Notes

1 Aaserud (1990). Cf. also Eckert (1993), pp.l 06ff., for a cursory and popular account of the fellowship-program in physics. 2 The mathematics institute was primarily funded by the Danish CARLSBERG FOUNDATION. It was founded in 1934, inspired by the institutes in Giittingen, Paris, and Princeton and located in a new building next to Niels Bohr's famous physics institute. Cf. Sch0tt (1980), p.263. There is a recent dissertation in Danish on Harald Bohr by Kurt Ramskov (1995, Aarhus), which this author has not seen yet. 3 On the research atmosphere at the IHP in the 1930s cf. Bru (1991) with respect to W.Diiblin and stochastics, and the unpublished dissertation Beaulieu (1989) dealing with the Bourbaki group, which will be discussed below. 4 A pioneering work is Rider (1984). In other sciences see the collection Gemelli (2000). 5 Forman (1973), p.l56. 6 Cf. Hanle (1982). The first (inofficial) one was organized in Innsbruck (Austria) in 1922 fol• lowed by the first official congress in Delft 1924. 7 Cf. Kuzawa (1970). The Polish deliberately chose new subjects such as topology and set the• ory to reach the international research level more rapidly. A similar situation seems to have ex• isted in Denmark. Cf. Sch0tt (1980). 8 Mehrtens (1989) shows this to be the case for the rather slow adaptation of the German Mathe• maticians' Association to the Nazi spirit. 9 Cf. Malet (1998), pp.28129. 10 This according to CrawfordiShinnlSiirlin (1993), pp.2/3. The picture may change rather soon in the worldwide process of "globalization". 11 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1986).

12 Cf. Beaulieu (1989), ppA0/41, with figures and details. 13 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1998). The cognitive dimension of emigration in mathematics is dis• cussed at pp.22Iff. 14 Cf. Crawford/ShinnlSiirlin (eds., 1993). The usefulness of this distinction has not been fully established in the historiographical discussion so far. 15 See however Mehrtens' book (1990) containing many valuable suggestions and case studies in this direction. See also Rowe (1997) for a critical discussion of the literature. 16 Siegmund-Schultze (1993) and (1994). Here certain functions of mathematical axiomatics and mathematical reviewing are shown to be related to each other. 17 Former "Bourbakist" P.Cartier acknowledges that ideological dimension in Bourbaki. Cf. Senechal (1998), pp.26127. He explicitly mentions the manifesto of the surrealists as a parallel event. Cf., for more details from that perspective, Mehrtens (1990). 18 As discussed in Beaulieu (1989), pp.124-133. 19 Karl/Katz (1987), p.9.

20 See e.g. Kuznick (1987) for the dominantly skeptical position of American natural scientists with respect to F.D.Roosevelt's New Deal policy in the 1930s. 21 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1993). 222 Notes

22 Coser (1988), p.100. 23 Cf. Porter (1988), and the excursus in chapter V.4. The lAS was not funded with Rockefeller money, but there were close relations to the Foundation not least due to lAS' founder, Abraham Flexner. 24 Cf. Rutkoff/Scott (1986) and Krohn (1987). 25 Cf. Paul Forman (1973), p.156. 26 Cf. Chapter III. 27 Forman (1973), p.153. 28 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1997). 29 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1982). 30 Cf. Menger (1994), p.143ff. and Szaniawski (ed., 1989). 31 Cf. Blaschke (1933) about his experiences in America and his somewhat condescending atti• tude towards science abroad. 32 R.G.D.Richardson Papers, Brown University Archives, Box Correspondence 1933 (German- Jewish Situation), f.: H.Bohr, Richardson to Bohr, June 26, 1934. 33 Kohler (1991), p.135. 34 For instance the founding of the University of Chicago in the 1890s by Rockefeller. 35 Kiger (1954), p.24. 36 Karl/Katz (1987), p.6. 37 See e.g. Aaserud (1990), Kohler (1991), Coben (1976). 38 Cf. Dupree (1957). In sciences of a more applied nature than mathematics the federal support came earlier. 39 Cf. Picard (1999) and Gemelli/Picard/Schneider (eds., 1999). 40 Nielsen (1972), p.14, reports that the privileged support by the foundations of the mostly pri• vate American universities of the so-called "Ivy League" caused criticism from the American public until the 1960s. 41 W.E.Tisdale (New York) to mathematician E.Cartan (Paris) on 6 December 1932, with respect to an applicant from India, Kosambi. (Thullen Papers). Probably D.D.Kosambi (1907-1966). Cf. also Beaulieu (1989), p.119, where an equally unsuccessful initiative of 1931 by A.Weil in favour of Indian scholars is mentioned. 42 Kohler (1991), p.145/46, on the director of the Paris office of the IEB. More on Trowbridge, another key figure in this book, in chapter III. 43 Most visible was the non-participation of the U.S. in the LEAGUE OF NATIONS which had been partly initiated by the Americans, especially President W.Wilson. 44 Kohler (1985), pp.94/95. 45 RAC, IEB 1.2., box 33, f.470, 5pp., pp.3-5. University of Paris. Mathematical and Physical Institute. 46 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1997), p.162. 47 RAC, IEB 1.1., box 8, folder 110. Wallace Lund to W.Rose (10 March 1927). 48 Quoted from Erichsen (1994), p.56. The addressee was William Beveridge, name of sender unknown. 49 Kohler (1991), p.2. 50 Kohler (1991), p.147. 51 Cf. in this respect Kevles (1971) on American physicists and astronomers R.A.Millikan and G.E.Hale. 52 Cf. Appendix 7. 53 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1997). 54 Cf. Rowe (1986), Schappacher (1987), Tollmien (1987). Notes 223

55 Kevles (1971), p.192. 56 Coben (1976), p.230. 57 Kohler (1985), p. 79. 58 Cf. Tobey (1971). 59 Kohler (1985), p.133. 60 Ibid., p.137. 61 RAC, IEB, Annual Report 1925-1926, p. 11 (printed). 62 RAC, Weaver Diary 3 (1935), p.98. Interview Warren Weaver in Madison, Wisconsin, with M.H.lngraham, July 13, 1935. 63 See Veblen's letter to S.Flexner below in 11.3. 64 Assmus (1993), p.169. See also chapter IV. 65 See below and excursus in chapter IV. 66 Assmus (1993), p.166. Figures for the IEB, which increased the opportunities, and for mathe- matics are missing here. 67 Kohler(1991),p.147. 68 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1998), esp. the chapter on early emigration, pp.28ff. 69 RAC, Rose 905, Log of Journey, p.24. 70 RAC, Rose 905, Log of Journey, p.101. 71 ETH, Hermann Weyl Papers, Weyl to W.Rose, 21 February 1925, copy German. 12 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1997). 73 Among the "envois" were American mathematicians O.Veblen (Princeton) and F.D.Murnaghan (Baltimore). Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1998), esp.chapter 3. 74 One has to differentiate between the "Memorandum", which is a concise report that comprises pages 107 to 114 in the Minutes of the IEB, and Rose's much more detailed "Log of Journey" which has 235 typewritten pages (+ appendix) (= RAC, Log Rose 905). 75 RAC, Minutes ofIEB, 26 May 1924, p.l13/14. 76 Kohler (1991), p.158/59. 77 RAC, Minutes IEB, 26 May 1924, p.l13. 78 Ibid. p.107.

79 For a systematic account of Rockefeller philanthropy's relations to Russia viz. the Soviet Un- ion see Kozhevnikov (1993). See also chapter IV.7. 80 RAC, Rose 905, Log of Journey, p.80. 81 Kozhevnikov (1993), p.l01. 82 RAC, Minutes IEB, Rose: Memo on trip to Europe, 26 May, 1926, p.l09. 83 Cf. Butler (1992). 84 RAC, Minutes IEB, Rose: Memo on trip to Europe, 26 May, 1926, p.l09. 85 RAC, IEB 1.1., Box 8, folder 110. 86 Cf. Picard (1999). 87 RAC, IEB 1.1., Box 8, f.ll0. 88 Ibid. 89 Ibid. Birkhoffto Rose, November 19,1923. 90 Weyl was of course highly regarded by Birkhoff but not suggested to Rose, obviously because of his German citizenship. 91 RAC, Rose 905, Log, p.107. 92 RAC, Minutes ofIEB, p.ll O. 224 Notes

93 Zierold (1968), p.103, mentions support by the Rockefeller Foundation particularly in provid• ing medical literature in Germany through the NOTGEMEINSCHAFT DER DEUTSCHEN WISSENSCHAFT (Emergency Fund) since 1923. 94 RAC, Trowlog I (1925), p.122. Trowbridge on negotiations in Rome on June 6, 1925. 95 On A.T.'s contacts with Volterra cf. Paoloni (2000). 96 RAC, Trowlog I (1925), pp.146~ 151, Copenhagen, September 26th, 1925: "Long talk on gen• eral scientific matters between A.T. the two Bohrs, Hardy and Norlund: Publications .... All agreed that help to Italian periodicals would be well received by the mathematical confraternity." (p.148). 97 Ibid. Similar requests for literature came from France. Cf. Beaulieu (1989), chap.1. 98 RAC, Trowlog I (1925), p.77. Trowbridge on a discussion with V. Volterra in Madrid, April 24th, 1925. 99 RAC, Trowlog I (1925), p. 123. Rome, June 6th, 1925. 100 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), p.37. The support is also mentioned in Birkhoffs report, Appendix 7. 101 Trowlog 2 (1926), p.l79.

102 Ibid. Occasional help for French libraries, which were in a poor state during the 1920s, is mentioned by Beaulieu (1989), pp.53/54. 103 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1997), p.l44. 104 RAC, RF, 1.1.,200 D, box 125, f. 1541, Mason to L.Ph. Eisenhart, January 18, 1932. 105 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1994). 106 RAC, Weaver Diary I (1932), p.29. Warren Weaver on a discussion with American mathema- ticians on March 26, 1932. 107 Ibid.

108 RAC, Rose Log 905, pp.24/25. 109 Ibid., p.232. 110 RAC, Minutes ofIEB, May 26,1924, p.169. III RAC, IEB 1.1., box 8, f.11 O. Birkhoffto Rose, March 25, 1925. 112 RAC, Minutes IEB, p.500. 113 RAC, Minutes IEB, p.500, alluding to a letter from Birkhoff of May 12, 1925. 114 Cf. Aspray (1989), Butler (1992). 115 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (2000d). 116 RAC, IEB 1.1. box 8, f.ll O. 26 January 1926. 117 Cf. Kohler (1991), p.150, who has doubts in this respect. 118 As announced in Birkhoffs letter to Rose of May 12, 1925. RAC, IEB 1.1., box 12, folder 171. Trowbridge met Birkhoff in Florence (Italy) on February 28, 1926. See RAC, Tislog 2 (1926), pAl. In late January Birkhoff had already compiled the list of European mathematicians. 119 RAC, IEB 1.1., box 12, f.171. 12pp., copy also in Harvard University Archives, G.D.Birkhoff Papers, 4213.2. Box 6, file H-J. 120 See also the assessment of Birkhoff in Trowbridge's letter to Rose, dated May 27, 1927, and based on judgments by European mathematicians. See below. In a letter to Hermann Weyl the Dutch mathematician L.E.J.Brouwer wrote on New Year 1921, with respect to an open professorship in Amsterdam that Weyl had refused to accept: "As to your position we are now thinking in the first place about Birkhoff, whom the astronomers and mechanists know as well, who is considered as a star of first rank, and comes also from a Dutch family (both parents were born here)." (ETH, Hermann Weyl Papers, HS91:493) 121 Siegmund-Schultze (1998a). 122 "Aside from the question of the secondary school system" [p.2] Notes 225

123 [p.ll]. On page 4, Birkhoff pleaded for the introduction of "two grades of stipend" for fellows. See also chapter IV. 124 RAC, lEB 1.1., box 8, f.llO. G.D.Birkhoffto W.Rose, November 7,1926. Handwritten. 125 "Final General Memorandum for Dr.A.Trowbridge", Harvard University Archives, G.D.BirkhoffPapers, 4213.2. Box 6, file H-J, pp.9/1O. (Appendix 7) 126 RAC, lEB, 1.1. Box 8, f.11 0, Rose to Trowbridge, March 8, 1927. 127 Ibid. Trowbridge to Rose, April 6, 1927. 128 Ibid, Trowbridge to Rose, May 27, 1927, p.l. 129 RAC, lEB 1.1., box 8, f.IIO, Trowbridge to Rose, May 27, 1927, p.2. \30 Cf. Grattan-Guinness (1981), Thiel (1984). 131 Cf. Scanlan (1991). 132 RAC, lEB 1.1., box 8, f.IIO, Trowbridge to Rose, May 27,1927, pA. \33 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1998a). \34 RAC, lEB 1.1. box 10, f.143. The maps are reproduced here as figures 5 and 7. See also section II.5. Similar maps for physics in Europe and the U.S. were also made. See reproduc• tions in Kohler (1991), next to p.262. \35 Cf. Fosdick (1955), pp.145/146. \36 E.G. German mathematician W.Ackermann, French mathematician R.Lagrange, Pole S.Ba• nach, Dutch D.Struik, Norwegian 0.0re, Swiss-Hungarian G.P6Iya, and American mathe• matician T.Y.Thomas. 137 Bru (1999). Parts of the manuscript will be published in the Revue d 'his to ire des rnathe• rnatiques shortly. \38 Kohler (1991), p.147. \39 Ibid., p.l45. The frequent use of British spelling in Trowbridge's letters might point to this as well. However, even in Birkhoffs memo occurs spelling such as "favourable" which may also have come from the secretary. 140 A.T. to Landau, Paris May 23, 1925. Courant Papers Bobst Library, NYC. Folder: Rockefeller Stipend Correspondence. 141 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), p.157. 142 RAC, Trowlog I (1925), p.149. Augustus Trowbridge on his interview with Niels and Harald Bohr, N.E.Niirlund and G.H.Hardy on 26 September 1925 in Copenhagen. 143 RAC, Trowlog I (1925), p.179j. MEMORANDUM OF VISIT TO BERLIN, October 6 through 8, 1925. 144 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), pp.3/4. Paris January 14th to January 17th 1926. Cf. W.Rose's earlier meeting with a representative of the LEAGUE in 1924. Cf. Chapter II. 145 RAC, lEB 1.3., box 48, f.720. This quote is also given in Beaulieu (1989), p.86. 146 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), p. 6. 147 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), p. 133-191 = A.T. to W.Rose, June 8, 1926, 59pp. This letter is already partly analysed in Kohler (1991), pp.l51-154. 148 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), pp. 160-62. 149 Ibid., pp.154. 150 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1998), pp.165ff. Cf. chapter VI of the present book for more examples of anti-Semitism and xenophobia, but also of solidarity with immigrants. 151 RAC, Trowlog I (1925), Budapest, March 29th, 1925, pp.62/63. 152 RAC, Tislog I (1927), p.207. Tisdale's meeting with Goldstein in Cambridge, U.K., 13 De• cember 1927. Tisdale had been ambiguous about a recommendation for Goldstein before. 153 RAC, Tislog 7 (1933), p.IO. Moscow, 24 and 25 May 1933. Schnirelman did not succeed in his application for a fellowship. 226 Notes

154 RAC, Trowlog 1(1925), p.1. 155 Aspray (1989), p.201. Aspray is quoting a letter to this effect from a GEB functionary. 156 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), p.160. See quote in Kohler (1991), p.152. 157 See the quote from A.T.'s log 4 (1927/28), p.23, given in chapter V.2. 158 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), 8 June 1926, p.181. 159 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), pp.153/54. 160 RAC, Tislog 7 (1933), p.7, March 20,1933. 161 RAC, Trowlog 1 (1925), p.77, Madrid, April 24th, 1925. 162 RAC, lEB 1.3., box 57, f. 934, A.T. to Rose, November 10, 1925. In fact, Puig's application came from his professors in Madrid, J.Alvarez Ude and Cabrera, because Puig himself was not allowed to apply (see below). The application was later withdrawn due to a disease contracted by Puig. 163 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), pp.154. 164 RAC, lEB 1.3. box 53, f.834. (N.Kritikos). C.Caratheodory to A.T., 27 July 1925. Translation from German. 165 Ibid. Landau without addressee, 20 August 1925. My translation from German. 166 Ibid. Translation from German. 167 RAC, Trowlog 3 (1926), p.28. Note by W.E.Tisdale on a talk with Caratheodory in July 1926. 168 RAC, lEB 1.3., box 61, f.1028, A.T. to Rose, 6 March 1928. 169 Ibid. Rose to A.T. 14 March 1928. 170 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 61, f.1028, Memorandum I.Marcovich, Paris October 7, 1930. 171 RAC, Tislog 3 (1929), p.109, Boston, 22 October 1929. 172 Kohler (1991), p.I77. 173 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), p. 174. A.T. to Rose, 8 June, 1926. 174 Ibid.

175 Kohler (1991), p. 174. 176 RAC, Trowlog 1 (1925),25 February 1925, pA. 177 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), p. 172. A.T. to Rose, 8 June 1926. 178 RAC, Weaver-Diary 2 (1934), p.132. Interview Warren Weaver with Birkhoff (October 13, 1934). 179 RAC, lEB 1.3., box 61, f.1028. On Charpentier see more below in chapter IV.6. 180 RAC, Trowlog 1 (1925), p. I 79u. Gottingen 8.19.0ctober 1925. 181 RAC, Trowlog 3 (1926), p.59. 182 Abir-Am (1995), p.180. 183 RAC, IEB 1.1., box 12, f.247, Veblen to Rose, 11 January 1928. 184 Ibid.. Veblen to Rose, 11 January 1928. This passage is reproduced in the Minutes of lEB, 24 February 1928, p.948/49, where the approval of the grant of 3,500 Dollars is announced. 185 RAC, lEB 1.1., box 12, f.247. 186 Aspray (1989), p.20 I. 187 See Porter (1988) and chapter VA. below. 188 According to Fosdick (1955), p.144, there were exactly 509 fellowships. 189 Gray (1941), p.22. According to Aaserud (1990), p. 23, 163 fellowships were given to physi- cists. 190 Officially it was dissolved only in 1938. Cf. Fosdick (1955). 191 For the situation around 1900 cf. Parshall/Rowe (1994). 192 RAC, Trowlog 1 (1925), pA. A.T. Interview with Picard, 25 Februar 1925. Notes 227

193 MPA III, Rep. 61 (PrandtI), No.1716. PrandtI to A.T., 21 April 1925. 194 Courant Papers Bobst Library. A.T. to David Hilbert, 18 January 1926. Courant seems to have led the negotiations for Hilbert on behalf of John von Neumann at that time. 195 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 45, f.644 (file Besicovitch). 196 RAC, Trowlog 4 (1928), 114-118. R.Courant and M.Bom took part in the discussions. 197 Ibid, p. 117. 198 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 56, f.921. Petersson finally succeeded and went to Littlewood (Cam• bridge) and Wirtinger (Wien). 199 Birkhoff supporting a temporary stay of French fellow L.Feraud in Paris, instead of continuing in the U.S.: "There seems to be no place in this country where he could work with profit." (Birkhoffto W.E.Tisdale, 2 May 1929, RAC, IEB 1.3., box 48, f.722) 200 Kohler (1991), p.147. 201 RAC, IEB 1.3. b.45, f.644 (file: A.Besicovitch), A.T. to G.Hardy, 1 March, 1927. 202 RAC, Tislog 3 (1929), p.119, October 30, 1929. 203 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 53, f.840, A.T. to Rose, 7 May 1926. 204 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 46, f.674, A.T. to Rose, Paris, October 26, 1925. 205 RAC, Trowlog 1 (1925), pp. 117-124, "CONVERSATIONS IN ROME", Rome, June 5th, 1925, p.118. Struik finally got his second year in spite of the objections. 206 RAC, IEB 1.3., b.45, f.644 (file A.Besicovic), A.T. to Hardy, 14 March, 1927. 207 Ibid. Hardy to A.T. 25 February 1927. 208 RAC, IEB 1.3., Box 48, f.722, Memo W.E.T., Paris, 8th April, 1931. "Pure" mathematician Feraud ended up going into actuarial mathematics, working in Geneva from 1945 onward. 209 RAC, Tislog 4 (1930), p.147. Interview in Berlin 15 October 1930. Haenzel's application for Italy finally did not go through, perhaps also due to the restrictions in the admission of mathematicians after 1928. See below. 210 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 48, f.720, A.T. to Rose, Paris, June 24, 1926. This quotation is also in an unpublished dissertation Beaulieu (1989), p. 71. Favard did not take the second year in the end because he had problems with the English language. See below. 211 Menchov (1985), p.55. 212 As stressed in a letter by A.T. to Rose, May 6, 1926, RAC, IEB 1.3., box 54, f.862. 213 Ibid., A.T. to Rose, 22 March 1927. 214 W.E.T to Lefschetz, 5 August 1932, Courant Papers Bobst Library NYC. The Russians men• tioned in Tisdale's letter finally did not become fellows. See IV.7. 215 Harvard University Archives, Birkhoff Papers 4213.2, box 8, file H-J. My translation from German. 216 ETH, Hermann Weyl Papers, Hs 91 :692. Noether to Weyl, March 12, 1927. 217 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 48, f.720, Birkhoffto A.T., October 21, 1926. 218 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), pp. 135/36. 219 RAC, RF RG 2 - 1931, series 785, box 64, f.524, L.W.Jones to G.D.Birkhoff, December 11, 1931. 220 RAC, Trowlog 4 (1928), p.63/64. 221 RAC, Trowlog 4 (1927/28), p. 124. Report on trip to Gottingen, March 21, 1928. 222 RAC, Trowlog 1 (1925), p.147. 26 September 1925. Emphasis in the log. 223 On Besicovitch's illegal emigration from the Soviet Union which did not meet with approval by the IEB see section 7 on Russian mathematicians. 224 RAC, RF RG 2, General Correspondence 1934, series 783, b. 111 0, f.847, F.B.Hanson of RF to F.L.McVey, University of Kentucky, 27 July, 1934. See also chapter VI. Being a son in law 228 Notes

of noted number theorist Edmund Landau probably did not necessarily play to Schoenberg's favour (See next section). 225 One of the papers appeared as "Sur une propriete caracteristique des fonctions orthogonales" in the famous Comptes Rendus hebdomadaire de I'Academie des Sciences 180 (1925), 1637- 1640. 226 RAC, I.E.B. 1.3., box 44, folder 633 (Banach). 227 C.Caratheodory gave Tisdale another list of leading mathematicians worldwide, as reported in a memo by WET, dated April 3, 1929 (RAC, Tislog 3 (1929), pp.I-4). 228 On Volterra's work as an advisor to the IEB, also on behalf of the physics fellows of the "Fermi group", cf. Paoloni (2000). 229 There are only few records on meetings of Rockefeller officers with Borel, perhaps because Borel was very occupied with political activities and no longer very much engaged in mathematical research. There can be no doubt, however, about his overall influence on the Rockfeller people, also possibly through Montel. See also appendices 4,5, and 12, and chapter V. 230 RAC, Trowlog 3 (1926), p.16117, 5 July 1926. 231 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1998), p. 142. My translation from German. The quotation alludes to Siegel's work in the theory of numbers which was concerned with the arithmetic theory of quadratic forms in an arbitrary number of variables, with integer coefficients. Siegel published from 1935 onward seminal papers on that subject. Cf. Dieudonne (1981). 232 RAC, Tislog 5 (1931) (15 January 1931), p.11. See also Appendix 1 for similar tactics by the Giittingen physicists to get support in 1924. On Prandtl see Tollmien (1987). 233 RAC, Tislog 5 (1931), 15 January 1931, p.12. Note that Niels Bohr also stressed his interest in biology. See Aaserud (1990), p.212. Perhaps there was tactics involved as well. 234 Lefschetz complained in an interview with W. Weaver on 27 April 1934 in Princeton about the NRC Fellowship Board which had "been so largely under the administration of three men associated with Princeton, Harvard, and Chicago." RAC, Weaver Diary 2 (1934), p.61. 235 Cf. support for the foundation of the Journal of the London Mathematical Society in 1924 (chapter 11.4), the Hardy-Veblen travel exchange (III.6), support for Courant's institutes both in Giittingen and later in New York, and for Harald Bohr's mathematical department within his brother's institute for theoretical physics, even before the new mathematics institute in Copenhagen was founded in 1934 (Aaserud (1990)). 236 Vessiot, more important as teacher than as researcher, proposed Rockefeller grants for many a former student of the ENS of which he was director. Cf. Beaulieu (1989), p.70. 237 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), p.168, A.T. to Rose 8 June 1926. 238 RAC, Tislog I (1927), pp.27-29, Tisdale on Blaschke and Hecke, where WET prefers Hecke over hot-tempered Blaschke. 239 Rockefeller officer W.E.Tisdale writes in his log of an conversation with Landau on January 17, 1927: "1 listened earnestly and said little, because 1 feel Prof. Landau is rather sour on the world." (RAC, Tislog I (1927), pAl). On Landau more below. 240 The latter grew radical with respect to immigration of mathematicians to America in later years. The RF people, especially W.Weaver, did not always agree. See chapter VI. 241 About A.T.'s opinion of Courant, see the report on his trip to Giittingen in July 1926. Appen• dix 6. 242 Cf. A.T.'s criticism of Landau's plans with Polish candidate A.Walfisz, above. Landau also complained to the Rockefeller officers in 1927 that the Norwegian fellows Ore and Nagell did not assist him in his work. See RAC, IEB 1.3. box 55, f.892 (Nagell). This might have contributed to the unfavourable impression that Landau's attitudes made on the Rockefeller people. 243 A.T.'s visit to Giittingen in July 1926. Chapter V and Appendix 6. Notes 229

244 RAC, Tislog I (1927), p.31. 245 RAC, Tislog I (1927), p.30. 246 Cf. Tollmien (1991). 247 Alexanderson/Lange (1987), p. 561. 248 The respective number of cards is noted in brackets in the fellowship list in Appendix 15 of this book. 249 One political reason might be, as Albert e.Lewis indicated to me, that some former fellows may no longer have wished their RF connection known. 250 Cf. Canguilhem (1996). There is a fellowship card on Cavailles in RAe. 251 Communication to the author by Liliane Beaulieu (Paris). 252 On the decision not to discuss mathematical physicists in the realm of this book see the intro• duction. 253 Asmuss (1993), 169ff. There does not seem to exist yet a systematic historical account on the physics fellows of the IEB. 254 Hartree's stay in Denmark in 1928 was obviously not yet connected to the Differential Ana• lyzer which he introduced in England after studies at MIT in 1934/35, based on a grant from other sources. Cf. Darwin (1959). 255 Cf. Holst (1996). It was only in 1933 that Rosseland's interest in Bush's analogue machine was provoked. Rosseland emulated the machine in Oslo in 1938 with a grant from Rockefeller. Holst (1996), p.17, says: "Mathematics was soon to become Rosseland' s primary and lifelong interest." 256 Baer was proposed by F.Hausdorff, Emmy Noether and P.Aleksandrov in 1932. Cf. Hausdorff Papers Bonn, no.61, 3 letters Aleksandrov to Hausdorff, OctoberlNovember 1932. I thank Walter Purkert (Bonn/Leipzig) for the information. 257 Refusal in 1933 due to political situation in Germany. Cf. Beaulieu (1989), p.104. 258 Seifert wrote on August 5, 1933 to Heinz Hopf in ZUrich: "I regret deeply that it was not pos• sible to get a Rockefeller stipend, because I would have immensely liked to work under your guidance." (ETH, Heinz HopfPapers, Hs 62\:1349. My translation from German) 259 There is one letter by W.E.Tisdale to Henri Cartan (Paris), dated 6 December 1932, in the Thullen Papers, which says that there was "considerable correspondence on his case" and that the Foundation was waiting for Thullen's Habilitation before going on with a fellowship. Thullen did not become Privatdozent but left Nazi Germany as a catholic dissenter. For his flight cf. Thullen' s autobiographical account Thullen (2000) and Siegmund-Schultze (2000e). 260 A letter by G.D.Birkhoff dated February 17, 1928, to a Prof. Clark states that the age limit for fellows "may stand in his way." (Siiss Papers 14.1. Freiburg University Archives). Siiss be• came the president of the German Mathematicians' Association in the late 1930s. 261 As mentioned in 1.4. above. Probably D.D.Kosambi (1907-1966). 262 One of those was Albert Tucker (born 1905), the main interviewee of the Princeton Oral History Project (1984/85), who was on a NRC-fellowship in Cambridge, England before 1933. See also Aspray (1989), p.205. 263 RAC, IEB 1.3. box 46, f.677 (Church) 264 RAC, IEB 1.3. box 47, f.700(Douglas), Memo IEB 15 April 1929. Douglas interrupted his stay in Paris for a short visit to Giittingen, where Courant also worked on the Plateau problem. 265 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 61, f.1039 (Walsh). 266 RAC, IEB 1.3., f.633 (Banach). 23 August 1933. The Courant Papers contain correspondence (1932) between Courant and A.Weinstein on the latter's unsuccessful application for another fellowship. 267 RAC, Tislog 5 (N.S.), 1934, p.19, Helsingfors (Helsinki), 5 November 1934. The fellowship did not materialize, probably because Ahlfors found a regular position at Harvard University in 1935. For more examples on the political situation after 1933 see chapter VI. 230 Notes

268 Cf. remarks about Tarski's fellowship in Vienna after 1933 in chapter VI. 269 Maier went to number theorist L.E.Dickson in Chicago who had been favourably mentioned in R.Courant's assessment of American mathematics in 1927. Cf. Appendix 8. 270 Siegmund-Schultze (1993), p.141, my translation from German. 271 This according to Fosdick (1943).

272 Douglas incidentally worked on the Plateau problem in competition with another IEB-fellow, Tibor Rada, as well as with Richard Courant of Giittingen, see below. 273 Saunders Mac Lane (born 1909) was a fellow of the German ALEXANDER-VON-HuMBOLDT STIFTUNG and studied until 1933 in Giittingen. Cf. Mac Lane (1989a). 274 Freudenthal's devastating obituary on Kerekjarta has been mentioned above. Warren Weaver remarked in his diary on a meeting with K. in Budapest, on 4 June 1933, Weaver Diary 1 (1933), p.l05: "perhaps not entirely fulfilling earlier promise, but he is nevertheless a very goodman." 275 E.Landau and van der Waerden found Kloosterman lazy; Hecke considered him as "a horse with blinders". Cf. RAC, Tislog 1(1927), pp.26-32, January 1927, talks in Hamburg and Giittingen. Kloosterman sums later became a celebrated tool in number theory. On Douglas see below. 276 See section IV.8. 277 On Saks see chapter VI. Schauder's life might have been saved ifhis application for a renewal of the Rockefeller grant had not been turned down in 1933. There are desperate letters by Schauder to Jean Leray in Paris, dating from the mid-1930s, complaining about his fate as a teacher in Poland. Cf. Jussieu (Paris). A.Tarski, who was in a similar position, was saved later on by the Rockefeller emergency program. Cf. chapter VI. 278 This is a quotation from a letter by A.T. to Rose (19 September 1925) on logician Heinrich Behmann, in which he predicts problems with a job for B. Indeed Behmann himself had to postpone and shorten his fellowship in the vain hope of an immediate appointment which he reached, in fact, only very late in 1938 (RAC, IEB 1.3., box 44, file 641). 279 Cf. Taylor (1990). 280 Dieudonne (1970). 281 Douglas' solution was somewhat more general than the earlier one by Rada. That Douglas got most of the credit for the solution and was awarded the Fields medal in 1936 caused some disappointment on the part of Rada. The recent publication Rassias (1992) is an attempt to do justice to both authors. 282 Sternberg (1976). 283 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 47, f.701. My translation from French. Later in his career, Dubourdieu became an actuarian. See Bru (1994). Perhaps his later career can be partly explained against the probabilistic background of integral geometry. 284 Fenchel on 25 December 1937 from Copenhagen to Richard Courant in New York who was turning fifty on January 8, 1938 (Courant Papers Bobst Library). My translation from German. 285 Coifman/Strichartz (1989), 347. 286 The cofounders of the Russian and Polish schools in the 1920s, N.Lusin and Z.Janiszewski, had studied in Paris in the first two decades of the century. 287 See below. Menchov (1985, p.55), reports on his stay in Paris 1927: "I visited Borel and Lebesgue as well but neither of the two was still engaged in research." My translation from French. One has certainly to add, "research pertinent to Menchov's interest." 288 RAC, Tislog 5 (1931), p.75. On the research atmosphere in "Oxbridge" in mathematics in those years cf. Young (1981). 289 One event of importance was the trip to Giittingen by Norwegian fellow, Ore, who later on became one of the principal proponents of the structural approach to algebra (in his case based on the lattice-concept), when he settled in the United States after 1927. Notes 231

290 Dieudonne (1970), Weil (1991). 291 Paris: Dunod. Dubreil took part in the first gatherings of "Bourbaki" in 1935, but dropped out later. Cf. Beaulieu (1989), p. 12. He also conducted the first French seminar on that topic after WWII. Communication by Liliane Beaulieu (Paris). 292 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 48, f.720. Application Favard. My translation from French. 293 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 47, f.701 (file Dubreil). Fellowship application. My translation from French. 294 Noether taught the summer semester of 1930 in Frankfurt am Main. In early 1931 Dubreil visited her, once again, in Giittingen. 295 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 47, f.702,Paris, 1929, undated, translated by RF. 296 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 47, f.701. Report Dubourdieu September 1928. 297 RAC, Tislog 2 (1928), p.7. Cambridge, 29 May 1928. 298 RAC, IEB 1.3. f.897 (Nevanlinna), Interview Warren Weaver, 9 October 1934. 299 See Menger (1994). 300 See Freudenthal (1990). 301 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 55, file 882 (K.Menger), 10 July 1933. 302 RAC, Weaver Diary 2 (1934), p.157. Interview WW with Lefschetz, 13 November 1934, p.157. 303 WET to Lefschetz 5 August 1932: "his case would involve really the appointment of two persons, and not of one." (Courant Papers Bobst Library, NYC). Pontrjagin also became one of the principal creators of optimal control theory. Cf. Plail (1998). 304 Cf. Aspray (1989) and Mac Lane (I 989b ). 305 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 51, f.801 (H.Hopt), Lefschetz to Trowbridge, 9 November 1926. 306 Mac Lane (1989b), p.219. 307 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 51, f.801 (H.Hopt), Hopfto Tisdale, 21 January 1929, Report on Hopfs stay in Princeton from October 1927 until June 1928. My translation from German. 308 Segre (1976), p.196. 309 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 61, f.1027. Courant to W.E.Tisdale, 2 March 1933. My translation from German.

310 Ibid. Van der Waerden to Tisdale, 12 March 1933. 3ll RAC, Tislog 7 (1933), p.27. 312 Van der Waerden (Leipzig) to Courant (New York), 28 March 1936. Courant Papers Bobst Library, NYC. My translation from German. 313 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1998), pp.l35/36. 314 Weil (1991), p.51. 315 This reservation is repeatedly noted, for instance in a recent obituary on Wei I by Cartier (1999), pp. 7/8. 316 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 61, f.l028 (Vasilesco), A.T. to Rose, 6 March 1928. Vasilesco worked on problems in multiform functions and functional analysis, connected to Evans' work. 317 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 48, f.720 (Favard), A.T. to Rose, Paris, June 24,1926. 318 WET on his conversation with astronomer A. Kopff in Berlin, 4 June 1930 (RAC, Tislog 4 (1930), p.1 09). 319 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 60, f.1007, 28 August 1928. 320 RAC, Trowlog 1 (1925), p.147, A.T. on his talks in Copenhagen, September 26th, 1925 with Harald Bohr, Hardy and Niirlund. 321 Cf. Hughes (1991). 322 See Cauer (1935) for the results of his stay at MIT. 232 Notes

323 W.J.Robbins (RF Paris) to Courant, 17 August 1929. Courant Papers Bobst Library, NYc. Folder "Rockefeller Stipend Correspondence". 324 RAC, Tislog 4 (1930), p.3/4. 325 As documented in a response by A.T. to Courant, January 11, 1926. Courant Papers Bobst Library NYC. 326 Lighthill (1990), p.176. See Goldstein's correspondence with Prandtl on the fellowship in Archiv Max Planck Gesellschaft (MPA), III, Rep.61, no.561. 327 RAC, IEB 1.2., box 34, f.482, Bernstein to IEB, 25 March 1924; 3pp., German original and English translation by an IEB colleague. 328 Ibid., L.F.Adams to Einstein, 16 April 1924. 329 RAC, IEB 1.2., box 34, f.483 (M.Mason Diary). 330 Ibid., March 27,1929. 331 Cf. AlylRoth (1984). Bernstein himself was supported by the RF after his emigration to the U.S. See below. 332 Cf. Jansen (1991) and Hertz (1997), as well as chapter VI. 333 RAC, Trowlog 4 (1928), p.20617, Memo by A.Trowbridge on his meeting with Pearl in Paris on June 27, 1928. Emphasis in the log. 334 As has been mentioned Prandtl had connected his (unsuccessful) proposal in 1931 to erect a wind tunnel in Giittingen to medicine and the "blood stream". Clearly, Neyman's proposal was more based on the facts than Prandtl's. Neyman had been a statistician at the agricultural institute in Bydgoszcz in 1921/22. 335 Quoted according to Reid (1982), p.59. 336 Cf. Pearson (1970) and Reid (1982). 337 RAC, Weaver Diary 4 (1937), p.I13. Interview WW in State College, Penn. September 8, 1937. 338 RAC, RF-fellowship card Dugue. Note dated 25 October 1937. 339 WET on his interview with E.Landau in Giittingen, January 17th, 1927: "Prof. Landau also went off into a long discourse about the unreasonably high stipends the I.E.B. pays, stating that in some instances (Walsh in particular) the salary was twice what some German professors get, and these are members of the Prussian Academy." (RAC, Tislog I (1927), p.4I). If Landau had a full professor in mind this was a clear exaggeration. 340 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), p.170, A.T. to Rose, 8 June 1926. 341 Ibid., p.l78. 342 Ibid., p.179. 343 RAC, IEB 1.3., Box 48, f.722, Memo W.E.T., Paris, 8th April, 1931. See also section IV.2 for the second part of Tisdale's quotation alluding to the economic depression and the scarcity of jobs at provincial universities in France. 344 Cf. Picard (1990). The various grants for French mathematicians by the CONSEIL and its predecessor, the CAISSE, are discussed in the yet unpublished thesis Beaulieu (1989), pp.66ff. 345 Communication by Bernard Bru to the author, 5 November 1999. Ville's book of 1939, where he criticizes Mises' notion ofa "collective" in probability, is discussed by Plato (1994, pp.195- 197). With respect to the CNRS fellowships see also the remarks on Marie Charpentier below. 346 Cf. Niven (1988). Many European fellows in the U.S. reported in letters about the conse• quences of the economic depression for American science after 1929. The Princeton Oral History Project (1984/85) gives also many vivid descriptions of the precarious social conditions especially for young American scholars in those years. But the situation in Princeton was relatively better than elsewhere. It was characterized by one interviewee (Derrick Lehmer) as a 'haven for unemployed people'. Notes 233

347 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 47, f.700 (Douglas). Rockefeller official W.J.Robbins undoubtedly misin• terprets Douglas' somewhat cynical remarks. Anyway Douglas would have problems in finding a permanent position to his liking and in accordance with his somewhat frail physical constitution even after the war. See Rassias (1992). 348 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 49, f.753 (V.Gontcharov), I.M. to Trowbridge/Tisdale, Paris 6 September 1927. 349 Even prominent American mathematicians were affected by teaching overloads at least until the early 1920s. See remarks by Veblen on an unnamed American (probably Birkhoff) in Coben (1976), p.239. 350 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 44, f.616 (Alexandrov). A.T. to Rose, 21 March 1927. 351 RAC, Tislog 5 (1931), 4 February (p.3I). 352 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 49, f.753, WET Memo, 17th June 1929. 353 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 58, f.964, Weyl to A.T., 5 November 1925. My translation from German. 354 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 58, f.962, Weyl to A.T., 9 June 1926. My translation from German. 355 RAC, Tislog I (1927), pA2, G6ttingen, January 17, 1927. In a letter to Einstein in Princeton, dated April 11, 1938, Max Born felt from his exile in Edinburgh that he had treated Robertson unjustly and that his work deserved more attention. Cf. Born (ed., 1969), p.181. Back in America, Robertson played a considerable role especially as an academic teacher in the theory of relativity in Princeton. Cf. Princeton Oral History Project (1984/85). 356 Weil (1991), p.51. 357 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 60, f.l 007 (Szymanski), Memo W.J.R., Paris 25th July, 1929. 358 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 58, f.964 (Scherrer). Weyl to A.T. 14 July 1926. My translation from German. 359 There exists, for instance, a vivid description of his isolation in Paris by the young Norwegian mathematician, Niels Henrik Abel, from the year 1826, quoted in Pieper (1998), p.173. 360 The unsual policy of passing Charpentier's thesis 1931 in Poitiers instead of Paris has been reported in chapter 111.6. Obviously the case of Charpentier became experimental and path breaking in several ways. lowe part of the following information on Marie Charpentier to Bernard Bru (Paris), Pierre Crepel (Lyon), and Jean-Pierre Escofier (Rennes). 361 RAC, Tislog 7 (1933), p.7. 362 In particular, there were no capital grants given in mathematics, which were scarce also in other fields. 363 Cf. Zdravkovska, S. and P.L.Duren (1993), and Paul (1997). 364 Cf. Demidov (1993) and Paul (1997). 365 For physics he did this in collaboration with A.F.Joffe in the Soviet Union. Cf. Kozhevnikov (1993), p.91. 366 The main source of the following is Besicovitch's fellowship file RAC, IEB 1.3. box 45, f.644. 367 RAC, IEB 1.3. box 45, f.644 (Besicovitch). A.T. to Hardy, July 9, 1926. 368 Kozhevnikov (1993), p.931101. A letter from H.Bohr to Trowbridge, 29 June 1925, RAC, IEB 1.3., box 45, f.644, makes it clear that B., after his flight in March 1924, demanded unabash• edly a higher sum from the IEB to defray the additional expenses of the illegal emigration. 369 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 45, f.644, A.T. to H.Bohr, 19 October 1925. 370 Ibid.• A.T. to Hardy, 9 July 1926. 371 Ibid. 372 Ibid., A.T. to W.Lund, 14 June 1926. 373 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 54, f.862 (Lusin). A.T. to Rose May 6,1926. 374 Ibid. 375 Ibid. 234 Notes

376 Ibid.

377 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 54, f.862. A.T. to Rose, March 22nd, 1927. 378 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), p. 41. Florence, 28 February 1926. 379 Boas (1990), p.27. 380 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 54, f.862. W.E.Tisdale to Brierley, October 12,1927. 381 With respect to Gontcharov see his fellowship file RAC, IEB 1.3., box 49, f.753. 382 These policies were not restricted to mathematics. Cf. Kozhevnikov (1993). 383 RAC, Tislog 4 (1930), p.129. Giittingen, 10 October 1930. 384 RAC, RF RG 2 - 1931, series 785, box 64, f.524 L.W.Jones to G.D.Birkhoff, December 11, 1931. 385 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 44, f.616 (Alexandrov). 386 Courant to V.Stepanov, December 24, 1930, Courant Papers, Bobst Library, NYC. My trans• lation from German. 387 Courant to L.W.Jones (Paris), July 1932 (without date). Courant Papers Bobst Library, New York University. Folder "Rockefeller Stipend Correspondence". My translation from German. 388 Lefschetz to Courant, 27 July, 1932. Courant Papers Bobst Library, New York University. Folder "Rockefeller Stipend Correspondence". 389 W.E.Tisdale to Lefschetz, August 5, 1932. Courant Papers Bobst Library, New York Univer• sity. Folder "Rockefeller Stipend Correspondence". With that argument Tisdale flatly refused an appointment ofPontrjagin due to his blindness. 390 This is according to the sources available to this author. In fact, I.Lappo-Danilevskij, who was in 1930/31 with Ludwig Schlesinger in Giellen (Germany) and died there unexpectedly from a heart disease in 1931, seems to have been the only Russian mathematician who could actually use a RF fellowship. Cf. Kozhevnikov (1993), p.1 08. 391 RAC, Fellowship card A.N.Kolmogorov. 392 Cf. Reid (1976). 393 Courant Papers, Bobst Library, Courant to Kolmogorov. My translation from German. 394 RAC, Fellowship card A.N.Kolmogorov, June 27,1933. 395 Ibid., May I, 1934. 396 Fosdick (1955), p.10. Rider (1984), p.114. According to P.Abir-Am's figures, Rockefeller philanthropy spent on average four times as much on domestic projects as compared to projects abroad. Personal communication P.Abir-Am to the author. 397 Geiger (1986), p.163. Gray (1941), pp.39, 81. 398 Aspray (1989), p.202. 399 RAC, IEB Minutes, p.316. 400 RAC, IEB, Research Fellowships Granted, 1924-1928, p.lll. Printed records of the IEB. 401 The IEB/RF office in Paris frequently supported GUGGENHEIM fellows. Cf. Assmus (1993). 402 Kohler (1991), p.148: "Trowbridge ... used the NRC fellowship boards and their extensive networks as informal employment agencies for IEB fellows returning from Europe." 403 Although many other considerations played a role as well, as was seen. Also the dominance of reviewers such as Hardy and Bohr was not without danger for a balanced program. 404 RAC, IEB 1.1., Box 9, f.128. 405 Assmus (1993), p.172. 406 RAC, IEB Minutes, 316. Note that the NRC also got its money from Rockefeller funds. 407 Assmus (1993), p. 166. 408 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 48, f.722 Birkhoffto W.E.Tisdale, 2 May 1929. Birkhoff is referring to the French mathematician Feraud, who was working with him that year. 409 Kohler (1991), 147, mentions "some tensions" between Trowbridge and Rose. Notes 235

410 RAC, Tis log 3 (1929), p.l14. 411 Swedish-born Hille is listed here as "American" since he was proposed by the NRC, even if he may not have had American citizenship by the mid-1920s. 412 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 51, f.788, Hille mentions the criticism in his autobiographical article (1980, p.l 0). He stresses the quality of the library in Djursholm and the impossibility of doing that work in an American library then. See also section V.3. on Djursholm. 413 RAC, IEB, box 61, f.l039 (Walsh), also in: Trowlog 3 (1926), p.28. 414 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 46, f.677 (Church). Note by W.E.Tisdale, 10 September 1928. 415 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 47, f.700 (Douglas). WET to H.Miller, 22 March 1929. 416 Ibid. Note of 17 September 1932. 417 RAC, IEB 1.3., box 51, f.801 (Hopf). 418 Ibid. In another letter to Trowbridge, dated 9 November 1926, and quoted above. 419 Ibid., 23 December 1926. 420 Ibid., 17 March 1927. 421 Ibid., 23 March 1927. 422 Ibid., 31 March 1927. 423 John Simon Guggenheim Foundation: Report ... (1926), p.9. (= GF) 424 Ibid, p.l O. 425 GF (1936), p.l2. 426 Ibid., p.14. 427 Holton (1983), p.175. 428 Henry Allen Moe of the Guggenheim Foundation had a discussion with Warren Weaver, on February 21,1939, on the policies towards South and Central America. Weaver reports: "Moe is enthusiastic about the quality of the fellowship material they have been able to find so far." (RAC, Weaver Diary 6 (1939), p.38). 429 Kohler (1991),165/66. A systematic investigation of the Rockefeller support for Niels Bohr's institute is Aaserud (1990). 430 Kohler (1991), p.l58. 431 RAC, Rose Log 905, p.188 (13 March 1924). 432 RAC, IEB-Minutes, 161-164, p.163, Resolution dated 26 May 1924, granting a total sum of 23,600 gold marks (ca. $6,000). 433 RAC, Trowlog I (1925), Gottingen 8/9 October 1925, pp.179q-179z,. 434 Kohler (1991), p.145. 435 RAC, Trowlog I (1925), p.179 Zb' Gottingen, 9 October 1925. 436 See Tobies (1991). See also remarks on Klein in the introduction. 437 RAC, IEB 1.2., box 34, f.485. Annex A.I: "History and Essential Points", Courant to IEB, 2 October 1926, Translation by the IEB. Courant's letter is still written (in its German original) on letterhead with the address "Weender LandstraBe 2", while the new institute would be erected at the opposite end of the town, on BunsenstraBe. 438 Klein's papers as quoted in Siegmund-Schultze (1997a), p.36. Translation from German. 439 Neugebauer (1930), p.l. My translation from German. 440 RAC, Trow log I (1925), pp.l79s-179v. Emphasis in the log. Excerpt from MEMORANDUM OF VISIT TO GOTTINGEN. [note: A.T. was a physics professor from Princeton]. Gottingen 8./9.0ctober 1925. 441 Courant to Trowbridge, 7 March 1926, p.2, UA Giittingen, XXXIV (Bausachen), C 84, Bd.1. Quotation from draft, dated March I, 1926. My translation. 442 Reid's assumption (1976, 102), which is probably based on the last mentioned letter according to which the Bohr brothers proposed help by the IEB first, is not quite correct. 236 Notes

443 UA Giittingen, XXXIV, C 84, Bd.l, my translation from German. 444 Ibid, my translation of the ministerial comment. 445 UA Giittingen, XXXIV, C 84, vol.l. Courant to Trowbridge, 7 March 1926, fol. 4. My transla• tion from German. 446 Harvard University Archives, G.D.Birkhoff Papers, 4213.2, box 8, file A-B (2). Birkhoff to L.Bieberbach, 2 August, 1927. Birkhoff did not want to give more than two lectures during his impending stay in Berlin, "especially since my knowledge of German would be only barely sufficient for the purpose." 447 Dieter Hoffmann (Berlin) reminded me of Carl Riecke (1845-1915) in this respect. 448 One example of Birkhoffs mathematical taste: Birkhoffwas asked by the JEB why the Ameri• can A.B.Coble, though a member of the NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, was not on Birkhoffs list of November 7,1926 (RAC, JEB 1.1. box 8, f.lI0). In his letter dated March 28, 1927, he called Coble a "rather more narrowly algebraist" and added the dubious remark: "Perhaps one reason is that the center of interest in mathematics today is not in the algebraic direction. " 449 Cf. Rowe (1999). 450 Physicist of Giittingen, Max Born, felt unjustly treated on another occasion by Rockefeller functionary W.E.Tisdale who withdrew in 1929 his initial offer to send Born on a trip to California. Cf. Born (ed., 1969, pp.1471148). 45\ RAC, Trowlog 3(1926), pp.22-25, p.25. PRELIMINARY NOTES on the CONFERENCES between Prof. Trowbridge, Prof. Birkhoff, Prof. Franck, Prof. Courant, and Geheimrat Valentiner, curator of the University, Giittingen July 3/4, 1926. 452 Ibid, pp. 23/24. 453 Birkhoff also occasionally used the letterhead of the Paris office of the JEB, e.g. one letter dated April 22, 1926, to Courant, in which Birkhoff announced his visit to Giittingen. (Courant Papers, Bobst Library NYC). 454 Cf. instances in Parshall/Rowe (1994). In this book the influence of the German ideals on the foundation of the first American department of mathematics at JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY in 1876 is also discussed. 455 Cf. the drastic comment of !EB-fellow, Heinz Hopf, on the lack of swimming pools at Euro• pean universities. Appendix 9. 456 Courant explained in his official application to the JEB, dated October 2, 1926, that the Prus• sian state would be ready to finance 5 additional assistantships at a total cost of $4,500 and one guest professorship, worth $1,500 a year. See RAC, JEB 1.2. box 34, fA85, Courant to A. Trowbridge, 2 October 1926. 457 California Institute of Technology, Archives, Theodore Karman Papers, folder 6.14, My translation from German. 458 Neugebauer (1930), p.l. 459 Courant to W.E.Tisdale, 28 November 1929. Courant Papers Bobst Library, NYC. The Foun• dation did not officially attend the opening of the Institut Poincare in Paris either. 460 RAC, Trowlog 4 (1928), pp.119120, MATHEMATICAL INSTITUTE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GOTTINGEN, Giittingen 21 March 1928. 46\ Neugebauer (1930), pA. My translation from German. 462 Twenty-eight friends and students, May 1933, in: Exodus Professorum (1989), pp.22-24; Weyl's "Memorandum iiber die Mathematik an der Universitat Giittingen", 29 July 1933; Universitatskurator J.T.Valentiner, 10 July 1933. See below. 463 Courant Papers, Bobst Library, NYC. There is a handwritten note on it by Weyl dated I Au• gust 1933 saying somewhat ambiguously "Courants Begleittext - nicht verwendet" ("Cou• rant's accompanying text - not used"). This is reproduced as Appendix II. A copy of Weyl's Notes 237

memo is in UA Giittingen, Kurator XVI. V. C. c.9 "Mathematisches Institut. Verschiedenes", foI.63-64. 464 UA G6ttingen, Kurator 4/1 122 "Beurlaubung und Vertretung jiidischer Professoren". 465 The curator does not specifically differentiate between the IEB and other Rockefeller agencies. 466 Valentiner obviously quotes from the letter by H.Bohr on behalf of Courant, mentioned above. Bohr's letter is not in the files. 467 UA G6ttingen, Kurator 4/1 122 "Beurlaubung und Vertretung jiidischer Professoren." My translation from German. 468 See chapter VI for the first reactions of Rockefeller philanthropy on the seizure of power by the Nazis in Germany. 469 RAC, Rose Log 905, p.78. 470 Ibid. 471 Cf. Morse (1946), where Poincare is said to be Birkhoffs real teacher. Morse mentions Ha• damard (Paris) and Levi-Civita (Rome) as Birkhoffs closest friends abroad. Indeed Birkhoffs correspondence with mathematicians from Latin countries, as kept in his papers at fuRV ARD UNIVERSITY ARCHIVES, is much more extensive than his correspondence with German mathematicians. Cf. also above chapter 11.6 on Birkhoffs trip to Europe in 1926. 472 Appendix 7, p.7. 473 See the letter by Paul Montel to Guillet, dated 20 June 1944, Archives Academie des Sciences (AAS), Fonds Montel, carton 1, reproduced as Appendix 4. See also Trowbridge's memo of29 May 1926 (Appendix 5), where the dinner is dated 27 May, and Montel's obituary on Borel of 1956, p. 848, where the dinner is mentioned. 474 Cf. Kohler (1991), p.I77. 475 Cf. Frechet (1965). 476 A.Trowbridge: Memorandum of conference in office with Emile Borel, mathematician, Uni- versity of Paris, Paris, 29 May 1926,6 pages, RAC, IEB 1.2., Box 33, fA70, p.I.Appendix 5. 477 RAC, Trowlog 3 (1926), pAl. Paris, September 14, 1926. Emphasis in the log. 478 RAC, Trowlog 3 (1926), p.62. 479 RAC, Minutes IEB, pp.773-777. 480 RAC, Minutes IEB, 25 May 1928, p.1 0 16. In addition the IEB gave $ 19,300 for "non-techni• cal equipment" distributed over 5 years (Minutes, 19 November 1926, p.777). See also Kohler (1991, 157). In 1930 the capital amount of $ 180,000 was turned over to the University, see below. 481 There is just one hint in the Minutes of the IEB of November 1926 to additional costs for (maintenance of buildings and) scientific staff in G6ttingen, to be taken over by the Prussian government. RAC, Minutes IEB, p.774. 482 Appendix 6, p.13.

483 RAC, IEB 1.2., Box 33, f.470, p.3: A.Trowbridge: Memorandum = Appendix 5. See also Birkhoff s pleading for lectureships in his memo to Trowbridge of September 1926. Appendix 7. 484 Appendix 5, pp.3/4. 485 RAC, IEB 1.2., b.33, f.470, A.T. to Borel, 23 December 1926. 486 Ibid. 487 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), p.180. 488 RAC, Minutes IEB, p.777. 489 RAC, IEB 1.2., box 34, fA71. p.2., A.T. to Rose, January 31, 1928. In his conversation with rector Paul Lapie of the SORBO NNE on October 12, 1926 Trowbridge had announced that the foundation would leave part of the donation on an annual income basis until "France shall again be on a gold basis of currency" (RAC, Trowlog 3 (1926), p.58). 238 Notes

490 RAC, IEB 1.2., box 34, f.471., p.2/3. A.T. to Rose, January 31,1928. 491 Ibid, p.6. 492 RAC, IEB 1.2., b.33, f.470. A.T. to Borel, 23 December 1926. 493 RAC, Minutes IEB, p.l013. 494 RAC, IEB 1.2., box 34, f.471. Agreement, International Education Board and University of Paris (16 October 1928). Finally, in November 1930 the capital amount of $ 180,000 for the teaching posts was transfered to the IHP. Cf. Ch. Maurain to IEB, Paris, 19 November 1930, RAC, IEB 1.2., box 34, f.472. 495 RAC, IEB 1.2., box 33, f.470, A.T. to Rose, 5 January 1927. 496 Ibid., underscore by A.T. 497 RAC, Trowlog 3 (1926/27), pp.145/46. A.T. would visit the architect's office one year later in Gottingen as well. See above. 498 See Inauguration .. (1928), llpp., and facsimile of title page. This booklet reproduces the addresses by Borel, quoted below, and by Picard, but not, however, the one by Maurain. 499 "Discours de Monsieur Maurain, Doyen de la Faculte des Sciences" (9pp). Translation from French, pp.8/9. RAC, IEB 1.2., box 34, f.471. Copy also in CARAN AJI• 5775. 500 "Discours de M.Emile Borel"; in: Inauguration ... (1928), pp.3-6. The following quotations are translated from French. 501 Frechet (1929), p.l98. Cf. also Frechet's professorship in Chicago 1924, mentioned in the article and his collaboration with E.H.Moore, as described in Siegmund-Schultze (1998a). 502 Frechet (1929), p. 200. See below the list oflecturers. 503 RAC, Trowlog 4 (1927/28), p.23. 504 With the possible exception of Paul Levy, professor at the ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE, who was arguably the most influential French researcher in stochastics in the 1920s and 1930s. See below. 505 Cf. Appendix 5. 506 "Discours de Monsieur Maurain, Doyen de la Faculte des Sciences" (9pp), p.6, underscore by Maurain. Translation from French. RAC, IEB 1.2., box 34, f.471. Copy also in CARAN Ai· 5775. 507 Ibid., p.2. 508 See "Note sur la Bibliotheque de l'Institut Henri Poincare", 1 April 1933, 4pp., Library IHP; the author was probably Pierre Gauja who had been nominated librarian by Darboux in 1915. Translation from French. 509 Ibid. p.1. 510 RAC, IEB 1.2., box 34, f.471, p.7. "Discours de Monsieur Maurain, Doyen de la Faculte des Sciences" (9pp). See also Curie (1930) for Appell's role in the creation of the "Fondation Curie" for research on radioactivity in 1921, also with money from the Rothschild philanthropy. 511 See ''Note sur la Bibliotheque de l'Institut Henri Poincare", 1 April 1933, p.2, Library IHP, p.3. 512 Leaflet typescript. Library IHP. 513 Interview of the author with Henri Cartan. As to the role of Julia's seminar for Bourbaki see also Beaulieu (1989) and (1993), and Dugac (1995), p.99. See also Appendix 13. 514 Polish mathematician, Stanislaw Ulam (1909-1934), reports on his talks at the IHP in 1934 and his discussions with E.Cartan and former RF-fellow de Possel on Hilbert's fifth problem concerning continuous groups. Cf. Ularn (1976), pp.57/58. 515 These lectures were usually financed by the Faculty of Sciences. Only Marston Morse's lec• ture "Le caIcul des variations", a talk listed in this category. was also published in the Annales de L'Institut Henri Poincare, a journal which was mandated for the IHP program in the restricted sense of stochastics and mathematical physics. Because the listing in Notes 239

MaurainiPacaud (1940) starts with the year 1934, it is unclear as to the extent of foreign mathematical lectures at the SORBONNE in the 1920s. 516 E.Cartan to Maurain, 22 November 1934. CARAN AJ l6 5779. Soon after Artin's talk, a Bour• baki meeting took place at the IHP. 517 E.Picard to Ch.Maurain, 12 November 1929, Library IHP. Draft, my translation from French. 518 In the 1940s Henri Cartan, the son ofElie Cartan, and one of the founders of Bourbaki, came to Paris. Cf. Beaulieu (1993). See also Appendix 13. 519 B.Bru, in his letter to the author dated 5 November 1999, calls Borelian mathematics "un cas unique de creation par Ie haut", that is of administrative wishful thinking. 520 RAC, IEB 1.2., box 34, f.471. A.T. to Rose, January 31, 1928. Except for the comparison to mathematical physics in England, Germany and the US, the same passage is also included in the decision by the IEB in May 1928 to grant the additional sum of $ 180,000 (Minutes IEB, p.1014). 521 Borel to Birkhoff, 14 February, 1936, invitation to a talk in the IHP in November 1936 on the occasion of the conferment of an honorary doctorate to Birkhoff. Cf. library IHP. See also MaurainiPacaud (1940), p.6. 522 See also the letter by Birkhoff of 1938 as quoted below. Appendix 12. 523 Siegmund-Schultze (2000c). 524 See CARAN AJ 16 5775. Requirements on letterhead of the IHP, 12 February 1930. 525 The topics correspond closely to Borel's book (1909), as noticed by B.Bru (1999). 526 CARAN AJ16 5775. Requirements on letterhead of the IHP, dated 12 February 1930. 527 Cf. B.Bru (1999). See names of Frechet's noted students below. 528 Cf. the article of his (and Frechet's) student, M.Loeve, himself an important stochastic ian, in Dieudonne (1978). In this article P.Levy's contribution to stochastics worldwide seems perhaps a little overestimated. 529 Dugac (1995), p.95. 530 Ibid., p.96. Loeve was Frechet's student although he sometimes claimed to be the student of Levy's. Remark by B.Bru, letter to the author, 5 November 1999. 531 Levy (1955), 107. My translation from French. 532 On Robert Fortet (1912-1998) and his work see the manuscript Bru (1999). 533 See Loeve in Dieudonne (1978), p. 725 of the German edition of 1984. Details in Bru (1999). 534 RAC, R.F. 500 D, 1.1., box II, f.117. Decision by the RF to grant $ 3,000 for guest lectures at the Institut Henri Poincare (June 13 (Paris), and June 30 (New York), 1938). 535 Borel to Birkhoff, 19 November 1937, Appendix 12. My translation from the French. 536 A.H.Compton to G.Foumier (IHP), Chicago, 4 January 1935, library IHP. 537 See Annates de L'Institut Henri Poincare or the (retrospective) programs of lectures of the IHP, which were available to me only until 1935. See also MaurainlPacaud (1940). 538 French Ministry of Public Instruction, 9 March 1932, to rector S.Charlety of the SORBONNE, library IHP, Borel papers, No.295. 539 IHP to P.Langevin (9 December 1937) and Ministry to rector S.Charlety of the SORBONNE, (28 March 1934), library IHP, Borel papers, No.602-605. 540 RAC, R.F. 1.1. 500 D, Box II, f.117, Birkhoffto Weaver, 10 February 1938, Appendix 12. 541 Ibid. Warren Weaver to President of RF, R.B.Fosdick, 24 February 1938. 542 In 1940 Frechet became director of the statistical laboratory. For more details see Bru (1999). 543 See Picard (1990). 544 W.O'Kermack (Edinburgh) to Frechet, 30 October 1939. AAS, Fonds Frechet, F 5-2. 545 Report dated 6 July 1940, by secretary of the IHP Jean-Louis Destouches, cf. CARAN AJ 16 5823. Part of the library was lost in June 1940. It is unclear to this author whether the losses 240 Notes

were recovered after the war. Cf. letter of the bibliothecaire (librarian) of IHP to J .Bayet, Directeur general de l'Enseignement, in Library IHP. The IHP soon returned to Paris, while the ECOLE POL YTECHNIQUE took refuge in Lyon, in the "free zone" of Vichy France. 546 On March 26, 1942, the librarian of the IHP sent a letter to J.Wyart, the "Directeur du Service de Documentation" of the CNRS, pointing to the specialized nature of his library and asking for a reduction of the work for the Bulletin. Cf. Jussieu, Mathematiques, Bulletin Societe Mathilmatique, Carton "Administration". 547 See the reports by L.Couffignal, from his after-war mission in Germany, ordered by the CNRS (Picard 1990, p.97). See also Couffignal's conference of 1950 to be mentioned below. 548 In a purely philosophical respect, Frechet, although the forerunner of abstract functional analysis, had a rather empirical notion of mathematics "insisting on the experimental basis of mathematics" (Frechet (1941), p.79). This did not imply however that his work in probability was very empirical. In fact, he contributed to the theoretical developments of Markov chains. Also Frechet did not share Borel's subjectivist notion of mathematical probability. 549 Andler (1994), p.382, mentions that the Normaliens were usually not drawn by their mathe• matical education to applications. J.-L. Lions (born 1928) was one of the first among them to tum to applied mathematics beginning in 1947. He defended his thesis with L.Schwartz in 1954. Cf. Schwartz (1997, 354/55). 550 Cf. Picard (1990), p.111. 551 Bru (1999) says that Borel probably did not take notice of Feller's work, for instance. 552 Jean Ville was imprisoned in a German camp for three years. He left stochastics after the war. Cf. Bru (1999). Siegmund-Schultze (2000b) gives a report by mathematician Jean Leray on his imprisonment in the same camp. 553 Cf. Bru (1991) on Dablin's work in the IHP and especially his extensive correspondence with Frechet. 554 AAS, Fonds Frechet, carton 8, W.Feller to Frechet, 28 October 1946. 555 In pure mathematics, however, at least "Bourbakists" such as Dieudonne considered France as the origin of most of the great mathematical inventions of the 1950s. Cf. Dugac (1995, p.66). 556 lowe this remark to Bernard Bru (Paris) and Dirk Werner (Berlin). However that development seems to have taken place somewhat separately from the dominant Bourbakian tendency in pure French mathematics. Cf. Andler (1994), p.383. 557 As mentioned in the introduction to chapter III. Cf. Bru (1999). 558 Dauben (1980). 559 Mittag-Leffler/Mittag-Leffler (1916). The expression "pure mathematics" appears repeatedly in the text. 560 Grattan-Guinness (1971). 561 Mittag-Leffler/Mittag-Leffler (1916), p.lX. The following quotations are my translation from the German version. 562 RAC, lEB 1.2., box 41, f. 584. G.Mittag-Leffler to the President of the INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION BOARD, January 1924. 563 Ibid, "The Mathematical Institute at Djursholm", May 19, 1923, 1 page: "The mathematical library of the Institute is the finest I have ever seen collected in one place". 564 RAC, lEB 1.2., box 41, f.584. lEB to Mittag-Leffler, 17 July, 1924. 565 See chapter IV, and Beaulieu (1989). 566 RAC, Trowlog I (1925), pp.164-170. Interview A.T. with Mittag-Leffler in Stockholm, Octo• ber 1st, 1925, with respect to an application of M.-L.'s for $ 30,000 to organize such a conference. 567 RAC, Trowlog 2 (1926), pp.l64/65. A.T. to W.Rose, June 8,1926. 568 RAC, Trowlog 4 (1927/28), pp.34-36. Trowbridge memo, Paris, 9 January 1928. Notes 241

569 In his log, Trowbridge writes on October 1, 1925, of "great prosperity" in Sweden and says: "Individual Swedish scientists may be in need of assistance, but A.T. thinks that any appeals which might come to the Board for assistance to institutes or publications should be scrutinized very carefully to see that efforts had been already made nationally, or if not, why not." (RAC, Trowlog 1 (1925), p.l68). 570 Kohler (1991), p.136. 571 Flexner 1927 as quoted in Porter (1988), p.53. 572 Ibid, p.58. 573 Cf.Aspray (1989). 574 RAC, Weaver Diary 3 (1936), p.76. May 26,1936. 575 Cf. Aspray (1990). 576 Ibid., p.l2. 577 RAC, Tislog 7 (1933), p.32. April I, 1933. Columbia University, New York City. 578 RAC, Weaver Diary 4 (1937), p.74. Interview WW with Marston Morse (lAS), 15 April, 1937. 579 Kohler (1991), p.163. 580 Cf. Holst (1996). 581 Cf. Michel (1999). 582 Cf. Jackson (1998). 583 Duren (1979), and Weaver (1970). 584 Cf. Aaserud (1990), p.l71. 585 RAC, RF 1.1., series 200 D, box 125, f.1545. 586 Butler (1992), p.246. 587 This can be concluded from Weaver (1932), which was the published version of a lecture for teachers of engineering students. Weaver's paper does not reveal whether the author had developed a zeal of his own for research in applied mathematics. 588 Cf. the quotation in Rutcoff/Scott (1986), p.98. Cf. also above chapter III.3. 589 Niels-Bohr-Archives Copenhagen, Courant to Harald Bohr, 14 June 1933. My translation from German. 590 Support for Courant as discussed in V1.2. Courant/Hilbert II appeared in 1937. 591 RAC, Weaver-Diary I (1932/33), part 1933, p.206, 29 November 1933. 592 RAC, IEB 1.3. f.897 (Nevanlinna), 9 October 1934, probably also in Weaver's Diary. Nevanlinna held a guest professorship in G6ttingen in 1936/37. Cf. Schappacher (1987), p.358. 593 RAC, Tislog 5 (1934/35), (new numbering), p.8, Cambridge, 12 May 1934. 594 RAC, Weaver Diary I (1932/33), part 1933, Berlin 24125 May 1933, pp.82-89. 595 Ibid., p.88. 596 RAC, Tislog 7 (1933), p.l, Warsaw, 22 May 1933. 597 Rider (1984), p. 145. 598 Fosdick (1955), p. 246; Duggan/Drury (1948), p.78. 599 "The Refugee Scholars - A Retrospect" (1955), as quoted above. 600 Cf. Duggan/Drury (1948). 601 On this initiative by American mathematicians see the letter by R.G.D. Richardson to H.Bohr, 29 June 1933, in Richardson Correspondence, Brown University Archives (Providence), file: Jewish mathematicians 1933. 602 Fosdick (1943), 121. As to support by the EC Rider has the following figures: 152 for all scientists, and 42 for physics and mathematics. Cf. Rider (1984), p.l42. 603 Rider (1984), p.145. 242 Notes

604 Erichsen (1994), p.S9. It is typical of the discreet way of supporting the refugees that this help by the RF is almost nowhere mentioned, not even in the republication of the list in Strauss/BuddensieglDiiwell (1987). 605 RAC, R.F. 1. 1., series 200 D, box 143, f.1769, Flexnerto Weaver, 8 Apri1193S. 606 Siegmund-Schultze (1998), p.247. Quoted from a letter to Paul Bemays. 607 RAC, R.F.2, b.91, f.726, Mason's diary, 12 May 1933. 608 H.M.Miller, New York, I December 1933, responding to Prandtl's letter, dated II November 1933. See MPA III, Rep.61, no.1379. 609 RAC, R.F. 2, General Correspondence 1934, series 783, b. 1110, f.847. F.B.Hanson of RF to F.L.McVey, University of Kentucky, 27 July, 1934. 610 Ibid, WET to F.B.Hanson, 10 August 1934. See also remarks on Schoenberg in chapter IV. Schoenberg nevertheless managed to stay in the U.S. 611 Siegmund-Schultze (1998), pp. 170171. My translation from German. 612 See Beaulieu (1989), (1993), and forthcoming. See also remarks on Bourbaki in the introduc• tion. 613 RAC, Weaver Diary 6 (1940), p.98, 16 September 1940. 614 RAC, Weaver Diary Volume 7 (1941-1946), Interview ofWW with Leon Brillouin, Septem- ber 3,1941; p.49. 615 Cf. Schwartz (1997). 616 J.Dieudonne, for instance, had been an RF fellow in 1930/31. Cf. Appendix IS. 617 RAC, "Annual Report for 1939", printed 1940, "Review", pp.S-77, quotation from p.18. 618 Hertz (1997), p.lll, mentions support by the RF and other donors for S4 German refugees in France through the COMITE DES SAVANTS since May 1933, one of them being Gumbel as an assistant etranger at the Institute for Actuarial Sciences in Lyon. 619 RAC, Weaver Diary 7 (1941-1946), October 7, 1940; p.107. 620 H.Weyl to Harlow Shapley, 18 July 1941; Shapley Papers, Harvard University Archives, Refugee Files Box 6F, f.: Alvin Johnson. 621 Rutcoff/Scott (1986), p.98. The quotation is from RF-officer John V. Van Sickle. 622 RAC, Weaver Diary 2 (1934), October 13, 1934, p.132. 623 Quote from W.E. Tisdale's memo of March 20,1933, RAC, Tislog 7(1933), p.6. For a discus• sion of xenophobia in the U.S. and Birkhoffs role in it see Siegmund-Schultze (1998), esp. chapter 7, pp.IS9ff. 624 RAC, Weaver Diary 7 (1941-1946) p.44, Interview of WW with W.J.Robbins (apparently of the NATIONAL SCIENCE FUND), July IS, 1941. 625 Rutcoff/Scott (1986), p.9S. 626 Harry M.Miller of the Rockefeller Foundation, New York City, April 2,1941 to Richardson, Richardson Correspondence, Brown University Archives, W (Weaver, 1940-42). 627 Tomlinson Fort, Lehigh University, American applied mathematician. 628 Richardson Correspondence, Brown University Archives, Weaver (1943-4S). 629 Cf. Wei I (1991). 630 RAC, R.F. 1.1., SOO S, box 23, f.234. 631 Ibid, Memo J.Van Sickle, January 30, 1933. 632 Ibid. 633 Ibid, Memo L.W.Jones, January 31, 1933. 634 RAC, R.F. 1.1., series 200, box SO, f.S83. Einstein to A.Johnson, 7 August 1940. 635 Ibid, H.Hotelling to A.Johnson, 7 August 1940. 636 Ibid, Wilks "To whom it may concern", 1 August 1940. There might be attached to this evaluation a slight note of condescension with respect to German statistics at large. Notes 243

637 RAC, R.F. 1.1., series 200, box 50, f.584. Interview with Prof. Emil Gumbel, Mrs. Gumbel and Mrs. Page (Mrs. Gumbel's mother), January 21,1942. Signed "A.M.". 638 Gumbel to Wiener, 22 December 1950; Wiener Papers, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Archives, box 3, folder 132. 639 RAC, R.F. 1.1. 200 D., box 130, f.l603, 21 May 1934.

640 RAC, Weaver Diary 7 (1941-1946), p.97. Memo on conversation with Struik in Hanover, New Hampshire, September 10-13, 1940. 641 George D. BirkhoffPapers, Harvard University Archives 4213.2, box 14, file P-R. Richardson to Gumbel, 16 April 1940 (copy). Richardson was wondering in a letter to Birkhoff, dated December 12, 1940, "why pressure comes from the four (or more) sources in regard to Hadamard." He mentioned Weyl and "the Rockefeller people" as two sources of pressure. Ibid. 642 Cf. Dosso (2000). In Maz'ya/Shaposhnikova (1998), 233ff. an invitation by Columbia Univer• sity for Hadamard is mentioned, but the money may have come from the NSSR, as Krohn (1987), p.228, indicates. 643 Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (1998), p.l21. 644 Cf. Jones (1984). 645 RAC, fellowship card Alfred Tarski (Poland). Shapley to RF, 6 March 1941. 646 Ibid. 10 March 1941. 647 Ibid., 13 March 1941. 648 Ibid. 9 July 1946, Tarski to RF. The whereabouts of Tarski's family between 1941 and 1946 are unknown to this author. 649 Peckhaus (1994). 650 RAC, R.F. 2, Series 200. b.213, f.1492, Johnson to Th.Appleget, RF, 2 April 1941. 651 RAC, R.F. 2, Series 200. b.213, f.1492. 652 RAC, Weaver Diary 2 (1934), p.62. 653 Abir-Am (1995), p.l82. 654 As quoted in chapter IV from Mason's contacts with Felix Bernstein of Giittingen. (M.Mason Diary, RAC, lEB 1.2., box 34, fA83). 655 See also the assessment in Courant's letter to Trowbridge of April 1927. Appendix 8. I plan to publish a book on that in the near future. First investigations in this direction are Butler (1992), Owens (1989), Siegmund-Schultze (2000d) and others. The Princeton Oral History Project contains also valuable information in this context. 656 The Massachusetts Institute of Technology received a total of $ 130,000 from the RF "for the construction and maintenance of a differential analyzer." (Fosdick 1943, p.l22). At this late date during the war, computing was obviously considered as a part of mathematics. 657 Cf. Holst (1996), p.18. 658 RAC, Weaver Diary, Volume 6 (1939/40), part 1939, p. 63/64. April 21, 1939. 659 Ibid.

660 As for instance revealed in the case ofW.Cauer. Cf. Chapter IV. 661 ShannonlWeaver (1949). 662 Interview WW with W.J. Robbins, August 5, 1941; RAC, Weaver Diary 7 (1941-1946), pA6. 663 Cf.Owens (1989). 664 Cf.Reid (1976). 665 Cf. Section IIA. The RF gave support also to the Annals of Mathematical Statistics. Cf. Inter• view WW S.Wilks, RAC, Weaver Diary 5 (1938), p.62, March 29,1938. 666 Siegmund-Schultze (1994), p.323. The RF voted in favour of a subsidy of $ 12,000 for the Reviews. Cf. Fosdick (1943), p.121. 244 Notes

667 RAC, Weaver Diary 6 (1939/40), part 1940, p.62 (April 19, 1940). 668 On the tensions between Richardson and von Mises, see Siegmund-Schultze (1998), p.210. 669 RAC, Weaver Diary 7 (1941-1946), Interview WW with R.G.D.Richardson (August 24, 1942), p.97. 670 RAC, Weaver Diary 7 (1941-1946),16 February 1942, pp.74/75. 671 RAC, Tislog 4 (1930) Giittingen, 12 January 1930, pp.6/7. 672 RAC, Weaver Diary 4 (1937), February 14, 1937, pp.34/35. 673 The Belgian and later American historian of science and mathematics George Sarton (1884- 1956) was one of the principal founders of those disciplines in the U.S. and world-wide. He created the journals Osiris and Isis which are still leading in the field today. 674 E.g. in letters to the EC. 675 Duggan/Drury (1948), p.68. 676 Otto Neurath (1882-1945) was a leading representative of the Vienna circle of neopositivist philosophy. 677 RAC, Weaver Diary 7 (1941-1946), September 12, 1941, p.50/51. Neurath did not come to the U.S. but died in the U.K. in 1945. 678 RAC, Weaver Diary 7 (1941-1946), p.66 (24 December 1941). 679 With respect to applied mathematics, this is substantiated by Owens (1989). 680 The publication Fosdick (1943) "Hitler and Mathematics" in the Scripta Mathematica of 1943, was a republication of Fosdick's article in The Rockefeller Foundation: A Review for 1942. 681 Nielsen (1972), pp.380/81. Cf. also Mendelsohn (1964). 682 In 1942 Democratic U.S. senator Harley M.Kilgore introduced what later would become the "Science Mobilization Act" in Congress, and initially met much resistance from the academic establishment, including Bush's OSRD, which was in fear of too much political control. The Kilgore Bill contributed to the development of the NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION, which was likewise foreshadowed although with a somewhat different aim by the program described in Bush's essay of 1945 "Science - the endless frontier." Cf. Kevles (1977). 683 Weaver to R.G.D.Richardson, April 30, 1943, Brown University Archives, Applied Mathe- matics Division, II, 151. Weaver responded to similar fears by Richardson. 684 Duggan/Drury (I 948), p.63. 685 AAS, Fonds Frechet, F 1-4. E.B.Wilson to M.Frechet, May 19, 1945. 686 See chapter V.2. A list of the colloquia also in other fields is reproduced in Picard (1990), p.lll. 687 The "Memorandum on Scientific Rehabilitation in Germany" (4 pp.), written by N. Artin and Courant, was submitted to the RF on October 29, 1947, and answered "specific questions" of the Foundation on fellowships, the situation with respect to publications etc. (See Courant Papers, Bobst Library, NYC, file Rockefeller Foundation 1947-1951). It is unclear to this author what came out of the proposal made in the memo that "the Rockefeller Foundation should start a program of help on a tentative and flexible basis" (p.3). 688 G.Aumann wrote to the RF on 7 June 1946 (RAC, fellowship card Aumann): "I have been removed from my professorship in Frankfurt on April 1946, because of my 'political attitude'. I beg to ask the foundation if it can give some help." No records on reaction by RF. 689 Cf. Lehto (1998). 690 Cf. Schwartz (1997), pp.319ff. 691 Cf. The Rockefeller Foundation Directory of Fellowships and Scholarships 1917-1970; New York: Rockefeller Foundation, 1972. Appendices+

Appendix 1: Proposal by the Physicists of G6ttingen for Support from the INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION BOARD 1924++

Gottingen, March 18, 1924

Doctor Wickliffe Rose President International Education Board 61 Broad Way New York

Dear Doctor Rose,

According to your wish we beg to state herewith in writing the points which we were discussing on March 13,1924: 1) The International Education Board makes allowances to highly talented young scientists who have fmished their university studies, in order to enable them to continue their scientific studies abroad. We thank you and have taken notice that we may in future submit the names of capable young scientists and shall in due time take the liberty of sending in separate applications. 2) We would like very much to receive at our Institute for scientific research work foreigners, and there have been many such applications, but there are two impediments in the way: a) the exceedingly large enrolment of German students, as there is an increased demand for technical physical workers. b) the governmental saving scheme which is being carried through with great severity and which does not allow us to carry on our scientific research work as in past years. As possible counter measures the following points are proposed: a) an additional allowance of 600 goldmarks for a period of lO to 12 months to cover the expenses for electricity, gas and water. b) Creation of new working places for students through the erection of an extension building on the middle part of the old edifice i.e. the engine• room. The creation of such new space would evince the otherwise justi-

+ The symbol/means page tum in the original ++ RAC, lEB 1.2., box 34, f.484, Franck, Born and Pohl to Rose, March 18, 1924, translation from German by IEB. Cf. chapter 11.3. 246 Appendices

fied reproach that we accept foreigners at our Institute while a large num• ber of German students who make applications, are refused. The costs of the whole inclusive the interior furniture would be 15-20.000 goldmarks. 3) You threw up the question by which measures our own scientific research work could be furthered efficiently. Our answer was: there is no lack just now of apparatus (because of the help from the Helmholtz-Society and the German "Notgemeinschaft") but there is a lack of scientific help. The nwnber of our assistants is not sufficient, and in spite of this fact 25% of our assistants are notified to leave the university. One assistant receives about 2500-3000 goldmarks a year. Weare trying our best to receive larger funds from the Government. Help from the Education Board to overcome the above mentioned difficulties would be of great assistance also toward securing help from the State and would enable us to receive 6 foreigners for independent research work at our Institute. Very truly yours

(signed) M.Bom, J.Franck, R.Pohl Appendix 2 247

Appendix 2: GH.Hardy's "Memorandum on the Position of the London Mathematical Society" to the INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION BOARD (April 1924)+

I wish to begin by making one thing perfectly clear. I recognize fully the difficulty which the Board (or any of the Rockefeller institutions) must feel when faced by an application of a new type, feeling, as they well may do, that the granting of such an application may be followed by a series of others, not less deserving, and of a similar kind. I am most anxious that anything which I say about the L.M.S. should not prejudice in this way the application which, as I understand, has been made already by the American Society. The two societies have much in common. They have recently concluded an agreement by which members of one are admitted at a reduced subscription into the other. Each has published many memoirs by members of the other, and anything which benefits one benefits the other indirectly. For example, I am a member of both. IfI knew that the American society had ample funds, while the London society was hard pressed, I should tend to send work for publication in America, thereby relieving pressure in London, and an American mathematician might act conversely. I would add that each society is to a certain extent intemational. In the first place, anyone may join either (if he has proper mathematical credentials) without distinction of nationality. Further, the L.M.S. certainly, and I believe the A.M.S. also, will print memoirs by non-members; all that is necessary is "communication" by a member. I have myself communicated many foreign memoirs (in English, French, or German) to the L.M.S. during recent years. And the more funds we had, the more international we should become. At present I cannot go out of my way to encourage foreigners to communicate work to us, because it tends to make the problem of publication still more diffi• cult to our own people. But I do what I can for it when it comes. I should hope, for example, that the work done in England by anyone brought there by your Board will be published by our society. Of all the difficulties that mathematics has to face at the moment, perhaps the greatest is this problem of publication. It is great everywhere, but it assumes a special form in England and America, because it is there only that the chief mathematical journals are published by societies. In Germany, for example, the Mathematische Annalen and Mathematische Zeitschrift (the two absolutely first class journals) are owned by the publishing firm of Springer, who are, I believe, prepared to sink a good deal of money in them in the interests of science and the reputation of their house. The Acta Mathematica is subsidised by the

+ RAe, IEB 1.2, box 30, folder 427, 30 April 1924, 10 pp. handwritten, 5 pp. transcript, cf. chapter 11.4. 248 Appendices

Scandinavian Government, and the Fundamenta Mathematicae by the Polish. In England the only journal, of a mathematical character, and at all first rate, is our Proceedings. The present position of the society is this. We have just under 400 members. The sUbscription and entrance fee (each doubled since the war) are £ 2/2/-. It is impossible to increase the membership appreciably: we have exhausted the class of people who could reasonably be expected to join. Our incomes of all kinds, from subscriptions, investments and sales (see note 1 at end) is £ 1000-1100: My figures here and later, are rough; I could, of course, supply accurate ones. We have a library (the only mathematical library in England from which a mathematician, resident say in Cardiff or Sheffield, can borrow books). This costs, say, £ 150 a year; it is of course built up almost entirely by exchange, and it is binding which is the serious expense. The other expenses, printing apart, are trivial; there are no paid officials of any kind, all clerical work being done (except what can be discharged by the printers) by the honorary secretaries. It is not of course sound economy to employ professors to keep lists of addresses, but the waste of time is not very serious. Let us say £ 50 for postage and odd expenses. The residue, £ 800-900, is spent on printing the Proceedings. We publish a volume a year (about 500 pp. + 50 of records of meetings and miscellaneous matter). At this, we can make ends meet. The result is this. If we get much good work, there is a block. The interval before publication increases, people are discouraged, and papers fall off. Then printing becomes more rapid and the converse process sets in. At the moment we have just passed from a stage of the second type into one of the first. There is, I think it will be agreed, only one rational state of mind for a secretary of a society. He should be anxious to obtain for his society all the good stuff on which he can lay his hands, and to attract and encourage in every way, new contributors. At present it is impossible to feel like this. If Birkhoff or Veblen sent me a first rate memoir of 40 pages tomorrow, it would no doubt be printed, but I should not feel unqualified pleasure in getting it, for I should feel that these 40 pages meant so much more difficulty for some one else. The situation has been made a good deal more difficult by the virtual collapse of a Cambridge paper (The Quarterly Journal of Mathematics) owned by a small printing firm there, no doubt owing to financial pressure. This, in itself, would be no great disaster, for it was carelessly and incompetently managed; but it acted as a useful safety valve for us. The result is that pressure is concentrated on us. We reject outright about one-third of what we receive; a good deal of this, of course, is genuinely not worthy of publication. We also worry our authors a great deal by a very elaborate system of refereeing and by frequent and drastic insistence on condensation, often going to lengths I much dislike. Some of us moreover have openings elsewhere; I myself published most of my best work in recent years in Germany, for a variety of reasons, but very Appendix 2 249

largely in order to relieve the society. In spite of all this, every burst of activity sees our arrears of papers piling up. Another point which seems to me of great importance is this (and I have no doubt that the A.M.S. will make the same one). It is common ground (I hope and think) that the status of both English and American mathematics has improved very greatly during the last 20 years, and, in many ways, everything is favourable for a further big advance. But, in order to do this, it is essential that we should be able to encourage foreign cooperation in every way. It is reasonable to insist on a very high standard from a French or German contributor; but every first rate contribution from outside raises our standard and status, keeps our own men in touch with the latest developments, and supplies them with a flood of ideas. My own ambition is to raise our Proceedings to an entirely first rate journal with a strong international flavour. To do this, we ought to be able to contemplate printing at any rate another 200 pages a year. I should then favour dividing the Proceedings into two parts, keeping the bigger memoirs in one, and running a subsidiary journal more or less like the American Bulletin with the shorter papers and all the accessory matter. The additional expense would, I imagine, be no less than £ 300 annually: but some of this would be recoverable. If the society could obtain a capital sum of £ 5000, it would, I think, justifiably undertake such a program. The only possible permanent source of additional income (apart from special benefaction) is the "Publication Fund" of the Royal Society, an annual grant of £ 1000 from the Government (see Note 2 at end), which the R.S. controls and distributes (wisely and fairly). We obtained from this source, in the years 1919- 1922 £ 240 in all. We also raised about £ 250 from our life-members by voluntary donation, when we raised our annual subscription in 1921. These sums sufficed to save us from actual disaster in the period immediately after the war. The R.S. has not treated us at all ungenerously, but we cannot expect from them more than an occasional grant. I add one final remark. The "printing bill" assumes an importance to a mathematical society which it does not quite reach for any other society, because (a) mathematical printing involves the absolute maximum of cost and (b) because it is their only heavy expenditure. We have no laboratories, and no materials to buy beyond books, periodicals, paper, and ink. There are only two things we want, leisure and money to print. 1. The income from sales ought to have increased, owing to the better reputation of the Proceedings: but of course the sale in Central Europe has died away to nothing, and we only circulate there by presents and exchange. 2. There is a movement on foot to get this increased; success is possible, but dubious. A similar attempt in 1921 failed.

(Signed) G.H.Hardy 250 Appendices

Appendix 3: Nikolaj Lusin's Application for a IEB Fellowship, March 27, 1926 (Excerpts)+

Describe in detail the study or investigation you wish to carry on:

In 1905, Mr. Henri Lebesgue succeeded, in his Memoire On the functions representable analytically (Journal de Jordan, 1905, p.139), in defining [nommer; R.S.) without the use of the Axiome du Choix (Axiom of Choice) his well-known function f(x) which eludes any sort of analytical representation. At the end of the Memoire was a program of study of the most general functions that are definable.++ It was in executing, in 1916, this program of Mr. Henri Lebesgue that we found, Souslin - my pupil - and myself, a class of new ensembles, definable without the Axiome du Choix and without transfinite numbers, which goes beyond the class of B-measurable sets. The premature death of Souslin (1921)+++ and the difficulties of international communication hindered the publication of a detailed exposition of the theory of these ensembles. It was not until 1924, when living conditions became a little more favourable for the continuance of research, that I again took up my work. I have found another class of ensembles ("ensembles projectifs") still defmable without the "Choix" and "Transfini", yet apparently deprived of all++++ the ordinary properties of ensembles of points: In the actual state of Science the effective determination of a point in certain of these ensembles is one of the most difficult problems. This circumstance led me to use the point of view of Mr. Emile Borel.

Why do you wish to carry on the study or investigation above named at the place you have chosen?

The mathematical researches outlined in the preceding paragraph compel direct contact with the well-known French geometers specializing in these branches and famous for their papers, and also the use of the scientific libraries of Paris. It is also of the utmost importance to be able to take part in the courses conducted in the various scientific French institutions in the subjects that I am researching.

+ RAe, rEB 1.3., box 54, f.862 (Lusin's fellowship file). Excerpts from the handwritten appli• cation on an IEB application form, my translation from French. A translation into English by an rEB collaborator, which is in the file, has many mistakes. Footnotes are from the editor. ++ "qu'on peut nommer" +++ MJa.Suslin (b. 1894) died actually in 1919. ++++ "qui semblent prives de tous les proprietes habitue lies"; the IEB translates wrongly: "veri• fied by all" Appendix 4 251

Appendix 4: Paul Montel (1944) on the Origin of Plans for the INSTITUT HENRI POINCARE in 1926+

Paris, June 20, 1944 The Dean of the Faculty of Sciences to Monsieur Guillet Member of the Academy 2, Rue Joseph-Bara Paris 6

My dear fellow-member,

Here are certain facts that I remember concerning the creation of the Institut Henri Poincare. In mid-May 1926, M. Birkhoft: professor at Harvard University, completed++ his trip to Europe in Paris. He was at the same time envoy [mandataire] of the International Education Board, a creation of Rockefeller philanthropy. In a long conversation between the two of us he told me that he had created various sci• entific institutes abroad and that he would be happy to create one in Paris as well, one which would have to be oriented equally towards Mathematics and Physics. I proposed to him gathering at a dinner [dejeunerJ different personali• ties of the worlds of mathematics and mathematical physics. On May 24, 1926,+++ we met at the Cercle de la Renaissance, rue de Poitiers, M.BIRKHOFF, M.BOREL, M.CARTAN, M.HADAMARD, M.VESSIOT, and me. In the course of this dinner the foundations of the institute, which later would be named Institut Henri Poincare, were laid. The negotiations continued under the direction ofM.BOREL. Rockefeller philanthropy was prepared to spend part of its funds on the crea• tion of a chair of Theories of physics and on an Institute for mathematics, pro• vided French sources would supplement the American donation. These French funds were offered by M.Edmond de Rotschild [sic]. In the fall of 1928, the In• stitut Henri Poincare was inaugurated in its present form. The chair of Theories of physics had Leon BRILLOUIN as its first occupant from 1928 until 1932, followed by M.Louis de BROGLIE, nominated January 1, 1933, at the same time as M.Francis PERRIN was appointed as Maitre de Conferences.

+ Archives Academie des Sciences Paris, Fonds Paul Montel, carton I, copy French, my trans• lation. An allusion to the dinner is also in Montel's obituary on Borel, Montel (1956). Cf.also chapter V.2. ++ "Achevait". This is not correct. It was, rather, Birkhoffs beginning to his European trip. +++ In view of the 18 years in between, the date given by Montel might be less likely than May 27, as given by Trowbridge immediately in 1926. See following Appendix 5. 252 Appendices

All the mathematical disciplines are currently united in the Institute, with the exception of astronomy, physical mechanics, experimental mechanics and fluid mechanics. With my very best wishes and cordial greetings to you my fellow-member

[signed:] Montel Appendix 5 253

Appendix 5: A Memorandum by A.Trowbridge (IEB) on a Meeting With Emile Borel Concerning Plans for the Foundation of an Institute for Mathematics and Mathematical Physics in Paris (May 1926)+

Paris, May 29th, 1926

MEMORANDUM OF CONFERENCE IN OFFICE WITH EMILE BOREL MATHEMATICIAN, UNIVERSITY OF PARIS

Present: PROFESSOR GEORGE D.BIRKHOFF, though not taking part in discussion

Borel's visit grew out of informal discussion by group of Mathematicians, whom: Birkhoff met at dinner, May 27th. The matter discussed informally there was, could anything be done to strengthen in University of Paris the group of Mathematics, Mathematical Physics and Physics? Birkhoff feels that the group in Pure Mathematics in Paris is the strongest, or at least one of the two strongest groups in Europe, also that Paris, like so many places nowadays is lacking in the field of Mathematical Physics. Physics itself with a few exceptions is weak in first calibre men. The question discussed at the informal meeting of Mathematicians was whether, if it were possible to build a small institute of Applied Mathematics on the large track of ground, now almost exclusively occupied by new laboratories of the University of Paris: Perrin's, Madame Curie's and Charles Marie's in the Rue Pierre-Curie, this would bring about a closer liaison between the Mathematical and Physical groups and would serve to re-vitalize somewhat the departments which are distinctly weaker than the department of Pure Mathematics. Borel who is distinctly of the organizing type (he has been Minister of Marine in the French Government) had certain questions he wished to ask of Birkhoff, which Birkhoff felt he could not answer and suggested that Borel put them to AT. Hence / the visit to AT. on May 29th. AT. began with the usual safeguarding phrase about his own lack of authorization from the Board, etc. A.T. began by outlining rapidly the program of the Board: two divisions Agriculture and Pure Science; under Pure Science two activities: 1) and the one being at first more pushed than the other - fellowships: 2) assistance to certain institutes and decision for the present not to consider a large number of small isolated requests, but rather to study general situation, looking towards concentrating assistance on certain important centres. Considerable discussion on this point interrupted A.T.'s little speech. AT.

+ RAC, rEB 1.2., box 33, folder 470. 6 pages typewritten. Page breaks indicated by I. Cf. chapter V.2. 254 Appendices

pointed out that were a plan of numberless small projects considered, it would require a very large staff of American technicians here in Paris and this is out of the question. Returning to his speech A.T. continued that he would not propose any plan to anybody for their consideration, but rather the initiative and working out of details should come from the side of those interested in the project. Sole thing Board would consider would be application to assist in part of financing plan originating at the European centre. Borel asked as to whether such a project had to be put up on a 50/50 basis or if there were any fixed rules regarding this? AT. briefly outlined terms of one or two of the projects already considered by the Board. Borel evidently had the idea when he came that the easiest thing to get would be a building and in the discussion following AT.'s talk it came out quite 1 clearly that Borel did not regard the building as the most important part of the plan which he had for a concentration of the Mathematics-Physics group at Paris. Borel was glad to learn that the project would not have to be built up with a building dominating the whole situation, which was evidently what he thought when he came. He thinks that a small and very modest building on the site of the new University centre here in Paris would be advisable, something with one lecture room, library space for a technical library in Mathematics and Physics and a few offices for professors. No laboratory shops, etc. as equipment of this sort is already provided for in the new and very elaborate laboratory of Professor Perrin. Stated that housing conditions of professors in the field of Mathematics now in the large building of the Sorbonne were utterly inadequate. Each man had a right to part time in an office, but three or four men were sometimes occupying the same cramped quarters for conferences with graduate and other students. Borel [promised ?] to draft details of program and submit it informally at a later stage. Roughly that would call for a modest building as stated above and foundation of three or four new chairs in Mathematical Physics, Applied Mathematics, etc. A.T. here interrupted with the question as to whether the men for these chairs were in sight in France to-day? This precipitated a large amount of discussion in which Birkhoff took some part. It did not appear to AT. at the end of this discussion that any very outstanding men were available, but on the whole Borel's contention seems sound that several of the better men, who are now giving only one third, or even less of their time to research work or directing the 1 studies of research students in Mathematical Physics, Physics and even in Pure Mathematics, could be drawn in for full time work were chairs for them available. Borel then raised what seems to AT. an extremely important general question as regards France, Italy and Belgium, because of the present low value of the monetary unit. Borel said in general that French statistics show that the cost of living at present in gold is slightly less than it was in gold before 1914. This rather surprising statement was challenged by AT., but Borel's arguments seemed to have been very well considered by him and he certainly knocked Appendix 5 255

down A.T.'s contra-arguments. Before the war the full professor's salary in gold was about 3,000 Dollars, now in gold it is about 1,000 Dollars (it has been augmented slightly since AT. got statistics at Lyons in March.) Borel's interesting point was this: if a new chair is founded at the present time, the Government is really obligating itself to pay in one, two or three or in a certain period of years the prevailing rates to the incumbent of a chair. Borel's guess is that even with financial readjustment in France, whether this takes the fonn of demonetisation or not, the salaries are bound to keep in hannony with the cost of living and that his own guess at the present time is that, when ultimately stabilisation is reached, the cost of living will come back to a figure not less at least than the cost of living in gold before 1914. Therefore, any project in France at the present time for founding say a chair should look towards to founding it at the rate of 3.000 Dollars. He wished to know whether AT. would object to this, if in making the calculations of the portion which the University might be willing / to contribute towards the project, which he has in mind to present infonnally to AT., capitalised the founding of a chair at gold rate before 1914? Before answering, AT. asked what would be Borel's idea as to what should be done with the extra income of this capitalisation, above what it was necessary to pay the current rates of salary, namely approximately 1,000 Dollars gold? This question was asked, because AT. knows that no chair can be found in a French University which brings in more than the standard salary for the grade. Borel said in answer to this that if the I.E.B. were, for example, to found one of these chairs, capitalized at a gold value sufficiently to bring in ultimately an income of 3.000 Dollars gold and that for the next year or two only 1,000 Dollars gold was needed, he thought the remainder should go to a "fonds de donation", a sort of sinking fund. Finally, Borel asked whether in presenting the project to the I.E.B. it would be necessary to plan for the creation of a board for administering any capital contribution which the I.E.B. might be willing to make? AT. said he thought not, that dealings could be done with the University. Questions as regards the investment of any capital sum, whether in dollars securities held in trust by University treasurer, etc. was not entered into, so it oc• curred to AT. after Borel's department [sic]. A.T. gathered that Borel intended making discreet inquiries among certain French "amateurs" of Physics and Mathematics, as to whether they would contribute capital sums along with the I.E.B., in case a certain amount necessary for the founding say of two chairs was raised, against guarantee of University authorities / to found say two chairs, the I.E.B. in addition being asked to put up a large percentage of the cost of a modest building. The matter was left in this stage that Borel was to talk with his friends and talk again with A.T. Doctor A.Trowbridge Copies in duplicate to Dr.W.Rose 256 Appendices

Appendix 6: Report by Augustus Trowbridge on his Trip to G6ttingen July 2 through July 4, 1926+

Copy for Doctor W.Rose G6ttingen, July 2nd, 1926.

LOG: TRIP IN GERMANY: GOTTINGEN

July 1st and 2nd. En route Paris - G6ttingen

July 2nd, arrived in G6ttingen 6 P.M., went directly to Academy of Sciences, where A.T. attended with Birkhoff sitting of Academy, as visiting members of National Academy of Sciences ofD.S.A. Heard good paper by Born, another by Pohl, left before business meeting and went to late supper at Franck's, present besides Mr. and Mrs. [sic] A.T., Birkhoff and Courant. After supper practical• ly the entire G6ttingen group in mathematics and in physics came in. In mathe• matics: Hilbert, Landau, Courant. In applied mathematics: Runge. Born in mathematical physics. In physics Pohl and Franck; besides these A.T., Birkhoff and Tisdale. Hilbert has been in precarious health, but seems very alert and is distinc• tively the scientific leader of the mathematical group, though in the matter of the proposed institute, Courant is the driving force. Hilbert is said to be 64 years of age, though he looks much older. Landau is in the fifties,++ a rather aggres• sive person. Courant is the persuasive type, very tactful, etc. and the exact anti• thesis of Landau. Runge who began as a / [2] physicist, looks to be in the late sixties, a very charming personality, man of the world, well known and much liked+++ as well as respected outside of Germany. Born in the forties, vigorous, restrained in his statements, evidently possesses general good judgement, strikes A.T. as having gained much in "savoir faire" during his visit last year in the U.S.A .. On the technical side is one of the leading men in mathematical physics in the world and probably still coming up. In experimental physics Franck is one of the important leaders in the world, he, like Courant, is of the persuasive type, tactful (non-argumentative), A.T. should say he has a greater business ability than any other of the group, except Pohl, who probably has the most

+ RAC, rEB 1.2., Box 34, f.482, typewritten, copy, IS pages = also part of A.Trowbridge's Log, RAC, Log 905, GEB, Ser.12 , Log 3, pp.I-15. Cf. chapter V.1. Note: Trowbridge was a physicist and was competent to judge G6ttingen' s physicists rather than the mathematicians. He had to rely on Birkhoff for the latter purpose. The following footnotes are from the editor R.S. Emphasis in the text is by Trowbridge. I[ x1 refers to page break and start of page x. ++ Landau was only 49 then. +++ Runge had been an exchange professor at Columbia University in New York City 1909/10. In the early 1920s Americans had been shocked by Runge's German-nationalistic remarks, after they had tried to offer him help via a "Runge Fund". Cf. AAMS, file Runge Fund. Appendix 6 257

experience. From what A.T. heard of Pohl's paper before the Academy, he should slightly revise an earlier impression and now rate Pohl higher on the technical side than he did on the occasion of his last visit to Gottingen. The only member of the physics group not present at the after supper reunion at Franck was Prandl [sic, henceforth corrected as Prandtl by the editor], who is more of an engineer than a physicist. On the whole that group is a very strong one. It seems to A.T. stronger on the physics side than on the mathematics. This would certainly be the case were Hilbert to retire, which he is likely to do before very long. Against this danger of a future weakening of the mathematical group, it must be remembered that the mathematical tradition in Gottingen is of the best, so that a strong man would probably be called to Gottingen on Hilbert's retirement and would pro• bably accept. A.T. must ask who will naturally become head of the department on Hilbert's retirement - if Landau there must be a question of internal friction / [3] (A.T. felt a slight note of antagonism at the meeting of the large group, this may have been merely because the others thought that Landau was not very tactful with A.T. and the others (who are all tact) may have only been tempo• rarily irritated with L. However, it struck A.T. that relations between Born and Franck on the one side, and Landau on the other, were none too cordial). Later asked as to Hilbert's probable successor and was told that a man from outside would certainly be called, possibly Weyl now at Zurich; in any event the Prussian system of election requires that the faculty of the university in which there is a vacancy must give the call and that it is almost universal that an out• sider is called. Without depreciating the standing of Landau, which on the tech• nical side seems very good, it was intimated that it was quite impossible that he would be considered as Hilbert's successor. Quite late in the evening the subject of possible assistance from the I.E.B. to the MATHEMATICAL-PHYSICAL PROJECT OF THE GOTTINGEN GROUP was brought up in the larger group. A.T. asked Courant if he would outline the project - this Courant did, in fact quite along the lines of correspon• dence between himself and A. T. Referred to pre-war plans of Klein, these some• what modified after war, some money collected, but this became valueless with the inflation, etc. - further that recently more modest plans were discussed looking towards the acquisition by the university of school property lying next to the plot on which physics building stands and near the chemistry buildings and also near the aerodynamic laboratory of Prandtl, which was built / [4] during the war and recently enlarged from the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft.+ Courant stated that the plan for making over the school building (without outside help) for a mathematical institute ran into difficulties and had to be abandoned (later, A.T. leamed that this is not exact, that in fact negotiations with the city school authorities have gone so far that some think the university is morally bound to take over the plot - that the chief obstacle encountered was

+ Foundation of the theoretical KWI for fluid mechanics under Prandtl in 1925. Cf. Tollmien (1987). 258 Appendices

the rather great delay which negotiations between the city and the state would entail). Courant then said that about the time the difficulties were encountered that [sic] the brothers Bohr were in Gottingen and the suggestions came from them that the Gottingen people approach the I.E.B. as to whether - and if so under what conditions - the I.E.B. might consider a modification of the Gottin• gen project for gathering together the various scattered mathematical depart• ments into one group and place that group in close proximity with the physicists and chemists. He outlined briefly the advantage which might be expected from such a grouping, the central idea being that something like a lahoratory - with research rooms, central library, etc. - would do for mathematics what the building of physical laboratories for research [sic] had done a generation or more ago for the marked development in recent years in the research field in these sciences; now the research worker in mathematics had to carry on most of his individual work in a boarding-house room in which he was cut off from books or in an oftentimes crowed common room in a university building, where he was near his books, but where it was as difficult or more so to concentrate on his work than it was in his own / [5] room. This presentation of the matter by Courant amounted to a criticism of the general existing conditions of the mathematical departments in most universities, plus the expression of opinion that the present tendency was for the mathematicians to miss the frequent contacts which any laboratory students naturally get with their fellow students. When asked what number of private research rooms he had in mind as absolute• ly necessary in Gottingen under present conditions, Courant said 15-20. Birk• hoff said that he thought that properly constructed library alcoves would be as good as rooms; some discussion on this head - than asked what also was had [sic] in mind - answer: "Adequate library space for use of library of department by 300 students." A. T. has seen the greater part of the library and is of opinion that the number of students using it would determine the size quite as much as the number of volumes - that is the free space for tables and desks, etc. would be the determining factor. When pressed on question of number of students, Courant stated that the actual number was correct as stated, but that all were not steady users of library though nearly so. Besides this space - one large and a couple of small lecture rooms. Offices for professors, etc., also something like a general laboratory for the applied mathematics, where models, etc. are used. A.T. responded in the usual safe-guarded manner - did not commit even himself by stating what he thought was the kind of project he thought the Board might be interested in, but took the other tack, viz. the sort of thing he thought the Board would not be interested in - / [6] for instance, a probable complete lack of interest in housing or even helping to house the mathematical depart• ment in more agreeable quarters, unless thereby there was a practical certainty that greater and much greater usefulness to a group of sciences would result. Birkhoff was of great assistance in the discussion which followed, as he began by disclaiming any official connection with the Board and by stating that Appendix 6 259 his remarks were those merely of a mathematician. He asked what their plans were to hold their present good position in mathematics and to regain the dominant position which the Gottingen group held a generation ago. This question brought out a statement from one of the group that he thought that the group needed no strengthening,+ this was denied by others and there followed a long discussion to which AT. listened with interest, though taking no part in the discussion. The result of this was that it has set the group to considering the question as to whether they should or could make demands on the Ministry for the formation of a new chair (in geometry where they are, according to Birkhoff, weak or in physics, where Franck feels he needs strengthening). The question of Birkhoff was a light apple of discord, but in A. T. 's opinion can only do good, as it brings up at an early stage a matter which is bound to come up at some stage; it also seemed to clear away what seemed to AT. to be in the minds of some present - viz. that merely because of a good actual present situation, the group might hope to get a much desired building in fee simple [sic] - it showed them that they had to prove the actual present condition to be good - the near future to be assured / [7] and it also brought home to them that they would have to get some of the things they needed from some other source than the I.E.B. At this stage AT. sketched without giving names some of the projects which in other countries had been brought to his attention. This brought out a consensus of opinion that the German Ministry could and would nowhere near bear the share which, for example, the University of Edinburgh (not, of course, mentioned in any way whereby the Gottingen group could identify the insti• tution nor the department) seems at this stage of that project likely to bear the total estimated amount of that project. (A.T. has since learned from a talk with Geheimrat Valentiner, who is connected with the Ministry, that as usual the professors are too timid in their estimates of what the Ministry probably can and will do in the Gottingen case.) The group was too large for serious discussion, though it was a good one to impress that they themselves will have to take up seriously the formation of serious plans, if they hope to interest the I.E.B. and AT. wanted to impress them all with the fact that there were comprehensive plans forming at other possible good centres of mathematics; without saying it, he left the impression that this group might find themselves competing with one or more other groups, whose projects might be equally sound scientifically - more advanced and possibly more attractive financially than what the Gottingen group had in mind originally. AT. tried to make the first contact discouraging (but not too discouraging, so as not to make the one or two, who have really given the matter serious thought draw back). / [8] It looks as though this had been fairly successful, for the next day, July 3rd, Courant and Franck (who are the real moving spirits) had evidently been in

+ Judging from A.T.'s remarks above the person alluded to might have been Landau. 260 Appendices

serious consultation before they met A.T. in the early forenoon and had constructive suggestions to meet some of Birkhoffs arguments and counter• arguments for others.

July 3rd. Went with Birkhoff and Tisdale and others to the formal opening of a summer course for high-school teachers of science. This was a rather formal affair, as the Minister of Public Instruction of Prussia and the Rector of the University were present and made short speeches. A.T. met both for a few moments and exchanged platitudes, as there was no sense at this stage of negotiations in talking of the mathematical project. Courant had a considerable part in the proceedings - an admirably done address on what mathematics owe to Riemann (50 years ago professor of mathematics in Gottingen).+ In this speech (read from manuscript) Courant elaborated a bit the theme of the importance of close cooperation between mathematics and physics. ++ This paper was followed by an experimental demonstration of the determination of the velocity of light by Pohl admirable popular lecture - one of the best A.T. has ever attended. The meeting was held in the now somewhat enlarged physics lecture room - an enlargement of the physics building recently finished (the enlargement by a grant from the I.E.B. did not affect the end of the building where the lecture room is). This latest enlargement was financed one third by SUbscription from interested industrials and two thirds by the / [9] state - about $ 20.000 in all - most of it to house Born's department of mathematical physics (library office, etc.). The basement to house Franck's large new machine shop and the top-floor to effect enlargement of the lecture room, which is now a fine hall capable of holding over 300 students (estimated by eye - possibly 350). After the meeting, Tisdale remained in Physical Institute to interview fellows and possible candidates for fellowships (He will keep a log on matters touching fellowships), while A.T. went to Prandtl's laboratory for aerodynamics and hydrodynamics. A.T. asked Prandtl his opinion of candidate Johannes Nikuradse, Georgian, now with Prandt\. P. said he could not really recommend the man, he was diligent, etc., but was very far below standard of Western Europe - very far below Anderlik (an I.E.B. fellow also from Eastern Europe). Prandtl's laboratory is an outgrowth of a war-time activity. The aerodyna• mics laboratory is a beautifully equipped area, air velocities of 50-50 meters per

+ In fact, Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866) had died already 60 years ago. Courant's speech was published as "Bernhard Riemann und die Mathematik der letzten hundert Jahre" in Die Naturwis• senschaften 14 (1926), 813-818, 1265-1277. The article has a footnote indicating that it repro• duced Courant's opening address at a meeting of high school teachers in Gottingen in July 1926. ++ nota bene: the interest of the IEB. However, the article stirred some opposition by Richard von Mises in the same journal, vo1.15, p.473, because Mises found the need for a cultivation of independent applied mathematics in Germany underestimated in Courant's article. Appendix 6 261

second.+ P. has two technical assistants and the aerodynamics lab. is used mostly for the tests of inventions. (One inventor was at work on a weird-looking model of a new type air-plane, when AT. visited the place). Long waiting list for those who wish to use facilities. AT. takes it that very little fundamental research is carried on in this part of Prandtl's lab. Funds for support now come from the Kaiser Wilhelm's Gesellschaft (nothing to do with the K.W.'s Institut in Berlin).++ Since the war the K.W.'s G. has built a second lab. in some group of buildings for aerodynamics. In this more fundamental research work is carried on (very interesting! [10] but wholly empirical investigation on turbu• lence caused by ship propellers was under way when AT. was there). Young man in charge of lab. very capable looking. Prandtl is also professor in Univer• sity - mathematics department.+++ AT. of opinion that presence ofPrandtl's lab. in Gottingen is a factor of strength in the general scientific situation there. Chemical laboratory of Windaus seen but not visited - near the Physics group - five new buildings.

After visit of Prandtl's lab. met by Courant and Franck and new plot of ground for proposed mathem. institute visited - no doubt but that location well chosen. Short talk with Courant and Franck on general subject. C. and F. in some fear that AT. somewhat acrimonious passage at arms of night before with Landau might have prejudiced A.T. against project of Gottingen group. C. and F. attempted to repudiate L. ' s contentions. AT. stated that personal matters did not enter into the question. AT. only anxious to get to the bottom of the question and was glad to uncover differences of opinion only if they really existed and seemed to be a factor.

Lunch at Courant's, present: Tisdale, Birkhoff, Runge, Geheimrat Valentiner. Courant, Franck and Mrs. F. who is a daughter of c.++++ General conversation, partly very technical, partly criticism (favourable) of Born's recent paper at Academy. After lunch, Courant and Franck had to go to an election of a new Rector of the University (Landau was a candidate, but was defeated).! [11] A. T. stood behind to talk with Geheirnrat Valentiner who is Curator of the University and the principal man on the financial side. V. said that the general plan of university was to group all of the scientific laboratories in very close proximity to the existing new science buildings, that the university either owned

+ Sic! Actually, the G6ttingen wind tunnel built in 1918 did not allow to surpass 50 mls con• siderably. Perhaps the figures should read 50-55 mls. ++ The last remark is not quite correct since the common association of the various institutes (KWI) was the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft with its headquarters in Berlin. +++ Prandtl was heading the institute for applied mechanics rather. ++++This is obviously incorrect, since Courant married Runge's daughter Nina R. in 1919. What is probably meant is rather: "Mrs. C. who is a daughter of R.", also given the fact that the lunch was with the Courants. 262 Appendices

or had favorable options on a price about the size of a N.Y. City block. On this stood two buildings belonging to the city - one a secondary school - the city would tum this over to the university in exchange for a new school building in another quarter. It would take two or three years to make this deal effective as a new school building would have to be planned and built and the university could not lay its hands on the necessary money all at once - it will have to be spread out over about 3 years - 300.000-400.000 Marks was V. 's estimate of the cost of a new school building - to this would have to be added about 200.000 more to refit the old school building, so that it would be suitable for use in greater part as a mathematical institute and in lesser part as an overflow addition for the more elementary teaching of the physics department. He said the technical men were impatient and that the physicists did not like the idea of having part of their space on a separate building, so that they all had been urging the abandoning of the first plan and the building first of a new institute for mathematics and 2nd an addition to the present physics building; from this had grown the second plan which was ask the LE.B. to provide the extra which the larger plan would cost and to tum in what the Government would save from not going into the deal with the city. / [12] A.T. asked if the Ministry were not committed to go through with the deal with the city. V. answered: "not legally but perhaps morally". AT. asked if the whole of the 600.000 Marks could be saved if plan 2 were gone ahead with. V. answered that the University felt that ultimately they must acquire the land on which the school building stands, in order to allow for certain growth in the scientific departments - that he doubted whether the Government would feel that it could devote the whole of the 600.000, particularly since it would not be saved, but rather if spent for the 2nd plan it would only be putting off of later and larger plans. AT. said he thought estimates should be made as to total cost of both plans and of university funds available over three years' period in each case. V. agreed and said he would see that this was done and AT. notified. AT. made it clear that the LE.B. would probably not have a predilection for a new building, if the other plan were equally satisfactory locally. V. seemed to think that the chances of outside help were greater for plan 2 than plan 1, and was evidently relieved at the opinion of AT. that the better plan from every point of view was the one which would have the better chance. AT. suggested that V. talk with the technical men and give them outline of general plans of University as a whole, before they tackled the specific (and alternate) plans for a mathematical institute and its relations to the other sciences at Gottingen. / [13]

Dinner at Born's - no business talked - purely technical and social. AT. left early to get some sleep as the night before he had not got much owing to the long and animated discussion at Franck's house. Appendix 6 263

Sunday. July 4th. Courant, Franck, Runge, Birkhoff and Tisdale went for short walk to some wooded heights+ - outside the city - broke up into two groups, Birkhoff discussing technical mathematical features of project and AT. answering questions as to how project should be presented for attention of I.E.B. Upshot of this is to be covered by a short statement which Courant will draw up and send AT. in Paris++ - the five or six points to be covered in this short statement were discussed at some length. Birkhoffwill write AT. a report on his opinion as to the technical situation in mathematics. AT. at present writing does not know what this is except that he gathers that Birkhoff thinks that the mathematics group to be a little too self-satisfied and needs to be shocked out of that state - at least all that AT. overheard of the mere technical points B. was making pointed to B.'s evident desire to make the group feel that they needed to strengthen their position in mathematics by means of men rather than by means of equipment. AT. thought that B. got some of his points home and has started a lot of "taking account of stock" by the group which they originally were inclined to neglect. / [14] There is no doubt but that the Physics and Mathematical Physics group have been taking account of stock before A.T.'s and the others arrival - they have long distance plans this is probably because both Born and Franck have recently received calls and have had to think of their own future and have so considered the future of Gottingen, where they both told AT. they had decided to remain for good. +++ Left Gottingen at noon and arrived in Munich about midnight. A.T.'s general impression on the Gottingen situation is that it is about the best he has seen on the continent as regards Physics, Math.Physics, Mathematics and Chemistry. That is a natural grouping. AT. hesitated to suggest the inclusion in their plans of Biology, as there is but slight prospect of a natural inclusion of Biology in the existing plan. If AT. suggested it, it would probably be unnaturally included. Actually in the university building plan Biology is included - that is all the natural sciences are to be grouped near each other. The first items now on the university plan are Mathematics and Physics (Chemistry having been very well provided for in order to hold Windaus - Physics pretty well provided to hold Franck and Math. Physics very well to hold Born). The University recognizes that the scattered Mathematics Department should be gathered together and should be placed near Physics, but their big man in mathematics, Hilbert, who is getting near the retiring age, has not had a thought of leaving Gottingen and so no club has been swung by him to hasten the

+probably in the tradition of the legendary "mathematical" walks that Hilbert and Klein used to make to the Hain-Berge near Gottingen ++Cf. letters finally sent by Courant in October 1926. +++ 1933 would change all that, of course. 264 Appendices

completion of the mathematical project.+ The other men in Pure Mathematics are Landau (who is personally wealthy and whose ambitions are all centered in G6ttingen),++ Courant who is probably not in the first rank in / [15] his subject. The really great eminence of the G6ttingen school of mathematics existed twenty years ago. It may still be eminent, but it is less so than it was. Hamburg is coming up, but it seems about a certainty that on Hilbert's retirement, there will be called the best man in Germany to take his place - possibly a man from Hamburg.

Doctor A.Trowbridge

+ The point of internal academic pressure connected to appointment negotiations, which is re• peatedly raised in Trowbridge's report, was indeed an important one. Hilbert himself had earlier "swung that club" and reached from the authorities the appointment of his friend Hermann Min• kowski in 1902 in order to avert Hilbert's call to Berlin. ++ This is probably not entirely correct since Landau had been longing for a professorship in his birth place Berlin. Maybe he had given up this hope by 1926. Appendix 7 265

Appendix 7: G.D. Birkhoff's Report to the IEB of September 1926 Concerning His Trip to Europe+

From: Professor George D.Birkhoff Paris, September 8th, 1926

Final General Memorandum for Dr.A.Trowbridge

I. Some Personal Remarks

The initial understanding with Dr. Rose was that I should visit the European Ma• thematical and Physical centers in such a way as seemed to me most interesting and valuable from my personal point of view, and that simultaneously I should try to be of as much assistance as possible to Dr. Trowbridge and the Inter• national Education Board. Now that my trip is over it seems to me to be of some slight interest to indicate just how I have profited from it personally. I regret that I only had time to visit Italy, France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Switzerland, Denmark and Sweden,++ for I should have liked also to visit the less advanced countries scientifically.+++ I have been very much sur• prised at the very warm and hospitable welcome which I have received in all the places visited. This is to be attributed to a considerable extent, to the fact that I have not been to Europe before, although I had scientific contacts with many mathematicians here, and also to my informal connection with the Board, the importance of whose work for European science is becoming widely recog• nized. In addition to formal and informal dinners, receptions, visits to academies and as guest of mathematicians, I have given lectures at Rome, Paris, Poitiers, Lausanne, Zurich, G6ttingen and St. / [2] Andrews, and have declined a number of invitations to lecture. There I have met intimately all the principal mathemati• cians of Europe. One of my most interesting experiences has been in coming into contact with the young men of mathematical promise in Europe. Further• more, I have found it possible to carry on my research during this time. Dr. Trowbridge has left me free to do as I desired at all times and whenever I have tried to be of assistance I have found our relationship extremely pleasant and valuable for me. He has had a colossal task to perform and I scarcely see

+ RAC, lEB 1.1., box 12, f.I71. 12 pp. In the footnotes, which are from the editor, some com• mentary by A. Trowbridge, esp. from his letter to Rose of October 1, 1926, RAC, lEB 1.1., box 12, f. 171,2 pages, is used. Trowbridge remarks in this letter: "With regard to this 'resume' of Birk• hoffs, I would say that I think it is very good and on the whole I quite agree with it." Cf. chapters II.6 and V.1. I[ x1 refers to page break and start of page x. ++ Judging from the mentioning of St.Andrews below, in this list Great Britain is missing. Per• haps Birkhoff took a visit to the United Kingdom for granted and found only countries on the European continent worth mentioning. +++ Cf. chapter IV, on Russian fellows. 266 Appendices

how it could have been done in a more effective way.

II. Factors Determining the Mathematical and Physical Situation

For a long time I have been exceedingly interested in strengthening the mathematical situation in America and it has been of great importance in widening my point of view to see at first hand what is the situation in Europe. Aside from the question of the secondary school system, the principal material factors to be considered here or in America are: a) Aid to graduate study. b) Laboratory, library and publication facilities. c) Posts and centers. d) Honours, lectureships, prizes, aid for travelling, etc. In addition there are certain immaterial factors such as: e) Popular support, tradition and leadership.! [3]

Undoubtedly, the work of the International Education Board is of great help to Europe on the material side and will continue to be increasingly so. The importance of this side can hardly be over-estimated since popular support, tradition and leadership are intimately bound up with the material opportunities which are present.

III. Aid to Graduate Study

Before the World War there were available in Europe a certain number of fellowships providing for graduate study. I have received, at Harvard, for example, mathematical students from Paris, Stockholm and Edinborough [sic] who came on such fellowships. These appointments were however very rare, but in lieu of them there were a considerable number of assistantships which paid merely enough to make continuation of study possible. After the War the cost of living increased, less money was available for assistantships and it seemed as though the supply of young men to carry on the mathematical tradi• tion of Europe might be seriously diminished. The International Education Board fellowships in mathematics have functioned admirably to prevent this situation from arising, and indeed has [sic] actually increased the number of young men of high ability entering academic careers in mathematics. Most of the young men who are entering mathematics and physics in Europe today are vastly encouraged and stimulated by this opportunity of studying, under favourable conditions, at whatever center they choose. Dr. Trowbridge desired that, as far as convenient, I should get into personal contact with our fellows in order to find out what kind / [4] of research they are doing and what their plans were for the future. I did this in a specially systematic fashion at Rome and to a considerable degree at Paris, Amsterdam, Munich, Gottingen, Hamburg, Copenhagen and Stockholm. It was immediately Appendix 7 267

evident to me that the men selected were in general of very high quality. In a few cases I have found some defect, such as lack of knowledge of a language, inadequacy of mathematical preparation, insufficient devotion to study; how• ever, the number of such cases has been exceedingly small. Dr. Trowbridge and his office had been remarkably successful in the award of fellowships of the Board to candidates of high quality as could possibly be expected. Undoubtedly, the fair mindedness of nearly all the recommendations secured from mathematicians of standing, and the frankness of the candidates themselves, aids in the selection of the best men. Perhaps the possibility of two grades of stipend might be considered, the higher being given only to young men whose work is of really remarkable quality. My feeling is that the length of tenure of fellowships should be such as to afford reasonable opportunity to derive the greatest advantages at the center where the men is working. Often one year should suffice, but I have the feeling that two years is very nearly the maximum. There have been some cases in which the desire to continue more or less indefinitely on a fellowship has been manifested by a candidate. This happened particularly in the case of a few able young men temporarily without a country. Dr. Trowbridge's policy of making appointments only of men whose academic future was to some degree guaranteed, seems to be very wise. / [5J In the few difficult cases such as Besicovitch and Weinstein the European mathematicians themselves have co-operated in securing positions for the men. Without exaggeration it may be said that the fellowships of the Board are of the first importance for mathematics and physics in Europe.

IV. Laboratory, Library and Publication Facilities

I looked somewhat into the question of the funds available for laboratory work in Physics, inasmuch as it came to my attention quite naturally, although out of my immediate mathematical province. I found the funds available in these coun• tries to be absurdly small, in a number of cases, due to the depreciation of the currency and the general state of financial stress. In one case in Belgium where it seemed that a physicist of proved ability might be unable to carry on his program, I suggested that investigation of his case should be made. There has been general difficulty in the situation of scientific publications since the war. In Germany funds have been found to meet the difficulty, so that publication has gone on, actually at an increased rate. In Italy the difficulties of the publication situation+ had already been adequately remedied through the assistance of the Board, but I found that conditions in Belgium and France particularly were far from satisfactory. The needs of Belgium have now been presented to Dr. Trowbridge through a letter from de la Vallee-Poussin. In France it seems to be more difficult to secure any definite statement of require• ments, but / [6J Dr Trowbridge has the situation well in mind. In only one case,

+ Trowbridge recommends at this point in his letter to Rose of October I, to insert "as far as scientific journals in the Italian language are concerned". Cf. also chapter IIA. 268 Appendices

viz., at Brussels, has the need for funds for a mathematical library been brought to my attention.

V. Posts & Centers

The condition of Europe, from the point of view of mathematical research was very much better before the War than immediately after. There was a general lowering of morale, the reasons of which are obvious. At the present time, however, it may be said that the effects of the War have largely passed by, so that within ten more years a complete recovery may be looked for. As before the War the principal European mathematical centers are Paris, Gottingen and Rome. There are a number of lesser centers such as ZUrich, Munich, Hamburg, Berlin, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Stockholm, Oxford and Cambridge. When it is said that these are of lesser importance it is not meant that they are not in• spiring from the mathematical point of view, for much valuable mathematical work is done in those centers. The numerical strength of the mathematical group and the power of tradition at Paris, Gottingen and Rome far transcend those at the other centers named. It seems to me, too, that Paris and Gottingen are of decidedly more importance than Rome. It is not the number and the material equipment only that counts, otherwise, Berlin, for example, would occupy a position as good as that of Gottingen in the mathematical field. An accumulated tradition, a wise policy in the choice of new men,+ and an ability to work together / [7] as a group are factors of equal importance. For the moment at Gottingen, there is perhaps a slight depression in pure mathematics, to counterbalance this, there is a brilliancy in theoretical physics. I expect Gottingen to retain its leadership on the side of pure mathema• tics also. It is interesting that projects have been brought to the Board involving an aid of these three great mathematical centers. I suggested informally to Dr. Trowbridge that it might be possible to bring at a small expense one or two more young men to Rome to aid in the development of mathematical physics there. This possibility seems to be worthy of consideration, but should await active support by the group at Rome. The Paris project with which I had inti• mate connection at its very inception (not as a representative of the Board in any sense but merely as a mathematician) has been presented by Professor Borel and is now being considered at this office. The Gottingen project was well under way before I arrived in Europe. I have already communicated to Dr. Trowbridge my opinion of it which is entirely favourable. The fulfilment of such plans as have been presented by both Paris and Gottingen will be an event of the first order of importance for the entire mathematical world. If the Paris plan, in its final form, indicates a reasonable degree of cooperation on the part of the French Government, it ought to be most

+ Cf. Rowe (1986) for F.Klein's policies with respect to appointments in Gottingen. Appendix 7 269

carefully considered, for it promises to bring a closer relation between Mathe• matics and Physics and in this way to strengthen the development of Physics at Paris. Furthermore, the plan calls for a large number of lectures by French ma• thematicians from the provinces with substantial stipends attached, and this ought to aid / [8] greatly in revitalizing the provincial universities of France in the fields of mathematics and physics. The Mathematical Institute in Stockholm, now under the direction of Mittag• Leffler contains a magnificant mathematical library. At the present moment it is run in a very limited way, more or less under the Swedish governmental auspices. I do not think that anything of importance can be done here by the Board for the present.

VI. Honours, Lectureships, Prizes, Aid for Travelling etc.+

Perhaps in the future the Board is likely to wish to enter this field to a somewhat greater extent than it has done so far. The Paris project calls for the institution of lectureships. Several somewhat older men have already been given aid for travelling, for example P6lya, and it would seem to me that such aid is likely to be well bestowed if a man of high rank wishes to obtain it for purposes of study. For instance, Professor Julia of Paris is a man of this sort and should he apply for an allowance for travelling as he may later, I hope that it can be given him. It is probable that a complete list of honours, lectures, and prizes for mathematicians and physicists in Europe would be a much longer one than would be anticipated.

VII. Popular Support, Tradition and Leadership++

It is obvious that the scope of the Board's activities can / [9] scarcely be expected to extend towards these immaterial factors in the general mathematical and physical situation in Europe. It may be of interest to the Board, however, if I make one or two remarks about the situation. The popular support of mathematics and mathematicians is much greater in Italy, France, Germany and Sweden than it is in England, Holland, Belgium and Denmark. The reasons for this are very difficult to define; it is a fact however, that the careers open to mathematicians in the first named countries are wider than in the others. For example, Picard at Paris is a man of public importance. He is the secretary of the Academy of Sciences, etc., etc. In England a physicist might attain a similar position of importance, but I do not believe it to be

+ Trowbridge on the following paragraph in his letter to Rose: "I do not feel that the field cov• ered in his Article VI, page 8, is one which we can very safely enter on without serious study in advance." ++ Trowbridge on the following paragraph in his letter to Rose: "It seems to me that in his Ar• ticle VII ... he furnishes us with very valuable information for our purposes as regards conditions in Mathematics in Europe." 270 Appendices

possible for a mathematician to do so. As a mathematician, I would of course, like to see the popular support of mathematics increased, for I believe it is of fundamental importance for the understanding of modern science. If the Board aids such projects as the foundation of mathematical institutes at Gottingen and Paris, there is no doubt that indirectly a great increase of popular support for mathematics may be expected to result. Perhaps it will serve a useful purpose if I mention my impression as to who are the active leaders of European mathematics today. The greatest mathematician of Europe is Hilbert at Gottingen, but he is nearly at the end of his career. Since the War, Hardy of Oxford has perhaps done the most spectacular work. In range and power Hadamard of Paris seems nearest to Hilbert. The principal leaders of European / [10] mathematics are: Volterra and Levi-Civita in Italy; Picard, Hadamard, Lebesgue and Borel in France; Hilbert, Landau, Hecke, Caratheodory in Germany; Brouwer in Holland; Weyl in Switzerland; H.Bohr in Denmark, and Hardy and Whittaker in Great Britain. There are other men of almost the same rank.

VIII. Generalities on the European and American Situation

Since this has been my ftrst journey to Europe, my impressions have been more vivid than would have otherwise been the case. My ftnal opinion is that I had hitherto under-estimated the power of Europe in the scientiftc direction. While the countries in Europe may be divided politically there is not nearly as much division on the scientiftc side. To be sure, immediately after the War there seemed to be a division in hostile camps, even of the scientists, but other influences are lessening the gap day by day. I have found on all sides a general pride in European mathematics and physics. I have been particularly impressed by the number of small mathematical centers in which interest is keenly alive in research. Also it is signiftcant that even in the present condition of Russia a number of young men of high ability are continuing with such an abstract study as pure mathematics. For this and many other reasons, which I could scarcely give here, I feel that Europe is likely to prove very strong indeed in mathematics and physics; more definitely, I should expect that unless the situation in the United States alters substantially, we will occupy a position not so much commensurate with that of Europe as a whole, but rather with that of a / [111 single great nation of Europe like Great Britain or Germany. I am assuming of course, that Europe will go back to reasonably good ftnancial condition. Even now the situation in Germany of the professor seems to be quite as good as before the War. It is in France, Belgium and Italy that conditions have remained distinctly bad. The European attitude towards mathematical thought in America seemed to me to be distinctly friendly everywhere, and they are becoming aware of the importance of our mathematical contribution. Appendix 7 271

X. Possible Needs in Europe and America

The activities of the Board as at present conceived by Dr.Trowbridge seem to cover almost all the requirements of the situation, as far as I can judge. Personally, I think that the following question might be worth of some consideration. Will it be desirable to make slightly more rigorous the conditions for the fellowships, which are of course positions of high honour, and then devote some attention to providing for the moderate amount of travel in Europe and to America of the really first rate men? Often these men labor for years without rewards of any sort, and it would seem that the mathematical contacts thus made would prove beneficial for the man himself and for the environments to which he goes. This seems to me particularly desirable, because they have nothing analogous to our "sabbatical year" ofleave.+ / [12] On my return to the United States I expect to try to interest the American Mathematical Society in the general question of securing funds for travel and lectures by mathematicians in the United States. We have many men of good quality who never get to any of the best centers and who ultimately lose their scientific enthusiasm. I believe that Europe is better off in this respect than America. It would also aid American mathematics if, from time to time, eminent men from Europe would come to the United States. This has already been done for physics, but the funds for doing the same thing in mathematics have not been forthcoming.

Signed: George D.Birkhoff

+ Trowbridge in his letter Rose of Oktober 1, 1926: "I think ... Birkhoff has called attention to an important discrepancy between European and American procedure as regards leaves and one which I confess has escaped me until he called my attention to it in this 'resume'." 272 Appendices

Appendix 8: Richard Courant's Assessment of American Mathematics as of 1927+

[Gottingen] 27 April 1927 Dr. A.Trowbridge International Education Board Paris 2 Rue Louis-Ie-Grand 19

Dear Dr. Trowbridge!

After leafing through American journals from past years, I want to answer your letter, dated March 23, with a few lines. I have to say in advance, though, how difficult and almost impossible it is to answer your questions in a really satis• factory manner. Our personal contacts with the numerous American mathemati• cians are not really close enough to enable a really sound judgment on most of them. What can be drawn from journals or the like is frequently only a small part of the actual scientific activities and it would be necessary, in order to get a clear picture of mathematics in America, to visit several colleagues in their working environment. By and large mathematics in America has progressed considerably in the past 10 or 20 years. Several decades ago, scientific mathematics there was lacking and required European assistance. Since then, an indigenous scientific culture has developed there, although one is unable to predict its future even in the short run. Characteristics of present-day American mathematics seems to me as fol• lows: abstract or so-called "pure" tendencies are dominant, and there is no real contact to physics, let alone technology. But this picture can change very quickly. The one mathematical field in which America has had perhaps the greatest success is topology (analysis situs). I mention only the names of [James] Alex• ander, [Oswald] Veblen, [Solomon] Lefschetz, and a host of younger mathema• ticians. In any case Harvard and, in the first place, Princeton, are the best places in the world today to study this discipline, the representatives of mathematics there would do honour to every [here crossed out, but still visible in the copy: German] European chair. Even in other respects, the two universities - perhaps less so Chicago - seem to offer the best possibilities for mathematics. Geometry is brilliantly repre• sented in Princeton not only by Veblen but also by [Luther Pfahler] Eisenhart. At Harvard [William Fogg] Osgood has meanwhile founded a classical school

+ Source for a copy: Courant Papers, Elmer Holmes Bobst Library; New York University, folder: "Rockefeller Stipend Correspondence" typewritten, 4pp. (Editor's translation from Ger• man). Some commentary added in square brackets, for more see also chapter II.7. Appendix 8 273

for function theory, and also the other mathematical disciplines are well repre• sented there, not to mention Birkhoffs fields. As to the questionnaire enclosed, which I return herewith, I want to say that I would combine the first rubric Foundations of Mathematics and the last rubric Mathematical Philosophy & Logic, also rubrics Arithmetic and Algebra. For the first and last rubrics, I cannot name particularly spectacular people; nor can I do this for the second, except perhaps for [G.A.] Miller, [H.F.]Blichfeldt, [J.H.M.] Wedderburn, and [L.E.] Dickson, whose historical-systematical work (Theory of Numbers) has gained considerable importance. In Analysis there are numerous outstanding representatives. Beside the per• sons already named, Birkhoff in the first place (real functions), [G.A.] Bliss (calculus of variations), [E.H.]Moore at Chicago, who is certainly one of the most important American mathematicians (his "General Analysis" has drawn particular attention); [J.F.] Ritt, an outstanding function theorist; [R.G.D.] Richardson at Brown University (whose originality would presumably come more to the fore if he were less hampered by administrative work); Norbert Wiener at the Massachusetts Institute [of Technology], extremely talented and strong, if perhaps without adequate ability to present his projects in digestible form, thus probably not a good teacher [Note that Wiener had been in Gottingen in 1926 and had given a rather unsuccessful lecture there, according to his auto• biography Wiener (1956)]. In geometry I have mentioned already the names of those who have become known to me most distinctly: Eisenhart, Veblen, Alexander, Lefschetz. I could mention Birkhoff here, once more, whose work always has a strong geometrical component. [W.] Graustein and [J.L.] Coolidge are certainly good teachers as well. In mathematical astronomy I know only of the very useful books by [F.R.] Moulton. Mathematical physics: [H.] Bateman, who is a formal ["formal", i.e.merely technical] talent of the first order, and [P.] Epstein in Pasadena. - Otherwise mathematical physics in America is, so it seems, barely developed. (Birkhoffs interests, however, are pertinent here as well.) History of Mathematics: [R.C.] Archibald. Applied Mathematics: Here I am not aware of anybody very important, and it seems to me that the relevant problems are rather neglected in America. I do not know whether information in this form is of any use for you. It necessarily reflects a subjective impression, coloured by hundreds of contingen• cies. I want to avoid, by all means, the appearance that I feel competent to pass absolute or relative judgment on my American colleagues, especially on those who are not mentioned here. For the purposes of scientific education and training there are, by the way, other qualities that matter, quite different from the purely scientific ones. It is completely imaginable that an outstanding scholar is a very poor teacher and vice versa. 274 Appendices

So I can only hope you will not overestimate my remarks. With best wishes yours very sincerely

[signed] Richard Courant Appendix 9 275

Appendix 9: IEB-Fellow Heinz Hopf 1928 on the Exemplary Sports Facilities at American Universities+

Zum SchluB mochte ich von den Einrichtungen an den amerikanischen Univer• sitiiten, die mir als besonders nachahmenswert erscheinen, nur eine nennen: die wirklich eindrucksvolle und groBziigige Sorge fUr das korperliche Wohl der Studenten, die auf der Erkenntnis beruht, daB dieses korperliche Wohlbefinden eine Vorbedingung fUr erfolgreiche wissenschaftliche Arbeit ist. Ich denke da• bei besonders an das mustergiiltig eingerichtete Schwimmbad in Princeton, das jederzeit den Studenten und Dozenten kostenlos zur VerfUgung besteht und das auch ich hiiufig besuchte. Obwohl ja im allgemeinen das BewuBtsein der Ver• pflichtung, auch fUr die Korper und nicht nur fUr die Gehirne der Studenten sorgen zu miissen, auch in Europa stiirker wird, sind doch die praktischen Ein• richtungen in dieser Hinsicht nur minimal, und Amerika ist uns weit voraus. So gibt es zum Beispiel in Berlin, wo Studenten und Dozenten oft den ganzen Tag in der staubigen Stadt und den dort gelegenen Instituten zubringen miissen, iiberhaupt keine Schwimmanstalt, die der Universitiit zur Verfligung stiinde und von ihr aus schnell erreichbar ware. Und warum? Es fehIt am Geld, und Rocke• feller baut ja lieber als ein Bad fUr die armen Berliner Studenten ein luxurios eingerichtetes mathernatisches Institut fUr die dicken Gottinger Arsche. Finally I want to mention, among the qualities of American universities that I find exemplary, just one: the really impressive and generous concern for the physical well-being of the students, based on the recognition that physical well• being is a pre-condition for successful scientific work. I am thinking about the exemplary swimming pool, that can be used at any time by students and pro• fessors without charge and that I visited regularly as well. Although in general in Europe the recognition is also growing that one has to take care of the stu• dents' bodies as well as of the students' minds, practical facilities in this regard are negligible and America is far ahead. For instance, in Berlin, where students and professors frequently have to spend the entire day in the dusty city and in the institutes located in it, there is not a single swimming pool at the disposal of the university, or easily within reach. And why? Money is lacking, and Rocke• feller, instead of erecting a swimming pool for the poor Berlin students, prefers to build a luxurious institute for the fat Gottingen asses.

+ This is an excerpt from a draft of Heinz Hopfs report to the IEB on his fellowship in Princeton 1927/28, undated 1928, ETH Heinz HopfPapers, HS 620: 47. The quoted passage is the last page of four. It is crossed out, and has the following handwritten remark on it: "not for Rockefeller, but for M.A." M.A. stands for Meerarsch (Ocean-ass), a rather vulgar (ass = buttocks) nickname for his friend Pavel A1exandrov, obviously alluding to their joint hobby, namely swimming. The excerpt is here both reproduced in its German original and translated into English. The final report of January 1929 is in RAe, IEB. 1.3., box 51, f.80 1 (H.Hopf). 276 Appendices

Appendix 10: David Hilbert's Request (1933) to His Former American Doctoral Student Mason, then President of the ROCKEFELLER FOUNDATION, in Favour of Dismissed Richard Courant+

Gottingen, July 16, 1933 Professor Max Mason Per favor Professor Jones, Paris

Dear Mr. Mason:

The great interest which you and the Rockefeller Foundation have always evinced in the mathematics and physics of Gottingen, leads me to hope that I can now tum to you with a personal letter. As you are aware, drastic changes have recently taken place in Gottingen cir• cles, which however have not yet been defmitely decided upon but at least it is not impossible that our colleague Courant, for example will not be able to pur• sue his work in the Mathematical Institute of Gottingen. You know how his per• sonality just seemed to form a centerpoint in the Institute and how well he un• derstood how to procure the best working facilities for a group of young stu• dents interested in science. You know best yourself how many of your fellows have worked here successfully. In case Courant is no longer able to continue the directorship of the Institute, I now wish to call your attention to the close connection of his scientific work with my own. His "Methods of mathematical physics" is the development con• sequent upon my own work on this subject. Herr Courant is now working on the second volume of this work (it will deal chiefly with the theory of partial differ• ential equations) which will again yield an abundance of new and very wonder• ful results. But all depends on his having the inner peace and freedom from worry to really bring this work to a conclusion. And this is why I am writing to you today: I hope that you and the Rockefeller Foundation will find ways and means if necessary to secure the continuation at least of the immediate scientific working program of Herr Courant and with it, as I said before, the continuation of my own. Were I not so definitely convinced of the quite unusual personal and scientific qualities of Herr Courant, I would not voice this personal wish. With kind regards, Very truly yours (SGD) HILBERT

+ RAe, R.F. 1.1., 40 I D, box 43, f.554. The folder contains a copy of Hilbert's original letter and a translation by a Rockefeller associate, both typewritten, I page. Reproduced here is the translation. For some context see chapter VI. Appendix 11 277

Appendix 11: Richard Courant (1933) on Support by Rockefeller Philanthropy for the Erection of the Mathematical Institute in Gottingen 1926-1929+

Since the time of Althoff, it had been Felix Klein who, with the help of a private promotional society, worked on the extension of the mathematical and scientific institutions in Gottingen. The plan, in its entirety, was about to be completed by the erection of a Mathematical Institute, for which Krupp von Bohlen++ had donated the land and all other means had been granted, when the war and its consequences destroyed the plan. After the war, the plan was resumed in a fundamentally changed form by the university curator, Dr. Valentiner, and the successor to Felix Klein, Prof. Courant. The plan was discussed for several years and its resumption prepared in detail by Prof. Courant and his assistant, Dr. Neugebauer. After a close connection between the Rockefeller Foundation+++ and Prof. Courant had been established, principally by the mediation of Prof. Bohr from Copenhagen and Prof. Hardy from Oxford, the Rockefeller Foundation became intensely interested in the Gottingen plans in early 1926. Beginning in January 1926 detailed oral and written negotiations have taken place between Prof. Courant and the Paris representative of the Rockefeller Foundation, Dr.Trowbridge, always with the consent of the Prussian authorities. The aim was to secure for the entire domain of mathematics and physics a stable and high standard for the institutions in Gottingen, and, at the same time, to prepare support for the neigh• bouring subjects (the creation of the Mineralogical Institute became possible through the realization ofthe general plan). In December 1926 the final decision in favour of the erection of the new Mathematical Institute and the extension of the Physical Institute was received from New York. The decision was communicated in letters from the Rocke• feller Foundation to Prof. Courant dated 23 December 1926, and 21 December 1926 (copies enclosed). The grant was made under the condition that the Prussian state guaranteed maintaining the standard by spending an additional Mk. 100,000 annually for the field of mathematics and physics in Gottingen. The guarantee, which had been previously secured in negotiations with the authorities, was confirmed in a letter by the Prussian State Ministry to the Rockefeller Foundation, dated 4 May 1927, and enclosed in copy.

+ Courant Papers, Bobst Library, 2 typewritten pages in Gennan, with handwritten remark by Hennann Weyl, dated August 1, 1933: "Courant's accompanying text. Not used." Translation from Gennan and footnotes from the editor. ++ Gustav Krupp von Bohlen and Halbach (1870-1950), a steel magnate who was among the main Gennan anns producers during World War I. +++ Obviously, for the sake of simplicity, Courant used the name RF instead of the correct tenn, the International Education Board. 278 Appendices

On March 7, 1927 a meeting in the Prussian Ministry of Education there took place with representatives of the Ministry of Finance and in attendance of ministerial councillor Breuer, during which the details were discussed with respect to spending the additional support as agreed by the Prussian govern• ment. The stipulations that were fixed in this meeting for mathematics are con• tained in a letter to the Gottingen university curator, dated 2 April 1927 and en• closed in copy. Since then certain changes and reductions have been imposed as a consequence of the general austerity measures. Because these have not yet affected the vital interests of the institute, naturally no protest has been articulated so far.

[R.Courant] Appendix 12 279

Appendix 12: Correspondence between Birkhoff, Borel, and Weaver (1937/38) on the future role of the INSTITUT HENRI POINCARE (Paris)+

12.1. Emile Borel (Paris) to George David Birkhoff (Harvard) on Travel Money for American Lecturers at the INSTITUT HENRI POINCARE

[19 November 1937] Universite de Paris Faculte des Sciences Institut Poincare

Dear colleague,

we had the pleasure, past summer,++ to show you the Institut Poincare in its full functioning. As you know, we invite every year several professors from abroad to give lectures before our Institute. Unfortunately and to our deep regret, the American nationality is rarely represented among these professors. We cannot, unless there are fortunate circumstances, invite an American professor which is a considerable deficiency because we are unable to defray the costs for travel from America to Europe. That is why I would like to ask for your opinion about the subject. Would it not be possible, in order to enable us to invite one American professor each year, to ask the Rockefeller Foundation for a special grant destined for the invi• tation? In case you deem that possible, would you be prepared to found an Ameri• can committee, of which you, of course, should be the president, a committee that would be better located than we are, to propose suitable candidates among American scholars? As you know, our students are almost unable to follow a se• ries of several lectures in a foreign language. So it seems necessary to select only professors who are able to lecture in French. It is only in rare exceptional cases, for one lecture or two at most, that we could hope to gather a sufficient audience for a professor speaking in English. As to the remuneration, you should decide what is appropriate. +++

+ RAC, R.F. 1.1., 500 D, box 11, folder 117. The letters from Borel to Birkhoff (in French), and from Birkhoff to Borel are there as copies. Birkhoffs letter to Weaver is an original. Foot• notes and translation of Borel's letter from the editor. Cf. also chapter V.2. ++ Birkhoffs answering letter alludes to June 1937 as the time of his visit. See below. +++ The original passage is here: "Pour ce qui est de la retribution, vous decideriez ce que vous jugeriez convenable." This means probably the remuneration for the lecturers. 280 Appendices

I have only talked about American professors, because they are about the only ones that are interesting for us to invite from overseas. However, from time to time, it might be interesting to invite an English professor from the Domin• ions of the British Empire or from India, or a professor from other regions of America. This question could be solved after settling the question of American professors. With my very best and cordial wishes

(Signed) Emile Borel

12.2. George David Birkhoff to Emile Borel on the Future of International Relations in Mathematics (January 1938)

January 3, 1938 Professor Emile Borel, Membre de I' Institut Directeur de l'Institut Henri Poincare Universite de Paris Paris, France

Dear Colleague:

Your kind letter of November 19, 1937, was duly received and I was much in• terested in the questions which you raised. Unfortunately, as you remark, there are very few among the American mathematicians who know the French language well enough to lecture in it. Furthermore, those who do know the language are precisely those who go abroad most frequently and so would be likely to be available. For these reasons I am not sure that the number of Americans who could be secured by the Institut Henri Poincare to lecture would be considerable even under the most favorable circumstances. Would it not, therefore, be the best policy for me and others to keep informed as to Americans who might be available of the high standing necessary to lecture at the Institut and then in case the name of such a person came to our attention I would be glad to write the Rockefeller Foundation to see whether a subvention could be made for his travelling expenses. It seems to me our chances of success would be much greater if we were to start with a specific request in this direction relative to some eminent mathematician who would not be able to lecture at the Institut except under such circumstances. With one suc• cessful instance of co-operation of this sort the Rockefeller Foundation would, I think, be more favorably disposed towards trying the same experiment again. I feel quite as much interested in the possibility of your securing at the Institut visitors from other distant countries as from the United States.+ It seems to me

+ Note that Birkhoff became one of the foremost "ambassadors" of US-American mathematics Appendix 12 281

that every possibility of favorable co-operation among the nations should be systematically encouraged during the present troublous times, and I believe that the Institut Henri Poincare provides us with an opportunity of this sort which is very important. I am forwarding a copy of this letter to you, together with a copy of your letter to me, to Dr. Warren Weaver, Director of Physical Sci• ences++ at the Rockefeller Foundation, and I shall hope to have a chance to talk with him within a month or two concerning this and other matters. As you doubtless know, the next International Mathematical Congress is to be held at Cambridge in September 1940 and one of the important things to be at• tended to in this connection is that such governmental relationships be set up in our organization that duly accredited delegates from other countries may be aided as in the past by their respective governments. My present idea is that such relationships would be most easily arranged through our National Acad• emy of Sciences and the National Research Council. In this connection I am writing to several persons in order to get their advice as to what procedure is best. I am writing you about these preliminary inquiries on my part since I know that you are much interested in keeping some kind of international procedure available for our mathematical congresses. I am afraid, however, that the senti• ment against any action of this sort is so strong that it will be difficult to do anything in connection with the forthcoming Congress. I hope you will write me freely as to any suggestions which you may have, however. It is with the utmost pleasure that I remember the delightful days with you and the other colleagues at Paris in June. With highest compliments and very kind remembrances Sincerely yours

(signed) George D. Birkhoff

to Southern America in the years to come. The cultural policies of "responsibility" for the whole of America grew during the war. ++ Weaver's division was for "Natural Sciences" rather. 282 Appendices

12.3. Excerpt From a Letter of George D. Birkhoff to Warren Weaver (ROCKEFELLER FOUNDATION) on Borel, French Mathematics and the Future of Stochastics (February 1938)

February 10, 1938 Dr. Warren Weaver Rockefeller Foundation 49 West 49th Street New York City

Dear Warren:

As you perhaps know it was Borel who was the one who first came forward with the definite proposition that made the Institut Henri Poincare a possibility which the Foundation might consider. It has proved itself at relatively moderate cost to be of inestimable advantage for French mathematics at a difficult time so that I know of no comparable investment which the Foundation could have made anywhere in the world with equal advantage. When one bears in mind the incomparable glories of French mathematics of the past, to which German mathematics is the only rival, I should think this would give the Officers of the Foundation a great feeling of satisfaction. Of course the services of the Institut to mathematicians of France will continue throughout the indefinite future. Borel has always been interested in the international potentialities of the In• stitut Henri Poincare. I remember a good many years ago going there by chance when Sommerfeld was scheduled to give a lecture at the Institut. It was just a week or two after the German Anschluss with Austria had been proposed.+ Sommerfeld, whom I have always admired greatly, was very hot under the col• lar at his situation among the French at that juncture. Nevertheless he gave us a magnificent lecture and everything went on most courteously. After the lecture we went out together to a nearby French restaurant and I did my best to soothe his feelings. Underneath it all I could see that he really appreciated the possibil• ity of lecturing at the Institut and I felt that it had been very constructive on the part of Borel as Director to have invited him. The present juncture is a much more inauspicious moment in political his• tory than mankind has seen for a long time. It is just barely possible that Borel, who is one of the most original and far seeing intellects of France, could per• form a real service if he were [noW allowed a certain scope of inviting visitors to come to the Institut and lecture. Not very much money would be involved

+ Sommerfeld lectured at the Institut in the academic year 1930/31. Obviously Birkhoff refers to political discussions (German Anschluss) to unite Germany and Austria. Curiously, Birkhoff is writing his letter one month before the real "Anschluss" of Austria by Hitler. Birkhoff does not seem to have had a feeling for the tense political situation in Europe then and the imminent Nazi expansion. Rather he is talking about an "inauspicious moment in political history". + The "not" which is missing in the letter seems necessary to supplement the "barely". Appendix 12 283 and a great deal of good might be done. Would the Foundation be interested in such a project? If so, I will be glad to co-operate in any way possible. It is obvi• ous that with their depreciated state of currency and depleted funds the Institut itself could not afford to pay travelling expenses in the way desired and without such provision for travelling expenses it would not be possible for them to do very much. You will be interested in the list of Americans in whom Borel seems to be interested. He foresaw long ago that the theory of statistics and probability was a coming subject and has built the Institut around that field. Recent happenings in mathematics and physics have more than justified his judgment. Most of the men named by him would have something important to say either in the field of statistics and probability or that of present day physics. To my mind the best of the latter are Van Vleck and Slater of Cambridge and possibly young Wilks at Princeton. I do not know who of these would be able to speak French. As far as the total expense involved is concerned, if the average travelling expenses per lecture, from America, Europe, or the Far East, were as much as $ 300 (I do not think they would be more) one could start in for a year with a gift of $ 1500 and thus secure five lectures from a distance during the year. I have not the least idea as to how this project will appeal to you. However, you have given us cordial support in connection with the coming International Congress of Mathematicians at Cambridge, Massachusetts, and 1 believe the Foundation has done so because it is aware of the importance of everything that can strengthen the ties of international amity and understanding. I am laying the project explained above before you in order to acquaint you with the facts so that you can see whether or not you and the Foundation might act constructively in connection with this plan. Cordially yours,

George 284 Appendices

Appendix 13: Hermann Weyl (1941) of Princeton to the Rockefeller-Sponsored NEW SCHOOL FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH About Chances to Save the "Bourbaki Enterprise"+

Dr. Alvin Johnson New School for Social Research 66 West 12th Street New York City March 22, 1941

Dear Doctor Johnson:

Andre Weil told me that he had spoken to you about the "Bourbaki" enterprise. Under this collective pseudonym a set of young French mathematicians has started to publish a number of volumes concerning the basic disciplines of mathematics. The accent in classical mathematics lay on calculus, and for everything re• lated to calculus the great French "Cours d' Analyse" by Camille Jordan, Gour• sat and others, have in the past played a very vital part in mathematical training all over the world. But in the last twenty-five years the emphasis has shifted to other fields like topology and algebra and it has become necessary to lay the foundations deeper. Whereas in calculus, general agreement about fundamental ideas, notations, and terminology was reached a long time ago, conditions have remained more fluid (not to say confused) in the newer disciplines. But the time seems to have come when integration and a certain degree of standardization should and could be attempted with a fair hope of success. Sometimes such in• tegration has been brought about by an individual work of genius of such para• mount importance that nobody working in the field could evade its influence. Systematic efforts undertaken by a group expressly for this purpose are less sure of success; their achievement will perhaps do no more than solidify one school adhering to a special brand of abstract ideas without finding acceptance among other schools, or the foundations laid might soon prove too narrow, etc. I see these dangers and am therefore less enthusiastic about the enterprise than the entrepreneurs themselves. But there is an urgent need, and as far as I can see "Bourbaki" is trying very earnestly and intelligently to find the best and sim• plest way to arrange the fundamental ideas and to fix the nomenclature. Plan and execution of each volume are discussed in full detail by the whole group, and before the manuscript is finished, it will have been rewritten by three or four authors. It seems certain that no single member of the group could have ac-

+ Harlow Shapley Papers, Harvard University Archives, Refugee Files, Box 6F, folder: A.Johnson, Copy, typewritten, 2 pages. Cf. chapter VI.2. Appendix 13 285

complished what they have done by pooling their mathematical intelligence. I So far two small volumes, on abstract sets and topology, have appeared in French in the Actualites Scientifiques et Industrielles; preparation of the mate• rial for three more volumes is far advanced. But now the group has been broken up by the war; three of its leading members - Andre Weil, Cheval ley, and Henri Cartan+ - are, or will soon be, in this country. A conditio sine Qua non for the continuation of the work would be the bringing over of at least two more mem• bers, and this is the reason why I write to you about it. In October last year I sent Dr. Warren Weaver a list of French mathemati• cians, mostly younger men, whom one could consider as candidates for the res• cue action undertaken jointly by you and the Rockefeller Foundation.++ I en• close a copy brought up by information obtained from Andre Weil. It so hap• pens that all the Bourbaki collaborators are on it. The two men whom Weil con• siders indispensable for continuation of the work are (5) Jean Delsarte and (9) Jean Dieudonne. Delsarte speaks no English and distrusts his linguistic abilities. It would be much better to place him in the French Catholic university in Mont• real than anywhere in the United States. Things are different with Dieudonne who was a Proctor Fellow of Princeton University from 1927 to 1929. In my opinion an invitation to this country to any democratic-minded foreign scholar who is threatened by the (let us hope short-lived) Nazification of the European continent should depend first of all on his scholastic standing, and then on its adaptability. The fact of his being indispensable for work like that of the Bourbaki group, however meritorious, should hardly playa decisive role in the selection. However, all the young French mathematicians (2) - (9), except (2) Henri Cartan and (3) Jean Leray,+++ are of nearly equal rank. (2) is placed, (3) out of reach. Hence, if there is a possibility of bringing over to America one more young French mathematician, I should find it justifiable to concentrate on Dieudonne, and to try to establish Delsarte in Canada. Very sincerely yours

Hermann Weyl

+ Cartan, in fact, did not come to the U.S. at that time. ++ The list, which is enclosed in the Shapley papers, comprises the following French mathema• ticians: (I) Arnaud Denjoy, (2) Henri Cartan, (3) Jean Leray, (4) Rene de Possel, (5) Jean Del• sarte, (6) Claude Chabauty, (7), Charles Ehresmann, (8) Charles Pi sot, (9) Jean Dieudonne, (10) Ervand Kogbetliantz. Except for (1), (3), and (10) all mathematicians named are mentioned to be members of Bourbaki.

+++ Leray was at that time and during the entire war in a German prisoners' of war camp. Cf. Siegmund-Schultze (2000b). 286 Appendices

Appendix 14: Richard Courant's Letter (1944) to the OFFICE OF WAR INFORMATION on the Rockefeller Contribution to Science and Mathematics+

May 12, 1944 Miss Marjorie Western OWl 224 West 57 Street New York, N.Y. SPECIAL DELIVERY

Dear Miss Western:

Following is the information which I promised to send you: Never has private wealth been used for the promotion of science with so much vision and competence of judgment and with so little showmanship as by the Rockefeller Foundation. During the last decades the Foundation has stimu• lated research in mathematics, physics, biology and medicine to an unbelievable degree. This success was achieved largely because many of the officers of the Foundation are scientists with independent judgment and wide scientific con• tacts of their own, and also because the Foundation has often acted as a catalyst rather than as a steady supporter. One of the outstanding services rendered was the granting of scholarships to promising young scientists throughout the world, thus making it possible for them to study under the best leadership available in the world. The beneficial ef• fect of this cross-fertilization cannot be praised too highly. Many of the Rocke• feller Fellows now have moved up into the ranks of the foremost representatives of their fields. Europe, in particular pre-Nazi Germany, has greatly benefited from the Rockefeller Foundation. For example, the University of Gottingen, always a center of scientific research, received in 1927 a gift of a few hundred thousand dollars, which initiated and stabilized a thorough reorganization of the whole science faculty with the cooperation of government and industry, and estab• lished equipment and personnel of this faculty on an unprecedented level. The faculty of the University of Gottingen became the first victim of Nazi persecu• tion. In a similar way, the Rockefeller Foundation made a big Research Institute in Physics at Berlin possible, an institute which now has been taken over by the Nazis for war research. During the years of Nazi domination of Europe, the Foundation has cooper• ated in bringing scientific talent driven from Germany or German-dominated territory to other countries, in particular England, Sweden and the United States,

+ Copy in Courant Papers, Bobst Library, New York University, f. Rockefeller 1947-51. Appendix 14 287 and it can be said that quite a few of those scientists have in the meantime made valuable contributions to peaceful progress and to the war effort on the Allied side. Very truly yours

RCourant 288 Appendices

Appendix 15: List of IEB/RF Fellows in Mathematics Until 1945+

No Name Dates Country cat. Place, Hosts Field Source date [sponsors] [duration] of visit

Ackennann, 1896- Germany IEB Gottingeni Hilbert, logic rEB Wilhelm 1962 Oxford Hardy 611 (Cambridge) 1924/25 [12 months]

2 Ahlfors, 1907- Finland NSD Paris Hadamard comp\. card Lars V. 1996 1931132 [LindelOf] function [9 months] theory

3 Alexandrov, 1896- USSR IEB Amsterdam Brouwerl topology IEB Pavel S. 1982 1925 Lefschetz 616, Princeton [Egorov] DSB 1927/28 (Suppl) [12 + 8 months]

4 Aumann, 1906- Germany NSF Princeton Lefschetz, topology card Georg 1980 1934/35 Veblen, [9 months] Weyl

5 Ayres, 1905- USA IEB Austria Menger (?) topology IEB William L. 1967 1928/29 [RL.Moore] 628

6 Banach, 1892- Poland IEB Paris Lebesgue, functional IEB Stefan 1945 1924125 Montel analysis 633 [9 months] [Sierpinski] DSB 7 Bari, 1901- USSR IEB Paris Lebesgue, real IEB NinaK. 1961 1929 Hadamard function 635 [9] [Lusin] theory

+ Sources: RAC, IEB 1.3. (Number of file under "source"); cat = category, namely either IEB or RF Fellow. The latter divides into NSD = Fellow of Natural Sciences Division, MSD = Medical Sciences Division, SSD = Social Sciences Division. In the case of Koller the RF-money was channeled through the Notgemeinschaft Deutscher Wissenschaft (NDW). Card = fellowship card (number of) available. The printed Rockefeller "Directory" of fellows is quoted only if no other source was available. The list given here should be about complete. Appendix 15 289

8 Behmann, 1891- Gennany IEB Rome Enriques logic IEB Heinrich 1970 1926/27 [Hilbert] 641 [8 months]

9 Besicovitch, 1891- USSR IEB Copenha- H.Bohrl function IEB Abram S. 1970 gen/Cambr. Littlewood theory 644 1925/26 DSB, [12+9] Suppl

10 Bochner, 1899- Gennany IEB Copenha- H.Bohrl function IEB Salomon 1982 (Poland) gen/Cambr. Hardy theory 648 1925126 DSB (Suppl)

II Bol, 1906- Nether!. NSD Princeton 1.A1exander geometry, card Gerrit 1989 (Gennan) 1931132 topology [12 months]

12 Boruvka, 1899- Czech IEB Paris E.Cartan differen- IEB Otakar 1979 1929/30 [Cech] tial 650 [12 months] geometry

13 Bourion, 1907- France NSD Sweden! "general Direc- Georges 2000 Switzer!' math." tory 1934/35

14 Brauner, 1897- Austria IEB Rome T.Levi- geometry, IEB Karl 1952 1928/29 Civita funct. 657 [Wirtinger] theory

15 Brelot, 1903- France IEB Romel Volterra! integral IEB Marcel 1987 Berlin Schmidt equations 659 1929-31 [Vessiot] pot. [18 months] theory

16 Bustamante 1915- Mexico NSD Princeton Lefschetzl math. cards Liaca, ? 1942-44 Eisenhart physics (2) Enrique 17 Carlitz, 1907- USA NSD Cambridge Hardy number RF2, Leonard 1999 1931132 theory ser.200 b.49, f.404

18 Cauer, 1900- Gennany NSD USA(MlT) Bush/Tyler numerical card Wilhelm 1945 1930/31 [Courant] computa- [9 months] tion 290 Appendices

19 Charpentier, 1903- France NSD USA Birkhoff differen- card Marie 1994 (Harvard) tial 1931132 equations

20 Chazel, 1900- France lEB Sweden Mittag- compl. lEB Maurice 1979 (Djurs- Leffler function 674 holm) [Vessiot] theory 1925 [3 months]

21 Church, 1903- USA lEB G6ttingen! Hilbertl logic lEB Alonzo 1995 Amsterdam Brouwer 677 1928/29 [NRC] [12 months]

22 Coxeter, 1907- UK NSD Princeton Veblen geometry card Harold S. 1932-33 [9 months]

23 Craig, 1898- USA NSD London R.A.Fisher biomath.l cards Cecil C. 1985 1937/38 statistics (2) [12 months]

24 Dieudonne, 1906- France NSD Berlin! Bieberbachl complex card Jean 1992 Zurich P61ya functions 1930/31

25 Douglas, 1897- USA lEB Paris E.Cartan calculus IEB Jesse 1965 1928/29 [NRC] of 700 [12 months] variations DSB

26 Dubourdieu, 1903- France lEB Hamburg Blaschke geometry lEB Jules 1986 1927/28 [Levi- 701 [10 months] Civita]

27 Dubreil, 1904- France lEB Hamburgl Artin! abstract lEB Paul J.L. 1994 Groningen! Noetherl algebra! 702 G6ttingen! Enriques geometry Dubreil Frankfurt! [Vessiot] (1983) Rome 1929/31 [9 + 6 months]

28 Dugue, 1912- France NSD London R.A.Fisher biomath.l card Daniel 1987 1937/38 statistics Appendix 15 291

29 Favard, 1902- France IEB Copenha- H.Bohrl almost IEB Jean Aime 1965 geniHam- Blaschke, periodic 720 burg Hecke funct.! 1925126 number [l2months] tho

30 Fenchel, 1905- Germany NSD Rome/Co- Levi-Civita differential card Werner 1988 penhagen H.Bohr geometry 1930-31 [Cour] [12 months]

31 Feraud, 1899- France IEB Romel Levi-Civita topologi- IEB Lucien J. 1985 USA Birkhoff cal dyna- 722 (Harvard) [E.Cartan] mics, 1928129 path [12 months] geom.

32 Ford, 1886- USA IEB Scotland! [NRC] IEB LesterR. 1967 France 727 1926/27

33 Geppert, 1902- Germany IEB Rome Levi-Civita differential IEB Harald 1945 1928/29 [Schlesin- geometry 747 [12 months] ger]

34 Gergen, 1903- USA IEB Oxford! Hardyl complex IEB John 1967 Cambridge! Hadamard! functions! 748 Parisi Lefschetz topology Princeton 1929/30 [12 months] 35 Goldstein, 1903- UK IEB Gottingen L.Prandti aerodyna IEB Sydney 1989 1928/29 [H.Jeffreys] mics 752 [l2months]

36 Gontcharov, 1896- USSR IEB Paris Monte! [So complex IEB Wassily 1955 1926-28 Bernshtein] functions 753 [24 months]

37 Grandjot, 1900- Germany IEB Parisi Julia! number IEB Karl 1979 Cambridge Littlew. theory 757 1928/29 [Courant] [broken oft] 292 Appendices

38 Grynaeus, 1893- Hungary IEB Parisi Cartan! differential IEB Stefan ? Zurich! Weyl1 geomety 760 Delft Schouten 1925 [J.Sutak] [12 months]

39 Guerard des 1898- France IEB Rome Levi-Civita differential IEB Lauriers, 1988 1925/26 [Vessiot] equations 762 Michel [9 months] Weil (1991)

40 Gut, 1898- Switzer!. NSD Yale Ore number card Max 1988 (USA) theory 1932/33

41 Hagihara, 1897- Japan IEB USA Birkhoff celestial IEB Yusuki 1979 (Harvard)1 [Hirayama] mechanics 1085 UK 1928/29

42 Herbrand, 1908- France NSD Berlin! v.Neumann! logic, Jacques 1931 Hamburgl Artin! algebra G6ttingen Noether 1930131

43 Hille, 1894- USA IEB Djursholml M.-Lefflerl analysis, IEB Carl Einar 1980 (Sweden) Copenhag./ N6rlundl difference 788, G6ttingen Landau equations Hille 1926/27 [NRC] (1980) [12 months] 44 Hlavaty, 1894- Czechos!. IEB Italyl Levi-Civital geometry IEB Vaclav 1969 FrancelUK Cartan 793 1927/28 [Bydzovsky ] Kowal- ski (1993)

45 Hopf, 1902- Gennany NSD USA Birkhoff, topologi- card Eberhard 1983 (Harvard)1 H.shapleyl cal dyna- UK Eddington micsl (Cambr) astronomy 1930-32 [24 months]

46 Hopf, 1894- Gennany IEB Princeton Lefschetzl topology IEB Heinz 1971 1927/28 Veblen 801 [8 months] [Schmidt] DSB Appendix 15 293

47 Hor( 0 )witz, 1910- Chile MSD USA biomathl Direc- Abraham ? 1942-44 medic. tory stat.

48 Householder, 1904- USA NSD Chicago Rashevsky biomath cards Alston 1993 1937-39 (3) Scott [27 months]

49 Hurewicz, 1904- Poland IEB Amsterdam Brouwer topology IEB Witold 1956 1927/28 809 DSB (Suppl)

50 Jarnik, 1897- Czechosl IEB G6ttingen Landau number IEB Vojtech 1970 1927/28 [K.Petr] theory 816

51 Jessen, 1907- Denmark NSD Cambridge Hardyl function cards B0rge 1993 (UK)I Veblen tho topo- (2) Christian Princeton logy 1933/34

52 John, 1910- USA NSD New York Courant analysis card Fritz 1994 (German) City 1942/43 [12 months]

53 Kahler, 1906- Germany NSD Rome Levi-Civita diff. card Erich 2000 1930/31 equat. [12 months] geometry 54 Karamata, 1902- Yugoslav IEB France Fourier IEB Jovan 1967 1927/28 anal 821

55 Kerekjfu1:6, 1898- Hungary IEB Princeton topology IEB Bela 1946 1924-26 823 DSB

56 Kloosterman, 1900- Nether!. IEB G6ttingen Landau number IEB Hendrik 1968 1926/27 [Kluyver] theory 827 Douwe

57 Kneser, 1898- Germany IEB Copenha- J.Nielsen, aim. IEB Hellmuth 1973 gen H.Bohr period. 828 1925 functions [6 months] 294 Appendices

58 Koller, 1908- Germany NDW New York Landsteiner biomathe card, Siegfried ? -F 1931132 [F .Bernstein] matics Alyl [6 months] Roth (1984)

59 Korinek, 1899- Czechosl IEB Hamburg Artin! number IEB Vladimir 1981 1929/30 Hecke theory 830 [12 months] [lPetr]

60 Krbek, 1898- Hungary IEB Gottingen! Hilbert! funct. IEB Ferencz 1984 Paris Borel theor. 833 1925126 [Fejer] topology [12 months]

61 Kritikos, 1894- Greece IEB Munich! Caratheo- topology IEB Nicolas ? Hamburg doryl 834 (Nikos) 1926/27 Blaschke [12 months]

62 Lagrange, 1895- France IEB Copenhagen Norlund absolute IEB Rene 1975 1924 + [Borel] diff. 840 1926 calcul [2+2=4 months]

63 Laguardia, 1906- Uruguay NSD Argentina! Widder math. cards Rafael 1980 USA(Har- [Beppo statistics (6) vard) Levi] 1943-45 64 Lappo- 1895- USSR NSD GieBen Schlesinger differential Kozhev Danilevski, 1931 (Germany) equations nik. Ivan A. 1930/31 (1993), 108

65 Levy, 1902- USA IEB ltalyl [Eisenhart] IEB Harry ca Switzerl.(?) 852 1979 1925/26

66 Lewy, 1904- Germany IEB Rome!Paris Levi- differential IEB Hans 1988 1929-31 Civital equations 854 Lebesgue Lewy (1985)

67 Logsdon, 1881- USA IEB Italy [Dickson] IEB Mayme 1967 1925/26 856 Appendix 15 295

68 Lubben, 1898- USA IEB G6ttingenJ ?/HahnJ set theory, IEB Renke G. 1980 Vienna! Brouwerl topology 859 Amsterdam [R.Moore] Burch- 1926/27 sted [12 months] (1987)

69 Lusin, 1883- USSR IEB Paris [Lebesgue] function IEB Nikolaj 1950 1928 theory 862 [Luzin] DSB

70 Magnus, 1907- Germany NSD Princeton Alexanderl group card Wilhelm 1990 1934/35 Veblen theorl [9 monthsl topology ext. del]

71 Maier, 1896- Germany IEB Chicago Dickson number IEB Wilhelm 1990 1929/30 [Siegel] theory 866 [12 months]

72 Mandelbrojt, 1899- Poland IEB RomelParis Volterra! function IEB Szolem 1983 (France) 1924-26 Montel theory 869 [24 months]

73 Maria, 1896- USA IEB Germanyl [NRC] ? IEB Alfred J. ? Denmark! 872 Switzerland 1926/27

74 Mayrhofer, 1899- Austria IEB Germanyl IEB Karl 1969 Austria 878 1927/28

75 Mazet, 1903- France IEB Rome Levi-Civita hydro- IEB Robert 1991 1926/27 [Volterra] dynamics 879 [8 months]

76 Mazza, 1907- Uruguay SSD USA (Co- Hotellingl math. cards Sigfrido C. ? lumbia) Wald statistics (3) 1944/45

77 Menchov, 1892- USSR IEB Paris Denjoy, function IEB Dmitri 1988 1927 Montel theory 881 [12 months] [Lusin] Men- chov (1983) 296 Appendices

78 Menger, 1902- Austria IEB Amsterdam Brouwer topology IEB Karl 1985 1925 [H. Hahn] 882 [3 months]

79 Nagell, 1895- Norway IEB Gottingen! Landaul number IEB Trygve 1988 Paris Hadamard theoryl 892 1925126 [Stormer] anal. [12 months] funct.

80 Nanni, Luis 1914- Argentina NSD Argentina! S.S.Wilks math. cards Fernando ? USA statistics (5) (Princeton) 1942--44

81 Neumann, 1903- Hungary IEB Gottingen Hilbert, set IEB Johann von 1957 (Germ) 1926/27 Bernays theory 896 [6 months] DSB

82 Nevanlinna, 1895- Finland IEB Paris 1929 Hadamard auto- IEB Rolf 1980 [6 months] [Lindelof] morpho 897 functions DSB (Suppl)

83 Newman, 1897- UK IEB Princeton Alexander combin- IEB Maxwell 1984 1928/29 [H.J.Baker] ator 898 [12 months] topology

84 Neyman, 1894- Poland IEB London! Pearson! biome- IEB Jerzy 1981 Paris Borel tries, 899 1926/27 [Sierpinski] statistics Reid [15 months] (1982) DSB (Suppl)

85 Nikliborc, 1899- Poland NSD Leipzig L.Lichten- celestial card Wladislaw 1948 1930/31 stein mechanics Michat [12 months]

86 Ore, 1899- Norway IEB Djursholml M-Lefflerl number IEB 0ystein 1968 Parisi Hadamard! theory 907 Gottingen Hilbert, 1924-26 Noether [24 months] [Stormer] Appendix 15 297

87 Ostrowski, 1893- stateless, IEB Oxford! Hardy number lEB Alexander 1986 Germany Cambridge th., algebra 909 (USSR) 1925/26 [12 months]

88 Paley, 1907- UK NSD Cambridge N.Wiener quasi- card Raymond 1933 (US) ana1yt E. 1932133 functions

89 Pejovic, 1892- Yugoslav IEB Paris E.Cartan differential IEB Tadija ? 1925/26 [Petrovic] equations 917

90 Pepper, 1899- USA IEB Oxford! Hardy number lEB EchoD. ca Cambridge [NRC] theory 918 1976 1925/26 [12 months]

91 Petersson, 1902- Germany IEB Cambridgel Hardyl auto- lEB Hans 1984 Wien Wirtinger morpho 921 1927/28 [Heeke] funct. [12 months]

92 P6lya, 1887- Switzer!. IEB+ Oxford! Hardy IEB George 1985 (Hungary) NSD Cambridge Alexander 9301 1924/25 + card [12 months] USA 1933 [6 months]

93 Posse1, 1905- France NSD Germanyl CaratMo- measure Directo Rene de 1974 Hungary dory theory ry 1930132 [E.Vessiot]

94 Rad6, 1895- Hungary IEB Munich calculus IEB Tibor 1965 1928/29 variations 938, DSB

95 Rasch, 1901- Denmark NSD London R.A.Fisher biomathi cards Georg W. 1980 1935/36 statistics (3)

96 Roth, 1904- UK NSD Rome Castel- algebraic Segre Leonard 1968 1930/31 nuovo, geometry (1976) Enriques 298 Appendices

97 Ruse, 1905- UK NSD Princeton Veblen, tensor card Harold ? 1933/34 Eisenhart calculus Stanley

98 Sachs, 1914- USA NSD USA Neugebauer history card Abraham 1983 (Brown of math. Univ.) 1941--43

99 Saks, 1897- Poland NSD USA T.Rad6 functional card, Stanislav 1942 1931/32 Kellogg, analysis DSB Tamarkin

100 Saxer, 1896- Switzerl. IEB Parisi Montell compl. IEB Walter 1975 Gottingen Landau functions 962 1926/27 [Weyl] [11 months]

101 Schauder, 1899- Poland NSD Leipzig! Lichtenstein! functional card, Juliusz 1943 Paris Hadamard analysis, DSB 1932/33 [Steinhaus] diffequat. (Suppl)

102 Scherrer, 1894- Switzerl. IEB Parisi Hadamard! topology IEB Wilhelm 1979 Gottingen Courant 964 1926/27 [Weyl] [12 months]

103 Schoenberg, 1903- Rournania NSD Chicago Bliss calculus Direc- Isaac 1990 1930/31 [Courant] variations tory [12 months] 104 Schouten, 1883- Netherl. NSD USA Birkhoffl differential card, Jan A. 1971 1930/31 Veblen geometry DSB [6 months]

105 Segre, 1903- Italy IEB Paris E.Cartan IEB Beniamino 1977 1926/27 971

106 Siegel, 1896- Germany IEB Copenha- Hardy number IEB Carl L. 1981 genlUK theory 976 1925 DSB [8 months]

107 Struik, 1894- Netherl. IEB Romel Levi-Civita differential IEB Dirk Jan 2000 Germany geometry 1002 1924-26 Appendix 15 299

108 Szymanski, 1900- Poland IEBI Paris Toussaint aero- IEB Piotr ? NSD 1928/29 [Witoszyn- dynam, 1007 [9 + X as ski] topology NSD]

109 Tarski, 1902- Poland NSD Vienna! Mengerl logic cards Alfred 1983 Paris L.Rougier (3) 1935 DSB [9 months]

110 Thomas, 1898- USA IEB France [NRC] diff. IEB Joseph M 1979 1926/27 systems 1012

III Thomas, 1899- USA IEB Switzerland [NRC] differential IEB Tracy Y. 1983 1924/25 geometry 1013

112 Thomsen, 1899- Germany IEB Rome Levi-Civita differential IEB Gerhard 1934 1926/27 [Blaschke] geometry 1015 [12 months]

113 Todd, 1908- UK NSD Princeton Lefschetz geometry, card John Arthur 1994 1933/34 [Baker] topology [12 months]

114 Van der 1903- Nether!. IEB Gottingen Noether abstract IEB Waerden, 1996 (Germ.) 1925/26 [Brouwer] algebra 1027 Bartel [7 months] Leendert 115 Vasilesco, 1897- Roumania IEB Parisi Lebesguel algebra, IEB Florin 1958 Harvardl Kelloggl real 1028 Houston Evans funct. 1927-29 [Goursat] [24 months]

116 Vassiliou, 1904- Greece NSD Hamburg Heckel number card Philon ? 1930-32 Artin theory [18 months]

117 Vazquez, 1915- Mexico NSD Princeton Bochnerl functions cards Garcia R. ? 1941--43 Lefschetz real (3) [18 months] variabl

118 Vietoris, 1891- Austria IEB Nether!. Brouwer topology IEB Leopold 1925/26 1030 300 Appendices

119 Vranceanu, 1900- Roumania IEB Harvardl Birkhoffl three- IEB Gheorge 1979 Princeton Veblen body- 1034 1927/28 [L.-Civita] problem [12 months]

120 Walsh, 1895- USA IEB Munich Caratheo- analysis IEB Joseph L. 1973 1925/26 dory 1039 [12 months] [NRC]

121 Walther, 1898- Germany IEB Copen- Norlund numerical IEB Alwin 1967 hagen [Courant] analysis 1041 1926/27 [9 months]

122 Wei!, 1906- France IEB Berlin! E.Schmidtl algebra IEB Andre 1998 Gottingen Courant 1046 1926/27 Wei! [10 months] (1991)

123 Weinstein, 1897- Switzer!. IEB Rome Levi-Civita analysis IEB Alexander 1979 (USSR) 1926/27 [Weyl] 1049 [18 months]

124 Weiss, 1900- Germany IEB Paris E.Cartan geometry IEB Ernst A. 1942 1928-29 [Study] 1050 [12 months]

125 Wilson, 1890- UK IEB Amsterdam Brouwer topology IEB Wilfred ? 1925/26 1059

126 Wintner, 1903- Germany IEB Romel Levi-Civita topolo- IEB Aurel 1958 (Hungary) Copenha- Stromgren gical 1061 gen [Lichten- dynamics DSB 1929/30 stein] [12 months]

127 Woodger, 1894- UK NSD Chicago C.L.Hulll biomathl card Joseph 1981 1938 R.Camap philoso- [3 months] phy

128 Youden, 1900- USA NSD UK R.A.Fisher biomath. DSB William J 1971 1937/38 Appendix 15 301

129 Zariski, 1899- Italy IEB Rome Severi, algebraic IEB Oscar 1986 (Russia) 1924-26 Castel- geometry 1078 nuovo Parikh (1991 )

130 Zygmund, 1900- Poland IEB Parisi Hadamardl Trigono- IEB Antoni 1992 Cambridge Hardy metric 1081 1929/30 [Sierpinski] senes 302 Appendices

Appendix 16: Guggenheim Fellows in Mathematics: Chronological List Until 1945+

Name year of host country/town field of research study

J.R.Kline 1926/27 G6ttingen topology E.P.Lane 1926127 Italy project. diff. geom. E.B.Stouffer 1926/27 Italy project. diff. geom. N.Wiener 1926/27 G6ttingen Fourier analysis Ph. Franklin 1927/28 G6ttingen integral equations H.S.Vandiver 1927/28 England/Germany/ number theory Switzerland O.C.Hazlett 1928/29 ? number theory G.Th.Whybum 1929/30 Europe topology A.Napoles Gandara 1930 USAJMIT differential geometry (Mexico) harmonic analysis E.Nagel 1934 ? logic C.H.Langford 1935 ? logic A.Dresden 1935/36 Italy/Princeton calc. variations. A.Copeland 1935/36 Europe probability D.V.Widder 1935/36 ? Laplace Integrals M.H.Stone 1936 ? funktional analysis D.H.Lehmer 1938/39 ? number theory M.Gonzalez Rodigues 1939 USA differential equations (Cuba) G.Pall (Canada) 1940 ? number theory J.Douglas 1940/41 USA calc. variations R.L.Wilder 1940/41 USA topology O.Zariski 1940/41 USA algebr. geometry

+ Possibly incomplete. Cf. also chapter IV.9 for the sources and some discussion. Appendix 16 303

A.Wintner 1941142 USA probability D.Montgomery 1941142 USA topology A.Tarski (resident) 1941142 USA logic R.Brauer (resident) 1941142 USA algebra lCh.McKinsey 1942143 USA logic A. Barajas Celis 1944 ? mathematical theory of (Mexico) gravitation A.Weil (resident) 1944/45 USA algebr. geometry P.Erdos (resident) 1945 USA algebra/approxim. lW.Calkin 1945 USA bound. value probl. E.Hewitt 1945 USA topology W.H.Pitts 1945 ? math. in neurology R.Laguardia (Uruguay) 1945 Princeton Laplace transform. 304 Appendices

Appendix 17: Dismissed Mathematicians From Europe Who Were Supported by the RF Emergency Fund

The list, which is probably incomplete, is confined to mathematicians who were at least partly supported by Rockefeller emergency funds within the territory of the United States.+

No. Name Dates Country field Years of Support through, of origin RF-support bibI. source

Alt, born Austria actuary after 1938 NSSR (Krohn) Franz 1910 2 Bernstein, 1878- Germany biostatis- 1933-1935 EC, RF-list Felix 1956 tics 3 Courant, 1888- Germany appl. 1934-1936 EC, RF-list Richard 1972 math. 4 Feller, 1906- Germany stochastics before 1939 RAC, support in Willy 1970 Stockholm 5 Friedrichs, 1901- Germany appl. math 1937-1939 EC, RF-list Kurt 1982 6 Gumbel, 1891- Germany statistics 1934-1942 RAC: RF-support Emil J. 1966 in Lyon and at NSSR 7 Hadamard, 1865- France analysis after 1941 NSSR (Krohn, Jacques 1963 Dosso) 8 John, 1910- Germany appl math. 1935-1937 EC, RF-list Fritz 1994 9 Kogbet- 1888- France appl. after 1940 NSSR (Dosso) liantz, ? math. Ervand 10 Kraitchik, 1882- Belgium number ? NSSR (Krohn) Maurice 1957 tho

11 Lewy, 1904- Germany appl. 1933-1937 EC, RF-list Hans 1988 math.

+ Do not confuse the list with a compilation of all mathematicians supported during the exis- tence of the RF. Cf. chapter V1.2. Frequent sources are Krohn (1987) and Dosso (2000). Appendix 17 305

12 Mandel- 1899- France analysis after 1940 NSSR (Dosso) brojt, 1983 Szolem 13 Neuge- 1899- Germany history, 1933-1942 RAC: till 1939 bauer, 1990 reviewing supported in Otto Copenhagen; EC, RF-list 14 Noether, 1882- Germany algebra 1933-1935 EC, RF-list Emmy 1935 15 Radema- 1892- Germany number 1934-1936 EC, RF-list cher, Hans 1969 tho 16 Szasz, 1884- Germany analysis 1933-1935, EC, RF-list Otto 1952 1937-1939 17 Szego, 1895- Germany analysis 1934-1936 EC, RF-list Gabriel 1985 18 Tarski, 1901- Poland logic 193911940 EC,RAC Alfred 1983 19 Weil, 1906- France algebra after 1941 NSSR (Dosso) Andre 1998 20 Weinstein, 1897- Germany appl. after 1940 Harlow Shapley Alexander 1979 math. Papers, Harvard 21 Zygmund, 1900- Poland analysis 1940-1941 EC Antoni 1992 Literature and Archival Sources

Archival Sources and frequent abbreviations

AAMS - Archives AMS, John Hay Library, Providence, Rhode Island AAS - Archives Academie des Sciences Paris AMS - American Mathematical Society Archives of American Mathematics - Austin, Texas Brown University Archives, Correspondence R.G.D. Richardson Bundesarchiv Berlin, Reichsforschungsrat R 26 III California Institute of Technology, Archives, Theodore Karman Papers CARAN - National Archives Paris Courant Papers, Archives New York University, Elmer Holmes Bobst Library, NYC. DMV - Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung DSB - Dictionary of Scientific Biography, New York City, Scribners, 16 volumes + 2 volumes (Supp!.), 1970-1982. EC - Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced German (later: Foreign) Scholars, New York City, abbreviation stands also for the Refugee Files of the EC, deposited at the New York Public Library. Einstein Papers, Hebrew University (Jerusalem) and Boston University (duplicate) ENS - Ecole Normale Superieure (Paris) ETH - Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule Zurich, library, manuscript division, Papers Hermann Weyl, Heinz Hopf, B.L.van der Waerden Freiburg UA: Wilhelm Suss Papers GEB - General Education Board (New York, Rockefeller) GF - John Simon Guggenheim Foundation Harvard University Archives: George David Birkhoff Papers, Harlow Shapley Papers (Refugee Files) Hausdorff Papers: Nachlass Felix Hausdorff, Universitiits- und Landesbibliothek Bonn, Abteilung Handschriften und Rara Hilbert Papers, Niedersiichsische Staats- und Universitiitsbibliothek Gottingen, Handschriftenabteilung lAS - Institute for Advanced Study (Princeton) IEB - International Education Board (Rockefeller, New York! Paris) IHP - Institut Henri Poincare (Paris, Sorbo nne) IRC - International Research Council Jussieu - Bibliotheque Interuniversitaire Scientifique Jussieu, Mathematiques Recherche (Paris) Library IHP, Emile Borel Papers, and other sources quoted in detail Massachusetts Institute of Technology Archives, Norbert Wiener Papers 308 Literature and Archival Sources

MPA - Archiv Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Berlin New York Public Library: Emergency Committee III Aid of Displaced Gennan (later Foreign) Scholars, Refugee Files Niels-Bohr-Archives Copenhagen NRC - National Research Council, Washington, D.C. NSSR - New School for Social Research, New York City Princeton Oral History Project, records ofinterviews mostly made in 1984/85, accessible in http://infosharel.princeton.edu:2003Ilibrariesifirestone/rbsc/fmdin/LaidsirnathoraVpm02.htm RAC - Rockefeller Archive Center, N.Tarrytown/Sleepy Hollow, N.Y. RF - Rockefeller Foundation SHQM - Sources for the History of Quantum Mechanics (copy e.g. in University of California at Berkeley, department of history) Thullen Papers - Papers of Peter Thullen, in the possession of his son Georg, Geneva Tislog -log ofW.E.Tisdale, in RAC Trowlog -log of A.Trowbridge, in RAC VA - University Archives (in particular G6ttingen)

Interviews and personal communications:

Interview Henri Cartan, 22 January 1999, Paris. letters by Bernard Bru, Paris, 24 February, 5 and 7 November 1999, to the author Several communications by P. Abir-Am, L.Beaulieu, D.Hoffmann, S.Krlimer, A.c. Lewis, W.Purkert, and D.Werner.

Printed Literature and Manuscripts:

Aaserud, F.: Redirecting Science. Niels Bohr, Philanthropy, and the Rise of Nuclear Physics; Cambridge University Press 1990. Abir-Am, P.: The Discourse of Physical Power and Biological Knowledge in the 1930s: A Reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's 'Policy' in Molecular Biology; Social Studies of Science 12 (1982), 341-382. Abir-Am, P.: From Multidisciplinary Collaboration to Transnational Objectivity: Interna• tional Space as Constitutive of Molecular Biology, 1930-1970; in: Crawford u.a. (eds) 1993, 153-186. Abir-Am, P.: "New" trends in the history of molecular biology (Essay Review); Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 26 (1995), 167-196. Abir-Am, P.: The Rockefeller Foundation and Refugee Biologists: European and American Careers of Leading RF Grantees from England, France, Gennany, and Italy; in G.Gemelii (ed. 2000), pp.217-240. Albers, D.J., G.L. Alexanderson und C.Reid (eds., 1990): More Mathematical People; Boston: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Alexanderson, G.L. and L.H.Lange: George Polya; Bulletin London Mathematical Society 19 (1987), 559-608. Aly, G. and K.-H.Roth: Die restlose Erfassung. Volksziihlen, identijizieren, Aussondern im Nationalsozialismus; Berlin: Rotbuch 1984. Literature and Archival Sources 309

Andler, M.: Les mathematiques it I'Ecole normale superieure au XX'siec1e: une esquisse; in: Sirinelli (1994), 351--404. Archibald, R.C. (ed.): A Semicentennial History ofthe American Mathematical Society 1888- 1938, New York City: AMS 1938 (2 volumes). Amove, R.F.: Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism. The Foundations at Home and Abroad; Boston: G.K.Hall 1980. Aspray, W.: The Emergence of Princeton as a World Center for Mathematical Research, 1896-1939; in: Duren, P. (ed.), Part II (1989), pp.195-215. Aspray, W.: John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing; Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press 1990. Assmus, A.: The Creation of Postdoctoral Fellowships and the Siting of American Scientific Research; Minerva 31 (1993), 151-183. Barrow-Green, J.: Poincare and the Tree Body Problem; History of Mathematics, Volume II; Providence and London: American Mathematican Society and London Mathematical Society 1997. Beaulieu, L.: Bourbaki. Une histoire du groupe de mathematiciens Franr;ais et de ses travaux (1934-1944); unpublished thesis, 441 + III pp., Universite de Montreal 1989. Beaulieu, L.: A Parisian Cafe and Ten Proto-Bourbaki Meetings; The Mathematical Intelli• gencer 15 (1993), No.1, 27-35. Beaulieu, L.: Bourbaki: History and Legend; New York, Heidelberg, Berlin: Springer, forth• coming. Becker, H., H.-J.Dahms and C.Wegeler (eds.): Die Universitiit Gottingen unter dem Natio• nalsozialismus. Das verdriingte Kapitel ihrer 250jiihrigen Geschichte; Miinchen usw: Sauro 1987 (second, enlarged edition appeared 1998). Birkhoff, G. D.: Fifty Years of American Mathematics; in: Archibald (ed., 1938), volume 2, pp.270-315. Birkhoff, G.D., Bliss, G.A., Hedrick, E.R.: The Visiting Lectureship of the American Mathematical Society; Bulletin AMS 34 (1928), 22. Blaschke, W.: Wissenschaftspflege im Ausland; Leipzig: Teubner 1933. Boas, R. P.: Ralph P.Boas (Interview); in: Albers, D.J., G.L. Alexanderson and C.Reid (eds.1990); Boston: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1990, pp.23--41. Bochner, S.: Mathematical Americana; in: Tarwater et a1.(eds, 1976), pp.87-98. Borel, E.: Elements de la Theorie des Probabilites, Paris: Hermann, 1909. Borel, E.: Le parti radical; La Republique Franr;aise 5 (1949), No.4, pp.311-317. Born, M. (ed.): Albert Einstein, Max Born: Briefwechsel 1916-1955; Miinchen: Nymphen• burger 1969. Brocke, B. vom (ed.): Wissenschaftsgeschichte und Wissenschaftspolitik im Industriezeitalter. Das ,System Althoff" in historischer Perspektive; Hildesheim: Lax 1991. Bro, B.: Doeblin's Life and Work from His Correspondence; in H.Cohn (ed.), Doeblin and Modern Probability, Contemporary Mathematics 149, Providence: AMS 1991, pp.I--64. Bro, B.: Dubourdieu, Jules (1903-1986); in: C. Fontanon and A. Grelon (eds.): Les profes• seurs du Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, volume I, Paris: INRP/CNAM, 1994, pp. 441--450. Bro, B.: Emile Borel and stochastics in France up to World War II (French manuscript, 150 pp.), unpublished, last version 1999. Burchsted, F.F.: Archives of American Mathematics; Historia Mathematica 14 (1987), 366- 374. 310 Literature and Archival Sources

Bush, V.: Science - the Endless Frontier; Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office 1945. Butler, L.: Mathematical Physics and the American Mathematics Community; unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation Chicago 1992. Canguilhem, Georges: Vie et mort de Jean Cavailh?s; Paris: Allia 1996. Cartier, P.: Abschied von einem Freund. Andre Wei! (1906-1998); DMV-Mitteilungen 1999, No.3, 7-12. Cauer, W.: Elektrische Methoden und Maschinen zur Auflosung von Systemen linearer Glei• chungen, Elektr. Nachr.-Techn. 12 (1935),147-157. Coben, S.: Foundation Officials and Fellowships: Innovations in the Patronage of Science; Minerva 14 (1976), 225-240. Coifman, R.R. and R.S.Strichartz: The School of Antoni Zygmund; in: P.Duren (ed., 1989), part III, pp.343-368. Corry, L.: Modern Algebra and the Rise of Mathematical Structures; Basel, Boston, Berlin: Birkhiiuser 1996. Coser, L.: Die osterreichische Emigration als Kulturtransfer Europa-Amerika; in: Stadler (ed., 1988), pp.93-101. Crawford, E.; T.Shinn, and S.Sorlin (eds.): Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of Inter• national Scientific Practice; Dordrecht usw.: Kluwer 1993. Curie, M.: Paul Appell: 1855-1930; 8 pp., Paris: Presses Universitaires, 1930. Dalen, D.v.: The War of the Frogs and the Mice, or the Crisis of the Mathematische Annalen; Mathematical Intelligencer 12 (1990), No.4, 17-31. Danneberg, L., Kamiah, A. and L.Schafer (eds.): Hans Reichenbach und die Berliner Gruppe; Braunschweig/Wiesbaden: Vieweg 1994. Darwin, C.G.: Douglas Rayner Hartree; Journal London Mathematical Society 34 (1959), 118-128. Dauben, J.W.: Mathematicians and World War I: The International Diplomacy ofG.H.Hardy and Gosta Mittag-Leffler as Reflected in Their Personal Correspondence; Historia Mathematica 7 (1980), 261-288. Davis, M.: American Logic in the 1920s; Bulletin ofSymbolic Logic I (1995),273-278. Demidov, S.: The Moscow School of Functions in the 1930s; in: Zdravkovska, S. and P.L.Duren (1993), pp.35-53. Dieudonne, J.: The Work of Nicholas Bourbaki; American Mathematical Monthly 77 (1970), 134-145. Dieudonne, J.: Carl Ludwig Siegel; DSB 18 (1981), 826-832. Dieudonne, J. (ed.): Abrl!ge d'histoire des mathematiques 1700-1900. Tome I et II; Paris: Hermann 1978. Dosso, D.: The Rescue of French Scientists: Respective Respective roles of the Rockefeller Foundation and the Biochemist Louis Rapkine (1904-1948); in G.Gemelli (ed., 2000), pp.195-215. Dubreil. P.: Souvenirs d'un boursier Rockefeller 1929-1931; Cahiers du Semina ire d'histoire des mathematiques 4 (1983), 61-73. Dugac, Pierre: Jean Dieudonne. Mathematicien complet; Paris: Jacques Gabay 1995. Duggan, S. and B.Drury: The Rescue of Science and Learning. The Story of the Emergency Committee in Aid ofDisplaced Foreign Scholars; New York: Macmillan 1948. Dupree, A.H.: Science in the Federal Government. A History of Politics and Activities to 1940; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1957. Literature and Archival Sources 311

Duren, P. (ed.): A Century of Mathematics, 3 parts, Providence: American Mathematical Society 1988/89. Duren, W.L.: Warren Weaver, Philanthrope; Notices American Mathematical Society 26 (1979), 182/83. Eckert, M.: Die Atomphysiker. Eine Geschichte der theoretischen Physik am Beispiel der Sommerfeldschule; Braunschweig/Wiesbaden: Vieweg 1993. Einstein, A.: Das Institut for geistige Zusammenarbeit (1926); in: Albert Einstein, Mein Weltbild, Berlin: Ullstein 26th edition, 1997; pp 76177. Einstein, A.: Oeuvres choisis, tom 4: correspondance franyaise; Paris: Seui11989. Erichsen, R.: Emigrantenhilfe von Emigranten - Die Notgemeinschaft Deutscher Wissen• schaftler im Ausland; Exil14 (1994), No.2, 51-69. Exodus Professorum (G6ttinger Universitatsreden 86); G6ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht 1989. Fleming, D. and B.Bailyn (eds.): The Intellectual Migration; Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1969. Flexner, A.: Universities: American, English, German; London etc.: Oxford University Press 1930. Flexner, A.: I remember; New York: Simon and Schuster 1940. Fonnan, P.: Scientific Internationalism and the Weimar Physicists: The Ideology and Its Manipulation in Gennany after World War I; ISIS 64 (1973), 151-180. Fortet, R.: Maurice Fn\chet; Annuaire Ecole Normale Superieure 1974, 30-33. Fosdick, R.B.:Hitier and Mathematics; Scripta Mathematica 9 (1943), 120-122. Fosdick, R.B.: Die Geschichte der Rockefeller-Stiftung; Wien, Wurzburg: Zettner 1955. Frechet, M.: The Inauguration of the Institute Henri Poincare in Paris; Bulletin AMS 35 (1929), 198-200. Frechet, M.: L'Analyse generale et la question des fondements; in: F.Gonseth (ed.), Entre• tiens de Zurich sur les fondements et la methode des sciences mathematiques; Zurich 1941, pp.53-81. Frechet, M.: La vie et I'oeuvre d'Emile Borel; L 'enseignement mathematique (2) 11 (1965), No.1, 1-97. Freudenthal, H.: Bela Kerekjarto; Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol.17 (1973), 312/13. Freudenthal, H.: Witold Hurewicz; Dictionary of Scientific Biography, voU7 (1990), 440- 442. Gau/3, C.F.: Bestimmung der Anziehung eines elliptischen Ringes. Nachlaj3 zur Theorie des arithmetisch-geometrischen Mittels und der Modulfunktion. Ubersetzt und herausgegeben von H. Geppert; Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft 1927. Geiger, R.L.: To advance knowledge. The growth of American research universities, 1900- 1940; Oxford University Press, New York etc.: Oxford University Press 1986. Gemelli, G., J.-F. Picard, and W.H.Schneider (eds.): Managing Medical Research in Europe. The Role ofthe Rockefeller Foundation (1920s-1950s); Bologna: CLUEB 1999. Gemelli, G. (ed.): The "Unacceptables": American Foundations and Refugee Scholars be• tween the Two Wars and after; Brussels etc.: Peter Lang 2000. Gispert, H.: La France mathematique: La Societe mathematique de France (1872-1914); Paris: Societe mathematique de France 1991. Grattan-Guinness, I.: Materials for the History of Mathematics in the Institut Mittag-Leffler; ISIS 62 (1971), 363-374. Grattan-Guinness, 1.: On the Development of Logics between the Two World Wars, Ameri• can Mathematical Monthly 88 (1981), 495-509. 312 Literature and Archival Sources

Gray, G.W.: Education on an international scale. A history of the International Education Board 1923-1938; New York 1941. Gregg, J.R. and F.T.C.Harris: Form and Strategy in Science. Studies Dedicated to Joseph Henry Woodger on the Occasion ofhis Seventieth Birthday; Dordrecht: ReideI1964. Halmos, P.R.: Some Books of Auld Lang Syne; in: P.Duren (ed., 1988/89), part I, pp.131- 174. Hanle, P.: Bringing Aerodynamics to America; Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1982. Helmberg, G.: Leopold Vietoris (109). Der lilteste lebende Osterreicher; DMV-Mitteilungen 2000, No.3, 44-46. Hertz, S.: Emil Julius Gumbel (1891-1966) et la statistique des extremes, unpublished docto• ral thesis, Lyon 1997. Hille, E.: In Retrospect; The MathematicalIntelligencer 3 (1980), 3-13. Holst, P.A.: Svein Rosseland and the Oslo Analyzer; IEEE Annals of the History ofComput• ing 18 (1996), No.4, 16-26. Holton, G.: The Migration of Physicists to the United States; in: Jackman/Borden (1983), pp. 169-188. Inauguration de l'Institut Henri Poincare a la Faculte des Sciences de Paris, Ie samedi 17 novembre 1928. Discours de M Emile Borel et de M Emile Picard; Paris: Academie des Sciences 1928. Jackman, J.C. and C.M.Borden (eds.): The Musesflee Hitler; Washington 1983. Jackson, A.: Bonn's Max Planck Institute: A New Building and a New Era; Notices of the AMS 45 (1998), No.5, 582-588. Jackson, A.: The Dream of a Swedish Mathematician: The Mittag-Leffler Institute; Notices of the American Mathematical Society 46 (1999), No.9, 1050-1058. Jansen, Ch.: Emil Julius Gumbel. Portrait eines Zivilisten; Heidelberg: Wunderhom 1991. John Simon Guggenheim Foundation: Report of the Educational Advisory Board. Treas• urer's Report 1925/1926; New York: 1926 John Simon Guggenheim Foundation: Reports of the Secretary and of the Treasurer 1935/1936; New York: 1936. John Simon Guggenheim Foundation: Index to Fellows 1926-1946; New York 1946. Jones, B.Z.: To the Rescue of the Learned: The Asylum Fellowship Plan at Harvard, 1938- 1940; Harvard Library Bulletin 32 (1984), 205-238. Hughes, Th.P: Die Erfindung Amerikas. Der technologische Aufstieg in den USA seit 1870; Miinchen: Beck 1991. Karl, B.D. and S.N.Katz: Foundations and Ruling Class Elites; Daedalus. Proceedings of the American Academy ofArts and Sciences 116 (1987), No.1, 1-40. Kerr, C.: Remembering Flexner; in: A.Flexner (1930), second edition 1968, vii-xx. Kevles, D.J.: The Physicists. The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1971. Kevles, D.J.: The National Science Foundation and the Debate over Postwar Research Policy, 1942-1945; ISIS 68 (1977), 5-26. Kiger, J.c.: Operating Principles of the Larger Foundations; New York: Russell Sage Foun• dation 1954. Kohler, R.E.: A Policy for the Advancement of Science: The Rockefeller Foundation, 1924- 1929; Minerva 16 (1978), 480-515 Kohler, R.E.: Warren Weaver and the Rockefeller Foundation program in molecular biology: A case study in the management of science; in: N.Reingold (ed., 1979); pp.249-293. Literature and Archival Sources 313

Kohler, R.E.: Science and Philanthropy: Wickliffe Rose and the International Education Board; Minerva 23 (1985), 75-95 Kohler, R.E.: Partners in Science. Foundations and Natural Scientists 1900-1945; Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1991. Koller, S.: 50 Jahre Medizinische Statistik; Mainz: Kirchheim 1986. Kowalski, 0.: Venovano Vaclavu Hlavatemu (Dedicated to Vaclav Hlavaty, in Czech); Po• kroky Mat. Fyz. Astron. 38 (1993), No.2, 65-81. Kozhevnikov, A.: The Rockefeller Philanthropy and Soviet Science (Russian); Voprosy Istorii Estestvoznaniia i Tekhniki 1993, No.2, 80-111. Krohn, C.-D.: Wissenschaft im Exit. Deutsche Sozial- und Wirtschaftswissenschaftler in den USA und die New School for Social Research; FrankfurtlNew York: Campus 1987. Kuzawa, M.G.: Fundamenta Mathematicae: An Examination of Its Founding and Signifi• cance; American Mathematical Monthly 77 (1970), 485-492. Kuznick, P.l.: Beyond the Laboratory: Scientists and Political Activists in 1930s America; Chicago/London: Chicago University Press 1987. Lehmann, E.L.: lerzy Neyman. April 16, 1894-August 5, 1981; Biographical Memoirs Na• tional Academy ofSciences 63 (1994), 395-420. Lehto, 0.: Mathematics Without Borders: A History of the International Mathematical Un• ion; New York etc.: Springer, 1998. Levy, P.: Calcul des probabilites; Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1925. Levy, P.: W.Doeblin; Revue d'histoire des sciences et de leurs applications 8 (1955), 107- 115. Lewy, H. (1985): Hans Lewy (Interview); in: Albers et al. (eds, 1990), pp.181-194. Lighthill, 1.: Sydney Goldstein; Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 36 (1990), 175-197. Lindeman, E.C.: Wealth and Culture. A Study of One Hundred Foundations and Community Trusts and Their Operations During the Decade 1921-1930 (1936); New Brunswick etc.: Transaction Books 1988. Mac Lane, S.: Mathematics at the University of Chicago: A brief History; in Duren (ed.1989), part II, pp.127-154 (1989a) Mac Lane, S.: Topology and Logic at Princeton; in: Duren (ed.1989), part II, pp. 217-221. (1989b) Macrakis, K.: The Rockefeller Foundation and German Physics under National Socialism; Minerva 27 (1989), 33-57. Macrakis, K.: Surviving the Swastika. Scientific Research in Nazi Germany; New Y orkl Oxford: Oxford University Press 1993. Malet, A.: Ferran Sunyer i Balaguer (1912-1967) and Spanish Mathematics After the Civil War; The Mathematical Intelligencer 20 (1998), No.2, 23-30. Marcus, A.I.: Physicians Open a Can of Worms: American Nationality and Hookworm in the United States, 1893-1909; American Studies 30 (1989), No.2, 103-121. Maurain, Ch. and A.Pacaud: La Faculte des Sciences de l'Universite de Paris; Paris: Presses Universitaires de France 1940. Maz'ya, V. and T.Shaposhnikova: Jacques Hadamard, a Universal Mathematician; Provi• dence/ London: American Mathematical Society and London Mathematical Society 1998. Mehrtens, H: The Gleichschaltung of Mathematical Societies in Nazi Germany; The Mathe• maticalIntelligencer 11 (1989), No.3, 48-60. Mehrtens, H.: Moderne, Sprache, Mathematik; Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1990. 314 Literature and Archival Sources

Menchov, D.E.: Impressions sur mon voyage it Paris en 1927; Cahiers du seminaire d'histoire des mathematiques 6 (1985), 55-59. Mendelsohn, E.: La Science aux Etats-Unis au XXe Siec1e; in: Taton (ed. 1964), Tome III, volume II, pp.914-923. Menger, K.: Reminiscences of the Vienna Circle and the Mathematical Colloquium; Dordrecht 1994 (edited by L.Golland, L., B. McGuinness, and A. Sklar). Michel, L.: History of the IHES and its Foundation by Leon Motchane; The Mathematical Intelligencer 21 (1999), No.2, 28-31. Mittag-Leffler, G. and S.Mittag-Leffler: Testament. 16/3 1916; Acta Mathematica 40 (1916), III-X (bilingual German and French). Montel, P.: Notice necrologique sur Emile Borel; Comptes Rendus hebdomadaire de I 'Academie des Sciences 242 (1956), 1" semestre, 845-850. Morse, M.: George David Birkhoff and his mathematical work; Bulletin AMS 52 (1946), 357-391. Mosseri, R.: Leon Brillouin 1889-1969. A la croisee des ondes; Paris: Belin 1999. Neugebauer, 0.: Das mathematische Institut der Universitat Gottingen; Die Naturwissen• schaften 18 (1930), 1-4. Neugebauer, O. and A.Sachs: Mathematical Cuneiform Texts; New Haven: Yale University Press 1945. Nielsen, W.A.: The Big Foundations; New York and London: Columbia University Press 1972. Niven, 1.: The Threadbare Thirties; in: Duren, P. (ed, 1988/89), part I, pp.209-229. Owens, L.: Mathematics and War. Warren Weaver and the Applied Mathematics Panel 1942- 1945; in: Rowe/McCleary (eds., 1989), VoUI, pp.287-305. Paoloni, G.: Vito Volterra and the International Board of Education: A Correspondence (1924-1930); in: G.Gemelli (ed., 2000), pp.273-298. Parikh, C.: The Unreal Life of Oscar Zariski; Boston etc.: Academic Press 1991. Parshall, K.H.: Mathematics in National Contexts (1875-1900): An International Overview; Proceedings of the International Congress of Mathematicians, Zurich 1994; Basel: Birkhauser 1995, pp.1581-1591. Parshall, K.H. and D. E.Rowe: The Emergence of the American Mathematical Research Community, 1876-1900: J.J.Sylvester, Felix Klein. and E.H.Moore; Providence, R.I/London: American Mathematical Society and London Mathematical Society 1994. Paul, S.: Die Moskauer mathematische Schule um NNLusin; Bielefeld: Kleine Verlag 1997. Pearson, E.S.: The Neyman-Pearson Story: 1926-34; in: Pearson, E.S. and M.G. Kendall (eds.): Studies in the History of Statistics and Probability; London: Griffin 1970; pp.455- 477. Peckhaus, V.: Von Nelson zu Reichenbach: Kurt Grelling in Gottingen und Berlin; in: Danneberg et al. (eds., 1994), pp.53-86. Pestre, D.: Physique et physiciens en France 1918-1940; Paris: editions des archives contemporaines 1984. Picard, J.-F.: La republique des savants. La recherche fran~aise et Ie C.NR.S.; Paris: Flammarion 1990. Picard, I-F.: La fondation Rockefeller et la recherche medicale; Paris: Presses Universitaires 1999. Pieper, H. (ed.): Korrespondenz Adrien-Marie Legendre - Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi. Cor• respondance mathematique entre Legendre et Jacobi; Leipzig: B.G.Teubner 1998. Literature and Archival Sources 315

Plail, M.: Die Entwicklung der optimalen Steuerungen; Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht 1998. Plato, J.van: Creating Modern Probability. Its Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy in His• torical Perspective; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1994. Porter, L.S. (1988): From Intellectual Sanctuary to Social Responsibility: The Founding of the Institute for Advanced Study, I93{}-1933; Dissertation Princeton University; manu• script, 479 pp. Problems of Mathematics. Princeton University Bicentennial Conferences, Series 2, Confer• ence 2; Princeton: Princeton University Press 1947. Puchta, S.: Why and How American Electrical Engineers Developed "Heaviside's Opera• tional Calculus"; Archives Internationales d'Histoire des Sciences 47 (1997), No.138, 57-107. Rassias, Th. (ed.): The Problem of Plateau: A Tribute to Jesse Douglas & Tibor Rada; Sin• gapore etc.: World Scientific 1992. Reid, Constance: Courant in Gottingen and New York. The Story of an Improbable Mathe• matician; New York etc.: Springer 1976. Reid, Constance: Neyman -from Life; Berlin: Springer 1982. Reingold, N.: Refugee Mathematicians in the United States of America 1933-1941; Annals of Science 38 (1981), 313-338. Reingold, N. (ed.): The Sciences in the American Context: New Perspectives; Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press 1979. Richardson, M.: Philanthropy and the internationality of learning: The Rockefeller Founda• tion and National Socialist Germany; Minerva 28 (1990), 21-58. Richardson, R.G.D.: The Ph.D.Degree and Mathematical Research; American Mathematical Monthly 43 (1936),199-215. Rider, R.: Alarm and opportunity: Emigration of mathematicians and physicists to Britain and the United States, 1933-1945; Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 15 (1984), 107-176. Rowe, D.: Jewish Mathematics at Gottingen in the Era of Felix Klein; ISIS 77 (1986), 422- 449. Rowe, D.: Klein, Hilbert, and the Gottingen Mathematical Tradition; Osiris (2) 5 (1989), 186-213. Rowe, D.: Perspective on Hilbert; Perspectives on Science 5 (1997), 533-570. Rowe, D: The Gottingen Response to General Relativity and Emrny Noether's Theorems; in: J.Gray (ed.), Symbolic Universe; Oxford: Oxford University Press 1999, pp. 189-234. Rowe, D. und J.McCleary: The History of Modern Mathematics, Boston: Academic Press (2 volumes) 1989. Rutkoff, P.M. und W.B.Scott: New School: A History of the New School for Social Research; New York: The Free Press, 1986. Scanlan, M.: Who were the American Postulate Theorists?; The Journal ofSymbolic Logic 56 (1991),981-1002. Schappacher, N.: Das Mathematische Institut der Universitat Gottingen 1929-1950; in: Becker/Dahms/Wegeler (eds.,1987), pp.345-373. Schaumberger, N: Jesse Douglas; Dictionary of Scientific Biography volA (1973), 173/74. Schl'Jtt, Th.: Fundamental Research in a small Country: Mathematics in Denmark 1928-1977; Minerva 18 (1980), 243-283. 316 Literature and Archival Sources

Schr6der-Gudehus, B.: Internationale Wissenschaftsbeziehungen und auswartige Kulturpoli• tik 1919-1933. Yom Boykott und Gegen-Boykott zu ihrer Wiederaufnahme; in: Vier• haus/Brocke (eds., 1990), pp.858-885. Schr6der-Gudehus, B.: Die Jahre der Entspannung: Deutsch-franz6sische Wissenschaftsbe• ziehungen am Ende der Weimarer Republik; in: Y.Cohen and K.Manfrass (eds.): Frank• reich und Deutschland; Mtinchen: Beck 1990; pp.105-115. Schwartz, Laurent: Un mathematicien aux prises avec Ie siecle; Paris: Odile Jacob 1997. Schweber, S.S.: The Empiricist Temper Regnant: Theoretical Physics in the United States 1920-1950; Historical Studies Physical Sciences 17 (1986), 55-98. Segre, B.: Leonard Roth; Bulletin London Mathematical Society 8 (1976), 194--202. Senechal, M.: The Continuing Silence of Bourbaki. An Interview with Pierre Cartier, June 18,1997; The Mathematical Intelligencer 20 (1998), No.1, 22-28. Shannon, C.E. and W.Weaver: The Mathematical Theory of Communication; Urbana: Uni• versity of Illinois Press 1949. Siegmund-Schultze, R.: Die Anfange der Funktionalanalysis und ihr Platz im Umwal• zungsprozeB der Mathematik urn 1900; Archive for History of Exact Sciences 26 (1982), 13-71. Siegmund-Schultze, R.: Faschistische Pliine zur 'Neuordnung' der europaischen Wissenschaft. Das Beispiel Mathematik; NTM-Schriftenreihe 23 (1986), No.2, 1-17. Siegmund-Schultze, R.: Mathematische Berichterstattung in Hitlerdeutschland. Der Nieder• gang des 'Jahrbuchs aber die Fortschritte der Mathematik'; G6ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht 1993. Siegmund-Schultze, R: "Scientific Control" in Mathematical Reviewing and German-U.S.• American relations between the Two World Wars; Historia Mathematica 21 (1994),306- 329. Siegmund-Schultze, R: Las frustradas tentativas de reforma de la formaci6n matematica de los ingenieros en los Estados Unidos de America en torno a 1900 sobre el trasfondo de similares reformas en Alemania; Llull18 (1995), 619-652. Siegmund-Schultze, R: The Emancipation of Mathematical Research Publishing in the United States from German Dominance (1878-1945); Historia Mathematica 24 (1997), 135- 166. Siegmund-Schultze, R.: Felix Kleins Beziehungen zu den Vereinigten Staaten, die Anfange deutscher auswartiger Wissenschaftspolitik und die Reform urn 1900; SudhofJs Archiv 81 (1997), 21-38.(l997a) Siegmund-Schultze, R: Ein Bericht Felix Kleins aus dem Jahre 1902 tiber seine mathemati• schen Vortrage in den Vereinigten Staaten 1893 und 1896; NTM (N.S) 5 (1997), 228- 235. (1997b) Siegmund-Schultze, R: Mathematiker auf der Flucht vor Hitler. Quellen und Studien zur Sozialgeschichte der Emigration einer Wissenschafl; BraunschweigIWiesbaden: Vieweg 1998. Siegmund-Schultze, R: Eliakim Hastings Moore's "General Analysis"; Archive for History of Exact Sciences 52 (1998), 51-89. (1998a) Siegmund-Schultze, R.: Rockefeller Support for Mathematicians Fleeing from the Nazi Purge; in: G.Gemelli (ed., 2000), pp.83-106. (2000a). Siegmund-Schultze; R.: An autobiographical document (1953) by Jean Leray on his time as rector of the "universite en captivite" and prisoner of war in Austria 1940--1945; Gazette des Mathematiciens No. 84 (2000), supplement, 11-15. (2000b) Literature and Archival Sources 317

Siegmund-Schultze, R.: Frechet a Strasbourg; in: J.Olff-Nathan: L 'Alsace et la Science, Paris: Seuil (2000c), to appear. Siegmund-Schultze, R.: The Ideology of Applied Mathematics Within Mathematics in Germany and the U.S. until the End of World War II; in: M.Hormigon (Hrg.): Mathe• matics and Ideology; Zaragoza (2000d), to appear. Siegmund-Schultze, R.: Die autobiographischen Aufzeichnungen Peter Thullens; Exil20, No. 1, (2000), 58-66 (2000e). Siegmund-Schultze, R: The Effects of Nazi Rule on the International Participation of German Mathematicians; in: K.Parshall and A.Rice (eds.): Internationalization of Mathematics, Providence: AMS (2001), to appear. Sigurdsson, Sklili: Unification, Geometry and Ambivalence: Hilbert, Weyl and the Gottingen Community; in: K.Gavroglu et al. (eds.), Trends in the Historiography of Science, Am• sterdam: Kluwer 1994, pp.355-367. Sirinelli, J.-F. (ed.): Ecole normale superieure. Le livre du bicentenaire; Paris: Presses Uni• versitaires de France 1994. Solla Price, D.J.de: Little Science, Big Science: Von der Studierstube zur Groflforschung; Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp 1974. Stadler, F. (ed.): Vertriebene Vernunft II. Emigration und Exil osterreichischer Wissenschafl; Wien, Miinchen: Jugend und Yolk 1988. Sternberg, S.: Aurel Wintner; Dictionary ofScientific Biography, vol. 14 (1976), 453/54. Strauss, H., T.Buddensieg, K.Diiwell (eds.): Emigration. Deutsche Wissenschafl nach 1933. Entlassung und Vertreibung; Berlin: TU 1987. Szaniawski, K. (ed.): The Vienna Circle and the Lvov-Warsaw School; Dordrecht, Boston, London: Kluwer 1989. Tarwater, J.D., J.T.White, and J.D.Miller (eds.): Men and Institutions in American Mathe- matics; Lubbock: Graduate Studies Texas Tech University 1976 Taton, R. (ed.): Histoire Generale des Sciences; Paris: Presses Universitaires de France 1964. Taylor, S.J.: Abram S.Besicovitch; Dictionary ofScientific Biography, vol. 17 (1990), 78-80. The Rockefeller Foundation Directory of Fellowships and Scholarships 1917-1970; New York: Rockefeller Foundation, 1972. Thiel, Ch.: Folgen der Emigration deutscher und osterreichischerWissenschaftstheoretiker und Logiker zwischen 1933 und 1945; Berichte zur Wissenschaflsgeschichte 7 (1984), 227-256. Thullen, P.: Aufzeichnungen eines aus Deutschland geflohenen Mathematikers; Exil20, No. 1, (2000), 44-57. Tobey, Ronald c.: The American Ideology ofNational science, 1919-1930, Pittsburgh 1971. Tobies, R.: Zu den Beziehungen deutscher und sowjetischer Mathematiker wlihrend der Zeit der Weimarer Republik; Mitteilungen der Mathematischen Gesellschafl der DDR 1985, No.1, 66-80. Tobies, R.: Wissenschaftliche Schwerpunktbildung: der Ausbau Gottingens zum Zentrum der Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften; in: Brocke (ed., 1991), pp.87-108. Tollmien, C.: Das Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut fUr Stromungsforschung verbunden mit der Aero• dynamischen Versuchsanstalt; in Becker et al. (eds. 1987), pp.464-488. Tollmien, C.: Die Habilitation von Emmy Noether an der Universitlit Gottingen; NTM 28 (1991), No.1, 13-32. Ulam, S.: Adventures ofa Mathematician; New York: Scribners 1976. 318 Literature and Archival Sources

Vierhaus, R. and B.vom Brocke (eds.): Forschung im Spannungsfeld von Politik und Gesell• schaft. Geschichte und Struktur der Kaiser- Wilhelm-IMax-Planck-Geselischaft; Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt 1990. Weaver, W.: Conformal Representation, with Applications to Problems in Applied Mathe• matics; American Mathematical Monthly 39 (1932), 448-473. Weaver, W.: U.S. Philanthropic Foundations: Their History, Structure, Management and Record; New York usw.: Harper and Rowe 1967. Weaver, W.: Scene of Change. A Lifetime in American Science; New York: Scribner's 1970. Weaver, W.: Richard Courant (1888-1972); Yearbook American Philosophical Society (1972), 142-149. Weaver, W.: Early Support for Mathematics from Rockefeller Agencies; Historia Mathe• matica 4 (1977), 443-444. Weber, M.: Wissenschaft als Beruf (1919); in: M.Weber, Gesammelte Aujsiitze zur Wissen• schaftslehre, Tiibingen: Mohr 1922, pp.524-555. Weil, A.: Souvenirs d'apprentissage; Basel: Birkhauser 1991. Weindling, P.: The Rockefeller Foundation and German Biomedical Sciences, 1920-1940: From Educational Philanthropy to International Science Policy; in N.A.Rupke (ed.), Science, Politics, and the Public Good, London: MacMillan, 1988, pp.119-140. Reprinted in Gemelli/Picard/Schneider (1999), pp.l17 -135. Weiner, Ch.: A New Site for the Seminar: The Refugees and American Physics in the Thir• ties; in: Fleming/Bailyn (eds., 1969), pp.190-234. Widman, K.-O.: Giista Mittag-LejJler: Liv, familj och villa; Vanersborg: Carlssons Tryckeri 1998. Wiener, N.: I am a Mathematician: The later Life of a Prodigy; Garden City, New York: Doubleday 1956. Young, L.: Mathematicians and their Times; Amsterdam: North Holland 1981. Zdravkovska, S. and P.L.Duren (eds.): Golden Years of Moscow Mathematics; Providence: American Mathematical Society 1993. Zierold, K.: Forschungsforderung in drei Epochen; Wiesbaden: Steiner 1968. Name Index

The index is referring to the main text, including appendices, footnotes, and endnotes. Names of persons, in particular mathematicians (fellows, grantees), who are only cited p. I 73 in the list of guests at the Institut Henri Poincare, in the bibliography, or in appendices (lists) 15 through 17 are not in the index. One name is not in the index because it occurs on almost every page: Rockefeller.

A Bamberger, L. 181, 194 Banach, S. 92,102,104,109,225,288 Bari, N. 124,288 Aaserud, F. 2,24,27,308 Bateman, H. 273 Abel, N.H. 65, 233 Bayet, J. 240 Abir-Am, P. 1,21,23, 197,234,308 Beaulieu, L. 5, 10, 16,23,25,98, 109, 167, Ackermann, VV. 33,83,225,288 168,173,175,229,231,308,309 Ahlfors,L. 102,104,109,178,191,229, Behmann, H. 96, 99, 106, 230, 289 288 Bergmann, S. 196 Aiken, H. 208 Bernshtein(Bernstein),S.N. 121,131,174, Alexander, J. 51,52,55, Ill, 112, 174, 291 207,272,273,289,295-297 Bernstein,F. 116,117,193,196,204,232, Alexandrov, P. 15-16,84,88, 104, 1 I 1, 243,294,304 112, 122, 125, 126, 131, 137, 138,229, Besicovitch, A. 49,84,91, 104, 107, 125- 275,288 128,130,227,233,267,289,317 Althoff, F. 277 Betti, E. 111 Anderlik, E. 30, 82, 93, 260 Betz, A. 116 Appell, P. 156,167,238,310 Beveridge, VV. 222 Archibald, R.C. 50, 179, 189, 273, 309 Bieberbach, L. 45, 236, 290 Amove, R. 11, 18,309 Birkhoff, G.D. 21,24,32,33,35,37,42, Artigas,J. 168 43,45-52,55-57,64,67,71,82,87-89, Artin, E. 10, 104, 110, 168, 290, 292, 294, 92,94,103,114,119,123-125,127- 299 130,133, 135, 138, 139, 143, 145, 148, Artin, N. 244 149,151-153,156-159,161,169,170, Assmus, A. 29,43,66, 134,309 173-175,180,188,200,201,223,224, A.T. s. Trowbridge 234,236,239,248,251-256,258-261, Aumann, G. 103, 244, 288 263,265,271,273,279-282,290-292, 298,300,307,309,314 B Blaschke, VV. 15, 16,61,94,228,290,291, 294,299,309 Blichfeldt, H. 204, 273 Baer, R. 99, 229 Bliss, G. 51,91, 197,273,298,309 Baerwald, H. 209 Bloch, F. 173, 174 Bakeman, G. 163 320 Name Index

Blum, L. 125 Caratheodory, C. 50,51,68,72,92,93,98, Boas, F. 31 99, 102, 122, 123, 136, 137,226,270, Boas, R.P. 130, 309 294,297,300 Bochner, S. 97, 104, 106, 194,289,299, Carlitz, L. 102, 289 309 Carnap, R. 213,214,300 Bohr, H. 3, 15, 16,22,34,39,51,59,61, Carnegie 18, 180,204 83,89,92,94-95,127,128,130,147- Carson, J.R. ll5 148,155,190,191,193,197,224,228, Cartan,E. 107,167,168,176,222,238, 231,234,258,270,277,289,291,293 239,251,289,290,292,297,298,300 Bohr,N. 3,22,27,39,59,91,143,147- Cartan,H.99,238,239,285,308 148,155,166,173,212,221,224,228, Castelnuovo, G. 1l2, 173, 174,297,301 235,258,308 Cauer, W. 5,106, ll4, 1l5, 231, 289, 310 Bol, G. 97,289 Cavailles, J. 97, 310 Bonnet, P.O. 108 Chabauty, C. 285 Borel, E. 22,37,51,73,77,92,94, 109, Chariety, S. 239 129,157-163,165-167,169-176,200, Chariier, C.V.L. 45 228,230,237,238,250,251,253-255, Charpentier, M. Il, 66, 72, 85, 124, 125, 268,270,279,280,282,283,294,296, 140,226,232,233,290 307,309,311,312,314 Chatelet, A 177 Born, M. 45,90,94, 123, 139, 144, 173, Chazel, M. 85, 122, 179,290 174,227,233,236,245,246,256,257, Chebychev, P.L. 126 260-263,309 Chern, S. 107 Boruvka, O. 96, 289 Chevalley, C. 125, 194, 285 Bouligand, G. 72 Church,A 17,53,101,136,137,290 Bourbaki 10, 12, 107, 108, 168, 169, 175, Coble, AB. 236 196,198,199,231,238,239,240,242, Compton, AH. 174 285,309,310,316 Condon,E.U.3,43,98 Bourion, G. 102, 289 Coolidge, J.L. 273 Brauer, R. 194,303 Couffignal, L. 176, 177,240 Bre1ot, M. 96,99,289 Courant, R. 2, 15, 16,20,22,24,29,33, Breuer (ministerial councillor) 278 39,42,52,53,55-57,66,91-94,98, Brillouin, L. 170, 171, 242, 251, 314 102, 108, 113, ll5, ll9, 130-132, 139, Broglie, L. de 167,170,171,176,251 140, 144-148, 151-155, 182, 189-191, Brouwer, L.E.J. 37,51,94, 101, 110, 137, 193,195,197, 198,201,207,209-212, 145,191,224,270,288,293,295,296, 214,218,227-230,236,256-261,263, 299,300 264,272,274,276,277,286,287,289, Bru, B. 57,85,156,169-172,233,239, 291,293,298,300,304,307,315,318 240,308,309 Coxeter, H.S. 104, 290 Bush, V. 98, ll5, 185,208,209,217,219, Craig, C.C. 102, 103, 119, 290 244,289,310 Curie, M. 61,69,90,131,163,167,253, Bustamante, E. 103, 289 310 Curry, H.B. 53 c D Cantelli, F.P. 173, 174 Cantor, G. 110 Darboux, G. 167,238 Darmois,G. 167,171,172,176 Name Index 321

Debye, P. 45,156,173 Fejer, L. 63, 294 Dehn, M. 110 Feller, W. 169,177,193,240,304 Delbriick, M. 197 Fenchel, W. 102, 104, 106, 108, 113, 230, Delsarte, J. 198,285 291 Denjoy, A. 177,285,295 Feraud, L. 87, 104, 120, 122, 125,227, Destouches, J.-L. 239 234,291 Dickson, L.E. 51,55,230,273,294,295 Fermi, E. 77,173,174 Dieudonne, J. 10,85,102,169,171,198, Ferrie (general) 158 240, 285, 290, 310 Fisher, R.A. 118,119,173,290,297,300 Dirichlet, P.G.L. 146 Flexner, A. 18,24,28,55,65,74, 113, Doblin, W. 156,171,172,177,184,221, 174,180-183,194,197,202,207,222, 240 311,312 Donder, Th. de 165,173 Flexner, S. 28-29, 36, 137 Doob, W.L. 172 Fock, V. 98 Douglas, J. 96,98, 101, 104, 105, 107, 121, Ford, H. 69 136, 137, 139, 178,229,230,233,290, Ford, L.R. 87,291 302, 310, 315 Forman, P. 13,14,311 Dubourdieu, J. 85, 107, 110,230,290,309 Fort, T. 202,242 Dubreil, P. 98, 109, 110,231,290,310 Fortet, R. 166, 172, 177,311 Dugac, P. 169,310 Fosdick, R. 45,55, 133, 144, 175, 187- Duggan, S. 194, 195,202,203, 213,214, 189,192,195,196,199,213,217,311 218,310 Fournier, G. 167,239 Dugue, D. 85, 102, 119,290 Franck, J. 22,91,94, 144-146, 148, 151, 152,191,198,245,246,256,257,259- 263 E Frechet, M. 40,49,72,165-167,169-172, 176,177,200,218,237,240,311,317 Economou (Economu), A. 68, 98 Frenkel, J. 174 Ehrenfest, P. 91,126,127 Freudenthal, H. 97, 230, 311 Ehresmann, C. 285 Friedrichs, K. 193,209,304 Einstein, A. 28,35,36,45,61,84,91,94, Frisch, K. von 156 116,163,172-174,203,207,307,309, Frisch, R. 97 311 Fry, Th. 64, 209 Eisenhart, L.P. 43,51,55, 137,272,273, Fubini, G. 168 289,294,298 Elliot-Smith, J. 70 Enriques, F. 112,289,290,297 G Epstein, P. 30,273 Evans, G. 68,114,231,299 Gamov, G. 173,174 Eversole, H. 32 Gauja, P. 238 Gauss, C.F. (GauE) 65, 108, 146,311 Gelfond, A. 88,89,99, 131 F Geppert,H. 65,96,106,212,291,311 Gerlach, W. 156 Fabry, C. 158 Gilman, D.C. 153 Farrand, L. 121 Gispert, H. 25, 311 Favard, J. 61,87,89,109, 110, 114,227, Godeaux, L. 168 231,291 GOdel, K. 79, 192, 194, 195 322 Name Index

Goldstein, S. 30,63,98, 105, 116,225, 227,238,256,257,263,264,270,276, 232,291,313 288-290,294,296,307,315,317 Gontcharov, V. 130,291 Hille, E. 98, 136, 179, 235, 292, 312 Goudsmit, S. 173, 174 Hirzebruch, F. 112 Goursat, E. 68, 72, 284, 299 Hitler, A 15, 187, 195,202,203,282,311, Gramsci, A 16 312,316 Grandjot, K. 99, 104, 122,291 Hodge, W. 79, 112 Graustein, W. 273 Hoffmann, D. 163,236,308 Grave, D.A. 126 Hogben, L. II Gregg,A 218,219 Hopf, E. 33,103-105, 111, 114,292 Grell, H. 96, 99 Hopf, H. 5, 16,67,89,96, 103, 104, 110, Grelling, K. 196, 206, 314 137,138,229,231,236,275,292,307 Grothendieck, A 112 Horowitz, A 97, 103, 119,293 Guggenheim, H. 30,34,153 Hotelling, H. 203, 295 Guggenheim, J.S. 25, 29, 30, 53, 78, 103, Householder, AS. 103, 105, 119,293 105,134,138-140,302,307,312 Huntington, E.V. 53 Guillet, ? 251 Hurewicz, W. 104,110,293,311 Gumbel, E. 78,84,99,117,118,173,174, 184,193,196,199-206,242,243,304, 312 I

Ingraham, M.H. 223 H

Haavelmo, T. 97 J Haber, F. 39,57,59,60, 191 Hadamard, J. 51,84,98,124, 132, 156, Jacobi, C.GJ. 65,314 170,194,196,200,204,205,237,243, Janiszewski, Z. 230 251,270,288,296,298,301,304,313 Jegorov, D.F. 126,288 Haenzel, G. 87,99,227 Jessen, J. 102, 293 Hahn, H. 110, 111, 295, 296 Joffe, A.F. 233 Hale, G.E. 28, 222 John, F. 103, 293 Hardy,G.H. 14-16,31,32,34,37,39-42, Johnson, A 198, 199,201,203,204-206, 51,56,73-75,82,83,91,92,94,98, 210,284 101,109,127,128,155,193,224,228, Jones,L.43,203,276 231,234,247,249,270,277,288,289, Jordan, C. 250, 284 291,293,297,298,301,310 Jordan, P. 90 Hartree, D.R. 98, 229, 310 Julia, G. 49, 168, 169,238,269,291 Hasse, H. 98,168,189,191 Hausdorff, F. 110,205,229,307 Heaviside, O. 115 K Heeke, E. 51,228,230,270,291,294,297, 299 Kahler, E. 102, 113, 293 Heisenberg, W. 77 Karl, B.D. 16-18,21,204,312 Herbrand, J. 102, 105, 292 Karman, Th. von 3, 30, 153, 154,211,307 Hennite, C. 164, 167 Katz, S.N. 16-18,21,204,312 Hilbert, D. 15,23,51,53,82,83, 101, 107, Kellogg,O.D. 68,69, 114, 149,298,299 116,144-146,149, 155, 188, 190,212, Kellogg, V. 59, 60 Name Index 323

Kerekjarto, B. 97, 230, 293, 311 Levi-Civita, T. 32,37,39,45,86, 112, Kerr, C. 182,312 237,270,289-295,298-300 Kilgore, H.M. 217, 244 Levy,P. 170--172,238,239,313 Klein, F. 3, 15,20,22,24,48,107, 108, Lewis, A.C. 69,84,229,308 144-147, 149, 151, 155,235,257,263, Lewy,H. 98,104,106,120,294,304,313 268,277,314-316 Lillie, F.R. 43, 135 Kloosterman, H.D. 105, 230, 293 Lions, J.-L. 240 Kneser, H. 98, 293 Littlewood, J.E. 101, 109,289 Kogbetliantz, E. 196, 198,285,304 Ljapunov, A.M. 126 Kohler, R.E. 1, 16-18,21,24,27,28,34, Lobachevsky, N.J. 126 43,58,60,65,83,134,144,148,156, Loeve,M. 172,177,239 184,187,312,313 Loewner, K. (C.) 196 Koller, S. 97,98,116,119,288,294,313 Logsdon, M. 87, 124,294 Kolmogorov, A.N. (Kolmogoroft) 89, 98, Lorentz, H.A. 91 125,126,130--132,169,172,174 Lukasiewicz, J. 53 Kopff, A. 231 Lusin, N. 83, 84, 88, 105, 125, 126, 128- Kosambi, D.D. 99, 222, 229 130,230,250,288,295,314 Kozhevnikov, A. 89,91,125,313 Krbek,F. 104,294 Kritikos, N. 68, 294 M Kronecker, L. 49 Krupp von Bohlen, G. 277 Mac Lane, S. 230 Kummer, E. 49 Magnus, W. 102,104,105,295 Maier, W. 33, 103, 230, 295 Mandelbrojt, S. 52,53, 177,295,305 L Manneback,C. 98,173 Marcovich, I. 69,72, 121 Lagrange,R.85,225,294 Marcus, A.I. 18, 313 Laguardia, R. 103, 119, 139,294,303 Marie, C. 253 Laguerre, E.N. 108 Markov, A. 126,171,172,177,240 Landau,E. 51,59,68,84,94,95,102,123, Mason, M. 22,23,28,39,92, 116, 149, 144,146,152,153,190,228,230,232, 188,190,198,202,208,276 256,257,259,261,264,270,293,296 Mathieu, E.L. 116 Langevin, P. 91, 167 Maurain, C. 162,163,166--168,173,238, Langford, C.H. 53, 302 313 Lapie, P. 237 Mazurkiewicz, S. 111 Lappo-Danilevski, LA. 102, 234, 294 Mazza,S. 97,103,119,295 Lavrentjev, M.A. 99 Menchov, D. (Menchoft) 88, 98,230,295, Lebesgue, H. 51,83, 109, 128, 129, 156, 314 230,250,270,288,294,295,299 Mendenhall, C.E. 43 Lee, Y.W. 64 Menger, K. 16,102,104-106,110,111, Lefschetz, S. 35,43,51,52,55,89,94, 121,288,296,299,314 111,112,131-133,137,138,168,174, Mie,G.45 202,207,219,228,231,272,273,288, Miller, G.A. 273 289,292,299 Millikan, R.A. 28,29,34,61,173,174, Lehmer, D. 232 222 Lenard, P. 117 Mineur, M. 176 Leray,1. 79, 108,230,240,285,316 Minkowski, H. 146,264 324 Name Index

Mises, R. von 45,121,173,174,211,232, o 244,260 Mittag-Leffler, G. 37,49,59,65,85,94, Oppenheimer, J.R. 98, 192 136,178-180,185,212,269,290,311, Ore, 0. 104,225,228,230,292,296 312, 314,318 Osgood, W.F. 48,51,55,272 Moe, H.A. 235 Ostrowski, A. 32, 105, 109,297 Montel, P. 72,157,228,237,251,252, Owens, L. 209,314 288,291,295,298,314 Moore, E.H. 24,37,43,47, 51,55,238, 273,314,316 p Moore, R.L. 288, 295 Morley, F. 88 Morris, C.W. 213 Pacaud, A. 163, 166, 168, 173,313 Morse,M. 47,48,51,55,168,173,174, Painleve, P. 61 238,241,314 Paley, R.E. 105, 108, 297 Mosseri, R. 171,314 Parikh, C. 98, 301, 314 Moulton, F.R. 51,55,273 Parshall, K. 2, 24, 314, 317 Murnaghan, F.D. 223 Pasteur, L. 178 Pauli, W. 45, 173 Pearl,R. 117,118,232 N Pearson, E.S. 77,118,119,314 Pearson, K. 70,77,84,101, 118, 119,296 Peffer, N. 202, 203 Nagell, T. 104, 228, 296 Pepper,E.D. 124,297 Nanni, L.F. 103, 119,296 Peres, J. 177 Neder, L. 98 Perrin,J. 163,167,253,254 Neugebauer, O. 53, 107, 132, 146, 154, Perrin, F. 167,251 193,210,212,213,277,298,305,314 Petersson, H. 83, 109, 136, 138, 297 Neurrrnnn, J. von 82,87,97,104-107, Picard, E. 51,59,60,65,71,81,82,94, 172-174,183,192,194,199,207,227, 157,163,168,226,238,269,270,312 292,296,309 Picone, M. 71 Neurath, O. 213,244 Pi sot, C. 285 Nevanlinna, R. 105, 109, 191,241,296 Planck, M. 185, 191,308,312,318 Newman, M. 110, 111,296 Plateau, J.A.F. 107, 137,315 Neyman, J. 70,98, 101, 104, 105, 118, Pohl,R. 144,245,246,256,257,260 140,173,193,232,296,313-315 Poincare, H. 15,46,48, 157, 163,237 Nielsen, J. 293 Poincare, R. 163 Nielsen, W.A. 18,314 Pollaczek, F. 173, 174, 177 Nikliborc, W.M. 102, 296 P6lya, G. 31,32,37,45,95,96,99,102, Nikuradse, J. 260 104, 105, 173,225,269,290,297,308 Noether, E. 4,10, 15,49,89,95,96, 104, PontIjagin, L.S. 99, 111,231,234 110-112,149,192,207,229,231,290, Popoff, K. 168, 173 292,296,299,305,315,317 Possel, R. de 102, 238, 285, 297 Nordheim, L. 98, 173 Post, E. 53 Norlund, N.E. 37,39,94, 114, 129, 180, Prager, W. 196 224,231,292,294,300 Prandtl, L. 30,63,82,93, 116, 151, 191, Novikov, P.S. 126 197,228,232,242,257,260,261,291 Puig, P. 67,68,99,226 Purkert, W. 229,308 Name Index 325

R Saxer, W. 123,124,298 Schauder, J.P. 96, 102, 105, 106, 108,230, 298 Rabi, I. 98 Scherrer, W. 123, 124,298 Rademacher, H. 196, 197,305 Schlesinger, L. 234 Radicitch 99 Schlick, M. 213 Rad6, T. 104,105,107,230,297,298,315 Schmidt, E. 96, 102, 289, 292, 300 Rainich, G.Y. 88,99, 126 Schnirelman, L.G. 64, 88, 89, 99, 225 Raman, C.V. 173,174 Schoenberg, I. 91, 104, 197, 198,228,298 Ramskov, K. 94,221 Schoenfiies, A. 110 Rasch, G.W. 102,119,297 Schouten, J.A. 105, 173, 298 Reichenbach, H. 173,174,310,314 Schroder-Gudehus, B. 7,13,316 Reid, C. 20,53,70,98,296,308,309,315 Schrodinger, E. 173 Reidemeister, K. 110 Schur, I. 190, 204 Richardson, R.G.D. 12, 16,64, 195,201, Schwartz,L. 196,199,219,240,316 202,204,207,210,213,217,219,241, Schwarz, H.A. 107 243,244,273,307,315 Schweber, S. 3, 11,316 Riecke, C. 236 Scott, W.B. 11,194,200,201,315 Riemann, B. 48, 107, 146,260 Segre, B. 100, 106, 107, 112, 113, 193, Riesz, F. 63 196,200,297,298,316 Rietz, H. 118 Seifert, H. 99, 110, 229 Ritt, IF. 273 Serre, l-P. 112 Robertson, H. 98, 123, 233 Severi, F. 72, 112, 168,301 Roosevelt, F.D. 11,221 Shannon,C.209,316 Rose, W. 18-22,24,27-43,45,50-53,55- Shapley, H. 103, 198,205,284,285,292, 59,61-69,72,74,75,82,84-88,90-92, 305,307 94,95, 113, 118-120, 124, 125, 127, Siegel, C. 91,93, 105, 109, 168, 194-197, 129-131, 133, 135, 136, 138, 143-145, 228, 295, 298, 310 151,154,156-158,160,161,170,179, Sierpinski, W. 15, 111,288,296,301 181,188,190,206,223,234,245,255, Sigurdsson, S. 49, 317 256,265,267,269,271,313 Slater, J.e. 283 Rosenfeld, L. 98, 173 Sommerfeld, A. 22,45,137,156,173,282 Rosseland, S. 98, 185,208,229,312 Souslin, M.Ja. 250 Roth, L. 102,108, 112,297,316 Spemer, E. 110 Rothschild, E. de 160, 167 Steinmetz, K. 31 Rowe, D.E. 2,3,24,144, 149,268,314 315 ' Stepanov, V. 131 Stoilow, S. 168,173 Runge,C. 144,146,256,261,263 Stone, M.H. 47,302 Runge, N. 261 Struik, D.J. 86,104, 105,204,225,298 Russell, B. 32 Sundman, K.F. 45 Rutkoff, P.M. 11,200,315 Suss, W. 15,99,229,307 Sweetser, ? 35 Sylvester, J. 31,314 s Szego, G. 32, 102,305 Szymanski, P. 99, 102, 114, 124,299 Sachs, A. 103,107,212,213,298,314 Saks, S. 105,106,196,206,230,298 Santalo, L.A. 168 Sarton, G. 212,244 326 Name Index

T Vassiliou, P. 102,299 Vazquez, G.R. 103,299 Veblen, O. 15, 16, 19,21,29,35-37,43, Tamarkin, J.D. 126,298 51-53,55,65,73-75,82,88,89,94, Tarski, A 15, 16,53, 104-106, 139, 191, 110, Ill, 130, 133, 136, 137, 145, 182, 192,196,205,230,243,299,303,305 195,197,200,213,223,228,248,272, Taylor, G.I. 45 273,290,293,295,298 Thomas, T.Y. 225 Vessiot, E. 61,94,110,228,251,289,290, Thomsen, G. 106,299 292,297 Thullen, P. 99,229, 308, 317 Vietoris, L. 97, 105,299,312 Tietze, H. 110 Villat, H. 85 Timoshenko, S. 126,211 Ville, J. 121, 172, 240 Tintner, G. 97 Volterra, V. 38,39,51,67,88,92,95,165, Tisdale, W.E. (WET) 22, 58, 63-65, 69, 173,174,224,228,270,289,295,314 79,82,83,87,89,91,92,95,96,103, Vranceanu, G. 67, 173,300 109, llO, 113-ll5, 122, 130, 136, 137, 183, 191,213,256,260,261,263,308 Trowbridge, A. (AT.) 13, 18,21,22,24, 34,38,39,43,46,48,50-53,55,57-74, w 75, 77, 79, 81-94, 106, 109-111, 119, 120, 122-124, 127-131, 135-139, 145- Walfisz, A 84, 86, 99, 228 149, 151-154, 157-163, 166-168, 179, Walsh, J.L. 47,101, 136, 137,300 180, 188, 200, 201, 206, 224, 234, 241, Walther, A 115, 119,300 251,253-269,271,272,277,308 Weaver, W. (WW) 11,20,22-24,29,40, Tucker, A 229 53,64,78,79,91,92,97, 103, 1I8, ll9, Turing, A 79 133,149, 169,174,175,182,187-192, Tyler, H.W. 1I5,289 197-201,204,206-214,217-219,223, 228, 235,241,279,281,282,285, 31I, 312,314,316,318 u Weber, M. ll,318 Weber, W. 146 Wedderburn, J.H.M. 273 UjVRry, G. 49 WeierstraB, K. 107,178 Ulam, S. 87, 238, 317 Weil, A. 85,88,98, 104, 106, 112, 114, 120, 124, 139, 175, 179, 196, 198-203, 205,222,231,284,285,292,300,303, v 305,310,318 Weindling, P. 1,32,318 Valentiner, J.T. 152, 154, 155,236,259, Weiner, C. 101,318 261,262,277 Weinstein, A 49, 104, 106,229,267,300, Valiron, G. 176 305 Vallee Poussin, C. de 37,168,173,267 Weiss, E.A 106,300 van der Corput, J.G. 168 Werner, D. 240, 308 van der Waerden, B.L. 4, 10, 95, 97, 102, Western, M. 286 104,106, 1I0, ll2, ll3, 145, 189,230, WET s. Tisdale 299,307 Weyl, H. 4,10,14,31,32,34,37,45,46, Van Sickle, J.V. 202 50,51,89,92,110,123,124,132,144, Van Vleck, J.H. 173, 174,283 155,174,183,190,193-195,197,198, Vasilesco, F. 68,69,72,87,104, ll4, 173, 200,206,207,223,224,236,243,257, 231,299 Name Index 327

270,277,284,285,288,292,298,307, WWs. Weaver 317 Wyart, J. 240 Whitehead, A.N. 51 Whitney, H. 47 Whittaker, E.T. 45,51,270 y Wiener, N. 51,55,64, 105, l39, 153,203, 273,297,302,307,318 Youden, W.J. 102, 103, 105, 119,300 Wilks, s. 203, 242, 283, 296 Wilson, E.B. 218 Wilson, Wilfred 104, 300 z Wilson, Woodrow 222 Windaus, A. 261, 263 Zariski, O. 97,98, 100, 104-106, 112, l39, Wintner, A. 33, 104, 105, 107, 139,300, 301,302,314 303,317 Zermelo, E. 49 Wirtinger, W. 109,289 Zygmund, A. 104-106,108,124,301,305, Wolff,1. 168 310 Woodger, J. 119,300,312 Subject Index

The in~ex is ~eferring to the main text, including appendices, footnotes and endnotes The followmg notIons are not in the index because they occur too frequently: America, American Europe, European, German, Germany, Gottingen, international International Educatio~ Board (IEB), mathematics, Paris, Rockefeller Foundation (RF), sci:nce, US.

A alumni 17 American Association for the Advancement of Science 47 A.M.S. s. American Mathematical Society American Bulletin s. Bulletin AMS Aachen 30, 153 American Mathematical Society (AMS) 16, abstract algebra 5,21, 106, 109, 149, 192 41,47,50,165,179,194,247,249271, abstracting (reviewing) 10, 12,39,42, 187, 307,309,311-314,318 193,196,316 American pragmatism 61 Academic Assistance Council 19,192 American Telephone and Telegraph Co 115 academic hierarchies 11,66, 125, 140 American values 16,69,91 Academie des Sciences 65, 156, 157,251, Americanization 7, II, 12,20 307,312 American-born 210 accelerators 5 Amitie Internationale 202 Acta Arithmetica 86 Amsterdam 100, 101, 106, 110, Ill, 137, Acta Mathematica 179, 247, 3 14 266,268,288,290,293,295,296,300, Actualites Scientifiques et Industrielles 285 317,318 advisor 33, 92, 94, 180 Analysis Situs 52, 272 aerodynamics 3,5, 10,30,93, 116, 191, analytical number theory 107 260,261,312 Annales de L'Institut Henri Poincare 172, Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt 151 238,239 Aeronautic Lab 116 Annals of Mathematical Statistics 243 African 18, 64, 78 Annals of Mathematics 23, 134 agriculture 34,79,81, 118, 134,253 Anschluss with Austria 282 Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung 230 antitrust lawsuits 1 algebra (algebraic) 4,5,10,21,46,55, anti-communism 125 104-106,108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 126, anti-militaristic 117, 199 149,168,189,192,204,236,273,284, anti-modernist 9 290,292,297,299,300,301,303,305, anti-nationalist 117 310 anti-Polish resentments 15 algebraic geometry 105, 106, 108, 112, 113 anti-Semitism (anti-Semitic) 31 32 63 algebraic number theory 106 117,149,155, 190, 191,20~20i,214, Allied 13, 14,287 225 allied boycott 14 apolitical 8, 19,20,60 Allies 15,23,33,57,59 almost periodic functions 94, 114 Subject Index 329 applications 3,35,43,46,53,65,67,75, Bamberger-Fuld Foundation 194 82,85,87,89,99,101,102,106,113, basic research 7, 17, 182 114,120,131,136-138,157,167,169, basic sciences 55,75 171,175,192,206,208,209,211,213, Bavaria 154 222,245,246,313,318 Belgian 37, 155,244 applied mathematician 23,63,78,97,105, Belgium 27,39,49,62, 120,254,265,267, 114,140, 151, 198,201,209 269,270,304 applied mathematics 3, 8, 10, 20, 29, 42, Bell industry 64 43,46, 53, 55, 56, 65, 98, 114, 115, 119, Bell Laboratories 208, 209 153,159,170,176,183,187-189,208- Berlin 8, 15,33,45,48,49,57-60,67,71, 212,217,253,254,256,258,260,273, 84,89,94,96,97, 102, 114, 145, 153, 314,317,318 156,163,172,174,178,188,191,204, Applied Mathematics Panel 189,210,217, 210,261,264,268,275,286,289,290, 314 292,300,307-311,314,315,317 applied mechanics 3,42,82,196,210,211, "best science" policy 64, 166 261 Betti numbers 111 Archives of American Mathematics 88, big science 317 307,309 biologist 60, 70, 197 Arconati-Visconti (foundation) 23 biology 11,21-23,28,34,38,43,66,78, Argentina 100, 294, 296 79,81,96,101,117,119,134,141,151, army 32,201 184,187,188,193,204,208,214,228, arm-chair philosophy 213 263,286,308,312 Asian 18,78 biomathematics 96, 116, 208 assassinations 203 biometric 70 assistantships 48,85, 122, 123, 153, 158, biometrist 70, 117 159,161,169,266 biophysics 119 astronomer 28, 55, 205, 231 biostatistician 204 astronomical 114 bio-statistics 117, 175 Astronomy 252, 273, 292 blood stream 93, 232 astrophysics 98,176,185,208 Bologna 15, 311 Asylum Fellowship Plan 205,312 Boolean algebras 111 Athens 68, 98 bordering subjects 25,65, 140, 194,206, atomic physics 2, 43 208,214 Auschwitz 206 Borelian mathematics 157,169,239 Austria 8,62,100,191,192,282,288,289, boycott 14,15,56,57,59,126,155,190 295,296,299,304,316 Brain Drain 7, 219 Austrian 15,37,97 Briand-Stresemann agreements 165 aviation 93 "brick and mortar" tradition 153 axiomatics 12,221 British 14, 19,62,63,100, 192,200,280 Axiome du Choix 250 Brown Summer School for Applied Mechanics 196 Brown University 33,195,205,210,211, B 217,273,307 Brussels (Bruxelles) 165, 268, 311 Babylonian 107,212 Bucharest 68 backward countries 61,62,67,75,84,86, Budapest 230 87 Bulletin Analytique 176 ballistics 176 330 Subject Index

Bulletin of the American Mathematical Chicago 17,24,37,46,51,91,108,197, Society 42, 165,249 214,222,228,238,272,273,293,295, BunsenstraBe 151,154,235 298, 300, 310, 313 Bureau of Standards 116 Chile (Chili) 99, 100, 122,293 bureaucratic 10,73,84,96, 128,218,219 Chinese 64, 107 Bures-sur-Yvette 185 church 17,53, 101, 136, 137,290 business 10, 16, 19,39,62,74, 121, 137, citizenship 32, 88, 96, 210 213,256,262 classical 10, 13, 18,29,36,46,66,79, 103, business culture 16,19,62 106,108,112,171,197,209,272,284 Bydgoszcz 232 CNRS s. Conseil National de la Recherche Scientifique cognitive 3,4,7, 10-12,21,46,47,103, c 106,140, 152, 169 Cold War 2,8,203,219 Cabinet du Departement des sciences collective (mathematical notion) 121,232 mathematiques 166 College de France 166,167,171 Caisse Nationale de la Recherche Collegium Hungaricum 49 Scientifique 121, 125, 176 Columbia University 243, 256, 314 calculus of variations 104, 105, 107, 168, combinatorial logic 53 238,273 combinatorial topology 110, III California 30,134,153,172,236,307,308 Comite des Savants 242 California Institute of Technology 30, 134, communist 182,201 307 complex function theory 104, 105 Cambridge (England) 37,45,94,98, 101, computation 105, 106, 208, 289 108, 109, 184, 191, 193,248,268,288, computers 5, 104, 106, 114, 183, 192 289,291,293,297,301,308,315 computing 119, 176, 208, 243, 309, 312 Cambridge (Massachusetts) 37,51, 114, computing machine 119 115,174,183,188,219,281,283,297, congresses 3,174,217,281 309-312 Conseil National de la Recherche Canada 198,285,302 Scientifique (CNRS) 121,175,184,218, capital grants 25,34,66,72, 77, 134, 145, 232,240 160 conservative 12, 18,39,40, 136, 138, 181, capitalism 1, 17 183, 188,206 Cardiff 248 control theory 231 Carlsberg Foundation 221 Copenhagen 2,22,23,27,38-40,59,61, Carnegie (Institution, philanthropy) 18, 83,87,89,94,100,101,107,109,114, 180,204 143,147,185,191,193,210,212,230, celestial mechanics 43, 105 231,266,268,277,289,291,293,294, Cernauti 69 298,300,308 certificat d'etudes superieurs Cornell 121 de calcul des probabilites et physique corporational interests 114 mathematique 169, 171 cosmopolitan 165, 184 charity 67,196,204,205 cosmopolitism 143 chemist 59, 191 Courant-Hilbert (book) 190,241 chemistry 22,28,34-38,43,79,81, 101, Courant Institute 33,210 134,151,170,184,257,263 Cowles Commission for Research in Economics 208 cross-cultural 24 Subject Index 331 cross-fertilization 286 doctorate 72,82,124,134,163,170,188, cultural hegemony 16 199 cultural values 211,213 doctor's degree 82,88,209 curator 148, 152, 154, 155,261,277,278 Dominions 280 cybernetics 203 double-modernization 13 Czech 100,289,313 drafting 161, 163 Dutch 4,86, 145, 156,204,224 dynamics 103, 114,291,292,300 D

Danish 3, 5, 16, 94, 129, 180, 197 E Dannstadt 115 dead place 65, 179 Eastern Europe 18,20,90, 130,260 decentralization 71, 72, 101, 119 Ecole Nonnale Superieure (ENS) 61,85, decision theory 53 125,166,171,228,307,311,317 Delft 100,221,292 Ecole Polytechnique 171, 238, 240 democracy 10, 11, 181 Econometry 218 Denmark 7,22,49,51,92,94,98, 100, economic 5,7,18,20,23-25,27,30,31, 101,155,178,210,229,265,269,270, 33,34,55,59,62,70,83,87, 120-122, 293,295,297,315 124,126,160,187,196,218 depreciated currency 120 economics 11, 19,21,97,208 depression (economic) 17,25,28,73,87, Edinburgh 45,233,239,259 121, 187, 190,214,232 education 1,2,4,15,17-21,23-25,27-29, Diatendozenten 121 34,37,38,42,43,46,48,52,53,55,57- dictatorship 7, 16, 20 59,61,62,64-66,71,74,77-79,83-85, Dictionary of Scientific Biography 97, 307, 88,96, 101, 116, 120, 126, 133, 135, 311,315,317 137,138,146-148,155,160,163,167, Differential Analyzer 98,185,208,217, 175,176,178,179,181,182,184,190, 229,243 194,202,212,245-247,251,265,266, differential equations 107, 126, 193,276, 272,273,277,278,307,312-314 302 educational refonn 180 differential geometer 86, 172 educational systems 2,4,87 differential geometry 36,43, 105, 107, 108, Einstein-Bose statistics 172 110, 298, 302 electrical engineers 64, 115, 315 differential invariants 149 elementary education 1 disciplines 8, 11,21-23,43,45,52,55,64, elite 18 79,104,135,155,167,176,184,207, elitism 11 208,252,273,284 elitist 18,48,64, 181 disinterested research 181 embassy 206 dismissals 190, 203 emergency 3,23,25,28,33,38,56,58,66, displaced 194-197,204,214,218,307, 78,83,84,91,97,99,104,182,187, 308,310 190,192-198,203-205,209,210,213- Division for Intellectual Cooperation 35 215,218,304,307,308,310 Division of Natural Sciences 78 Emergency Committee 194, 195, 197,203, Division of Physical Sciences 29,58 213,214,218,307,308,310 Djursholm 49,85,94, 100, 122, 136, 143, emergency help 23,28,38,56,66, 187 178-180,185,235,240,290,292,296 332 Subject Index emergency program(s) 3,25.33,58,78, Finnish 102, 109, 191 83,84,91,99,104,187,192-198,209, First World War 8, 126 214 Florence 234 Emergency Society for German Scholars fluid mechanics 93, 252, 257 Abroad 196 Fondation Curie 238 emigration 8,20,30-32,53, 104, 106, 108, foreign languages 12 113, 116, 126, 127, 140, 184, 187, 191, foreigners 32,33,49,93, 122, 124, 127, 192,199,204,210,219,233,310,315- 128, 132, 134, 135, 139, 166, 167, 171, 317 194,201,209,210,245-247 emigre 29,30,195,209 foundations of mathematics 52, 145,273 enemy countries 59 Fourier analysis 108, 302 engineer 151,209,257 fractals 104 engineering 8,21,25,38,43,53,78,151, France 3,10,19,22,23,25,34,37,39,45, 193,208,209,211,214 46,49-51,62,69-72,83,85,87,92, England 32,34,37,40,41,45,50,51,82, 100,101,109,119-125,130,140,158- 92, 100, 101, 108-111, 116, 128, 134, 161,165-167,170,171,175-177,198- 170,191,193,196,200,229,239,247, 200,202-206,219,232,237,240,254, 248,269,286,302,308 255,265,267,269,270,280,282,289- English 5,14,15,31,32,40-42,56,89, 295,297,299,300,304,305,308,309, 100, 108, 109, 112, 115, 116, 127, 130, 311,313,314,317 170,181,188,202,211,247,249,250, FrankfUrt 197,231,244,290,313,317 275,279,280,285,311 French 5,8, 10, 13, 14,22,25,34,35,37, ENS s. Ecole Nonnale Superieure 39,40,48,49,52,57,58,61,63,67,69- epistemology 53,97,213,214 72,78,85-89,92,93,97,100,104,107, ergodic theory 43, 103, 170 109, 118, 119, 121-124, 126, 140, 145, Esperanto 39,40 155-157, 160, 161, 165-179, 184, 185, European experiences 20,207,211 189,194,196,198-201,204,218,219, European ideals 48, 214 224,247,249-251,253-255,268,269, Europeanization 7, 11, 12 279,280,282-285,309,310,314 Europhile 18,58 Front Populaire 125 excellence 64,66,67,75,79,82,91, 135, fUnction theory 45, 104, 105, 107, 126, 136, 199 157,273,288,290 exceptional age 128, 129 fUnctional analysis 15,55,86, 105, 108, experimental facilities 10 1, 134 171,231,240 experimental physicist 58, 145, 151 fUnctionals 92 experimental physics 5, 12, 49, 256 fUnctions of real variables 126, 129 fUnding of personnel 160 funding of science 2 F

Faculte des Sciences 157,279,312,313 G fascism 71,174,191,203 Fascist Government 71 GALCIT 33 federal money 210, 213 Gallup Survey 195,218 female mathematician 66 Galton Laboratory 101, 119 Fields Medal 104, 137, 178 game theory 170, 183 fine arts 13 8 Gauss-Bonnet integral fonnula 108 Finland 100, 178, 288, 296 GEB s. General Education Board Subject Index 333

General Analysis 55 high schools 207 GeneraIEducationBoard(GEB) 17,18,23, higher analysis 167 28,65,74,133,134,181,182,194,210, higher education 59,71,101,181 256,307 higher geometry 167 General Theory of Relativity 28, 36 Hilbert space 107 genetics 12 historian of mathematics 53, 154, 189,244 Geneva 227,308 historians 24, 109, 169, 192,212 geodesy 114 historiography 25,53,65, 105, 107, 119, geometer 15,86,87,108,167,168,172, 212,213,317 200 historiography of mathematics 53,65, 105, geometrical research 24 107, 119 Geometry 36,43,55,93, 105-108, 110, history of mathematics 9, 18,25,36, 144, 112,113,126,152,167,193,259,272, 178, 179, 193,212,273,311 273,289-293,297-303,317 history of science 212 German Mathematicians' Association 48, Holland 51,265,269,270,318 221,229 homology groups 105, 111 German role model 2, 182 homotopy theory 110 German-occupied 197 honorary doctorate 163, 170, 239 Gestapo 204 humanities 11,49, 139, 181, 194 GieJ3en 234, 294 Humboldtian 66 government 19,20,38,61,69,71,72, 125, Hungarian 31,32,37,63,82,96 130,132,133,160,163,174,175,178, Hungary 8,32,49,62,63,82,100,183, 185,206,217,246,248,249,253,255, 192,292-294,296,297,300 262,268,278,286,310 hydro-dynamical laboratory 93 Great Britain 50, 51, 265, 270 Greece 68,92,98,100,294,299 Greek 68,72 I guest lecturers 173, 174 guest lectures 103, 155, 168 lAS s. Institute for Advanced Study Guggenheim fellowship program 25, 138, IBM 208 140,234 IHP s. Institut Henri Poincare Guggenheim Foundation (John Simon G.) ideological 3,7, 10, 11,20,24,57,58,64, 78,105,138,139,307,312 74,125,208 immigration (immigrants) 12, 16, 18,33, 42,63,64,67,75, 116, 190, 193,195, H 196, 198, 202 205, 214, 225 imprisonment 177, 201, 240 habilitation 82, 317 India 18,99,222,280 Hamburg 10,38,71,87,90,94,104,106- individualism 69, 201 110,168,230,264,266,268,290-292, industrial use 114, 209 294,299 industrials 260 Harry Guggenheim Foundation 153 industry 1,22,35,64,115,176,286 Harvard 17,37,46,52,53,68,69,87,89, inferior candidates 138 123, 125, 130, 134, 139, 149, 198,205, inflation 30, 146,257 228,229,251,266,272,279,284,290- Innsbruck 221 292,299,300,305,307,310-312 Institut de Statistique de l'Universite de Helmholtz-Society 246 Paris 172 Helsingfors 45, 191 334 Subject Index

Institut des Hautes Etudes Scientifiques Italy 37,38,45,49-51,58,62,66,70,71, 185 92, 100, 101, 107, 113, 120, 145, 191, Institut fur Praktische Mathematik 115 200,227,254,265,267,269,270,292, Institut Henri Poincare (IHP) 3, 13,49, 294,298,301,302,308 156,157,161,163,165-167,169,172- Ivy League 222 176,184,185,192,199,251,279-282, 307,311,312 Institut Mathematique Mittag-Leffler 49, J 65, 136, 178 Institut Pasteur 178 Jahrbuch tiber die Fortschritte der Institute for Advanced Study (lAS) 12, 24, Mathematik 12 25,28,33,55,65,66,74,125,133,174, Japan 100,292 180-185,188,194,195,197-199,202, Jassi 91, 198 203,206,207,307,315 Jew 63,64,191,198,204 Institute for Intellectual Cooperation 35 Jewish 64,86,132,172,181,191,198- Institute for Mathematical Statistics 116, 202,241,315 204 John Simon Guggenheim Foundation 78, Institute of International Education 202 138,307,312 integral geometry 107,230 Johns Hopkins 99, 153,236 integrating machines 115 Journal of Symbolic Logic 53, 315 intellectual freedom 191 Journal of the London Mathematical Society interdisciplinarity 3, 11, 12 23,38,40,42,56 interdisciplinary 16,75, 188,206-209,214 journals (periodicals) 2, 15,23,33,38-40, international competition 28, 55 42,48,53, 56, 86, 92, 126, 134, 176, international conferences 167, 179 179,185,192,196,210,211,224,247- International Congress of Mathematicians 250,260,267,272 15,174,183,188,219,283,314 International Health Board 27 International Mathematical Union 15,219, K 313 International Research Council 15,56, 57, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft 34, 65, 188, 59,157,168,179,307 261 International Society of Philosophers 213 Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut fur internationalisation de la science a la Stromungsforschung 151, 3 17 fran9aise 57, 177 Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institutes 144 internationalism 11,13,14,19,61,154, Kazan 126 156,202,311 Kharkov 121 internationalization 2-7,9, 10, 13, 15,70, Kiev 126 89,166,169,177,208,317 Kilgore Bill 217 internationally minded 40, 48, 94 intuitionist 10 I intuitionistic logic 110 L isolation 5, 7, 14, 15,23,35, 104, 120, 122, 124, 126, 130, 133, 140, 155, 172, 192 Laboratoire de statistique 176 isolationist 18, 19 laboratories 37,40,83,93, 101, 118, 119, Italian 37-39,48,58,67,70-72,77, 106, 138, 161, 163, 199,208,209,239,249, 108, 112, 145, 174,200,267 253,254,257,258,260,261,266,267, 313 Subject Index 335 lack of rig our 112 Lyon (Lyons) 177,199,200,240,242, language abilities 89, 135, 136 255,304,312 language requirements 81, 89 language-problem 4 large-scale grants 71, 73 M Latin American 19, 139 lattice concept 230 Madison 188, 204 Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial 11, mainstream 75,168, 196,206 17,78 maitre de conferences 158, 167,251 Lausanne 265 making the peaks higher 18, 166 League of Nations 35,39,40, 167,222, male-dominated hierarchies 11 225 Marburg 191 leftist (left-wing) 117, 201, 205 Marine 165,253 Leiden 91, 126 Markov chains 171, 172, 177, 240 Leipzig 24,113,296,298,309,311,314 mass education 65 L.M.S. s. London Mathematical Society Massachusetts Institute of Technology Leningrad 127 (MIT) 114,115,229,243,307 less advanced countries 48, 265 mass-exodus 8,23,64 library (libraries) 38,49,53, 115, 120, 134, matching funds 13,71,72,75, 157, 195, 138,151,159,166,167,172,176,178, 214 179,184,195,204,224,240,248,250, matching grant 160 254,258,260,266-269,272,277,307, Mathematical Cuneiform Texts 213,314 308,312 mathematical physicist 3,43, 88, 90, 123, Lie-groups 107 126, 155, 161 Lille 85 mathematical physics 3,27,43,49,53,94, lingua franca (English) 5 99, 105, 110, 114, 151, 153, 157-159, List of Displaced German Scholars 196 161,163,165-168,170-172,182,183, little science 2, 317 188,238,251,253,254,256,260,263, local talents 123 268, 273, 310 logic 20,52,53,105,110, Ill, 119, 126, mathematical predilections 51,149,236 273,288-290,292,299,302,303,305, mathematical reviewing 10,12,187,193, 310,313,315 221,316 logic of biology 119 Mathematical Reviews 23, 40, 42, 196, 243 logical completeness 53 mathematical rigor 118 logical positivists 15 mathematical school 108, 110, 126, 131 logician 33,53,83,101, 106, 137, 191, mathematical statistics s. statistics 206,213 mathematically old-fashioned 118 London 11,23,38,40,42,56,70,77,84, mathematicians are crazy 137 101,103,118,119,173,184,247,290, mathematics of Relativity 74 296,297,308,310,311,313,314,316, Mathieu functions 116 317 Max-Planck-Institut 185 London Mathematical Society (LMS) 23, McCarthyism 219 38,40,42,56,228,247,308,310,313, measure theory 157 314,316 mechanics 3,42,43,46, 82, 93, 98, 105- London School of Economics 11 107, 114, 167, 170, 172, 196,210,211, Lund 45 252,257,261,292,296,308 Lwow 206 medical 28,32,36,97,116,175,180,181, Iycee 85, 87, 120, 125 224,288,311 336 Subject Index medicine 11,28,29,36,38,72,93, 117, National Academy (Italy) 71 180,232,286 National Academy of Sciences (U.S.) 29, Memorial des sciences matbematiques 85 236,256,281,313 metric spaces 171 national isolation 5 Mexico 100,289,299,302,303 national psychology 59 middle class 11, 18,201,206 National Research Council (NRC) 27-30, migration 28, 33, 56, 86, 311, 312 29,3656,58,60, 77, 79, 83, 87, 89, 90, militarists 203 99,103,105,134-137,139,234,235, military 5,22,93, 176, 188,201 281,308 ministry 146, 148, 152, 155, 174, 190,259, National Science Foundation (U.S.) 244 262,277,278 national schools 5 minority education 18 National Socialism 99,313 MIT s. Massachusetts Institute of national socialist 106, 315 Technology nationalism 13,14,16,30,31 Mittag-Lerner-Institute s. Institut nationalistic prejudices 61 Matbematique Mittag-Leftler nationalization 9 modern 1,10,17,22,26,41,70,75,104- nations 3-5,7-9, 13,23,27,35,39,40,62, 108,110,112,118,154,163,168,172, 7~ 133, 165, 167, 176, 188,281 178,180,181,192,205,209,213,270, natural sciences 11, 12,23,78,96,97,115, 309,310,312,315 132, 133, 175, 188, 194, 209, 263, 281, modernalgebra 104,110,112,168,310 288 Moderne Algebra 4, 10, 113 Natural Sciences Division 23,97,212,288 modernist 9,65, 168 Nazi seizure of power 8, 126 modernity 9-13,66,69,86, 181,207,209 Nazi strategies 7 modernization 7,9,10, 12, 13, 166, 168, Nazification 285 169 Nazis (Nazi) 7,8, 16,20,30,78,91,98, molecular biology 23, 78, 96, 187, 188, 104,108,110, Ill, 113, 117, 121, 126, 193,308,312 132,140,144,155,156,168,177,184, Montreal 285 187, 190-193, 197, 198,200,202,203, more advanced fellows idea 83, 136 205,206,210,214,221,237,282,286, Moscow 105,126,129,131,132,206,310, 313,316,317 318 Nazi-occupied 78, 192 Moscow school 126, 310 Netherlands 45,91, 100, 110, 126, 184 Munich 22,38,68,71,93,98,99, 102, network theory 209 107,122,156,263,266,268,294,297, New Deal 11,221 300 New School for Social Research (NSSR) music fellowships 138 12,33, 194, 195, 196, 198-201,203, 206,206,243,284,304,305,308,313, 315 N New York 12,21,22,24,29,41,42,53, 58,62,64,74,75,78,96,97,103,115, Nantes 69 119,135,136,138,145,161,182,189, Naples Zoological Station 70 193,195,200,201,204,205,207,209, national 2-9, 11, 14, 17-20,25,27,29,36, 210,212,214,245,256,272,277,282, 43,50,56,59,67,70,71,77,79,89,99, 284,286,293,294,307-315,317,318 105, 106, 120-122, 125, 133-137, 140, New York University 53, 182,209,210, 158,176,181,187,198,210,217,256, 272,286,307 281,307,308,312-315,317 Nobel prizes 178 Subject Index 337

Nobelists 77 patriotic 13, 14,24, 133 nonlinear functional analysis 105, 108 patriotism 16, 19,40,201,202 non-governmental standpoint 20 Peabody College 27 non-laboratory subjects 161 peaceful 8, 106,287 nordic countries 178 peaceful internationalization 8 Nonnaliens 85, 240 Ph.D. 110,121,188,310,315 nonned linear spaces 104 philanthrope 311 No~ay 97,100,178,230,233,296 philanthropic 1-3,11,16,17,20,21,114, Notgemeinschaft 33,97, 115,288,311 134,218,318 Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen philanthropists 1,2,8-12, 18,20-22,24, Wissenschaft 97,224 28,33,38,40,57,58,63,66,74,93,94, NRC s. National Research Council 105, 107, 113, 114, 122, 123, 130, 135, NSSR s. New School for Social Research 154,156,165,169,170,185,212,214 number theory (theory of numbers) 5,55, philosopher 97, 213 86,105-107,109,110,168,188,197, philosophical 11,12,15,81,145,176,240, 228,273,302 318 numerical analysis 105, 106, 176 philosophy 27,105,213,273,300,315 numerical apparatus 115 physical sciences 29,36,58,281,315,316 numerical calculus 176 physicists 3,13,22,43,45,82,91,98, 101, 126,139,144, 145, 147, 149, 158, 195, 245,256,258,262,269,311,312,315 o physics 2,3,5,8,11, 12,21-23,25-30, 34-38,43,46,49,50,53,55,56,66,70, Office of Scientific Research and 72,74,77-79,81,91,94,96,98,99, Development (OSRD) 189,209,217, 101, 105, 106, 110, 113, 114, 117, 134, 244 139,143-149, 151-153, 156-161, 163, Office of War Infonnation 214,286 165-172,175,182-185,188, 190, 192- oil 1 194,208,229,251,253-257,259-263, oral communication 3,8,23,29,33,71,72, 266-273,276,277,283,286,289,308, 112, 118, 126, 197 310,313,315,316,318 organizer 20,201,212 physics departments II orthogonal functions 92, 228 Plateau problem (Plateau's problem) 104, orthogonal series 101 107,137,229,315 Oslo 185,208,229,312 Poitiers 72, 233, 251, 265 over-centralization 16,71 Poland 7,8,32,62,63,86,90,100, Ill, Oxbridge (Oxford and Cambridge) 101, 124,134,192,230,288,289,293,295, 107,230 296,298,299,301,305 Oxford 40,51,73-75,83,98,101, 109, Polish 3,5, 15,35,53,84,86,90, 100, 268,270,277,288,291,297,311,313, 106, 108-110, 112, 114, 118, 119, 140, 315 191,205,206,248 Polish school 114 political 1-5,7,8, 10-22,24,27,28,30, p 31,33-35,39,41,49,55-57,59,61-64, 68-71,74,78,81,84,87,89,90,94,97, pacifist 32,199,201 100,102,103,106,109,111,117,119- Palestine 204 121, 125, 126, 130-132, 139, 140, 144, Pasadena 33,134,153,174,273 145, 156, 160, 163, 165, 167, 168, 172- passport 90, 100, 112 174,176-178,181,182,184,187,193, 338 Subject Index

196,197,199-203,205,206,210,219, pure mathematics 49, 53, 74, 102, 123, 229,282,313 149, 153, 157, 158, 170, 176, 188,240, political dissenters 196, 200 253,254,264,268,270 political murder 106 pure science 1,22,81,82, 114, 115, 154, Portugal. 61, 62 253 postdoctoral 29,309 poverty 17 Princeton 12, 17, 19,23,28,33,36,37,43, Q 46,51,52,55,58,65,66,73-75,89, 102,103,106, 1I0-113, 125, 131, 133, quadratic forms 93, 228 134,136--138,143,145,147,163,174, quantitative 116, 208 180-185,188,193-195,197,198,200, quantum mechanics 98, 106, 107, 114, 172, 202,206,207,214,219,228,232,233, 308 272,275,283-285,288-293,295,296, quantum physics 29 298-300,302,303,307-309,313,315 quantum theory 36,45, 113, 149, 188 Princeton Oral History Project 195,229, queer character traits 109 232,233,243,308 queer proposals 213, 214 printing bill 42, 249 queueing theory 177 Privatdozent 32,85, 115, 122, 149 private funding 2, 17, 20, 217 probability (math. theory) 98, 106, 107, R 119,121, 126, 157, 163, 166, 167, 169- 172,175,177,189,230,240,283,302, racial difference 63 303,309,314,315 racial discrimination 18 Proceedings London Mathematical Society racial laws 200, 210 248,249 racist 75, 106 Proctor Fellow 285 Rapallo treaty 33 progress 9,17,27,28,38,62,86, 1I2, 1I8, rapprochement 13, 126, 165,202 126,146,148,154,165,185,287 Rask-0rsted Foundation 49 propagandistic (propaganda) 7, II, 19,43, rational mechanics 167 63,201 rationalization 10 prosperity 241 real function theory 107, 288 Providence 33,195,201,210,307,309, rearmament 191 311,313,314,317,318 reform movement in French science 175 provincial 69,71,72,85,87, 161, 169, refugees 3, 8, 12, 25, 48, 78, 99, 104, 139, 184,232,269 174,182,184,192-199,202-205,207, provincial universities 71,72,87, 169, 184, 209,210,213-215,242,318 269 regulations of secrecy 116 pro-French 57,61 relativity (theory of) 28, 36, 43, 45, 46, 74, Prussian 146, 148, 152, 155, 160,236,237, 106, 113, 172, 233, 315 257,277,278 remilitarization 117, 203 Prussian Ministry of Education 146, 155, Rennes 69, 125 278 Rentenmark 30 Publication Fund (Royal Society) 249 reparations question 34 publication system 15,41,42,210 research institutes 39,66,207 publish or perish 12, 207 Resistance 97 pure Analysis 74 responsibility of wealth 181 retail business 73-75 Subject Index 339 revolutionary science 35, 143 self-supporting 16 Rice Institute 68 semantic 105 right-wing 117, 203 semantics 53, 205 Rockefeller Archive Center (RAC) 22, 78, set theory 104, 112, 221 96,148,308 Sheffield 248 Rockefeller Institute for Physics 156 singing voice of European races 116 Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research Slav countries 90 28,36 social conditions 3,17,78,120,121,125, Rockefeller University 29, 180 140 Rome 32,38,45,49,51,71,72,86,94,98, social sciences 11, 78, 97, 117, 118, 139, 100-102, 107, 108, 112, 113, 165,227, 194,200,213,288 237,265,266,268,289-295,297-301 Social Sciences Division (Rockefeller) 97, Rothschild philanthropy 160, 167,238 200,288 Roumania (Rumania) 68,69,91, 100, 198, socially handicapped 95,96 298-300 Society for Protection of Science and Roumanian 67,68,72, 114 Learning (SPSL) 192,200 Royal Society 249, 313 Sorbonne 72,73, 156, 157, 160, 161, 163, Rue Pierre-Curie 163, 167,253 166-170,218,237,239,254,307 Russia 33-35,56,62,64,84,88-90, 111, South America 74,103,122,219,235 121,122,125-131,133,191,223,270, South American 18, 103, 139 301 southeastern Europe 19 Russian 32,34,35,64,88-91, 100, 106, Soviet Russia 56, 125-127 109, 111, 112, 124-133, 137, 140, 183, Soviet Union (USSR) 7,8,35,48,97-100, 206,227,234,265,313 111,121,125-127,169,174,176,191, 206,219,223,233,288,289,291,294, 295,297,300 s Spain 61,62,67,99, 184 Spanish 7,67,313 safeguarding European science 17, 20, 190, Special Research Aid Fund for Deposed 193, 196, 199,200,214 Scholars 192, 193 salable mathematician 200 sponsors (sponsor) 22,61,69,84,88,89, salaries (salary) 74,134,157,160,173, 91,92,96,106,110,140,183 191,196,204,214,255 Springer publishing house 12,23,41,210, Sanitary Commission (Rockefeller) 18, 27 247 Scandinavian 15,59,248 SPSL s. Society for Protection of Science Scandinavians 34, 39 and Learning 192, 200 School of Mathematics 55, 149, 180, 181, St.Andrews 265 194,264 St. Petersburg 126 Science Mobilization Act 244 Stalinism 7, 126, 201, 219 scientific schools 3, 5 Standard Oil 1 scientifically advanced 61,62,67,84, 120 standardization 10, 284 scientifically backward 61-63,67,82,84, Stanford 17, 204 86, 127 stateless 32, 49, 297 scientist 7,36,61,65,66,84, 130, 156 state-funded 184 Scotland 100,291 statistical design of experiments 105 secondary school system 266 statistical methods 70, 118 selection procedure 63, 64, 82 statistical test theory 105, 118 self-isolation 5,35, 120, 122, 126, 192 340 Subject Index statistician 70, 78, 84, 97, 117, 118, 140, theory of numbers (s. number theory) 200,204,218 topological 106, 107, 110, 112, 133,291, statistics (mathematical) 78,84,96,97, 292,300 106,116-119,140,169-172,175-177, topologist 19,29,89,94,97, 112, 122, 193,204,208,242,283,290,294-297, 123,136, 137, 145, 195 304,314 topology 5, 12, 15,21,46,52,86,89,97, statistics of extremes and rare events 117 102-106, 110-112, 126, 133, 137, 168, stochastics 3, 15,21,22, 106, 118, 166, 188,272,284,285,288,289,291-296, 168-172,177,184,193,282,238,239, 298-300,302,303,313 304,309 training of applied mathematicians 211 Stockholm 49,59,60,65,85, 178,240, transnational 7, 308 266,268,269,304 travel permits 88 Strasbourg 49,72,169,170,317 travelling professorship 52, 123, 138 strategies 1,7, 12, 16,21,22,56,58,79, trendsetting 107, 140 135,177 Trigonometric Series 108 structural approach 10, 104, 230 Trotskyism 219 structural thinking 4 trustees 21,28,45,55,66,87, 180 submarine detection 28 tuberculosis 127 subsidies 38,72,185,213 sub-disciplines 21,43 suicide 106, 172, 205 u Summer School for Applied Mechanics 196,210 UK 100,290-293, 296-300 surrealism 221 undergraduates 77, 128 Swede 37 unemployment 17,187,195,207,213 Sweden 45,65,85,100,155,178,179, UNESCO 7 185,241,265,269,286,289,290,292 unity of teaching and research 66 swimming pool 236, 275 universality of science 3 Swiss 31,45,96,124 University in Exile 12,33, 194,201,205, Switzerland 15,32,45,51,62,92, 100, 210 122,123,207,265,270,289,294,295, Uruguay 100,294,295,303 299 USSR (s. Soviet Union)

T v tactics 92, 140, 151 vacations 81, 90, 136 teaching 3, 12, 15, 17,20,24,29,66,69, value distribution 105 75,85,96, 117, 120-122, 127, 134, 154, variational principles 149 159,165-167,182,184,194,199,202, Vichy France 240 207,262 victims 8, 106, 193 teaching load 85, 122, 159,233 Vienna 15,49,53, 100, 102, 106, 107, The Quarterly Journal of Mathematics 248 109-111, 121, 191,213,230,244,295, theological instruction 161 299,314,317 theoretical physics 12,30,36,91, 143, 147, visa 98, 127, 130,206 167,171,188,268,316 visiting lectureship program 50 Subject Index 341 w WWI (World War One) 8, 14, 16,23,24, 27-32,38,46,49,55,57,59,125,126, 157, 178,204,266,277,310,311 war 2,8,13,15-17,20,21,23-25,27-32, WWII (World War Two) 2,8,20,21,103, 35,38,41,42,48,49,51,55,57,59,86, 106, 126, 156, 172, 177, 309 97,103,106,109,113,117,119,125, 126,128,146,157,163,167,172,176- 178,183-185,187-189,193,195,198, 202,203,205,208-215,217-219,248, x 249,255,257,260,261,266-268,270, 277,281,285-287,309-311,313,314, xenophobia 64,225,242 316,317 War Relief Commission 27 y war research 8, 55, 184, 189, 209, 217, 286 Warsaw 53,86, 124,205,317 Washington 77,79, 135-137,204,209, Yale 17,292,314 308,310,312,315 youthfulness 81, 87 Western 2, 15, 18,20,45,62,63,68,78, Yugoslavia 99, 100,293,297 84,86, 110, Ill, 117, 120, 125, 126, 128,129,132,140,177,203,260,286 Western Germany 117 z Western traditions 111, 140 Western values 68 Zentralblatt fUr Mathematik 12,210-212 wind tunnel 93,151,261 Zurich (Zurich) 31,37,95,98,100,144, Wisconsin 188,204 229,257,265,290,292,311 women 81, 120, 124, 125, 140 world civilization 62 World Wars 2,8,13,15-17,20,21,24, 27-32,46,49,77,79,100,103,106, 125,126,156,157,172,177,178,204, 219,266,277,309-311,316