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ETHNO-RELIGIOUS RECONCILIATION THROUGH SECONDARY SCHOOL EDUCATION: Between Muslim and Tamil Communities in Post-War Jaffna, Sri Lanka

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ETHNO-RELIGIOUS RECONCILIATION THROUGH SECONDARY SCHOOL EDUCATION: Between Muslim and Tamil Communities in Post-War Jaffna, Sri Lanka ETHNO-RELIGIOUS RECONCILIATION THROUGH SECONDARY SCHOOL EDUCATION: Between Muslim and Tamil communities in post-war Jaffna, Sri Lanka R.J. Duncan MSc. International Development Studies Graduate School of Social Sciences University of Amsterdam Page 1 ‘What is more important than laws to Tamils and to everyone else in this country is a public conscience that is willing to fight continually to ensure justice for everyone. We need a more active form of democracy than the public merely electing governments and then going to sleep and leaving the rest to politicians and lawyers. The laws that ensure fair play may come if trust is established between the several communities that people this island and democracy is re-established.’ (Rajani Thiranagama, 1990, in Broken Palmyra, p.406) Title page photograph: Jaffna Public Library, a symbol of education in Jaffna, 2013 Page 2 R.J. Duncan (10435166) MSc. International Development Studies Graduate School of Social Sciences University of Amsterdam Academic supervisor: Dr. Mieke T.A. Lopes Cardozo Field work supervisor: Ahilan Kadirgamar 20th February 2014 Page 3 Table of Contents Abbreviations and Acronyms .................................................................................................. 5 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. 6 Preface: Field diary excerpt ..................................................................................................... 7 Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................ 9 1.1: Research challenges in a culture of fear, conflict and militarization ........................ 9 1.2: Aims and justification ................................................................................................... 9 1.3: Introduction to education and conflict ...................................................................... 11 1.4: The (post)-conflict context of Sri Lanka .................................................................... 12 1.5: A brief history of (secondary school) education in Sri Lanka ................................. 13 1.6: What is peace education in Sri Lanka? ...................................................................... 14 1.7: Research question and sub-questions ....................................................................... 16 Chapter 2: Theoretical and Methodological Foundations ........................................... 17 Part 1: Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................... 17 2.1: Ethnicity (Religion, Culture, and Language) and Identity Formation .................... 17 2.2: Education: A weapon of war or an instrument for peace? ...................................... 19 2.3: Agency of community and individuals (for social justice education) ..................... 22 2.4: Education’s (new) role within the political realm .................................................... 23 Part 2: Methodological Foundations ................................................................................. 26 2.5: Critical Realism and the Strategic Relational Approach .......................................... 27 2.6: Research location ........................................................................................................ 28 2.7: Research Methods ....................................................................................................... 29 2.8: Language ...................................................................................................................... 32 2.9: Ethical Practice in Research ....................................................................................... 33 Chapter 3: Structural inequalities of society and education ....................................... 36 3.1: Recognition .................................................................................................................. 37 3.2: Representation ............................................................................................................ 42 3.3: (Re)-distribution ......................................................................................................... 44 Chapter 4: Multi-scalar peace ............................................................................................ 49 4.1: Supra-community........................................................................................................ 49 4.2: Inter-community ......................................................................................................... 54 4.3: Intra-community and individual ................................................................................ 57 Chapter 5: Community and Individual Agency .............................................................. 61 5.1: The agency of teachers............................................................................................... 61 5.2: The agency of students ............................................................................................... 64 5.3: The impact of external interventions on agency for reconciliation ........................ 67 Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................ 71 6.1: Research conclusions .................................................................................................. 71 6.2: Theoretical Reflection ................................................................................................. 75 6.3: Recommendations for peace education policy ......................................................... 76 6.4: Recommendations for future research ..................................................................... 78 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 79 Appendix ................................................................................................................................. 89 Page 4 Abbreviations and Acronyms 2NL Sinhala and Tamil as Second National Languages A/L Advanced level Qualification CBO Community-based organisation CEG Citizenship Education and Governance CR Critical Realism DFID Department for International Development DSE Disaster Safety Education EFA Education For All EDCY Education for Disadvantaged Children and Youth in Post-conflict and Poverty Areas ESC Education for Social Cohesion GIZ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbei/German Agency for Technical Cooperation GoSL Government of Sri Lanka IDP Internally Displaced Persons INGO International Non-Governmental Organisation LCCE Life Competencies and Civic Education LLRC Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission LTTE Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam MDGs Millennium Development Goals MoE Ministry of Education NECORD North East Community Restoration and Development Extension Project NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NIE National Institute of Education O/L Ordinary Level Qualification P Participant PSC Psycho-Social Care/Guidance and Counselling PVE Peace and Value education S Student SCPE The National Policy on Social Cohesion and Peace Education SDS School Development Society SLA Sri Lankan Army SRA Strategic Relational Approach T Teacher UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugee UNHRC United Nations Human Rights Council Page 5 Acknowledgements I would like to dedicate this thesis to those people who have made this research possible and thank them for their participation, whilst putting themselves at risk in the process, for no gain but to have their voices heard. I’d like to thank these people individually however due to confidentiality this cannot be possible. Thank you to Vasucki and her family for their kindness, hospitality and support of this research. To also Ahilan Kadirgamar who provided invaluable academic and personal advice when in Jaffna. A big thank you also to my interpreter who cannot be named, for his company and enthusiasm for the project. This thesis has been somewhat overwhelming at times to which I owe a debt of gratitude to Mieke Lopes Cardozo for her patience, kind words and constant support, especially throughout difficult times. And finally a special thank you to my family – my Mum, Auntie Jac and Archie, my girlfriend Kasia and my friends for their unyielding support, gentle prompting and love. Page 6 Preface: Field diary excerpt “My research in Jaffna has come to its abrupt, premature and final end. Following discussion with my fieldwork adviser, it has been concluded that to continue would not be worth the risk. Since a year ago, the Sri Lankan military have substantially increased their ‘occupation’ of the Tamil North; they are everywhere, and rule through their visible might of urban military camps and observation posts on city streets, and by fear of the invisible force, plain-clothed military informants and the white vans which have forcibly taken thousands of Sri Lanka’s ‘disappeared’ people. Research is becoming too difficult now. There are constraints and restrictions upon research in this situation, and the family I am staying with have become concerned for my safety. As one respondent cried, “the government are ruthless, you must be very brave to
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