The Natural Attributes for World Heritage Nomination of Cape York Peninsula, Australia

The natural attributes for World Heritage nomination of Cape York Peninsula, Australia

9 April 2013

Editors: Valentine, P.S., Mackey, B. and Hitchcock, P.

Authors: Hitchcock, P., Kennard, M., Leaver, B., Mackey, B., Stanton, P., Valentine, P., Vanderduys, E., Wannan, B., Willmott, W. and Woinarski, J.

Table of Contents

Section Page

Author affiliations 2

Preface 3

Overview of Outstanding Natural Attributes of Cape York Peninsula 4

Section 1 Tropical Savanna Landscapes 6

Section 2 Aquatic Ecosystems and Freshwater Biodiversity 10

Section 3 Rainforest Ecosystems 15

Section 4 Continental Scale Biological Bridge 19

Section 5 Coastal Aeolian Dune Systems 23

Section 6 Bauxite Landscape 27

Section 7 Development of Scleromorphy 29

Conclusion 35

Acknowledgements 35

References 36

Author Affiliations

Valentine, P.S., School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University. Mackey, B., Director, Griffith Climate Change Response Program, Griffith University. Hitchcock, P., OC Consulting, Cairns. Kennard, M., Australian Rivers Institute, Griffith University and National Environmental Research Program, Northern Australia Hub. Leaver, B., Ashley Fuller Associates, Coolagolite. Stanton, P., Ecological Consultant. Vanderduys, E., Ecosystem Sciences, CSIRO. Wannan, B., Department of Environment and Heritage Protection, Queensland Government, Cairns. Willmott, W., Chelmer, Brisbane, Queensland 4068. Woinarski, J., Research Institute for Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University.

2 Cover photos clockwise from top left: Tropical savanna grasslands with termite mound (K. Trapnell), threatened wetland orchid Spathoglottis plicata (B. Wannan), coastal wetlands (K. Trapnell), yellow-billed kingfisher (P. Valentine). Preface

This statement of the outstanding natural attributes of Cape York Peninsula that address world heritage criteria was prepared by an Independent Scientific Expert Panel. The panel was convened by the Australian Government in response to long-standing recognition of the outstanding qualities and potential world heritage attributes of Cape York Peninsula (IUCN 1982; Mackey et al. 2001; Valentine 2006). This Panel was commissioned to produce a succinct statement about the outstanding natural heritage attributes of Cape York Peninsula that could support a world heritage nomination.

The Panel’s statement draws upon the many decades of experience, research and expertise of its members (and many others), many of whom were involved in earlier reviews and assessments. The Panel met for a two-day workshop to clarify and describe the particular natural heritage attributes that are likely to meet world heritage criteria, thereby forming the basis of a nomination.

The workshop, held on 9-10 October 2012 concluded that there are a series of key natural attributes likely to have outstanding universal value in terms of the World Heritage Convention criteria. Using data from numerous sources the Panel identified seven major attributes that should form the basis of a nomination for world heritage listing. Maps were subsequently developed that reflected the geographic locations and extent of these outstanding attributes and that provided a basis for identifying the specific boundaries for a nomination. Figure 1 Rainforest shrouded river snakes its way towards coastal lagoon through savanna woodlands. (K. Trapnell)

The seven particular natural attributes that were identified and recognised by the Panel to be outstanding are: (1) tropical savanna landscapes; (2) aquatic ecosystems and freshwater biodiversity; (3) rainforest ecosystems; (4) Cape York Peninsula as a continental scale biological bridge; (5) coastal aeolian dune systems; (6) bauxite landscapes; and (7) the development of scleromorphy.

Each of the seven focal attributes contributes to one or more of the four criteria in the World Heritage Operational Guidelines for evaluating natural heritage: (vii) contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance; (viii) be outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history, including the record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features; (ix) be outstanding examples representing significant ongoing ecological and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plants and animals; and (x) contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in situ conservation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of Outstanding Universal Value from the point of view of science or conservation.

Overview of Outstanding Natural Attributes of Cape York Peninsula

Tropical savanna landscapes dominate and characterize the ecological matrix of Cape York Peninsula. Their integrity, extent, biodiversity and connectivity provide the underpinning for the region’s other biodiversity values. The Australian tropical savannas provide the World’s most significant representation of the biome, because they are far less modified and degraded by human impacts than comparable examples on other continents, and this intact state is likely to be enduring. In an Australian context, the tropical savannas of Cape York Peninsula are pre-eminent due to their intrinsic diversity and the extent to which their biota has been maintained. These vast natural landscapes are on a scale sufficient to: maintain and foster ongoing evolutionary processes and ecological functions; retain viable populations of their many endemic and threatened species; and provide protection to maintain the integrity of the rich diversity of other habitats embedded within or abutting them.

Cape York Peninsula features an outstanding range of aquatic ecosystem types – including estuaries, rivers, lakes, palustrine wetlands, soaks and water holes, riparian strips, ground water systems - that are shaped and sustained by the movement of water through the landscape and in many cases by ground water discharge through the monsoonal dry season. Unlike many areas of the world, aquatic ecosystems of Cape York Peninsula are extensive and have exceptional ecological integrity. They support a diverse and unique variety of aquatic, riparian and terrestrial biodiversity (and provide a robust refuge for many globally threatened species), with natural flow regimes, and relatively intact riverine landscapes.

Cape York Peninsula has extensive areas of outstanding tropical rainforest of regional and global bioclimatic distinctiveness. The biogeographic and evolutionary significance of these ecosystems is evident from the significant interdigitation of rainforests with other vegetation communities, forming a complex landscape matrix which maintains the ecological and evolutionary processes across extensive geographic areas.

They are also the pathway by which there has been, and continues to be, an exchange in both directions of Asian and Australian rainforest biota. As well as many endemic species (10 vertebrates, more than 220 plants), the Peninsula rainforests contain many species which occur only on Cape York Peninsula (in Australia) but are shared with New Guinea (20 vertebrates, more than 100 plants).

For over 15 million years, Cape York Peninsula has been the main and most enduring part of a globally significant biological bridge between the unique post-Gondwanan biota of the rafting Australian continent and the rest of the world. Isolated for 50 million years, the biota of Australia developed distinctive characteristics, which have subsequently contributed to global biodiversity in unique ways. Of great significance has been the development, within the isolated Australian continent, of the ancestors of all the songbirds of the world (the oscine branch), which then spread to Asia and the rest of the world some 15 million years ago. The bridge has also facilitated the mixing of the Australian and Asian biotas; seen north and south of Torres Strait. Cape York Peninsula provides a continuing biological bridge between Australia and Malesia/Asia as well as a symbol of the mixing of unique post- Gondwanan biota of Australia with the rest of the planet.

The extensive Cape York Peninsula silica sand dune systems are a distinctive and dramatic illustration of large aeolian coastal dune complexes formed by the interaction of a major barrier reef system, ice- age sea-level fluctuations and reworked regionally derived siliclastic sediments. These spectacular landforms meet several key themes for world heritage including coastal systems (the role of water at oceanic margins on large-scale erosional and depositional coasts); ice ages (global patterns of continental icesheet expansion and recession, isostasy, sea-level changes and associated biogeographic records); and arid and semi-arid desert systems (land systems and features reflecting the dominant role of wind - aeolian processes - and intermittent fluvial action as agents of landform development and landscape evolution). Within the active dune system are hundreds of shallow freshwater lakes providing a distinctly significant environmental complex. The dune fields are in a relatively natural state over much of the area and these dune fields are outstanding and rare examples 4 of tropical dune systems, with geological/geomorphological conservation values of international significance and occur on a scale unusually large for the humid tropics generally. It is one of the few places in the world with extensive development of active, large elongate parabolic dunes, and the Gegenwalle ridges at Cape Flattery are amongst the largest and best developed in the world.

Cape York Peninsula includes extensive tracts of bauxite plateau landscape that includes the world’s largest known bauxite deposit (~ about 20% of total). The bauxite landscape covers some 11,000 square kilometres (10% of CYP) with an average thickness of about 2.5 metres consisting of pisolitic bauxite at the top of a typical lateritic (duricrust) profile about 10–15 metres thick. The dramatic red cliffs of the coastline near Weipa and Aurukun are an extensive and world-class example of an aluminium-rich lateritic weathering profile. This outstanding geological phenomenon forms the foundation for unique hydro-ecological processes that have enabled and supported a variety of unique biological expressions including tall woodland which is a unique, structurally and floristically distinctive, regional ecosystem.

Cape York Peninsula is significant at a global level for its representation of plants that illustrate the development of scleromorphy during the Tertiary. There is a rich diversity of plant communities first evident in the early Tertiary (e.g. rainforests) through to communities that proliferated in the mid Tertiary (e.g. woodlands, sedgelands) to those which appeared much later such as grasslands. Many communities on the Peninsula contain an array of rainforest and scleromorphic elements. Cape York Peninsula also contains globally significant representation of taxa from the Myrtaceae and Poaceae which demonstrate the evolution of these families in the Tertiary, from basal rainforest species through to more recently evolved woodland and grassland species.

A critical aspect of Cape York Peninsula is the extraordinary scale, integrity and interconnectedness of these tropical systems. One key element is the complex and interactive components of this extensive landscape and the outstanding level of integrity that remains largely unaffected by modern industrial development. Ecological processes continue to function at large landscape scales; ecological patterns remain intact and dynamic; most components have high levels of integrity and ecosystem health; there are few and highly localised areas of intensive development: it is overwhelmingly a vast natural landscape. For most of the attributes here identified, the scale and integrity of Cape York Peninsula will ensure that these values are likely to long endure.

Cape York Peninsula is lightly populated, mainly by Indigenous communities many of whom retain significant on-going links to traditional lands. The traditional owners who occupy substantial areas of the Peninsula continue to play a central role in land management and continue with cultural heritage practices that are intended to maintain the integrity of the landscape. A small number of large grazing properties are also present on the Peninsula, where the particular natural conditions favour low density and extensive cattle grazing within a largely unmodified environment. Across the vast area of the Peninsula (14 million ha) a few small towns contain the tiny urban Figure 2 Ranger undertaking management burn of the grassy understorey of savanna woodland. population. The only significant industrial (K. Sale) activity is mining, mostly confined to parts of the western coastal area where large-scale bauxite mining occurs. A substantial proportion of Cape York Peninsula is within formal protected areas.

Section 1 Tropical Savanna Landscapes

Tropical savanna landscapes dominate and characterize the ecological matrix of Cape York Peninsula. Their integrity, extent and connectivity provide the underpinning for the region’s other biodiversity values. The Australian tropical savannas provide one of the World’s most significant representations of the biome, because they are far less modified and degraded by human impacts than comparable examples on other continents including Africa, and this intact state is likely to be enduring.

In an Australian context, the tropical savannas of Cape York Peninsula are pre-eminent due to their intrinsic diversity and the extent to which their vegetation, ecosystems, composite biota and ecological processes have been maintained. These vast natural landscapes provide a scale sufficient to sustain and foster evolutionary processes and ecological function, to retain viable populations of their many endemic and threatened species, and to provide the landscape-scale protection required to support the ongoing condition and integrity of Cape York Peninsula’s aquatic systems and other habitats Figure 3 An example of a tropical savanna landscape nestled within or abutting the savanna matrix. at Lakefield National Park. (P. Valentine) Evidence that justifies statement Tropical savannas comprise the major ecological component and much of the ecological and evolutionary signature of Cape York Peninsula. These savanna landscapes exhibit notable fine-scale variation in structure and species composition, and include a wide range of grasslands, woodlands and open forests (typically dominated by evergreen or semi-deciduous Eucalyptus and Corymbia species, but with a patchwork of other elements including woodlands dominated by Callitris, Acacia, Terminalia, and Melaleuca species) with grassy understorey, extending continuously over vast areas, or interdigitated with a complex mix of contrasting vegetation types, including gallery rainforests and wetlands. They extend over 700 km in latitude from the southern boundary of the Cape York Peninsula bioregion to the tip of Cape York. Their importance in this landscape is long-standing (Bowman et al. 2010), forming a fulcrum for continental-scale evolution of the savanna biota, and underpinning the global significance of this region as a “bridge and barrier” junction of highly distinctive biotas.

These landscapes also allow for the ongoing workings of large-scale ecological processes, notably now illustrating markedly different manifestations of the complex inter-relationships between fire regimes and vegetation dynamics. The iconic and endangered golden-shouldered parrot (Psephotus chrysopterygius) provides one illustration of the rich and highly-interconnected ecology of these savanna landscapes, nesting only in mounds built by a small suite of termite species largely endemic to the Cape York Peninsula savannas, and involved in a mutualistic nest hygiene relationship with larvae of a narrowly endemic moth species. Golden-shouldered parrots persist because the vast area of savanna allows for sufficient diversity of fire patterns, and hence grass diversity, predator refuges and termite mounds for nesting. Beyond Cape York Peninsula, one of its two closest relatives, the paradise parrot (P. pulcherrimus), has been the only bird species to have become extinct on the Australian mainland in historic times, a loss that reinforces the value for Australian biodiversity of the intact tropical savanna landscapes. Comparably, tropical savannas in other Australian regions are currently undergoing a major loss of their native mammal fauna (Woinarski et al. 2011), but such losses are not yet evident in the savanna landscapes of Cape York Peninsula.

On Cape York Peninsula, many species rely on the varied yet interconnected savanna habitats: for example, the large and rare palm cockatoo (Probosciger aterrimus), breeds in the savanna open woodlands but feeds in the extensive east-west gallery forest systems. Many other species are endemic 6 to these tropical savannas, including white-streaked honeyeater (Trichodere cockerelli), the endangered buff-breasted button-quail (Turnix olivei), the burrowing frog (Litoria manya), a minute skink (Menetia koshlandae), and a blind snake (Ramphotyphlops chamodracaena).

Cross reference to the relevant world heritage criteria The tropical savanna landscapes mark the record of life (Criterion viii) through their importance as the dominant fabric of a globally significant “bridge and barrier” system; they provide the expansive matrix and intact ecological systems in which large-scale ecological and evolutionary processes can continue to flourish (Criterion ix); and they are of global significance for biodiversity conservation, because of their species richness, endemism, intact biota, ecological diversity and contribution to support a large number of globally threatened species directly or indirectly (through acting as buffers to more restricted habitats/landscape components) (Criterion x).

Summary of world heritage attributes The core attribute of the tropical savanna landscapes on Cape York Peninsula is their extent, intactness, on-going natural processes and continuity, so their representation within a world heritage nomination should reflect their large expanse and lack of fragmentation. Another important attribute is their overall (and fine-scale) diversity, so representation should include much of the spectrum of this variability, preferably through inclusion of the savanna’s latitudinal and climatic range, and through inclusion of at least a representative sample of the distinctive grassland mosaics of the Laura Basin.

A second important attribute of the tropical savanna landscapes of the Cape York Peninsula is the often geographically and ecologically associated aquatic-based ecosystems that derive so much of their water quality and hydro-ecological integrity from their intimate association with the savanna landscapes that are themselves of high natural integrity.

A third important attribute of tropical savanna landscapes on Cape York Peninsula is their significance for threatened, endemic and iconic plant and animal species, so selection of Figure 4 Golden-shouldered parrot. (P. Valentine) representative savanna areas should ensure that these species are included. An example is the Morehead River Important Bird Area that includes most of the world’s population of golden- shouldered parrot.

Global comparison Tropical savanna occurs throughout the world’s tropics with the largest extent in the African continent but with significant occurrences found (or previously found) in northern Australia, South and Central America, and Tropical Central Asia. An indicative map is shown in Figure 5 of the original and current distribution of tropical savanna in terms of vegetation structural formations similar to those found in Cape York Peninsula.

Globally, the term “savanna” has been defined to encompass a diversity of vegetation communities that are climatically intermediate between moist forests and the arid zone, including dry forests, open woodlands, savanna woodlands, wooded grasslands with greater than 10 per cent woody cover, shrublands thickets, scrub woodlands, and shrublands (FAO 2000). Tropical savanna therefore can be almost treeless grasslands or denser woodlands and dry forests - as long as the canopy cover of the trees is not so dense that it shades out the grass. According to the Holdridge system of life zone 7 classification (42), tropical savanna (as broadly defined here) occurs in frost-free areas where the mean annual biotemperature is higher than 17°C, where mean annual rainfall is 250-2000 mm, and where the annual ratio of potential evapotranspiration (PET) to precipitation (P) exceeds unity.

However, it is the seasonality of rainfall, with one or sometimes two dry periods per year, rather than annual rainfall per se, which is the ecologically distinguishing climatic parameter. Rainfall seasonality becomes a dominant ecological force when temporal patterns of biological activity such as growth or reproduction become synchronised with the availability of water or when the geographic distributions of plant or animal taxa are constrained by moisture limitations during certain times of the year (Murphey and Lugo 1986). Much of the present character and ecology of Cape York Peninsula’s tropical savanna is defined by a strongly monsoonal climate. Its landscapes are exposed to an orderly procession of climatic extremes: an almost rainless dry season of about 7 – 8 months, followed by a shorter season of violent storms and torrential rains. Temperatures are high year-round, peaking in the summer wet season. Cyclones are frequent. It is a harsh climate that shapes the ecology, distribution and abundance of most plant and animal species, the interactions between them, and is a major constraint on the kinds of land use activities that can be sustained.

Figure 5 maps the tropical savanna areas which a global analysis revealed are the closest bioclimatic analogue to northern Australia. This map suggests that the nearest climatic analogues of northern Australia are Sub-Sahel Africa, Tropical Central Asia including Northern India and Thailand, Central America and Brazil.

Figure 5 The predicted distribution of core tropical savanna areas with an analogous bioclimate to that found in Cape York Peninsula, based on a model by Nix (1983) coupled to a global GIS climate data base. The map provides only a generalised, indicative overview (see Mackey et al. 2001).

The true original extent of tropical savanna is difficult to estimate because many treeless savannas and scrub or thorn woodlands are thought to be the result of land degradation (Murphey & Lugo 1986). Much of the original distribution of African tropical savanna has been converted for food production or degraded by land use and related human impacts including fire wood collection and grazing. Tropical savanna in Central and South America and tropical Central Asia has also been subject to a long history of similarly intensive land use. The major zone of crop agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa is in the dry forests and woodlands and in many of the countries with tropical savanna, the majority of the people live in rural areas and are reliant on subsistence crop and/or livestock production (Chidumayo & Gumbo 2010).

Tropical savannas, including seasonally dry woodlands, now include some of the most modified of the world’s environments, and are typically undergoing accelerating pressure and diminishing ecological value because of rapidly increasing human populations, intensification of agriculture, desertification and loss of their biodiversity. For example, Sub-Saharan Africa increased its human population by

8 nearly four-fold from 1960 (229 million) to 2010 (863 million), and it is projected that the population will double by 2050 to 1.753 billion (CIESEN 2005).

Relative to the world’s other topical savanna landscapes in Africa, central and south America, and north central Asia, the Australian tropical savannas are exceptionally intact and unmodified due to their extremely low population density (typically <0.1 person/km2), non-fragmented nature and limited modification by agriculture and other factors (Mackey et al. 2001; Woinarski et al. 2007). In part, these latter factors are due to poor soils, dominant weather systems and topographic quirks that make access extremely difficult for long periods during the annual wet season. Figure 6 shows the results of a global tropical savanna land cover integrity analysis which revealed that northern Australian and Cape York Peninsula in particular have the most extensive and intact remaining tropical savanna landscapes.

Amongst Australian tropical savanna landscapes, those of Cape York Peninsula are pre-eminent because of their intrinsic diversity (reflecting fine-scale mosaic variation in geology and soils, and topographic and climatic variation), largely unbroken extent, high species richness and endemicity (e.g. Braby 2008), the maintenance of intact biodiversity assemblages, and their capacity to provide long-term support for many threatened species. The Cape York Peninsula tropical savanna landscapes are also notable in providing a mixture of biogeographic elements, notably including many sole representations in Australia of species otherwise primarily restricted to New Guinea or Wallacea.

Figure 6 Overall world tropical savanna land cover integrity index (Source: Woinarski et al. (2007).

The tropical savannas of Cape York Peninsula share some attributes with parts of already listed world heritage areas including Kakadu and Purnululu. In comparison, the Cape York Peninsula tropical savannas have better retained their biodiversity (e.g. Woinarski et al. 2011), have had a more significant evolutionary role (particularly through their bridge-barrier function), and probably show greater environmental heterogeneity (because they occupy a broader climatic range).

Statement of integrity The tropical savanna landscapes of Cape York Peninsula face some threats. Fire has been an important part of this landscape for 50,000 years, as an integral component of Indigenous land management. With recent loss of the intricacy of this management regime across large areas, parts of the tropical savanna vegetation are showing marked patterns of change. Separately, some invasive weeds (mostly 9 from tropical savannas of other continents, including grader grass (Themeda quadrivalvis), gamba grass (Andropogon gayanus) and pangola grass (Digitaria eriantha), and rubber vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora), also threaten parts of the savanna. Open-cut bauxite mining has destroyed substantial areas of the tropical savannas in parts of western Cape York Peninsula. Pastoralism (low intensity cattle production) has affected parts of the tropical savanna landscape for about a century, and feral herbivores (including pigs and horses) are currently degrading some areas. These factors represent ongoing management challenges, but do not yet detract from the system’s outstanding attribute of ecological intactness (Garnett et al. 2010).

Section 2 Aquatic Ecosystems and Freshwater Biodiversity

Cape York Peninsula features a range of aquatic ecosystem types - estuaries, rivers, lakes, palustrine wetlands, soaks and water holes, riparian strips, ground water systems - that are shaped and sustained by the movement of water through the landscape and in many cases by ground water discharge through the monsoonal dry season. Unlike many areas of the world, aquatic ecosystems of Cape York Peninsula are extensive and have high ecological integrity. They support a diverse and unique variety of aquatic, riparian and terrestrial biodiversity (and provide a robust refuge for many globally threatened species), with natural flow regimes, and relatively intact riverine landscapes (Pusey & Kennard 2009; Kennard 2010; Ward et al. 2011).

Evidence that justifies statement The combination of the wet-dry tropical climate and associated large seasonal floods, the influence of the Great Dividing Range producing extensive megafan floodplains, and the magnitude of Cape York Peninsula’s tidal regimes has produced unique combinations of aquatic systems found nowhere else in Australia or the world. The diversity and spatial extent of aquatic systems in Cape York Peninsula is extraordinary in a national and international context. Distinctive features include (sourced from Kennard et al. 2010; Cook et al. 2011; Ward et al. 2011): Figure 7 Cape York Peninsula’s wetlands provide important migratory bird habitats. (K. Trapnell)

 Significant areas of high aquatic system diversity in the floodplain of the Normanby River and Mitchell River systems (Figure 11a). A feature of the west coast of Cape York Peninsula is the high aquatic system diversity along most of the coast. This likely reflects the interface between the extensive and often distributary floodplain and riverine aquatic systems with the more saline estuarine systems on the western side of the Cape. There is particularly high aquatic system diversity associated with the coastal areas of the Wenlock and the Embley River systems.  The distributary and often complex anabranching nature of the floodplain drainage networks (e.g. the Coleman, Holroyd, Archer and Watson River systems in the west and the Normanby River catchment in the east) (Figure 11b);  Despite being only the 13th largest by area, the Mitchell River catchment has one of the highest mean annual discharge volumes in Australia (>8,000,000 ML/y) (Figure 11b);  The highest density and areal extent of palustrine wetland systems in northern Australia (covering significant areas of the Normanby, Jardine and westerly flowing catchments) (Figure 11c);

 Extensive areas of mangrove forests, salt flats and marshes associated with estuarine systems, particularly in the Embley River system at Weipa, Princess Charlotte Bay in the Normanby River system, and Newcastle Bay and the Jardine River system at the tip of Cape York (Figure 11d);  The spatial extent of perennial aquatic habitats is greater than elsewhere in northern Australia (Figure 11e);  Australia’s largest fluvial megafan of the Mitchell River catchment and the extensive wetlands of the Wenlock, Archer and Jardine River systems (Figure 11f);  The diverse range of riverine flow regimes and the highly distinctive stable perennial spring- fed baseflow regime of the Jardine River;  The distinctive nature of wet season flooding in rivers of western Cape York Peninsula characterised by massive spatial extent and comparatively short duration;  High densities of ox-bow lakes on the floodplains of the Mitchell and Normanby Rivers; and  Globally, dune lake systems are a rare aquatic system. On Cape York Peninsula, large areas of coast dune lake systems occur at Shelburne Bay and Cape Flattery.

Cape York Peninsula contains a high diversity of freshwater-dependent species, and high levels of endemism (Kennard 2010; Pusey et al. 2011b). For example, river basins of Cape York Peninsula contain a very rich freshwater fish fauna, with basins such as the Jardine, Wenlock, Olive- Pascoe, Archer and Endeavour, being particularly diverse relative to other Australian river basins of comparable size. In fact the Jardine and Wenlock rivers stand out as having among the highest fish diversity of all Australian rivers (Pusey et al. 2011b). These latter rivers also possess Figure 8 A picturesque Cape York Peninsula waterfall. high rates of fish endemism compared with (K. Trapnell) elsewhere with a number of species being found nowhere else in the world. The oligotrophic acidic stained waters of CYP’s dune lake systems also support unique freshwater fish assemblages that differ substantially from aquatic systems elsewhere (Pusey et al. 2000).

The composition of the freshwater fauna reflects a diverse array of evolutionary origins and a variety of processes. Northern Australia and New Guinea share a complex history of inter-fluvial connections associated with major sea level shifts occurring during Quaternary glacial cycles (Chivas et al. 2001). The existence of a (mostly) freshwater lake (Lake Carpentaria) between northern Australia and southern New Guinea between 12,000 and 14,000 years BP is proposed to have played a particularly important role in the phylogeography of aquatic taxa (including freshwater fish and prawns) during the late Pleistocene (Bowman et al. 2010). Cape York Peninsula contains the highest number of rainbowfish (Melanotaeniidae) species in the Australian continent. The distribution of Iriatherina werneri, Melanotaenia maccullochi and M. nigrans is highly fragmented, indicative of previous connection between the Peninsula region and the Top End of the Northern Territory and with New Guinea. At least 40 other species occur in rivers of the tip of Cape York Peninsula

Figure 9 Perched wetland above Wenlock River. 11 (B. Wannan)

as well as southern New Guinea and are indicative of former connectivity between the two regions. Such species include the Fly River garfish (Zenarchopterus novaeguineae), lake grunter (Variichthys lacustris), Lorentz’s grunter (Pingalla lorentzi) short-finned catfish (Neosilurus brevidorsalis) and gulf saratoga (Scleropages jardinii). This latter species is of Gondwanan origin and unlike most other Australian freshwater fish species, its entire evolutionary history has been confined to freshwaters.

Cape York Peninsula contains critical habitat for a number of Elasmobranchs including four species of sawfish (freshwater sawfish (Pristis microdon), dwarf sawfish (P. clavata), green sawfish (P. zijsron) and narrow sawfish (Anoxypristis cuspidata)), freshwater whipray (Himantura dalyensis), and speartooth shark (Glyphis glyphis). These iconic species have very high conservation values: the sawfishes are listed as Critically Endangered, the speartooth shark is listed as Endangered and whipray is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN. Elasmobranchs are undergoing global declines mostly due to fishing pressure and modification of their habitats; Cape York Peninsula may provide a major refuge for these species because the major threatening processes are far less pronounced in this region.

Approximately 31 species of frog within nine genera (i.e. Austrochaperina, Cophixalus, Limnodynastes, Crinia, Cyclorana, Litoria, Notaden, Rana and Uperoleia) and all four families (i.e. Microhylidae, Myobatrachidae, Hylidae, and Ranidae) of Australian frog are known from Cape York Peninsula. Of these 31 species, ten are endemic to Cape York Peninsula, of which three are widely distributed across the region and seven are narrow range endemics, with the McIlwraith Range and Cape Melville being hot spots for frog endemism (Cook et al. 2011, Pusey et al. 2011a).

Six species (one species comprised of two distinct subspecies) of freshwater turtle from three genera: Chelodina (long-necked turtles), Myuchelys (helmeted turtles), and Emydura (river turtles) occur in Cape York Peninsula; although all of these species also occur in other regions (Cook et al. 2011, Pusey et al. 2011a). The New Guinea painted turtle Emydura subglobosa subglobosa is the most restricted of the species occurring in freshwater habitats of Cape York Peninsula, being limited to only the Jardine River and the Jacky Jacky basin. It also occurs in southern Papua New Guinea and is another example of the biogeographic linkage between the two regions.

Various species of freshwater crayfish, genus Cherax have narrow distributions on Cape York Peninsula, such as C. cartalacoolah, found only in sand dune and coastal creek habitats in the Cape Flattery area, and C. wasselli and C. rhynchotus both restricted to the northern tip of Cape York Peninsula (Munasinghe et al. 2004). Freshwater crabs belonging to the genus Austrothelphusa contain many undescribed species (P. Davie, pers. comm.), many of which are recorded only from Cape York Peninsula.

The extensive and diverse network of aquatic ecosystems also forms critical habitat for a diverse array of wetland plant species and water- dependent lizards, snakes, and crocodiles. The extensive wetlands also form critical refuge, foraging and breeding sites for waterbirds and provides critical staging areas for many IUCN-listed shorebirds. The region is a critical part of the East Asia-Australasia flyway and also contains many Important Bird Areas (IBAs) that are of international conservation significance (Birdlife International 2012).

Figure 10 Wetland at Bertiehaugh, Wenlock River system. (B. Wannan)

(a) (b)

(c)

(f) (e) (d)

Figure 11 Characteristics of aquatic systems of Cape York Peninsula including: (a) major river basins and aquatic system diversity, (b) mean annual discharge of rivers and streams, (c) palustrine wetland area, (d) estuarine area, (e) area of perennial systems and (f) floodplain area. Aquatic system diversity (calculated using Shannon’s diversity Index) quantifies the number and evenness in the areal extent of rivers, palustrine wetlands, lakes and estuaries across all sub-catchments of the region. All area statistics are presented for 2.5 km2 grids. Source: Cook et al. (2011).

Maps and interpretation The extraordinary diversity and extent of aquatic ecosystems in Cape York Peninsula is demonstrated in Figure 11 (Maps a-f). Key features include the particularly high aquatic system diversity in the lowland floodplains and coastal areas of western and northern Cape York Peninsula as well as in the Normanby River floodplain (Map a). The extensive and often distributary river network (Map b), large palustrine wetland systems (Map c) and significant estuarine systems (Map d) contribute to the high aquatic system diversity in these areas. Cape York Peninsula is also globally significant by virtue of the extensive network of perennial rivers, lakes and wetlands (Map e) and the massive seasonally inundated floodplains (Map f). Collectively, these provide habitat for a diverse and unique variety of aquatic, riparian and terrestrial biodiversity and provide refuge for many globally threatened species.

Cross reference to the relevant world heritage criteria Cape York Peninsula exhibits a spectacular, spatially extensive and diverse array of aquatic ecosystems in comparatively natural condition (Criterion viii). The extent and diversity of aquatic systems are critically dependent on the natural patterns of water movement through the landscape. Complex hydroecological processes and landscape evolution (e.g. Lake Carpentaria and fluvial connections with New Guinea) (Criterion viii) are critical determinants of the biogeographic origins and ongoing evolutionary and ecological processes of the water-dependent biota of the region (Criterion ix). The largely intact aquatic and riparian habitats are of global conservation significance as they support a unique flora and fauna, including may endemic species and areas of high aquatic biodiversity (Criterion x).

Global comparison The major wetlands systems of Cape York Peninsula (particularly those on the western side and the Princess Charlotte region on the east coast) are globally outstanding, particularly given the exceptional naturalness and ongoing hydrological processes. When compared with the major wetlands elsewhere in comparable environments in the world (e.g. tropical wetland systems such as the Okavango, Pantanal and Kenya lake system) the wetlands of Cape York Peninsula, are exemplary in terms of maintenance of ongoing natural ecological and hydro-ecological processes provided by intact natural catchments (Lehner & Döll 2004, Vörösmarty et al. 2010).

Statement of integrity Northern Australia and Cape York Peninsula in particular contains the highest concentration of free- flowing rivers in the world (Vörösmarty et al. 2010). Consequently, the biological systems of northern Australia’s rivers and floodplain wetlands remain relatively pristine and capable of supporting such biodiversity riches. The high integrity of aquatic ecosystems on Cape York Peninsula is a consequence of the overall low population density of people in the region and very limited water resource development. Human threats to aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity (e.g. land use, water resource development, pollution) are comparatively low in Cape York Peninsula both on a global (e.g. Vörösmarty et al. 2010) and national scale (Stein et al. 2002; Figure 12). Nevertheless, a number of threatening processes are apparent in the region although many are localised in extent (reviewed in Pusey & Kennard 2009 and Cook et al. 2011). The major existing threats include invasive animals (e.g. feral pigs and cane toads), invasive plants (including terrestrial and aquatic weeds) and impacts associated with grazing and altered fire regimes. Other more localised and/or future threats include those associated with tourism, industrial, mining and urban development, physical barriers to aquatic ecosystem connectivity and climate change (e.g. sea level rise, increasing temperatures, flow regime changes).

Figure 12 Spatial variation in River Disturbance Index (RDI; Stein et al. 2002) scores for rivers and streams across the Australian continent. The RDI is based on geographic data (updated in 2010) describing indirect measures of flow regime disturbance due to impoundments, flow diversions and levee banks; and catchment disturbance due to urbanisation, road infrastructure and land-use activities. The index quantifies disturbance for individual stream sections along a continuum from near-pristine to severely disturbed.

Section 3 Rainforest Ecosystems

Cape York Peninsula has extensive areas of outstanding tropical rainforest of regional and global bioclimatic distinctiveness and integrity (indeed it is one of relatively few places in the world where rainforest are expanding). The biogeographic and evolutionary significance of these ecosystems is evident from the complex interdigitation of rainforests with other vegetation communities which maintains the ecological and evolutionary processes across the landscape. Further, the floristic composition of the rainforests, comprising a combination of Australian and Asian elements, is distinctive and differs from other rainforests on the Australian continent, emphasising their biogeographic and evolutionary significance.

Supporting evidence Rainforests are an important and iconic element of Cape York Peninsula. Although representing only 6% of the area of Cape York Peninsula (7,482 km2) (Neldner and Clarkson 1995) rainforests contain more than 47% of its plant species, 60% of its frogs, 35% of its reptiles, and 40% of its birds and mammals (Wannan in prep., Winter & Lethbridge 1995). Many species which are essentially New Guinean are found only here in Australia.

There is some fine scale differentiation between the major rainforest blocks. The rainforests of the McIlwraith highlands provide a more concentrated habitat for Gondwanan and autochthonous (evolved within Australia) elements whilst Iron Range and forests to the north, including those of the 15

Jardine Catchment (Lockerbie), include substantial elements related to New Guinea or Malesia. The rainforests of eastern Cape York Peninsula interdigitate closely with the savannas to their west along the major river systems (e.g. Archer and Wenlock) and show a gradual transition into drier rainforest types and sclerophyll woodlands. Numerous rainforest faunal species (e.g. the arboreal common spotted cuscus (Spilocuscus maculatus)) use these riverine rainforests and are able to persist/ recolonise drier western parts of the Peninsula because of these important corridors.

For birds, Cape York Peninsula rainforests have been described as the ‘Irian’ element of the Australian avifauna because they are unique in an Australian context (Schodde & Calaby 1972 and Schodde 1982). This uniqueness extends to the other vertebrate and invertebrate groups: mammals, reptiles, amphibians and butterflies all of which have endemic Cape York Peninsula rainforest representatives. There are also over 120 species that are widespread in New Guinea but, in Australia, only occur within Cape York Peninsula rainforests.

The Cape York Peninsula rainforests also contains more than 230 endemic taxa and threatened species. The rainforests of Cape York Peninsula have very high Figure 13 Green tree python. (P. Valentine) conservation value because of their diversity and intact state; they have not lost species such as endemic amphibians as has happened in the case of the Wet Tropics Rainforests. Cape York Peninsula rainforests also demonstrate the:  retention of Gondwanan taxa, e.g. early gymnosperms;  development of the autochthonous Australian rainforest element;  the arrival in Australia of the Asian/Malesian biota, e.g. Celtis, Beilschmiedia, Flagellaria, Garcinia (Crisp et al. 1999);  Continual exchange between Australia and Malesian biota, e.g. the green python, tree kangaroos, cuscus, birds of paradise – which originated in Australia, radiated in Figure14 Fig tree buttresses in rainforest. (K. Trapnell) New Guinea and retain the evidence today (see also the biological bridge section); and  the development of sclerophyll vegetation which is particularly well demonstrated by the Poaceae and Myrtaceae, both of which retain basal taxa within Cape York Peninsula.

Not only do the rainforests provide habitat for resident plants and animals but also make a vitally important contribution as breeding sites and ‘stepping stone’ transitory habitat for seasonally migratory rainforest bird species between New Guinea and Australia e.g. buff-breasted paradise kingfisher, representing a resonance of the ancient rainforest linkages between these two land masses (Heinsohn 2011).

In essence the rainforests have been and continue to be a “species pump” for the whole of the Peninsula providing refuge in drier times and early phylogenetic material for the development of the now widespread sclerophyll communities.

Tool use is limited to less than 30 non-human species worldwide and virtually always occurs in the context of foraging. Palm cockatoos in the Iron/McIlwraith Ranges on Cape York Peninsula have a remarkable display in which they select a small stick and, by peeling the bark off and snipping it to the right length (roughly 30cm), fashion a drumstick for banging against a tree hollow. They then beat the tree rhythmically to create a resonating drum-like sound that carries far into the surrounding rainforest and woodland (Wood 1984). Crafting of a sound tool (musical instrument) has only previously been recorded from human societies. The palm cockatoos of Cape York Peninsula (and not elsewhere, e.g. New Guinea) are unique among non-human animals in this regard (Heinsohn 2011).

The unique drumming behaviour of palm cockatoos relates directly to the differences in their habitat on Cape York Peninsula versus New Guinea. In much of New Guinea they are confined to living in rainforests where their nest hollows are limited. On Cape York Peninsula they prefer to nest just outside the rainforest in the surrounding woodland probably because there are far more suitable nest hollows in Eucalyptus trees than inside the rainforest. However they are still dependent on Figure15 Palm cockatoo. (P. Valentine) the rainforest for food (fruits, seeds). The relative abundance of hollows in the woodlands leads to a higher density (but patchier distribution) of palm cockatoos on Cape York Peninsula than in the rainforests of New Guinea, which in turn leads to higher competition and more elaborate displays. One explanation for why males drum on the tree trunk is that they use the resonating qualities to show the female how substantial, and suitable for nesting, the hollow really is (Murphy et al. 2003). This is undoubtedly a superlative natural phenomenon. The palm cockatoo reflects the unique distribution pattern of tropical rainforests in Cape York Peninsula: without the interdigitation of tropical rainforest found on Cape York Peninsula it is likely that the musical behaviour would not have evolved.

Map and interpretation The map in Figure 16 below shows the occurrence of rainforest across the Peninsula both as the dominant vegetation component (> 50% of polygon) and areas where it is subdominant (< 50% polygon). The map shows the high degree of connectivity between rainforests and sclerophyll communities with the eastern rainforest strongholds woven through the tropical savanna landscapes that dominate central and western Cape York Peninsula.

Cross reference to the relevant world heritage criteria The tropical rainforests of Cape York Peninsula mark the record of life (Criterion viii) over tens of millions of years including: the retention of Gondwanan taxa (e.g. early gymnosperms), the development of the autochthonous Australian rainforest element, the arrival in Australia of the Asian/Malesian biota (e.g. Celtis, Beilschmiedia, Flagellaria, Garcinia (Crisp et al. 1999)); and the development of sclerophyll vegetation. The tropical rainforests are outstanding examples which represent significant on-going ecological and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plants and animals (Criterion ix). They also contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in situ

17 conservation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation (Criterion x).

Figure 16 Cape York Peninsula rainforest communities

Statement of integrity The rainforests comprise just 6% of Cape York Peninsula but are substantially intact. Further, the rainforests are embedded in a largely intact landscape which exhibits a high degree of natural integrity.

Global comparison suggests that Cape York Peninsula represents a significantly large and intact example of a savanna landscape and much of the rainforest is embedded in that savanna landscape. "The lands of Cape York Peninsula exhibit outstanding natural integrity in a global, regional and continental context. Indeed this is one of the key overarching qualities that defines the character of the entire region. Cape York Peninsula has relatively small, isolated human populations, minimal infrastructure development, and the land use activity in place is either highly localised or extensive rather than intensive." (Mackey et al. 2001). 18

Global comparison Global comparisons of plant biodiversity attributes in seasonal tropical landscapes are difficult due to the absence of both vegetation mapping and collated species occurrence data. However, broad scale global analyses do support assessments of high biodiversity richness for Cape York Peninsula (Williams et al. 1994, Groombridge & Jenkins 2002) compared with other similar landscapes.

As can be inferred from the global land cover integrity analysis presented above, rainforests embedded in largely savanna landscape in a tropical monsoon climate in other parts of the world are invariably in areas of high human population or high human impacts. Any biodiverse rainforests in such landscapes can be expected to be heavily exploited. The rainforests of Cape York Peninsula are globally an exception as they have been submitted to minimal disturbance from, among other things, land conversion, degradation from agriculture, and high human population densities. Furthermore, there is no evidence of loss of biodiversity in either plants or animals. Indeed, the rainforests of Cape York Peninsula are currently exhibiting some significant expansion Figure 17 Morning mists shroud the rainforests of the into the adjacent savanna and heathlands McIlwraith Range. (K Trapnell) (Russell-Smith et al. 2004a; 2004b).

Section 4 Continental Scale Biological Bridge

Cape York Peninsula has been a globally significant intermittent land bridge between the unique post- Gondwanan biota of the northward-drifting Australian continent and the rest of the world for at least the last 15 million years. The extent of land connection between northern Australia and New Guinea has varied over time in response to sea level changes. Isolated for 50 million years, the flora and fauna of Australia developed distinctive characteristics, which have subsequently contributed to global biodiversity in unique ways. Of great significance has been the development, within the isolated Australian continent, of the ancestors of all the songbirds of the world (the oscine branch), which then connected to Asia and the rest of the world some 15 million years ago. The bridge has also facilitated the mixing of the Australian and Asian biotas seen north and south of Torres Strait.

Supporting evidence Cape York Peninsula has also been the principal conduit for plant and animal movement from Australia and into Asia and also into the southwest Pacific (Keast 1996). The current mix of Australian and Asian elements in South–east Asia has been recognised with a number of distinct biogeographic boundaries shown in Figure 18 (from Van Welzen et al. 2011). The mapped lines show the limit of each of the biotas in different groups. Cape York Peninsula has been the primary conduit by which many of the Australian elements ventured north into Asia.

Cape York Peninsula symbolises both the globally significant exchange of biota between the floating ark of the Australian continent and the rest of the world, and also past and present processes of exchange. A number of examples of these ongoing processes are presented below drawing on specific evidence from Cape York Peninsula.

Figure 18 Wallace’s Lines (variously around Sulawesi) and variants. In the south the lines have been placed between Java and Bali and between Palawana and Borneo (from Van Welzen et al. 2011).

Recent advances in molecular biology and palaeo-ornithology have clarified many aspects of bird evolution and highlighted the evolutionary importance of Cape York Peninsula as the main bridgehead for ancient Australian bird species to disperse, radiate and dominate worldwide (Heinsohn 2011).

While the ancestral Passerida is the post-Gondwanan group that has made the biggest impact on the global biota (Ericson et al. 2003) the exchange process has involved many plant and animal groups. The first placental mammals to occupy Australia came south from Asia in a number of waves, as the continent got close enough for flying mammals (the bats) and then later rats.

Figure 19 The dispersal routes of major passerine groups from Gondwana. The oscines radiated in Australia; although most lineages remained in Australia, among the escapees was the ancestor of the highly successful Passerida (adapted from Ericson et al. 2003). 20

Also of particular note is the movement of the marsupial fauna northwards from Australia (Flannery 1996), see Figure 20 below.

Figure 20 The number of genera of marsupials on the Australian mainland and on each of the islands to the north of Australia. The limit of the spread of marsupials away from the Australia/New Guinean homeland is shown by a dotted line (from Clemens et al. 1989).

There is ample evidence to support the movement of many fauna groups in and out of Australia including frogs, turtles, snakes, lizards, (Allison 1996, Keogh 1998, Schulte et al. 2003). There has apparently been a considerable amount of faunal interchange between New Guinea and Australia in these groups; more than half the genera found in northern Australia are also found in New Guinea (Allison 1996). The movement of vertebrate fauna continues with estimates that one frog and 19 birds have colonised Cape York Peninsula since the Pleistocene (Kikkawa et al. 1981). The pattern is similar for invertebrate groups with evidence of movement in both directions for Coleoptera, Psocoptera, Homoptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, and Crustacea (Gressit 1982, De Boer & Duffels 1996). Although many of these shared species occupy the rainforest, there is a significant component occurring in the woodlands and heathlands of Cape York Peninsula.

The biological bridge that was Cape York Peninsula eventually provided two-way flows of Australian plants and animals outward, and inward flows to Australia by Malesian and Asian species. Cape York Peninsula provides both a symbol of this incredible global mixing function and a practical example of past and present biogeographical processes. The continued close proximity to New Guinea has meant that, unlike many other peninsulas, the richness of Cape York Peninsula’s biodiversity is retained towards its apex.

Figure 21 Grey cuscus (Phalanger mimicus) illustrates the biological connection between Cape York Peninsula and New Guinea. (L. Valentine)

The present fauna of Cape York Peninsula includes numerous species that typify that past and present exchange. The connections with New Guinea and Malesia is most obvious and examples include mammals (two cuscus species and tree kangaroos shared with New Guinea), birds (including seasonal migrants such as red-bellied pitta and the rainbow bee-eater that travels north to Japan and

Micronesia each year) and a number of insect species that reflect an invasion of Australia by Asian antecedents (such as Charaxes latona, a large rainforest butterfly).

For plants there is also ample evidence of the movement of plants in and out of Australia over the last 18 million years up to and beyond Wallace’s line (Crayn et al. 2012, Hartley 1986, Sniderman & Jordan 2011, Turner 1996). The current flora of Cape York Peninsula shares over 40% (1391 spp.1) of its species with New Guinea which is more than any other area of Australia. There are over 150 species that are shared with New Guinea but only occur in Australia on Cape York Peninsula.

Australia has been the source of a significant component of the existing New Guinea flora and South-east Asian floras. Of Figure 22 Charaxes latona populated particular note is the family Myrtaceae whose global diversity Australia from Asia. (P. Valentine) is highest in Australasia. Tribal and generic diversity in the Myrtaceae is highest in Australia with a large component of these taxa shared only between north-east Queensland and New Guinea including the monotypic genus Welchiodendron which occurs on northern Cape York Peninsula and southern New Guinea.

Cross reference to the relevant world heritage criteria The following attributes are relevant to Criteria viii, ix, and x.

Heinsohn (2011) suggested that the ornithological diversity of the Peninsula supports Criteria viii and ix, namely that:  it represents an essential conduit and corridor for internationally important large scale bird migration reflecting an unusually clear picture of past and present evolutionary processes for the continent of Australia,  it demonstrates ongoing evolutionary processes including a dynamic ecology and biogeography in the face of climate change, and  Cape York Peninsula species are much more than “outliers” of New Guinea and/or Wet Tropics, but continue to evolve remarkable adaptations in an observable ‘evolutionary laboratory’.  Cape York Peninsula has had a continuing biological bridge role with Australian biota entering New Guinea where "the near optimal mesotherm and microtherm conditions allowed them to radiate into a stunning diversity of new forms in New Guinea (for example, the birds of paradise) and many reinvaded Australia when conditions were favourable (Ericson et al. 2003)." in Heinsohn (2011).

In support of Criterion x - Cape York Peninsula bird species have connections with other regions in Australasia and south-east Asia of international conservation significance, and Cape York Peninsula contains a large number of ‘important bird areas’ (IBA’s) of international conservation significance that reflect the diverse habitat and origins of its avifauna.

In support of Criterion vii - Cape York Peninsula is a conduit for the seasonal influx of bird species from New Guinea and beyond each year. These include the seasonal migration of birds south from New Guinea for the wet season and their corresponding return before the dry season. At least 10 species undertake this seasonal international migration including the pied imperial pigeon (Ducula

1 Data from Australian Virtual Herbarium and Peter van Welzen (pers comm. 2009, Nationaal Herbarium Nederland and Flora Malesian) interrogated by B.S. Wannan (Qld Environment & Heritage Protection). 22 bicolor). A range of shorebirds also migrate through the south-west coast of Cape York Peninsula to their austral summer feeding grounds.

This coastal southwest Cape York Peninsula area includes some of the most important wader habitats in Australia. Aerial surveys indicate that over 250,000 waders use the area during the southern migration, and that over 60,000 occur in the winter months.

Statement of integrity “The Queensland Herbarium has surveyed and mapped the vegetation of Cape York Peninsula as part of a State-wide survey. They found that only about 1% of the natural vegetation has been cleared.

Global comparison shows that Cape York Peninsula represents a significantly large and intact example of a savanna landscape and much of the rainforest is embedded in that savanna landscape.

"The lands of Cape York Peninsula exhibit outstanding natural integrity in a global, regional and continental context. Indeed this is one of the key overarching qualities that define the character of the entire region. Cape York Peninsula has relatively small, isolated human populations, minimal infrastructure development, and the land use activity in place is either highly localised or extensive rather than intensive." (Mackey et al. 2001; Groombridge & Jenkins 2002).

Global comparison There are many well-known examples of biological bridges in biogeography including:  Panama Isthmus between North and South America  Peninsula Malaysia between Malesia and Asia  Bering Strait between Russia and Alaska  Gibraltar Strait between Europe and North Africa.

However, Cape York Peninsula is distinctive in bridging between the unique flora and flora of the island continent of Australia and the highly different plants and animals of Malesia and Asia. The long isolation of the Australian continent (post Gondwana) and associated adaptive radiation during dramatic climate change meant the biological exchange was highly significant. The process continued over a long period beginning with the dramatic gift of the Passerida ancestors some 15 million years ago and continuing to the present in both directions.

Section 5 Coastal Aeolian Dune Systems

The east coast of Cape York Peninsula is noted for the strong ‘South East Trade Winds’ which buffet the foreshores almost continuously for much of the year, and as a result several great fields of silica sand dunes have been blown inland from the coast. They cover over 1000 square kilometres in two major and several smaller areas and are reputed to contain the highest proportion of active coastal dunes in Australia. These spectacular landforms provide a distinctive and dramatic illustration of large aeolian coastal dune complexes, and meet several key themes for world heritage. These include coastal systems (the role of water at oceanic margins on large-scale erosional and depositional coasts); ice ages (global patterns of continental icesheet expansion and recession, isostasy, sea-level changes and associated biogeographic records); and arid and semi-arid desert systems (land systems and features reflecting the dominant role of wind (aeolian processes) and intermittent fluvial action as agents of landform development and landscape evolution). Also of note within the active dune systems are hundreds of shallow freshwater lakes providing a distinct and significant environmental complex.

Evidence that justifies statement The dunes of the largest Cape York Peninsula complex, the Olive River- Shelburne Bay Dune Field of about 500 square kilometres, have been blown inland in front of the prevailing South East Trade Winds from northern Temple Bay across land for 35 km to the shores of Shelburne Bay. They are of the long, narrow ‘parabolic’ type, with sand spilling over a nose from a blown-out rear section, and long trailing vegetated arms on the sides. Most of the dunes are now Figure 23 Sand dunes, Shelburne Bay. (K. Trapnell) vegetated, but a significant number are active under the current climate. One large dune is advancing into the sea at the aptly named White Point. They have an average height of 30 metres but some reach 90 metres. The dune troughs are commonly occupied by freshwater lakes which probably represent the water table. These support a mosaic of vegetation types and habitats as well as being of great scenic interest.

The second largest dune field of about 400 square kilometres is between Cape Bedford and Cape Flattery north of Cooktown. They are similar to the Shelburne Bay dunes, but here three different ages have been recognised. Smaller fields are known at Ninian Bay near Cape Melville, Cape Direction, Orford Bay and Newcastle Bay.

The dunes have resulted from processes occurring on the continental shelf during sea level fluctuations. These have been documented by Mathews et al. (2007) and Pye (1983).

Both dune fields are in a relatively natural state over much of the area, with the exception of mining leases and tracks, and some introductions of weeds and feral animals. Assessment for the Cape York Peninsula Land Use Study (CYPLUS) determined that these dune fields were outstanding and rare examples of tropical dune systems, with geological/geomorphological conservation values of international significance (Australian Heritage Commission 1994). It has been recognised that:

‘Dune development at Cape Bedford and Cape Flattery occurs on a scale that us unusually large for the humid tropics generally’ (Pye 1982:225)

It is one of the few places in the world with extensive development of active, large elongate parabolic dunes, and the Gegenwalle ridges at Cape Flattery are amongst the largest and best developed in the world. Measurements suggest that active elongate parabolic dunes are moving north west under the influence of the prevailing south-easterly trade winds at average rates of 2-6 m per year (Pye, 1982). Significantly, the Australian Heritage Commission (1994) noted that the site has high potential and value as a research site to improve understanding of these systems, in particular the mechanism of Gegenwalle formation, podzol development in tropical dunes, and the chronology and drivers of major dune building and destabilization episodes.

Figure 24 Cape York Peninsula’s Pleistocene and Holocene dune systems

In summary, the present coastal depositional systems of eastern Cape York Peninsula depend on ongoing exposure to the Southeast Trade Winds. In protected north-facing embayments with low wave energy, mangrove-covered tidal flats and cheniers dominate. With increasing exposure to the trade winds, these flats and cheniers grade northward within embayments to beach ridges and foredune ridges, and in places on southeast facing shores, transgressive dunes (Short 2010).

In southern Queensland there are other large sand accumulation complexes (which include the world heritage listed Great Sandy region of Fraser Island) but they have marked differences from those of Cape York Peninsula. Southern Queensland lies at the northern end of the northward-moving longshore sediment transport system bringing abundant supplies of sand from the shelf and coast of New South Wales. There the South East Trade Winds have built up large, high continuous dunes that have been reactivated periodically but are now mostly vegetated. (Mount Tempest on Moreton Island rises 280 metres above sea level), In contrast, on Cape York Peninsula, sediment has been delivered to the coast mainly by local rivers, and is far less abundant. The South East Trade Winds are also stronger and blow for a greater part of the year. Consequently here there are long-walled parabolic dunes up to 35 kilometres long, with sparse material in between, and many of the dunes are still actively migrating.

The terrigenous materials have been transported and re-worked a number of times, resulting in decomposition of their minerals other than resistant quartz (silica). Leaching of the older dunes has also removed remaining impurities. As a result, the silica content of many of the dunes is over 99%.

Cross reference to the relevant world heritage criteria (vii) to contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance; and (viii) to be outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history, including the record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features.

Global comparison Brazil Lençóis Maranhenses National Park on the north east coast. The park is over 1500 square kilometres and contains large tracts of migrating dunes. The coastal dune province extends over 1000 kilometres along the coast and includes the Lagoa do Portinho Dunefields. The system is a spectacular geomorphological feature. A reference to their formation is in Luna et al. (2011) Genesis of coastal dune fields with vegetation. The formation mechanism is supported in the reference Herrmann et al. (2006) The coastal dunes of the Lençóis Maranhenses.. The system is quite different to the dunes of Cape York Peninsula insofar as they continue to form due to the continuing large influx of sand.

Fraser Island World Heritage Area, Australia As described above, the Cape York Peninsula dune systems differ from those of Fraser Island in that they are the result of less abundant sand supply and stronger and more persistent winds, resulting in dunes of markedly different morphology and associated environments.

Curonian Spit Whilst not tropical, the Curonian Spit is a world heritage listed dune-lagoon complex straddling the Baltic coast of Lithuania and the Russian Federation. It is of much more recent origin (c. 5,000 years), of very different genesis to Cape York dunefields and unlike Cape York, has been subject to a long history of human intervention to stabilise the dunefield.

Southern Namib Erg Also not tropical, this massive coastal sand sea or erg has a very ancient origin of more than a million years and being in a desert climate remains active. The genesis is very different to that of the Cape York dune fields. That section within Namibia has been placed on the World Heritage Tentative List.

Skeleton Coast Dunefields, Northern Namibia Simple, and locally compound, transverse and barchanoid dunes dominate the 2000 square kilometers Skeleton Coast dunefield in northwestern Namibia/South West Africa. As Figure 25 Vegetated sand dunes, Shelburne Bay. with the Namib Erg, the dunefields are of ancient (P. Valentine) origin and remain active in a desert climate.

Statement of integrity The greater part of the two major Cape York Peninsula dune systems cited are essentially intact and natural aeolian and other natural processes are on-going. Although the high purity silica is a marketable mineral and a silica mine has operated at Cape Flattery since 1967, most of the dunes 26 remain in a natural condition and natural processes continue to operate. A proposal for silica sand mining at Shelburne Bay was refused on environmental grounds.

Section 6 Bauxite Landscape

The bauxite landscape is a result of leaching processes on bedrock in which the less soluble aluminium, iron and silicon ions are precipitated as ferricrete and bauxite pisolites near the surface, with a leached and bleached layer remaining below. The hard ferricrete/bauxite layer is resistant to subsequent erosion and results in a distinctive plateau landscape. This has an extensive network of sinkhole type structures resulting from dissolution and collapse of the underlying leached layer. Whilst the term karst landscape normally refers to features that are the result of dissolution of carbonate rocks the term Figure 26 Woodland covered bauxite regolith capped coastal also applies to dissolution features in cliffs. (K. Trapnell) the broader sense. The World Heritage Committee, for example, recognised sandstone karst in the inscription of Purnululu World Heritage Area. Karst is also recognised in basalt and granite landscapes.

As the Cape York Peninsula bauxite landscape has a large number of highly unusual sinkhole structures it aligns with the IUCN theme that includes karst systems.

Evidence that justifies statement Taylor et al. (2008) provide a useful analysis of the landscapes and regolith of western Cape York Peninsula and the following discussion is based on that source.

The regolith profile of the Weipa Plateau broadly fits the idealised laterite–saprolite profile exhibiting a sequence from parent rock, to saprolite, plasmic (kaolinite) zone, mottled zone, a ferruginous zone and pisolitic bauxite.

The bauxites are thought to have formed by in situ humid weathering of mid Cretaceous to early Cenozoic quartzose sandstone and siltstones, units that are widespread on the western side of Cape York Peninsula. Their provenance is indicated by their heavy-mineral suites, namely the Eastern Highland Palaeozoic and older Peninsula rock assemblages, and regional Cretaceous andesitic volcanism.

Bryan et al. (1997) describe the region’s Cretaceous sandstones as being volcanogenic sediments dominated by mudstone, siltstone and sandstone with depositional environments ranging from fluvial/lacustrine to coast plain and shallow marine. The sandstones are feldspathic-lithic with 27 volcanic lithic grains representing more than 90% of the total lithic component. The abundant relatively fresh feldspar grains are predominantly andesine. It is believed that the coeval mid- Cretaceous volcanic belt along the Queensland coast was the source of the volcanogenic sediment. This was part of the silicic large igneous province down the length of east Australian Gondwana that heralded the opening of the Tasman Sea and separation of the continental crust of Zealandia from east Australia. The presence of such volcanogenic feldspar may explain the high aluminium content in the resulting duricrust profile.

Figure 27 Cape York Peninsula bauxite landscape

Taylor et al. (2008) considered the existing landscape reflects continuous development of a duricrust rather than punctuated development. Many of the Cape York Peninsula landscapes and the duricrust on them, or in their regolith, are considered diachronous (features that vary in age). Many of the landscapes in the region are considered to be currently undergoing modification. Erosion is occurring, sediments are being transported and deposited both in the landscapes and offshore, weathering is occurring, duricrusts are forming, and the groundwater is carrying solutes as well as precipitating minerals.

Scarps are actively retreating around the edges of the plateaus, and ferricrete is currently forming particularly along scarp edges, in creek valleys and on newly opened cutting surfaces. Silcrete is forming in valley bottoms.

There is no consensus in the literature on the age of bauxite formation. Taylor et al. (2008) observes that most authors agree the bauxite has been forming for a long time, but few have been able to put 28 age constraints on the start of weathering. One cited study suggested 50 million years ago. Some authors acknowledge that bauxite is still forming.

In addition to the peripheral erosion, parts of the plateaus are subsiding as sections of the underlying mottled or pallid zones are leached or washed away underground. The upper layers then collapse in large sinkhole type structures locally called ‘melon holes’ up to 1 km across which fill with water during the wet season. There are thousands of these wetland features across the landscape, readily identifiable in earth images. They immeasurably add to the rich diversity of habit in the region.

This outstanding geological phenomenon forms the foundation for unique hydro-ecological processes that in turn enable and support a variety of unique biological expressions. Of particular interest is tall Eucalyptus tetrodonta woodland (Regional Ecosystem 3.5.2) (Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection 2012). The tall woodland that occurs on the Weipa bauxite plateau is a unique regional ecosystem. It is structurally distinct, and represents the maximum structural development of Eucalyptus tetrodonta throughout tropical Australia (Sattler & Williams 1999). It is also floristically distinct from Eucalyptus formations found in the Northern Territory and Western Australia (Specht et al. 1977). The close correlation of its distribution with the Weipa bauxite plateau is most likely due to the relationships between E. tetrodonta’s physiology, soil water availability particularly in the dry season, and the role of the bauxite layer in mediating drainage conditions and water storage and availability (Pedley & Isbell 1971, Bowman & Minchin 1987).

Cross reference to the relevant world heritage criteria (viii) outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history, including the record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features.

Global comparison Republic of Guinea, West Africa The West African Republic of Guinea has very large reserves of bauxite in duricrust profiles and is second after Australia in mine production. The parent rock there appears to be more varied and deposits more separated. Guinea has three protected areas. There are no protected area or conservation regimes protecting bauxite landscapes.

Other major resources occur in Vietnam and Jamaica. In Brazil the Saraca - Taquera National Forest (430,000 ha) and Trombetas Biological Reserve (385,000 ha) were established as conservation sites to complement a decision to grant a 30,000 ha bauxite mining concession based at Porto Tromebetas in the Amazon region. Bauxite occurs throughout the National Forest.

Statement of integrity Cape York Peninsula is a world class bauxite province where mining has been carried out since 1960 and is likely to continue. The current level of disturbance of the bauxite province is small, being restricted to two large mining operations at Weipa and nearby Andoom where tracts of about 530 square kilometres (or 5% of the bauxite terrain), have been disturbed but most of the bauxite landscape is currently covered by mining leases, where new mines may start in the near future, or exploration permits, where further mineable resources may be defined.

Section 7 Development of Scleromorphy

Climate and pollen records indicate that Cape York Peninsula has retained a largely mesic vegetation throughout the Tertiary (Frakes 1999). In contrast to many areas of the Australian continent and many global areas at this latitude, the cooling and drying trend of the last 15 million years has been moderated on Cape York Peninsula by its northerly latitude and the maritime/aquatic influence of the 29

Coral Sea and Gulf of Carpentaria/Lake Carpentaria. Later in the Tertiary its climate was also moderated by the development of the monsoon and the South-east Trade Winds.

The flora of Cape York Peninsula is characterised today by a rich range of rainforest and sclerophyll communities, each constituting about 50% of the plant species.

Supporting evidence Representation of plant communities typical of the Tertiary The changes in vegetation over the Tertiary in the Australian continent (Martin 2006, Carpenter et al. 2011, Macphail et al. 1994, White 2006, Pole et al. 1993, Macphail & Hill 2002, Frakes 1999, Kershaw et al. 1994) can be summarised as: Figure 28 Scleromorphic vegetation, Laura  widespread rainforest at the beginning of the sandstones. (B. Wannan) Tertiary (65 million years ago);  first appearance of open sclerophyll vegetation beside rainforest in the Eocene (55-34 million years ago);  general reduction in rainforest in southern Australia by the late Miocene, but persistence in NE Australia; and  development of grasslands in the Pliocene.

Cape York Peninsula illustrates the development of the Tertiary flora by its:  high diversity of rainforest types which merge floristically and physically into open forests, woodlands and grasslands across the landscape, a pattern typical of the mid Tertiary (Martin 2006, Greenwood 1996). This pattern is emphasised on Cape York Peninsula by the number of genera with rainforest and sclerophyll species  high diversity of sclerophyll communities which illustrate an extraordinary diversity of dominants including Eucalyptus sens lat., Melaleuca as well as Lophostemon, Asteromyrtus, Casuarina, Welchiodendron, Leptospermum, and Acacia (Wannan in prep.).  extensive representation of plant communities which illustrate the development of scleromorphic vegetation such as heathlands which occupy habitats with high rainfall and low nutrient-status soils which is believed to mirror the development of this community, and thus pre-adaption, to the pressures of aridity in the later Cenozoic (Specht 1979, Westman 1978 in Kershaw et al. 1991, Hill 1994).

Retention of a high level of phylogenetic diversity Cape York Peninsula retains an extraordinarily high level of phylogenetic diversity across its 223 plant families and 1,130 genera. Two of these Poaceae (grasses) and Myrtaceae (gums) are dominant elements on Cape York Peninsula (Neldner & Clarkson 1995) and across the globe.

The Poaceae (grasses) are one of the groups that adapted to dry conditions and increased significantly in the latter half of the Tertiary (Martin 2006, Bouchenak-Khelladi et al. 2010). The grasses of Cape York Peninsula demonstrate a rich phylogenetic diversity including:  85% of global diversity at the subfamily level;  49% of global diversity at the tribal level; and  14% of global diversity at the generic level.

The extraordinary deep phylogenetic diversity in Cape York Peninsula of grasses, exceeding most Australian states, suggests that this area of the Australian continent has had a long autochthonous history (Lindner et al. 2002). Cape York Peninsula is also notable in a global sense for its representation of:  basal taxa which occur in rainforest (subfamilies Pharoideae, Bambusoideae and Centothecoideae; tribes and genera);  Australian endemic tribe Micraireae;  Cape York Peninsula endemic/near endemic genera Dallwatsonia, Planichloa, Arthragrostis and Cleistochloa;  Thelepogon – a genus with one species on Cape York Peninsula and one in Africa; and  13 genera with 50% or greater of their global species (including 8 genera with 100% representation of their global species (i.e. Heterachne, Oxychloris, Planichloa, Apluda, Dallwatsonia, Pseudopogonatherum, Sacciolepis and Scrotochloa).

The Myrtaceae is a very recognisable part of the Australian flora due to the predominance of the genus Eucalyptus. Whilst it is an abundant part of the flora of Cape York Peninsula, the distinctive feature of the Myrtaceae in this region is its high phylogenetic diversity (tribes/genera/species) across many plant communities.

Figure 29 Cape York features a broad range Australia contains the highest level of diversity at a of vegetation communities; including mesic global level with representation of 14 tribes, 89 genera gallery rainforests hugging river channels and 1,858 species. through drier, more sclerophyllous woodlands. (K. Trapnell) Cape York Peninsula is notable in a global sense for its representation of:  deep phylogenetic diversity extending into tribes (representing 76% of global diversity) and genera (23% of global diversity);  basal taxa (2 tribes, 3 genera, 11 species) from the subfamily Myrtoideae (Lophostemoneae & Xanthostemoneae) including Welchiodendron – a monotypic genus restricted to Cape York Peninsula and adjacent southern New Guinea; and  24 endemic species across 11 genera (and 9 tribes).

These two families, Poaceae and Myrtaceae, display a high level of phylogenetic diversity which is unrivalled elsewhere in the Australian continent. Cape York Peninsula illustrates the development of the Myrtaceae and Poaceae over 65 million years from their emergence in the rainforests communities of the Paleocene through their development in the drying of the Miocene and Pliocene through to their dominance in the present day Australian landscape. The Peninsula is alone in representing side by side both the ancient and modern lineages of these families. Their widespread occurrence in plant communities ranging from rainforest to woodland to grassland illustrates the development of the Australia flora over the Tertiary.

Maps and interpretation It is apparent that although many elements associated with this attribute occur across the Peninsula, the concentration of elements suggests that the eastern and northern areas are of highest importance. This pattern is also supported by Australian Natural Heritage Assessment Tool database mapping of generic diversity of reptiles, mammals, amphibians, fish and birds.

It should be noted that many areas of ‘low richness/absence of records’ are driven by lack of sampling (e.g. Holroyd area north of Pormpuraaw).

Figure 30 (and over page, Maps a-f) Cape York Peninsula - evidence of the development of scleromorphy

Map a Basal/endemic plant communities - broad Map b Broad Vegetation Group rich areas - broad occurrence of basal and endemic vegetation occurrence of high diversity in broad vegetation communities across the Peninsula but a distinct communities across the Peninsula. concentration in wetter areas

Map c Phylogenetically basal taxa – Poaceae - Map d Phylogenetically basal taxa – Myrtaceae - occurrence, in rainforests, of basal grass taxa occurrence of basal Myrtaceae taxa. Lophostemon is Leptaspis and Scrotochloa which have been widespread; Xanthostemon is restricted to mostly modelled using regional ecosystem mapping data. eastern and northern wetter areas, and Welchiodendron is further restricted to the northern part of the Peninsula.

Map e Richness of Poaceae genera Map f Richness of Myrtaceae genera

Maps e and f shows the broad based richness of Poaceae and Myrtaceae genera across the Peninsula with the richest areas being in the northern and eastern parts. 33

Cross reference to the relevant world heritage criteria The above described attributes are relevant to Criteria viii, ix and x.

Cape York Peninsula contains outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, communities of plants (Criterion ix). The Peninsula illustrates the development of Australia’s plant communities in the Tertiary from rainforest to woodland and to grasslands. It retains the mosaic of these environments which were typical of most of the Australian continent during the Tertiary but which were mainly lost in southern areas during the cooling and drying of the Pliocene and Quaternary. In addition, the fossil record and dated phylogenies show that many of the taxa first evident in the Australian continent during the Tertiary are still growing on Cape York Peninsula. It illustrates the development of the Myrtaceae and Poaceae over 65 million years from their emergence in the rainforests communities of the Paleocene through their development in the drying of the Miocene through to their dominance in the present day Australian landscape. The Peninsula is alone in representing both ancient and modern lineages of these families across the landscape. The biogeographic significance of Cape York Peninsula is that it preserves a flora that is representative of the development of the sclerophyll biota during the Tertiary.

Cape York Peninsula also contains the important and significant natural habitats for in situ conservation of biological diversity, (Criterion x) which illustrates the development of sclerophyll biota during the Tertiary. These include plants which are endemic to Cape York Peninsula (over 300 species and five genera).

Statement of integrity The Queensland Herbarium records < 1% of the vegetation of Cape York Peninsula has been cleared.

"The lands of Cape York Peninsula exhibit outstanding natural integrity in a global, regional and continental context. Indeed this is one of the key overarching qualities that defines the character of the entire region. Cape York Peninsula has relatively small, isolated human populations, minimal infrastructure development, and the land use activity in place is either highly localised or extensive rather than intensive." (Mackey et al. 2001).

Global comparison Global comparison suggests that Cape York Peninsula represents a significantly large and intact example of a savanna landscape (Mackey et al. 2001).

Global comparisons of vegetation attributes in savanna landscapes is difficult due to the absence of both vegetation mapping and collated occurrence data. However, broad scale global analyses do support biodiversity richness for Cape York Peninsula (Williams et al. 1994, Groombridge & Jenkins 2002, Natural History Museum 2012) compared with other savanna areas.

The Myrtaceae is a mostly southern hemisphere family with its highest tribal and generic diversity in Australia (P. Wilson pers. comm. 2012). In the Australian continent the highest level of phylogenetic diversity is found in north-east Australia including Cape York Peninsula. The diversity on Cape York Peninsula is notable for its occurrence across rainforest and sclerophyll plant communities.

The Poaceae is a worldwide family with the highest levels of phylogenetic diversity occurring in the tropics. Comparison with other savanna areas is challenging due to lack of data, though it should be noted that many savanna areas are in poor condition.

Conclusion

In this report the authors have identified seven very different attributes as the focal points for identification of potential outstanding universal value for Cape York Peninsula. We begin with tropical savanna landscapes, which dominate and characterize the ecological matrix of Cape York Peninsula but which link to all the other attributes. One connecting component that we highlight is the rich aquatic ecosystems and freshwater biodiversity. Another is the rainforest ecosystems that occur in substantial blocks but are also interdigitated within other ecosystems. This rainforest attribute shows links between Australia and New Guinea, a theme further explored in the continental scale biological bridge that has been a characteristic of Cape York Peninsula for millions of years. Amongst the many unique and outstanding attributes, the Australian origin of the highly successful Passerida group of birds expresses the gift to the world of songbirds. The tropical coastal aeolian sand dunes form another internationally significant attribute as do the outstanding bauxite landscapes of Cape York Peninsula. The final attribute provides a focus on the development of scleromorphy, so well represented in the vegetation of Cape York Peninsula.

This diversity of internationally significant attributes reinforces the multi-dimensional diversity of Cape York Peninsula and all the considered attributes are intrinsically linked by the overall integrity, condition and extent of this landscape. In the process of assessment and analysis the authors also acknowledge there is outstanding aesthetic attributes of Cape York Peninsula and within many of the focal attributes there are superlative natural phenomena. Only a few examples of these are identified in this report.

The authors also acknowledge that Cape York Peninsula exhibits outstanding natural integrity in a global, regional and continental scale. This is one of the key overarching qualities that define the character of the entire region and links the focal attributes. Much of the past and current condition may be linked to the fact that Cape York Peninsula remains an ongoing cultural landscape and the authors recognise the need for a parallel study that documents the richness of that heritage.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (the Department) for establishing the Independent Scientific Expert Panel, organising and funding a two-day workshop for the Panel on 9-10 October 2012 and providing support for the preparation of this report.

The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution made by Jim Thorsell, Peter Shadie, David Gillieson, Jamie Kirkpatrick and Kerry Trapnell as part of the first Cape York Peninsula natural world heritage workshop held in March 2012. The authors also thank Associate Professor Scott Smithers, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences at James Cook University, for helpful contributions on the aeolian processes section.

The authors would like to thank Kerry Trapnell for providing them with his generous permission to include his photos within this report without cost.

The authors would also like to thank the ANHAT Team (Australian Natural Heritage Assessment Tool) within the Department for preparation of some of the maps contained in the report. ANHAT currently contains information on the distribution of over 30,000 Australian taxa. This includes all mammals, birds, reptiles, frogs and fish, 137 families of vascular plants (over 15,000 species) and a range of invertebrate groups. Taxonomic and species concepts used by ANHAT are compiled from authoritative sources, but species names and higher taxonomic placement may not necessarily reflect other government censuses, databases or other authoritative lists. The species occurrence data used by ANHAT comes from a range of government and institutional sources. All data used is positive presence only. While every effort has been made to ensure accuracy and completeness of the data used, no data set can be considered free of errors, and it is not possible to confirm all species locations. 35

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