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Methods Used to Improve Least Tern and Snowy Plover Nesting Success on Alkaline Flats

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Methods Used to Improve Least Tern and Snowy Plover Nesting Success on Alkaline Flats J. Field Ornithol., 67(2):281-291 METHODS USED TO IMPROVE LEAST TERN AND SNOWY PLOVER NESTING SUCCESS ON ALKALINE FLATS MArcus T. KOENEN AND RUSSELL B. UTYCH 1 OklahomaCooperative Fish and Wildlife ResearchUnit Departmentof Zoology OklahomaState University Stillwat• Oklahoma, 74078 USA DAVID M. LESLIE,JR. U.S. National BiologicalService OklahomaCooperative Fish and WildlifeResearch Unit Departmentof Zoology Oklahoma State University Stillwat• Oklahoma, 74078 USA Abstract. We evaluated two management methods to increase nesting successof endan- geredinterior LeastTerns (Sternaantillarum) and SnowyPlovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) at SaltPlains National Wildlife Refuge,Oklahoma. Nest ridges were constructedfrom existing substrateand designedto provide elevatedhabitat safefrom sheetflooding. Solar-powered electric fenceswere built to reduce predation by mammals.Least Tern and SnowyPlover nestson and off ridgeswere locatedinside and outsidefenced areasand revisitedevery 3- 4 d to quantifynest success using the MayfieldMethod and determinecauses of nestfailure. Nest ridges did not reduce nest lossesto flooding and further designimprovements are necessary.Electric fences did not significantlyreduce annual egg predationexcept for Least Terns during one year of the study.Pooled data for 1991-1994, however,indicated signifi- cantlyhigher LeastTern and slightlyhigher SnowyPlover nest successinside than outside of electric fences. M]•TODOSUSADOS PARA MEJORAR EL P,XITO EN ANIDAJEDE STERNA ANTI•UM Y DE C.HARADRIUS ALEXANDRINUS EN PLANICIES ALCALINAS Sinopsis.--Evaluamosdos m&todosdc mancjo para aumcntarcl cx•to cn anidar dc las cs- peciesen peligro Sterna antillarum y de Charadriusalexandrinus en el Refugio de Vida SilvestreNacional de Salt Plainsen Oklahoma. Se construyeronlomos de nidos de sustrato existentedisefiados para proveerun habitficuloelevado seguro de inundacionesextensas. Se construyeroncercas eltctricas funcionales con energiasolar para reducir la depredaci6npor mamiferos.Se localizaronnidos de ambasespecies dentro y fuera de las areascercadas y tanto sobre los lomos como fuera de ellos y se revisitaroncada 3-4 dias para cuantificarel 6xito en anidamientosegfin el mttodo de Mayfieldy para determinar las causasde fracaso en anidamiento.Los lomos de nidos no redujeron la ptrdido de nidos debido alas inun- dacionesy senecesita mejorar el disefio.Las cercas eltctricas no redujeronsignificativamente la depredaci0nanual de huevosexcepto de Sternaantillarum durante un afio del estudio. Sin embargo,los datoscombinados entre 1991-1994 indicaronun exito de anidamiento significativamentealto para Sterna antillarum y ligeramente alto para Charadriusalexandri- nus dentro de las cercas electricas. The interior population of the LeastTern (Sternaantillarum) has been listed as endangered since 1985 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1985). Currentaddress: 327 Erickson,Marquette, MI 49855 USA. 281 282] M. T. Koenenet al. J.Field Ornithol. Spring 1996 The inland population of the SnowyPlover (Charadrius alexandrinus)is currently listed under Category 2 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1991) of the EndangeredSpecies Act; the coastalpopulation of the SnowyPlo- ver was federally listed as threatened in 1993 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- vice 1993). The decline of the interior populationof LeastTerns hasbeen attributed largely to lossof breeding habitat due to river channelization and constructionof impoundments(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service1990). SnowyPlovers use similarhabitat and likely are affectedby the samehab- itat changesthat causedthe LeastTern population to decline. Due to loss of breedinghabitat, management of remaining nestingareas is important to the conservationand recoveryof both species.Flooding and predation have been identified as the major causesof interior Least Tern (Boyd 1993, Sidle et al. 1992, Smith and Renken 1993, Wood 1994) and Snowy Plover (Koenen 1995, Warriner et al. 1986, Wilson 1980) egg losses throughout their breeding ranges. Alkaline flats at Salt PlainsNational Wildlife Refuge (NWR), Oklahoma contain one the largest breeding populationsof Interior Least Terns in the United States(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service1990). Annual popula- tion estimatesrecorded on the salt flats since1982 have ranged from 82- 270 adult birds (Hill 1993). Rain during May-Augustcan causesheet flooding on the alkaline flats and wash eggsout of nestsor completely submergenests; flooding may accountfor up to 67% of all nest failures (Grover and Knopf 1982). Coyotes(Canis latrans),Ring-billed Gulls (Lar- us delawarensis),and Cattle Egrets(Bubulcus ibis) are the only known egg predatorson theseflats (Groverand Knopf 1982,Hill 1985, Koenen 1995, Utych 1993). Groverand Knopf (1982) attributedup to 57.7% of all nest lossesat Salt Plains NWR to coyotes. In spring 1990, refuge personnel built nest ridges from existing sub- strate to protect and enhance Snowy Plover and essentialLeast Tern breeding habitat as directed by the Interior Least Tern recovery plan objectives(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1990). Nest mounds constructed from a 19-liter bucket of gravel topped with 19-liter bucket of sand have been used in Kansasto enhance nest sitesfor Least Terns (Boyd 1993). However,the efficacyof nest ridgesand nest mounds have not been eval- uated critically in the literature. The refuge placed electric fences around the nest ridges in 1991 to decreaseegg predation. Electric predator fences have been used to pro- tect waterfowl,Least Terns, and SandwichTerns (Sternasandvicensis) by excluding small carnivoressuch as skunk (Mephitis mephitis),raccoon (Procyonlotor), red fox ( Vulpesvulpes), or badger ( Taxidea taxus) (Lo- kemoenet al. 1982,Minsky 1980, Sargeant et al. 1974).A varietyof coyote- exclusionfence designshave been usedto protect livestockpastures (Lin- hart et al. 1982, Nassand Theade 1988), Piping Plover (Charadriusmel- odus)nesting areas in North Dakota (Mayer and Ryan 1991), and Least Terns in Kansas(Boyd and Rupert 1991). However, the value of electric fences designed to protect Least Terns and SnowyPlovers nesting on alkaline flats from coyotepredation has not been assessed. Vol.67, No. 2 Ternand PloverNest Protection [283 We evaluated the efficacy of nest ridges and electric fences employed at Salt Plains NWR to increase nest successof Least Terns and Snowy Plovers. We hypothesized that: (1) nest ridges reduce nest loss due to flooding and (2) electric fences reduce egg predation by mammals. STUDY AREA AND METHODS Salt Plains NWR, located in Alfalfa County in north-central Oklahoma (36ø45'N, 98ø15'E), contains 5095 ha of alkaline flats that serve as an important breeding area for Least Terns and SnowyPlovers (Grover and Knopf 1982, Hill 1985, Schweitzer1994, Utych 1993). The flats are nearly level and poorly drained. Salt Plains NWR receives an average annual rainfall of 68 cm; almost60% of that may occur in spring and summer during the breeding periods of Least Tern (May-August) and SnowyPlo- ver (April-September). Ephemeral and multibranched creeksflow across the flats into the Great Salt Lake, a reservoir built in 1941. The alkaline flatsare closedto the general public, exceptfor a rotating9-15 ha public usearea that is open annuallybetween 1 April and 15 Octoberfor selenite crystaldigging. Least Terns nest in loosely defined colonies along the West Branch of the Salt Fork of the ArkansasRiver, Clay Creek, CottonwoodCreek, and Spring Creek (Hill 1985, Utych 1993). The average distance between LeastTern nestsis 70 m (Schweitzer1994), but nest distancesrange from 5 m to >500 m. SnowyPlovers nest among Least Tern colonies and in scatteredpatches throughout the alkaline flats. In spring 1990, prior to the breeding season,refuge personnelplowed 14 nest ridges (ca. 10-m long x 1-m wide x 0.5-m high). Ridgeswere placed approximately20-30 m apart adjacentto areaspreviously used by LeastTerns to avoiddisturbing historically occupied habitat (L. Hill, pers. comm.). Wind and rain eroded the ridges to a height of 30-40 cm in 1991, 10-20 cm in 1992, 3-6 cm in 1993, and 0-3 cm in 1994. In fall 1990, a square 16-ha electric fence exclosurewas built around these ex- perimental ridges. In 1993, spring floods damaged the exclosureprior to the Least Tern breeding season;the exclosurewas partially rebuilt and enclosedonly 4.5-ha.A second24-ha (300 x 800 m) electric fence exclo- surewas established in May 1993 approximately1,000 m south of the 4.5- ha exclosure.Eight sand and gravel nest mounds, as describedabove and usedby Boyd and Rupert (1991), were placed in the exclosureafter fence completion and before the tern nesting season.The sand washed away within 1 mo leavingonly 4-cm high gravelpads. Sixty-five new ridgeswere added to the electricallyfenced areasin fall 1993. In addition, 14 exper- imental mounds consistingof local clay, sand, and debris (20-150 cm sticks) to reduce erosion were constructed in the fenced areas. Mounds were approximately 2-m wide at the base and 0.5-m high. We generated 20 random points on a grid laid over a diagram of the fenced area with experimental ridgesand comparedactual nest locations to the location of random points. A chi-squaretest was used to determine if nestswere placed on ridges more than would be expected by chance. 284] M. T. Koenenet al. J.Field Ornithol. Spring 1996 Fenceswere powered by a deep cycle 12-voltmarine battery supported by a GallagharB-150 solar energizer resultingin a 1000-6000 volt charge. Wire strandswere placed approximately 14, 28, 42, 62, and 86 cm from the ground to prevent coyotesfrom
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