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Outstanding Graphene Quantum Dots from Carbon Source for Biomedical and Corrosion Inhibition Applications: a Review

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Outstanding Graphene Quantum Dots from Carbon Source for Biomedical and Corrosion Inhibition Applications: a Review sustainability Review Outstanding Graphene Quantum Dots from Carbon Source for Biomedical and Corrosion Inhibition Applications: A Review Badreah Ali Al Jahdaly 1, Mohamed Farouk Elsadek 2,3,* , Badreldin Mohamed Ahmed 2, Mohamed Fawzy Farahat 2, Mohamed M. Taher 4 and Ahmed M. Khalil 5 1 Chemistry Department, Faculty of Applied Science, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah P.O. Box 715, Saudi Arabia; [email protected] 2 Department of Community Health Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11433, Saudi Arabia; [email protected] (B.M.A.); [email protected] (M.F.F.) 3 Nutrition and Food Science Department, Faculty of Home Economics, Helwan University, Cairo 11511, Egypt 4 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt; [email protected] 5 Photochemistry Department, National Research Centre, Giza 12622, Egypt; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Graphene quantum dots (GQD) is an efficient nanomaterial composed of one or more layers of graphene with unique properties that combine both graphene and carbon dots (CDs). It can be synthesized using carbon-rich materials as precursors, such as graphite, macromolecules polysaccharides, and fullerene. This contribution emphasizes the utilization of GQD-based materials in the fields of sensing, bioimaging, energy storage, and corrosion inhibitors. Inspired by these numerous applications, various synthetic approaches have been developed to design and fabricate GQD, particularly bottom-up and top-down processes. In this context, the prime goal of this review is to emphasize possible eco-friendly and sustainable methodologies that have been successfully employed in the fabrication of GQDs. Furthermore, the fundamental and experimental aspects Citation: Al Jahdaly, B.A.; Elsadek, associated with GQDs such as possible mechanisms, the impact of size, surface alteration, and M.F.; Ahmed, B.M.; Farahat, M.F.; doping with other elements, together with their technological and industrial applications have been Taher, M.M.; Khalil, A.M. envisaged. Till now, understanding simple photo luminance (PL) operations in GQDs is very critical Outstanding Graphene Quantum Dots from Carbon Source for as well as there are various methods derived from the optical properties of manufactured GQDs can Biomedical and Corrosion Inhibition differ. Lack of determining exact size and morphology is highly required without loss of their optical Applications: A Review. Sustainability features. Finally, GQDs are promising candidates in the after-mentioned application fields. 2021, 13, 2127. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/su13042127 Keywords: graphene quantum dots; synthetic approaches; biosensors; energy storage; corrosion inhibitor applications Received: 16 December 2020 Accepted: 18 January 2021 Published: 17 February 2021 1. Introduction Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Carbon is an outstanding material and a more abundant element in the form of with regard to jurisdictional claims in coal. It is considered as one of the world’s major sustainability matching with the green published maps and institutional affil- approach. The graphene shape has recently astonished the scientific community [1,2], as iations. did the football fullerene shape, which was discovered with small needle-shaped carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in 1985 and characterized for the first time in 1991 [3,4]. These recent findings of unique carbon allotropes have given scientists, from all disciplines great interest and fascination. Zero-dimensional (0D), one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D), and Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. three-dimensional (3D) graphite are included in the classification of carbon into graphite Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. forms [5–8], as shown in Figure1. Because of the van der Waals force between layers, 2D This article is an open access article graphene is a single-layered nanomaterial that differs from multilayer graphite [9]. In distributed under the terms and the universe, the strongest and thinnest substance ever weighed is an atom-thick carbon conditions of the Creative Commons material [10]. Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). Sustainability 2021, 13, 2127. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13042127 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2021, 13, 2127 2 of 33 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 34 FigureFigure 1.1. CarbonCarbon MaterialsMaterials Category.Category. GrapheneGraphene was discovered discovered at at the the University University of ofManchester Manchester in 2004 in 2004 and and since since this time this timeit is considered it is considered the marvelous the marvelous substance substance of the of21st the century 21st century [11]. The [11 spectrum]. The spectrum of materi- of materialsals bonded bonded to graphene to graphene and graphene-based and graphene-based nanostructures nanostructures are similar, are but similar, with but different with differentnomenclature, nomenclature, meaning meaning that the thatcarbon the conten carbont contentcontains contains one or more one or monolayers more monolayers of gra- ofphene graphene [12,13]. [12 Furthermore,,13]. Furthermore, for the for delicate the delicate handling handling and and processing processing of graphene of graphene and and its itsderivatives, derivatives, many many advanced advanced techniques techniques are are now now available. available. These These techniques are usedused toto manufacturemanufacture itemsitems of of various various sizes sizes from from waste waste contents, contents, such such as as C, C, O, O, H, H, or or by by manipulat- manipu- inglating surface surface groups, groups, like like hydroxyl, hydroxyl, epoxy, epoxy, carbonyl, carbonyl, and carboxyl and carboxyl [14,15 ].[14,15]. In principle, In principle, there arethere four are groups four ofgroups different of carbondifferent materials, carbon includingmaterials, carbonincluding quantum carbon dots quantum (CQDs), dots car- bon(CQDs), nanodots carbon (CNDs), nanodots polymer (CNDs), carbon polymer dots (CPDs),carbon dots and graphene(CPDs), and quantum graphene dots quantum (GQDs) withdots carbon(GQDs) dots with (CDs) carbon being dots used (CDs) as abeing generic used term as [a16 generic]. Importantly, term [16]. CDs Importantly, families can CDs be categorizedfamilies can basedbe categorized on their surfacebased on groups, their su properties,rface groups, and properties basic structures, and basic of the structures carbon core.of the In carbon this respect, core. In CQDs this respect, have a CQDs crystal ha latticeve a crystal accompanied lattice accompanied by a spherical by shape a spherical with surfaceshape with chemical surface groups chemical and alsogroups they and have also a quantumthey have confinement a quantum confinement effect (QCE) effect with luminescence(QCE) with luminescence features [17]. features Moreover, [17]. it isMoreov possibleer, to it adjustis possible the photoluminescence to adjust the photolumi- wave- lengthnescence provided wavelength by the provided CQDs by by changing the CQDs its size by [changing18]. Although its size GQDs [18]. have Although an apparent GQDs graphenehave an apparent lattice, they graphene consist latti of onece, they or more consist layers of one of fragments or more layers of graphene. of fragments Usually, of gra- the heightphene. of Usually, these GQDs the height is less of than these ten GQDs graphene is less layersthan ten with graphene a transverse layers dimension with a transverse of less than 100 nm. The surface groups in GQDs are adjacent to the defects or edges of the inter- dimension of less than 100 nm. The surface groups in GQDs are adjacent to the defects or mediate layers, impacting the different QCE and edge properties. QCE in GQDs are not edges of the intermediate layers, impacting the different QCE and edge properties. QCE only based on their size but also described in the planes of graphene by isolated conjugated in GQDs are not only based on their size but also described in the planes of graphene by π-domains, chemical groups, and a high carbonation degree [18]. QCE does not play a part isolated conjugated π-domains, chemical groups, and a high carbonation degree [18]. QCE in the properties of photoluminescence and is predominantly determined in the carbon does not play a part in the properties of photoluminescence and is predominantly deter- core of graphite by the subdomain states and defect states. Carbon polymer dots (CPDs) mined in the carbon core of graphite by the subdomain states and defect states. Carbon are another class that contains a hybrid carbon/polymer structure in which the surface and polymer dots (CPDs) are another class that contains a hybrid carbon/polymer structure in center of the carbon are connected to a large number of functional/polymer classes [19–21]. which the surface and center of the carbon are connected to a large number of func- Additionally, the key culprits for photoluminescence properties of CPDs are surface states, tional/polymer classes [19–21]. Additionally, the key culprits for photoluminescence subdomain states, molecular states, and the crosslinking effect of radiation [22]. properties of CPDs are surface states, subdomain states, molecular states, and the cross- A comprehensive study of the assessment and classification of carbon dots has been reportedlinking effect based of on radiation properties [22]. and structure, with a particular focus on designing 0D GQDs in 2DA lines
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