmes 1975) (Col. 1:12–23; Jer. 29:11). In contrast to the Anti-Defamation League, trying to bring the religious 1010 Publishing, Christian Academic conversation, albeit not a uniquely Christian one, back By midcentury, students (not to mention the church into public schools (Haynes and Thomas 2001). at large) needed a more current translation of the Bible, specifically a revision of the American Standard Version References and Resources (1901). Nelson published the Revised Standard Ver- Conway, G. E. 1992. “School Choice: A Private School Perspec- sion (RSV, 1952), which became the standard English tive.” Phi Delta Kappan 73 (7): 561–563. translation for Protestants associated with the National Cremin, L. 1980. American Education: The National Experi- Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. For more ence. New York: HarperCollins. conservative believers, however, the Lockman Founda- Haynes, C. 2011. “Getting Religion Right in Public Schools.” tion’s New American Standard Version (NASB, 1971) Phi Delta Kappan 93 (4): 8–14. proved preferable. Not until Zondervan released the Haynes, C. C., and O. Thomas. 2001. Finding Common Ground: New International Version (NIV, 1978), a completely A Guide to Religious Liberty in Public Schools. Nashville, TN: new translation, would evangelical Protestant schools First Amendment Center. and churches begin to switch away, en masse, from the Holmes, A. F. 1975. The Idea of a Christian College. Grand standard English Bible tradition. Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Study Bibles based on these translations followed pre- Monsma, S.V., and J. C. Soper. 2009. The Challenge of Plural- dictably, if not promptly. Oxford releasedOnly the RSV-based ism: Church and State in Five Democracies. 2nd ed. Lanham, Oxford Annotated Bible in 1962, 23 years before Zonder- MD: Rowman & Littlefield. van published the NIV Study Bible. Both editions, the Smith, K. B., and K. J. Meier. 1995. “School Choice: Panacea or former edited by Herbert G. May and Bruce M. Metzger, Pandora’s Box?” Phi Delta Kappan 77 (4): 312–316. and the latter by Kenneth Barker and others, found wide- —Laura Barwegen spread use in colleges and seminaries. Textbooks designed to introduce students to the Bible were more numerous. Early standards were Harper’s In- Publishing, Christian Academic troduction to the New Testament (1937) by Kirsopp Lake and Introduction to the Old Testament (1941) by Robert Given Christianity’s emphasis on discipleship and learn- H. Pfeiffer. Textbook publisher Prentice-Hall issued in ing, adherents of all branches of the faith have founded 1957 Copythe popular Understanding the Old Testament by institutions of higher learning to train the faithful, lay Bernard W. Anderson and Understanding the New Testa- and clergy alike. Invariably publishers have arisen to ment by Howard Clark Kee and others. provide these schools with printed materials to support For more conservative schools, Eerdmans supplied their curricula. Henry C. Thiessen’s Introduction to the New Testament The Reformation has spawned many educational in- (1943) and Edward J. Young’s Introduction to the Old stitutions during the last 500 years, and publishers Testament (1949), with Harper later bringing to market influenced by the Reformation have developed printed The Old Testament Speaks (1960) and The New Testament volumes that have been recommended by professors to Speaks (1969), by evangelical scholars Samuel J. Schultz their students. During the 20th century, Christian aca- and Glenn W. Barker (et al.), respectively. Also during the demic publishing flourished in the United Kingdom and 1960s, Tyndale Press (Inter-Varsity Fellowship’s academic United States, with publications circulating around the imprint), in cooperation with IVF’s American cousin, In- globe, both in English and in translation. terVarsity Press, published Donald Guthrie’s three-volume With biblical and theological studies increasingly at New Testament Introduction (1961–1965), and Eerdmans, the heart of the curricula of colleges and seminaries, in cooperation with Tyndale, published R. K. Harrison’s in the mid-20th century publishers began to supply an Introduction to the Old Testament (1969). abundance of worthy Bible translations, textbooks, and New reference works in biblical studies complemented reference works. these introductions. The Westminster Dictionary of the Transnational publishers such as Oxford University Bible (1944), edited by John D. Davis and Henry Snyder Press and Thomas Nelson were joined in these efforts Gehman, informed many students and pastors. Evangeli- by UK publishers such as T. & T. Clark, SCM Press, cal Protestants, however, waited nearly 20 years for the Inter-Varsity Fellowship (later Inter-Varsity Press), and New Bible Dictionary (1962), published by Inter-Varsity Marshall,Contributor Morgan & Scott; and by U.S. publishers such in the UK and Eerdmans in America, and edited by J. D. as Harper Brothers (later Harper & Row), Westminster Douglas and others. Earlier these same two houses had Press, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Inter- cooperated in the publication of the New Bible Commen- Varsity Press, and Zondervan Publishing House. tary (1953), edited by Francis Davidson and others. Publishing, Denominational 1011

As helpful as study-Bible notes and one-volume com- Christian academic presses began providing textbooks mentaries are, more extensive commentaries were also for all courses offered in seminaries. They also began essential, especially for seminary students and gradu- publishing secondary texts for several disciplines taught ates. Abingdon-Cokesbury’s 12-volume The Interpret- in Christian liberal arts colleges apart from biblical and er’s Bible (1951–1957), which was based on the RSV and theological studies. was the brainchild of editor George A. Buttrick, quickly The United Kingdom and United States were by no became the go-to source in ecumenical circles. During means alone in producing valuable pedagogical materials that same decade, Marshall and Eerdmans launched the for Christian students, pastors, and thoughtful laypeople. New International Commentary on the New Testament Publishers in such countries as Germany, The Nether- (1953–)—originally called the New London Commen- lands, Korea, and Brazil, to cite just a few examples, pub- tary in the UK. Inter-Varsity and Eerdmans also pro- lished both original and translated materials. No small vided the more concise Tyndale Commentaries on the number of German and Dutch academic books were New Testament (1956–1974). translated into English. These larger commentaries were, of necessity, based As the 20th century progressed, the quantity and on the original Greek text of the New Testament and the quality of Christian academic publications continued Hebrew text of the Old. Throughout the 20th century, to increase. Just as this was occurringOnly in Protestantism, the German Bible Society (and earlier its predecessors) something similar was happening in Roman Catholicism served all Christian churches as the source of the criti- and Orthodoxy. cal texts. Novum Testamentum Graece (1898), edited initially by Eberhard Nestle, and the two-volume Biblia References and Resources Hebraica (1905–1906), edited initially by Rudolf Kittel, Dempster, John A. H. 1992. The T. & T. Clark Story: A Victo- were revised throughout that period and have remained rian Publisher and the New Theology: With an Epilogue Cov- the standards. ering the Twentieth-Century History of the Firm. Edinburgh: While biblical studies thrived throughout the 20th cen- Pentland. tury, during the early decades the discipline of systematic Exman, Eugene. 1967. The House of Harper: One Hundred and theology suffered from neglect. Eerdmans, however, pub- Fifty Years of Publishing. New York: Harper & Row. lished the first edition of Louis Berkhof’s three-volume IVP:Copy The First Fifty Years. 1986. Leicester: InterVarsity Press. Reformed Dogmatics in 1932. Four years later, T. & T. Le Peau, Andrew T., and Linda Doll. 2006. Heart. Soul. Mind. Clark began releasing Karl Barth’s multivolume Church Strength: An Anecdotal History of InterVarsity Press, 1947– Dogmatics, the flagship of neoorthodox theology and a 2007. Downers Grove, IL: IVP. boost to the discipline in the larger church. Harper of- Noll, Mark A. 1991. Between Faith and Criticism: Evangelicals, fered Donald G. Bloesch’s two-volume Essentials of Evan- Scholarship, and the Bible in America. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, gelical Theology in 1978–1979, and evangelical presses MI: Baker. followed with other works. Ruark, James E. 2006. The House of Zondervan: Celebrating 75 To make theological classics from the last two mil- Years. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. lennia available to students and pastors again, SCM and ten Harmsel, Larry, with Reinder Van Til. 2011. An Eerdmans Westminster teamed with editor Cyril C. Richardson to Century: 1911–2011. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. generate the Library of Christian Classics series (1953–). Vernon, Walter Newton, Jr. 1989. The United Methodist Pub- The wider church benefited from renewed access to these lishing House: A History. Vol. 2, 1870–1988. Nashville, TN: important theological works. Abingdon. One-volume overviews of church history came from —Allan Fisher Charles Scribner, Harper, and Zondervan, respectively: Williston Walker’s History of the Christian Church, first published in 1934 but revised by Cyril C. Richardson Publishing, Denominational and others in 1959; Kenneth Scott Latourette’s History of Christianity (1953); and Earle E. Cairns’s Christianity The publishing of curricular materials initially fell through the Centuries (1954). under the umbrella of the American Sunday School Single-volume reference works on church history Union and its interdenominational agencies work- emergedContributor from Oxford and Zondervan. The Oxford Dic- ing together. Denominational publishing houses and tionary of the Christian Church, edited by Frank L. Cross, boards arose out of a concern and interest among de- appeared in 1957, followed in 1974 by Zondervan’s New nominations in providing their own curriculum when International Dictionary of the Christian Church, edited it became evident that the Sunday school was likely to by J. D. Douglas. become one of the major enterprises of the 19th-century 1012 Publishing, Ecumenical church. Each denomination felt the obligation to see Each with a variety of imprints that have a focus on a that its children were supplied with lesson materials particular audience or subject, today’s denominational suited to its doctrines and aims. Each also saw an op- publishers continue to publish educational materials portunity to expand its publishing business and greatly for their denominations. Because of their church af- augment its economic importance. However, not all filiation, they enjoy the privilege of tax exemption. denominations were organized or suited to publish Active denominational imprints include Broadman & materials, so working together, the Uniform Series was Holman (www.bhpublishingroup.com, Southern Bap- developed over time, with various denominations hav- tist), Abingdon (www.abingdonpress.com, Methodist), ing their own special editions of International Lessons, Westminister John Knox (www.wjkbooks.com, Presby- such as Berean (Methodist), Keystone (Baptist), West- terian), Augsburg Fortress (www.augsburgfortress.org, minster (Presbyterian), and Pilgrim (Congregational- Evangelical Lutheran Church), Concordia (www.cph ist). By 1875, the Uniform Lessons were largely in use by .org, Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod), Church Pub- Methodists, Presbyterians, Moravians, Episcopalians, lishing (www.churchpublishing.org, Episcopal), and Congregationalists, Lutherans, Friends, members of the Sadlier (www.sadlier.com, Roman Catholic). However, Reformed Churches, Adventists, and many others. as more churches are no longer committing to curricu- By the beginning of the 20th century, graded curricula lum from a denominational perspective,Only many denomi- began to appear for the Sunday school from denomina- national publishers are producing materials that appeal tional boards of education, specifically the Episcopalians, to a wider audience. Each publisher retains ties to its the Lutherans, and the Unitarians, as well as university denomination’s national office, having ordained and lay presses and privately owned houses. Almost all Protes- leaders on its governing board. tant denominations had established boards to publish Today denominational publishers serve clergy, schol- tracts, pamphlets, books, and curricular materials for ars, students, and laypeople. Most of their publications distribution within their own denomination. Most con- are used in the spiritual formation of clergy and laity, the temporary denominational publishing houses can trace training of seminarians, the dissemination of religious their origins to these early educational boards. scholars’ work, and the preparation for ministry of lay In the 1960s and 1970s, many denominations were church leaders. The Protestant Church–Owned Pub- restructuring their editorial boards and producing fewer lishers’Copy Association (www.pcpaonline.org) continues to titles. For example, Seabury (Episcopal) was sold to Win- advocate for denominational publishing with its mission ston Press, and Judson (American Baptist) drastically to “enable its members to serve their denominations by reduced its book publishing activities. In 1988, Barbara providing visionary leadership through the ministry of G. Wheeler, then president of Auburn Theological Semi- Christian publishing.”117 nary, and Christopher Walters-Bugbee, editor of Books —Sharon Ely Pearson and Religion, received a grant from the Lilly Endowment Inc., to study the commitment denominations had to publishing. They met with the largest mainline presses Publishing, Ecumenical (Fortress, Abingdon, Augsburg, Beacon, John Knox, Pilgrim, and Westminster). Soon after, Augsburg and Ecumenism is the movement of uniting Christian Fortress merged, as did John Knox and Westminster. churches together in cooperation by building upon In an article published in the Christian Century describ- what they have in common, with the goal of reconcili- ing their study, Wheeler stated, “Most denominational ation and universality. Ecumenical publishers present houses have come to rely for that kind of support on sta- works that unite and enrich the understanding of Chris- ples such as hymnals, service books and curricula which tians whether they are Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox, after their initial development produce regular income or evangelical. Many denominational publishers also and require little attention.”115 She continues to advocate have imprints focused on the ecumenical market, with denominational publishing as an important channel for titles covering topics such as theology, ethics, social is- continued participation in the “pluralistic conversation sues, and prayer. about intellectual, cultural and social values.”116 The World Council of Churches (WCC) is a fellowship of more than 330 churches of the Protestant, Anglican, Orthodox, and Old Catholic traditions, founded in 1948. 115.Contributor Barbara G. Wheeler, “Theological Publishing: In Need of a Man- date,” Christian Century, 23 November 1988, 1066. These churches gather for study, witness, service, and the 116. Gregory A. Smith, “A Survey of Religious Book Publishing with advancement of unity. The WCC includes in its mem- Implications for Collection Development in Christina College Libraries,” Liberty University Faculty Publications and Presentations, Paper 7 (2002). http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/lib_fac_pubs/7 (accessed 1 March 2013). 117. http://www.pcpaonline.org (accessed 1 March 2013). Publishing, Independent 1013 bership churches in more than 100 countries. Its U.S. religious education, lectionary studies, and spiritual- office offers general interpretive materials in print and ity (www.woodlakebooks.com). video, a publications catalog/book list, and periodicals. • Paraclete Press is an ecumenical monastic com- WCC Publications is the official publishing arm of the munity rooted in the Benedictine tradition (www World Council of Churches, annually releasing signifi- .paracletepress.com). cant new ecumenical resources, including study guides —Sharon Ely Pearson and other resources; interpretive books on major ecu- menical concerns; biblical, historical, theological, ethical, and reference works; preparatory materials for and offi- Publishing, Independent cial documents of WCC meetings; audiovisual resources; and general periodicals. Some are chiefly intended for Defining independent publishing is increasingly dif- scholars, students, and pastors, but many are aimed at ficult. However, most definitions include a ceiling of laypeople in local congregations who wish to inform or annual profit. Since the annual sales of most Christian deepen their commitment to the unity of the church publishers fall under this ceiling, most are within the around the world (www.wcc-usa.org). definition of independent publishers. Self-publication, The National Council of the Churches of Christ in print on demand (POD), and growingOnly e-book options the USA (NCCCUSA) is a community of more than 350 have caused traditional definitions of publishing to be Protestant, Anglican, and Orthodox churches that make a reconsidered. Downloading books electronically has si- common witness through the council and work together lenced many presses and threatened the financial viabil- to serve the churches and the world. The NCCCUSA holds ity of traditional publishing companies that do not have the copyright to the Revised Standard Version (RSV) and a digital strategy. Bookstores at undergraduate schools the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) of the Bible. It and seminaries are closing as students increasingly find also sponsors the research program on which the Uniform textbooks and materials on line more versatile and less Sunday School Lesson Series is based (www.ncccusa.org). expensive. There are both Christian and non-Christian Churches Uniting in Christ (CUIC) is a relationship independent publishers. among 10 Christian communions that have pledged to Rare is the church or ministry that can afford to hire live more closely together in expressing their unity in additionalCopy staff to write and print its own curricula for Christ and to combat racism together. CUIC is an out- educational programs. Although a few churches have growth of the Consultation on Church Union (COCU), these resources in house, most outsource the publication an organization that worked for more than 40 years of these educational materials and purchase them from toward the day when Christians can become more fully Christian publishing companies. reconciled to each other. In January 2002, Churches For authors, the major distinction between royalty- Uniting in Christ succeeded COCU. It offers a video, based publishers and independent publishers is the newsletter, and other publications on its work, including promotion and manufacturing of the literature. Whereas information on its inauguration and goals for the current royalty-based publishers will contract to pay the author era (www.cuicinfo.org). a small portion per book and pay their professional staff Other publishers that focus on ecumenical publishing to promote and manufacture the book, authors using include the following: independent publishers are largely on their own on these issues. Writers may make more per book sold with in- • Paulist Press is a Roman Catholic publisher of the dependent publishers, but they will not have the profes- Paulist Fathers, who offer books on theology from sional staff of royalty-based publishers working for them. an ecumenical perspective (www.paulistpress.com). Independent publishers can range from on-demand • The Christian Board of Publication (associated with publishing for single texts to printing thousands of the Disciples of Christ), along with its trade imprint, copies. The Evangelical Christian Publishers Associa- Chalice Press, is a 501(c)3 not-for-profit organiza- tion (ECPA) is a consortium of nearly 100 independent tion incorporated in 1911 to publish Christian con- publishers who sign a statement of faith to achieve tent for people who want to make a positive differ- membership. This assures those who consider purchas- ence in the world (www.chalicepress.com). ing materials from members of this association that Contributor• Wm. B. Eerdmans offers ecumenical theology and there is theological agreement within those materials. philosophy theology publications (www.eerdmans Similar organizations include Christian Small Publish- .com). ers Association (CSPA) and The Association of Catholic • Wood Lake Books is a publisher of church material Publishers (ACP). The Independent Publishing Magazine with an ecumenical flavor, with a strong interest in was founded in 2007; it seeks to provide essential in- 1014 Puritan Education formation, resources, and reviews of publishing service ments in the field of education generally would have providers. There are two broad categories into which painted a more rounded portrait. independent Christian publishing companies fall. The first category is independent, in the sense that Activity these publishers are not governed by or accountable Any tension the Puritans felt between faith and learning to a particular denomination or organization. These did not dampen their entrepreneurial spirits in the field publishing companies can make curricular and publica- of education, and they were deeply committed to the tion decisions based on the needs of their constituency founding of schools and colleges both in old England and rather than working within the boundaries of a par- the New World. They were instrumental, for example, in ticular theological perspective. Although they maintain establishing Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 1584 and internal theological consistency, they write and pub- Sidney Sussex College in 1596. A Puritan-inspired Act of lish Christian educational material used by a variety Parliament in 1641 was responsible for the establishment of ministries and denominations. These independent of more than 60 free schools in Wales. The Puritans of publishing companies include Standard, Gospel Light, the Massachusetts Bay Colony very quickly devoted time Scripture Press, Group Publishing, InterVarsity, and and resources to establishing Harvard College, in order to Youth Specialties. In some cases, these publishers will show (as Cotton Mather put it), “how Onlymuch true religion consult with the consumer to determine the denomina- was a friend unto good literature.” tional perspective, in order to nuance the content to the Some have seen the theology of reformed Scholasti- traditions of that particular denomination. cism, shared by many Puritans, as being too much in The second category includes publishers who are thrall to an underlying Aristotelian philosophy. Regard- extensions of not-for-profit denominations or organiza- less of whether this assessment is valid, it is clear that the tions. These publishers are accountable to particular theo- Puritan movement as a whole cannot be characterized in logical perspectives and are largely used by those within that way, since many leading Puritans, such as Dudley that theological persuasion. These Christian publishers Fenner, William Ames, and William Perkins, were in include Cokesbury (United Methodist), Moody Press fact more indebted (though not slavishly) to Ramism, a (Moody Bible Institute), PfLaum Publishing (Roman philosophical reaction against Aristotelian logic. Ramus’s Catholic), Concordia Publishing House (Lutheran), and systemCopy of dichotomizing also informed the Puritans’ rhe- LifeWay (Southern Baptist). All revenue from the sale of torical, pedagogical, and homiletical style. Moody Press books is rechanneled into the ministries of Moody Bible Institute. Use of Learning —Larry H. Lindquist At Puritan Harvard, each student was to be “plainly instructed and earnestly pressed to consider well the main end of his life and studies is to know God and Jesus Puritan Education Christ which is eternal life.” This did not mean that the curriculum consisted entirely of the Bible, or even of Although there were some contemporary dismissals of theology, though knowledge of these was prized above “unlearned puritans,” clearly these reformist, evangeli- all. As Ryken (1990) puts it, “While the aim of Puritan cally minded Christians in the 16th and 17th centuries education was religious, its content was the liberal arts.” were by no means obscurantist or backward when it While the Puritans saw theology as expounding God’s came to education. They were conscious that no amount Word in scripture, they saw science as the exploration of of intelligence or education was able to bring about a God’s works in nature. Since all truth was God’s truth, true spiritual conversion to Christ (and stressed this and God’s common grace extended to all, they could even fact in their preaching), but they did value human learn- benefit (in some ways) from the writings of the heathen. ing, not only for its own sake, but also in the service The Puritans’ attachment to the godly appropria- of the Gospel. Hence John Morgan (1986) claims that tion of classical, even pagan, learning can be seen in the the Puritans had a “schizoid attitude to human learn- works of their most notable divines (theologians). Men ing” and experienced something of a struggle between such as John Owen (1616–1683), who was vice chancel- “enthusiasm” and the application of rational educative lor of the University of Oxford under Oliver Cromwell principles.Contributor Antagonists often seized on only one side of and the son of a Puritan minister himself, were not only this equation—their wariness of worldly wisdom pitted fluent in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, but also able to em- against faith—as if it were the whole Puritan view, when ploy their often profound knowledge of a wide range of a broader appreciation of their efforts and accomplish- classical texts to prove lexical, grammatical, historical, Puritan Education 1015 or philosophical points in their biblical commentaries. References and Resources Cotton Mather’s writings testify to his acquaintance with Greaves, R. L. 1969. The Puritan Revolution and Educational Aristotle, Cato, Livy, Homer, Ovid, Plutarch, Virgil, and Thought: Background for Reform. New Brunswick, NJ: Rut- Tacitus. Such erudition was acquired in order to adorn gers University Press. and clarify the Gospel rather than to obscure it or merely Morgan, J. 1986. Godly Learning: Puritan Attitudes towards impress their hearers; Puritan preaching manuals cau- Reason, Learning, and Education, 1560–1640. Cambridge, tioned against the use even of biblical Greek words in the UK: Cambridge University Press. pulpit for fear of causing a hindrance to less-educated Ryken, L. 1990. Worldly Saints: The Puritans as They Really churchgoers, of confusing or seducing young scholars, or Were. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. of fostering vain pride. Education, in Puritan eyes, was —Lee Gatiss for edification, enjoyment, and glorifying the Creator. Only

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Contributor Q Only Qoheleth feminine connotations in the Hebrew root, some suggest a woman to be the writer. Whatever the identity, Qohe- “Qoheleth” is used two ways in Old Testament wisdom leth was one seeking truth and the meaning of human literature. Qoheleth is named as the source and voice of existence. Sometimes compared to Gilgamesh in terms the book of Ecclesiastes. Being the first word in the book, of quest for wisdom, Qoheleth was also a sage who could it is also the Hebrew title of Ecclesiastes. read and write, enabling a search of the wisdom literature of surrounding people and cultures. Qoheleth the Person Ecclesiastes 1:1 identifies the source of what ensues to Qoheleth the Book be tlhq or “Qoheleth.” The root of the word has to do QohelethCopy is a book of speculative wisdom that is part with “a speaker of/to the assembly.” This Hebrew root of the Kethubim or “Writings.” It shares commonalities is the same as that used for Israel assembled for war with other wisdom literature such as Sirach. It is one of (Judg. 20:2), hearing God’s word (Deut. 5:22) or wor- five megillot read in the liturgy of the Jewish Feast of ship (2 Chron. 30:25). Greek transliteration of the root Tabernacles. is ekklesia (literally “called out” and a term used later for To refer to the person Qoheleth as “Preacher” obvi- the church). Hence, the Septuagint renders the book title ously implies a homiletical purpose or setting in which VEkklhsiasthj, or Ecclesiastes. The implied assembly can the contents are proclaimed. Likewise, “Teacher” implies be that of persons or wisdom, or both. a more formal educational or pedagogical setting. Qoheleth is usually translated “the Preacher” or “the Ecclesiastes bares one’s struggle with vagaries of Teacher” and identified as “son of David, king in Jeru- the personal, economic, and political situations of life. salem,” in Ecclesiastes 1:1–2 and as “king over Israel in Through all the struggles, the writer observes that God Jerusalem,” in 1:12. The name occurs four other times and life are beyond human comprehension. Nonetheless, in the book (7:27, 12:8, 12:9, 12:10). In Hebrew culture, the conclusion is that whatever one makes of life, one the teacher (or sage) was one vested with responsibility must fear and obey God. to collect and teach wisdom. Often (and in early rabbinic tradition), Qoheleth is identified as Solomon, though References and Resources Solomon is never explicitly named in the book. Solomon Murphy, Roland. 1992. “Ecclesiastes.” In Word Biblical Com- was well-noted for his wisdom (cf. 1 Kings 3, etc.) and mentary, 23: David A. Hubbard and Glen W. Barker; Old was the only son of David to rule in Jerusalem. Further, Testament Editor, John D.W. Watts; xvix–lxix. Nashville, Solomon’s calling an assembly in 1 Kings 1:1–12 and his TN: Thomas Nelson. situation (wealth, wisdom, etc.) resonate with Ecclesiastes Provan, Iain. 2001. “Ecclesiastes.” In The NIV Application Com- 1:12–2:26.Contributor However, any male descendent would have mentary, Terry Muck; Consulting Editors (Old testament), been considered a “son.” Perhaps an internal shift from Tremper Longman III, Robert Hubbard, John H. Walton, third person to first implies that Qoheoeth was someone Andrew Dearman; 23–261. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. writing after the time of Solomon—possibly post-exilic or Towner, W. Sibley. 1997. “Ecclesiastes.” In The New Inter- late exilic—but from that king’s perspective. Due to some preter’s Bible, Leander E. Keck, convener of the Editorial

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Board; Sr. Old Testament Editor, David L. Peterson; Old ticity in the learning process, as well as space for active, Testament Editor, John J. Collins; 267–360. Nashville, participatory learning. TN: Abingdon Press. According to contemporary Quaker educator Parker —Ronnie Prevost Palmer (1998), coming to know is a spiritual process of knowing and being known in relationship; being present to the illuminating divine presence within one’s self and Quaker Education the community as a whole. Teaching that aligns with this spirit-centered epistemology cannot be reduced to tech- The value, character, and pedagogical practices of Quaker nique. Rather, good teaching comes from the identity and education directly demonstrate Quaker spirituality: un- integrity of the teacher. derstanding, values, experience, attitude, and practice. The central originating Quaker premise—that there is Inclusive something of God in every person and in all of creation— Recognition of the presence of God in every person lends itself to faith and education that can be character- shapes the Quaker value of equality and consensus-based ized as spiritual, inclusive, and experiential. community. Quakers, also known as Friends, pioneered coeducational and racially integratedOnly educational insti- Spiritual tutions. From the very beginning in the 17th century, Divine guidance is central to all aspects of the Quaker through the leadership of George Fox, the scope of spiritual life and learning. Direct personal engagement Quaker education was to include all persons regardless of of the inner light, as individuals and as a community, is sex, race, ethnicity, and economic class. This core com- the Quaker way to consciously live in fidelity with God, mitment to equality fuels the Quaker passion for justice, truth, and self. This devotion to the inner teacher un- evidenced through expansive efforts to provide education derlies the Quaker commitment to truthfulness, which for the poor. Spiritual growth and social responsibility, includes congruence between the inner and outward self, with an emphasis on service and social action, are defin- painful self-honesty, and the use of “plain speech”: speak- ing hallmarks of Quaker education. ing with accuracy, forthrightness, and simplicity. Truth, George Fox viewed God’s call as two-dimensional: for Quakers, is personal and lies within each of us; it is faithfulnessCopy to God within and faithfulness to other known via relationships, not doctrine or theology. The people. Regard for God’s light within each person under- Quaker commitment to integrity calls for pedagogy that girds the Quaker commitment to nonviolence. This calls promotes integration between all forms of learning and for deep respect between teachers and students, sensitive life, dedication to truth in all aspects of life, and consis- regard for the emerging consciousness, speaking truth, tency between inner convictions and behavior. bilateral rather than lateral teaching, and a safe learning Although Quakers do not object to classical learning, environment emphasizing invitation and support rather all learning must give precedence to, and be in accord than intimidation and competition. with, divine guidance. The divine presence within calls Inclusion based on God’s presence in every person and for faith and learning that begins with the inner light all of creation calls for harmony between human beings that illumines or bears witness to the truth. Honoring and the rest of creation, as well as meaningful engagement the inner light in all participants determines the role in the world, in contrast to the separatist worldview of the of teacher as an instrument who facilitates, rather than Anabaptists. This holistic Quaker education emphasizes dominates or controls, the learning process. Learning social justice, aiming to mend and enable meaningful liv- takes place when teachers and students take risks, open- ing within the world rather than separating from it. ing themselves to one another and making space for intuitive wisdom to emerge and genuine community to Experiential form. The light in each person cannot be separated from Honoring divine presence within requires active partici- the collective wisdom of the community. patory learning. For Quakers, true learning is not passive The mystical practice of listening to the inner voice acquisition of information and secondhand insight exter- necessitates the Quaker exercise of silence in worship nal to the self; the path and power to learn lies within the and education, both formal and informal. Silence en- soul. Everyone has the capacity to learn, and education ablesContributor openness to God and separation from influences guides students to experientially awaken to the reality other than God and allows people to see themselves in and meaning of their own experience. This experien- new ways. Silence as a pedagogical activity invites spiri- tial learning calls for ever-deepening engagement with tual focus, centered attentiveness, reflective engage- experienced reality, a liberating process that opens and ment, self-awareness, personal ownership and authen- enlarges one’s way of seeing and living. Teaching involves Quaker Education 1019 inviting students toward insight via empirical observa- in every person. Pedagogy creates, navigates, and restores tion, skillful questioning, expectation of growth, critical the interconnectedness among God, others, and the ma- reflection, and self-examination. terial realm. Quaker education, a spiritual process, driven Education, for Quakers, whatever the context or form, by spiritual thirst, transforms hearts, restores human is a dynamic spiritual process that honors the spiritual dignity, and repairs the world. nature, dignity, and worth of every person. Authority and control are decentralized; teachers are facilitators charged References and Resources with drawing insight from within learners, awakening Dalke, Anne, and Barbara Dixson, eds. 2004. Minding the Light: moral imagination, guiding discernment, and guarding Essays in Friendly Pedagogy. New York: Peter Lang. fidelity to truth. Education leads to wholeness: integrity, Palmer, Parker J. 1998. The Courage to Teach: Exploring the Inner integration, and authenticity. Truth is present, emergent, Landscape of a Teacher’s Life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. eternal, and arbitrated by the inner teacher who resides —Beverly Johnson-Miller Only

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Contributor R Only Rabbi Jesus taught in many ways expected of a rabbi (i.e., in synagogues, with a coterie of students, etc.), His rabbinic “Rabbi,” transliterated “ῥαββί,” in the Greek, was used in role was noticeably different. Numerous passages in the various ways in the New Testament, but is generally un- Gospels allude to Jesus’s teaching in the rural hinterlands derstood as referring to a teacher of the Torah. It is also a and to His associating with “undesirables” in ways most key ministerial office in contemporary Judaism. rabbis would never have considered. Jesus cautioned His disciples against being called rabbi Origins of the Term (Matt. 23:7–8). This may have been more a call to humil- The root of the Aramaic term connotes “great,” “distin- ity or a caution against one’s seeking to be called rabbi. guished,” or “revered,” such as “great one” or “honor- It alsoCopy may be a warning that Jesus alone must be one’s able one.” It also has implications of “my master” and master or ultimate teacher. is sometimes translated thus. It originated as a form of address and eventually evolved into a title. This change Evolution of the Term may be traced in the growing teaching role of scribes, to The role or office of the rabbi has its roots in the Judaic sages and, by the New Testament era, to rabbis, most of exile in Babylonia and claimed a certain successive role whom were Pharisees. Originally, the title of rabbi was to that of Moses in terms of the continuing transmis- not earned through formal education, but by demonstra- sion, communication, and development of Torah. Rabbis tion of learning and teaching. grew in importance in Judaism after the destruction of the Temple. The rabbi rose to more of an office largely Uses of the Term during the Talmudic era (AD 70–500), in which the oral “Rabbi,” as used in the New Testament era, was more a law (Mishna) and its explanation (Gemara) were being title of respect. It was often used in reference to teach- developed. It was in association with this that the role ers of the Sanhedrin. However, the term was applied to of rabbis soon involved that of judges. At the same time, others as well. According to Sayings of the Fathers (Pirke in the absence of the Temple, the synagogue grew in im- Aboth) I, 16, Rabban (Rabbi) Gamaliel encouraged one to portance liturgically and pedagogically, with rabbis being seek a teacher (i.e., rabbi). Jesus’s disciples often referred vested with greater responsibilities in both those aspects. to Him as “rabbi” (or its alternate form, “rabboni”). Judas After the New Testament era, rabbinic academies with used the term in His betrayal, as recorded in Matthew formal curricula emerged. However, not until the 19th 26:25, 49 and Mark 14:45. Peter used it in Mark 9:5 and century in Europe were Jewish seminaries established for 11:21, as did Nathanael in John 1:49 and Mary (who used the purpose of training and educating rabbis. “Rabboni”) in John 20:16. “Two disciples” is used in John Unpaid until the 15th century, rabbis had occupa- 1:38Contributor and “disciples” in John 4:31, 6:25, 9:2, and 11:8. tions that provided their livings. Today, the office of Nicodemus, a Pharisee and member of the Sanhedrin, rabbi in Judaism is an ordained position, with the vari- addressed Jesus as “Rabbi” during his conversation with ous branches of Judaism having their own standards for Jesus (John 3:2ff.). Similarly, John 2:26 quotes John the rabbinic ordination. A rabbi may be either bi-vocational Baptist’s disciples as referring to him as “rabbi.” Though or full-time and with responsibilities similar to those

— 1021 — 1022 Radical Orthodoxy expected of most Christian ministers. For rabbis today, W. F. Hegel. In the wake of this critique, Milbank made education (teaching, curriculum design, etc.) remains a the argument that “Augustine is basically right: truth, for primary role. Christianity, is not correspondence, but rather participa- tion of the beautiful in the beauty of God” (1990, 427). References and Resources While Milbank sought in this volume to reclaim so- Cohn-Sherbok, Dan. 2003. Judaism: History, Belief and Prac- cial theory in the name of Christian theology, his efforts tice. New York: Routledge. here were arguably a prelude to something larger. For Goldenberg, Robert. 2007. The Origins of Judaism: From Canaan example, in his introduction Milbank argues, “What fol- to the Rise of Islam. New York: Cambridge University Press. lows is intended to overcome the pathos of modern theol- Hertz, Joseph H. 1945. Sayings of the Fathers or Pirke Aboth. ogy, and to restore in postmodern terms, the possibility New York: Behrman House Publishers. of theology as a metadiscourse” (1990, 1). Theology and Jacobs, Steven Leonard. 2010. The Jewish Experience: An Intro- Social Theory thus came to be viewed not just as a book duction to Jewish History and Jewish Life. Minneapolis, MN: on the role theology is to play in the ordering of public Fortress Press. life, but as a call to reclaim its place as the ordering logic —Ronnie Prevost for all disciplines. Scholars in a wide range of disciplines began to view Milbank’s effort as a templateOnly for the act of recovery they were to pursue. Radical Orthodoxy Shortly after the publication of Theology and Social Theory, and as a way to help resource these scholars in Inspired by the British philosophical theologians John other disciplines, Milbank joined forces with Ward and Milbank, Catherine Pickstock, and Graham Ward, radi- Pickstock to launch a series of books with Routledge cal orthodoxy is a contemporary movement seeking to known as the Radical Orthodoxy Series and to edit the free theology from the limitations often imposed on a lead volume in the series, entitled Radical Orthodoxy: single academic discipline. Inspiring this movement are at A New Theology. At the time, Milbank, Pickstock, and least two concerns that initially drew the interest of these Ward were all at Cambridge University—Milbank and individuals, along with others who joined their efforts. Ward at Peterhouse and Pickstock at Emmanuel College. First, liberalism had drawn the church and its sphere of In theCopy introduction to this book, the three argue that their influence into what became known as one’s private (versus intentions are nothing less than to “reclaim the world public) life. As a result, theology was suitable for the moral by situating its concerns and activities within a theo- and even spiritual cultivation of the individual but was logical framework. . . . What emerges is a contemporary prohibited from having a larger sphere of influence. theological project made possible by the self-conscious Second, the reductionistic tendencies of scientific superficiality of today’s secularism” (1999, 1). The essays naturalism fostered a structure of disciplines within in the volume launched this process of reclamation in universities that limited theology’s role as the one-time transdisciplinary categories, including knowledge, lan- “queen of the sciences” to, at best, just another academic guage, perception, and aesthetics. discipline. Matters of doctrine, in particular, proved This book was just the first of 14 volumes in the difficult to justify given the current schemas for know- series. Twelve are the products of single authors, who ing. As a result, theology often came to be replaced by engage in comparable transdisciplinary conversations. departmental classifications such as religion or religious For example, in Divine Economy: God and the Market, studies. Most of what thus passed as suitable scholarship D. Stephen Long seeks to provide “one way in which to in these contexts was no longer theology as traditionally begin a conversation without our options having to be practiced, but studies of religious peoples through the either capitalist or socialist, either liberal or conservative. lenses of the social and behavioral sciences. It asks what the logos of the incarnation has to do with the In response, the radical orthodoxy movement was logoi that constitute modern economics” (2000, 6). Other launched in 1990 by John Milbank with the publication works follow comparable lines of inquiry. The series also of Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason. includes The Radical Orthodoxy Reader (2009), which Drawing on the archaeological impulse of Michel Fou- Milbank edited with Simon Oliver. cault, Milbank sought to demonstrate that theologically Radical orthodoxy would quickly gain supporters in definedContributor ways of appropriating public life were just as many academic disciplines. The movement, however, plausible as more widely accepted secular constructs. was not without its detractors. On a more superficial Milbank thus began by marshaling his audience through level, criticism came from individuals contending that a lengthy critique of theories proposed by individuals the discursive style definitive of the radical orthodoxy such as Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, Karl Marx, and G. movement was, like much of the postmodern philoso- Radical Reformation, Educational Principles of the 1023 phy that inspired certain elements of it, opaque at best. ment with the Catholic Church and the emerging Prot- Given the nature of the conversations supporters of the estant tradition spearheaded by leaders such as Martin movement were seeking to launch, one could argue that Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli. The Radical plain spoken theology may prove insufficient. The con- Reformation began in Germany and Switzerland and versations, however, were certainly not for an audience quickly expanded throughout Europe. While its propo- beyond the theologically and philosophically initiated. nents held widely varying perspectives, all believed in Some defenders of liberalism also argued that the un- separation of church and state and were interested in derlying logic radical orthodoxy promotes, like much of reestablishing the New Testament church. Based on their postliberalism that preceded it, is sectarianism. unique perspectives, Radical reformers were later classi- On a more substantive and subtle level, however, Ar- fied as Anabaptists, Spiritualists, or Evangelical Rational- istotle Papanikolaou argued in The Mystical as Political: ists.1 Anabaptists rejected infant baptism and believed in Democracy and Non-Radical Orthodoxy that “the logic a literal interpretation of the Bible. This group included of the realism of divine-human communion, or a meta- figures such as Menno Simons and Balthazar Hubmaier. physics of participation, then, does not lead to Milbank’s Spiritualists like Caspar Schwenkfeld believed in the in- ironically Gnostic-like dualism between the Christian ternal witness of the Holy Spirit and rejected baptism and mythos and the liberal mythos” (2012, 145). Papaniko- the Lord’s Supper as external. EvangelicalOnly Rationalists laou, an Orthodox theologian, contended that what is such as Michael Servetus appealed to reason and scrip- really at stake is that “more effort is needed to discern ture; this ultimately led to his rejection of the Trinity and theologically what kind of voice Christians should be in his execution as a heretic. In contemporary society, de- a political community in which not all are Christians, nominations such as Mennonites, Hutterites, and Amish including those who profess Christianity” (145). are direct descendants of the Radical Reformation. Regardless of its long-term impact, radical orthodoxy has led even scholars who disagree with its basic tenets to Christian Education in the Traditions reconsider their own ambitions. Some may retreat into a of the Radical Reformation well-worn path of liberalism and accept theology’s place For Radical reformers, “rejection of the magisterium as just one of many academic disciplines. Others may altered the style education.”2 Graydon Snyder explains continue to try to envision what theology might look like thatCopy in the Catholic Church, tradition held the authority; in intellectual communities where the lines of division in the Reformation, the Word was the authority; and in between disciplines are proving more artificial than real. the theology of the Radical Reformation, authority was in the congregation as they read scripture together.3 This References and Resources shift in theological understanding influenced Radical Long, D. Stephen. 2000. Divine Economy: Theology and the reformers’ approach to teaching and learning. Scripture Market. New York: Routledge. was central, and it was important to educate the laity so Milbank, John. 1990. Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secu- that they were able read, write, and interpret biblical texts lar Reason. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. independently. As a result, education of children in the Milbank, John, and Simon Oliver, eds. 2009. The Radical Or- faith tradition became the central component in Chris- thodoxy Reader. New York: Routledge. tian education. Milbank, John, Catherine Pickstock, and Graham Ward. 1999. Based on early writings, it is evident that Christian Radical Orthodoxy. New York: Routledge. education was an important factor in the lives and un- Papanikolaou, Aristotle. 2012. The Mystical as Political: Democ- derstandings of the leaders of the Radical Reformation. racy and Non-Radical Orthodoxy. Notre Dame, IN: Univer- Many of the leaders wrote lengthy pieces on teaching sity of Notre Dame Press. the Bible and developing biblical/theological literacy. Smith, James K. A. 2004. Introducing Radical Orthodoxy: Schwenkfled wrote what was “considered the first cat- Mapping a Post-Secular Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker echism for children of the Reformation era.”4 The writ- Academic. ings of Menno Simmons, the father of the Mennonites, —Todd C. Ream emphasized the need for moral instruction of children so that they might “fear and love God, walk in all decency

Radical Reformation, 1. George Hunston Williams, The Radical Reformation (Philadelphia: Contributor The Westminster Press, 1962), xxiv. Educational Principles of the 2. Graydon Snyder, “Biblical and Theological Foundations of Brethren Higher Education,” Brethren Life and Thought 49 (2004): 167. 3. Ibid., 169. The Radical Reformation was a movement that took 4. See Correspondenz blatt des Vereins fur die evangelisches Kirche Schle- place in 16th-century Europe in response to disillusion- siens VII, no. 2 (2002): 155–158. 1024 Raikes, Robert and discipline, are well mannered, quiet and obedient Raikes, Robert to their father and mother, reverent where it is proper, after these speech honest, not loud, not stubborn, nor Robert Raikes (1736–1811) of Gloucester was a deeply self willed for such is not becoming for the children of religious businessman and philanthropist. His concern saints.”5 In addition, children were to be instructed in for societal issues led him to become a promoter of the reading and writing and in a trade when they reached a Sunday school. While he was not the inventor of the con- suitable age. Parents were also supposed to receive train- cept, he is widely acclaimed as the founder of the Sunday ing so that they could instruct their children. school movement that spread rapidly after 1780. Early Hutterite writings espoused a deep sense of re- Raikes was educated at St. Mary de Crypt in Gloucester sponsibility for child training. Hutterites had a well-de- and at the age of 14 entered the cathedral school. In 1755 fined approach to Christian education, and they focused he was apprenticed to his father, who had begun publish- on schooling in addition to teaching that was occurring ing the Gloucester Journal in 1722. When his father died in the home. The Hutterite patriarch Peter Walpot in 1757, Raikes inherited the family business, which he (1565–1578) wrote a manual of school discipline and an oversaw as proprietor and editor until 1802. address to school masters.6 The main goal of the educa- Raikes remained in Gloucester his entire life and was tion system in the communal Hutterite tradition was to always closely connected to the AnglicanOnly Church. He promote “the fear of God.” They encouraged high quality served as overseer of the poor of St. Mary de Crypt, was in a variety of skills, including penmanship and hygiene. a member of the Vestry Meeting, served as vice president Basic literacy was an important part of a child’s educa- of the Severn Humane Society, and was a trustee of the tion. Illiteracy was almost unheard of among Hutterites, Gloucester Provident Society. He used his wealth to sup- even though their contemporaries in surrounding areas port local charities and believed that education could had very low literacy rates. The final stage in a child’s impact societal law and order. education was learning a trade. As a humanitarian, he visited prisons in Gloucester Overall, Christian education in the traditions of the and pushed for prison reform. His ideas regarding more Radical Reformation were varied but had significant humane physical conditions came to the attention of commonalities; Christian education most often took John Howard, the prison reformer, who noted them in place in the home and was meant to bring children to an his StateCopy of Prisons (1776). Raikes believed that educa- understanding of their specific theological perspective. It tion based on practical Christianity could be a stabilizing was designed so that children might “fear God, do right force for society. Accordingly, he not only visited prisons and be saved.”7 but taught inmates and at times helped those who were in prison due to financial difficulties. References and Resources In 1780, Raikes hired four women to teach poor chil- Baylor, Michael G. 1991. The Radical Reformation. New York: dren in Gloucester on Sundays. He hoped to instill in Cambridge University Press. these children the intellectual, moral, and spiritual prin- Pannabecker, S. F. 1969. “Christian Education.” In Mennonite ciples he found missing in those he sought to remediate Encyclopedia, ed. by Harold S. Bender, 348–350. Scottdale, in prison. He faced opposition from some who believed PA: Mennonite Publishing House. this type of popular education might lead to revolution Snyder, C. Arnold. 1995. Anabaptist History and Theology: An and from strict Sabbatarians, who sought to protect the Introduction. Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press. day of worship. Snyder, Graydon. 2004. “Biblical and Theological Foundations While others, such as Thomas Stock, Sophia Cook, of Brethren Higher Education.” Brethren Life and Thought and William King, had begun similar programs, it was 49: 165–172. Raikes, through his publishing contacts, who turned the Verduin, Leonard, trans. 1956. The Complete Writings of concept into a movement. Raikes wrote to one such con- Menno Simons. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press. tact, Colonel Townley of Rochdale, in 1783 regarding the Williams, George Hunston. 1962. The Radical Reformation. impact of his Sunday school. Subsequently, the letter was Philadelphia: Westminster Press. published in various local newspapers and picked up by —Stacie Reck two national publications, the Gentleman’s Magazine and Arminian Magazine. Contributor The movement gained momentum as the Anglican 5. Leonard Verduin, trans., The Complete Writings of Menno Simons establishment saw its effectiveness. The formation of (Scottsdale, PA: Herald Press, 1956), 950. the Sunday School Society in 1785 by William Fox 6. S. F. Pannabecker, “Christian Education.” In Mennonite Encyclopedia (Scottdale, PA: Mennonite Publishing House, 1969). brought additional expansion. Raikes was made an 7. Verduin, Complete Writings of Menno Simons, 950. honorary member in 1787. By 1786, some 200,000 chil- Ramus, Peter 1025 dren were being educated via Sunday schools. At first Protestant teachers during his lifetime, Ramus eventu- teachers were paid, but by the early 19th century they ally converted to a loosely Zwinglian form of Reformed served as volunteers. The initial movement was lay led Christianity. Ironically, though his emphasis on spatial and ecumenical, but by the mid-19th century, it had depictions of intellectual ideas may have influenced been co-opted by denominations. The impact of this graphic explanations of the doctrine of predestination movement within the context of the Industrial Revolu- in the work of John Calvin’s successor Theodore Beza tion helped to lay an organizational foundation for the (1519–1605)—as seen in a chart of predestination in- modern educational system. cluded in his Summa totius Christianismi (1555)—and William Perkins, as presented in the Golden Chaine References and Resources (1590), theological differences with some confessional Archibald, Geo. Hamilton. 1923. The Modern Sunday School: Reformed thinkers and his dislike of Aristotle drew the Its Psychology and Method. London: Pilgrim Press. ire of leading Reformed theologians. For example, in cor- Booth, Frank. 1980. Robert Raikes of Gloucester. Surrey, UK: respondence and treatises, Beza repeatedly insisted that National Christian Educational Council. Ramism was unwelcome at the Genevan Academy, since Harris, J. Henry. 1928. Robert Raikes, The Man Who Founded Ramus and his cronies were “three-day pseudo-dialecti- the Sunday School. Rev. ed. London: The National Sunday cians,” trying to pawn off a quicklyOnly acquired, superficial School Union. approach to dialectic. Meanwhile, many Roman Catholic Hartshorn, W. H. (chariman). 1905. The Official Report of scholars in Paris had long despised his reckless rejection the Eleventh International Sunday-School Convention: The of beloved authorities. Perhaps motivated by this schol- Development of the Sunday School, 1780–1905. Boston: In- arly animosity as much as by religious disagreement, an ternational Sunday School Association. unknown enemy murdered Ramus, against royal orders, Power, John Carroll. 1863. The Rise and Progress of Sunday during the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572). Schools: A Biography of Robert Raikes and William Fox. New Despite all this, Ramus’s attention to method made York: Sheldon & Company. him a pivotal figure in the history of education; he —Timothy M. McAlhaney boosted the momentum of several intellectual trends latent in the humanist frustration with medieval scholas- ticism.Copy He turned the tide of pedagogy from an emphasis Ramus, Peter on specific content to the art of learning to teach. He and his intellectual progeny presented fields of knowledge Born Pierre de la Ramée (1515–1572), this French peda- through charts and diagrams that depicted the structure gogue sought educational reform in Europe through a of a discipline spatially, taking advantage of the ubiquity teachable, simplified, and broadly applicable methodol- of the printed page. One can detect his influence on ogy that one could use to understand the basic struc- education whenever the following trends occur: (1) the ture of any academic discipline. He emphasized ease tendency of textbooks to deemphasize their multiple of instruction over thorough scholarship and replaced authors rather than the older practice of studying great Aristotle’s dialectic with his own truncated approach books written by key luminaries; (2) the tendency of text- to logic. An intellectual iconoclast, he also attacked au- books and teachers to focus on charts, multilayered di- thors favored by the humanists, including Galen, Euclid, chotomies, diagrams, and visual representation of fields Quintilian, and Cicero. Despite drawing many scathing of thought rather than deep reading of primary sources; contemporary and posthumous criticisms of his dilet- (3) the tendency of many university education depart- tantism and self-contradictions, he was a popular lecturer ments to prioritize training in pedagogy over immersion who drew large crowds. As a prolific writer, his influence in a particular discipline; (4) the idea that knowledge is a on education was widespread throughout Europe. The commodity that can be quantified and measured through Ramist ethos, which emphasized straightforward logic standardized testing; and (5) the tendency of Anglo- and recoiled from allegory and symbolism, was adopted American theology in the Reformed tradition to take the in English literature by way of John Milton (1608–1674), form of systematic theology. and in Protestant classrooms via the Puritans, who estab- lished centers of learning in early America. References and Resources ContributorIn his attempt to develop a universal logic applicable Adams, John C. 1987. “Ramus, Illustrations, and the Puritan to all subjects, Ramus was popular with teachers who had Movement.” Journal of Medieval & Renaissance Studies 17 to lecture on diverse subjects. His followers sometimes (2): 195–210. became associated with scholarly incompetence and Gilbert, Neil. 1960. Renaissance Concepts of Method. New York: academic fraud. Having attracted the attention of several Columbia University Press. 1026 Ratio Studiorum

Graves, Frank. 1912. Peter Ramus and the Educational Refor- Rules for Professors of Philosophy mation of the Sixteenth Century. London: Macmillan. General Rules, Courses, Texts, Professor of Theology Hotson, Howard. 2007. Commonplace Learning: Ramism and & Professor of Moral Theology Its German Ramifications, 1543–1630. Oxford: Oxford Uni- Rules for Students of the Jesuit Order versity Press. Rules for those Reviewing Theology Ong, Walter. (1958) 2004. Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Rules for the Class Beadle Dialogue: From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason. Rules for the Academics Chicago: University of Chicago Press. General Rules, Rules of the Prefect, Academy for The- Ramus, Peter. 1992. Peter Ramus’s Attack on Cicero: Text and ology and Philosophy, & Prefect of the Academy Translation of Ramus’s “Brutinae Questiones.” Edited by III James Murphy. Translated by Carle Newlands. Davis, CA: Rules of the Prefect of Lower Studies Hermagoras Press. Rules for the Writing of Examinations —Jeff Mallinson Rules Governing Awards Common Rules for Teachers of the Lower Classes Special Rules for the Teachers of the Lower Classes Ratio Studiorum Rhetoric, Humanities, Grammar 1–3Only Rules for Extern Students The Society of Jesus, or the Jesuits order, was founded by Rules for the Academics Ignatius Loyola in 1534. The order is essentially defined Academy of Rhetoric and Humanities & Academy of by three principal documents, one of which is officially Grammar Students titled Ratio atque Institutio Studiorum Societatis Jesu (Method and System of the Studies of the Society of Jesus). The history of the Ratio Studiorum is tied to the his- However, most recognize it by its abbreviated name, the tory of the Jesuit order. Just as the Constitutions of the Ratio Studiorum Sequence of Studies). The Ratio is per- Jesuit order made provision to make changes to the order haps most generally described as the Jesuit educational itself in unprecedented circumstances and situations, system, one that outlines the order of study or curriculum so the Ratio could likewise be amended under certain of Jesuit students. circumstances.Copy For example, when the Jesuit order was It was not a new or reformed theology, but “reflected suppressed in 1773, the Ratio too was likewise disre- established practice and tradition” of the Roman Catholic garded until the reinstatement of the order. When the Church (Lukacs 1999, 32). Still, the Ratio is the culmina- order was restored in 1814, the Ratio was edited to adapt tion of 58 years of establishing a precise sequence of study. to the new political, social, and intellectual conditions After numerous editions and revisions under various titles, of the early 19th century. In 1832, a revised Ratio was the Ratio Studiorum reached its completed form in 1599 released that affirmed the core essentials of the Roman (Lukcas 1999; Duminuco 2000, 80–100). In its final form, Catholic Church and the historic teaching of the Jesuit it established a spectrum of regulations prescribing the ad- order, while modernizing the prescribed units of study. ministrative and curricular operations in Jesuit education. The Ratio Studiorum continues to direct the curriculum The Ratio presented an integrated system of subject and educational administration of the Jesuit order. For matter ranging from the philosophical to the scientific. the full text of the Ratio Studiorum, see Pavur (2005). However, it focused the student on only a few subjects at a time rather than simultaneously teaching the breadth of References and Resources its curriculum. Following is a summary of the contents of Duminuco, Vincent J., ed. 2000. The Jesuit Ration Studiorum: the 1599 Ratio Studiorum (based on Duminuco 2000, 100) 400th Anniversary Perspectives. New York: Fordham Uni- versity Press. I Lukacs, Ladislaus. 1999. “A History of the Ratio Studiorum.” In Rules of Provincial Church, Culture, and Curriculum: Theology and Mathemat- Rules of the Rector ics in the Jesuit Ratio Studiorum, edited by Claus Lukacs and II Giuseppe Cosentino, 38–60. Translated by by Frederick A. Rules of the Prefect of High Studies Homann. Philadelphia: St. Joseph University Press. CommonContributor Rules for all the Professors of Higher Faculties Pavur, Claude. 2005. The Ratio Studiorum: The Official Plan for Special Rules for Professors of the Higher Faculties Jesuit Education. St. Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources. Scripture, Hebrew, Theology & Moral Theology —James Riley Estep Jr. Reading as Christian Practice 1027

Rayburn, Jim spoken, but lived out, 24 hours a day” (Senter 2010, 220; emphasis added). Early Background and Education Although this approach to youth ministry may seem The son of an itinerant evangelist, American Jim routine today, it was radically different from the ministry Rayburn stumbled upon his call to youth ministry in of the time. Jim Rayburn’s focus on getting into the world the early 1930s. While serving as the pastor for rural of youth to listen before speaking to them was revolu- Presbyterian churches in the Southwest, he came to see tionary. Its effect on the Christian education of youth was that youth connected more deeply to the Christian faith threefold. First, it put an emphasis on trust development through camping trips and hikes than they did through with the student before content development of the cur- Bible studies. His desire to improve on this ministry riculum. Second, it based the formation of curriculum on led him to pursue a seminary degree from Dallas Theo- the expressed needs of youth rather than on topics prede- logical Seminary in 1936–1940. While attending school, termined by a disconnected Sunday school committee or his work with youth continued to develop through the an unchanging catechism. Finally, it put an emphasis on support of the Gainesville Presbyterian Church. After long-term, intensive, experiential education over formal- graduating, in 1941, he began his own parachurch youth ized, content-focused, weekly lessons. ministry, Young Life. All told, Jim Rayburn could bestOnly be described as a vi- sionary practitioner. He never wrote a book, yet his phi- Significant Contributions to Christian Education losophy of education has seeped into almost every nook The impact of Jim Rayburn and his Young Life organiza- and cranny of youth ministry. Youth ministry historian tion on the Christian education of youth has been enor- Mark Senter says that Jim Rayburn and his Young Life mous. In the 1930s, most churches used only a Sunday organization lie at “the heart of the parachurch contribu- school and/or a Christian Endeavor model, both of which tion to (current) church ministry” (2010, 218). operated under what Horace Bushnell defined as “a the- ology of nurture.” References and Resources But Jim Rayburn believed that the church should also Cailliet, E. 1963. Young Life. New York: Harper & Row. seek to connect with nonchurched youth. So he taught Meredith, C. 1978. It’s a Sin to Bore a Kid. Waco, TX: Word youth ministers “to gain the friendship and respect of Books.Copy students before expecting them to listen to the claims Miller, J. 1991/2008. Back to the Basics of Young Life. Colorado of Christ” (Senter 2010, 220). This was primarily done Spring, CO: Young Life. through an approach known as “incarnational ministry,” Rayburn, J., III. 2000. Dance, Children, Dance. Colorado in which adults sought to get into the students’ world and Springs, CO: Morningstar Press. become one of them: going to games, attending school Senter, M., III. 2010. When God Shows Up: A History of Prot- functions, chaperoning dances, and so forth. estant Youth Ministry in America. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker After gaining their friendship, Rayburn would then Books. invite them to one of his after-school Young Life clubs. Todd, F., and P. Todd. 1971. Camping for Christian Youth. Along with regularly sharing the gospel, Jim focused his Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. teaching on the expressed needs of his students, often —Jason Lanker discussing subjects like dating, friendships, and school success. His teachings were based on Christian principles, but did not put much focus on the scriptural foundations Reading as Christian Practice behind them. In addition, his teaching style focused on using lots of humor and stories, while especially being While much Christian discussion about reading focuses careful to “speak naturally in terms familiar to the vo- on selection (what to read or avoid) and hermeneutics cabulary of the kids” (Meredith 1978, 53). (how to interpret and apply texts), there is also long- Finally, Jim Rayburn sought to educate youth through standing Christian interest in the formative effects of the type of camping ministry that had started his journey. the act of reading as an intentional practice. Rather This was for two reasons. First, Rayburn felt that much of than asking primarily “Is this a good book?” or “What the good news was never believed by youth because it was does the text say?” such an approach asks “How should justContributor words with very little corresponding action. He also Christians read?” liked that camps removed students from their everyday lives so that their leaders could present the Gospel more Religious Reading fully. This meant that students “came from across the na- Paul Griffiths suggests that as religious readers approach tion for a week at a time and found the gospel not only sacred text, a particular reading stance emerges: “Reli- 1028 Reading as Christian Practice gious reading requires the establishment of a particular but also the skills involved in practicing communal and set of relations between the reader and what is read. spiritually engaged reading. These are principally relations of reverence, delight, Second, Christian reading connects with the pursuit awe, and wonder, relations that, once established, lead to of particular Christian virtues. Christian accounts of . . . close, repetitive kinds of reading. . . . Commitment to reading practices typically emphasize some or all of these some body of works as an endlessly nourishing garden of virtues: delights is essential to religious reading.”8 Such reading involves repeated engagement with a • Love: The text and author should be approached text viewed as having riches that cannot be exhausted charitably. This includes attentiveness, refraining in a brief encounter. The text is approached with love, from quick judgment or dismissal, and resisting the humility, and reverence. This need not preclude eventual ego-satisfaction of only allowing the text to confirm critique and resistance, or reading against the grain of prior prejudices. The text is received as the work of existing interpretations, but there is an initial presump- a neighbor. tion of wisdom in the text. When difficulties are en- • Humility: The text should be approached with a countered, they become an invitation to wrestle further teachable spirit that is open to modifying existing rather than to dismiss the text as lacking worth. There understandings. Only is an intentional effort to be slow, attentive, and careful • Patience: The text should be given time to speak its with details. The reader comes to the text expecting it to truth. Patient reading resists the impulse to interpret make moral and spiritual demands and is in principle and judge hastily. willing to submit to them, with personal transformation • Justice: The text should be read with an emphasis as an important goal. Reading takes place in a communal on interpreting it fairly even when distortion might context with a shared tradition of interpretation and an- serve the reader’s interests. swerability to other readers, and faithfulness counts for more than originality. While scripture is the most obvious target for Chris- A contrasting practice (Griffiths terms it “consumer- tian “religious reading,” the exercise of these virtues is ist reading”; C. S. Lewis writes of the text being “used” relevant to reading a much wider range of texts; as Eu- rather than “received”)9 approaches the text as a dispos- gene PetersonCopy puts it, to “all writing that is intended to able commodity and values speed and efficiency. It seeks change our lives and not just stuff some information into to master the text and control its meanings for practi- the cells of our brain.”10 cal application or personal gratification. Reading is not Third, practices imply pedagogy. Many of the ways we expected to seriously disrupt the reader’s sense of self. commonly learn to practice reading (through encoun- Texts are often read only once and are disposable after ters with news reports, advertising, websites, etc.) foster use. Individual goals are more to the fore, and the text is consumerist reading. Even in educational contexts, peda- to serve the reader. gogical patterns may favor reading swiftly and once only, extracting key information, rapidly making evaluative Religious Reading Practices and Education judgments, and disposing of texts once immediate tasks Both approaches are particular social practices of read- are accomplished. Such reading is appropriate for certain ing, offering coherent, socially shared patterns of engage- kinds of text, but is not well fitted to nurturing the capaci- ment over time that are likely to result in particular kinds ties involved in religious reading. Education that nur- of character formation. Approaching reading as a social tures capacities for religious reading will include repeated practice in this sense has several implications for Chris- readings, slow reading, intentional time for reflection, tian education. intentional practices of attentiveness, reading in com- First, as particular practices of reading are adopted by munity, intentional connections to broader life patterns, the Christian community, learning to participate in those and attention to how prior assumptions and prejudices practices becomes a part of Christian formation. These may lead to self-interested distortions of what is read. might include formalized reading practices, such as lec- Since practices are bound up with narratives and the tio divina, but also more diffuse practices of gathering pursuit of particular goods, these structural choices will around scripture and related texts. Learning to flourish in be accompanied by inviting learners into ways of talking theseContributor practices involves learning not only textual content, about reading and learning that connect with Christian virtue language. Teaching reading as a Christian practice 8. Paul Griffiths, Religious Reading: The Place of Reading in the Practice of Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 68. 9. Ibid., 40–42; C. S. Lewis, An Experiment in Criticism (Cambridge, UK: 10. Eugene H. Peterson, Eat This Book: A Conversation in the Art of Cambridge University Press, 1961). Spiritual Reading (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2006), 3. Reconciliation as Christian Practice 1029 will involve framing reading as Christian practice and knowledge derived from faith, scientific skepticism chal- structuring elements of Christian reading practices into lenges ideas grounded in tradition and faith. the pedagogical process. In the Middle Ages, faith and reason became separate entities. For example, the Protestant reformer Martin References and Resources Luther (1483–1546) rejected the power of human reason Griffiths, Paul J. 1999. Religious Reading: The Place of Reading in to illuminate faith. Luther asserted that salvation is pos- the Practice of Religion. New York: Oxford University Press. sible only by faith through the grace of God, without ———. 2002. “Reading as a Spiritual Practice.” In The Scope of reason. Scholars of rationalism such as René Descartes our Art: The Vocation of the Theological Teacher, edited by L. (1596–1650) and Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) tried to Gregory Jones and Stephanie Paulsell, 32–47. Grand Rapids, answer epistemological and metaphysical problems by MI: Eerdmans. reason alone, against empiricism, and they believed that Jacobs, Alan. 2001. A Theology of Reading: The Hermeneutics of anything appealing to the intellect must be true. Love. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) posited that both reason Lewis, C. S. 1961. An Experiment in Criticism. New York: Cam- and experience are necessary for obtaining knowledge. bridge University Press. Faith is distinct from knowledge, but has a rational basis. Peterson, Eugene H. 2006. Eat This Book: A Conversation in the Influenced by the Enlightenment Onlyin the 17th and the Art of Spiritual Reading. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. 18th centuries, John Wesley (1703–1791), the founder Smith, David I. 2011. “Reading Practices and Christian Peda- of Methodism, constructed a new way of theological re- gogy: Enacting Charity with Texts.” In Teaching and Chris- flection that understood the living core of the Christian tian Practices: Reshaping Faith and Learning, edited by David faith to be “revealed in Scripture, illumined by tradi- I. Smith and James K. A. Smith, 43–60. Grand Rapids, MI: tion, vivified in personal experience, and confirmed by Eerdmans. reason.”11 Reason is used to interpret human experiences —David I. Smith and to seek to understand God’s action and God’s will in individuals and within communities. By reason we test the congruence of the Christian witness to human Reason knowledge, experience, and service. The mutually critical conversationsCopy among reason, experience, and scripture Discussion about the interactive relationship of faith and enable the emergence of an ethical voice, which is cru- reason in philosophy and theology has produced various cial to Christian education. The dialectical relationships approaches: mutual exclusivity, synthesis, and integra- between faith and works, love and reason, individual and tion. Aristotelian philosophy opened the question of the society, small group and community solidarity, praxis relationship between faith and reason focused on an em- and theory are a way of balancing the totality of Christian pirical world. Plato (428–348 BC) and Aristotle (384–322 faith and its practice in Christian education. Christian BC) suggested new possibilities for the systematic order- education seeks holistic understanding of the revelation ing of all knowledge, how faith is formulated by rational of God and its relationship to explicit (social and cul- reflection on concrete reality. Saint Augustine of Hippo tural) and implicit (individual and spiritual) Christian (AD 354–430) advocated compatibility of faith and rea- experiences. Faith and reason are compatible sources son. Augustine believed that intellectual inquiry is an act for Christian education; theological claims are refined of faith seeking understanding (fides quaerens intellec- or supplemented by reason. The uniqueness of Christian tum). Therefore, natural sciences and logic enhance un- education lies in the integration of Christian faith and derstanding of Christian faith. Influenced by Augustine, reason that creates a paradigm of learning about the Saint Anselm (AD 1033–1109) sought intelligible truth truth, which contains practical wisdom of life. (intellectus fidei), not to understand in order to believe, —HiRho Y. Park but to believe in order to understand Christian faith. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) believed that both af- firmed faith and reason formed the foundation for the Reconciliation as Christian Practice theological reasoning required to obtain the knowledge of God. God is the foundation of all things, and the rev- Reconciliation is a process describing how an improve- elationContributor of God is known through faith (supernatural rev- ment takes place in the relationship between two people elation) and through reason (natural revelation). Aquinas or parties. “Reconciliation” can refer theologically to the constructed his theology on the balance between faith and reason; knowledge could be obtained using “both– 11. The Book of Discipline of The United Methodist Church: 2012 (Nash- and” methodology. Whereas the Bible is a good source of ville, TN: The United Methodist Publishing House, 2012), ¶105, 80. 1030 Reconciliation as Christian Practice relationship between God and humans, and interper- mans (Eph. 2:11–22), and cosmically all things, whether sonally between humans. In the scriptures, the Greek on earth or in heaven, were reconciled to God (Col. word translated “to reconcile” comes from a family 1:19–20). Further, humans will be reconciled with the of words related to the word allasso, which means to entire creation in that there will be a cessation of hostility change thoroughly or exchange one type of relationship and the restoration of peace (see Isa. 65:22; Rev. 22:2). for a better one. Reconciliation also applies to interpersonal relation- Theologically, reconciliation describes the changes, for ships. Ideally, Christians are to live harmoniously in com- the better, in the relationship between God and humans. munity with one another. Believers are commanded to for- Objectively, it is God’s work of initiating the relationship give grievances against others in the church (Col. 3:13–14) through Christ (2 Cor. 5: 19) and subjectively, humans on the basis that God has forgiven them (Luke 6:37; Matt. experience restoration in their relationship to God (2 6:14–15). In addition, believers are called to warn other Cor. 5:20). Further, the message of reconciliation is fo- believers who sin; if they repent, believers are to forgive cused on the love of God (Rom. 5:1–5) and the death of them (Luke 17:3). Indeed, believers are to forgive anyone Christ (Rom. 5:8) and has been entrusted to humans (2 against whom they hold anything (Mark 11:25). Cor. 5:18). In reconciliation, God extends his grace to The New Testament contains a number of passages that humans, and those who respond receive forgiveness for instruct believers about reconciling interpersonalOnly relation- their sins and restoration (Rom. 5:11). ships. Interpersonal reconciliation is a process of restor- Reconciliation is a component of salvation that de- ing trust between two parties, predicated on forgiveness scribes the means by which humans are restored in their having been given. In reconciliation work, believers are relationship with God. God is the initiator of this move- to speak the truth in love (Eph. 4:15) and to love others as ment. In 2 Corinthians 5:17–21 (New Revised Standard Jesus loves them (John 13:34–35). Believers are instructed Version), Paul indicates that in Christ everything old has to seek reconciliation if they think someone has anything become new. He teaches that God takes the initiative against them (Matt. 5:23–26) and if someone has wronged in reconciling humans to Himself through Christ. He them (Matt. 18:15–20). If someone has been wronged, explains that God does not count humans’ sins against there is a three-stage process to follow to achieve recon- them; instead, He made Christ to be sin so that in Christ, ciliation. First, the individuals are to meet for confession humans might be considered as righteous and be recon- and seekCopy reconciliation. Second, if there is no resolution, ciled to Him. the offended person is to take members of the church to This change in the relationship between humans and help restore the relationship. Finally, if the person will not God is explained by three theological concepts: justifica- be reconciled, the offended person is instructed to tell the tion, propitiation, and expiation. Justification is making church. Throughout this process, both individuals are to righteous. As a consequence of Christ’s death on the be respectful of each other (James 4:10–11). cross (Rom. 5:1), God bestows righteousness on humans as a gift; that is, before God, believers are considered References and Resources righteous. Propitiation is satisfying, especially toward Carson, D. A. 1984. “Matthew.” In The Expositor’s Bible Com- God. It involves satisfying the ire of an offended person mentary: With the New International Version. Vol. 8, Mat- and being reconciled to him or her. Expiation is cover- thew, Mark, Luke, edited by F. E. Gaebelein, 1–599. Grand ing, in this case, for humans’ sins. Propitiation explains Rapids, MI: Zondervan. how God, through His love and the sacrificial death of Culver, R. D. 2005. Systematic Theology: Biblical and Historical. Christ, was able to reconcile humans to Himself. Before Fearn, Ross-shire, UK: Christian Focus Publications. this reconciliation, humans were sinners and enemies of Grenz, S. J. 1994. Theology for the Community of God. Grand God; however, through the death of Christ they can be Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. reconciled to God (Rom. 5: 6–11). Further, Christ’s death Jones, L. G. 1995. Embodying Forgiveness: A Theological Analy- serves as expiation in that it removes the problem of sin sis. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. between God and humans by covering their sin, through Keller, T. 2011. Serving Each Other through Forgiveness and Christ’s vicarious death for them (Hebrews 2:17). Christ’s Reconciliation. New York: Redeemer City to City. Accessed work is primarily directed toward humans’ sin and not 16 March 2013. https://theresurgence.com/files/2011/04/10/ God’s wrath. Keller-Forgiveness_and_Reconciliation.pdf. WhileContributor humans were once enemies of God, through Kraybill, R. S. 1981. Repairing the Breach: Ministering in Com- Christ they now can enjoy fellowship with Him. This munity Conflict. Kitchener, ON: Herald Press. reconciliation applies to other aspects as well. Through McGrath, A. E. 1997. Christian Theology: An Introduction. 2nd the cross, Jesus did away with the barriers between hu- ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Reflective Engagement 1031

Mounce, R. H. 1991. “Matthew.” In New International Bibli- Thomas Groome cal Commentary: New Testament Series, edited by W. W. Paulo Freire contributed to critical pedagogy generally Gasque, 1: 47–59. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers. and to Christian education specifically. A notable impact Sauter, G. 1997. “Reconciliation.” In The Encyclopedia of Chris- has been that on Thomas Groome (1980), who outlines tianity, 504–506. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. a “shared Christian praxis approach,” which he later de- Wiesenthal, S. 1998. The Sunflower: On the Possibility and Lim- scribes as “bringing life to Faith and Faith to life” (2011, its of Forgiveness. New York: Schocken Book. 5). Groome identifies two significant influences in the —John Stewart development of this approach. One is Jesus’s encounter on the road to Emmaus; the other is a statement from Vatican Council II, asserting that the “split between the faith which Reflective Engagement many Christians profess and their daily lives deserves to be counted among the more serious errors of our age” The concept of reflective engagement (or practice) has its (Groome 2011, 263). Groome does not offer a methodol- immediate provenance in Donald Schön (1983), though ogy to be slavishly applied, but a number of movements to its roots lie with John Dewey. It may be seen as a spe- be employed flexibly according to context. He begins with cies of experiential learning; there are links also with consideration of present engagementOnly with the cultural problem-based learning and action research. Important milieu, leading to critical reflection on what would most in all these approaches is the disruption of the privilege often be taken for granted. This internal dialogue should of theory in knowing, and thus that of the theorist-pro- then be externalized, for this is a communal process, ulti- fessional as well. mately shared with the living tradition of which one is part, the story that constitutes the overarching narrative within Dewey and Schön which personal stories are (to be) lived. Dewey defines education as “that reconstruction or re- organization of experience which adds to the meaning James Fowler of experience” (1966, 76). What one should ask “about James Fowler’s research into faith development suggests any situation or experience proposed to induce learning that during late adolescence or adulthood, as people is what quality of problem it involves,” because thinking beginCopy to take personal responsibility for their commit- starts with a problematic situation (154); ideas are only ments and lifestyle, they may embrace the “capacity for authentic when “they are tools in a reflective examination critical reflection on identity (self) and outlook (ideol- which tends to solve a problem” (Dewey 1999, 109). ogy).” However, he also points to what might be termed In contrasting the “high, hard ground” of academic the “tragic flaw” of this “Stage 4,” when critical thought is theorizing and the “swampy lowland” of (professional) trusted overly and the “reflective self” subsumes “‘reality’ practice, Schön (1983, 42) encapsulates the challenge he and the perspectives of others into its own world view.” sees in the notion of reflective practice in the paradigm Faith can then ossify into “clear distinctions and abstract of technical rationality, according to which “profes- concepts” incapable of comprehending life’s complexi- sional activity consists in instrumental problem solving ties, so that a person is pushed toward an orientation made rigorous by the application of scientific theory and this is “more dialectical and multileveled” (Fowler 1981, technique” (21). The practitioner is not confronted im- 182–183). This, Stage 5, is dialogical in character: the mediately with “problems to be solved but problematic knowable is “invited to disclose itself,” and knowers seek situations characterized by uncertainty, disorder, and to “accommodate” their cognitive structures to it, rather indeterminacy” (15–16); thus, first of all, the problem than vice versa. Rather than a logic of either/or, both/and must be framed by defining appropriate ends and ac- thinking enables seeing the various “sides of an issue si- ceptable means (40), rather than rushing to a putative multaneously,” respecting the organic interrelatedness of technical solution. Theoretical generalizations cannot be things (185). A person could then be said to have adapted merely translated into particular situations, for the latter to the uncertainty and problematic character of life, dis- must be examined carefully to determine legitimate goals. cerning “the powerful residues of meaning that escape Whereas most of our knowing is tacit, embedded in ac- our strategies of reductive interpretation” (187) and thus tion, we are often surprised by something we experience, being capable of genuine reflective engagement. andContributor we try to make sense of it by reflecting on implicit understandings that have been disrupted in some way References and Resources (50). This is reflection-in-action; reflection-on-action oc- Dewey, John. 1966. Democracy and Education. New York: The curs after practical engagement. Free Press. 1032 Reformation

———. 1991. How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of revenues. Prior to the 16th century, medieval education Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process. Buffalo, NY: was conducted by the church, in aristocratic homes, or Prometheus Books. through the guilds, but not by the state or municipal au- Fowler, James W. 1981. Stages of Faith: The Psychology of thorities. This meant that middle-class children rarely had Human Development and the Quest for Meaning. Blackburn, access to broad liberal arts education. Reformers valued Vic.: Dove Communications. professional skills, yet they believed that all members of Groome, Thomas H. 1980. Christian Religious Education. San society should be liberated through a core arts education, Francisco: Harper. regardless of their later professional goals. Humanists ———. 2011. Will There Be Faith? A New Vision for Educating like John Colet (1467–1519) and Erasmus of Rotterdam and Growing Disciples. New York: HarperCollins. (1466–1536) had already established rich education that Hough, Joseph C., Jr. 1984. “The Education of Practical Theo- inculcated Christian devotion and values, as had been the logians.” Theological Education (Spring): 55–84. agenda of the late medieval devotional educators called Schön, Donald A. 1983. The Reflective Practitioner: How Profes- the Brethren of the Common Life. Nonetheless, when sionals Think in Action. New York: Basic Books. reformers like Martin Luther (1483–1546) and Philipp Van Dyk, John. 2007. Fostering a Reflective Culture in the Chris- Melanchthon (1497–1560) applied humanist education tian School: The Maplewood Story. Sioux Center, IA: Dordt to Protestant Germany, education becameOnly an important College Press. tool for reforming European faith and practice. Educa- —Doug Blomberg tion in classical languages, even when under the tutelage of committed Roman Catholics, was subversive to the extent that it allowed scholars to see for themselves the Reformation ways in which Roman Catholic doctrines, defended by the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible, did not stand The Protestant Reformation both motivated changes up well against the original Greek or new vernacular or in education and was stimulated by the implications Latin translations of critical editions of the Bible. of humanistic changes in education. Renaissance hu- Luther’s To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation manism involved a return to primary sources in the Concerning the Reform of the Christian Estate (1520) ap- original languages. In theology, this meant that scholars pealedCopy to princes to establish universal liberal education. should study the biblical languages, the tools of textual Philip I of Hesse (1504–1567) obliged by establishing and interpretation, and the original writings of the church reorganizing public Latin preparatory schools (Partiku- fathers. Education became important for all members larschulen) throughout his territory. These included a of society, since the laity needed to be literate in order curriculum—designed by Melanchthon—that contained to read and understand the Bible, dialectical skills to both classical and religious lessons. A decade later, Luther navigate the competing claims of authority of the age, published his Sermon on Keeping the Children in School and broad knowledge to live well as free members of (1530), in which he argued that scholarships should be society, who were called to various dignified vocations. available to bright minds from lower classes, and that Many noble and emerging middle-class children became public education should be not only accessible, but also introduced to Reformation ideas during their schooling, compulsory. Luther is notable for being among the first as was the case with young king Edward VI (1537–1553) to promote free education for girls. He believed that edu- and the ill-fated Lady Jane Grey (c. 1536–1554). Like- cation served both church and state, and that it helped an wise, many of the early Protestant thinkers converted individual fulfill a particular vocation from God. What- to an evangelical faith during their studies. Universities ever a student’s career trajectory, he or she was trained were a center for theological debate from the time Mar- to serve Christ, and thus school days included prayer tin Luther (1483–1546) posted his 95 academic theses and hymns along with readings from pagan authors. For about indulgences. The Catholic reformation, viewing Luther and Melanchthon, God worked through means Protestantism as dangerously attractive to riotous youth, rather than directly. For this reason, though scholarship responded to the popularity of Protestant education by could not replace the work of the Holy Spirit in bringing developing its own robust system, often under the direc- a person to the true faith, they vehemently rejected the tion of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). The Jesuit contribu- idea that one could count on the Spirit to bypass the nor- tionContributor to education remains prominent throughout the mal means of attaining truth. In addition to the spiritual world of private education to this day. advantages of education, the relationship between mag- Universal education was a goal for many reformers. In isterial Protestants and magistrates was mutually benefi- England, a partial source for funding this was the Chant- cial: in an age when religious and national conflict was ries Act of 1547, which confiscated church assets and heading toward a crescendo, instilling confessional and Reformation 1033 political loyalty in young people offered a way to shore up with the refrain from Luther’s Small Catechism (1529): the political and religious advances of the Reformation. “What does this mean?” The Heidelberg Catechism is The history of schools in Württemberg during the arguably the most elegant and thoughtfully structured second half of the 16th century illustrates the nature catechism. Composed chiefly by one of Melanchthon’s of the new curriculum that Melanchthon designed for keen students, Zacharias Ursinus (1534–1583), with the German evangelical schools. This project was part of possible collaboration of Caspar Olevianus (1536–1587), an overarching agenda to reform civil, church, and this catechism aimed to encapsulate teachings com- educational institutions in a manner informed by the mon to Lutheran and Reformed theology, drawing from Augsburg Confession. Thus, Württemberg’s duke asked Bucer’s and Sturm’s inclusive approach, though only Re- all towns to establish Latin schools with curricula that formed Christians adopted it. It is divided into 52 parts, included Melanchthon’s grammar textbook, instruction for instructional use each week. It has three overarching in the trivium (grammar, logic, and rhetoric), and study sections—guilt, grace, and gratitude—allowing a lucid of Luther’s catechism. Students were in school for more narrative of the Christian faith. Its opening question and than seven hours each day, and texts included read- answer demonstrates its style and emphases. The fol- ings from a host of classical authors. The school week lowing version is from the translation approved by the included prayer, choral singing, and attending sermons. Christian Reformed Church in 2011:Only The rigors of this plan required competent teachers, so pastors and community members would occasionally sit Q: What is your only comfort in life and in death? A: That in on their classes to inspect their quality. Young teens I am not my own, but belong—body and soul, in life and who proved to be successful in this first phase could in death—to my faithful Savior, Jesus Christ. He has fully receive scholarships for further study. At this next level, paid for all my sins with his precious blood, and has set me free from the tyranny of the devil. He also watches students continued to study Greco-Roman classics and over me in such a way that not a hair can fall from my spent increased time studying biblical texts. Finally, head without the will of my Father in heaven; in fact, all students who were successful at the intermediate level things must work together for my salvation. Because I could go on to take university courses at Tübingen. belong to him, Christ, by his Holy Spirit, assures me of These publicly funded students lived together, pledged eternal life and makes me wholeheartedly willing and to maintain good morals, and promised to go on to readyCopy from now on to live for him. help with the duke’s reforming agenda. In this way, education was a strategy for consolidating the Reforma- Though the catechetical tradition goes back to the tion and was vital for cultivating a new generation that early church, what made Reformation versions signifi- promised to be faithful to the evangelical cause—and cant was their suitability for use in the home, a practice loyal to the magistrate—and for cultivating future or- urged on faithful families by reformers of all stripes, since thodox teachers, pastors, and theologians. reformers described fathers as priests and Christian edu- Martin Bucer (1491–1551) encouraged both Latin cators in their homes. schools and German folk schools in Strasbourg. An ecu- Though primary education served to bring the Ref- menical Protestant, he was more interested in establish- ormation to the population as a whole, universities ing a broad evangelical coalition than in inculcating rigid remained the most important training grounds for new confessional identity. He shared the irenic spirit of Jo- pastors and apologists. During the Renaissance, south- hann Sturm (1507–1589), the founder of the Strasbourg ern universities focused on fine arts, medicine, and law, Gymnasium and later rector of the Strasbourg Academy. while northern universities focused on theology, law, He emphasized a form of Christian humanism that and the liberal arts. Perhaps because of this difference, placed development of Christian character and learn- the biblically centered Reformation movement found ing above the defense of confessional boundaries and surer footing in the North. Thus, Italian Protestant developed textbooks and practical methods for teaching. theologians, such as Girolamo Zanchi (1516–1590) and His broadly Reformed theology led to his termination as Peter Martyr Vermigli (1499–1562), tended to travel to rector when ardent Lutherans gained control of the city. northern institutions to follow their scholarly vocations. Catechisms flowered throughout Reformed and Lu- Nonetheless, science—despite what some secularists theran lands. These tools for Christian educators took argue in popular literature—was valued and given a theContributor form of questions and answers and usually included place in Reformation centers like Wittenberg and Ge- discussions of the Apostles’ Creed, the Ten Command- neva, under Melanchthon and Theodore Beza (1519– ments, and the Lord’s Prayer. Some of the most beautiful 1605), respectively. Still, the quantity of new scientific theological texts from the 16th century are catechisms. research and discovery at the northern evangelical in- Lutheran youth over the centuries have become familiar stitutions remained comparatively low during the 16th 1034 Reformed Curricular Outcomes century. While early Reformation universities joined Eby, Frederick. 1931. Early Protestant Educators: the Educa- the humanists in denigrating the lack of eloquence in tional Writings of Martin Luther, John Calvin and Other the medieval scholastics, the rise of Protestant scho- Leaders of Protestant Thought. New York: McGraw-Hill. lasticism in the 17th century developed a sophisticated Ferry, Patrick. 1993. “The Guiding Lights of the University of articulation of theology in an academic context. Wittenberg and the Emergence of Copernican Astronomy.” As the Protestant movements matured, polemics be- Concordia Theological Quarterly 57 (4): 265–291. came important for defending each confession and for Grendler, Paul. 2004. “The Universities of the Renaissance and engaging in debates with scholars from other confes- Reformation.” Renaissance Quarterly 57 (1): 1–42. sions. Protestant universities typically required confes- Haran, Marilyn. 1997. Martin Luther: Learning for Life. St. sional subscription, and theological diversity was rarely Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. an option. Nevertheless, several universities, such as Kittelson, James. 1982. “Success and failures in the German Basel, tried to be as inclusive as possible, and others, like Reformation: The Report from Strasbourg.” Archive Für Heidelberg, shifted back and forth between Lutheran and Reformationsgeschichte 73: 153–174. Reformed allegiances. When changes came, professors of McGrath, Alister. 2003. The Intellectual Origins of the European the wrong confession usually lost their posts. Reformation. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Despite the lofty goals of the reformers, some scholars Methuen, Charlotte. 1994. “Securing the ReformationOnly through believe that the educational goal of transforming Eu- Education: The Duke’s Scholarship System of Sixteenth- ropean communities along evangelical lines ultimately Century Württemberg.” Sixteenth Century Journal 25 (4): failed. This is the thesis of Gerald Strauss (1978), who 841–851. argues that the achievements of Christian education Schmitt, Charles B. 1983. Aristotle and the Renaissance. Cam- during the 16th century were shallow and ephemeral. bridge, MA/London: Harvard University Press. Church historians James Kittelson (1982) and Amy Nel- Simon, Joan. 1957. “The Reformation and English Education.” son Burnett (2006) challenge this assertion with strong Past & Present, no. 11: 48–65. evidence, but the issue remains controversial. Ironically, Spitz, Lewis, and Barbara Tinsley, eds. 1995. Johann Sturm on support for the idea that Reformation education failed Education: The Reformation and Humanist Learning. St. comes from reformers themselves, since when reflect- Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. ing on visitation of Christians in the countryside, they Strauss,Copy Gerald. 1978. Luther’s House of Learning: Indoctrina- express dismay at the lack of learning and the existence tion of the Young in the German Reformation. Baltimore, of vestigial Roman practices. Teachers and pastors, how- MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. ever, often bemoan the slow progress of those they teach, Wright, William. 1975. “The Impact of the Reformation on and it seems that the grumbling of those who visited Hessian Education.” Church History 44 (2): 182–198. rural families and congregations should be interpreted in —Jeff Mallinson context, since this is nothing unique to the challenge of Christian education experienced during every age. More- over, Strauss appears to miss the prime objective of Ref- Reformed Curricular Outcomes ormation educators: evangelical doctrine. It may be true that the average person failed to internalize the Christian Reformed Christianity is diverse and geographically piety enjoined by pastors and catechists, but the reform- widespread. This article focuses on the Christian Re- ers’ principal aim was not moralism, but an evangelical formed Church in North America, which has been pre- way of understanding God in Christ. Thus, the teaching eminent in its support of Christian schools and colleges. of justification by grace alone, through faith alone, on ac- Schools were to be places in which students “could learn count of Christ alone had a significant effect. During the more fully that not only they but the whole creation Reformation, education was gradual and complex, but must ‘in Christ’ . . . be reconciled to God” (De Boer nonetheless profound. 1983, 1).12 Reconciliation will be conceived differently, however, depending on which strand of the Reformed References and Resources tradition—personal piety and righteousness, intellectual Brigden, Susan. 1982. “Youth and the English Reformation.” understanding, or transformational engagement with Past & Present 95: 37–67. society—is emphasized. Burnett,Contributor Amy Nelson. 2006. Teaching the Reformation: Minis- Reformed education prizes intellectual rigor, taking ters and their Message in Basel, 1529-1629. Oxford Studies in shape at the college level in a liberal arts curriculum. Historical Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dillenberger, John. 1960. Protestant Thought and Natural Sci- 12. The next two paragraphs reflect De Boer’s discussion of Zylstra and ence. New York: University of Notre Dame Press. Jaarsma. Reformed Curricular Outcomes 1035

Henry Zylstra (1958) saw this as the vehicle for human 1973) are the proximate sources of the curricular orienta- fulfillment as students learn to penetrate sense experience tion known as “Education for Discipleship” (Hull 2009). and grasp spiritually the universals, causes, and purposes Wolterstorff’s Educating for Responsible Action (1980) that underlie it. In the preparation of teachers, this entails was seminal in its advocacy of “tendency learning,” the a concern with subject matter first and foremost, system- nurture of dispositions and not just the intellect. atic initiation into the disciplines ensuring knowledge of As conceptions of educating for discipleship matured, Western intellectual attainments. Also significant, how- these continued to be grounded in notions of biblical ever, is the conviction that religious commitments are worldview, but increasingly emphasized “realization”: comprehensive in their reach, so that curricular content discipleship as a way of being, not primarily seeing, is to be selected also for its exemplification of the “al- exercised across the whole of life by the whole person, ternative gods, alternative moral choices” (Zylstra 1958, with responses rooted in a heart commitment to Christ. 146–148) at work in cultures, to enable discernment of This entails a Hebraic view of knowing as personal and what is and what is not “in Christ.” Here may be seen a relational. It also repudiates secular/sacred, public/per- dual regard for God’s maintenance of creational struc- sonal dualisms, so that discipleship is a matter of “loving ture within which everyone, by common grace, could action toward others in everyday, concrete experience” contribute to the cultural mandate (Gen. 1:28), and for (Steensma and Van Brummelen 1977,Only 5). A more com- the antithesis between sin and grace that pervades life, munal perspective emerges, seeking to displace school- so that human responses are to be judged as faithful or ing’s competitive ethos; John Van Dyk (2000) portrays otherwise to God. the “collaborative classroom” as a context in which Cornelius Jaarsma (1953) sought a more holistic con- “discipleship skills” will be developed. Harro Van Brum- ception, recognizing the experience and agency of per- melen, an contributor to A Vision with a Task (Stronks sons. While drawing on psychological findings, he also and Blomberg 1993), defines the threefold aim of Chris- incorporated an emphasis on the redemptive role of tian schooling as unwrapping gifts, bearing one another’s education in schools, not only in homes and churches. burdens, and seeking shalom. His assertion that “a decision for Christ is the goal of Christian education” construed the curriculum as hav- References and Resources ing a spiritual as well as a cultural purpose (1953, 73). ChristianCopy Liberal Arts Education: Report of the Calvin College Students were to challenge and not merely imbibe secular Curriculum Study Committee. 1970. Grand Rapids, MI: Cal- culture, and they were also to be confronted with the call vin College and Eerdmans. of God on their lives. De Boer, Peter P. 1983. Shifts in Curricular Theory for Christian Since the 1960s, Nicholas Wolterstorff’s (1966, 1980) Education. The Calvin College Monograph Series. Grand influence has been substantial. He chaired the 1963 com- Rapids, MI: Calvin College. mittee to restructure Calvin College’s curriculum; it re- De Graaff, Arnold H., and Jean Olthuis, eds. 1973. Joy in Learn- jected both the classicist concern with understanding and ing: An Integrated Curriculum for the Elementary School. Vol. evaluating rather than building a culture on a Christian I. Toronto: Curriculum Development Center. foundation and the pragmatist advocacy of a curriculum Hull, John E. 2009. “Education for Discipleship: A Curriculum framed around “the solution of significant life problems” Orientation for Christian Educators.” Journal of Education & (Christian Liberal Arts Education 1970, 41). Instead, it Christian Belief 13 (2): 155–168. recommended a modified liberal arts approach styled dis- Jaarsma, Cornelius, ed. 1953. Fundamentals in Christian Edu- ciplinary, in which students engaged with the academic cation. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. disciplines would be “directed and enlightened in their Steensma, Geraldine, and Harro W. Van Brummelen, eds. inquiries by the Word of God” (Christian Liberal Arts 1977. Shaping School Curriculum: A Biblical View. Terre Education 1970, 47), with the goal of helping them lead Haute, IN: Signal Publishing/Consulting. faithful Christian lives. Stronks, Gloria Goris, and Doug Blomberg, eds. 1993. A Vision In an address entitled Curriculum: By What Standard, with a Task: Christian Schooling for Responsive Discipleship. Wolterstorff (1966) proposes a more outward-looking Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. conception that he has continued to develop, to the point Van Brummelen, Harro W. 1988. Walking with God in the of embracing praxis-oriented scholarship with a focus on Classroom: Christian Approaches to Teaching and Learning. justiceContributor and shalom. This address—in which he averred Burlington, ON: Welch. that neither “faith added to understanding” nor “faith ———. 1994. Steppingstones to Curriculum: A Biblical Path. Se- seeking understanding,” but “faith realized in life” should attle: Alta Vista College Press. be the goal (1966, 15)—and the Curriculum Develop- Van Dyk, John. 2000. The Craft of Christian Teaching: A Class- ment Centre’s Joy in Learning (De Graaf and Olthuis, room Journey. Sioux Center, IA: Dordt Press. 1036 Regent University

Wolterstorff, Nicholas. 1966. Curriculum: By What Standard? years by Robertson that it has become part of the lore of Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Schools International. the school. According to Robertson’s story, in 1975 he was ———. 1980. Educating for Responsible Action. Grand Rapids, considering the purchase of five acres of land in Virginia MI: CSI Publications/Eerdmans. Beach for an expansion of the CBN ministries, but the Zylstra, Henry. 1958. Testament of Vision. Grand Rapids, MI: landowner was not willing to subdivide his 142 acres. In Eerdmans. August of that year Robertson traveled to Anaheim, Cali- —Doug Blomberg fornia, for a conference and stayed in the Grand Hotel. He went to a restaurant in the hotel and ordered cantaloupe and cottage cheese. As he bowed his head to pray, he ex- Regent University plained that the Lord spoke to him: “‘Don’t buy just five acres,’ the Lord seemed to say, ‘Buy the entire tract of land The founding of Regent University in September 1978 and build a headquarters and school for my glory.’”14 proved to be a unique experiment within American Chris- The university’s founding team had extensive con- tian higher education. It began as a stand-alone graduate versations with Robertson regarding its theological school unaffiliated with a church, denomination, or un- foundation. They needed to establish whether or not dergraduate program. The university mission is to serve Regent was going to be a charismaticOnly or Pentecostal “as a center of Christian thought and action to provide university in order to reflect the philosophy of CBN. excellent education through a Biblical perspective and Robertson articulated a vision in which the university global context equipping Christian leaders to change the would serve as a large umbrella institution that wasn’t world.”13 Regent opened its doors in rented classrooms, just for Christians, but for people who were willing to offering graduate courses in communication. Regent receive an education in an intentional Christo-centric, most often describes itself in promotional materials using biblio-centric environment. Robertson wanted the uni- the term “Christian.” Occasionally, it will use the term versity to be evangelistic. That meant that students from “evangelical” to describe its approach to the Christian all expressions of the Christian faith would be welcome, faith from a more narrow perspective. Regent is diverse even those who weren’t Christian at all. Robertson di- compared to many evangelical universities, even if it is rected his team to enroll a core group of students who within a narrow band of Christian religious perspectives. were Copystrongly devoted to the faith and to require all While faculty are required to profess to be Christian and faculty be deeply committed to the centrality of Christ. sign a statement of faith, they are a comparatively diverse But he also wanted the ministry to reflect his views on group in regard to racial, ethnic, cultural, and especially the present-day ministry of the Holy Spirit, which is a denominational differences. Faculty represent a variety of core tenet of Pentecostal theology. Christian faith traditions, including Assemblies of God, The leading figures in universities are typically their Four Square, Episcopal, Catholic, Methodist, Lutheran, presidents. Regent’s presidents certainly left their mark, Mennonite, Baptist, Messianic Jewish, Greek Orthodox, but most didn’t stay for longer than four years. Two Church of God, and United Methodist. presidents in particular provided significant leadership Marion Gordon “Pat” Robertson, founder of the Chris- at critical times. Richard Gottier (August 1979–Febru- tian Broadcasting Network (CBN), is the unquestionable ary 1984) served as the first “official” president after force behind Regent. In 1956, this son of a Virginia U.S. Robertson found himself increasingly busy with CBN senator left behind a life of relative aristocratic privilege and The 700 Club. Gottier’s expertise in higher education for one of ministry, religious broadcasting, humanitari- proved invaluable as he paved the way for four additional anism, higher education, and political activism. One can school divisions: education (1980), business (1982), di- gauge his entrepreneurial spirit by examining a time line vinity (1982), and government (1983). David Gyertson of accomplishments throughout his career: CBN (1960), (May 1991–July 1993) championed Robertson’s vision The 700 Club (1966), Operation Blessing International of a broadly Christian university open to all who were Relief and Development Corporation (1978), Regent sympathetic to its mission at a time when that vision was University (1978), Christian Coalition (1989), Interna- brought into doubt. A schism had erupted on campus tional Family Entertainment (1990), and the American that sought to push Regent toward a narrow, reconstruc- Center for Law and Justice (1990). tionist Christian perspective. In the aftermath of a long, TheContributor most commonly told story regarding the initial contentious struggle for the soul of the university, Gyert- conception of the university is the “cantaloupe and cot- son and Robertson emerged victorious. tage cheese” story. It has been repeated so often over the 14. P. Robertson, Shout It from the Housetops: CBN 25th Anniversary 13. Regent University, “Mission Statement” (2012), http://www.regent Edition 1961–1986 (Virginia Beach, VA: The Christian Broadcasting Net- .edu/about_us/overview/mission_statement.cfm. work, 1986), 147 (emphasis in original). Released Time Education, Origins of 1037

Though Regent began simply enough as a graduate to provide time for explicitly religious teaching. While school of communication, it now has seven graduate there are indications that such a plan was discussed as early schools. Along with communication and the arts, the as 1905, the first recorded attempt to initiate a released other graduate schools are business and leadership, law, time program was in 1914 at the behest of William Wirt, education, divinity, psychology and counseling, and the school superintendent in Gary, Indiana. With a growing Robertson School of Government. In the past decade, Re- Progressive Era commitment to the full utilization of the gent added an undergraduate program with 17 bachelor’s school as a social service agency, Wirt wanted students to degrees. In total, Regent offers more than 50 graduate receive religious education as one component of a holistic and undergraduate degrees to its nearly 6,000 online and education. Aimed at offseting declining Sunday school residential students. Students represent all 50 states and enrollments and spikes in juvenile delinquency, religious 82 foreign countries. While the majority of students are classes were offered during the school day but off school still seeking graduate degrees, its undergraduate program grounds. Although only 619 Gary pupils took part in the enrollment will likely overtake graduate school enroll- program in 1915, interest quickly expanded nationwide. ment in the near future.15 By 1925, 40,000 students—Protestants, Catholics, and Regent is well positioned to move beyond the era of its Jews—were enrolled in released time programs in 24 founder, with distinguished faculty members and guest states. By 1933, 250,000 students in 30Only states were enrolled lecturers from Harvard, Yale, Duke, Johns Hopkins, in such programs, and by 1948 the number of enrolled stu- and other world-renowned universities; among those dents—now from 48 states—had skyrocketed to over two speakers have been U.S. attorney general John Ashcroft, million. This represented the pinnacle of popularity for the Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak, and Rudy Giuliani. released time program. Bolstering its growing reputation, recent students have From the very beginning, such programs had strong earned prestigious awards in the fields of education, law, advocates and opponents. Those in favor of released and film. Regent is especially proud of its award-winning time contended that these programs would enhance the law school students, who have captured many honors at moral tenor of local communities, especially important top national competitions, and students in the school of in this era of urbanization. Others remarked that these communications have won over 300 student film awards. programs could fuel interfaith collaboration as churches Among Regent’s most noteworthy graduates is Bob Mc- andCopy synagogues provided curricula encouraging friend- Donnell, who served as governor of the Commonwealth ship between members of different faiths. Released time of Virginia. With a beautiful 70-acre campus, thousands detractors, on the other hand, noted that these programs of students, and what is considered a large endowment were more likely to exacerbate religious divisions by among Christian universities, Regent is poised to fulfill separating children for faith-specific instruction. Such its mission and carry forward its legacy within the tradi- divisions were thought to be all the more egregious since tions of Christian higher education. the public school was meant to serve as a great democra- tizing force within the culture. References and Resources Many of these tensions came to a head in 1948 when Regent University. 2012a. “Mission Statement.” http://www. the U.S. Supreme Court was asked to adjudicate a case regent.edu/about_us/overview/mission_statement.cfm. (Illinois ex rel. McCollum v. Board of Ed. of School Dist. Regent University. 2012b. “Regent University Facts.” http:// No. 71, Champaign Cty.) related to the constitutionality www.regent.edu/about_us/quick_facts.cfm. of released time programs. Vashti McCollum, a mother of Robertson, P. 1986. Shout It from the Housetops: CBN 25th An- a Champaign, Illinois, public school student, argued that niversary Edition 1961–1986. Virginia Beach, VA: Christian her son James had been ostracized by friends and teach- Broadcasting Network. ers because of his failure to participate in released time —James A. Swezey classes held during the school day on school grounds. She argued that this program represented an “establishment of religion,” thereby violating both the establishment clause Released Time Education, Origins of of the First Amendment and the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. While the state district court “Released time” religious education, also known as “week- and Illinois Supreme Court both rejected McCollum’s dayContributor religious education,” refers to programs in which claim, the Supreme Court ruled in McCollum’s favor by schools release students for part of the normal school day an 8–1 margin. The majority decision held that released time religious education infringed upon the separation 15. Regent University, “Regent University Facts” (2012), http://www of church and state by utilizing the tax-supported public .regent.edu/about_us/quick_facts.cfm. school systems to spread religious faith. 1038 Released Time Education, Status of

Catholics and many conservative Protestants were often proselytized openly. RTBE programs have existed quick to decry the ruling, while the Jewish community, across the United States for 100 years, and a few states liberal Protestants, and some Baptist groups were more even allow students to receive academic credit for these likely to stand with the Court. On a practical level, many classes. While most programs are concentrated in the communities simply ignored the ruling or modified pro- South and Midwest, they also exist along the West and grams so as to bring them into perceived compliance, East Coasts. typically by moving the classes off school property. In While RTBE programs remain largely unknown to the 1952, in fact, the Supreme Court determined in Zorach general public, some programs have existed for several v. Clauson that similar programs conducted away from decades. The weekday religious education program in school were constitutionally permissible. Released time Staunton, Virginia, has operated for approximately 70 religious education has therefore continued into the 21st years, and a vast majority (78–95 percent) of eligible century, though the number of programs and involved students participate.16 It is difficult, if not impossible, to students has declined over the years. By the early 21st accurately report the number of students enrolled in RTE century, about 1,000 programs existed with approxi- and RTBE programs currently, but it is clear that they mately 250,000 students enrolled. Released time pro- represent a fairly substantial number of students. De- grams are especially prominent among LDS students in pending on what programs are counted,Only and from what states such as Idaho and Utah and among Jewish students religious traditions, enrollment numbers range from in New York City. 250,00017 to 600,000.18 The most widely publicized claim regarding evangelical RTBE enrollment is that there are References and Resources over 1,000 programs serving 250,000 students across the Fraser, J. W. 2000. Between Church and State: Religion and Pub- United States. lic Education in Multicultural America. New York: Palgrave The original idea of RTE in the United States was Macmillan. first publicly discussed in 1905 at a school conference Gorham, D. 1935. “A Study of the Status of Weekday Church in New York City, where someone proposed that public Schools in the United States.” PhD diss., University of Penn- elementary schools should be closed one day a week in sylvania. addition to Sunday so that children could receive reli- Schultz, K. 2011. Tri-Faith America: How Catholics and Jews gious Copyinstruction.19 While the earliest RTE program is Held Postwar America to Its Protestant Promise. New York: credited to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Oxford University Press. in 1912,20 the concept of RTBE among Christians was Zimmerman, J. 2005. Whose America? Culture Wars in the operationalized in 1914 under the leadership of Dr. Wil- Public Schools. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. liam Wirt (1874–1938), superintendent of public schools —David Setran in Gary, Indiana. The decades after its inception saw a proliferation of RTE programs. In 1922, RTE programs were active in 23 states, serving 40,000 students from 200 Released Time Education, Status of school districts.21 U.S. Supreme Court findings reported, “According to responsible figures almost 2,000,000 in Released time education (RTE) refers to a little known some 2,200 communities participated in ‘released time’ aspect of religious education in the United States. These programs during 1947.”22 programs afford parents the opportunity to grant their children permission to leave the local public school campus during regular school hours in order to receive 16. D. Lithwick, “Bible Belt Upside the Head: Why the Constitution Tries So Hard to Protect the Buddhist Kid,” Slate, 16 February 2005, religious instruction. They are typically established by http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/jurisprudence/2005/02/ private, religiously affiliated organizations. A variety of bible_belt_upside_the_head.html. religious traditions are represented among these pro- 17. B. R. Johnson, Objective Hope (Philadelphia, PA: Center for Re- search on Religion and Urban Civil Society, 2002). grams, including Protestant, Catholic, Church of Jesus 18. C. Osgood, “Religious Released Time,” The Osgood File, 4 February Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Jewish, Muslim, 1999, http://www.acfnewsource.org/religion/religious_released.html. 19. J. Lathan, B. Oschner, and E. Cochling, Time for God (Washington, and Hindu. Released time Bible education (RTBE) pro- DC: Family Research Council, 2000). grams are a form of Christian education that affords par- 20. M. W. Strader, “Ideal Teaching: Exploring the Attributes on an ‘Ideal ents the opportunity to grant their school-aged children Teacher’ in the Church Education System for the Church of Jesus Christ of ContributorLatter-day Saints” (PhD diss., George Fox University, Newberg, Oregon, permission to leave public school campuses during regu- 2009). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database, UMI lar school hours in order to receive biblical instruction. No. 3394586. 21. Osgood, “Released Time History.” These programs are particularly attractive because the 22. McCollum v. Board of Education of School District No. 71, Cham- Bible and the Gospel can be presented, and children are paign County, 333 U.S. 203 (Supreme Court 1948), ¶ 225. Released Time Education, Status of 1039

Many politically conservative-leaning Christian or- Court found that programs established off-campus and ganizations lament what they decry as the removal of operating with parental consent for each student were God from the public square, especially the public school. legal as long as the programs were not supported in any They perceive liberal and secular forces as hostile toward manner by taxpayer funds. religion in general, but especially Christianity when it There are several advantages to RTE programs.25 makes claims of objective truth and salvation through Among them is that it is inclusive of any religious group Christ alone. Christian conservatives point to Supreme that is capable of developing and administrating a pro- Court decisions such as Engel v. Vitale, which declared gram. This benefit is testified to by the diversity of groups unconstitutional the recitation of a prescribed prayer, already taking advantage of this opportunity. Another and Abingdon v. Schempp, which declared unconstitu- benefit is that schools are provided with the opportunity tional a school district’s requirement that students read to respect the religious liberty of parents in supplement- 10 verses from the Bible and recite the Lord’s Prayer. The ing their child’s education and respecting the role of controversial decisions were merely the culmination of a religious faith in the lives of its students. RTE programs long process of secularization of public education. Critics are permitted to be faith-driven, devotional, and even also cite high rates of drug and alcohol abuse, crime, teen dogmatic on matters of sectarian beliefs. Finally, RTE pregnancy, and so forth as evidence that America has provides an invaluable service for Onlyfamilies desiring reli- lost its spiritual moorings. Among advocates for RTBE gious instruction but who are not connected to a local programs, the proposed solutions to these maladies is religious community. the establishment of released time programs, which will The varied RTE programs across America have widely restore the practice of Bible study and worship of God divergent theological foundations, stemming from the among American public school students. various sectarian organizations that sponsor them. This Many organizations have been established to support rightly reflects the religious pluralism of the United RTBE programs. Among the leaders in this field are States. Nevertheless, these organizations share a common Children’s Bible Ministries and School Ministries. Chil- goal to promote within the young people who choose to dren’s Bible Ministries began in 1934 when Walter Jensen attend a deeper understanding of and participation in the entered public schools in Florida “to teach God’s Word, religious views and practices espoused by the program motivating children to memorize Scripture by offering sponsors, thus serving to better reflect and reinforce the 23 Copy as an incentive the opportunity to attend bible camp.” cultural diversity that exists in today’s public schools. Over the course of time, Children’s Bible Ministries ex- panded its outreach to several states, including Alabama, References and Resources North Carolina, Tennessee, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Children’s Bible Ministries. n.d. “Our History.” http://www and Virginia. School Ministries was founded in 1995 by .childrensbibleministries.net/Reach.htm. S. Grayson Hartgrove in South Carolina. He also estab- Johnson, B. R. 2002. Objective Hope. Philadelphia: Center for lished a number of released time programs.24 Research on Religion and Urban Civil Society. The two most significant Supreme Court decisions Lathan, J., B. Oschner, and E. Cochling. 2000. Time for God. impacting RTBE are McCollum v. Board of Education Washington, DC: Family Research Council. (1948) and Zorach v. Clauson (1952). Vashti McCollum Lithwick, D. 2005. “Bible Belt Upside the Head: Why the Con- filed a complaint arguing that the Champaign, Illinois, stitution Tries So Hard to Protect the Buddhist Kid.” Slate Board of Education permitted religious instruction to (February). http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/ occur within public school buildings during regular jurisprudence/2005/02/bible_belt_upside_the_head.html. school hours. While the instruction was provided by McCollum v. Board of Education of School District No. 71, religious teachers employed by private religious groups Champaign County, 333 U.S. 203 (1948). and not the school district, the complaint held that the Osgood, C. 1999, February. “Religious Released Time.” The relationship enjoined by both parties violated the First Osgood File. New York: CBS Radio Network. http://www and Fourteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitu- .acfnewsource.org/religion/religious_released.html. tion. Justice Black delivered the Court’s 8–1 majority Released Time Education. 2012. “Released Time History.” opinion finding in favor of McCollum. After numer- http://www.rtce.org/pages.asp?pageid=32778 ous legal challenges, the U.S. Supreme Court made its School Time Bible of S.C. 2010. “Leadership.” http://www mostContributor definitive ruling in Zorach. In its 6–3 decision, the .schooltimebible.org/leadership.htm.

23. Children’s Bible Ministries, “Our History,” http://www.childrens bibleministries.net/Reach.htm. 25. J. Vinson, “Religion in the Public Schools: Released Time Recon- 24. School Time Bible of S. C., “Leadership,” (2010), http://www. sidered,” in Gateways to Spirituality: Pre-School through Grade Twelve, ed. schooltimebible.org/leadership.htm. P. W. Cobb (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2005). 1040 Religious Drama, Medieval

Strader, M. W. 2009. “Ideal Teaching: Exploring the Attributes The scripts for the York plays were likely written by the on a ‘Ideal Teacher’ in the Church Education System for the clergy, but for the most part the production of the plays Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.” Diss., George was carried out by the townspeople. The rising merchant Fox University, Newberg, Oregon. Available from ProQuest class understood it as an expression of civic pride and Dissertations and Theses database, UMI No. 3394586. religious duty to sponsor and organize the event. Vinson, J. 2005. “Religion in the Public Schools: Released The saints’ plays were those in which the central theme Time Reconsidered.” In Gateways to Spirituality: Pre-School of the drama was focused on a miracle or on a particular Through Grade Twelve, edited by Peter Cobb, 236–249. New saint as the protagonist. These dramas often honored York: Peter Lang. the local patron saint where the play was produced. One —James A. Swezey and Katherine G. Schultz example is the St. Nicholas drama, put on in early De- cember. Morality plays such as The Pride of Life and the Castle of Perseverance reinforced the ethical teachings of Religious Drama, Medieval the church. They often related to the seven deadly sins and the seven virtues and the human struggle to choose The religious dramas of medieval Europe were a wide- between God’s goodness and the temptations of Satan. spread phenomenon from the 12th century well into the In the fullness of their development,Only many of the mid-16th. The initial dramas were believed to have de- dramas involved elaborate sets, ornate costumes, special veloped out of the liturgy of the church. The first known effects, and professional actors. The efforts of entire example, connected with the Easter sepulcher, began communities would be engaged, from the highest levels somewhere between AD 965 and 975 and was acted of society to the commoners in their guilds. Special care out by monks in Latin. It was the story of the women at was often taken to advertise the play to the surrounding the tomb after Christ’s resurrection. Liturgical dramas region. Historical records show that at times two or more spread from these early roots through monastic commu- dozen parishes would contribute to the production of a nities, where they were generally performed in plainchant play, while other plays would be produced by a single as a form of worship in celebration of the Catholic feasts. town or a few banded together. While some of the reli- A noted goal of these dramas was to dispel spiritual leth- gious dramas were one-time events, many were staged argy and inspire greater devotion by the nuns and monks annuallyCopy or in cycles, such as once a decade. Scholars who participated. suggest that these plays laid the groundwork for the era Eventually, the dramas that had been conducted within of Shakespeare. The Passion play in Oberammergau, the church Mass and the convents and monasteries of Germany, is an ongoing example of these plays, having medieval Europe made their way into the public square. started as an annual event in 1632 and continuing today Religious dramas of this period were in four major forms: with performances once a decade. the aforementioned liturgical plays, biblical “cycle plays,” saints’ plays, and morality plays. The cycle plays focused References and Resources on a range of biblical stories such as Christ’s Passion, Johnston, Alexandra F. 1975. “The Plays of the Religious Guilds Pentecost, the Nativity, story sets from the narratives of York: The Creed Play and the Pater Noster Play.” Specu- of the Gospels or the Old Testament, and extra-biblical lum 50 (1): 55–90. aspects of the life and death of the Virgin Mary that were Muir, L. R. 1995. The Biblical Drama of Medieval Europe. Cam- deeply rooted in Catholic theology. The widespread Cor- bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pus Christi plays often gave the salvation story highlights Nelson, A. H. 1974. The Medieval English Stage: Corpus Christi of the biblical narrative from Genesis to Revelation, with Pageants and Plays. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. the sacrifice of Christ as the central climax. Twycross, Meg. 1983. “Books for the Unlearned.” In Drama The Feast of Corpus Christi was initiated in 1311 to and Religion, edited by J. Redmond, 5: 65–110. Themes in celebrate the doctrine of transubstantiation, which had Drama Series. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. been instituted in 1215 at the Fourth Lateran Council Wickham, G. 1995. The Medieval Theatre. Cambridge, UK: under the leadership of Pope Innocent III. This doctrine Cambridge University Press. interpreted the bread and wine of the Lord’s Supper as —Jennifer Jagerson and Kevin E. Lawson the actual presence of Christ. The Corpus Christi dramas developedContributor over time as part of the celebration of the feast and as an educational tool for the largely illiterate Religious Education population. One major example of this particular drama is found in York, England. The dramas took the form Religious education is one of the most important is- of a series of between 48 and 54 scenes from scripture. sues facing our world today. If it is understood as that Religious Education 1041 which pertains to the center of human life and is rec- lished as the ideal setting for this process. The teaching ognized as contributing to the quality of our being in of religion in the academic context is an essential compo- the world, then it is an indispensable endeavor. Such nent of religious education. an understanding recognizes that religious education The recipients of religious education will vary accord- is an activity that occurs religiously throughout the life ing to each aim of religious education. With the first aim, of the human person. Honoring the religious and the recipients are inquirers or initiants of a religious com- educational in life, this understanding acknowledges munity. Here the focus is particular: this group of people that religious education is found at the convergence of either desires to be part of, or is socialized into the way religion and education. What is truly envisaged at that of life and ritual practice of, the faith community. With meeting point is an endeavor that brings together the the second aim of religious education, understanding best of education and the best of religion. Religion and religion, the recipients span the whole of the human life education need to be consistent and complementary cycle, from young child to older adult, taking into ac- partners. Religion’s role is to challenge education and count that the capacity to understand religion develops enable it to rediscover the richness of what it is to be gradually over many years. religious. Conversely, when the affairs of religion are The marriage of the two aims of religious education brought into the educational framework, the true es- takes place in the person of the learner.Only Although one sence of education is revealed. or the other aim takes precedence at different stages Within this understanding, religious education may be throughout a person’s life, it is hoped that every human described as the interaction of and relationship between person has the opportunity to engage in both aims. Like two complementary but differing objectives: to teach to all education, religious education begins from the first be religious and to teach to understand religion. To teach moment of life, with the family being the natural setting to be religious involves formation and nurturance in a for this first phase. As the child matures and develops, way of life. This takes place in the family and in the par- varying institutional contexts are available commen- ish through the experiences of community and worship. surate to the needs of one’s age. While the first aim of To teach religion, on the other hand, involves the under- religious education predominates in early childhood, the standing of one’s own religion, as well as the religion of second aim is likely to take center stage in adolescence as others. This takes place in an academic setting. These two theCopy facility to form abstractions occurs through concep- aims of religious education are related, distinct, and of tual and linguistic development. Both aims of religious equal importance. Within this understanding, religious education ought to characterize adult life. education comprises two forms, two processes, and two aims, all of which take place within a multitude of set- References and Resources tings. Either process can predominate in the life of an Brennan, O., ed. 2004. Critical Issues in Religious Education. individual at any particular moment. Dublin: Veritas. The first aim of religious education—to teach to be Cunnane, F. 200. New Directions in Religious Education. Dub- religious—concerns the initiation, formation, and social- lin: Veritas. ization of each new generation, who will continue the Elliot, H. S. 1940. Can Religious Education be Christian? New practices, ritual, and mission of the religious group. This York: Macmillan. is carried out by the adult members of the community. Groome, T. H. 1980. Christian Religious Education. San Fran- The aim here is to teach people to be religious in a par- cisco: Harper & Row. ticular way, that is, in the way of that particular religious ———. 1991. Sharing Faith: A Comprehensive Approach to tradition. Teaching to be religious means demonstrating Religious Education and Pastoral Ministry. San Francisco: a way of life through the embodiment of a set of beliefs, Harper & Row. symbols, and actions. In the Christian context, it is about Lane, D. 1986. Religious Education and the Future. Mahwah, educating members of the church to take responsibility NJ: Paulist Press. for continuing the mission of Jesus, the Christ, in the Moran, G. 1974. “The Intersection of Religion and Education.” world today. Religious Education 69: 5. The second aim of religious education is to teach ———. 1977. “Two Languages of Religious Education.” The Liv- people to understand religion. In this process the aim is ing Light 14: 40–50. toContributor understand. This activity necessitates a double conver- ———. 1981. Interplay. Winona, MN: St. Mary’s Press. sation: the dialogue between the major world religions ———. 1987. “Religious Education.” In Encyclopedia of Religion, and the dialogue of religion(s) and contemporary culture. edited by M. Eliade, 12. New York: Macmillan. While such an understanding of religion can take place ———. 1994. “Two Languages of Religious Education.” In Criti- anywhere, the classroom has been intentionally estab- cal Perspectives on Christian Education, edited by J. Astley 1042 Religious Education Movement

and L. J. Francis, 40–47. Leominster, Herefordshire, UK: The movement, however, peaked early. The Great Gracewing. Depression decimated the financial resources of de- ———. 1997. “Religious Education after Vatican II.” In Open nominational and other agencies linked to the move- Catholicism: The Tradition at Its Best, edited by D. Etroymson ment. The critique of a new wave of neoorthodox and J. Raines, 115–135. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. theologians, along with the devastation of World War Moran, G., and M. Harris. 1998. Reshaping Religious Education. II, challenged the theological optimism of the move- Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ment. After World War II, remnants of the movement Scott, K. 1981. “Catechesis and Religious Education: Uncover- could be found in the continuing commitment of many ing the Nature of Our Work.” PACE 12: 10–12. mainline Protestants, and after Vatican II, of an increas- ———. 1984. “Three Traditions of Religious Education.” Reli- ing number of Roman Catholic religious educators to its gious Education 79 (3): 323–339. pedagogical innovations; its vision of religious educa- —Finola Cunnane tion in forming a public personal, social, and religious identity; and the integral relationship between religious education and social justice. Religious Education Movement More recently, the movement has been reinvigorated by an expanding interfaith and internationalOnly conversa- The religious education movement originated in the tion on the role and place of religious education in and efforts of late 19th-century North American Protestant among faith communities in religiously pluralistic societ- religious leaders to align the theological assumptions ies. The special attention being given to the relationship and educational practices of the Sunday school move- of tradition and modernity, universality and particularity ment with new insights from science, the social sciences, in academic and professional conferences; in curriculum progressive education, and theologies highlighting social resources cultivating an interfaith consciousness in both justice and individual righteousness. Faculty members faith communities and public life; and in scholarly and associated with Northwestern University and the Univer- professional contributions to Religious Education (long sity of Chicago in Chicago, Union Theological Seminary associated with the movement) and other journals is and Teachers College-Columbia University in New York, charting a new course for the traditions of the religious and Yale and Boston Universities in New England gave educationCopy movement. intellectual leadership to the movement. The journal and conferences of the Religious Education Association, Method organized in 1903 by William Rainey Harper, president As a reform effort, early leaders of the movement con- of the University of Chicago, and Northwestern Univer- tinued to see the Sunday school as the primary agency sity professor George Albert Coe, provided a continuing for the Christian education of Protestant young people forum for the movement. and the public school as its partner in forming the moral Denominational and ecumenical agencies from con- and religious character of the nation. Coe (1929), for gregations to publishing houses, schools and colleges, the example, argued that no more time was needed than YMCA and YWCA, the Student Christian Movement, to what was available on Sunday morning for the religious the International Council on Religious Education, along instruction of children and youth. Instead, he argued that with church and community workers addressing local much more attention needed to be given to the quality social inequities, put key ideas of the movement into of their educational experience. Drawing on the work of practice in the quest to create a new ecology of religious progressive educators like John Dewey, religious educa- education and social change. tors consequently developed strategies to engage all ages in a lively dialogue between the traditions of Christian Mission faith and new research in biblical criticism, psychology, The challenge of modernity, rooted in scientific dis- and education in the content of curriculum resources, covery; social, cultural, and religious pluralism; and an the training of teachers and leaders, and the pedagogical increasing consciousness of the dynamics of relativity, practices of teachers and students in Sunday schools. influenced the course of the religious education move- In its embrace of modernity the religious education ment. Commitments to an intellectually rigorous and movement diverged most clearly from the theological popularlyContributor accessible Christian education led early leaders assumptions of the Sunday school movement. Whereas to embrace both science and the historical study of the the Sunday school movement emphasized the dominion Bible, the sacred and secular, religion and education in of God, the Bible as the inspired Word of God, Jesus as pedagogical practices cultivating a democratic vision of the atoning savior of humankind, humanity as inherently the Kingdom of God. sinful, and Christian education in the breaking of that Religious Freedom and Christian Education 1043 willfulness to sin as the condition for salvation, the reli- Lynn, Robert W., and Elliott Wright (1971) 1980. The Big Little gious education movement emphasized the immanence School: 200 Years of the Sunday School. Birmingham, AL: of God, the Bible as the work of people inspired by God, Religious Education Press. Jesus as the example for faithful life, and Christian educa- Schmidt, Steven. 1983. A History of the Religious Education As- tion as the nurture of human capacities for social justice sociation. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. and individual righteousness integral to the Christian life. Seymour, Jack, Robert T. O’Gorman, and Charles R. Foster. The study of the Bible was at the center of this peda- 1984. The Church in the Education of the Public: Refocusing the gogical effort, but drawing on insights from progressive Task of Religious Education. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. educators like John Dewey, the form of its study differed —Charles R. Foster radically from the Sunday school movement’s emphasis on the interdependence of familiarity with the biblical text with a call to conversion. Biblical scholar William Religious Freedom and Rainey Harper set the standard. He introduced laity to Christian Education the reading of the Bible in Hebrew and to the scientific study of biblical texts. REA historian Steven Schmidt Origins observes that this was not an elitist effort. Rather, it was While one may easily discover whenOnly fundamental rights rooted in the conviction “that scientific research and in general and rights for religious freedom in particular Christian faith could be usefully joined in the nurtur- were granted in history, it is more difficult to determine ing process of the young.”26 This involved teachers and why these freedoms were granted. In the discussion leaders in a discovery pedagogy rooted in developmental of this second question, at least two approaches need patterns of Christian religious growth from childhood to be considered: one arguing that religious freedom into adulthood that emphasized the interdependence of was granted against the intentions of religious groups curiosity and practice in the cultivation of “Christian mo- (namely the church), and the other arguing that reli- tives” for the social reconstruction of society. gious freedom emanates from the essence of Christian thought and is therefore, ontologically speaking, a purely Impact Christian fruit. In any case, at least throughout the last The legacy of the movement clearly has to do with centuriesCopy and within the Western Hemisphere, religious the dialogue, first of all, between theological and con- freedom has been a fruit of pragmatic considerations temporary scholarship, and more recently with di- (e.g., in the Peace of Westphalia) and of common sense verse religious traditions and their implications for (for instance, Hans Küng’s Weltethos as a theological, and the training of teachers and leaders, the content of Heiner Bielefeldt’s Philosophie der Menschenrechte as a curriculum resources, and the pedagogical practices of philosophical, approach). the classroom. Religious education movement leaders were instrumental in promoting the academic training General Tensions of Christian educators, the establishment of depart- When it comes to religious freedom, there have been ments of religious education in colleges and theological two difficulties throughout the centuries: first to grant schools to accomplish that training, the introduction of it, and second—technically more complicated—to prop- laity in the church to the scientific study of the Bible and erly enforce it. The Edict of Milan (313) of the Roman its history, the transformation of curriculum resources Empire, for instance, was meant to promote religious and pedagogical practices to account for age-level dif- freedom after the Constantine shift. However, in the ferences in the processes of teaching and learning, and end Christianity, within two generations, overpowered individual responsibility in the quest for justice for all. other religions, also by including a seed of preference for More recently, the religious education movement has Christian faith in the edict itself. The tension between increasingly engaged religious educators in an interreli- protecting certain personal beliefs and granting religious gious discussion of these issues in the formation of both freedom for all has been a challenge ever since, and this personal and public religious identity. tension is about to become a significant challenge in the 21st century: Traditional Western religions are clearly in References and Resources tension with secular and with Islamic parts of societies in Coe,Contributor G. A. 1929. What Is Christian Education? New York: certain ways, and also in Christian education. While at Charles Scribner’s Sons. least in the Western Hemisphere the general approach to religious freedom is overall transnationally similar, and

26. Steven Schmidt, A History of the Religious Education Association while the tension of religious freedom—in general and (Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press, 1983), 26. with regards to Christian education—between Christian 1044 Renaissance thought and secular/Islamic movements is similar as well, laws, the overall picture is consistent: the 21st century the regulation of the matter is determined by the law of will determine anew in which practical way faith—what- individual countries. ever faith—might be kept and exercised.

Religious Freedom and Christian Education in School References and Resources In the United States, religious freedom became a legal Eisgruber, Christopher L., and Lawrence G. Sager. 2007. Reli- concept with the Bill of Rights in 1791, namely the First gious Freedom and the Constitution. Cambridge, MA: Har- Amendment, which excludes matters of faith from legal vard University Press. regulations (while the First Amendment explicitly re- Hundt, Marion. 2010. Religionsrecht in Kita und Schule—Kopf- stricts Congress from interference, this restriction has tuch, Tischgebet, Schwimmunterricht. Kronach, Germany: also been in effect for the states [due process clause] Appel & Klinger Druck und Medien GmbH. since 1868). It is debatable whether a “Wall of separa- Meyerson, Michael I. 2012. Endowed by Our Creator—The tion” (Jefferson) between church and state was intended. Birth of Religious Freedom in America. New Haven, CT: Yale It is also debatable whether such a wall would actually University Press. be desirable. In every case, such a wall is not possible —Michael Borowski to achieve in full. However, the strong emphasis on the Only separation of powers made it impossible to exercise, for instance, school prayer over centuries. Since the School Renaissance Prayer Amendment did not pass Congress in 2001, it was a (minor) issue in the election of 2012 and remains The Renaissance was a period between the 14th and 17th for some an open issue. The example of school prayer il- centuries known for its artistic, intellectual, and cultural lustrates the fact that it is possible neither to create a wall achievements and considered to be a transitional era be- between the powers nor to guarantee free exercise of re- tween the Middle Ages and the modern era. Its catalyst ligious practices as desired, even by (alleged) majorities, was the rediscovery of the language and literature of an- by simply emphasizing “religious freedom” in general. cient Greece. This, in turn, led to an educational renewal, A contrasting example to the U.S. case is Germany, replacing medieval scholasticism with humanistic schol- which is much more likely to accept school prayer in arship.Copy The Renaissance would be an important factor in public schools, although it is overall perceived as “less both the Protestant Reformation and the Roman Catholic Christian.” On the one hand, article 4 of the German Counter-Reformation. Constitution (Grundgesetz) protects the freedom to de- velop a (a-)religious view, to keep it, to express it, and to The Nature of the Renaissance act in accordance with it. Although there must be limits The term “Renaissance” means “rebirth,” implying that for each fundamental right, according to decisions of the civilization, having died out in the Middle Ages, was Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, limitations reborn. This usage dates only from the 19th century and on religious freedom are possible only because of other betrays a bias against medieval civilization that scholars constitutional rights, so that practical freedoms include today reject. Still, the Renaissance is often presented as the permission for a common school prayer, as long as the beginning of the modern age. This view sees in the neither pupils nor teachers are forced to participate in it. era the origins of individualism, the questioning of au- On the other hand, a crucifix may be displayed in public thority, the rise of the nation-state, and other hallmarks classrooms only if there is no challenge by any pupils of modernity. or parents (Art. 3 GG, religious freedom also for mi- Other, more recent scholars question that interpreta- norities). Homeschooling is possible only in very limited tion.27 They argue that the Renaissance was a continua- areas (Art. 7 GG, schooling conducted by state). In sum, tion of trends already evident in the Middle Ages, such as the crucial provisions will be found in the constitutional the emulation of Greek and Roman authors. approach of a given country and the argument made The crusades sent medieval soldiers and clerics to from it. Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, and the Islamic world. Here they encountered the Greek language and brought Conclusion back writings by authors such as Plato, Aristotle, and ReligiousContributor freedom is unfolded by law, which means Homer that had been lost after the fall of Rome and that different laws in different countries. In the U.S. case it had been known only at second hand. Scholars learned means even different states have different regulations (e.g., teaching of creationism). While the different practi- 27. See C. S. Lewis, “De Descriptione Temporum,” in They Asked for a cal topics are subject to changes in different countries’ Paper (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1962), 9–25. Renaissance 1045

Greek and studied the newly available classical literature arts as a systematic approach to education were largely with great enthusiasm. a medieval invention. The medieval universities were At the same time, the republics and city-states of Italy organized around the seven liberal arts, yet, as Bruce were growing increasingly powerful and prosperous. Kimball (1995) has shown, the liberal arts tradition has The nobles of Florence, wealthy merchants of Venice, historically vacillated between an emphasis on logic and and popes and bishops of Rome patronized the new an emphasis on rhetoric. In the Middle Ages, logic was scholarship. In building and adorning their palaces, civic the foundational discipline, resulting in the complex syl- buildings, and churches, they also lavished wealth on ar- logisms of scholastic philosophy that dominated both the chitecture, sculpture, and paintings. Renaissance artists, universities and the theology of the church. The Renais- influenced by the new classicism, combined idealized sance, however, marked the ascension of rhetoric. The forms with a more realistic rendition of nature. Artists “New Learning” stressed the reading of literature and the such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Rafael de- cultivation of eloquence.28 veloped technical and aesthetic innovations that shaped A slogan of Renaissance educators was “back to the the cultural imagination. sources.” Medieval education relied heavily on com- In literature, outside of Italy, many humanist scholars mentaries and other secondhand treatments, whether also wrote works of imaginative literature. The Dutch of Aristotle or the Bible. This was dueOnly largely to the lack Erasmus wrote the satire In Praise of Folly, the French Ra- of primary texts. But those texts were recovered in the belais wrote the comic fantasy Gargantua and Pantagruel, Renaissance. Instead of reading and lecturing from the and the English Thomas More wrote the speculative Latin commentaries on Aristotle derived from the Mus- Utopia. The beginning of the 17th century would see the lim scholar Averroes, students and their teachers could invention of the novel, with Cervantes’s Don Quixote, and now read the works of Aristotle directly, in the original the pinnacle of English drama with William Shakespeare. Greek. Another primary source written in Greek was Meanwhile, Machiavelli explored political theory and the New Testament. Erasmus edited and published the tactics with a shocking pragmatism, seemingly leaving Greek New Testament. The Hebrew language was also moral revelation out of the picture. Galileo employed a made part of the Renaissance curriculum, leading to new rigorous empiricism to overturn medieval assumptions study of the Old Testament. Advocates of the New Learn- about nature. ingCopy insisted that the Bible be at the center of theological Contributing to the cultural flourishing of the Renais- study, as opposed to the systematic biblical and theologi- sance was the invention and widespread use of the print- cal commentaries of scholasticism. ing press, an information medium that made books for The University of Wittenberg was founded along the the first time cheap and widely available. The discovery lines of the New Learning. One of its faculty members of the New World contributed to a new spirit of explora- was Philipp Melanchthon, author of treatises on rhetoric tion. A growing middle class bought books, established and education that earned him the reputation for being schools, started businesses, and fostered a new socioeco- the greatest humanist scholar after Erasmus. Another nomic dynamism. was the mathematician Georg Joachim Rheticus, who Though the “humanism” of the Renaissance refers published the posthumous work of Nicholas Copernicus primarily to the new emphasis on the “humanities” of lit- arguing for a heliocentric cosmology. Another faculty erature, philosophy, and the arts, a new human-centered- member was Martin Luther. ness is evident. The laws of perspective, for example, as The humanists generally decried what they perceived employed by the Renaissance artists, presented the world as the corruption of the church and called for its reform. from the point of view of an individual human being, Luther’s opposition to the sale of indulgences led him as opposed to the point of view of God, as in medieval to insist that the Bible, not the church hierarchy, is the iconography. The renditions of natural landscapes and highest authority in the church. And in the pages of the ordinary objects appealed strongly to the senses, creating Bible, Luther found that salvation is not simply a matter a new focus on this world, as opposed to the next. of doing good works, but rather receiving the forgiveness Yet this was a Christian humanism. None of the Re- of sins through faith in Christ’s redemption. This more naissance artists or scholars rejected Christianity, and the individualized and personal faith, in contrast to the col- church, whether Catholic or Protestant, was intimately lective faith stressed in medieval Catholicism, was itself in involvedContributor with the Renaissance changes. the spirit of Renaissance humanism. The New Learning and the Reformation The hallmark of Renaissance education was the flourish- 28. See Bruce A. Kimball, Orators and Philosophers: A History of the Idea ing of the liberal arts. It is true, however, that the liberal of Liberal Education (New York: College Board, 1995). 1046 Renaissance, Christianity and Science during the

When Luther was excommunicated, the movement Renaissance, Christianity he began turned into a separate set of churches rather and Science during the than a reform movement within Catholicism as he had intended. Erasmus, Thomas More, and most of the Ital- Europe’s scientific revolution had its roots in the Renais- ian humanists stayed with Rome. Melanchthon became sance. Probably the most explosive scientific endeavors of the major Lutheran theologian after Luther. Most of the this period involved astronomy, especially the disruptive other reformers—including Calvin, Zwingli, and Bucer— challenge to the old medieval “Ptolemaic” or “geocentric” had also been humanist scholars. But humanism in the understanding of the cosmos. But there were many im- sense of an exaltation of human beings, which was some- portant Renaissance scientific breakthroughs beyond as- what implicit in the Renaissance, would be in tension tronomy. The period also witnessed major developments with Reformation teachings about the depth of human in other areas of knowledge, including medicine and sin. This culminated in a controversy between Erasmus, geography. A general spirit of inquiry and a willingness who insisted on the freedom of the will, and Luther, to challenge long-accepted orthodoxies characterized Re- who insisted that the will is in bondage to sin. With this naissance intellectual culture. The rise of science was very debate, captured in Luther’s The Bondage of the Will, the much a part of this vital Renaissance spirit. Reformation and the Renaissance began going in differ- Though it was received differently byOnly different groups ent directions, with the latter developing a more secular and from different faith perspectives, the overall scientific kind of humanism. And yet, the Renaissance approach to revolution had enormous implications for Christianity. education continued to shape the Reformation schools. Indeed, popular accounts of the scientific revolution Luther translated the Bible into German, basing his today often emphasize a battle pitting science against work on the Greek New Testament of Erasmus and the religion, especially in the travails of Galileo. Such popu- Hebrew expertise of Melanchthon. This became a cata- lar images contain a great amount of oversimplification. lyst for other vernacular translations, which, thanks to Nonetheless, there was a significant tension between the printing press, were intended to give all Christians a religion and science during the Renaissance. On the direct personal access to God’s saving Word. But not all other hand, Renaissance science developed primarily in Christians knew how to read. Thus, education became religious settings and a milieu of theological debates. a major priority for the Reformation churches. Signifi- Copy cantly, however, the Reformation churches did not sim- Science as Knowledge ply open elementary Bible-reading schools. Rather, they The word “science” derives from the Latin scire, mean- implemented elements of the New Learning, applying ing “to know.” Sciencia means knowledge, things that a liberal arts education not only on the university level are known. Things categorized as “known things,” or but also to elementary and what would become second- “knowledge” are demonstrably verifiable (and re-ver- ary education. With Melanchthon designing the cur- ifiable). These are facts and/or “scientific” facts. Con- riculum, new schools opened with the purpose of teach- versely, things that cannot be known are not called facts ing everyone—peasants as well as clerics, girls as well and typically include a broad range of human beliefs, in- as boys—to not only read the Bible but also pursue a cluding theories, suppositions, myths, superstitions, and liberal education to equip them for civil life. Though the feelings. For its part, religion involves faith in unknown nature of the schools varied—ranging from small-scale things (at least in the scientific sense). Yet science and parish education, through municipal schools funded religion both frequently address the same questions. Sci- by the cities, to sophisticated academies such as that of ence and religion are therefore much more closely related Johann Sturm in Strasbourg—the educational tradition than is commonly supposed, or at least, they both often of the Renaissance continued. seek to address common questions, albeit from radically different perspectives and approaches. References and Resources Both science and religion have arguably comple- Kimball, Bruce A. 1995. Orators and Philosophers: A History mented each other over the years. Since science cannot of the Idea of Liberal Education. New York: College Board. truly ever know everything, religion can temper scientific Korcok, Thomas. 2011. Lutheran Education. St. Louis, MO: arrogance with humility, with respect for the beauty and Concordia Publishing. intricacy of the created order and a sobering realization Lewis,Contributor C. S. 1962. “De Descriptione Temporum.” In They Asked of humans’ finite, limited perspectives. For its part, sci- for A Paper, 186–201. London: Geoffrey Bles. ence can challenge religion to embrace human reason Spitz, Lewis. 1971. The Renaissance and Reformation Move- and inquiry as part of a God-given impulse, one that ments. 2 vols. St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing. should be nurtured and developed like any other gift or —Gene Edward Veith talent. Science also reminds religion to avoid embarrass- Renaissance, Christianity and Science during the 1047 ing or dubious beliefs, which only undermine the deeper to explain how such an astronomical alignment might meaning of faith in God. have caused so much death, however. In general, when When considering the scientific revolution, especially it came to understanding the heavens, the Ptolemaic or as it relates to the late Middle Ages and the Christian re- “geocentric” view of the cosmos held sway. Unraveling ligion that dominated Europe at the time, it is important the errors contained in this famous envisioning of the to consider the broader understanding of science as a heavens would become perhaps the defining challenge of categorical, general term referring basically to “knowl- Renaissance and baroque scientists. edge.” During the Renaissance, scholars and explorers In medicine, folk remedies and beliefs dominated established new knowledge at a rapid pace. This new healing, often combining good common sense with knowledge frequently had explosive implications for vaguely magical charms. In village and household set- common beliefs held for many centuries. This is why the tings, women traditionally treated the sick and injured Renaissance and the scientific revolution are generally among loved ones and neighbors. On the other hand, seen as dividing points, demarcating the old Middle Ages medicine actually was an important medieval profession. from the modern age. The great universities educated physicians in the High Middle Ages, along with lawyers and clerics. In southern Medieval Science France, Montpelier hosted one of theOnly medieval universi- In the Middle Ages, the ascent of science began with the ties most renowned for its medical school. One of its rise of knowledge, in a broader sense. While some might graduates, Petrus Hispansus, served as Pope John XXI argue that “medieval science” is virtually an oxymoron, (r. 1276–1277), the only physician ever to wear the Great there were certainly some intellectual achievements in Mantle. But even in the great universities, medical beliefs a wide range of areas. A few thinkers from the Middle reflected fundamental errors and flaws. The old theory Ages might be deemed scientists of sorts, including Al- regarding balances and imbalances of the four humors bertus Magnus (c. 1193–1280), who wrote on scientific (black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood) being the root topics, including the biological classification of plants cause of all disease continued to drive medical practices. and animals. He is one of a relatively few scholars in This “humoral theory of disease” was a typical medieval the years before the Renaissance to do so. At newly fallacy. A somewhat elegantly symmetrical theory, it established Oxford University, England’s Robert Gros- purportedlyCopy provided a universal framework for all par- seteste (1168–1253) wrote extensively on such topics as ticular diseases and maladies. Derived from Galen and optics, ocean tides, and the weather. A mathematician, Hippocrates, the idea of the four humors also reflected as well as a scholar steeped in the writings of Aristotle, how certain assumptions and beliefs handed down from Grosseteste emphasized a system of inquiry in which a ancient writers had become accepted almost wholesale, hypothesis was rigorously tested with observations. One with little or no attempt to test the underlying beliefs of of his pupils, Roger Bacon (c. 1214–1294), continued the theory. work in these areas after Grosseteste’s death in 1253. The Perhaps some of the most shocking factual ignorance, scientific questions and approaches Bacon and Gros- by modern standards, involved geography. Knowledge of seteste emphasized were novel and relatively obscure in the Atlantic Ocean was extremely limited. From North their time. Africa to Ireland, sailors generally avoided sailing west Famous medieval pseudo-sciences such as astrology into the open sea. Indeed, Norse exploration of Green- and alchemy had roots in real science and observation land and the upper North American east coast around of the world. Like many other pseudo-sciences, alchemy the year AD 1000 was documented, but few paid it any at- and astrology derived from real phenomena and natural tention. In his Inferno, no less a learned man than Dante patterns and could therefore be credited with making attributed the separation of the earth’s land and waters— genuine contributions to knowledge. Astrology, in par- with mountains being piled up on one side and waters ticular, was closely connected to careful and relatively on the other—to the great splash made by Lucifer in his accurate observation of the skies dating back to biblical fall from heaven (Inferno, XXXIV:121–126). Virtually times. But pseudo-sciences like this based their projec- nothing was known of the great African continent below tions on fundamentally erroneous beliefs. Few of these the Sahara. Even the south Atlantic waters around Africa disciplines were really well-represented in the universi- were unknown till the Portuguese sailor Dias (1451– tiesContributor or learned circles, though astrologers were occasion- 1500) reached the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, marking ally consulted. In 1348, the Doctors of Paris decreed the first time the size of the African continent could be that the bubonic plague ravaging Europe resulted from accurately envisioned. Ten years later, in 1498, Vasco a “Triple Conjunction” of Saturn, Mars, and Jupiter that da Gama (1460–1524) sailed from Portugal to India’s had occurred on 20 March 1345. They did not even try Malabar Coast, using the route around the Cape of Good 1048 Renaissance, Christianity and Science during the

Hope Dias had discovered. Meanwhile, only six years mental scholarship of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) before, an obscure sailor named Christopher Columbus and the approach later called “Thomism.” Aquinas had sailed west directly into the open Atlantic, something and his successors sought to “prove” the existence of no medieval sailor wanted to do. He had hoped to reach God. Among its many important emphases, Thomism Asia by this bold and novel sea route. In October 1492 he promoted the idea of an intelligent designer being. landed on the island of San Salvador in the Bahamas, but For Aquinas, creation’s patterns and attributes helped believed he was in Japan, in the “Indies.” affirm the existence of an intelligent God. In the end, It is sometimes alleged that in the Middle Ages, Scholasticism affirmed that faith was still necessary, intellectual culture accepted contemporary limits to since some mysteries of God were beyond natural laws, knowledge and inquiry in a way that would likely be logical understanding, or the finite ken of human be- deemed unacceptable by modern standards. This cer- ings. Nonetheless, as thinking creatures, human beings tainly seems true in terms of geography. Whole areas of should strive to use their reasoning faculties as much as the world were unknown. Before the Renaissance, there possible, even in religious matters. While not science was strikingly little discussion of such unknowns. So per se, Thomism proved an essential stepping-stone on while the dangers and uncertainties of Atlantic explo- the path to science. ration help explain why ignorance of the New World By the end of the 13th century, systematicOnly theology existed for so many centuries, it is nonetheless striking reigned as the “queen of the sciences” in the Western that so little inquiry existed about major gaps in knowl- universities. And while theology may not strike modern edge about the planet. readers as particularly scientific (nor is it likely to be defined as such in contemporary university infrastruc- Medieval Theology as a Predecessor tures or academic disciplines), theology in the Middle of Renaissance Science Ages did indeed establish the foundation for the sci- The Scholastic movement of the 13th and 14th centu- ence that emerged in the Renaissance. While medieval ries helped initiate new perspectives that promoted the Scholasticism is often contrasted with the humanism scientific revolution that came later. Scholasticism was that appeared in the Renaissance, the years of Scholas- a systematic theology approach based on harmonizing ticism provided an essential step toward the spirit of faith and reason, with a special focus on showing the courageousCopy inquiry that was at the core of Renaissance ultimate compatibility between the dialectical philosophy science and learning. and learning of the ancient classical philosophers and the Christian teachings of the Middle Ages. Scholars like Evidence and Critical Approaches Abelard (1079–1142) and Peter Lombard (1100–1160) The new spirit of inquiry and critical reasoning shaped began to challenge the priests and teachers of their time medieval intellectual culture in powerful ways that re- to defend the broad religious dogmas of Christian medi- sulted in important discoveries and developments. In eval life, which were often just blindly accepted. While particular, scholars began to demand evidence, a devel- neither Lombard nor Abelard promoted agnosticism in opment resulting not only from new tendencies in reli- the modern sense, they did emphasize a new approach to gious discourse, but also naturally from the increasingly faith and intellectual endeavors, which subjected terms sophisticated work being done in the law and medical and assumptions to doubt, critical reasoning, and logi- schools. More careful and critical analysis of historical cal scrutiny. As opposed to just accepting any teaching documents was one of the most important outcomes or doctrine wholesale, scholars would carefully examine of this trend. In 1440, the Renaissance scholar Lorenzo each component belief. These debates focused not so Valla (1407–1457) proved that the notorious Donation much one the validity of established Christian teachings of Constantine was a hoax, basing his findings on care- (which would have been heresy), as on the intellectual ful textual exegesis of the original text. The document, methods by which thinking Christians affirmed sacred a forgery probably from around the mid-8th century, teachings and beliefs. purportedly recorded a gift from Roman Emperor Con- This new spirit of critical doubt and inquiry gained stantine I to Pope Sylvester (r. 314–335). With this dona- even more traction when Latin translations of Aristotle tion, the emperor bequeathed all of the Western Roman appeared in Paris, sometime in the mid-12th century. Empire to the Western popes, expressing Constantine’s OftenContributor said to be an essential prerequisite for the devel- gratitude for having been cured of leprosy. opment of science and inquiry, careful readings of Ar- Valla proved the hoax, citing the many anachronistic istotle’s writings further challenged medieval Christians elements in the early medieval Latin used in the text, as to hone their beliefs and the rigor of their approach opposed to the classical Latin still in use during the time to inquiry. The movement culminated in the monu- of Constantine. In retrospect, the document seems a glar- Renaissance, Christianity and Science during the 1049 ingly obvious forgery, not only on the grounds of careful Florence, which foreshadowed the division of linguistic analysis, but also on the grounds that no other history into the essential epochs of ancient, medieval, and contemporary documents recorded Constantine having modern. A more careful and organized understanding leprosy or his giving all of Western Europe to the bishop of the past emerged. In the early 16th century, Machia- of Rome. Nonetheless, the document had remained un- velli (1469–1527) wrote his Discourses on Livy, an edited challenged for many centuries. This failure to challenge translation of the writings of the great Roman historian. such a bogus claim reflects not only the “emperor’s new Aside from drawing out important political lessons from clothes” phenomenon of a natural hesitation to challenge the examples of early Roman history, Machiavelli also assertions that are made by the rich and powerful, but demonstrated great improvement in the understanding also an apparent lack of curiosity on the part of medieval of the ancient past. His work shows a much greater ap- scholars, who failed to make a simple inquiry into the va- preciation of the complexities of the history represented lidity and origins of the document itself. It was only in the in Livy, including the different chronological periods of Renaissance, when the intellectual culture had changed, the Roman republic and the Roman monarchy, as well as that the document’s validity was challenged. It is hard to the evolution of Rome from its origins as a small agricul- imagine such a hoax going uncontested in today’s feisty tural community into a Mediterranean power. academic culture (one would hope). Valla’s exposure of Only the fraud is a signal moment in the late Middle Ages, an Attention to Detail important cultural indicator of the sea change transform- A new attention to detail accompanied the spirit of criti- ing European intellectual life. cal inquiry in the Renaissance. Here again, the focus on A more critical approach to evidence also appeared in minute details of larger whole objects can trace its roots other forms of textual criticism during the Renaissance. to the Scholastic movement, which sought to unify The study of history was also deeply affected. In the Mid- particular things with their universal categories. In the dle Ages, historical knowledge and understanding was end, this attention to detail is one of the most important vague and sketchy. Legends and historical accounts often trends culminating in the great strides forward in scien- intermingled in fairy-tale-like fashion. Ahistorical works tific knowledge that came about in the late Renaissance like The Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine (1230– and early modern era. And while the new focus on detail, 1298), a collection of short biographies of the saints, howeverCopy minute, proved an essential component of such characterized the approach to history that often seemed scientific areas as astronomy or biology, the same im- to prevail in popular medieval writings. While The Golden pulses were at the heart of the Renaissance’s famous art. Legend is a rich resource in terms of deeper lessons drawn As is the case with religion, there is a much closer from the examples of the saints, as a historical work it relationship between art and science than one might misses the mark. History, folklore, and fantasy mingle commonly suppose at first blush. The drive to look more happily into one confusing pastiche. New Testament closely at the natural world and cosmos—a core practice elements blend seamlessly with apocryphal fancy. Many of all science—transformed art. Medieval art frequently disparate lands, times, and peoples are glossed over with glossed over the details. Certainly medieval art at its best no clarification or understanding. Fairy tales, while not to has enormous value and merit, with a style and aesthetic be taken too seriously in and of themselves, also reflected all its own. Some thoughtful people, like England’s fa- this fuzzy sense of time and place, with their “Once upon mous Victorian group the Pre-Raphaelites, have even a time, in a kingdom far, far away” approach to chronol- found medieval art, with its inner meanings, values, and ogy and geography. Medieval accounts of ancient legends illuminated qualities, superior to the art of the Renais- and histories often reflected the same ahistorical quality. sance. Nonetheless, medieval art is also arguably typified When they were remembered at all, historical narratives by its relative lack of technical proficiency, as well as a in medieval writings were often stand-alone tales, devoid related lack of focus on details. Trees are usually depicted of a well-informed historical perspective (i.e., a sense of as generic trees, as opposed to specific species of trees. specific time, place, and historical context). Popular tales The rolling creases and folds in robes or shrouds—one from Greek and Roman mythology were occasionally of the most difficult challenges confronting artists of the provided, usually in the form of medieval Latin literature. Renaissance—are usually simplistically depicted as mere The stories had a loosely medieval feel — legends with no lines and curves. Similarly, human beings in medieval art particularContributor sense of fidelity to the original versions or to are depicted in somewhat generic form. When medieval their classical contexts. artists ventured into portraiture at all, which was rare, In the Renaissance, higher standards of critical reason- they struggled to depict the subtle physical and emotional ing and thinking began to shape historical literatures. In aspects of complex human body parts such as hands, 1420, Leonardo Bruni (1370–1444) wrote a History of eyes, smiles, facial expressions, or musculature. 1050 Renaissance, Christianity and Science during the

It should also be noted that most of the Renaissance tention on the details of human anatomy. Indeed, it was art that seems so wonderfully lifelike is a product of the during the Renaissance that the first nudes appeared sophisticated artistic medium of oil painting, itself a in Western art since the classical period. Throughout product of medieval science and technology. Oil paint- the Middle Ages the “classical nude” had been virtually ing, with its greater potential range of color shadings nonexistent in Western art. This was no doubt due to and minute detail, did not really emerge in widespread the influence of modesty and propriety that Christian- use until the late 14th century. Earlier medieval art was ity had exerted on culture, as was the case with Islam in done in tempera, an egg-based paint that did not have many parts of the Middle East. Even in the heyday of the the bright color potential of oil. Moreover, most tempera Renaissance, church officials sometimes famously had fig was done on wood panels, whereas oil painting moved leaves placed strategically over sexual organs of figures art to canvas, which also held colors. Most tempera art depicted in sculpture and painting. But it is also the case in the heyday of the Middle Ages depicted saints, with that the nude body represents one of the most difficult relatively little attention to re-creating actual people or technical challenges for an artist, meaning the lack of landscapes. Some of Western art’s most wonderful works classical nudes during the Middle Ages probably owes at are tempera, so the point is not to disparage medieval art least as much to the artists themselves as to ecclesiastical as some lesser, more primitive form of expression. None- censorship. Similarly, the revival of theOnly classical nude as theless, by the 15th century, artists sought to depict the an iconic motif in Renaissance art heralds the dawn of natural world with a greater attention to detail and more a new age of technical assuredness and self-confidence precision than had typified medieval artists. Oil painting in the painters and sculptors of the Renaissance. Finally, could capture colors and details better than tempera. inasmuch as the nude represents an acknowledgment of The change in painting during the Renaissance, which the human body’s beauty and natural appeal, the revival is so obvious to even casual observers, bespeaks great of the nude in Western art also represents the humanism underlying change in the psychologies and approaches of the Renaissance. of Western European people in general. Even in the early 14th century, artists like Giotto (1276–1337) were point- Anatomical Awareness ing art in new directions. In Giotto’s work, there is a new There are many superb examples of the subtlety and pre- attention to detail largely missing from his predeces- cisionCopy with which Renaissance artists depicted specific sors and contemporaries. In Giotto’s art, landscapes (an aspects of human anatomy. Michelangelo’s sculptures important and sometimes underappreciated feature of are especially excellent in this regard. His sculpture of painting) featured better and more proportioned depic- David, probably one of the most famous and well-loved tions of such items as rock formations or mountains in statues in the world, is as much a study in anatomy as it the distance. Trees and plants began to show particular, is a tribute to the perfect male form. All the major muscle distinct qualities, bespeaking the same impulse in ob- groups are skillfully depicted in the sculpture. The veins servation of plants that would inform modern botany. of the circulation system are faintly visible in David’s In Giotto’s art, actual species of trees and other forage hands. Even the fact that David is uncircumcised shows are canvassed. Terrain was also more carefully and spe- a great attention to detail, as well as to Michelangelo’s fa- cifically depicted, another important point relating to cility with the chisel. Moreover, the lack of circumcision greater awareness of geography and climate. Perhaps reminds viewers that the statue celebrates not only the most significant, Giotto’s art featured a new focus on Hebrew shepherd David, who killed Goliath, but also the people, an important consideration in Europe in his time, pagan deity Apollo and the traditions of classical sculp- poised just on the cusp of the humanist revolution. In his ture in general. Anatomical elements in paintings were famous works like Flight to Egypt, or his numerous depic- not always flattering, almost utopian depictions of larger- tions of figures such as the Virgin Mary or saints, details than-life, god-like human physiques. A famous painting such as facial expressions, eyes, and hands were handled in this regard is the 1506 Christ Among the Learned Doc- with a new finesse, which helped to revolutionize paint- tors by the Northern Renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer. ing in the following years. The painting stands out among typical Renaissance art in During the Renaissance, the tendency toward a great that it features not only the elderly, but ugly and decrepit focus on detail that began with Giotto reached fruition elders at that. Among the less aesthetically pleasing ele- in someContributor of the Western world’s most immortal master- ments of the human body the painting accurately por- pieces. A greater appreciation of nature manifested itself trays are balding skulls, gnarled hands, sunken faces, and, in the landscapes. Moreover, a greater facility with the of special interest, bad teeth. brush, coupled with a new cultural and intellectual ethos, Perhaps Leonard da Vinci (1452–1519) provides the gave Renaissance art a much greater ability to focus at- best example of the greater attention to detail that Renaissance, Christianity and Science during the 1051 shaped both science and art in the Renaissance. First and his contemporaries in the North, Vesalius also benefited foremost, his work, like that of the other excellent Re- from the increasing trade in books that had developed naissance artists, shows that attention to detail and nu- since the invention of the printing press in 1452. ance that shaped the greatest art of the period. All these Vesalius was part of a small but growing group of sci- years later, admirers of his art still marvel at the skill with entists who attacked the long-revered Galen (c. 131–201), which he depicted hands, smiles, eyes, and body posi- a Roman physician of the first century. Much of what tion, all items involving careful observation of the body’s passed for anatomy and human physiology in the early subtle physical details and its movements. Perhaps most 16th century was attributable to Galen, whose writings— telling of all, Leonardo was as much a scientist as he was like those of Hippocrates or the Hellenistic astronomer an artist. His famous work with things such as flying- Ptolemy (90–168)—had become virtually canonized after machines, dissection of cadavers, and mirrors marks centuries of reference. Vesalius was important in that him as perhaps the most celebrated scientist of his time. he disproved many of Galen’s teachings about anatomy. Significantly, da Vinci also is the quintessential scientist/ Like da Vinci, Vesalius based his anatomical work on artist, who used drawing as an essential skill in his sci- human dissection. In so doing, he showed that many entific observations. Leonardo’s sketchbooks are full of of Galen’s false findings resulted from the dissection of sketches not only of typical artistic objects of drawing animals, not humans. A great figureOnly in the history of such as hands and eyes, but also of the products of his ex- medicine, Galen’s errors skewed anatomical understand- periments and scientific observations: hearts and other ing for many centuries. internal organs, the female reproductive system, skulls, Another important Renaissance medical writer, who and internal musculature. With Leonardo, it is hard to attacked the Galenists dominating medical faculties in separate the artist from the scientist. The two seem in- Europe’s universities, was Paracelsus (1493–1541). Some- extricably interwoven. Indeed, from da Vinci to Darwin, times called “The Medical Luther,” Paracelsus famously scientific training included the ability to draw the vari- argued that old wives’ tales and folk remedies had as ous body parts, plants, animals, or other items that were much or more curative power than all the Galenists in all necessary illustrations in a given scientific work. This the great universities. Among his important findings was practice remained typical of scientific training until well the use of mercury as a treatment for syphilis, a remedy into the late Victorian period, when photography finally foreshadowingCopy later approaches to the disease. In general, replaced the need for scientific sketches. Paracelsus’s career was marked by vitriolic battles with Christian authorities often frowned on scientific the medical establishment of his day. He was the equiva- activities like those of Leonardo. Most famously, his lent of a medical heretic. In this way, he reminds modern dissection of cadavers was illegal during his time. In- students that the real issue in Renaissance-era struggles deed, in many religions today desecration of the body over science and religion was often between established remains an offensive and sinful activity, on the grounds ways of doing things and novel approaches. Religious or of human dignity and the sacred worth. Nonetheless, moral issues, though they were often cited in these sorts it is hard to imagine taking many strides forward in of struggles, usually masked more basic struggles over understanding of human anatomy—especially internal institutional power. As was the case with the Ptolemaic anatomy—without the dissection of corpses. Even in the (geocentric) system of the cosmos, or the doctrine of pur- early modern period, such practices were still often il- gatory, the issue was often that such things were deemed legal, though the famous medieval school at Amsterdam “settled” and had been firmly established in the power came to allow one dissection a year, an event immortal- structures of churches, universities, or other comparable ized in Rembrandt’s famous painting The Anatomy Les- bodies. This was the case with Renaissance-era medicine. son of Dr. Nicholaes Tulp (1632). Over time, the objections of physicians like Vesalius or The Northern Renaissance of the Germanies featured Paracelsus to established medical practices proved right. many important scientific observations related to the The Englishman William Harvey (1578–1657) was study of anatomy, aiding the development of medicine one of the most important of all the early anatomists. enormously. The important Flemish physician Andreas In 1628, he published his famous work De Motu Cordis Vesalius (1514–1564) was one of the most important (On the Motion of the Heart). Among its other achieve- anatomists of his day. While working at the University ments, Harvey’s book correctly identified and explained ofContributor Padua in Italy, in 1543 he wrote The Structure of the the arteries and veins, as well as correctly identifying the Human Body, which would become one of the “medical functions of the heart and lungs. Like Vesalius and Para- textbooks” of the Renaissance. The many outstanding celsus before him, Harvey also found fault with the long- woodcuts used in the original text testify to one of the accepted teachings of Galen. Galen’s views of circulation Northern Renaissance’s finest modes of illustration. Like were that the blood followed an “ebb and flow” pattern in 1052 Renaissance, Christianity and Science during the the body. Harvey showed that the blood flowed continu- Judeo-Christian creation, and the doctrine of original sin, ally through the body. His ideas in this regard, as well had only further cemented the geocentric cosmos as an as his more accurate descriptions of veins and arteries, embodiment of Christian teachings and philosophy. The are often credited with improving surgery. In particular, system also obviously placed humanity and humanity’s Harvey’s work helped lessen the risk of a patient bleeding home planet earth at the very center of God’s creation, re- to death during surgery. Harvey’s work also prompted inforcing the pleasing view of humans as special creatures speculation about intravenous injections, as well as blood created in the image of Almighty God. transfusions, though neither idea really was successfully It is hard to imagine a more basic illustration of the implemented until the 19th century. concept of the “medieval worldview” than this, the Ptol- emaic system of the cosmos. Of course today the error of Enhanced Observation and the Struggle such a system would be readily apparent to elementary over the Heavens schoolchildren, who see accurate orders of the suns and If a great attention to detail was the great defining quality planets on the walls of their nursery schools, kindergar- of the Renaissance—the one that wrested much of Europe tens, and baby nurseries. But in the Middle Ages, the from medieval limitations and prompted revolutions most learned men and women largely accepted the geo- in the arts and learning—observation played an equally centric conception of the cosmos. Only significant role in discoveries about the natural world, With no telescopes yet available to complicate the beyond that of art. Beginning in the Renaissance, knowl- role of observation, medieval scholars had developed edge of the natural world exploded. Indeed, it would not geometrical configurations and calculations to help de- be an overstatement to say that the very fundamental scribe the movements and positions of the planets and nature of the medieval “worldview” changed as a result. stars. Fixed positions in the heavens were calculated, ac- Inevitably, the new sciences challenged some elements counting for the observed movements and placements in the church, which felt threatened either politically or of heavenly bodies in the sky. Astrology, with its differ- philosophically by changing outlooks. Common versions ent “houses” and alignments, is a living vestige of belief of the “fight over the heavens” often overemphasize or in the Ptolemaic system, and the complicated calcula- oversimplify the tensions between church and science, tions and charting of planetary movements it involved. casting the church in villainous guise as the enemy of The ideasCopy of the Western zodiac largely derived from human intellectual progress and freedom. Such imagery the systems of Aristotle and Ptolemy, but they informed is neither totally accurate nor helpful. Nonetheless, the medieval science. clash of cultures and outlooks that accompanied the As observation increased over the centuries, discrep- scientific revolution is indeed one of the period’s most ancies naturally emerged, creating contradictions be- important and telling themes. tween the stated calculations and positions that existed One of the most explosive areas pitting the church on paper and those positions and movements as observed against science was astronomy. In the Middle Ages, the in the sky. Like the beliefs equated with astrology or al- “Ptolemaic” conception of the cosmos reigned supreme chemy, these calculations gained enormous additional in the universities, as well as in popular outlooks. Based complexity over time. This was because in a system so on the writings of the Hellenistic astronomer Ptolemy, basically wrong, the calculated projections inevitably medieval scholars had largely accepted the view that the failed, resulting in the manufacturing of additional calcu- earth was the center of the “heavens.” The five known lations to account for the errors, notably the addition of planets orbited the earth, including the sun and the stars new and confusing “cycles” of planetary movements. But in the distant firmament. The orbits of this elegant sys- of course, no matter how many additional geometrical tem were circular and their revolutions created music, configurations and cycles were added to the Ptolemaic the proverbial “music of the spheres,” a quaintly pretty system, new contradictions inevitably emerged. phrase bespeaking the beauty of the created heavens that The growing complexity of the geometrical explana- still makes an occasional appearance in poetry or Chris- tions for the Ptolemaic system clashed with another tian liturgy. The space between the earth and the moon cherished belief, one largely derived from the Platonists represented the Fallen World and was even believed to and Pythagoras: the simpler idea is usually the accurate be governed by different physical properties and ele- idea. Actually, the confusing and complicated nature of ments.Contributor While the “four elements” of earth, air, fire, and the geocentric view as it evolved through centuries of water constituted matter between the earth and moon, medieval scholarship is somewhat ironic, since one of the a fifth and more ethereal essence existed in the planets attractive features of the system was its elegance and sim- and stars beyond. Though this idea of a fifth essence had plicity and its relative conformity to human conceptions come from Aristotle, its ramifications for the notion of of humankind’s special place in the cosmos. Nonetheless, Renaissance, Christianity and Science during the 1053 actual observation and attempts to mathematically ac- portant innovations of the Renaissance and the scientific count for the system had made the cosmos of Ptolemy revolution. There are many early versions of the lens from a dizzying pseudo-science full of bizarre, almost nu- antiquity and the early middle Ages, but most of these were merological, thinking. By the Renaissance, the confusing cut gemstones that aided the naked eye. Nero famously labyrinth of calculations the system involved, and the looked through a gem, perhaps as an ancient remedy for never-ending addition of new explanations to account for the problem of nearsightedness. By the Renaissance, lens- its basic errors, began to raise questions. enabled eyeglasses and lens-crafting had become impor- The Polish astronomer Copernicus (1473–1543) was tant, especially in the Low Countries of the North. one of the first to challenge the geocentric system. Basing The new telescope made its most significant contribu- his idea on the fact that the system would be simpler if the tions in the work of the famous Italian scientist Galileo sun were at the center, Copernicus proposed a system in (1564–1642). In 1609, Galileo built a telescope, borrow- which the planets, including the earth, orbited the sun. ing from the technological advances emanating from The Copernican system, based on pure observation, was Northern Europe. Looking through his telescope, Galileo revolutionary in that it did not seek to add to or improve made some of the most revolutionary findings yet, which the calculations of the old system. Rather, it discarded the many early 17th-century Christians would find as jarring old formulae altogether, starting from a clean slate with a as Victorian Christians often foundOnly Darwinism. Galileo much-simplified, and more correct, understanding of the saw the “dark side of the moon” and also emphasized cosmos. Nevertheless, Copernicus was hesitant to publish something that was actually quite novel at the time: the his findings, knowing that they represented a complete moon was dirt—barren ugly rock, devoid of much else. overturning of existing truths. The work of Copernicus Galileo saw sunspots and the moons of Jupiter. He saw was not published until the year of his death, and it would the countless stars of the Milky Way. Through such ultimately be condemned by ecclesiastical authorities. observations, Galileo’s telescope also opened space up The successors to Copernicus continued his work. in the literal sense. The vastness of space became more The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) es- apparent, reducing the stature of humankind in the cos- tablished a famous observatory in Denmark. Though mos. Far from being the “center of the universe,” earth telescopes did not yet exist, Brahe spent many years ob- increasingly appeared to be a remote corner of outer serving the planetary movements with his naked eye and space.Copy In general, Galileo’s findings also confirmed the what instruments were available to pinpoint locations in heliocentric view. the heavens. He devised the best and most accurate charts In 1632, Galileo was summoned to the Inquisition then existing in Western Europe. An important point is and threatened with excommunication and the charge of that Brahe did not challenge the Copernican view. His heresy if he did not recant. After being shown the instru- student, Johann Kepler (1571–1630), furthered the work ments of torture by the Inquisitors, Galileo recanted, at of his teacher. Kepler is especially significant because least superficially. In the years since then, Galileo’s trial at he revived a heliocentric view, which Brahe had largely the behest of the Inquisitors has become an iconic image ignored. Moreover, he also managed to revise the Coper- connoting many oft-cited themes in European intellec- nican view. Of particular significance in this regard was tual history: the purported struggle between science and Kepler’s assertion that the orbits of the heavenly bodies religion; the struggle between intellectual freedom and were elliptical, not circular. He also argued that the veloc- dogma; and the struggle between old, established out- ity and speed of a planet’s movement increased as it drew looks and new and disruptive findings. Even today, the closer to the sun and decreased in the areas of the orbit frequent battles pitting religion and science in education farthest away from the sun. These important changes to and academic life raise the specter of Galileo’s trial, which the conception of the “solar system”—as it increasingly is one of Western civilization’s greatest anti-models when appeared to be—also helped to harmonize many of the it comes to intellectual liberty and the freedom of inquiry. mathematical aspects of the heavenly movements that While there are indeed lessons to learn in this regard, had so frustrated astronomers in the first place. a more careful historical view also shows a more com- The study of the skies received a huge boost with the plex picture. It is certainly true that many figures in the development of the telescope around 1600. The related in- church found the new astronomy troubling. As is often vention of the microscope was no less significant. Both the the case in these matters, it probably was not so much telescopeContributor and the microscope were made possible by great that the particular notion of a heliocentric universe was improvements in the lens and lens-crafting that occurred that threatening to the Catholic Church, per se. It was later in the Middle Ages. A product with a somewhat more that the church had supported and promulgated obscure history, the lens and its powers to enhance obser- this view over the course of many centuries. It was largely vation are directly responsible for some of the most im- a matter of “falsus in uno, falsus in omnibus—false in 1054 Research one thing, false in all.” If the church could err in this one mers. A major example is the adoption of the Gregorian thing, what other errors had it also promulgated? It is calendar, implemented in October 1582 to replace the not particularly fair to target the church exclusively with ancient Julian Calendar. The change became necessary these protectionist feelings. After all, the Ptolemaic view because of small errors in the old Julian calendar. Over was also the established view, held in academic institu- the years, these slight errors had accumulated, resulting tions by the most learned faculty in universities all across in problems fixing the date of Easter, which was tradi- Europe. It was also the basis of astronomical and cosmo- tionally pegged to the spring solstice. Handed down by logical understandings in the Islamic world. Pope Gregory XIII (r. 1572–1585), the Gregorian calen- Galileo lived out the rest of his life, quietly knowing dar realigned the established calendar dates with their that his version of the cosmos was the correct one, whose associated astronomical events. The calculations and as- eventual acceptance by thinking people was only a mat- tronomy involved in the calendar are quite complex. The ter of time. Late in the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton Catholic Church’s management of the calendar in this (1642–1727) further refined the views of his predeces- regard represented some of the best astronomical science sors, like Kepler or Galileo, showing how physical laws in Europe at that time. such as gravity acted on orbits and accounting for their movements and placements with calculus. When he died, References and Resources Only he was entombed in the consecrated space of Westmin- Ackerknecht, Erwin H. 1982. A Short History of Medicine. Bal- ster Abbey. His entombment in such a prestigious and timore: Johns Hopkins University Press. hallowed space signals the ascendancy and status that Butterfield, H. 1957. The Origins of Modern Science, 1300–1800. science had achieved by the late 17th century. London: G. Bell The microscope made possible revolutionary findings Debus, A. G. 1978. Man and Nature in the Renaissance. Cam- as well. The great English scientist Robert Hooke penned bridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. his work Micrographia in 1665, based on his observations Grafton, Anthony. 1991. Defenders of the Text: The Traditions through the microscope. Among his most important of Scholarship in an Age of Science, 1450–1800. Cambridge; findings, Hooke identified the cell as the basic unit of all New York: Cambridge University Press. living things. His observations of cells in a slice of cork Jacob, M. 1988. The Cultural Meaning of the Scientific Revolu- are especially famous. They inspired many later scientists tionCopy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.​ to continue the study of microscopic cells and organisms. —David Leinweber

The Church and Science For its part, the church was actually a great promoter Research of science during the years following the Renaissance and the scientific revolution. Indeed, it is important to Research, in its basic form, is the process by which one remember that the church maintained the universities, identifies a problem, collects information, evaluates the which provided the infrastructure and support that sci- data, and then presents the solution.29 Since the gaining ence needed in these formative years. Though in the of knowledge, the adding to knowledge, and the pass- baroque period “royal academies” and patronage of ing along of knowledge are central to the development various forms would provide a new form of support and and spread of Christian thought, research is an integral status, universities related to the church would remain component of Christian education.30 Moreover, it is es- at the center of scientific development until well into the sential that both teachers and students learn to engage 19th century. In the Protestant countries of the North, in research. For teachers, research involves the act of science generally flourished in an unprecedented climate gathering new sources of information, assimilating ac- of freedom. In Catholic lands, education also flourished quired knowledge, and integrating new understanding to in the universities, with the sciences likewise flourishing. enhance the learning experience of the student. For stu- France, in particular, would become one of the leaders dents, research involves the act of developing “the skills of scientific progress during the 17th and 18th centuries. needed both to discover information and to integrate Jesuit education, which included a calling to rigorous new information with established understandings.”31 learning based on experience and observation, was often considered the best education in Europe. 29. Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams, The ContributorCraft of Research (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 2. It is also important to remember that despite its tar- 30. Nancy Jean Vyhmeister, Quality Research Papers for Students of Reli- nished image as the upholder of erroneous medieval gion and Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2001), 1–2. 31. General Institutional Standards, Bulletin 50, pt. 1 (Pittsburgh, PA: beliefs, the Catholic Church in the Renaissance actually The Association of Theological Schools Commission on Accrediting, featured some of Europe’s finest scientists and astrono- 2012), G-6. Restitution as Christian Practice 1055

The ability to research effectively is developed from being sensitive to the larger Christian community and a foundation of information literacy. Quite simply, in- the broader public, they understand that their contribu- formation literacy is the “the set of skills needed to find, tion affords them opportunities to influence the spiri- retrieve, analyze, and use information.”32 The glut of tual and intellectual dialogue on the global scale. Thus, widely accessible information in contemporary soci- research accomplished as an individual or a collabora- ety mandates increasing skill as learners must develop tive enterprise should seek to contribute to the life of the discrimination in surveying, evaluating, and selecting academy, the wider church community, and even larger information sources from which they will draw their re- society as a whole. search. To engage in effective and informed inquiry, it is imperative for the researcher to become acquainted with References and Resources the many resources made available by the well-stocked Association of College and Research Libraries, A Division of library, as opposed to perusing indiscriminately all of the American Library Association. n.d.-a. “Information the disorganized information sources available on the Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education.” Ac- Internet. While basic practice in searching out and sum- cessed 30 March 2013. http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/ marizing information is often the initial step in research, informationliteracycompetency. the ultimate goal of research is to cultivate lifelong learn- ———. n.d.-b. “Introduction to InformationOnly Literacy.” Accessed ers who are able to think critically and formulate their 30 March 2013. http://www.ala.org/acrl/issues/infolit/over own reasoned opinions about any subject under study. view/intro. Information literacy elevates research from an exercise Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Wil- of merely surveying and reporting on findings to criti- liams. 1995. The Craft of Research. Chicago: University of cally evaluating these findings to construct a defensible Chicago Press. conclusion. This conclusion should be well-reasoned, General Institutional Standards. 2012. Bulletin 50, Part 1. Pitts- internally consistent, and supported by credible sources burgh: Association of Theological Schools Commission on from which the research has been conducted. Accord- Accrediting. ing to the Information Literacy Competency Standards Vyhmeister, Nancy Jean. 2001. Quality Research Papers for Stu- for Higher Education, practicing and refining the skills dents of Religion and Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. that comprise information literacy promotes “students’ Copy—Edward W. Watson and Angela L. Watson self-directed learning, as they become engaged in using a wide variety of information sources to expand their knowledge, ask informed questions, and sharpen their Restitution as Christian Practice critical thinking.”33 One’s theoretical framework affects the resources from Restitution is an act of commutative justice that involves which one should draw. Moreover, an understanding of making reparations to another who has been harmed current critical methods of research helps both students in some way, intentionally or unintentionally, by a per- and teachers to engage the breadth and diversity of petrator. Its practice comes under the study of moral Christian thought found in the historical and contem- theology/Christian ethics. Restitution is part of a larger porary resources available to them. For example, if a process that involves forgiveness and reconciliation. researcher is working in biblical studies, he or she may More specifically, restitution may be considered as bring- need to utilize various biblical criticisms. If a researcher ing closure to the reconciliation process, wherein efforts is working in theological and historical studies, he or she are made to restore the victim’s person, property, and/or would likely utilize various historical critical methods of reputation to its former state. Restitution demonstrates research. If a researcher is working in practical or applied the perpetrator’s remorse for the rupture in relationship. studies, then various quantitative, qualitative, or mixed The practice of restitution rests on the premise that methods would likely be most appropriate. what belongs to a person must be respected by others. Finally, researchers not only practice critical inquiry When this premise is violated, either by acts of the will as a necessary part of the scholarly discussion, but, by (withholding something from the other person) or dam- age (to property, respect, and reputation) that results in a ruptured relationship, the biblical way to restore the re- 32. Association of College and Research Libraries, “Introduction to In- formationContributor Literacy,” http://www.ala.org/acrl/issues/infolit/overview/intro lationship is through restitution; that is, exact reparation (accessed 30 March 2013). is made to the injured party, as far as it is possible. This 33. Association of College and Research Libraries, “Information Lit- eracy Competency Standards for Higher Education,” http://www.ala.org/ premise views the crime as an injury against the person acrl/standards/informationliteracycompetency (accessed 30 March 2013). and the resultant ruptured relationship. This view is in 1056 Restorationist Church Christian Education contrast to the prevailing judicial system, within which offenders and their families. Restorative justice maintains crimes are considered violations of the laws of the land. that what brings about justice is the acknowledgment of The practice of restitution has its origins in the Old the victims’ harms and needs, and the efforts to encour- and New Testaments. The practice is grounded in two age offenders to take responsibility, restore the harm notions. Shalom, the first notion, is a multidimensional done, and deal with the cause of their behavior. These concept that, among other things, refers to the need to components are facilitated through a process known as live in harmonious relationships characterized by trust- restorative justice dialogue. This dialogue can take four worthiness with one another and with God. The second approaches: victim-offender mediation, group confer- notion, the idea of covenant, implies mutual responsibili- encing, circles, and other programs that invite victim and ties between parties to an agreement, which provide the offender to formulate together a restorative response to basis for shalom. Harms then were viewed as a rupture in the offense. the “shalom community.” In this context, the perpetrator Restitution is also expressed by some faith traditions is required by the community to show repentance for in the form of penance, as an act of repentance for sins the harm inflicted and to make restitution to the injured committed by the faithful. In this view, penitential acts party as a sign of restoration with the individual and/or done by individuals are seen as providing satisfaction community. Since harms committed against a person for their sins, strengthening their relationshipOnly with God, break relationship bonds, restitution was intended to and growing in holiness. In such faith traditions, pen- restore fellowship, much as repentance and confession ance can take the form of prayer, fasting, almsgiving, restore a relationship with God. and works of charity. In the Old Testament, the restitution practices were part of the Levitical law and governed a number of of- References and Resources fenses, including, for example, physical attacks and in- Aitken, J. 2003. “Divine Justice.” American Spectator 36 (5): jury (Exod. 21:18–32, NRSV); property damage, liability, 42–43. theft, and negligence (Exod. 21:33–22:15); and deception Catholic Church. 2000. Catechism of the Catholic Church: (Lev. 6:1–5). These harms stem from violations of the Popular and Definitive Edition. Vatican: Libreria Editrice Mosaic Decalogue. Further, Numbers 5:5–7 indicates Vaticana. that the amount of reparation should include the full Danahar,Copy W. J. 2007. “Towards a Paschal Theology of Restor- value of the harm committed plus a fifth of its value. In ative Justice.” Anglican Theology Review 89 (2): 359–373. the New Testament, Zaccchaeus (Luke 19:1–10), upon Doolan, A. 2007. “Restitution.” In The New Catholic Encyclope- acknowledging his extortion of tax money, provided res- dia, 2nd ed., edited by Thomas Carson, 142–144. Farming- titution in a general sense by giving “half of [his] posses- ton Hills, MI: The Gale Group. sions to the poor” (v. 8), and in a specific sense, by paying Harris, R. L. 1990. “Leviticus.” In The Expositor’s Bible com- “back four times the amount” (v. 8). These amounts of mentary: With the New International Version. Vol. 2, Gen- restitution were far more than required by the law (Lev. esis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, edited by F. E. Gaebelein, 5:16, Num. 5:7). 501–654. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Today the practice of restitution is often referred to Kaiser, W. C., Jr. 1990. “Exodus.” In The Expositor’s Bible Com- as restorative justice. Restorative justice is a movement mentary: With the New International Version. Vol. 2, Gen- that gained popularity in the 1960s and 1970s under esis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, edited by F. E. Gaebelein, such titles as the “restitution movement” and “victims’ 285–497. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. rights.” It was used in South Africa and Rwanda most Sullivan, D., and L. Tifft. 2001. Restorative Justice: Healing the recently and has been a traditional practice of many ab- Foundations of Our Everyday Lives. Monsey, NY: Willow original communities around the world. These modern Tree Press. movements emerged from a gap in the criminal justice Umbreit, M., and M. P. Armour. 2011. Restorative Justice process that focuses on the accused but neglects the Dialogue: An Essential Guide for Research and Practice. New victims, treating them as passive observers. In addition, York: Springer. the current system is much more punitive than growth —John Stewart engendering. Restorative justice recognizes ownership and restitution as an essential part of healing. RestorativeContributor justice focuses on a needs-based idea of Restorationist Church justice; that is, the needs of all parties involved are ac- Christian Education knowledged. In this approach, the stakeholders, those af- fected directly by the offence, are given a voice, including Restoration movements have existed in many Protestant victims and their families, the affected community, and circles since before the 18th century. On the American Restorationist Church Christian Education 1057 frontier during the Second Great Awakening, a group and his contemporaries began Bacon and Franklin Col- of churches emerged that sought to retrieve the unity leges, reflecting the group’s interest in science and a of Christianity by following the model of the primi- rational approach to all human knowledge. Butler Uni- tive church. In New England, Elias Smith and Abner versity, Texas Christian University, and Disciples Divin- Jones founded churches espousing these views, and the ity Houses at the University of Chicago and Vanderbilt Free Methodists of the South followed James O’Kelly in were at the forefront of higher education in Disciples of similar directions. As Thomas Campbell put it in his 1809 Christ. Churches of Christ, which by 1906 had become a “Declaration and Address”: “A manifest attachment to separate group emphasizing biblical literalism and a sec- our Lord Jesus Christ in faith, holiness, and charity was tarian approach to church life, founded many liberal arts the original criterion of [C]hristian character.” Those colleges, most notably Pepperdine, Abilene Christian, following him, his son Alexander and Barton Stone, Harding, and Lipscomb Universities. Churches of Christ left Presbyterian and Baptist communions (primarily) and Christian Churches, which split from the Disciples to form networks of congregations that emphasized between the 1920s and 1960s over the construction of simplicity of worship, cooperation in mission, careful denominational structures and liberal theology, opted attention to scripture, and holy living. They practiced primarily for Bible colleges training clergy only. believers’ baptism, weekly communion, and local congre- The education of laypeople in Onlythe 19th century oc- gational autonomy, all undergirded by a strong emphasis curred through journals such as the Millennial Har- on the Bible as the only guide to the church’s faith and binger, Gospel Advocate, Christian Standard, and many practice. By the time of the Civil War, this group, call- others, which often included Bible studies and articles ing itself Disciples, Christians, or the Church of Christ, on theological and practical matters. Adult Bible classes had become one of the largest American denominations. on the model of the Sunday school movement became a It sought to have “no creed but Christ, no book but the feature of most congregations before 1900 and remain Bible, no name but the name Christian.” (Williams, so today, while other forms of small group studies are Foster, and Blowers, 2013, 47). popular in all groups. The branches of the restora- Over the next decades, however, the movement frac- tion movement developed their own publishing houses, tured over both internal issues of reading the Bible (such which disseminated educational material for children as the legitimacy of organizations other than the local andCopy adults, and they have increasingly borrowed (often church and features of worship, especially the use of with theological adaptations) material from other pub- instrumental music), regional differences exacerbated by lishers and traditions. the Civil War and Reconstruction, and (later) the major In the 20th century, religious education developed theological crises in American Protestantism centering as a distinct role of clergy, first among the more liberal around modernist theology and ecumenism. Today, the and urban Disciples, and then in the other restoration- Stone-Campbell movement consists of four major bod- ist churches. Attempts to learn from wider Christian ies, ranging in theological emphasis from sectarian con- approaches to religious education appeared, with such servative to evangelical to mainline Protestant (though theoreticians as Jesse P. Sewell and Henry Speck seek- with many important exceptions in each case): Churches ing to organize congregations by age and build curricula of Christ (and from the 1970s, International Churches accordingly. Churches of Christ, especially, sought to of Christ), Christian Churches and Churches of Christ, embed the Sunday school in the congregation rather and Disciples of Christ. In all branches, weekly commu- than allowing it to be a free-floating organization on the nion and baptism by immersion are standard practices. Southern Baptist model. Such a difference from some Disagreements over the leadership of women in worship instantiations of the Sunday school movement resulted within the more conservative bodies have become sig- from intense ecclesiological reflection. nificant, distinguishing them from the more progressive Beginning with Alexander Campbell’s 1839 prospectus Disciples and causing significant internal differences. for Bethany College, which proposed to build a school Collectively, the four churches count more than five mil- that would inculcate in its students all that was “ratio- lion adherents around the world, and each enjoys signifi- nal, moral, and subservient to good taste,” the move- cant internal diversity. Recent attempts to reconnect the ment’s educational program has tended to emphasize groups have led to new opportunities for mutual learning the development of character, however construed. Also andContributor retrieval of the movement’s original impulses. prominent has been a strong emphasis on the Bible in the All the restorationist churches have emphasized edu- undergraduate curriculum and the establishment of Bible cation, not only in the Bible and theology, but more chairs and other forms of higher education alongside generally. In the 1830s, Alexander Campbell himself state and private universities, as well as vigorous campus founded Bethany College in what is now West Virginia, ministry. In short, despite theological and socioeconomic 1058 Retreats as Christian Practice differences among the various restorationist churches rhythm that allows for both rest and renewed vision has and their constituent congregations, certain common been a vital part of the church’s life for many centuries. themes emerge. Emphasis on the rational and the prac- tical dominates, often to the exclusion of the affective Purpose aspects of spiritual formation. Such an emphasis contin- In a retreat setting, people are uprooted from their or- ues to color education in all four major branches of the dinary, everyday lives and transported to a new setting, movement, in spite of their many differences. where they must learn to find new roots. This is a liminal space where individuals have left the familiar, where they References and Resources have been pushed out of their comfort zone. New pos- Baker, W. R., ed. 2002. Evangelicalism and the Stone-Campbell sibilities await, and thus they are more ready to receive Movement. Vol. 1. Foreword by M. Noll. Downers Grove, IL: what God may have for them in this new environment. InterVarsity Press. This is why retreats, in the best sense of the word, occur Baker, W. R. and Mark Noll. 2006. Evangelism and the Stone- in a setting that is away from the noise and busyness Campbell Movement. Vol. 2. Abilene, TX: ACU Press. of our ordinary lives. The setting is usually pastoral in Garrett, L. 1994. The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of nature, utilizing the beauty of God’s creation as both a the American Restoration Movement. Joplin, MO: College backdrop against which to see oneselfOnly and as a context Press. in which to discover (anew) what God might be saying. Hughes, R. 1996. Reviving the Ancient Faith. Grand Rapids, MI: In addition, a retreat setting can help with what Dean Eerdmans. and Foster refer to as dehabituation, or rhythm break- Sewell, J. P., and H. E. Speck Jr. 1935. The Church and Her ing: “While Christians need a rhythm of life available in Ideal Educational Situation. Austin, TX: Firm Foundation the practices of faith, we also need to vary these rhythms Publishing House. from time to time if we are to stay fresh in our faith and Williams, D. N., D. Foster, and P. Blowers, eds. 2013. The open to the new and energizing ways Christ calls us to. Stone-Campbell Movement: A Global History. St. Louis, MO: We all fall prey to the powers of habit, circumstance, Chalice. and acculturation. . . . Unless we consciously decide to —Samjung Kang-Hamilton live otherwise, we may drift aimlessly with the currents of dailyCopy routine rather than deliberately choose to live as part of God’s Kingdom. Sacred spacemaking breaks the Retreats as Christian Practice rhythm of the ordinary and punctuates it with moments of God-consciousness.”34 Retreats are specific times set aside to withdraw from the normal activities of life in order to better focus on God Benefits and His work in our lives as individuals and communi- Bob Cagle suggests that there are several benefits that ties. They typically range from one day to many weeks, activities like camps and retreats provide for those with three days being the most common duration. involved:35

History • Community versus isolation—Although we live in a The origin of retreats is hotly contested. Some look to the crowded world, more people than ever seem to live book of Exodus and Moses’s request to Pharaoh to “Let lonely lives, often disconnected from meaningful my people go, so that they may hold a festival to me in the relationships. In a retreat setting, participants are desert” (Exod. 5:1, NIV). Others suggest that Jesus Him- forced to not only room with others, but also to eat self inaugurated the idea of retreats based on His spend- with them, to work side-by-side, and to learn to- ing 40 days fasting in the desert (Luke 4). And still others gether. As they do, they learn what it means to move believe that the first real retreats as we understand them beyond the potential loneliness they may experience today originated with St. Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556), and to discover the beauty and value of living in true as he wrote the “Spiritual Exercises,” a rule that governed community with others. the monastic community and provided opportunities for • Relaxation versus hurried living—People are busy. the men of his community to remove themselves from They lead hectic lives, often running from one event theirContributor normal routines and focus exclusively on God. Regardless of its exact origins, it is clear that the con- 34. Kenda Creasy Dean and Ron Foster, The Godbearing Life (Nashville, TN: Upper Room Books, 1999), 185–186. cept of setting aside time to withdraw from the normal 35. Bob Cagle, Youth Ministry Camping (Loveland, CO: Group Books, demands and routines of life in order to find an alternative 1989), 17–18. Revelation and Its Application to Christian Education 1059

to the other. As a result, they often struggle to slow Some retreats are built entirely on silence. These re- down long enough to be able to hear God’s voice treat contexts are designed to allow space for participants amid all the competing noise. Retreats provide a set- to listen more than talk, and in so doing, to discover what ting in which time is different. Participants have to God might need to work on in their lives. These retreats slow down, to actually talk and listen to each other, can occur alone or with others, but practice silence as a and ultimately to God. way of creating opportunities for deep introspection and • Cooperation versus competition—In the Western discernment in a culture of high stress and insecurity. world, there is an unspoken need to always win. Pilgrimages are a form of retreat in which an indi- People seek to rise to the top of the corporate lad- vidual chooses to journey to a specific site that has great der, always trying to outdo each other. In a retreat spiritual meaning, either personally or for the church at setting, your position, title, or success mean little. large. Often the journey itself is equally as formative, if Everyone is asked to contribute to the experience, not more so, as the actual destination. and people have to learn to depend on one another A key issue in retreat planning is to ensure that the in order to ensure that activities are completed. Co- schedule allows time and space for people to connect operation is important to success. with each other and with God. Filling the schedule too • Nature versus technology—We live in a world full of activities (even good ones) canOnly often force a per- where people are tied to their smartphones, tablets, son to neglect the elements of quietness, reflection, and or computers. They become so reliant upon them solitude that historically have been part of the purpose that they don’t know how to function without of retreats. them. Retreats can offer an alternative reality, one Retreat types are often governed by age groupings in which technology is not the focus, but rather (e.g., youth group), gender (men’s or women’s retreat), God’s creation. Participants learn to live more sim- or particular focus (discipleship, evangelism, service, ply, to trust themselves and others (rather than just etc.). More churches are incorporating retreats as part of technology), and to develop the eyes to see God’s their Christian education program, even offering family handiwork in nature. retreats that allow whole families to attend together as a • Awe and wonder versus mass production—Far way of promoting and practicing family discipleship. too many people, especially the young, are jaded. Copy They’ve seen the best of Hollywood’s special effects References and Resources on the screen and thus are no longer impressed with Ferguson, Nancy, and Kevin T. Witt. 2006. The Retreat Leader’s real life. Everything is about bigger and better and Manual: A Complete Guide to Organizing Meaningful Chris- more. But in a retreat setting, participants are ex- tian Retreats. Nashville, TN: Discipleship Resources. posed to a sense of awe and wonder as they partici- Liteman, Merianne. 2006. Retreats That Work: Everything You pate in activities that are not just in the virtual world, Need to Know about Planning and Leading Great Offsites. San but the real world. This can include things like rap- Francisco: Pfeiffer. pelling off a cliff face, which forces one to grapple Venable, Steven F., and Donald M. Joy. 1998. How to Use with real fear and conquer it. It can be seeing the Camping Experiences in Religious Education. Birmingham, brilliance of the multitude of stars and recognizing AL: Religious Education Press. the mystery of God’s creation. As one experiences —James K. Hampton these things, one develops a sense of awe and rever- ence both for the Creator and the world He created. Revelation and Its Application Use of Retreats in Christian Education to Christian Education Retreats for congregations occur in many different set- tings and have many different purposes. Revelation is central to Christian education because, on Discipleship is often a primary purpose for many the one hand, it provides the content. Christian educators retreats. These types of retreats are designed to help study and teach what God’s Revelation contains. How- participants grow and mature in their faith by engag- ever, Revelation also provides the purpose, and in some ing in worship, spiritual disciplines, and other Christian ways the means, of Christian education. practicesContributor with a focus on listening to God’s voice. These In much of Christian history, theologians have seen types of retreats tend to stem from the Roman Catholic Revelation as a body of propositional truth—informa- Cursillo movement. Particular Protestant expressions of tion we need to understand. To be sure, Revelation these types of retreats are seen in the Emmaus Retreats or does provide propositional truth. However, the goal of the D-Now weekends. Christian educators, teachers, pastors, and ministry lead- 1060 Revelation and Its Application to Christian Education ers has never been to merely transfer information. Very First, knowing God involves a real, relational encoun- little in scripture suggests that knowing information is ter with God. We would never say we “know” someone in ultimately critical or valuable on its own. The informa- any meaningful sense without actually meeting him and tion we acquire must take root in our hearts and shape being in his presence. Spiritually speaking, then, know- our behavior (1 Cor. 8:1–2; James 1:22–25). So those ing God means we have entered into a relationship with engaged in Christian education desire most to see God’s Him. Christian education ought therefore to facilitate this revealed knowledge manifest itself in transformed affec- encounter through whatever biblically faithful pedagogy or tions and behaviors. We seek to become more like Jesus ministry strategy is at our disposal. Christ. How does this happen? Put simply, transforma- Second, knowing God involves intimacy with Him. tion (the goal of Christian education) happens because of The biblical writers often refer to sex as a man and Revelation. God revealed and continues to reveal Himself woman “knowing” each other (Gen. 4:1), and although (John 14:21), and that Revelation provides the context for our view of sex is often tainted by its misuse and abuse, Christian education. sex in its purest form is the most physically and emo- Jesus hints at this in His high priestly prayer. He turned tionally intimate experience we can have with another his eyes heavenward and said, “Now this is eternal life: that human. The sexual act involves complete openness, they know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom vulnerability, and unity. Knowing GodOnly is analogous. It you have sent” (John 17:3). Interestingly, Jesus points to involves being true and honest before Him, seeking to knowledge (i.e., knowing God) as the very definition of know Him for who He is, and seeking to be known for “eternal life,” suggesting that the goal of life—the life we who we really are—no hiding or pretending. Christian long for, are created for, and need most—is bound up in education ought therefore to facilitate and encourage this knowledge, not of a body of information, but of a Person. growing intimacy with God. So eternal life is knowing God, and knowing God can only Third, knowing God involves obedience to Jesus’s happen because God revealed/reveals Himself. teachings. Both Old and New Testament writers es- Theologians throughout history have helped us sort sentially equate obeying God’s commands with know- into categories the ways God revealed Himself: general, ing Him (Jer. 22:15–16; 1 John 2:3–6). This is where special, and episodic revelation. But according to the Christian education, and the “knowledge” it provides, writer of Hebrews, God revealed Himself most decisively becomesCopy humbling and formative. We don’t “know” and most clearly in His Son Jesus Christ (Heb. 1.1–4), so something in the truest sense until that “knowledge” has Christian education is centered on helping people dis- changed us, and we don’t know God if this “knowing” cover, understand, and surrender to that Revelation. Put doesn’t increasingly (albeit gradually, and in fits and more directly, since eternal life is knowing God, Chris- starts) lead to greater obedience. Christian education, tian education is about facilitating that relationship. The therefore, ought to facilitate and expect greater obedience early church understood this well. Robert Louis Wilken to Jesus’s commands. notes, “The Christian life was oriented toward a goal, Finally, knowing God is an ongoing journey of walking toward life in fellowship with God. Its end was to know with Him. The imagery in Galatians 5:16–26 speaks not and love God as we have been known and loved by God, of “arrival” but of ongoing relational engagement and re- for only in knowing and loving God and sharing in God’s sponding to God’s lead. Knowing God is about entering life would a human being find happiness.”36 into relationship with Him, but it is also about continu- How do we assess our progress in His knowing and ing in that relationship. Christian education, therefore, be sure our Christian education efforts are having the ought to remind us (and our students) to receive God’s intended effect? The Old Testament concept of “know- grace daily and “press on” to know Christ more fully (Phil. ing” (yada), its New Testament parallels (e.g., ginosko), 3.10–14). We do this by the three activities mentioned and the way the biblical writers use these terms can help above: spending time with Him (relational encounter), us. We cannot develop a full word study here, but we opening our hearts to Hm (intimacy), and obeying His only need to make note of a few elements of this bibli- teachings (obedience). cal concept to see its relevance and impact on Christian In conclusion, the purpose of Christian education is education. Thomas Groome provides a helpful summary to invite and enable people to encounter God through of this material as well.37 His revelation and help them respond positively to God’s Contributorcall. As they embrace faith in Christ, Christian education 36. Robert Louis Wilken, “Christian Formation in the Early Church,” coaches them to develop greater intimacy with the Father, in Educating People of Faith, ed. John Van Engen (Grand Rapids, MI: seeking to know and be known in greater ways. Christian Eerdmans, 2004), 62. 37. Thomas H. Groome, Christian Religious Education: Sharing Our education confronts disobedience and calls us to greater Story and Vision (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999), 141–145. faithfulness, reminding us that knowing God is not about Revelation, Foundational Considerations of 1061 acquiring a body of knowledge, but about entering into the church taught, while for Protestants this deposit was a journey of friendship and love with the Creator. In this specifically the Bible. This period focused on the content way, Revelation provides the content, the purpose, and of revelation, while later centuries would focus on the the means of Christian education, all of which are cen- nature, process, and criteria for revelation. For the East- tered on a living, breathing, daily relationship with Jesus ern Orthodox, their theology of revelation rests on “The Christ, which Jesus himself called “eternal life.” Holy Tradition” made up of the Bible and writings of the church fathers and chiefly the seven ecumenical councils References and Resources (from AD 325 to 787). It must be emphasized that the Or- Engen, John Van, ed. 2004. Educating People of Faith. Grand thodox understanding of tradition is not the commonly Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. assumed “customs of men” or fossilized teachings of the Groome, Thomas H. 1999. Christian Religious Education: Shar- past. This is because the Orthodox have a historically ing Our Story and Vision. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. richer and more developed doctrine of the Holy Spirit, Willard, Dallas. 2002. Renovation of the Heart: Putting on the who inaugurated past revelations and continues this Character of Christ. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress. work in the church today. —Darrell Yoder Theologically, there have been various approaches to understanding the nature of revelation.Only Avery Dulles (1983) outlines five approaches. The first is revelation Revelation, Foundational as doctrine, wherein the nature of revelation is propo- Considerations of sitional, found especially in the canon of scripture for Protestants and most accessibly for Catholics in the of- Revelation at the most general level is the communica- ficial teachings of the church. The second is revelation tion that takes place between God as the transmitter of as history, in which God is revealed primarily through revealed information and humans as the recipients. The historical events, especially in biblical history, that reveal acceptance of the prior act of revelation by God is the God’s redemptive plan for the world. The third is revela- source, beginning, and end of Christian existence and all tion as inner experience, wherein revelation is a personal subsequent theological categories. experience of grace through an interior and immediate While the means of revelation are various, three forms communionCopy with God. In the first three models, revela- have traditionally been identified: general, special, and tion is understood to be prior to faith. The fourth ap- episodic moments. General revelation is the knowledge proach is revelation as dialectical presence, which rejects of God made plainly available to all humans. This ac- the objectivism of the first two and the subjectivism of counts for elements of truth found in different religions the third and locates revelation at the point where faith and cultures. Natural law is general revelation applied to recognizes the word and presence of God that is simul- the moral arena, while natural theology examines how taneously revealed and concealed. The fifth, revelation as human reason can come to know about God apart from new awareness, locates revelation at the decisive moment special revelation. General revelation is, however, not when human consciousness participates in creative and salvific. Thomas Aquinas clarified the difference between redemptive activity in the movements of secular history. general and special revelation (McInerny, 1998). Special Contemporary challenges to theologies of revelation revelation is the supernatural communication and action include philosophical, linguistic, epistemological, psycho- of God to the church and humanity not available through logical, and sociological perspectives as well as the his- human reason alone. Only special revelation reveals the tory of Christian doctrine, biblical criticism, comparative way of salvation, God’s nature and purposes for human- religions, and the larger question of biblical canonization. ity. Episodic revelations are direct, supernatural callings, Each of these challenges has been met with robust re- dreams, visions, epiphanies, theophanies, and prophecies sponses from the larger Christian tradition. A more recent (1 Cor. 12:7–11) that are divinely given as moments but challenge comes from the neurosciences, which ask if our not a way of life. These revelations are recorded in the religious experiences are neurological aberrations. Neuro- biblical witness and the larger Christian tradition and are scientists have shown correlations between temporal lobe existentially experienced today. seizures or stimulations and corresponding hallucinations, Historically, the idea of revelation was taken for visions, and deep religious experiences. Initial responses grantedContributor in the early centuries until the 16th century, from a philosophical and theological perspective argue when it was necessary to elaborate on the doctrine. No that correlation is not causation. Even if connections longer did revelation refer to God’s action; instead it re- and links can be found between an experience and a cor- ferred to the deposit of truth that Christians would accept responding brain pattern, one cannot exhaust the range as given. For the Catholics, this deposit included all that of possible causes or the directionality of the arrow of 1062 Revivalism and Christian Education causality or even conclude that all supernatural revelation the church, 17th- and 18th-century Puritans in England can have measurable biological patterns. The theology of and colonial America emphasized the outpouring of revelation continues to be a work in progress. the Spirit as God’s ongoing means for awakening un- As Christian educators will note, among the laity and believers to seek the Lord and reviving the spiritual life even among the learned, the issue of revelation is explicitly of believers.39 While the Puritans believed in religious assumed but marginally understood and unpersuasively education and even the personal catechizing of every expressed. This is becoming untenable in light of compet- family in every parish every year,40 their pastoral expe- ing religious claims to special revelation, a growing global rience warned them that such efforts would eventually skepticism about privileged knowledge, and a growing fall upon deaf ears and hard hearts if not for the con- body of scientific explanation that challenges the sources tinual renewing work of the Spirit.41 They developed an of supernatural information. A good starting point for ed- ecclesiology that virtually demanded outpourings of the ucators is to understand the apologetics of Christian revela- Spirit recur periodically for ongoing reformation of the tion and subsequently to understand the nature, content, church and society.42 and criteria of revelation. The latter will enhance and give confidence to the former. An understanding of how the Jonathan Edwards three branches of Christianity perceive revelation will also No one did more to help set Old WorldOnly revivalism on its demonstrate the breadth and depth of how our larger tra- feet in the New World than Congregationalist minister dition answers this critical issue. More important, we can Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758) of Northampton, Mas- borrow the best of each tradition in constructing the finest sachusetts. A “towering intellectual figure”43 considered responses befitting a foundational issue for Christians and by many to be “America’s greatest theologian,”44 Edwards thoughtful seekers in our contemporary world. viewed the outpouring of the Spirit as an acceleration or intensification45 of the Holy Spirit’s normal activity, so References and Resources that as much is “done in a day or two, as at ordinary times Dulles, A. 1983. Models of Divine Revelation. New York: . . . is done in a year.”46 Like all Puritans, he held that such Doubleday. outpourings were God-granted events to be sought by McInerny, Ralph, 1998. Thomas Aquinas Selected Writings. ministers and their congregations as their only hope for London: Penguin Classics. advancingCopy the Gospel on the earth: “[F]rom the fall of Ward, K. 1994. Religion and Revelation. New York: Oxford man to this day wherein we live the Work of Redemption University Press. —Andre Ong 39. Thomas S. Kidd, The Great Awakening: The Roots of Evangelical Christianity in Colonial America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 2; Mark A. Noll, The Rise of Evangelicalism: The Age of Edwards, Whitefield, and the Wesleys (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), Revivalism and Christian Education 18; Richard F. Lovelace, Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1979), 121. 40. Richard Baxter, The Reformed Pastor (Morgan, PA: Soli Deo Gloria A dynamic transatlantic movement commonly referred Publications, 2002), 67–122. See also Perry Miller and Thomas Herbert to as “revivalism” profoundly shaped Christian educa- Johnson, The Puritans (New York: Harper & Row, 1963); J. I. Packer, The Redemption & Restoration of Man in the Thought of Richard Baxter: a Study tion in North America and the United Kingdom between in Puritan Theology (Carlisle, UK: Paternoster Press, 2003). 1735 and 1865. In the early phases of the movement, the 41. Donald G. Bloesch, The Holy Spirit: Works and Gifts (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2000), 106–110. See also Geoffrey F. Nuttall terms revival and awakening were largely synonymous and Peter Lake, The Holy Spirit in Puritan Faith and Experience (Chicago: 38 with the biblical concept of the outpouring of the Spirit University of Chicago Press, 1992), 15ff. and helped spark a deep integration of spirituality and 42. George M. Marsden, Jonathan Edwards: A Life (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 152. See also Noll, Rise of Evangelicalism, liberal arts education in American colleges. Unfortu- 53–60. nately, revivalism eventually gave rise to a consistent pat- 43. Harry S. Stout, The New England Soul: Preaching and Religious Cul- ture in Colonial New England (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), tern of evangelistic practices that often negated the work 228. See also Noll, Rise of Evangelicalism, 44. of religious education in the local church, with the result 44. Gerald R. McDermott, Understanding Jonathan Edwards: An Intro- that Christian education in America is often viewed as a duction to America’s Theologian (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009); Robert W. Jenson, America’s Theologian: A Recommendation of Jonathan reactionary movement against revivalism. Edwards (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988). 45. Samuel C. Storms, Signs of the Spirit: An Interpretation of Jonathan The First Great Awakening Edwards’ Religious Affections (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 2007), 25. Contributor46. Jonathan Edwards, “A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of While most Christian traditions look to the outpouring God in the Conversion of Many Souls in Northampton, and Neighbouring of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost as the historical birth of Towns and Villages of the County of Hampshire, in the Province of the Massachusetts-Bay in New England (1737),” in The Works of Jonathan Edwards, vol. 4, The Great Awakening, ed. C. C. Goen (New Haven, CT: 38. Joel 2:28–32; Ezekiel 39:29; Acts 1:4–8, 2:1–21, 4:24–31. Yale University Press, 1972), 21. Revivalism and Christian Education 1063 in its effect has mainly been carried on by remarkable evangelistic impact of these revivals, leaders became pourings out of the Spirit of God.”47 known as evangelicals, and the movement as the Evangel- Edwards wasn’t talking in mere theoretical language. ical Awakening, particularly in the British Isles under the In 1734, more than 300 men and women—nearly a leadership of Methodist leaders John and Charles Wesley. quarter of Northampton’s population—professed con- As Noll concludes, the Great Awakening “marked the version to Christ in a single six-month period. “There beginning of a distinctly evangelical history . . . [and] a was scarcely in the town, old or young, left unconcerned consistent pattern of convictions and attitudes that have about the great things of the eternal world. . . . The been maintained over the centuries since.”54 work of conversion was carried on in a most astonish- ing manner . . . and the number of true saints multiplied Religious Affections and Religious Education . . . [until] the town seemed to be full of the presence of Despite the apparent victory of revivalism, Edwards was God.”48 Edwards’s popular account of Northampton’s convinced that the weakness of the First Great Awaken- revival, Faithful Narrative (1737), caused churches across ing rested in ministers’ uncritical acceptance of revival the colonies to pray for similar outpourings. It wasn’t experiences and mere professions of faith as signs of long before the answer came. genuine conversion. Like his Old World forebears, he sought a thorough reformation ofOnly both the individual The First Great Evangelical Awakening and society. He penned A Treatise Concerning Religious The First Great Awakening (1734–1742) was a broad Affections (1743) to challenge ministers to guide those religious revival felt throughout much of the American who professed faith away from short-lived counterfeit colonies. Antecedent streams included not only Ed- conversions and toward genuine faith.55 Edwards be- wards’s church, but also revival among Dutch Pietist im- lieved that only an encounter with the “divine and su- migrants in New Jersey under the leadership of Theodore pernatural light” provided by Holy Spirit was capable of Freylinguysen and New Jersey Presbyterians under the transforming human affections out of the sinful lowlands leadership of Gilbert Tennent.49 The awakening reached of self-interest and into love of God for God’s sake.56 This its zenith in the theatrical preaching of George White- meant that uncounterfeitable fruit of genuine repentance field, whose evangelistic tour in 1740–1741 became the was neither an emotional experience nor an ecstatic vi- first genuinely “national” event in American history.50 sion,Copy but rather a sacrificial love of others and a passion to In 10 weeks he spoke to audiences whose total atten- grow in the knowledge of Christ for no other reward than dance equaled at least half the population of the colonies knowing His love. Parents and ministers were charged he visited,51 including “virtually every New England with catechizing the next generation, as well as remind- inhabitant.”52 ing them of the glory of heaven and the ever-present By the time the awakening subsided, as much as 20 threat of hell, so that by rigorous discipline they might percent of the total population of the American colonies experience genuine conversion.57 Edwards exhorted his had professed faith in Christ.53 Due to the tremendous congregation; “The religious education of children is one of the principle means of grace that God has appointed 47. Jonathan Edwards, A History of the Work of Redemption (1755) in his church.”58 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), 138. 48. Ibid., 13–14. 49. Noll, Rise of Evangelicalism, 71–99. The Second Great Awakening 50. Harry S. Stout, The Divine Dramatist: George Whitefield and the Rise of Modern Evangelicalism (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1991). Revival Colleges 51. Noll, Rise of Evangelicalism, 13. See also Gary David Stratton, “Pa- parazzi in the Hands of an Angry God: Jonathan Edwards, George White- This quest to educate and revive an entire generation to- field, and the Birth of American Celebrity Culture,” The Other Journal (Fall ward genuine faith and experiential knowledge of God 2010): 23–35. drove Edwards’s spiritual descendants in the develop- 52. Stout, Divine Dramatist, 90; Frank Lambert, Pedlar in Divinity: George Whitefield and the Transatlantic Revivals, 1737–1770 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 128; Arnold Dallimore, George Whitefield: The Life and Times of the Great Evangelist of the Eighteenth-cen- 54. Noll, Rise of Evangelicalism, 18–19. tury Revival (Westchester, IL: Cornerstone Books, 1979), 527; and Harry S. 55. Jonathan Edwards, A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections, in Stout, “Whitefield, George,” in Dictionary of Christianity in America, ed. Three Parts (1746), in The Works of President Edwards, vol. 2, ed. John E. Daniel G. Reid (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990), 1252. Smith and H. S. Stout (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1959). 53. For further exploration into the realities versus myths of the Great 56. Jonathan Edwards, “A Divine and Supernatural Light (Matthew Awakening, see Frank Lambert, Inventing the “Great Awakening” (Prince- 16:17),” in Sermons and Discourses, 1730–1733: The Works of Jonathan ton,Contributor NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999); Harry S. Stout, “Religion, Com- Edwards, ed. M. Valeri and H. S. Stout (New Haven, CT: Yale University munications, and the Ideological Origins of the American Revolution,” Press, 1999), 17:405–426. The William and Mary Quarterly: A Magazine of Early American History 57. Marsden, Jonathan Edwards, 28–29. 34 (1977): 519–541; and Michael J. Crawford, Seasons of Grace: Colonial 58. Jonathan Edwards, Sermons and Discourses, 1743–1758: The Works New England’s Revival Tradition in Its British Context (New York: Oxford of Jonathan Edwards, ed. Wilson H. Kimnach (New Haven, CT: Jonathan University Press, 1991), 13ff. Edwards Center, Yale University, 2008), 25:723. 1064 Revivalism and Christian Education ment of perhaps the most influential educational move- many if not most of America’s colleges. 68 Under Dwight’s ment in American history, the revival college. When the presidency, Yale College grew into the largest and most faculties at Harvard and Yale rejected the First Great influential college in the Americas and the educational Awakening, friends of the awakening founded several center of what came to be known as the Second Great liberal arts colleges with a revival bent. Some, like Awakening (c. 1790–1840): a society-wide transforma- Dartmouth,59 Amherst,60 and Mount Holyoke,61 were tion of much greater duration and depth than the more founded directly on Edwardsean principles. Others, like short-lived First Great Awakening.69 Williams,62 Princeton,63 Rutgers, and the University of Georgia,64 were later captured by followers of Edwards’s Revival Colleges and Social Reform educational vision. In the end, nearly all colleges of the The best of these revival colleges formed the intellectual era were eventually influenced by the Edwardsean proj- backbone of a transatlantic revivalism that became a ect. As noted higher education historian and Edwards dominant theme in America from 1800 to 1860, and a biographer George. M. Marsden notes, “Much of the “central mode of our search for national identity.”70 In antebellum collegiate education was shaped by New these colleges, literature, art, and the sciences moved into Englanders with an Edwardsean heritage, [who] con- the academic curriculum for the first time, the antislavery trolled most of the nation’s leading colleges, including movement found a welcome sanctuary, the largest for- 65 Only the state universities.” eign missionary movement in history found its origin, a vision for universal public education found a champion, Timothy Dwight and Yale College women and African American students matriculated for The power of the revival college movement was made the first time,71 and a resilient ethic of moral citizenship possible in no small degree by the influence of Ed- found a remarkable incubator.72 Noll notes that the lead- wards’s grandson, Timothy Dwight (1753–1817), who ers of these colleges were key to a “surprising intellectual was named to the presidency of Yale in 1795 in a strik- synthesis” of revival and commonsense moral philoso- ing pro-awakening takeover of what had once been an phy that dominated American thinking from 1790 to anti-awakening institution.66 Yale Collage experienced 1865 and led to the remarkable “Christianization” of four revivals under Dwight, and these outpourings of the American society.73 Dramatic church growth among all Spirit were clearly a welcomed and promoted aspect of revival-oriented denominations—particularly Baptists 67 Copy the president’s educational program. Yet Dwight was and Methodists—led to the formation of nearly 500 new so committed to the life of the Spirit flowing through the revival colleges across the Western frontier. These educa- day-to-day life of the college, that when students peti- tors first and foremost “were revivalists!”74 They were ef- tioned to cancel classes in seasons of spiritual awaken- fective educators not in spite of their commitment to the ing, their president refused and instead carefully guided work of the Holy Spirit in higher education, but rather them back to a biblical holism that eventually spread to because of it.

Revivalism Ruined and Renewed 59. Leon. B. Richardson, History of Dartmouth College (Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College Publications, 1932), 239–240. Sadly, the success of revivalism eventually led its undo- 60. Claude M. Fuess, Amherst, the Story of a New England College (Bos- ing, as churches and colleges began to rely on periodic ton: Little, Brown, 1935), 30. 61. Joseph A. Conforti, Jonathan Edwards: Religious Tradition & Ameri- seasons of awakening to produce spiritual maturity in can Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 69–89. 62. David W. Kling, “The New Divinity and Williams College, 1793– 1836,” Religion and American Culture 6 (1996): 195–223. 68. John Wolffe, The Expansion of Evangelicalism: The Age of Wilber- 63. Frederick Rudolph and John R. Thelin, The American College and force, More, Chalmers and Finney (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, University: A History (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990). 2007). 64. Ian H. Murray, Revival and Revivalism: The Making and Marring of 69. Noll, Rise of Evangelicalism, 200. American Evangelicalism, 1750–1858 (Edinburgh: Banner of Truth, 1994), 70. George M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture: The 132. Shaping of Twentieth Century Evangelicalism, 1870–1925 (New York: Ox- 65. Marsden, Jonathan Edwards, 499. George M. Marsden and Bradley ford University Press, 1980), 222. See also Richard Carwardine, Transatlan- J. Longfield, eds., The Secularization of the Academy (New York: Oxford tic Revivalism: Popular Evangelicalism in Britain and America, 1790–1865 University Press, 1992), 8–9. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978). 66. Brooks Mather Kelley, Yale: A History (New Haven, CT: Yale Uni- 71. William C. Ringenberg, The Christian College (Grand Rapids, MI: versity Press, 1974). Baker, 2006), 85–96. 67. Revivals were noted in 1802, 1808, 1812–1813, and 1815 by 72. Julie Reuben, The Making of the Modern University (Chicago: Uni- ChaunceyContributor Goodrich, “Narrative of Revivals of Religion at Yale College versity of Chicago Press, 1996), 74–77. from Its Commencement to the Present Time,” Journal of the American 73. Mark A. Noll, America’s God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Education Society X (1838): 295–302. See also Charles E. Cunningham, Lincoln (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 9. Timothy Dwight, 1752–1817: A Biography (New York: Macmillan, 1969), 74. Smith, Timothy M. 2004. Revivalism and Social Reform, Eugene, OR: 300–334. Wipf & Stock Pub. Revivalism and Social Reform, 5 (emphasis in original). Revivalism and Christian Education 1065 their members rather than ongoing religious education Conforti, Joseph A. 1995. Jonathan Edwards, Religious Tradi- and discipleship. Highly volunteeristic conceptions of tion & American Culture. Chapel Hill: University of North conversion and high-pressure tactics to secure decisions Carolina Press. gradually eroded Edwardsean concerns regarding coun- Crawford, Michael J. 1991. Seasons of Grace: Colonial New terfeit conversions and safeguards to encourage the genu- England’s Revival Tradition in Its British Context. New York: ine fruit of Spirit-created repentance.75 The publication of Oxford University Press. Christian Nurture (1847) by Congregationalist minister Cunningham, Charles E. 1969. Timothy Dwight, 1752–1817: A Horace Bushnell (1802–1876) began an intellectual and Biography. New York: Macmillan. practical backlash against revivalism’s overemphasis on Dallimore, Arnold. 1979. George Whitefield: The Life and Times public professions of faith and birthed the modern re- of the Great Evangelist of the Eighteenth-century Revival. ligious education movement.76 While the Baptist, Wes- Westchester, IL: Cornerstone Books. leyan, Pentecostal, and charismatic renewal movements Edwards, Jonathan. 1959. “A Treatise Concerning Religious preserved concern for the outpouring of the Holy Spirit Affections, in Three Parts (1746).” In The Works of President and even sparked modest revivals in many churches and Edwards, Vol. 2, edited by John E. Smith. New Haven, CT: colleges, modern evangelicalism has yet to produce a Yale University Press. synthesis of spiritual awakening and Christian education ———. 1972. “A Faithful Narrative of Onlythe Surprising Work of capable of effecting a society-wide movement on the level God in the Conversion of Many Souls in Northampton, and of the First and Second Great Awakenings. Neighbouring Towns and Villages of the County of Hamp- shire, in the Province of the Massachusetts-Bay in New Eng- References and Resources land.” In The Works of Jonathan Edwards, Vol. 4, edited by Baxter, Richard. 2002. The Reformed Pastor. Morgan, PA: Soli C. C. Goen, 97–212. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Deo Gloria Publications. ———. 1989. “A History of the Work of Redemption.” In The Bloesch, Donald G. 2000. The Holy Spirit: Works and Gifts. Works of Jonathan Edwards, Vol. 9, edited by J. Wilson. New Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Burgess, Harold William. 1996. Models of Religious Education: ———. 1999. “A Divine and Supernatural Light (Matthew Theory and Practice in Historical and Contemporary Perspec- 16:17).” In Sermons and Discourses, 1730–1733: The Works tive. Wheaton, IL: Victor Books. ofCopy Jonathan Edwards, Vol. 17, edited by M. Valeri, 405–426. Bushnell, Horace. 1975. Views of Christian Nurture, and of New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Subjects Adjacent Thereto (1847). Delmar, NY: Scholars’ ———. 2006. “The Religious Education of Children Is One of Facsimiles & Reprints. the Principal Means of Grace That God Has Appointed in Carwardine, Richard. 1978. Transatlantic Revivalism: Popular His Church (Psalms 78:5–7).” In Sermons and Discourses, Evangelicalism in Britain and America, 1790–1865. West- 1743–1758, edited by Wilson H. Kimnach, 723. New Haven, port, CT: Greenwood Press. CT: Jonathan Edwards Center, Yale University. Cherry, Conrad. 1980. Nature and Religious Imagination: from Fuess, Claude M. 1935. Amherst, the Story of a New England Edwards to Bushnell. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. College. Boston: Little, Brown. Goodrich, Chauncey A. 1838. “Narrative of Revivals of Reli- gion at Yale College from Its Commencement to the Pres-

75. Allen C. Guelzo, “An Heir or a Rebel? Charles Grandison Finney ent Time.” Journal of the American Education Society 10: and the New England Theology,” Journal of the Early Republic 17 (1997): 289–310. 61–94. See also Allen C. Guelzo, “Oberlin Perfectionism and Its Edward- Guelzo, Allen C. 1997. “An Heir or a Rebel? Charles Grandison sean Origins, 1835–1970,” in Jonathan Edwards’ Writings: Text, Context, Interpretation, ed. S. J. Stein (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, Finney and the New England Theology.” Journal of the Early 1996); and Allen C. Guelzo and Douglas A. Sweeney, The New England Republic 17: 61–94. Theology: From Jonathan Edwards to Edwards Amasa Park (Grand Rapids, ———. 1996. “Oberlin Perfectionism and Its Edwardsean Ori- MI: Baker Academic, 2006). 76. Horace Bushnell, Views of Christian Nurture, and of Subjects Adja- gins, 1835–1970.” In Jonathan Edwards’ Writings: Text, Con- cent Thereto (1847) (Delmar, NY: Scholars’ Facsimiles & Reprints, 1975). text, Interpretation, edited by S. J. Stein, 159–174. Blooming- See also Conrad Cherry, Nature and Religious Imagination: from Edwards to Bushnell (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980); Robert Bruce Mullin, The ton: Indiana University Press. Puritan as Yankee: A Life of Horace Bushnell (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Hambrick-Stowe, Charles E. 1996. Charles G. Finney and Eerdmans, 2002); Harold William Burgess, Models of Religious Education: the Spirit of American Evangelicalism. Grand Rapids, MI: Theory and Practice in Historical and Contemporary Perspective (Wheaton, IL:Contributor Victor Books, 1996), 81–83. Ironically, Bushnell and Charles G. Finney, Eerdmans. perhaps the most famous revivalist of the era, were great friends and ad- Jenson, Robert W. 1988. America’s Theologian: a Recommen- mirers of one another’s work. See Charles E. Hambrick-Stowe, Charles G. Finney and the Spirit of American Evangelicalism (Grand Rapids, MI: dation of Jonathan Edwards. New York: Oxford University Eerdmans, 1996), 253, 274–275, 298. Press. 1066 Richards, Lawrence O.

Kelley, Brooks M. 1974. Yale: A History. New Haven, CT: Yale Rudolph, Frederick, and John R. Thelin. 1990. The American University Press. College and University: A History. Athens: University of Kidd, Thomas S. 2007. The Great Awakening: The Roots of Georgia Press. Evangelical Christianity in Colonial America. New Haven, Storms, Samuel C. 2007. Signs of the Spirit: An Interpretation CT: Yale University Press. of Jonathan Edwards’ Religious Affections. Wheaton, IL: Kling, David W. 1996. “The New Divinity and Williams Col- Crossway Books. lege, 1793–1836.” Religion and American Culture 6: 195–223. Stout, Harry S. 1977. “Religion, Communications, and the Lambert, Frank. 1994. Pedlar in Divinity: George Whitefield and Ideological Origins of the American Revolution.” The Wil- the Transatlantic Revivals, 1737–1770. Princeton, NJ: Prince- liam and Mary Quarterly: A Magazine of Early American ton University Press. History 34: 519–541. ———. 1999. Inventing the “Great Awakening”. Princeton, NJ: ———. 1986. The New England Soul: Preaching and Religious Princeton University Press. Culture in Colonial New England. New York: Oxford Uni- Lovelace, Richard F. 1979. Dynamics of Spiritual life: An Evan- versity Press. gelical Theology of Renewal. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity ———. 1990. “Whitefield, George.” In Dictionary of Christianity Press. in America, edited by Daniel G. Reid, 1251–1253. Downers Marsden, George M. 1980. Fundamentalism and American Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Only Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth Century Evangelicalism, ———. 1991. The Divine Dramatist: George Whitefield and the 1870–1925. New York: Oxford University Press. Rise of Modern Evangelicalism. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ———. 2003. Jonathan Edwards: A Life. New Haven, CT: Yale Stratton, Gary D. 2010. “Paparazzi in the Hands of an Angry University Press. God: Jonathan Edwards, George Whitefield, and the Birth Marsden, George M., and Bradley J. Longfield, eds. 1992. The of American Celebrity Culture.” The Other Journal (Fall): Secularization of the Academy. New York: Oxford University 46–64. Press. Sweeney, Douglas A., and Allen C. Guelzo. 2006. The New Eng- McDermott, Gerald R. 2009. Understanding Jonathan Edwards: land Theology: From Jonathan Edwards to Edwards Amasa An Introduction to America’s Theologian. Oxford: Oxford Park. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. University Press. Wolffe, John. 2007. The Expansion of Evangelicalism: The Age Miller, Perry, and Thomas Herbert Johnson. 1963. The Puri- of Wilberforce,Copy More, Chalmers and Finney. Downers Grove, tans. New York: Harper & Row. IL: InterVarsity Press. Morgan, Edmund S. 1984. The Gentle Puritan: A life of Ezra —Gary D. Stratton Stiles, 1727–1795. New York: Norton. Mullin, Robert Bruce. 2002. The Puritan as Yankee: A life of Horace Bushnell. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Richards, Lawrence O. Murray, Ian H. 1994 Revival and Revivalism: The Making and Marring of American Evangelicalism, 1750–1858. Edinburgh: Early Background and Education Banner of Truth. Lawrence “Larry” O. Richards was born in Milan, Michi- ———. 2002. America’s God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abra- gan, in 1931 to Christian parents who were members of ham Lincoln. New York: Oxford University Press. the Presbyterian Church. Richards’s father was an elder ———. 2003. The Rise of Evangelicalism: The Age of Edwards, in the local congregation. Despite his religious upbring- Whitefield, and the Wesleys. Downers Grove, Il: InterVarsity ing, he did not follow the path of his parents, and he Press. entered the U.S. Navy (1949–1951) looking for direction. Nuttall, Geoffrey F. 1966. Richard Baxter. London: Nelson. While in the New York City area, Richards met Donald Nuttall, Geoffrey F., and Peter Lake. 1992. The Holy Spirit in Grey Barnhouse, who led him to return to his Christian Puritan Faith and Experience. Chicago: University of Chi- faith. He went on to complete a bachelor of arts in phi- cago Press. losophy (Michigan), a master of theology (Dallas Theo- Packer, J. I. 2003. The Redemption and Restoration of Man in logical Seminary), and a doctor of philosophy (Garrett the Thought of Richard Baxter: A Study in Puritan Theology. Evangelical Theological Seminary and Northwestern Carlisle, UK: Paternoster Press. University) in religious education and social psychology, Reuben, Julie A. 1996. The Making of the Modern University. focusing on research methodologies in education, social Chicago:Contributor University of Chicago Press. psychology, and anthropology.77 Richardson, Leon B. 1932. History of Dartmouth College. Ha- nover, NH: Dartmouth College Publications. 77. “Mr. Lawrence O. Richards,” http://www.zoominfo.com/s/#!search/ Ringenberg, William C. 2006. The Christian College. Grand profile/person?personId=7582127&targetid=profile (accessed 25 Septem- Rapids, MI: Baker. ber 2013). Risk Management in Educating Christians 1067

Richards served in various posts, including as associ- Most Important Publications ate pastor responsible for Christian education at a local Larry Richards’s publications are simply too numer- church, editor of children’s curriculum for Scripture ous to discuss in any exhaustive or adequate fashion. A Press Publications (1962–1965), and assistant professor New Face for the Church, however, did establish him as of Christian education at Wheaton Graduate School, a renewalist in Christian education and greatly influ- where he served for seven years (1965–1972). During his enced many evangelicals. His most significant work was faculty tenure, he and colleagues in the Christian Educa- A Theology of Christian Education, in which he stated tion Department participated in a summer retreat, from his case for viewing Christian education as a theological which emerged Richards’s publication A New Face for discipline. Richards was not the only voice arguing for a the Church (1970), a book that identified him as a pro- community of faith model of Christian formation in the ponent of renewal and catapulted him into the limelight late 20th century, but he was the most influential among among evangelical educators. Two years later, Richards evangelicals. His emphasis on theology as the “macrothe- embarked on a full-time career as a writer and speaker ory” of Christian education—as opposed to the social and eventually published more than 200 books, some of science approach of James Michael Lee—puts him in the which were translated into 24 languages.78 He also devel- same class with James Smart, Randolph Crump Milller, oped a curriculum called Sunday School PLUS and tested James Westerhoff, and Craig Dykstra,Only the most influen- its effectiveness in churches. tial spokespersons in Christian/religious education for the importance of biblical and theological perspectives. Significant Contributions to Christian Education Larry Richards was the most influential evangelical References and Resources Christian educator of the late 20th century. By sheer Gangel, Kenneth O., and Warren S. Benson. 1983. Christian volume of publications, he outdistanced all other voices. Education: Its History and Philosophy. Chicago: Moody Press. Richards ardently argued for Christian education to be Gangel, Kenneth O., and Christy Sullivan. 1995. “Evangelical acknowledged as a theological discipline and published Theology and Religious Education.” In Theologies of Reli- numerous books that engaged readers in reflection on gious Education, edited by Randolph Crump Miller, 59–82. the theological nature of formation. While Richards’s Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. books have been criticized for not being sufficiently “Mr.Copy Lawrence O. Richards.” n.d. Accessed 25 September propositional or content-centered and too oriented 2013. http://www.zoominfo.com/s/#!search/profile/person toward reflections, exercises, and discussions—the pro- ?personId=7582127&targetid-profile. cess of thinking through Christian education as theo- Richards, Lawrence O. 1975. A Theology of Christian Educa- logical discipline and practice—his creativity, gifted tion. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. writing, biblical exegesis, and passion for a theological ———. 1982. “Experiencing Reality Together: Toward the vision won the admiration of his peers. A Theology of Impossible Dream.” In Religious Education and Theology, Christian Education, A Theology of Church Leadership, edited by Norma H. Thompson, 198–217. Birmingham, AL: and A Theology of Children’s Ministry are but a few Religious Education Press. of his treatises. What emerged was a strong emphasis —James P. Bowers on the transformative nature of Christian education, grounded in ecclesiology and discipleship as “life,” and a community of faith paradigm opposed to “schooling Risk Management in Educating Christians models” that made him the John Westerhoff of evan- gelicals. Richards did much to gain the discipline of Ministry is difficult. In fact, even in the best of circum- Christian education credibility within the theological stances, ministry can be a challenge. It always involves curriculum of seminaries and colleges, even if he did risks. James Cobble and Richard Hammar point out that not satisfy systematicians with his writing style. There “Following Jesus includes risk, both personally and cor- is little doubt that his theological emphasis, mining of porately. Risk taking, however, is only half of the story. scripture for practice insights, and articulation of the Caring and thoughtful service to God is also manifested community of faith model as theologically and biblically in avoiding certain risks and attempting to reduce oth- commended did much to reshape Christian education, ers” (2001, 7). This concept has particular application in evangelicalContributor and otherwise, and greatly influenced his the legal arena, where those involved in ministry and the generation of educational theorists and practitioners. church are facing an all-out assault. One of the country’s foremost attorneys responsible for bringing and winning 78. Ibid. lawsuits against churches warns that churches are very 1068 Ritual, Educating Congregations through much at risk because they have failed to grasp their legal Realizing the inherent risk involved in ministry, it is responsibilities (Mozur and Bullis 2003, 1). Areas that a imperative that Christian educators develop a risk man- risk management strategy should address include, but are agement strategy. Cobble and Hammer note: “Risk is a not limited to, child protection policies, crisis management natural part of ministry. The purpose of risk management plans, facility safety, transportation safety, pastoral liabil- in churches is not to eliminate risk, but to differentiate ity, and reducing risks to people. Christian educators must good risks from bad ones, and then through a process be at the forefront of educating schools, churches, and of carrying out leadership to reduce or control bad risks. other nonprofit organizations about risk management. Jesus image of the ‘good shepherd’ captures the spirit of Christian attorney Ken Sande notes that there are cer- risk management in the life of the church” (2001, 14). As tain hard facts about the legal system that should serve as Ken Sande has advised, ministry must be done so well a warning and also protect schools, churches, and other and in such a way that litigation never becomes an issue ministries from having to resolve a conflict through liti- (1999, 57–58). Christian educators must take the lead in gation (1999, 57–58): teaching and training those involved in ministry about the importance of having a risk management strategy. As 1. The church is not immune to being sued. The First educators we must heed Jesus’s admonition in Matthew Amendment provides only limited protection; it 10:16 to be wise as serpents and harmlessOnly as doves. gives us the freedom to believe what we want, but it does not give us the freedom to take any and all References and Resources action that we want. Cobble, James, and Richard Hammar. 2001. Risk Management 2. The doctrine of “charitable immunity” has been Handbook for Churches and Schools. Matthews, Christian totally abandoned in most states and is of very Ministry Resources. limited scope in others. Mozur, Cynthia, and Ronald Bullis. 2003. Legal Guide for Day- 3. The legal climate in the United States has changed to-Day Church Matters. Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press. dramatically in the past few decades. Forty years Sande, Ken. 1999. Managing Conflict in Your Church. Billings, ago, actions against the church were usually for MO: Peacemaker Ministries. reinstatement; today they generally involve tort —J. Gregory Lawson actions seeking large sums of money. Copy 4. Many people, including Christians, have a general antagonism toward concepts of accountability, Ritual, Educating Congregations through responsibility, and discipline. 5. A church can be sued for virtually any reason, Participating in performance of ritual provides par- even if in reality it has done nothing wrong or il- ticipants with a rich array of learning experience. Ritual legal. Once an action is filed against it, the church performed in a congregation communicates the central will be compelled to defend itself or lose by default aspects of a congregation’s core beliefs, vision, and iden- judgment. tity to participants. Son (2014) argues that contrary to 6. It often costs plaintiffs very little money to sue a the common misunderstanding that ritual is thoughtless church. action or bodily movement devoid of intrinsic logic and 7. The direct legal cost of defending against a lawsuit grammars, ritual practice discloses a significant body of is significant and will run into the thousands of information and knowledge about the collective nature dollars. of a congregation. The most critical core values and 8. Lawsuits also cause major disruptions to a church convictional beliefs held dearly within a congregation and usually demand a great deal of time, energy, and are disclosed through ritual practice. In this sense, ritual attention from key leaders, thus taking them away is an indispensable aspect in the religious socialization from important ministry responsibilities. Lawsuits process, incorporating new adherents into the corporate can also attract damaging publicity and even divide life and culture of a congregation. a congregation when members take sides or dis- agree about how the suit is being handled. Definition of Ritual 9. Insurance will not necessarily cover all of the costs Ritual is generally defined as (1) a religious or solemn Contributorand damages that may be imposed upon a church. ceremony of some kind that consists of a series of ac- 10. It is not good enough to do things so well that you tions performed according to a prescribed order, or (2) will merely prevail in a lawsuit; you must do them a rite of passage during one’s life cycle, such as a bar so well that you will prevent lawsuits from ever mitzvah, wedding, or funeral, usually performed in ac- being filed. cordance with social custom or normal protocol. Some Ritual, Educating Congregations through 1069 of the distinctive and constitutive elements involved in It is easy to dismiss the rich array of educational poten- ritual practice are (1) a group of people enacting some cies that ritual offers. The following discussion considers form of patterned movements, (2) setting a ritual space several educational roles and functions that ritual inher- and time apart from the mundane schedule of everyday ently provides in relation to enriching the congregational life, and (3) incorporating internal desires and inten- life and culture. Ritual performs the following roles: tions of participants. The intentions behind ritual practice are difficult to 1. Maintaining the internal stability of a congregation: fully grasp, yet anthropologists recognize that in ritual Rituals often utilize various forms of resources— practice there is an intrinsic desire to secure what seems e.g., significant objects, persons, symbols and to be an invisible and abstract system of thoughts into events—that may strengthen the collective sense of visible and workable forms of ceremonial enactment. identity, or “shared values.” By utilizing pictorial Ritual practice may also serve as an intentional attempt images as well as iconic and expressive symbolism, to control the unpredictable and the supernatural to ease ritual gathers the diverse values and interests of the internal anxiety within a collective body. As evidenced in individual members of the congregation into pur- primitive societies, the intentions behind ritual perfor- poseful social forms of “shared values.” This uni- mance often reflect the participants’ desire to know the fying effect is organized aroundOnly carefully defined unknowable and to change the unchangeable. cognitive themes and resources in the confession and theological tradition that are mutually recog- Roles of Ritual nized as significant. Victor Turner’s (1977) theories of ritual offer many op- 2. Communicating what is central to the congregation: erative concepts and insights for understanding the educa- Ritual practice conveys the central importance of a tional roles of ritual and its performance. In Turner’s view, group’s belief systems, theological convictions, core society in general is primarily characterized by process and values, and other ideologies throughout its practice. therefore must be understood by the observer to be more The complexity of its internally built grammar and than the static description of social structures, instead in- moral orders intrinsic to its performance commu- corporating the processes of structural transformation. The nicate what is acceptable and what is not, what it significance of Turner’s understanding is the changeability Copyaspires to and what should be watched out for, etc. of social structure. The process of social life has inherent By participating in ritual practice, people can gain movement toward both transforming and maintaining its a rich range of important information and knowl- structure. In other words, people have an inherent desire edge about the purpose and goals of a community. for stability as well as for change or transformation of so- 3. Legitimization: Ritual embodies a presupposed set cial structure. Turner has contributed significantly to our of attitudinal stances and beliefs and legitimizes the understanding of the nature of fluidity and stability of the ideological commitment of a collective group. It en- social structure of any community. As recognized by sym- courages its continuation and validates the group’s bolic anthropologist W. Robertson Smith (1972), Victor conduct and religious practices. For example, the Turner regarded ritual as fundamental to the dynamic of ritualistic event of celebrating the new members— cultural formation and transformation. such as the ceremony for the incorporation of new A more contemporary ritual theorist, Catherine Bell members—seeks to renew the congregation’s com- (1992, 16), surveyed the symbolic tradition of ritual and mitment as well as the commitment of the incorpo- concluded that the role of ritual practice is more than just rated members to abide closely by the established the fundamental source for the maintenance of culture, moral order and commitments. since “ritual integrates belief and behavior, tradition and 4. Regulatory function: Various personal testimo- change, order and chaos, the individual and the group, nies are offered in a congregation communicat- subjectivity and objectivity, nature and culture, and the ing about the efficaciousness of belief, a practice real and the imaginative ideal.” Bell challenges us to look that serves to maintain and regulate a certain beyond the symbolic categories of rituals and to integrate level of ideological commitment and religiosity them with the sociopolitical category of constructing re- from believers. Testimonial rituals dramatize the lationships among people. Bell’s perspective (1992, 196) collective legitimacy of core belief systems by en- helpsContributor us to understand the roles of ritual and ritualization couraging others to participate in the efficacious- more as intentional strategic modes of practice, which ness of their faith commitment. The continuity of produce nuanced relationships of power, relationships collective ideology is ensured and economically characterized by acceptance and resistance within the managed because ritual not only maintains a level context of ritual performances. of commitment, but also helps to stabilize ideolo- 1070 Ritual in Christian Education, Role of

gies by solving the tendency of “free-reaping” of Wuthnow, Robert. 1987. Meaning and Moral Order: Explora- promised collective rewards without contributing tions in Cultural Analysis. Oakland: University of California resources to the belonging group. Press. 5. Ushering the participants into a transformation —Timothy D. Son process: Ritual practice has more than the utilitar- ian purpose of maintaining the social structure of a community, for it facilitates a liminal condition of Ritual in Christian Education, Role of being neither/nor. That is, ritual practice ushers the participants into a state of transformative becom- Ritual refers to a pattern of actions that create a frame- ing. This liminal moment serves as the potent point work of meaning or maintain some sense of continuity, of transition, transformation, and creation. The order, or boundaries. Using the concept of the sociologist ritual practice is a dynamic process that constitutes Emile Durkheim, people routinely use rituals to build a a dynamic field of force having affect and effects sense of community coherence and individual orderli- upon those who are involved in its domain. It has ness in life. For example, most people feel comfortable the capacity to regenerate participants and their with routines. Children love repetition. Bedtime routines realities, often in original ways. are common in most families. FavoriteOnly story books and games can be read or played over and over. When a Ritual and Christian Education bedtime routine is disrupted or a favorite game is not The educational potencies of ritual practice have criti- available, children react negatively. Ritual goes beyond cal influence in the formative process of a community. children’s routines. Sporting events are filled with rituals, These effects are best seen when they are located within from the coin toss in a football game to the celebratory the two educational dynamics of congregational ministry: rush across the field after a soccer match. Ritual is part socialization and transformation. Ritual often stands at of human life. the critical intersection of a congregational life, where Rituals have a strong educational value. In some so- socialization and transformation interact with each other cieties, ritual repetition (rote) is the accepted method and push and pull from each other, yet remain fully com- of education. Yet ritual has a much broader context. A plementary. From the list of ritual functions and roles, we sense Copyof continuity of time and place develops in rituals can see how the critical roles that ritual plays in a congre- that binds together all members of a community. A first gation allow for an educational condition wherein this day of class or a graduation ceremony sets aside common dialectic between seeking to maintain social stability and classroom spaces and scheduled times as being special continuity and searching for transformation is embraced and extraordinary. Professional schools, particularly in and honored, even when clear foresight is nowhere to be the fields of medicine, use academic courses to commu- seen. The formative impact of ritual when performed in nicate their particular language symbols, traditions, and a congregation collectively and intentionally can only be rituals as a socialization process. imagined, as both its pedagogical and generative func- Particularly in a Christian community, rituals are tions are seriously acknowledged in the learning process. centered in the worship activities of a congregation. Ac- cording to sociologists, they produce and maintain deep References and Resources emotional bonds through shared experiences. The wor- Bell, Catherine. 1992. Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice. New York, ship service is most often scripted in a way that sets aside Oxford: Oxford University Press. that hour or two as being different from the rest of the Loder, James E. 1989. The Transforming Moment. Colorado week. The ritual use of a liturgical calendar in the church Springs, CO: Helmers & Howard. year repeats specific themes throughout the secular year Smith, Robertson W. 1972. The Religion of the Semites. New by focusing on God’s promises. Rites of passage—bap- York: Schocken Books. tisms, marriages, and funerals—are unique opportuni- Son, Timothy D. 2014. Educating Congregations through Ritu- ties for marking changed relationships. The baptismal als: Exploring Educational Efficacies of Ritual Practice for candidate is brought into membership through the ritual Congregational Identity Formation. Lanham, MD: Lexington administration of water with God’s words of promise. A Books. new family is formed in a Christian wedding as “a man Turner,Contributor Victor. 1967. The Forests of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu leaves his father and mother and joins to his wife and the Ritual. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. two become one flesh” (Gen. 2). God’s promises of life ———. 1977. The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure. eternal are recalled in funeral rituals to comfort those Ithaca, NY: Cornell Paperbacks. who mourn and anticipate their own deaths. Roman Catechism 1071

Family rituals are also educational. Prayers before and posted his 95 thesis on the door of the Wittenberg castle after meals set the meal time as a special moment in the church and ushered in a time of reform and challenge to day to recognize God’s blessings and express thanksgiv- the authority of the Roman Catholic Church, the Council ing. Devotional times centered around scripture readings, of Trent began the process of responding with its own songs, and prayers can also be enjoyed as they become a reform and hope for renewal. Meeting in 25 sessions routine for spiritual growth and theological conversation. over almost 20 years, the council addressed both the Rituals set boundaries for human activities and pro- content of faith and the pastoral changes that needed to vide situations for growth and new opportunities. Chris- be implemented to bring about the needed reform. At- tian schools should focus on those rituals that draw tention was focused on the sacraments, the relationship students together, such as devotional times or service between scripture and tradition, and the understanding events. Moral issues can best be presented in a context of of salvation. a Christian community that regards the biblical norms of In the fourth session in 1546, a recommendation was the Judeo-Christian tradition as foundational. made that a catechism designed for children and unedu- Rituals construct and enhance the Christian faith for cated adults be written. The topic was again introduced both individuals and communities. The nonverbal value at the 18th session of the council in 1562, but this time of ritual is enhanced in educational settings that are rich the plan was for a catechism as aOnly source book for the in visual expressions of the Christian faith. For example, parish priests in their teaching and preaching. Although making the sign of the cross recalls an individual’s bap- a commission to prepare the text was established, it tism and unites each participant in a common activity was unable to complete its charge before the end of and a common identity: members of the Body of Christ. the council, and the task of preparing the catechism Rather than avoiding ritual, Christian educators and was given to Pope Pius IV. In 1564, he formed a new students can celebrate the opportunities rituals provide commission to prepare the catechism, placing Cardi- for enhancing their understanding and exercise of their nal Charles Borromeo at the head of the commission. common Christian beliefs. Under Borromeo’s guidance, the project was brought to successful completion in 1565, and the catechism was References and Resources promulgated by Pope Pius V in 1566. Cooke, Bernard, and Gary Macy. 2005. Christian Symbol and TheCopy Roman Catechism, officially titled “Catechism for Ritual: An Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. Parish Priests, as decreed by the Council of Trent and Dawn, Marva. 1997. Is It A Lost Cause? Having the Heart of published by order of the Supreme Pontiff, Pius V,” con- God for the Church’s Children. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. sists of four major parts: (1) the Apostles’ Creed, divided Durkheim, Emile. 1995. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. into 12 articles; (2) the sacraments, including a general New York: Free Press. introduction followed by a delineation of each of the Gillis, John R. 1996. A World of Their Own Making: Myth, Rit- seven sacraments; (3) the Decalogue; and (4) the Lord’s ual and the Quest for Family Values. New York: Basic Books. Prayer, examined by its seven petitions. The original Gluckman, M., ed. 1966. Essays in Ritual of Social Relation. manuscript was without divisions and headings, making Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. it less than helpful for teaching and preaching. Later edi- Turner, Victor. 1985. The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti- tions of the catechism included parts, chapters, and divi- Structure. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. sions, while some versions included sermon programs —Timothy H. Maschke designed to divide the topics of the catechism across a year of Sundays as an outline for sermons. The Roman Catechism grew in popularity and contin- Roman Catechism ued to be used as a key reference into the beginning of the 20th century. The Catechism of the Catholic Church, Published in 1566 following the directive of the Council issued in 1993, followed the same four-part division as of Trent (1545–1563), the Roman Catechism (also known the Roman Catechism. as the Catechism of the Council of Trent) was designed as a resource to address religious ignorance among the gen- References and Resources eral population as well as among the clergy and to fend Bryce, Mary Charles. 1981. “Evolution of Catechesis from offContributor the influence of Protestant teaching and catechisms. the Catholic Reformation to the Present.” In A Faithful The focus and debates of the Council of Trent serve Church: Issues in the History of Catechesis, edited by John as essential background to an understanding of the cat- H. Westerhoff and O. C. Edwards, 204–235. Wilton, CT: echism. Convened some 40 years after Martin Luther Morehouse-Barlow. 1072 Roman Catholic Church Christian Education

Bulman, Raymond F., and Frederick J. Parrella. 2006. From 16:18)—and believes that there is a direct line of succes- Trent to Vatican II: Historical and Theological Investigations. sion from Peter to the present pope in Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. The Catholic Church is highly structured, with a Catechism of the Council of Trent. 1934. Translated by John central administration in Vatican City and the pope as McHugh and Charles Callan. New York: Joseph F. Wagner, the spiritual and temporal head of the church. Members Inc. throughout the world are divided geographically into di- Kevane, Eugene. 1985. Introduction to The Roman Catechism, oceses (or archdioceses, representing areas with a major i–xv. Boston: Daughters of St. Paul. metropolitan city as the anchor). In the United States Regan, Jane. 1995. “The Catechism: ‘Inspired by the Great Tra- alone, there are 195 dioceses, each with a bishop as the dition of Catechisms.’” In Exploring the Catechism, 23–43. spiritual leader and responsible for the holdings of that Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press. diocese. Within each diocese are parishes, local congre- —Jane E. Regan gations that function with a local pastor who is respon- sible to the bishop. There are more than 17,000 Catholic parishes in the United States.83 Religious education is Roman Catholic Church provided for through the local parish, through either the Christian Education parish school or a formal religious educationOnly program for students in public school. There is a department for The Roman Catholic Church is the single largest Chris- education and faith formation at the diocesan level that tian denomination in the world, consistently about 17 standardizes and directs the religious education for the percent of the world’s population over the past 50 years, diocese, as well as the Committee on Catholic Education representing about half of the world’s Christians today.79 at the national level, housed at the United States Confer- Roughly 22 percent of the total U.S. population is Catho- ence of Catholic Bishops in Washington, D.C. lic, with the fastest growing segment Hispanic Catholics; 68 percent of the Hispanic population of the United Most Notable Academic Programs States consider themselves Catholic.80 The emphasis on excellent educational formation within The word “catholic” (Greek kata-holos: part of the a faith context is a part of Catholic culture that is rec- whole, universal) does not appear in the New Testa- ognizedCopy throughout the world, with a system of more ment, but was applied to the early Christian communi- than 136,000 Catholic K–12 institutions globally. In the ties as a whole at the end of the first century by Ignatius United States, there are more than 5,600 elementary of Antioch.81 One of the early Christian martyrs, Igna- and middle schools, as well as 1,200 high schools, the tius used the term “catholic” to describe this new group largest network of private schools in the country. About of believers in Jesus who allowed everyone who chose 15 percent of students in these schools are not Catholic, to believe into their community. As Paul wrote to the and more than 30 percent of students are from racial Galatians: “There is no longer Jew or Greek, there is no minority groups.84 longer slave or free, there is no longer male and female; Modern university education has its roots in the great for all of you are one in Christ Jesus” (Gal. 3:28).82 For European medieval Catholic universities in Bologna, Sal- Ignatius, this new set of faith communities, where mem- amanca, Freiburg, and Munich, among many others. The bership was based on belief in Jesus Christ and not on first Catholic college in the United States was Georgetown gender, ethnicity, slave status, circumcision, or dietary University, founded by the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) codes, made these communities as a whole unique, part in Washington, D.C., in 1789. Today this legacy is carried of a greater whole. The Catholic Church traces its roots out in the 233 Catholic colleges and universities in the to Peter as the first leader of the church—“You are United States, open to all students who are eligible for ad- Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church” (Matt. mission, including five medical schools and twenty-eight law schools.85 Ex Corde Ecclesaie (“From the heart of the Church”), written by Pope John Paul II in 1990 about 79. Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life Global Christianity “Global Catholic universities, is instructive in the responsibility Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Chris- tian Population” (19 December 2011). http://www.pewforum.org/Chris tian/Global-Christianity-exec.aspx (accessed 31 May 2013). 80. USCCB, “Laity and Parishes” (2013). http://www.usccb.org/about/ 83. Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, “Frequently Requested media-relations/statistics/laity-parishes.cfmContributor (accessed 31 May 2013). Church Statistics” (2012). http://cara.georgetown.edu/CARAServices/ 81. Hans Kung, The Catholic Church (New York: The Modern Library, requestedchurchstats.html (accessed 31 May 2013). 2001). 84. USCCB, “Catholic Education” (2013), http://www.usccb.org/about/ 82. Holy Bible New Revised Standard Version with Apocrypha (Nashville, media-relations/statistics/catholic-education.cfm (accessed 31 May 2013). TN: Thomas Nelson, 1989). 85. Ibid. Roman Catholic Church Christian Education 1073 of Catholic higher education not only to its students, but States in parochial schools, cannot be overestimated. to the world: “A Catholic University, as any University, is Tens of thousands of sisters from various orders built and immersed in human society; as an extension of its service staffed schools throughout the country in the mid- to late to the Church, and always within its proper competence, 19th century to meet the needs of immigrant children, it is called on to become an ever more effective instru- not only teaching them the foundational beliefs and ment of cultural progress for individuals as well as for practices of the faith, but also creating a safe space for society. Included among its research activities, therefore, those immigrant children to become productive citizens will be a study of serious contemporary problems in areas of their new country. This intensive commitment on the such as the dignity of human life, the promotion of justice part of religious communities in the United States has for all, the quality of personal and family life, the protec- led to the success of Catholic school education. However, tion of nature, the search for peace and political stability, only slightly more than 3 percent of Catholic schools a more just sharing in the world’s resources, and a new today are staffed by religious women or men,88 raising economic and political order that will better serve the significant issues for Catholic education now and in the human community at a national and international level. future, in staffing resources, Catholic identity, and faith University research will seek to discover the roots and formation issues. causes of the serious problems of our time, paying spe- Adult faith formation in the CatholicOnly Church has of- cial attention to their ethical and religious dimensions. ficial support, but struggles to be given the emphasis If need be, a Catholic University must have the cour- and resources of Catholic schools or religious education age to speak uncomfortable truths which do not please programs for children. The U.S. bishops, in Our Hearts public opinion, but which are necessary to safeguard the Were Burning Within Us: A Pastoral Plan for Adult Faith authentic good of society.”86 The church, therefore, does Formation in the United States (1999), state three major not see Catholic higher education as at the edges of the goals that are to guide and direct efforts in adult faith work of the church, but rather at the heart of the church formation: (1) to invite and enable ongoing conversion to and the world. Jesus in the holiness of life, (2) to promote and support active membership in the Christian community, and (3) Christian Philosophy and Mission of Education to call and prepare adults to act as disciples in a mission Education and mission/evangelization are not under- to Copythe world).89 This document acknowledges the chal- stood as exclusive in the Roman Catholic understanding lenges of modern life, and family life in particular, as the of Christian formation, but rather as partners in the work church attempts to meet the faith formation needs of its of the church. The U.S. bishops’ document To Teach adult members. as Jesus Did (1972) states: “The educational mission of the Church is an integrated ministry embracing three References and Resources interlocking dimensions: the message revealed by God Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate. 2012. “Fre- (didache) which the Church proclaims; fellowship in the quently Requested Church Statistics.” Accessed 31 May life of the Holy Spirit (koinonia); service to the Christian 2013. http://cara.georgetown.edu/CARAServices/requested community and the entire human community (diakonia). churchstats.html. While these three essential elements can be separated for Holy Bible New Revised Standard Version with Apocrypha. the sake of analysis, they are joined in the one educational 1989. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc. ministry.”87 The formation of the whole person, in word John Paul II, Pope. 1990. “Ex Corde Ecclesiae.” [Apostolic and deed, body, mind, and spirit, is the philosophical and Constitution of the Supreme Pontiff Paul II on Catholic Uni- functional goal of the educational mission. versities]. Accessed May 31, 2013. http://www.vatican.va/ This focus on the formation and training of the whole holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_constitutions/documents/ person finds a particular home in the system of Catho- hf_jp-ii_apc_15081990_ex-corde-ecclesiae_en.html. lic parish schools. The role of women religious (sisters, Kung, Hans. 2001. The Catholic Church. New York: The Mod- nuns) in Catholic education, particularly in the United ern Library. Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life Project. 2011. “Global 86. John Paul II, “Ex Corde Ecclesia” [Apostolic Constitution of the Su- Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the preme Pontiff Paul II on Catholic Universities] (Libreria Editrice Vaticana World’s Christian Population.” 19 December. Accessed 1990), http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_constitutions/ documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_15081990_ex-corde-ecclesiae_en.htmlContributor (accessed 31 May 2013). 88. USCCB, “Catholic Education.” 87. USCCB, To Teach as Jesus Did: A Pastoral Message on Catholic Edu- 89. USCCB, Our Hearts Were Burning Within Us: A Pastoral Plan for cation (Washington, DC: United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, Adult Faith Formation in the United States (Washington, DC: United States 1972). Conference of Catholic Bishops, 1999). 1074 Roman Catholic Curriculum Outcomes

31 May 2013. http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global management of schools and those concerned with the -Christianity-exec.aspx. nature of the educational processes adopted. The main United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. 1972. To Teach as organizational factors seem to be strong, knowledge- Jesus Did: A Pastoral Message on Catholic Education. Wash- able, and clear-sighted leadership; teachers who devote ington, DC: United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. their time to the task of pupil learning; an emphasis on ———. 1999. Our Hearts Were Burning Within Us: A Pastoral academic achievement; and some measure of school au- Plan for Adult Faith Formation in the United States. Wash- tonomy. Schools that are well looked after and cared for ington, DC: United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. create an environment in which effective teaching and ———. 2013a. “Catholic Education.” Accessed 31 May 2013. learning can take place. However, it is not an essential http://www.usccb.org/about/media-relations/statistics/cath requirement, and the age or style of school building olic-education.cfm. does not seem to be important. ———. 2013b. “Laity and Parishes.” Accessed 31 May 2013. The process or cultural characteristics most strongly http://www.usccb.org/about/media-relations/statistics/laity associated with school effectiveness include a shared -parishes.cfm. sense of the purpose or mission of the school, where the —Mary Carter Waren underlying values are congruent with both the stated mission and the officially agreed waysOnly of dealing with people and doing things; a disciplinary system that Roman Catholic Curriculum Outcomes emphasizes appropriate praise and rewards rather than punishment and creates a sense of order and security; In many countries around the world where schools with high expectations in academic and social behavior that a Christian religious character exist, they appear to be are shared by staff; and parental support for the school’s popular with parents and to be particularly effective aca- cultural values, attitudes, and practices. demically. This is not to imply, of course, that this is the Exactly how and to what extent these factors impact case for every Christian school in every jurisdiction, but a school’s effectiveness has not been empirically estab- generally, the phenomenon seems to hold good. In coun- lished. There is a complexity of interrelationships and tries where there are rigorous national testing regimes to influences between individuals, their families, neighbor- aid comparisons, studies consistently indicate that stu- hoods,Copy communities, and schools that impact levels of dents attending such schools, particularly those attend- academic achievement, and their observed empirical ing Catholic schools, appear to enjoy a significant overall association with pupil attainment does not necessarily academic advantage over similar pupils attending schools imply an a priori association, much less a causative one. provided and run by the state. Those advantages seem to Nevertheless, there is a significant body of research be cumulative and persistent over time, despite changes published in the United States over the last 30 years in demographics and societies. Causal factors, however, comparing the academic performance of students in remain a matter of speculation, conjecture, and dispute. different types of institutions. The majority of studies, Although family background, levels of measured in- though not all, have made use of national databases. The telligence, and prior attainment are accepted as major data indicate that pupils attending Catholic elementary factors associated with pupils’ attainment at school, there and secondary schools tend to obtain, on average, higher is an independent institutional effect. However, it is rela- levels of academic achievement than those attending tively small. Typically, pupils’ prior attainment, closely their state-run counterparts, and they have better learn- associated with the background factors outlined above, ing habits. In addition, Catholic schools seem particularly plus the overall level of social disadvantage in the school effective with pupils from ethnic minorities and lower can account for as much as 80 percent of the apparent socioeconomic groups. They tend to have lower drop- difference in institutional performance. Socioeconomic out rates and send more of their students on to tertiary status seems to be a particularly important correlate of education. Similar evidence of relatively high levels of attainment, more important than pupil ability, and in institutional performance by Catholic sector schools has England, the socioeconomic mix of the school may have been reported in England and Wales, Scotland, Australia, an effect on attainment over and above individual or the Netherlands, Germany, and Belgium. family socioeconomic characteristics, though this is a The higher average levels of academic attainment matterContributor of dispute. among those attending Catholic schools, while constant Research in Western societies has identified a num- in direction across all curricula areas, may vary in degree ber of institutional characteristics that are associated depending on the particular subjects being studied. For with effective schools. They can be grouped in two main example, in England the differential in favor of the Cath- categories: those pertaining to the organization and olic sector is most notable in the test and examinations Romanticism 1075 results in English and mathematics and is significantly interrupted after World War II during the communist smaller in science. regime, then reintroduced after the 1989 December revo- Generally, across jurisdictions (though the differen- lution. However, the church seminaries and institutes tials may vary considerably), pupils attending Catholic engaged in continuous theological activity. In spite of 41 schools appear to academically outperform similar stu- years of communist ideology, the Romanian religious ed- dents in state schools, have a more positive attitude to- ucation revival has taken place in a Christian context, not ward religion and religious practice, have a greater sense in a secular one. It has a twofold dimension: institutional of purpose in their lives, and are more open and altruistic in partnership with the state, and ecclesiastical. in their attitudes toward others. Similar characteristics Romanian religious education is part of the national have been noted of pupils attending Church of England curriculum. There are seven syllabuses accepted by the or other Protestant denominational schools, though their Romanian state, corresponding to the following Chris- attitudes and values tend to be more closely aligned with tian denominations: Orthodox, Catholic, Reformed, those in nonreligious schools. In England, where schools’ Evangelical, Unitarian, Evangelical Alliance, and Seven- statutory contribution to developing and sustaining com- Day Adventist. munity cohesion has been the subject of government —Hrisanti Bulugea inspection, both Church of England and particularly Only Catholic, schools have been found to be more effective than secular state schools in fulfilling this aspect of their Romanticism social remit. Romanticism was a literary, artistic, and philosophical References and Resources movement in Germany, France, and England that began Convey, John J., ed. 1992. Catholic Schools Make a Difference: about 1780, a reaction to the rationalistic Enlightenment’s Twenty-Five Years of Research. Washington, DC: National reduction of nature to scientific definitions. The move- Catholic Educational Association. ment gained a rationale with Immanuel Kant’s division Flynn, Marcellin. 1993. The Culture of Catholic Schools. Lon- of knowledge into phenomenal (empirical) or noumenal don: St. Paul’s. (beyond sense experience) and the separation of reason Francis, Leslie. J., and Mandy Robbins. 2005. Urban Hope and fromCopy understanding. Romanticism is sometimes seen less Spiritual Health: The Adolescent Voice. Peterborough, UK: as a philosophy than as a feeling for the wholeness of life Epworth. (lebensgefuhl), so that emotion is contrasted to the main- Hunt, Thomas C., Ellis A. Joseph, and Ronald J. Nuzzi, eds. stream Enlightenment’s reason, its subjectivity against 2002. Catholic Schools Still Make a Difference: Ten Years of objectivity, spontaneity against control, aspiration versus Research 1991–2000. Washington, DC: National Catholic limitation, transcendentalism versus empiricism, and so Educational Association. forth (Kitson 1999). However, romantics generally un- Hyde, Kenneth E. 1990. Religion in Childhood & Adolescence. derstood themselves as reuniting head and heart, mind Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. and spirit—divisions created by mechanistic Newtonian —Andrew B. Morris science—not as rejecting science. Goethe’s alternative science aimed to include qualities such as color along with empirical or mathematical descriptions of things. Romania and Christian Education In effect, romanticism criticized the scientific stream of the Enlightenment as missing the forest by focusing Orthodox Christianity in Romania is of apostolic origin. on factual trees. Importantly, the movement’s emphasis St. Apostle Andrew preached on this ancient Dacian on the individual ego encouraged the full realization of land, and the Romanian people’s formation is coincident autonomous personality, a lonely heroism portrayed by with its Christianization. Christianity in Romania has the painter D. C. Friedrich. Romantics included artists persisted unchanged, irrespective of historical, political, and academics such as Beethoven, Coleridge, Goethe, or religious challenges. The faith was passed on mainly Herder, Hoffmann, Hugo, Holderlin, Keats, Schleierm- in the liturgical life of the church by a living experience acher, Schiller, the Schlegels, Schubert, Schumann, Shel- of the Christian revelation, by its preaching, and by cat- ley, Tennyson, and Wordsworth. Variations of romanti- echesisContributor and a Christian educational system. cism have arisen within modern Western cultures, from Formal education in Romania originated as Chris- the French Revolution of 1789 to the German Weimar tian education. The history of the Romanian Orthodox Republic of the 1920s to the hippies of the 1960s. Church indicates that there was a tradition of religious Romanticism is seen in Christian education in three education of the Romanian people, which was suddenly ways: (1) directly, in classic liberal theology and related 1076 Romanticism forms; (2) indirectly, from romantic elementary and sec- Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), revolutionary polit- ondary education; and (3) in sentimentality. ical theorist and educator, is considered a proto-romantic who influenced Kant. Rousseau’s developmentalist ad- Classic Liberal Theology vocacy in Emile (1762) led to child-centered pedagogies F. D. E. Schleiermacher, pastor, Reformed theologian, by J. H. Pestalozzi (1746—1827), F. W. Froebel (1782— and member of the Jena circle of romantics, led the way 1852), Maria Montessori (1870—1952), G. Stanley Hall in a redefinition of religion as “a feeling of absolute de- (1844–1924), and John Dewey (1859–1952), among oth- pendence,” relocating its essence in the private sphere of ers. Froebel, founder of the kindergarten, is an excellent immediate experience (Barnes and Wright 2000). Schlei- illustration of the romantic ego-centered approach to ermacher’s liberal theology was expressed in religious education: his play objects, called “gifts,” are meant to education by George A. Coe (1862–1951), a founder of reproduce the structures of the universe in the mind the Religious Education Association and professor at of the child. Liberal religious educators like Coe drew Union Theological Seminary and Teachers College, Co- naturally from Dewey’s progressivism. More recently, lumbia University, in New York. Coe started his career Jerome Berryman’s advocacy of Godly Play (1997, 2009) as a professor of philosophy and empirical researcher of draws on Montessori. Group Publishing’s active learning the spiritual life. The typically romantic desire to unite techniques for Sunday school and youthOnly borrow from object and subject in the ego led to an interest in psycho- constructivist education theory. logical processes, and thus Coe’s move toward religious education was a natural evolution. Like Schleiermacher, Sentimentality Coe’s stress on subjective appropriation led him to recast Finally, romanticism appears in Christian education in Christian doctrines in psychological terms, thus effec- sentimental depictions of Christian themes or persons. tively marginalizing difficult historical questions about Aesthetic evaluation is notoriously difficult, and the the Bible. Liberals saw the Bible less as authority than as line between sentimentality and popular piety is a thin a source of moral examples. At Union, Sophia L. Fahs one—saints in a wide variety of cultures over time are (1876–1978) and Harrison S. Elliott (1882–1951) carried portrayed in ways that lack a critical edge. However, if on Coe’s pioneering work. a painting that has appeared in evangelical Protestant and CatholicCopy churches can be “educational,” then W. Romantic Elementary and Secondary Education Salman’s feminized Head of Christ is sentimental educa- A form of romanticism persists in European religious tion. Christ depicted as welcoming innocent children as education. States with an official church, such as Brit- children were understood after romanticism is another ain, Germany, and Norway, continue to fund religious example. Romanticism’s emphasis on human goodness education in state-sponsored schools. However, increased and personal appropriation leads toward sentimentality; religious pluralism and the secularization of Europe since its reverse side, the Gothic, does not usually appear in the 1960s have seen confessional approaches to religion educational contexts except as a resistance movement. being replaced with phenomenological approaches, which are agnostic about truth claims. Phenomenology presents References and Resources religions as neither true nor untrue. Wright and Barnes Barnes, L. P., and A. Wright. 2000. “Romanticism, Representa- note that this is not how religions understand themselves; tions of Religion and Critical Religious Education.” British rather, any religion sees its interpretation as a better way to Journal of Religious Education 28 (1): 65–77. understand the world. In effect, a liberal hegemony mar- Berkhof, Hendrikus. 1989. Two Hundred Years of Theology: Re- ginalizes truth claims even if this is unfair to the religions port of a Personal Journey. Translated by John Vriend. Grand under study. Barnes and Wright (2000) see European Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. religious education methodology dominated by romantic Borgmann, Albert. 2006. “Broken Symmetries: The Romantic religious hermeneutics. A representative liberal British Search for a Moral Cosmology.” In Philosophical Romanti- religious educator is John Hull. While Schleiermacher and cism, edited by Nikolas Kompridis, 238–262. Abingdon, UK theologians following him, who located religion in human and New York: Routledge. feeling, sought to maintain the superiority of the Christian Gay, Peter. 1995. The Enlightenment: An Interpretation: The revelation, recent mainstream Protestant and Catholic Rise of Modern Paganism. Vol. 1. New York: W. W. Norton. theologiansContributor tend to see a plurality of revelations and to Kitson, Peter J. 1999. “Beyond the Enlightenment: The Philo- relativize Christian truth claims. sophical, Scientific and Religious Inheritance.” In A Com- Second, romanticism appears in Christian education panion to Romanticism, edited by Duncan Wu, 35–47. Mal- in borrowings from primary or secondary education. den, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell. Rossiter, Graham 1077

Quinton, Rt. Hon. Lord. 2005. “Romanticism, Philosophical.” excessive ascetic views. Tatian, in turn, was teacher of the In Oxford Companion to Philosophy, 2nd ed., edited by Ted anti-Gnostic writer Rhodo, who wrote in the late second Honderich, 821–822. Oxford: Oxford University Press. century. Indeed, many Gnostic schools in Rome—those Reardon, B. M. G. 1993. “Romanticism.” In Blackwell Ency- of Valentinus and Marcion, for example—competed with clopedia of Modern Christian Thought, edited by Alister E. that of the Orthodox Christian Church. McGrath, 573–579. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell. The flourishing theological school in Rome does not Wright, A. 1997. “Hermeneutics and Religious Understanding seem to have been closely connected to the activities of Part One: The Hermeneutics of Modern Religious Educa- the bishop of Rome: perhaps, as in Alexandria, the bishop tion.” Journal of Beliefs & Values 18 (2): 203–216. oversaw the catechumenate program, which provided —Ted Newell basic catechetical formation to potential converts, while trained philosophers like Justin offered more advanced instruction in the scriptures to those who desired it. In Rome, School of any case, the bishops of Rome showed little interest in theological speculation before the fourth century, and The Church of Rome has since ancient times served as even after that point, their general tendency was to make a significant center of theological instruction and edu- cautious interventions in existingOnly debates elsewhere cation, such that one may be justified in referring to a rather than to initiate original theological reflection “school of Rome.” It is altogether unclear how, when, themselves. Correspondingly, as the influence of the or by whom the Gospel was first preached in Rome, al- popes increased in the late antique period, the influence though the evidence from multiple sources confirms that of the theological school of Rome (as distinct from the a Christian community existed at least by the late 40s AD. papal office) tended to decline, such that no traces of it Paul, brought there as a prisoner around 61 AD, taught can be found by the fifth century. When theology facul- there until his execution (Acts 28:17–31), and St. Peter is ties were founded in universities in the High Middle reputed to have resided in the city until his own martyr- Ages, the popes tended to rely on the acumen of experts dom in the late 60s. outside of Rome, such as those at the University of Paris, The existence of an organized school must date from rather than scholars within Rome itself. around AD 140–150, when St. Justin Martyr (c. AD Copy 100–165), a recently converted philosopher, relocated to References and Resources Rome from Ephesus and took up instruction in Christian Barnard, L. W. 1967. Justin Martyr: His Life and Thought. Cam- philosophy (Eusebius, Ecc. Hist. 4, 11). The existence of bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. philosophical schools was commonplace in the ancient Brown, Raymond, and John P. Meier. 1983. Antioch and Rome: world, dating back to the sixth century BC, and Justin New Testament Cradles of Catholic Christianity. New York: seems simply to have adapted the existing model by giv- Paulist Press. ing it Christian content. Justin would have synthesized the Eusebius of Caesarea. 1991. Ecclesiastical History. Translated by best insights from the Hellenistic philosophical traditions Christian Frederick Cruse. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker House. (especially Platonism) with the truths of biblical revela- Quasten, Johannes. 1950. Patrology. Vol. 1. Westminster, MD: tion, oriented toward the task of Christian apologetics, or Christian Classics. the defense of the faith against pagans and other skeptics. —Jamie Blosser and Jeremy P. Sienkiewicz (In fact, a fierce public debate with the Cynic philosopher Crescens may have led to Justin’s early demise.) Justin taught, according to the Acts on his martyrdom, in the Rossiter, Graham house of a certain Martinus, although it is probable that he remained somewhat itinerant and taught in other Graham Rossiter is an Australian professor of religious cities as well. Justin’s school would have been cosmo- and moral education at Australian Catholic University, politan in composition, including students from distant Sydney. He is the head of the School of Religious Educa- lands who were attracted by his reputation. Among his tion and director of the Cardinal Clancy Centre for Re- most renowned pupils was St. Irenaeus of Lyons (c. AD search in the Spiritual, Moral, Religious, and Pastoral 130–202), who came from Asia to study under Justin and Dimensions of Education. Rossiter started his teaching laterContributor became famous for his anti-Gnostic works. Another carrier in Catholic secondary schools in Australia and student of Justin’s was Tatian (c. AD 120–180), a convert later researched religious education for the Common- from Assyria best known for his Harmony of the Gospels, wealth Curriculum Development Centre in Canberra. His who seems to have taken over the school after Justin’s doctoral research was on in-service professional develop- death, until he was himself expelled from Rome for his ment in religious education in Catholic schools and other 1078 Rossiter, Graham school systems. He has conducted seminars throughout Awards and Contribution to Religious Education Australia and New Zealand, the Pacific, Hong Kong, the Graham Rossiter won an Australian Postgraduate Award United States, Canada, Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Scholarship for doctoral research in religious education Netherlands, and Norway. His major interests are young at Macquarie University in 1977. He was seconded to people’s search for meaning and identity, the spiritual the Commonwealth Curriculum Development Center and moral influence of film and television, school reli- by the Sydney Catholic education office to work on the gious education curricula, and contemporary issues for center’s education project. During this period, Rossiter religious education. His most recent book, with Marisa produced publications on religious education in Austra- Crawford, is Reasons for Living: Education and Young lian schools (1981). He also won the Sam Gamgee Award People’s Search for Meaning, Identity and Spirituality for Surprising Service to religious education through (Melbourne: ACER, 2006). In response to the demo- research. His experience at Curriculum Development graphic mutation of religious affiliation of young people Center Project led to a turn in his research, from an em- occasioned by the turn to secularization, Crawford and pirical study of young people’s attitudes about religious Rossiter broadly define spirituality as that which includes education toward a philosophical analysis and interpre- personal aspects, values, and aesthetic concerns. tation of contemporary theory in religious education. Rossiter has contributed to theory and debate in reli- While at the center, he saw the dichotomyOnly between the gious education, facilitated the professional development nature of religious education in secular schools and that of many educators, and significantly influenced the de- in confessional schools and consequently formulated the velopment of a teaching framework for religious educa- terms “educating in faith” and ‘educating in religion” tion most suitable and effective in the classroom context. to represent the duality. Rossiter observed the impact At the age of 20 he published his first article, on of film and television on young people and argued that ecumenism in the light of the first sessions of the Second religious education can give young people the skills to Vatican Council. He was mentored by the Australian critically analyze and interpret the influences of contem- educator Brother George Columba Davy while studying porary culture. biology at the University of Sydney in the early 1960s. Rossiter is an international leader in the discipline of His initial work in biology made him one of the few religious education, with 12 books, 15 chapter contri- world experts on cardiovascular dynamics and neuro- butionsCopy in edited volumes, and over a hundred journal muscular cough reflexes in sharks and on the early hatch- articles to his credit. But his most significant impact, he ing and larval behavior of obscure marine parasites in the says, is his contribution as an educator. Australian seas. In spite of his achievements in biology, he switched to religious education and in 1978 published References and Resources a book on the conduct of youth retreat, Beyond the Class- Crawford, Marisa, and Graham Rossiter. 2003. “Reasons for room: New Approaches to Personal Development and Re- Living: Education and Young People’s Search for Meaning, ligious Education. The book is insightful for creating an Spirituality and Identity.” Journal of Religious Education 51 excellent opportunity for personal discussion, reflection, (4): 2–12. prayer, and liturgy. ———. 2006. Reasons for Living: Education and Young People’s Search for Meaning, Identity and Spirituality. Melbourne, Collaboration with Marisa Crawford Australia: ACER. Crawford and Rossiter have been working together Rossiter, Graham M. 1978. Beyond the Classroom: New Ap- since 1981. They differentiated religious education from proaches to Personal Development and Religious Education. catechesis, evangelization, witness, ministry, religious Melbourne, Australia: Dove Communications. socialization, and faith formation. They worked toward ———. 1981. Religious Education in Australian Schools: Sample the certification of Australian teachers of religious edu- of Individual Submissions. Canberra, Australia: Curriculum cation. Crawford and Rossiter also contributed to the Development Centre. study of values in education, including education for ———. 2000. “The Shaping Influence of Film and Television value formation. This was in response to the growing on the Spirituality and Identity of Young People: An Edu- concern about the well-being and self-esteem of young cational Response (Part 3).” Journal of Religious Education people suffering from loss of meaning and identity. 48 (3): 2–16. CrawfordContributor and Rossiter’s approach to value education Tobias, Robert E. 2005. “Science’s Loss Was Religious Educa- was unique because they suggested teaching students a tion’s Gain: An Appraisal of the Contribution of Graham range of enduring skills that once learned would assist Rossiter to Religious Education.” Journal of Religious Educa- them in growing into balanced, reflective, confident, tion 53 (2): 23–32. and valued contributors to society. —Clement Iorliam Rousseau and Locke 1079

Rousseau and Locke Remembering his own education and how much he detested the rote learning approach, Locke advocated John Locke (1632–1704) was born in Somerset, Eng- using the actual experiences of children. He believed cur- land, to an attorney father. Jean-Jacques Rosseau (1712– riculum should be tailored to the needs and abilities of 1778) was born in Germany to a watchmaker father. individual children. This required adults to recognize the They were two men with very disparate backgrounds changing developmental capacities of children (a novel and experiences, yet they both made significant contri- approach for that time). butions to education. This type of instruction reinforced learning with kind words rather than harsh rebukes, as Locke believed that Locke when a child is praised and encouraged, he or she will As a child, Locke was educated at home by his father, who continue to practice that skill. The continued practice exposed him to the passionate theological and political of that skill leads to mastery, which in turn develops convictions that led to civil war when John was nine. This habits. For Locke, habit formation, especially in terms experience led him later in life to write the Reasonable- of character formation, was more important than simply ness of Christianity, which encouraged a more tolerant the acquisition of knowledge. These educational theories attitude toward the many religious sects that emerged later influenced major educators suchOnly as Pestalozzi and from the Reformation. At the age of 14, he was sent to a Montessori, as well as Rousseau. private school. He would later rail against the education he received there, complaining that they emphasized Rousseau classical languages at the expense of moral development, Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s mother passed away when he and in their medieval-style disputations, encouraged a was just nine days old. When Rousseau was a young love of arguing rather than a desire for truth. child, his father preferred to educate him in nontradi- Nevertheless, Locke’s schooling prepared him to enter tional ways, choosing to have him read numerous clas- Oxford at the age of 20. While the standard curriculum sics such as Ovid’s Metamorphoses and Plato’s Republic. there was still centered on Aristotelian and Scholastic Later, due to an altercation with the law, his father aban- formalism, he eventually found and joined a small group doned him when he was only 10. For the rest of his life, of scholars who advocated a more scientific approach to dueCopy to an incredibly restive spirit, he held a succession of knowledge, one based on observation and experimenta- jobs, ranging from engraving to teaching music to serv- tion. This experience was to be formative in the develop- ing as the secretary to a French ambassador. ment of both his political and educational theories. It was during this time that Rousseau wrote Discourse After spending some time as a faculty member at Ox- on the Arts and Sciences, which he entered into a con- ford, Locke’s interest in politics was rekindled. This led test sponsored by the Academy of Dijon. In it, Rousseau him to join a diplomatic mission to Germany and later to argued that the sciences and the arts had actually caused serve the government as a commissioner. It was during humanity to become more corrupt, and he advocated a this time that he wrote what is considered his most fa- return to more primitive methods of social order and civil mous work, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, as development. His essay won first place. He later wrote The well as the works Two Treatises of Government and Some Social Contract, in which he focused on the idea that poli- Thoughts Concerning Education (which is of primary im- tics and morality are not meant to be separated. portance for this article). While Rousseau accepted much of Locke had to say Locke is often referred to as the “father of empiricism” (such as Locke’s focus on developmental theory and his (the philosophy that knowledge comes from two sources: belief that the schools of the day were failing in their our senses, through interacting with the world, and our educational aims), Rousseau emphasized experience rather reflections on what we have sensed, our mind’s opera- than reason as the epistemological base for knowing truth. tions upon our senses). For Locke, the human mind is Rousseau was not anti-reason; he just preferred to empha- both passive and active in learning. At the individual’s size the heart and emotion over the head and reason. birth, the mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa). As a child This belief led him to write what is his most famous ed- experiences (senses) its environment, those experiences ucational work, Emile. Rousseau did not intend Emile to make an impression on his or her mind (what Locke re- be taken literally, but as a novel that would illustrate edu- ferredContributor to as simple ideas). Although the mind lacks innate cational principles. The principal character in the story is ideas, Locke believed it does possess innate capacities that Emile, an orphan boy perhaps patterned after Rousseau can be trained by practice. Reflection is the process of himself, who grows up under the care of a tutor. organizing sensory information and analyzing and inter- Rousseau believed strongly in the innate goodness of preting it to derive complex ideas. the child (contrasted with the church’s belief in original 1080 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques sin); if the child could be spared the potentially damaging control of the environment is commonly accepted today. effects of society and instead be exposed to nature, the Finally, due to Rousseau, educators in the West have child’s natural proclivity toward moral behavior would be become profoundly aware of a tension between cultivat- fostered. Therefore, he advocated maximizing freedom to ing the intellect and nurturing emotions. Perhaps Jose allow children to learn from natural consequences in a Ortega y Gasset, the 20th-century Spanish philosopher/ controlled environment, in which the teacher sets up ap- educator, summed up Rousseau’s influence the best: “The propriate learning situations. This would allow the child innovation of Rousseau and his successors was to shift to learn the lesson but not suffer irreparable harm. The the center of gravity of the science from knowledge and learning object should be real world and not contrived, the teacher to the learner, recognizing that it is the learner even though it is controlled. and his characteristics which alone guide us in our efforts This kind of learning experience formed correct asso- to make something organic in education.”91 ciations between cause and effect—part of what Rousseau believed was an essential part of good learning. In other References and Resources words, the way people learn is to experience the natural On Locke consequences of their actions. After one has experienced Colman, John. 1983. John Locke’s Moral Philosophy. Edin- the natural consequences, one can then begin to reason burgh: Edinburgh University, 1983. Only about future events. Crittendon, P. J. 1981. “Thoughts abut Locke’s Thoughts about Rousseau did not oppose assigning specific tasks to chil- Education.” Journal of Philosophy of Education 15 (Winter): dren, but he was critical of efforts to assign them tasks that 149–160. were beyond their developmental abilities. He advocated Neill, Alex. 1989. “Locke on Habituation, Autonomy, and Educa- an organic pedagogy that took seriously the boundaries of tion.” Journal of the History of Philosophy 27 (April): 225–245. each child’s limitations while encouraging her or him to Seymour, J. L. 1990. “John Locke.” In Encyclopedia of Religious experience things on his or her own timing, which always Education, edited by Iris V. Cully and Kendig Brubaker preceded instruction. Building on what Locke started, Cully, 436–437. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Rousseau strongly advocated systematic study of child Yolton, John W. 1956. Locke and the Way of Ideas. London: growth and development. This led him to develop five Thoemmes Press. stages of developmental theory for Emile, from infancy Copy to young adulthood, and he described the education ap- On Rousseau propriate to each stage. For instance, during the period of Anthony, Michael J., and Warren S. Benson. 2003. Exploring early adolescence (ages 12–15), students were invited to the History and Philosophy of Christian Education. Grand read Robinson Crusoe. Rousseau believed this would help Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications. students develop the ability to cope with reality rather than Cranston, Maurice. 1981. The Noble Savage: Jean-Jacques Rous- living in a theoretical state. In so doing, the student’s inter- seau, 1754–1762. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. nal and external natural worlds would be joined. Gough, David. 2001. “Jean-Jacques Rousseau.” In Evangelical Regarding education about God, Rousseau wrote, “At Dictionary of Christian Education, edited by Michael J. An- fifteen [the student] will not even know he has a soul, at thony, 609–610. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. eighteen even he may not be ready to learn about it. For Neumann, H. 1976. “Philosophy and Freedom: An Interpreta- if he learns too soon, there is the risk of his never really tion of Rousseau’s State of Nature.” Journal of General Edu- knowing anything about it.”90 In one sense, Rousseau cation 27 (Winter): 301–307. was not a pure naturalist, but rather a deist. He taught Oliver, R. Graham. 1982. “Rousseau’s Emile and Its Contribu- Emile a natural religion without creeds and dogmas, yet tions to the Development of Educational Theory.” Teachers he believed in God and thought of nature as His creation. College Record 84 (Winter): 493–508. Rousseau’s contributions to education, particularly —James K. Hampton Christian education, are numerous. His focus on the characteristics and individual needs of the learner through the various stages of growth led to the under- Rousseau, Jean-Jacques standing of developmentally appropriate learning strate- gies. This became foundational for the developmental Early Background and Education theoryContributor of Swiss educator Jean Piaget. The teacher who Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) was born in Geneva, provides excellent learning experiences while remain- Switzerland, to Isaac Rousseau and Suzanne Bernard. ing relatively in the background but not relinquishing

90. Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile: French Thought in the Eighteenth 91. Jose Ortega y Gasset, Mission of the University, trans. Howard Lee Century, ed. Romain Rolland et al. (London: Cassell and Co., 1953), 69. Nostrand (New York: W.W. Norton, 1966), 46. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 1081

His mother died days after his birth, leaving him to be writers, anticipated and influenced the concepts of the brought up by his father, whose childrearing and educa- progressive movement. Rousseau proposed that educa- tional methods were haphazard at best, although he did tion should be child-centered and should have as its goal teach his son to read. When Rousseau was 10, his father the creation of the “natural man.” “The natural man lives was forced to leave Geneva to avoid arrest, and the young for himself; he is the unit, the whole, dependent only on boy was sent to Bossey, where he studied Latin with a himself and on his like.” This is in contrast to society’s local minister. At age 12, he was apprenticed to an en- traditional and ultimate educational goal, which is to pro- graver there, an experience he came to hate and which duce a good citizen. Rousseau rejected this goal because drove him to “vices I naturally despised, such as false- the good citizen is the antithesis of his ideal “natural hood, idleness, and theft” (Rousseau [1792] 1953, 26). At man”: “The citizen is but the numerator of a fraction. age 16, Rousseau ran away, and he spent the next several . . . Good social institutions are those best fitted to make years wandering through Sardinia and France. a man unnatural, to exchange his independence for de- During his wanderings, he was befriended by the Bar- pendence, to merge the unit in the group, so that he no onne de Warens, who became his benefactor. The Bar- longer regards himself as one, but as a part of the whole, rone, a Protestant convert to Roman Catholicism, was and is only conscious of the common life” ([1762] 1911). responsible for Rousseau’s own conversion to Catholi- This extreme view was moderated inOnly other works dealing cism in 1728. Rousseau remained with Mme. De Warens with the need for national education and the benefits that throughout the 1730s, during which time she provided it can have for a country as a whole (cf. Rousseau 1755). for his education, enabling him to develop into the ac- Education involved isolating the child from the sup- complished man of letters he eventually became. pressive and evil influences of society, protecting him In 1742, Rousseau relocated to Paris, where he soon from the “do’s and don’ts” that “stifle nature in him and met and was befriended by Denis Diderot, who became put nothing in her place” (Rousseau [1762] 1911). Rous- editor of the French Encyclopédie. Through Diderot, seau’s approach assumed the “natural goodness” of the Rousseau became a member of the famed Philosophe, child and endorsed protecting that goodness in different a group of French writers, scientists, and thinkers who ways through the various stages of the child’s develop- worked together to produce the Encyclopédie. The Ency- ment. Calling this “negative education,” he discouraged clopédie was noted for its radical and anticlerical perspec- placingCopy children under the authoritarian tutelage of tives, with Rousseau soon becoming the most conspicu- traditional schools and encouraged the development of ous of its contributors. the child’s natural curiosity and abilities through self- The remainder of Rousseau’s life was characterized by directed discovery. The adult “tutor’s” role in this edu- contrast and contradiction. Having converted to Catholi- cational approach was to provide a series of learning ex- cism from Calvinistic Protestantism, he later converted periences in the child’s natural environment. In this way, back to Calvinism. However, his writings made it clear that the child would learn to observe the world around him he was a self-styled deist. This, in itself, was a contradiction as well as to experience the consequences of free choice. of his identification and affinity with the philosophy of Rousseau’s educational philosophy is explained most naturalism. The latter resulted from his love for the simple fully in Emile, built around five stages of human develop- life close to nature as well his abhorrence of existing social ment. The book is about the education and development of structures. Having written eloquently about the dignity a boy named Emile and contains one book for each stage of of humanity and the natural goodness of children, he development. The first two stages focus only on the senses, fathered five children with an uneducated maid, Thérèse not the mind. Infancy, the first stage, includes the first Levasseur, who was first his mistress and later his wife. He two years, with education focusing on developing a sense subsequently left all five of these children at birth at a hos- of independence. In the second stage, the age of nature pital for abandoned children. As he aged, Rousseau began (ages 2–12), the child should be free to develop his physi- to exhibit increasingly erratic behavior, alienating those cal abilities as well as to hone his senses. This is the time who had become his closest friends. He died, practically for “negative education” in which “the mind should be left friendless, of a brain hemorrhage in 1778. undisturbed till its faculties have developed” (Rousseau [1762] 1911). Verbal learning, moral education, and other Significant Contributions to Christian Education mind-building activities should not be a part of this stage. Rousseau’sContributor influence in the field of education was felt The next two stages provide the critical transition from especially in the progressive education movement. Al- childhood to adulthood and focus on the development of though some have called him the “father of the progres- self-reliance. Preadolescence (ages 12–15) should develop sive movement,” it is more accurate to say that some of the individual’s curiosity. Maintaining that there was lit- his educational ideals, and those of other 18th-century tle to be known of real value to this age group, Rousseau 1082 The Roxbury Latin School insisted that practicality be the test for what knowledge Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. 1755. “A Discourse on Political Econ- is acquired. Again, “book knowledge” is not promoted in omy.” In The Social Contract and Discourses, 389–390. Lon- this stage, except for Robinson Crusoe, because it studies don: Everyman/Dent. “life according to nature.” Adolescence (ages 15 to 20) is ———. (1762) 1911. Emile. Translated by Barbara Foxley. the period to encourage the reading of literature and phi- Kindle ed. London: J. M. Dent and Sons. losophy. Having been educated to this point by and for ———. (1762) 1953. The Social Contract. Translated by Maurice himself, the child should now develop the knowledge and Cranston. London: Penguin. skills for life with others. In defining the critical nature of ———. (1792) 1953. The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. this stage of education, Rousseau was one of the first to Translated by J. M. Cohen. London: Penguin Books. call attention to the absolute importance of adolescence —John Lillis for the field of education. The final stage of development is adulthood, occurring between ages 20 and 25. The educational task is to prepare The Roxbury Latin School the individual for the rights and responsibilities of mar- riage. This final section of Emile makes it clear that the The Roxbury Latin School (1645–2012) is the oldest “natural education” Rousseau has been describing is for school in continuous existence in theOnly United States.92 males, not females. A significant portion of this section Founded in 1645 during the reign of England’s King is devoted to the education of females, an education that Charles I by John Eliot (“apostle to the Indians”93) and is substantially different from that for a male. This is the a group of 64 local Roxbury, Massachusetts, residents,94 case since “men and women are and ought to be unlike in The Roxbury Latin School was established specifically constitution and in temperament, it follows that their edu- “to fit [students] for public service both in church and cation must be different” (Rousseau [1762] 1911). commonwealth in succeeding ages.”95 The charter of the school, signed on 31 August 1645 in Roxbury, Mas- Notable Publications sachusetts, has the distinction of being the oldest school For educators, Rousseau’s most notable work is Emile charter in the United States.96 ([1762] 1911). It describes the idyllic education of a According to the historical annals of the school: young boy named Emile in the country, where he can be ModeledCopy on the English grammar school, the School was close to nature and protected from the influences of soci- ety. The Social Contract ([1762] 1953) described a social dedicated to giving instruction in the classics and produc- ing Christian citizens. The goal of Christian citizenship order that, like the education of Emile, would allow men was to be pursued by three means: an education in [Latin] to be natural and free, not subject to any burden save that literature, training in moral character, and lessons in re- of personal and natural necessity. Because of the revolu- ligious or spiritual understanding. Eliot persuaded nearly tionary and anticlerical content of both books, they were every Roxbury landowner to underwrite the School’s officially condemned by the French government and costs. The first year, fewer than ten students attended, criticized severely by the church. His autobiography, The including Eliot’s own nine-year-old son.97 Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, has been called a secular counterpart of Augustine’s Confessions, and it led Since the school’s founding, it has remained true to to similar self-reflective writings by later authors. its original mission “to prepare students intellectually, morally, and spiritually for service in the world as leaders References and Resources of integrity and conviction.”98 The Roxbury Latin School Cohen, J. 2010. Rousseau: A Free Community of Equals. Oxford: was founded as and has remained a school committed 99 Oxford University Press. to the cognitive and emotional development of boys. Cranston, Maurice. 1983. Jean-Jacques: The Early Life and Work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 1712–1754. New York: W. 92. F. W. Jarvis, Schola Illustris: The Roxbury Latin School 1645–1995. W. Norton. (Boston: David R. Godine, 1995). ———. 1991. The Noble Savage: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 1754– 93. Ibid., 3. 94. Ibid. 1762. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 95. “Roxbury Latin Takes Pride in Its Renaissance Men,” The Bay State ———. 1997. The Solitary Self: Jean-Jacques Rousseau in Exile Banner, 48, no. 10 (11 October 2012), http://www.baystatebanner.com/ and Adversity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. local18-2012-10-11 (accessed 1 November 2012). Contributor96. Jarvis, Schola Illustris. Dent, N. J. H. 1988. Rousseau: An Introduction to his Psycho- 97. http://www.roxburylatin.org/about-rl/who-we-are/rooted-in-his logical, Social and Political Theory. Oxford: Blackwell. tory/index.aspx (accessed 25 March 2012). 98. http://www.roxburylatin.org/about-rl/index.aspx (accessed 1 No- ———. 1992. A Rousseau Dictionary. Oxford: Blackwell. vember 2012). ———. 2005. Rousseau. London: Routledge. 99. Ibid. “Rule” of St. Benedict, Christian Formation and the 1083

While its original roots and curriculum were faithful to had arisen around his leadership at Monte Cassino in a Christian worldview, today it is a nonsectarian, inde- central Italy. While Benedict borrowed heavily from pendent school with no specific religious affiliation. Its prior monastic codes, such as the Rule of the Master, his students are among the highest achieving students in the innovations gave it an appeal that caused Pope Gregory nation, with an average combined SAT score of 2230.100 to make it the widespread rule of the monasteries of The admission process at The Roxbury Latin School is Europe a century after Benedict’s death. Historians have among the most competitive in the country, as only ap- called the years between AD 650 and 1150 the “Benedic- proximately 9 percent or less of those applying for admis- tine centuries” because of the pervasive influence that sion are admitted in a typical year. the Benedictine monastic system had on the church and During the school’s 368-year history, it has expe- culture as the old Roman world receded and medieval rienced financial trials, government interference, and society emerged.103 certain levels of internal chaos, but it has weathered them Understood as an introductory aid to living out a all and remains one of the nation’s premier independent spiritual life deeply imbedded with scripture, the “Rule” schools. According to Forbes magazine, Roxbury Latin took other monastic codes such as the Rule of the Master School was the fifth-ranked preparatory school in the and turned the focus away from austerity, perfection, United States in 2010.101 and the extreme hierarchy that markedOnly prior systems.104 In the modern era, Roxbury Latin School’s most notable Benedict devoted four of the final chapters (69–72) to headmaster was Rev. F. Washington Jarvis, who served the exhorting his monks, who were by and large common school for 30 years prior to his retirement in 2004. Jarvis is men with little formal training, on how they were meant noted for insisting on the continuing mission of the school to love each other as brothers who essentially became as an all-boys’ school and building its academic pro- their earthly families in their lifelong commitment to gram and reputation among modern independent schools. the monastery.105 The “Rule” was designed to help them Under Jarvis’s leadership, the campus expanded, the en- fully live out the Gospel message of Christ in every aspect dowment grew to over $100 million, and the academic of life. They followed a daily liturgy of corporate prayer integrity and intellectual and spiritual lives of boys still that amounted to four hours of common devotion. Apart flourish and remain foremost in the institution’s mission. from the liturgy, their days were spent in silence, divided The Roxbury Latin School hosts an impressive list of into about four hours of reading from spiritual texts and Copy106 alumni, including John Wise (1669), the Massachusetts six hours of labor. clergyman credited with the revolutionary phrase “no Rather than emphasizing the need for people to have taxation without representation”; John Warren (1767), extraordinary skills by which to achieve remarkable founder of Harvard Medical School; Frederick Law accomplishments, the “Rule” seeks to enable ordinary Olmsted Jr. (1890), renowned landscape architect and people to live with exceptional faithfulness. Viewing journalist; James Bryant Conant (1910), former president transformation as a long, steady process, it offers ideals of Harvard University; and Jared Diamond (1954), noted of behavior and appetite that the monks were meant to biologist, author, and Pulitzer Prize winner. cultivate. The three Benedictine vows are stability, fidel- Throughout its history, Roxbury Latin has been ity, and obedience.107 Stability relates to the commitment marked by scholastic achievement and individual growth of the individual to persevere in doing well even in the for boys from the greater Boston area. Cotton Mather midst of the mundane or challenging realities of life. described Roxbury Latin as Schola Illustris,102 which aptly The simplicity of monastic life created a clean backdrop describes the school’s mission and the founder’s purpose. against which the complex and sinful duplicities of the —Timothy P. Wiens individual’s internal motives became more apparent. Each individual was called to battle this duplicitous nature so as to become steadfastly content in the work “Rule” of St. Benedict, and obedience before him. This sort of daily personal Christian Formation and the ownership was the route to spiritual maturity.108 Their

The “Rule” of St. Benedict was written in the sixth cen- 103. David Knowles, The Monastic Order in England (Cambridge, UK: tury. It was meant as a guide to the monasteries that Cambridge University Press, 1963), 3–7. 104. Robert Taft, The Liturgy of the Hours (Collegeville, MN: The Litur- Contributor gical Press, 1993), 140. 100. http://www.roxburylatin.org/about-rl/rl-fact-sheet/index.aspx (ac- 105. Esther de Waal, Seeking God: The Way of St. Benedict (Collegeville, cessed 1 November 2012). MN: The Liturgical Press, 1984), 18–19. 101. http://finance.yahoo.com/news/pf_article_109427.html (accessed 106. Ibid., 86. 1 November 2012). 107. Ibid., 55. 102. Jarvis, Schola Illustris. 108. Ibid., 78. 1084 Russia and Christian Education endurance in transformation served to strengthen the Main Denominations and Institutions in Russia stability of the community, and in their commitment to The main denomination is Russian Orthodox. Before each other they created an environment wherein each 1917, there were 4 Orthodox theological academies, 57 could deepen in his life in Christ. 109 Therefore, obedience seminaries, and 40,150 religious schools.111 In 2004, there and stability were also a form of fidelity to God and each were 5 Orthodox theological academies, 26 seminaries, other. The unchanging, stable nature of the community and an unknown number of religious schools.112 The provided a context for the great internal changes of being Union of Evangelical Christian Baptists has Moscow made in the likeness of Christ. Theological Seminary, St. Petersburg Christian Univer- The “Rule” of St. Benedict presented this transforma- sity, and Novosibirsk Biblical Theological Seminary.113 tion as one marked by particular qualities or dispositions, The Union of Christians of Faith, Evangelical-Pente- such as death to self; a willingness to partake in the suf- costal, has Moscow Theological Institute and Siberian ferings of Christ; a spirit of humility and servant-hood Theological Institute.114 toward each other; the capacity to listen throughout the day with sensitivity to God’s Word and each other; a Typical Means of Educating Christians in Russia continual confronting of the sin that must be dealt with Orthodox education occurs in the churches, in the public as individuals; dependence on God’s mercy in failure; schools, on college campuses, and in Orthodox acad- 115, 116 Only holding material possessions loosely as gifts from God; emies and institutes. Protestant education occurs in valuing the goodness of every kind of work; freedom churches, homes, and Christian education institutions. from the need to control; an ability to live with balance and harmony, devoid of excess, which is marked by a Brief Description of the State of Religious Freedom unity of the heart and mind; and a sustained vision of in Russia the heavenly home as the true goal of life. These are Religious freedom is officially part of the Russian consti- broad themes among many others. Within the text of the tution. In practice, the Russian Orthodox Church enjoys “Rule,” each theme is treated with intimate detail regard- favor among the people and the government, while in- ing the manner in which the human heart can distort it. consistent interpretation of the laws sometimes subjects This is helpful both in identifying sinful patterns and in Protestants to unfair conditions. highlighting the virtue of these qualities when exhibited Copy by one who is pure in heart. Distinctive Methods of Educating Christians in Russia Youth programming is growing in the churches, as are References and Resources opportunities for Christian higher education. Educa- de Waal, Esther. 1984. Seeking God: The way of St. Benedict. tional methods seek to include social or collective influ- Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. ence on the individual.117 Kardong, Terrence G. 1981. Benedicts Rule: A Translation and Commentary. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. References and Resources Knowles, David. 1963. The Monastic Order in England. Colleg- Glanzer, Perry L. 2002. The Quest for Russia’s Soul: Evangelicals eville, MN: The Liturgical Press. and Moral Education in Post-Communist Russia. Waco, TX: Taft, Robert. 1993. The Liturgy of the Hours. Collegeville, MN: Baylor University Press. The Liturgical Press. Penner, Peter F., ed. 2005. Theological Education as Mission. —Jennifer Jagerson Schwarzenfeld, Germany: Neufeld Verlag. —Kent Eby

Russia and Christian Education 111. John Meyendorff, The Orthodox Church (Crestwood: St. Vladimir’s Press 1981), 155. 112. “The Russian Orthodox Church Today,” http://www.russian How and When Christianity Came to Russia -orthodox-church.org.ru/today_en.htm (accessed 10 May 2004). 113. Union of Evangelical Christian Baptists, “List of Educational In- Christianity officially came to Russia in AD 988, when stitutions,” http://baptist.org.ru/go/education (accessed 29 March 2013). Prince Vladimir had the citizens of Kiev baptized en 114. Union of Christians of Faith, Evangelical-Pentecostal, “Educational masse in the Dnieper River.110 Institutions,” http://hve.ru/ministries/mti (accessed 29 March 2013). 115. “The Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church Completes Its First Day Work,” http://mospat.ru/en/2012/12/25/news78464/ (accessed Contributor29 March 2013). 116. Perry L. Glanzer and Konstantin Petrenko, “Religion and Educa- 109. Ibid., 55–62. tion in Post-Communist Russia: Russia’s Evolving Church-State Relations,” 110. Kent L. Eby, “Perspective Transformation: Process Identification, Journal of Church and State 49, no.1 (2007): 58. Phases and Facilitators in Christian Higher Education in Russia” (PhD 117. To learn more about this concept, see the writings of Anton S. diss., Trinity International University, 2006). Makarenko and Lev S. Vygotsky. Russian Orthodox Church Christian Education 1085

Russian Orthodox Church the authority of the church was weakened at this time Christian Education due to occasional political corruption. Also during this period, however, the church in Moscow gained greater The coming of Orthodox Christianity to the Rus’, and independence from Constantinople, especially after the the Slavs more generally, coincided with the most im- fall of the latter in the 15th century (Schmemann 1963, portant educational advancement any civilization can 302–305). undergo: literacy. The glagolithic alphabet was created With regard to education, formal methods were on by the church, as was the Cyrillic, the alphabet of Old the rise at this time. According to Romanchuk: “The Church Slavonic and many Eastern Slavic languages fifteenth century in Rus’ was at once an age of spiritu- today (Dvornik 1970, 103, 250). Thus, some of the first ally oriented monastic reform and the time of the first Slavonic writings were translations of the scriptures, lit- inroads of Aristotelian rationalism—two different means urgies, and spiritual and doctrinal writings of the church. of understanding the word, and the world, that were fated This foundation in Christian education has shaped the to encounter each other with great force” (2007, ix). He entire course of the Russian Orthodox Church. describes the meeting of these two pedagogical traditions While the present article focuses extensively on Chris- at the Kirillov Monastery at White Lake: tian education throughout the history of Russian Ortho- From the time of the monastery’sOnly foundation by the doxy, this is necessary to understand the many currents that coexist in the present day. hesychast reformer, Kirill of White Lake, at the end of the fourteenth century, through the last decades of the fifteenth, books were read and interpreted against the Early History in Kiev horizon of the desert hermeneutic, reaching back to the While Cyril and Methodius had already spread Chris- desert fathers of Egypt. The word of ascetic miscellany, tianity to the Slavs in the ninth century, it came to the mumbled, memorized, and put into practice by Kirill and Rus’ in particular, centralized around Kiev, through the his disciples, recreates an authority that preaches, teaches, conversion of their ruler Vladimir and the subsequent and leads the reader to God. . . . But interrupting this “baptism of the Rus” (Schmemann 1963, 293; see also desert tradition at mid-century is a different kind of book, Fennel 1995, 35–44). Thousands of Vladimir’s subjects reflecting a very different culture of interpretation. This accepted baptism along with him, marking the traditional newCopy encyclopedic miscellany is oriented toward the world, beginning of Russian Christianity in 988. and privileges information over edification. It reflects Much of Kievan Christianity was inspired by transla- the arrival of academic pedagogy and an academic her- meneutic . . . whose textual productions . . . and cultural tions of Byzantine lives of the saints. Early Russian Chris- innovations . . . resemble early developments in western tianity thus reflected the spiritual heritage of the Eastern scholasticism. . . . In the unlikely milieu of a monastery Roman Empire, though it had its own features. Russian founded by a mystic and hesychast appeared the first monasticism, beginning with the community of the signs of “Byzantine humanism” in Russia. (2007, ix–x) Crypt monastery, founded in the 11th century, taught the Christian faith to Russia first by living example, but also, Romanchuk traces this scholastic current of education in the case of Theodosius at least, by “constant participa- not, however, directly to the West, but to the rise in tion in the life of the state—by preaching, exposure, and popularity of the Dialectica of John of Damascus and “the reminder” (Hughes, 1998, 63). While such education was arrival of translated Byzantine propaedeutic and school still somewhat informal, it was present in the first cen- texts” (2007, xi). tury of Russian Christianity, and since its teachers were While certain Western influences may have made monastics, it was technically lay-led, though it quickly headway, whether directly or indirectly, during this time spread to the clergy as well. The Crypt monastery “gave (by the 17th century, French Jesuits were seeking church the Church as many as fifty bishops, who disseminated its reunion in Moscow), the account above is helpful to spirit, traditions, and regulations everywhere” (Schme- check a characterization of the educational shift as purely mann 1963, 296–297). one of Westernization. Thus, the catechism of Peter Mo- gila (1640), accepted and used by all the Orthodox patri- The Muscovite Period archates, while clearly revealing Western influence, may While the Kieven period came to an end with the also fit in this current of “Byzantine humanism.” Indeed, TatarContributor invasion (1237–1240), the Muscovite period began it even contains polemics against both Roman Catholi- roughly in the 14th century with the rise of Moscow as cism and Protestantism (Schaff [1877] 1919, 58–61). The Russia’s center and the transfer of the Russian metropoli- real confrontation with the West would come during the tan from Kiev to Russia. In contrast to the earlier period, Westernizing reforms of Tsar Peter the Great. 1086 Russian Orthodox Church Christian Education

The Synodal Period Communism and the Present Day In the late 17th century, Peter the Great began to enact While the previous centuries had witnessed a flourishing sweeping modernizing reforms, both political and eccle- of formal religious education, the Soviets sought to stamp sial. In 1721, the head of the Russian church was dissolved out faith from the hearts of the people: a campaign of de- in favor of a synod (Hughes 1998, 339), and the church education. Clergy and laity alike were censored, ridiculed, itself became the “Department of Orthodox Confession,” exiled, sent to prison camps, and martyred. Metropolitan a department of the state (Schmemann 1963, 331). While of Volokolamsk has commented about those church-state relations in Byzantium had never truly led martyred for their faith: “We do not know how many to a Caesaropapistic arrangement, in Russia the church they were, tens of thousands, hundreds of thousands was subordinated to the state. or millions, because the whole truth about those years In terms of Christian education, Peter sought to ap- will never be revealed” (Department of External Church point to the synod the most educated men he could find. Relations 2013). In terms of religious education, the com- In addition, during his reign “religious publishing and munist era marks the dark ages of Russian Orthodoxy. religious art flourished” (Hughes 1998, 347–348). This Nevertheless, as time went on the state relaxed its per- flourishing, while beneficial, also carried the extra politi- secution of the church, and the theological schools began cal goal of making relations with Russia more palatable to to fill once again, albeit under Soviet watch.Only Writing in the potential allies in the West, while also favoring Western 1980s, close to the fall of the Soviet Union, Ellis observed educational methods. The founding of Russia’s first for- that “the expansion in the number of theological students mal theological schools, the first in St. Petersburg, was an in recent years has been theoretically sufficient to stabilise outgrowth of Peter’s reforms (Cracraft 2003, 112). the numbers of parish clergy below retirement age” (1986, While currents from the West, especially from Ger- 102). Thus, the resurrection of Russian Orthodoxy was many, continued to flood into Russia, a formidable already on its way through a renewal of education in the resistance materialized, beginning with the Slavophile years leading up to the liberation from communism. movement in the early 19th century, extending to the In the present day, not only do Russian theological Russian philosopher Vladimir Solovyov and the novel- schools continue to flourish, but the Russian Orthodox ist Fyodor Dostoevsky in the late 19th century, and in- Church’s Department of External Church Relations has cluding such figures as Fr. Pavel Florensky, Fr. Sergius been atCopy work composing helpful documents for its people Bulgakov, and the philosopher Nikolai Berdyaev of the to engage the contemporary world, such as The Basis religious renaissance in the early 20th century (see, e.g. of the Social Concept (2000) and The Russian Orthodox Zernov 1963). Schmemann describes this reawakening of Church’s Basic Teaching on Human Dignity, Freedom and Russian thought: Rights (2008), among others, and there are plans for a new catechism. The church continues to educate through Russian thought, also, was born of Western roots. It has theological schools, monastic communities, liturgy, ser- long been known that in Russia not only the Western- mons, moral teaching in secondary schools, and so forth. izers but the Slavophiles, too, were the fruit of German While it suffered greatly during the Soviet era and still idealism, of Hegel and Schelling. But here again it was bears many scars, one can say that, in terms of Christian transformed into something more than merely imitative education, the Orthodox Church has come alive again philosophy by what came out of the depths of Orthodox and promises much more in the years to come. memory, and the Western patterns were suddenly filled with new content and new force. From Khomiakov, whom Samarin called “a teacher of the Church,” to the References and Resources Russian philosophers and theologians of the twentieth Cracraft, James. 2003. The Revolution of Peter the Great. Cam- century, its themes more and more clearly emerged as the bridge, MA, London: Harvard University Press. universal truth of Orthodoxy—not of Byzantium, not of Department of External Church Relations. 2000. “The Basis the East, but of an all-embracing, final Christian synthe- of the Social Concept.” https://mospat.ru/en/documents/ sis. (Schmemann 1963, 339) social-concepts/. ———. 2008. “The Russian Orthodox Church’s Basic Teaching During this time, the impact of these writers helped to on Human Dignity, Freedom and Rights.” https://mospat.ru/ shift the perspective of a significant minority of the edu- en/documents/dignity-freedom-rights/ catedContributor in Russia toward the Orthodox Church and thus ———. 2013. “Metropolitan Hilarion: The Feat of New Martyrs encouraged a reappraisal of its value for engaging mod- and Confessors is a Spiritual Treasure to be Carefully Pre- ern life and thought. This would be tragically cut short, served and Revered by Our Church.” 10 February. https:// however, beginning with the October Revolution of 1917. mospat.ru/en/2013/02/10/news80843/. Russian Orthodox Church Christian Education 1087

Dvornik, Francis. 1970. Byzantine Missions Among the Slavs. Belozerskii Monastery. Toronto, Buffalo, London: University New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. of Toronto Press. Ellis, Jane. 1986. The Russian Orthodox Church: A Contempo- Schaff, Philip. (1877) 1919. The Creeds of Christiandom. 6th ed. rary History. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Vol. 1. New York: Harper & Brothers. Fennel, John. 1995. A History of the Russian Church to 1448. Schmemann, Alexander. 1963. The Historical Road of Eastern London, New York: Longman. Orthodoxy. Translated by Lydia W. Kesich. New York, Chi- Hughes, Lindsey. 1998. Russia in the Age of Peter the Great. cago, San Francisco: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press. Zernov, Nicolas. 1963. The Russian Religious Renaissance of ———. 2002. Peter the Great: A Biography. New Haven, CT; the Twentieth Century. New York; Evanston, IL: Harper London: Yale University Press. and Row. Romanchuk, Robert. 2007. Byzantine Hermeneutics and Peda- —Dylan Pahman gogy in the Russian North: Monks and Masters at the Kirillo- Only

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