I. INTRODUCTION A. Goals

Applying Psychology § 1. Power of the teacher in T&L Lecture 1: Behavioral Approaches to § This week, did anyone have a teaching/ Teaching experience centered on the issue of control (or lack thereof). § Follow-up questions § How much control do teachers have over teaching and learning in the classroom? § Is it good for a teacher to exert control over the leaching and learning process? § In what ways is a teacher in control of the teaching and learning process in the classroom? 1

I. INTRODUCTION I. INTRODUCTION A. Goals A. Goals § We will spend the semester exploring the § 2. as a theory of T&L teaching and learning process in the classroom. § Behaviorism is a perspective that focuses on the § Minimizing teachers’ impact. role of “rewarding”, “targeting”, and “timing”. § However, teachers remain in control of teaching § Behaviorism: The approach to psychology and learning in three ways: that focuses on overt and observable § Rewarding: Teachers control who gets rewarded actions and the environmental contingencies for which behavior that give rise to and support those or § Targeting: Teachers control the material to be actions. learned and the way in which it is presented. § Learning is central to behaviorism and is § Timing: Teachers control the timing of when defined as the relatively permanent change in rewards and the target material will be presented. behavior.

1 I. INTRODUCTION I. INTRODUCTION A. Goals A. Goals

§ To think like a behaviorist you much rid § In 1925 Watson’s stated : yourself of all thoughts about mental processes Give me a dozen healthy , well-formed and and only consider behavior and their my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to environmental contingencies (rewards become any type of specialist I might select, doctor, ). lawyer, artist, merchant chief, and yes even a § 2. Mind as irrelevant: Watson’s challenge beggar-man thief, regardless of his talents, § All this suggests that the learners’ mind is irrelevant penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race in thinking about teaching and learning. of his ancestors. § John Watson, the father of Behaviorism made this § What do you think of this? explicit by suggesting that learning is the basis for § Do people internally choose their own destinies? all behavior. § Are people’s destinies under such external control?

I. INTRODUCTION I. INTRODUCTION B. Application B. Application

§ Behaviorism provides the scientific principles § 1. Translating T/L problems into behavioral to effectively target learning, successfully ones reward it, and efficiently time targeting and § Define learning as a change in behavior. § Students learn actions (e.g., ways to behave, rewarding activities. perceive, group, and organize) rather than entities § Can you characterize a teaching/leaning (e.g., concepts or strategies). experience (lesson, problem) in the language of § When they fail they have behavioral problems rather behaviorism? than learning disabilities, problem personalities, etc. § Define teaching as techniques to change § Focus on targeted behavior § Focus on behavioral consequences (rewards/ behavior. punishments) § Teachers teach by targeting and rewarding specific behaviors, determining the best timing to do each. § Focus on timing of presenting consequences.

2 II. II. OPERANT CONDITIONING A. Thorndike’s and Skinner A. Thorndike’s and Skinner

§ Edward L. Thorndike formulated the Law of § B F Skinner expanded the Law of Effect in 1911 while studying how cats escaped Effect in the 40s and 50s into a from of puzzle boxes. systematic and experimental § If the consequence (C) of behavior (B) is a pleasant, analysis of behavior, called the p. of the behavior occurring again is increased. Operant Conditioning. § If the consequence of a behavior is not pleasant or § Operant Conditioning is learning noxious, the p. of the behavior occurring again is produced by an active organism decreased. interacting with the environment. § According to the Law of Effect is that we can up § Skinner renamed some terms the environment to change a person’s behavior by § B (Behavior) à C (Consequence) altering the contingency of the behavior –without became reference to the person’s mind. § R (Response) à Sr (Stimulus reinforcer)

II. OPERANT CONDITIONING II. OPERANT CONDITIONING A. Thorndike’s and Skinner B. 4 Ways to Change Behavior

§ Skinner characterize two types of Sr(s) Increase probability Decrease probability of behavior of behavior § Sr + (pleasant or rewarding) Positive Extinction (Negative § Sr- (aversive or noxious) , Penalty) § He also characterized two types of effects that Sr+ R increases in frequency R decreases in frequency because it introduces a because a pleasant Sr can have on behavior: Pleasant stimulus reinforcer is Stimulus pleasant stimulus § increase the probability of the behavior occurring reinforcer. removed. again (Reinforcement). Negative Punishment (Present- § decrease the probability of the behavior occurring Reinforcement ation or + Punishment) again (Punishment). R increases in frequency .R decreases in frequency Sr- because it introduces a Noxious because it removes noxious stimulus § Thus we have four possibilities, four possible Stimulus (escapes) a noxious ways to change behavior. stimulus reinforcer reinforcer

3 II. OPERANT CONDITIONING II. OPERANT CONDITIONING B. 4 Ways to Change Behavior B. 4 Ways to Change Behavior

§ 1. Positive Reinforcement § 2. Negative Reinforcement § Increasing the probability of behavior by the § Increasing the probability of avoidant or escape behavior introducing a positive (pleasant) behavior by removing a negative (noxious) consequence (Sr+). consequence (SR-). § The effective use of praise § Empowering students to learn to avoid punishment § The effective use of approval § Failure to clean classroom è no recess! § Are there dangers in positive ? § 100% on practice spelling tests è don’t take the formal test. § In the Motivation & Emotion chapter, we will learn that § è intrinsic motivation (the desire to do something for its Don’t pass classes summer school internal and intrinsic pleasure) can be undermined with external reinforcers.

II. OPERANT CONDITIONING II. OPERANT CONDITIONING B. 4 Ways to Change Behavior B. 4 Ways to Change Behavior

§ 3. Punishment (Presentation/Positive § 4. Extinction (Negative Punishment, Penalty) Punishment) § Decreasing the probability of behavior by having a § Decreasing the probability of behavior by it being positive (pleasant) reinforcer removed. followed by a negative (noxious) consequence (Sr-). § Sometimes that is called Negative Punishment or Penalty § Sometimes that is called Positive Punishment because Sr- because Sr+ is taken away or removed from the situation. is introduced or added to the situation § A child who throws temper tantrums has his temper § Sometimes teachers must use punishment tantrums reduced by them no longer eliciting § When a child places self or others in danger. But should.. Provide alternatives, Use with Sr+, Explain problem. . § Problems with punishment § The attention of the teachers was supporting the tantrums, § Mindless/enraged application, Fear in recipient, Effect so to reduce the probability of them reoccurring, remove temporary, Not immediate enough, inconsistently applied. the positive reinforcer (Sr+) supporting the unwanted behavior.

4 II. OPERANT CONDITIONING II. OPERANT CONDITIONING C. Behavior Modification in the Classroom C. Behavior Modification in the Classroom

§ 1. Choosing and Scheduling Reinforcers § Srs may be delivered after each behavior (R) § Two types of Reinforcers: or on some the schedule § Primary: Sr in which is inherently reinforcing or § Continuous Schedule of Reinforcement: Every punishing , typically by satisfying a biological need R gets a Sr or being biologically aversive. § Partial Schedule of (or Intermittent) § Secondary: Sr which is not inherently reinforcing Reinforcement: Not every R gets Sr. or punishing but has acquired such properties through association. Money, praise, demerits, § Schedule of delivery of Srs varies over time (interval) or by number of Rs (ratio). criticisms grades. § The source of variance (time or number) can be fixed or § Reinforcers are individually defined! Each child variable. may have different ones! § This results in 4 types of schedules or reinforcement.

II. OPERANT CONDITIONING II. OPERANT CONDITIONING C. Behavior Modification in the Classroom C. Behavior Modification in the Classroom

Rs under different Distribution § 2. Operant conditioning involves decreasing and schedules of Fixed Variable increasing probability of targeted behaviors. reinforcement FIXED VARIABLE § Child who hits other children INTERVAL INTERVAL § Decrease probability of hitting behavior. Time Grading periods where Sr+ Studying for unpredictable pop quizzes. Studying § Increase probability of social behavior. (Interval) (or Sr-) are distributed every number of weeks pays off after some time § Child learn to carry “ones” in multi-digit math task. Measure during the school year. from the last pop quiz. § Decrease probability of errors between Sr FIX VARIABLE RATIO RATIO § Increase probability of “ carrying” behavior Number Sr+ for reading a fixed .Raising hand to answer § Learning letters. (Ratio) number of books in a questions in class: Sr+ summer reading program occurs on average x § Reinforce good traces. (pizza for 10 books). number of times. § Decrease improper starts or poor tracing.

5 II. OPERANT CONDITIONING III. C. Behavior Modification in the Classroom A. Classical Conditioning

§ Shaping: Procedure in which successive § Operant conditioning concerns freely emitted or approximations of a desired behavior are voluntary behavior (R) and the environmental reinforced. conditions (Sr) that control it. § J.B. Watson also showed other kinds of behavior § Successive approximations: Increasing that is under environmental control. closeness of similarity to the desired response. § Gave 11 month-old “ Little Albert” a white rat to play with § Classroom Cleaning through successive to which he showed no fear. approximations § While Albert was watching the rat, Watson struck a steel bar with a hammer which startled and scared Albert who 1. Reinforce child for touching things on the floor. started to cried. 2. Reinforce child for picking up things on the floor. § This pairing of the rat and a scary, startling sound was continued. After 7 pairings, every time Albert say the rat, 3. Reinforce child for putting things on floor away. he started to cry!

III. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING III. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING A. Classical Conditioning B. Ivan Pavlov’s Salivation Studies

§ Can you think of other physiological responses § Ivan Pavlov was a medical researcher in Russia which have become associated with neutral at the turn of the century. objects. § He studied digestion and had won a Nobel prize § Exams (neutral object) à anxiety (physiological § He was exploring the function of saliva in digestion. responses) § He discovered that the dog would salivated when seeing the dish, before any food was available. § Hospital (neutral object) à sick feeling (physiological responses) Harness and fistula (mouth tube) help keep dog in a consistent § This is classical conditioning: The position and gather environmental control of physiological uncontaminated saliva samples responses or reflexes. The drum recorded when & how much saliva the dog produced.

6 III. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING III. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING B. Ivan Pavlov’s Salivation Studies B. Ivan Pavlov’s Salivation Studies § Definition of terms: § What Pavlov discovered in was the fundamental principles of Classical Conditioning § Unconditioned Stimulus UCS: A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of Not a voluntary relation learning. Meat (UCS) Meat causes or elicits Saliva (UCR) § Conditioned Stimulus CS: An initially neutral saliva Saliva (CR) stimulus that comes to elicit a CR after being Repeated associated with an UCR. Pairing Automatic § Unconditioned Response UCR: A reflexive response connection elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning. Dish (Neutral Stimulus) § Conditioned Response CR: A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus. Occurs after the CS is VIDEO Dish (CS) associated with an UCS.

III. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING III. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING B. Ivan Pavlov’s Salivation Studies B. Ivan Pavlov’s Salivation Studies

§ 1. Conditions of CER § Acquisition: A neutral § CC is the means of acquiring conditioned stimulus that is emotional responses (CER) like fear to an consistently followed by exam. an UCR will become a § Critical in CER is that the CS comes before and CS signals the UCS. § Extinction: The weakening and eventual § If CS doesn’t come before and signal (predict) UCS, Spontaneous no classical conditioning disappearance of a remission § CS and UCS presented simultaneously, no CC. learned response when § UCS comes before CS, but CS lasts longer, no CC. the CS is no longer paired with the UCR. § CS fails to statistically predict UCS, no CC.

7 III. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IV. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING C. CER in the Classroom. A. Bandura’s Studies

§ Many of the emotions and emotional reactions § Operant and Classical Conditioning require that in the classroom are CERs our own responses are modified by the § Test triggered anxiety environment for learning to occur. § Bell triggered aggressiveness § Neutral Stimuli can come to elicit responses. § Report-card triggered dread § Behavior can be increase or decrease in probability. § School triggered fear § Learning can also occur through observation. § Substitute teacher triggered joy § Observational Learning: A process in which an § These emotions can easily be extinguished (CS individual learns new responses by observing the not longer leading to CR) behavior or another (a model) rather than through direct experience. § Relaxation techniques (effective with ). § Break from Watson’s & Skinner’s Behaviorism

IV. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING IV. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING A. Bandura’s Studies A. Bandura’s Studies

§ Role of Observation in Learning. § 1. Cognitive factors in observational learning: Bandura observed § 1. Attention. The model must not simply be seen children’s play with a but actually the topic of attention. Paying attention bobo doll after they to models is difficult the more that distractions are watched video of an available in the classroom. Emotionality aggressive adult (model) (enthusiasm and passion ) and variability (acting being rewarded, punished, uniquely) for what one is doing gets people’s attention or having no consequences for her behavior. He found § 2. Retention. Memory for the modeled actions and retrieval of that memory at the time the modeled that observational behavior is performed. To improve memory, have condition affected students verbalize the modeled behavior. performance (video)

8 IV. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING IV. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING A. Bandura’s Studies B. Cognitive -behavior Modification

§ 3. Motivation: Motivation to engaged in the § Cognitive-behavioral Modification is a modeled behavior. To improve motivation have combination of behavioral and cognitive students receive reinforcements directly, vicariously principles used to shape and encourage desired (watch others receiving them), or from the self. behavior. § 4. Potential for Modeling: Not everyone is modeled (the eating behavior of cats are rarely modeled by § Thoughts are targeted as sources of behavior control (verbal rules) and reinforcement (self-praise). young children). Potential “modelers” are those who are seen as salient, liked and respected, similar, § Self-instruction: Teaching oneself, typically through reinforced. self-speech of verbal problem-solving rules. § Think of ways to be a powerful model for (not § Teachers can model this by verbalizing rules to follow. just a teacher of) student in your classes. § Goal is self-regulation which is the ability to control one’s own behavior. § In what ways are expert teachers “models ”

IV. GAGNE AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN IV. GAGNE AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN A. Gagne as a Behaviorist B. Theory of Instructional Design

§ Gagne developed Instructional Design, defined § Gagne defined 5 behavioral learning outcomes as the analysis of learning needs and goals and § Verbal : oral or written expression of the development of a delivery system to meet information those needs. § Intellectual Skills: Manipulation of symbols in the § Assumptions of Instructional Design environment (basic and most pervasive structures of formal ed.) § Focus on Behavior § Motor Skills: Performing a sequence of actions § Focus on an important role of the environment in until smooth, precise and well timed. behavior and behavior change § Attitudes: Predispositions (potentialities) for + or - § Focus on active role and control of teachers actions towards persons, objects, and events. § Rejection of the role of “insight” in learning. § Cognitive Structures: Control and management of § Focus on elements and associationism (SàR) learning, remembering and thinking.

9 IV. GAGNE AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN IV. GAGNE AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN B. Theory of Instructional Design B. Theory of Instructional Design

§ To Gagne, complex learning involves § Instruction promotes learning. hierarchical organizations of capacities. § Learning process may be influenced by instructional § Paralleling parking è Motor (positions, backing events that support internal learning processes. up) + Intellectual (identifying correct angle, Although instruction is not necessary to learning alignment) § Learning outcomes defined by precise language § Learning represented by a hierarchy which of the acquired capacity. specifies and organizes sets of intellectual skills. § Phases of learning § Instructions must focus on hierarchy (not content) § Preparation: Attending, Expectancy, Retrieval and on the training of prerequisite skills. § Acquisition/performance: Selective perception, § Basic acquisitions acquired first and more complex Semantic encoding, Retrieval/responding, Sr+ skills are acquired contingently. § Transfer of Training: Cue retrieval, Generalizability

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