DOCSLIB.ORG

Magnetotransport Properties of Ultrathin Metallic Multilayers: Microstructural Modifications Leading to Sensor Applications

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Magnetotransport Properties of Ultrathin Metallic Multilayers: Microstructural Modifications Leading to Sensor Applications Chapter 2 MAGNETOTRANSPORT PROPERTIES OF ULTRATHIN METALLIC MULTILAYERS: MICROSTRUCTURAL MODIFICATIONS LEADING TO SENSOR APPLICATIONS C. Christides Department of Engineering Sciences, School of Engineering, University of Patras, 26 110 Patras, Greece Contents 1.Sensors,Materials,andDevices........................................ 65 1.1.SensorCharacteristics.......................................... 65 1.2.All-MetalThin-FilmMagnetoresistiveSensors............................ 66 1.3. Spin Engineering of Metallic Thin-Film Structures . 68 1.4.MagnetoelectronicMemories..................................... 73 2. Morphology-Induced Magnetic and Magnetotransport Changes in GMR Films . 73 2.1. Oscillatory Magnetic Anisotropy and Magnetooptical Response . 73 2.2. Comparison between Epitaxial and Polycrystalline GMR Structures . 75 3. Performance Parameters of Microfabricated GMR Multilayers in Sensors . 77 4. Magnetotransport Properties in Polycrystalline Co/NM Multilayers . 79 4.1. Planar Hall Effect in Co/Cu Multilayers . 79 4.2.GMRinCo/CuMLs.......................................... 83 4.3.Low-FieldGMRinCo/AuMLs.................................... 90 4.4. Spin-Echo 59Co NMR Used for Nondestructive Evaluation of Co Layering . 100 4.5. Structural, Magnetic, and Magnetotransport Properties of NiFe/Ag Multilayers . 109 5.ColossalMagnetoresistanceinManganesePerovskiteFilms........................114 5.1.MaterialsProperties...........................................114 5.2.Low-FieldMagnetoresistanceinManganites.............................116 5.3. Exchange Bias in La–Ca–Mn–O Multilayers . 117 5.4.Advantages,Drawbacks,andProspectsofCMRFilmsinApplications...............123 6. Outline . 124 References...................................................126 1. SENSORS, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES tion by itself, it is always a part of a data acquisition system. Thus, a sensor responds to the stimulus and converts it into 1.1. Sensor Characteristics an electrical signal which is compatible with electronic cir- cuits. The sensor’s output signal may be in a form of voltage, In man-made devices, where the information is transmitted current, or charge. An ideal or theoretical output-stimulus re- and processed in electrical form through the transport of elec- lationship exists for every sensor that is characterized by the trons, a sensor is defined as a device that receives a signal so-called transfer function. This function establishes depen- or a stimulus and responds with an electrical signal [1]. The dence between the electrical signal S produced by the sen- stimulus is the quantity, physical property, or condition that sor, and the stimulus s: S = f(s). The transfer function is sensed as an input signal. Since a sensor does not func- may be a simple linear connection or a nonlinear dependence, Handbook of Surfaces and Interfaces of Materials, edited by H.S. Nalwa Volume 4: Solid Thin Films and Layers Copyright © 2001 by Academic Press All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. 65 66 CHRISTIDES that determines the most important characteristics of a sen- the number of circuits that fits on a chip doubles while the price sor: remains the same every year and a half. That trend has been driven by the steady shrinking of the size of microcircuits, as (i) In the general case of a nonlinear function, the sensitiv- defined by the smallest feature size, or linewidth. However, be- ity is defined as the slope b = dS(s )/ds at any particular input 0 sides the computing power of the microprocessors, the perfor- value s , and is not a fixed number as for a linear relationship: 0 mance of a computer depends on faster random-access memo- S = α + bs. ries (RAM) and denser magnetic storage of information as well. (ii) Full scale output is the algebraic difference between the In 1993, the cost of one megabyte of storage capacity was about electrical output signals measured with maximum input stimu- one dollar, a dramatic decrease from 104 dollars per megabyte lus and the lowest input stimulus applied. in 1956 when IBM first introduced the disk-drive technology. (iii) Accuracy errors arising from hysteresis, that is a devia- In 1998, the cost of one megabyte had decreased further, to tion of the sensor’s output at a specified point of the input signal less than five cents. The rapid areal density increase and the when it is approached from the opposite direction, and nonlin- stunning price–performanceimprovement have transformed the earity, which is the maximum deviation of a real transfer func- disk drive into the ubiquitous storage workhorse for computers tion from the approximation straight line. of all sizes. (iv) Inherent noise, which arises within the sensor’s circuit IBM innovations in the technology of magnetic hard-disk no matter how well it was designed, produces systematic dis- drives have driven up storage density at a phenomenal rate, tortions of the output signal. Such distortions are related to the now approaching 60% per year [2]. This increase is comparable sensor’s transfer function. The noise signals can, generally, be to the growth in semiconductor industry described by Moore’s described by an equivalent circuit that contains two additional law. The areal density—the number of discrete bits of infor- generators. One is a voltage noise generator e and the other n mation that can be squeezed onto a square inch of disk real is a current noise generator i . One contribution to the sensor n estate—has been increased at a pattern of magnetic fields that noise is thermal resistance noise (also called Johnson noise), magnetized bits on a circular track directly below on the spin- which is always present in resistive devices as a voltage noise. ning disk. To read back the data, the head was placed above This noise source contributes a background to the voltage spec- the track. As the bits spun beneath the head, the sweep of their tral density, which is representative of noise power, considered magnetic fields generated opposing voltages in the head. Since equal to S = 4k TRf (in units of volts squared per Hertz), V B the detectable magnetic flux (stimulus) from a bit decreases as where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, R is B the bit gets smaller, a scaling approach to increased density the total resistance of the sensor, and f is the bandwidth, in requires reducing the read–write head’s dimensions while in- Hertz, over which the measurement is made. creasing its sensitivity. To sustain such progress, the technology From the physical point of view, a sensor is a converter of of recording-head fabrication will need to continue to advance generally nonelectrical effects into electrical signals. Often sev- at a rapid pace. eral transformation steps are required before the electric out- In 1969, the IBM T. J. Watson Research Center, invented a put signal can be generated. These steps involve changes of method for making the wire coils by the same photolithographic types of energy where the final step must produce an electri- thin-film techniques used to make semiconductor chips [3]. cal signal of desirable format. Since there are several physical That method led to very small and sensitive read heads that IBM effects which cause generation of electrical signals in response first used in products [3] in 1979. However, the increased ten- to nonelectrical influences, sensor classification schemes range dency for miniaturization in hard-disk drives required more sen- from very simple to the complex. Thus, depending of what it sitive sensors than the inductive coils in the reading heads, with measures (stimulus), what its specifications are, what physical an ability to measure smaller magnetic fields. Thus, the read- phenomenon it is sensitive to, what conversion mechanism is ing coils had to be replaced by an alternative material, able to employed, what material it is fabricated from, and what is its operate as an electromagnetic sensor. The electrical resistivity field of application, a broad and representative classification of a magnetoresistive (MR) thin ferromagnetic film [4] changes scheme [1] can be constructed. Magnetic memories and sen- according to the strength and the orientation of the magnetic sors are one of the oldest, yet one of the most widely used, field it experiences. In ferromagnetic materials, the “ordinary” solid-state devices. Already at an annual sale of about 40 bil- anisotropic transport effects, observed in nonmagnetic films, lion dollars, the market is still growing rapidly thanks to ever- are present but are accompanied by stronger phenomena having increasing demands in data storage and to new applications of similar geometrical dependences and symmetries. The galvano- magnetic devices in the field of sensors. magnetic effects unique to ferromagnets are called “extraordi- nary,” “spontaneous,” or “anomalous” because of their greater strength relative to the ordinary effects. The extraordinary gal- 1.2. All-Metal Thin-Film Magnetoresistive Sensors vanomagnetic effects derive their strength from the fact that the Today’s computers and their precursors are based on an idea role of the external field is replaced by an internal field propor- known as stored program electronic computer, which relies on tional to the magnetization M, which is generally much stronger electronic logic gates and memory. The speed of computers has than an applied field. The mechanism by which the microscopic doubled every three years, a trend known as Moore’s law. Thus, internal field associated with M couples to the current density MAGNETOTRANSPORT PROPERTIES
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Collective Behavior of Interacting Magnetic Nanoparticles
    University of Tennessee, Knoxville TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School 12-2008 Collective Behavior of Interacting Magnetic Nanoparticles Noppi Widjaja University of Tennessee - Knoxville Follow this and additional works at: https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss Part of the Physics Commons Recommended Citation Widjaja, Noppi, "Collective Behavior of Interacting Magnetic Nanoparticles. " PhD diss., University of Tennessee, 2008. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/536 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized administrator of TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. For more information, please contact [email protected]. To the Graduate Council: I am submitting herewith a dissertation written by Noppi Widjaja entitled "Collective Behavior of Interacting Magnetic Nanoparticles." I have examined the final electronic copy of this dissertation for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, with a major in Physics. E. Ward Plummer, Major Professor We have read this dissertation and recommend its acceptance: Jian Shen, Pengcheng Dai, James R. Thompson, Bin Hu Accepted for the Council: Carolyn R. Hodges Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School (Original signatures are on file with official studentecor r ds.) To the Graduate Council: I am submitting herewith a dissertation written by Noppi Widjaja entitled “Collective Behavior of Interacting Magnetic Nanoparticles.” I have examined the final electronic copy of this dissertation for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with a major in Physics.
    [Show full text]
  • Ph.D. Position Realizing Spin Valves in Magnetic Insulators
    Ph.D. Position Realizing spin valves in magnetic insulators Within the collaborative research center SPIN+X ( https://www.uni-kl.de/trr173 ) of the German science foundation we investigate the spin properties from various perspectives and by connecting several scientific disciplines. Its research encompasses the whole range of spin research spanning from microscopic properties, to emergent spin phenomena and to the coupling to the macroscopic world. This constitutes a new discipline that we refer to as Advanced Spin Engineering, which seeks to create new functionalities based on spin physics. Spin+X builds on an outstanding research infrastructure in physics and chemistry at the Technical University Kaiserslautern (TUK) and at the Johannes Gutenberg University (JGU) Mainz TUK and JGU, as well as in engineering at TUK, which are at the forefront of spin-related science and technology. While spin transport was often considered to be accompanied by charge transport and moving electrons, it became clear in recent years that spin transport in insulating materials can offer advantages, especially with respect to energy losses and achievable transport lengths. The magnons that are responsible for the spin transport exist not only in ferromagnetic materials but also in antiferromagnets, where even higher speeds are achievable due to the stronger exchange coupling in the magnon system. In metallic systems Tunneling Magnetoresistive Devices and Giant Magneto Resistive devices exploit the charge transport that is coupled to the spin transport for their function. Complementary devices based on magnetic insulators are still missing. The objective of the PhD will be to realize physical system based on thin magnetic insulator heterostructures that are analogous to the thin film giant magnetoresistive structure known in the metallic ferromagnetic case.
    [Show full text]
  • Novel Antiferromagnetic Materials
    Novel Antiferromagnetic Materials John Sinclair Doctor of Philosophy University Of York Physics August 2018 Abstract There is intense interest in new antiferromagnetic materials due to the development of antiferromagnetic spintronics. Currently, the material IrMn is used, however, Iridium is one of the scarcest and most expensive elements. In this work, a number of novel, thin film antiferromagnetic materials were produced using sputter deposition and then assessed using magnetic and structural characterisation techniques as well as a temperature dependent resistivity technique developed during the project. Initially work was focussed on the ternary Heusler alloys Ni2MnAl and Ru2MnGe. Both alloys were shown to crystallise in their predicted antiferromagnetic phases, however they had low thermal stability due to limited magnetocrystalline anisotropy. Ru2MnGe was demonstrated to be the superior alloy, due to the anisotropy generated by its (111) sheet antiferromagnetic spin structure allowing the median blocking temperature to be determined for a Ru2MnGe (30 nm) / CoFe (2.5 nm) sample as 푇퐵 = (126 ± 3) K. Subsequent work focussed on the compound MnN. Using similar growth and measurement techniques, MnN thin films were shown to have a median blocking temperature as high as (374 ± 4) K and an effective anisotropy constant up to 6.6 × 106 ergs/cm3. These values indicate MnN may have the potential to be integrated into spintronic devices, if it is possible to reduce the antiferromagnet layer thickness, whilst maintaining the stoichiometry and
    [Show full text]
  • Terahertz Spin–Transfer Torque Oscillator Based on a Synthetic
    Terahertz Spin–Transfer Torque Oscillator Based on a Synthetic Antiferromagnet Hai Zhong1, Shizhu Qiao2, †, Shishen Yan1, Hong Zhang3, Yufeng Qin3, Lanju Liang2, Dequan Wei2, Yinrui Zhao1, Shishou Kang1, ‡ 1 School of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Crystal Materials, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, P. R. China 2 School of Opt-Electronic Engineering, Zaozhuang University, Zaozhuang 277160, P. R. China 3 Department of Applied Physics, School of Information Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, P. R. China †Corresponding author: [email protected] ‡Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract Bloch-Bloembergen-Slonczewski equation is adopted to simulate magnetization dynamics in spin-valve based spin-transfer torque oscillator with synthetic antiferromagnet acting as a free magnetic layer. High frequency up to the terahertz scale is predicted in synthetic antiferromagnet spin-transfer torque oscillator with no external magnetic field if the following requirements are fulfilled: antiferromagnetic coupling between synthetic antiferromagnetic layers is sufficiently strong, and the thickness of top (bottom) layer of synthetic antiferromagnet is sufficiently thick (thin) to achieve a wide current density window for the high oscillation frequency. Additionally, the transverse relaxation time of the free magnetic layer should be sufficiently larger compared with the longitudinal relaxation time. Otherwise, stable oscillation cannot be sustained or scenarios similar to regular spin valve-based spin-transfer torque oscillator with relatively low frequency will occur. Our calculations pave a new way for exploring THz spintronics devices. 1 1. Introduction Terahertz (THz) technology, with its frequency ranging approximately within 1011–1013 Hz, has numerous applications, such as high-resolution imaging, nuclear fusion plasma diagnosis, skin cancer screening, large-scale integrated circuit testing, weapons detecting, wireless communication, etc.
    [Show full text]
  • 2Nd European Conference on Molecular Spintronics Peñíscola (Castellón, Spain), 21-24 October 2018
    2nd European Conference on Molecular Spintronics Peñíscola (Castellón, Spain), 21-24 October 2018 SUNDAY 21st 09:00-18:00 Excursion to Morella 19:00-20:15 ECMOLS 2018 Registration 20:30 Dinner MONDAY 22nd 8:30-8:45 Conference Welcome J. S. Moodera - Massachusetts Institute of Technology – MIT USA 8:45-9:30 Frontier of Molecular Spin Engineering - the molecule/ferromagnet interface M. Bowen - IPCMS Strasbourg, France 9:30-10:00 Nanospintronic path across organic spinterfaces and paramagnetic centers C. Barraud - Université Paris Diderot, France 10:00-10:20 Spin transport through graphene/molecules-based magnetic tunnel junctions B. Quinard - CNRS - Thales, France 10:20-10:40 Spin-dependent transport in organic self-assembled monolayers 10:40-11:10 Coffee break V. Repain - Paris Diderot University, France 11:10-11:40 Interplay between epitaxial relationship and spin texture in a monolayer of spin- crossover molecules adsorbed on a metallic surface T. Moorsom - University of Leeds, United Kingdom 11:40-12:00 Spin dependent capacitance at metal-oxide molecule interfaces K. Pedersen - Technical University of Denmark, Denmark 12:00-12:20 A Non-Innocent Coordination Chemistry Approach to 2D Conductive Magnets S. Piligkos - University of Copenhagen, Denmark 12:20-12:40 Surface deposition of Ln-based molecular qubits H. Sirringhaus - University of Cambridge, United Kingdom 12:40-13:10 Charge and Spin Transport Physics of Organic Semiconductors 13:10-16:30 Lunch + free time F. Jelezko - Ulm University, Germany 16:30-17:15 Photoelectrical readout of single spins in diamond O. Céspedes - University of Leeds, United Kingdom 17:15-17:45 Spin Physics in C60 Interfaces M.
    [Show full text]
  • A Novel STT-MRAM Design with Electric-Field-Assisted Synthetic Anti-Ferromagnetic Free Layer
    IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 55, NO. 3, MARCH 2019 3400506 A Novel STT-MRAM Design With Electric-Field-Assisted Synthetic Anti-Ferromagnetic Free Layer Runzi Hao, Lei Wang ,andTaiMin State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Center for Spintronics and Quantum Systems, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China Spin-transfer torque magnetic random-access memory (STT-MRAM) is one of the next-generation nonvolatile memories, which has the most promising industrial prospect and has generated lots of new ideas. One of the continuous challenges in STT-MRAM development is to reduce the critical write current. Recently, one published paper reported that under a small electric bias voltage, the synthetic anti-ferromagnetic (SAF) multilayer system could be switched between an anti-ferromagnetic coupling state and a ferromagnetic coupling state. Based on this phenomenon, we propose a new type of STT-MRAM of which the critical write current can be reduced by an assisting electric-field (E-field). Micromagnetic simulation has been performed to study the dynamic switching behavior of the magnetization of the SAF free layer with tunable Ruderman–Kittel–Kasuya–Yosida interaction under the impact of an E-field. Index Terms— Magnetic tunneling junction (MTJ), nonvolatile memory, Ruderman–Kittel–Kasuya–Yosida (RKKY), spin-transfer torque (STT), synthetic anti-ferromagnetic (SAF). I. INTRODUCTION magnetic-field assistance [33]. To overcome these difficulties, Yang et al. [1] studied the room temperature Ruderman– AGNETIC random-access memory (MRAM), a non- Kittel–Kasuya–Yosida (RKKY) interaction in the synthetic volatile memory using spins as storage bits, has M anti-ferromagnetic (SAF) multilayers only under the impact of earned interest in spintronic research as well as industry E-field as a practical way to manipulate the RKKY interaction application since 1960s [2]–[7].
    [Show full text]
  • Performance of Synthetic Antiferromagnetic Racetrack Memory: Domain Wall Versus Skyrmion
    Performance of synthetic antiferromagnetic racetrack memory: domain wall versus skyrmion Item Type Article Authors Tomasello, R; Puliafito, V; Martinez, E; Manchon, Aurelien; Ricci, M; Carpentieri, M; Finocchio, G Citation Tomasello R, Puliafito V, Martinez E, Manchon A, Ricci M, et al. (2017) Performance of synthetic antiferromagnetic racetrack memory: domain wall versus skyrmion. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 50: 325302. Available: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-6463/aa7a98. Eprint version Post-print DOI 10.1088/1361-6463/aa7a98 Publisher IOP Publishing Journal Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics Rights This is an author-created, un-copyedited version of an article accepted for publication/published in Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics. IOP Publishing Ltd is not responsible for any errors or omissions in this version of the manuscript or any version derived from it. The Version of Record is available online at http://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6463/aa7a98 Download date 26/09/2021 17:55:59 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10754/625626 IOP Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 50 (2017) 325302 (11pp) https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6463/aa7a98 50 Performance of synthetic antiferromagnetic 2017 racetrack memory: domain wall © 2017 IOP Publishing Ltd versus skyrmion JPAPBE R Tomasello1 , V Puliafito2 , E Martinez3, A Manchon4 , M Ricci5, 6 7,8 325302 M Carpentieri and G Finocchio 1 Department of Engineering, Polo Scientifico e Didattico di Terni,
    [Show full text]
  • Dieny « Models in Spintronics » 2009 European School on Magnetism, Timisoara Birth of Spin Electronics : Giant Magnetoresistance (1988)
    Models in spintronics (Part I) OUTLINE : Spin-dependent transport in metallic magnetic multilayers -Introduction to spin-electronics -Spin-dependent scattering in magnetic metal -Current-in-plane Giant Magnetoresistance -Modelling transport in CIP spin-valves -Current-perpendicular-to-plane Giant Magnetoresistance -Spin accumulation, spin current, 3D generalization. B.Dieny « Models in spintronics » 2009 European School on Magnetism, Timisoara Birth of spin electronics : Giant magnetoresistance (1988) Fe/Cr multilayers Fert et al, PRL (1988), Nobel Prize 2007 Two limit geometries of measurement: I ~ 80% V I Current-in-plane I V Magnetic field (kG) I I Current-perpendicular-to-plane R R GMR AP P Antiferromagnetically coupled multilayers RP B.Dieny « Models in spintronics » 2009 European School on Magnetism, Timisoara Low field GMR: Spin-valves ) (a) emu 1 3 Antiferromagnetic - FeMn 90Å 0 pinning layer M (10 M NiFe 40Å Ferromagnetic -1 pinned layer Cu 22Å Non magnetic spacer 4 (b) 3 NiFe 70Å Soft ferromagnetic layer 2 R/R (%) R/R Ta 50Å Buffer layer 1 0 -200 0 200 400 600 800 substrate H(Oe) 4 (c) IBM Almaden 3 2 Ultrasensitive magnetic field sensors (MR heads) (%) R/R Spin engineering 1 B.Dieny et al, Phys.Rev.B.(1991)+patent US5206590 (1991). 0 -40 -20 0 20 40 H(Oe) B.Dieny « Models in spintronics » 2009 European School on Magnetism, Timisoara Benefit of GMR in magnetic recording GMR spin-valve heads from 1998 to 2004 B.Dieny « Models in spintronics » 2009 European School on Magnetism, Timisoara Two current model (Mott 1930) for transport
    [Show full text]
  • Spin Engineering in Magnetic Quantum Well Structures
    UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara Spin Engineering in Magnetic Quantum Well Structures s d A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Materials Science by Roberto Correa Myers Committee in charge: Professor David Awschalom, Co-Chairperson Professor Arthur Gossard, Co-Chairperson Professor Evelyn Hu Professor Pierre Petroff Professor James Speck December 2006 The dissertation of Roberto Correa Myers is approved: September 2006 Spin Engineering in Magnetic Quantum Well Structures Copyright © 2006 by Roberto Correa Myers iii To my abuelos and grandparents, Elvira and Ricardo Correa, Betty and Vernon Myers iv Acknowledgments My life in graduate school has, without question, been nothing but fun. I was un- believably lucky during my studies both personally and professionally. Mostly this good fortune involves having met, worked, and played with so many tal- ented, funny, and entertaining friends and colleagues, many of whom I hope to remain lifelong friends with. The beginning of my luck was becoming a stu- dent of my advisors, David Awschalom and Art Gossard. Both Art and David have built unusually successful research groups, which by virtue of their close proximity and collegiality, have made astounding research progress at a pace not possible anywhere other than in Santa Barbara. They are both true individ- uals, both inspiring and entertaining, with flavorful character and experience. David’s ability to maintain an incredible pace of innovative research is well known. Without a doubt, David is one of the most rewarding and enjoyable professor to work with. Art’s Zen-like aura and chivalrous style are legendary in the semiconductor community.
    [Show full text]
  • Arxiv:0805.2902V1 [Quant-Ph]
    October 29, 2018 12:25 Journal of Modern Optics 2008JMO Journal of Modern Optics Vol. 00, No. 00, 00 Month 200x, 1{11 RESEARCH ARTICLE Implementation of Quantum Gates via Optimal Control Sonia Schirmera;b;∗ aDept of Applied Maths and Theoretical Physics University of Cambridge, Wilberforce Road, Cambridge, CB3 0WA, UK bDept of Maths and Statistics, University of Kuopio PO Box 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland (Received 00 Month 200x; final version received 00 Month 200x) Starting with the basic control system model often employed in NMR pulse design, we derive more realistic control system models taking into account effects such as off-resonant excitation for systems with fixed inter-qubit coupling controlled by globally applied electromagnetic fields, as well as for systems controlled by a combination of a global fields and local control electrodes. For both models optimal control is used to find controls that implement a set of two- and three-qubit gates with fidelity ≥ 99:99%. Keywords: Quantum Control Theory, Quantum Computation, Physically-realistic Control System Models, Implementation of Quantum Gates 1. Introduction Controlling the dynamics of quantum systems is a problem of great recent interest with many applications from quantum chemistry to quantum computing. Since the dynamics of a quantum system is essentially determined by its Hamiltonian, a central theme in quantum control is Hamiltonian engineering. This is typically accomplished by the application of external fields, whose interaction with the system modifies its effective Hamiltonian, thereby changing its dynamical evolution. The type of control fields that are available tends to vary significantly depending on the type of system and the actuators available.
    [Show full text]
  • Tuning Organic Magnetoresistance in Polymer-Fullerene Blends by Controlling Spin Reaction Pathways
    ARTICLE Received 22 Feb 2013 | Accepted 10 Jul 2013 | Published 2 Aug 2013 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms3286 Tuning organic magnetoresistance in polymer-fullerene blends by controlling spin reaction pathways P. Janssen1,M.Cox1, S.H.W. Wouters1, M. Kemerink2, M.M. Wienk2 & B. Koopmans1 Harnessing the spin degree of freedom in semiconductors is generally a challenging, yet rewarding task. In recent years, the large effect of a small magnetic field on the current in organic semiconductors has puzzled the young field of organic spintronics. Although the microscopic interaction mechanisms between spin-carrying particles in organic materials are well understood nowadays, there is no consensus as to which pairs of spin-carrying particles are actually influencing the current in such a drastic manner. Here we demonstrate that the spin-based particle reactions can be tuned in a blend of organic materials, and microscopic mechanisms are identified using magnetoresistance lineshapes and voltage dependencies as fingerprints. We find that different mechanisms can dominate, depending on the exact materials choice, morphology and operating conditions. Our improved understanding will contribute to the future control of magnetic field effects in organic semiconductors. 1 Department of Applied Physics, Center for NanoMaterials (cNM), Eindhoven University of Technology, PO Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands. 2 Molecular Materials and Nano Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, PO Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands. Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to B.K. (email: [email protected]). NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | 4:2286 | DOI: 10.1038/ncomms3286 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications 1 & 2013 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved.
    [Show full text]
  • Zero-Field Optic Mode Beyond 20 Ghz in a Synthetic Antiferromagnet
    PHYSICAL REVIEW APPLIED 13, 034035 (2020) Zero-field Optic Mode Beyond 20 GHz in a Synthetic Antiferromagnet H. J. Waring ,1,* N. A. B. Johansson,1 I. J. Vera-Marun ,2 and T. Thomson 1 1 Nano-Engineering and Spintronic Technologies (NEST), Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK 2 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK (Received 2 December 2019; revised manuscript received 31 January 2020; accepted 3 February 2020; published 13 March 2020) Antiferromagnets have considerable potential as spintronic materials. Their dynamic properties include resonant modes at frequencies higher than can be observed in conventional ferromagnetic materials. An alternative to single-phase antiferromagnets are synthetic antiferromagnets (SAFs), engineered structures of exchange-coupled ferromagnet/nonmagnet/ferromagnet trilayers. SAFs have significant advantages due to the wide-ranging tunability of their magnetic properties and inherent compatibility with current device technologies, such as those used for Spin-transfer-torque magnetic random-access memory production. Here we report the dynamic properties of fully compensated SAFs using broadband ferromagnetic res- onance and demonstrate resonant optic modes in addition to the conventional acoustic (Kittel) mode. These optic modes possess the highest zero-field frequencies observed in SAFs to date with resonances of 18 and 21 GHz at the first and second peaks in antiferromagnetic Ruderman-Kittel-Kasuya-Yosida (RKKY) coupling, respectively. In contrast to previous SAF reports that focus only on the first RKKY antiferromagnetic coupling peak, we show that a higher optic mode frequency is obtained for the second antiferromagnetic coupling peak. We ascribe this to the smoother interfaces associated with a thicker non- magnetic layer.
    [Show full text]