@lniber$itp af &dmtc~ekr.mn Coliege of IZlgricuIture

SOIL SURVEY of The Birch Hilk1Ielfort -1rea including The Municipalities of Carrot River SO. 429, Invergordon Xo. 430, 11’eldon SO. 4.59, Birch Hills No. 460

Contribzlted b> DEPARTMEXT OF SOILS

SOIL SURVEY REPORT SO. 7

SASKATOON, SISIiATCHE\1-;1S March, 1938 TABLE OF CONTENTS (The Soi1 Map is Inserted inside the Back Cover)

Page MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF SOIL SURVEY AREAS ...... IV. ILLUSTRATIONS AND LIST OF TABLES...... V. INTRCTDUCTI~ ...... VI. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA...... 1 LOCATION AND EXTENT...... TOPOGRAPHY ...... : DRAINAGE...... NATURAL VEGETATION ...... ; CLIMATE ...... AGRICULTURE ...... 1: DEVELOPMENT AND TYPE ...... 10 CROPS ...... 11 LIVESTOCK...... 15 LAND VALUES, TENURE, ETC ...... 15 MISCELLANEOUS ...... 17 SOILS- SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION ...... 17 SGIL SERIES ...... 19 SOIL TYPES AND GENERAL LAND CLASSES ...... 21 M&ort Silty Clay Loam...... Melfort Silty Clay Loam, Rolling ...... ;3 Melfort Silt Loam...... 23 Melfort Loam...... 24 M&ort Very Firie Sandy Loam...... 24 Waitville Loam...... 25 Waitville Loam, Hilly...... Waitville-Melfort Transition...... 2; Crystal Springs Loam...... 27 Pines Fine Sandy Loam...... PinesSand ...... ?i LacustrineSoils ...... 33 peat ...... 33 Alluvium ...... 33 . PRINCIPLES OF SOIL FERTILITY AND CHEMICAL COM- POSITION OF SOIL TYPES...... 34 PHYSICAL COMPOSITION AND MOISTURE RELATIONS. 40 SO’IL MANAGEMENT- ClearingandBreaking ...... General Tillage...... WeedControl...... Ro~tions ...... Alkali ...... SoilDriftilbg ...... SUMMARY ...... APPENDIX POPULATION ...... OOMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT ...... 57 RAILWAYS. ROADS AND MARHRTS ...... 85 SOIL SURVEY METHODS ...... SURFACE GEOLOGY ...... 59 BOIL MAP (Insert on Rack COVea) III. SKETCH MAP OF SASKATCHEWAN SHOWINQ THE LOCATION OF THE SOIL SURVEY AREAS

44

NO. 7-Birch Hills-Melfort Area herein described. NOS. l’to 6-Other meas for which reports are published: (1) Moom Jaw; (2) Swift Current; (3) Govenlock; (4) Weyburn; (5) Oxbow; and (6) Rosetown. Nos. 8 and 9-Arem either pmtly or wholly surveyed and for whioh reports are to be published: (8) Leader; and (9) Saskatoon. IV. ’ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS page Fig. l.-Sketch Map Showing Natural Vegetation...... 3 Fig. 2.-Small L-es Occupy Many Low Areas.:...... 5 Fig. 3.-Grass Stands are Luxuriant in Park and Prairie Areas...... 6 Fig. 4.-View Over Pleasant Valley at Harvest Time...... 13 Fig. 5.-Vegetable and Forage Crops Grow Especially Well on Soils of the Melfort Series...... 14 Fig. 6.-One of the Better Types of Farmsteads ...... 16 Fig. I.--Profile of the Waitville Loam...... 20 Fig. 8.-Profile of the Melfort Silty Clay Loam...... 20 Fig. 9.-View Over a Park Area of the Melfort Plain...... 22 Fig. lO.-View Over an Area of Waitville Hilly Loam...... 26 Fig. Il.-Heavy Stands of Poplar Timber Occur in Places .... 43 Fig. 12.-Breaking Brush Land...... 44

LIST OF TABLES Table l.-Temperature and Rainfall Records...... 8 Table 2.-Temperature and Rainfall Records for Melfort and Pilger. . 9 Table 3.-Frost Records ...... 9 Table 4.-Humidity Records...... 9 Table 5.-Yields and Acreages of Crops...... 11 Table, 6.-Condition of Farm Land by Municipalities...... 12 Table 7.-Numbers of Livestock in the Surveyed Area...... 15 Table 8.-Soil Classes ...... 18 Table O.-Ares and Charaeter of Soi1 Types...... 30 Table l,O.-Chemical Composition of Soi1 Samples...... 36 Table Il.-Loss on Ignition of Soi1 Samples...... 37 Table 12.-Fertility as Measured by Soi1 Supplies and Needs of the WheatCrop ...... 37 Table 13.-Mechanical Analysis of Soi1 Samples...... 41 Table 14.-Moisture Equivalents of Soi1 Samples ...... 42 Table 15.-Population by Municipalities...... 56 Table 16.-Population of Towns and Villages...... 56

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors wish to acknowledge assistance rendered by the Depart- ment of Agriculture, Regina, for general direction of the projeot and for supplying most of the necessary funds; by the Topographical Surveys Branoh of the Department of Interior, Ottawa, for supplying topographical base maps and for lithographing and printing soil maps; by various members of the staff of the University of Saskatchewan for useful information on matters relating to their special fields of work; and by farmers and munici- pality officers in the survey districts for useful information as to 10~1 conditions.

V. INTRODUCTION

The Saskatchewan Soi1 Survey is conducted by the Depart- ment of Soils of the University of Sas,katchewan at Saskatoon, under the direction of the Provincial Department of Agriculture at Regina. Field operations were started in 1921. TO date nine areas, representing approximately 15,000 square miles, have been com- pletely or partially surveyed on a fairly close reconnaissance plan. A start has also been made on a broader type of reconnais- sance soi1 survey with the aim of covering the whole province in a few years time. This report and its accompanying soi1 map represents the seventh set to be published. A complete list of these publications, together with a map showing the general location of the surveyed areas, are given on page IV. The primary purpose of a soi1 survey is to classify the various types of soi1 in a given area according to characteristics determined by field and laboratory examinations and tests. The various types are outlined on a map and described in the accompanying report. Many useful applications, both practical and scientific, may be made of the accumulated information. Farmers, prospective settlers, colonization interests, real estate dealers, loan companies, experimental farm workers, statisticians, land appraisers, and road commissioners are a few who have found the work of value. The information is given in two separate parts, the soi1 map and the report. The map outlines the boundaries of the areas of the various types of soil, and the report describes them in detail. Such matters as climate, agriculture, community development, markets, etc., are considered, in order that a broad interpretation may be given of the values and agricultural utilization of lands, and to aid in work of soi1 investigations. An explanation of the system of classification is given on page 17. An interpretation of the chemical composition is given in the discussion of “Principles of Soi1 Fertility” on page 34. Although the information in each report is intended especially for the district surveyed, .much of it is applicable to surrounding country when one becomes familiar with general soi1 character and related matters. The area is quite typical of much of the mixed park and wooded or “bush” lands of the northern and northeastern parts of settled Saskatchewan.

VI. Soi1 Survey of the Birch Hills-Melfort Area By A. H, Joei, F. H. Edmunds and J. Mitchell

DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA Location and Extenb-The Birch Hills-Melfort area is situ- ated about thirteen miles east of Prince Albert, and about thirty- two miles north of Humboldt. The main Canadian National Railway line from Prince Albert to Winnipeg r-uns across the central part of the area. The north boundary is along the Saskatchewan River. The general position in respect to the Province and to the , other areas of which soi1 surveys have been made, is indicated on the sketch map (page IV.). It Will be seen that this area is the most northerly one yet surveyed from a soils standpoint. The area comprises the four rural municipalities of Car-rot River No. 429, Invergordon No. 430, Weldon No. 459, and Birch Hills No. 460. The area lies within Townships 43-49 inclusive and Ranges 19 to 26 inclusive, West of the second meridian, al- though a11 of the land within these townships and ranges is not included in the area, as Will be seen by referring to the map. The total area of the district is about 1,315 square miles or 841,600 acres, of which about 2.1 per cent. is occupied by water. Topography.-The area cari be divided into two maWakaw Lake, and reaches the Melfort Plain by way of Waterhen Lake. * In crossing the Plain the river has tut a moderately deep valley, but does not serve to drain the adjacent land to any extent. Goosehunting and Thatch or Melfort Creeks are tributaries of the Car-rot River. They have their source in the Birch HiIls and flow northward across the Plain. The Saskatchewan River forms the .northem boundary of the district and only drains a narrow belt of adjacent land. A tributary, Peonan Creek, is fed principally by Springs in the Hills just east of the town of Birch Hills, and drains a low area near Brancepeth. Beyond this point it has tut a deep valley. Flowing in a northeasterly direction, it joins the Saskatchewan River at a point two miles west of Fort a La Corne. The Birch Hills are generally well drained. In this area a number of deeply tut run-off channels have been formed, mostly in a south to north direction, and serve to supply the above-named creeks with water. Natural Vegetation.-The sketch map Fig. 1, on page 3, in a general way, outlines the distribution and extent of the main vegetation belts. This map Will serve to indicate, in a limited way, the amount of clearing which has to be made in various parts of the area. However, the cost of clearing and breaking * * is not uniform within any one of these belts since the tree growth and the amount of bush is not evenly distributed. The belts differentiated are as follows and Will be described separately: (a) Prairie grass land; (b) parkland; (c) poplar timber ,and bush; (d) Jack-pine; (e) spruce and muskeg. (a) The area indicated on the map as comprising prairie grassland is situated to the southeast of the town of Melfort, and embraces most of the district known as Pleasant Valley. Although *Descriptions of the soils from the drained Waterhen Lake and Marsh are f&ven on page 33. *rClearing and breaking CO& and methods are -onpage 2 f 9- P there are occasional clumps of trees. scattered here and there, they are very sparse and the country is practically treeless. The natural vegetation consists chiefly of ta11 and medium grass types, with associated herbaceous flowering plants and shrubs. The dominant grasses of the better drained lands are of the genera Agro#yron, Poa and Bromus. * Calanmgrostis Americanus and CaZamagrostZs CanadensZs are abundant in many poorly drained places, in close association with sedges (Carex SP.) and rushes (Jun- tus). Snowberry (Symphor&ar@ occidental&) is the chief shrub. (b) The main central part of t,he Melfort Plain has a park- land vegetation. In this vegetation belt clumps of trees have established themselves on the prairie grassland, and there is evi- dence that at the time of settlement there was a tendency for these clumps of trees to become more and more numerous and that a gradua1 encroachment of the tree vegetation was over- taking the prairie. Such clumps of trees are commonly called “bluffs” in the West. The term “bluff,” in this sense, is quite descriptive of these small hill-like clusters of trees rising above the general level of the prairie. The trees comprising these clumps are usually poplars * *, which grow to a height of from twenty to thirty feet. In low-lying damp places various species of willows are four@. A single clump is rarely very extensive. In general they range in size from about nine square rods to two or three acres. The amount of clearing necessary varies considerably with the densitv and type of tree and brush vegetation, but the clearing problem is seldom as important as on lands located in the timber belts. As a rule, farmers preserve some of the trees for shelter- belts and for wood supply. The park vegetation grades very gradu- ally into the heavy bush country to the north; there is no Sharp boundary between the types. TO the south there is a well-marked junction between the parkland and heavy timber land, coinciding with the rise in elevation of the land to the Birch Hills. The pre- dominant grasses and shrubs are identical with those of class (a) except in the bluffs where bluff grass (Aoena striata) is common. (G) Poplar timber and bush belts are found both north and south of the park and grassland belts. One belt extends over part of the Melfort Plains; the other over the Birch Hills. On the Melfort Plain the change from the parkland into heavily bushed or timbered land is gradual. The clumps of trees caver relatively more and more land, until the country has a fairly thick caver of bush and timber in the northem parts of the belt. There are patches thick with poplar north of Kinistino, bordering the forest reserve, but generally this belt consists of a smaller bush growth with a large number of willow types. The tree vege- tation does not appear to have been established for long on this *Agropgmn daslystachyum, Agropgron Richardsonii and Bromus pum cllionua bave beau identified. but there are a number of other specie~ occurrmg in abus a ance. Bromus inermis. a popular cultivated form, is abumlant in places. **Po~ul~s trcmuloides and Populus halnamifem. 4 land, and none of the alterations in the soi1 associated with forest conditions are to be found (such as in the Birch Hills area). A considerable amount of clearing has to be done on lands in this belt before cultivation is feasible. The fact that such land is not quite as thickly wooded as the Birch Hills area is indicated on the sketch map No. 2 by using the parkland symbol scattered here .and there amongst the deciduous tree symbol. The location of the parkland signs on the sketch map are not to be taken as indicating even approximate location of the more open spaces, but are simply inserted to give a generalized impression of the nature of the belt as a whole. Balsam and white poplars (Popdus balsamifera and tremu- loides) are the predominant tree species. Canoe birch (Betula

Fig. 2.-Small Lakes Occupy Many Low Areas and are Surrounded by Marsh Vegetation papyrifera) is fairly abundant in some localities, and there is evidence of much destruction of this species by fires. Much of the shrub and small tree growth is made up of various species of willows (SaZ& SP@) and alder (Alnus incana), especially bordering low wet areas. In the timbered, better drained lands -especially in the light colored forest soils of the Birch Hills-the following shrubs are common: Hazelnut (CoryZus rostratu), dog- wood (Srrida instolonea), wild cranberry (Viburnum opulus), and Saskatoon berry (Amelanchier alnifoZia). Grass vegetation is not usually abundant, except in the more open glades and meadows, where bluff grass usually predominates. Wild pea vines (Vicia Oregana and Lathyrus ochroieucus), legumes, 5 enhance the value of pastures, especially on burnt-over and cut- over lands. The Birch Hills area is, for the most part, thickly wooded. A considerable amount of clearing has been done, but it is evident from examination of the soil, with its ashy gray color, that the whole of the belt has been covered by a thick growth of trees for a long period. Much of the land is now covered with a secondary growth of bush, most of the original timber having been killed off by frequent fires which were started by settlers in order to clear the land. Unfortunately, much timber on land unsuited for agriculture, by reason of stoniness and hilliness, has been destroyed by the wholesale burning. A great amount of time

Fig. 3.-The Grass Stand of t Park Belt and Open Prairies is Usually Luxuriant. Types and 2 pecies are Discuased on Pages 2 to 7. and labor has to be expended in clearing much of the land in this belt. (d) The light textured land of the north-eastern corner of the area supports a Jack-pine vegetation (Pinus banksiana) and is forest reserve land. The boundary between the belt and the heavy timber and bush belt is ver-v clear, a sweep of grass sward of variable width, with a maximum of about 400 yards, separates the deciduous from the coniferous vegetation. This is a natural break which coincides with a change in soi1 texture. The belt of grass land is utilized by the Forestry Division as a site for their fireguard. Jack-pine is the most important tree growing on this land. Various small shrubs, principally Wolf-willow (Eleagnus argentea ) 6 and Chokecherry (Prunus meJanocarpa) are common, and, in the open spaces, ta11 grass types. (e) A spruce vegetation is to be found in or bordering some of the low marshy localities in the heavy timber and bush belt of the Melfort Plain. Only one locality-the most extensive one seen-is noted on the sketch map. The spruce trees surround typical muskeg land on which a thick layer of undecomposed organic matter has accumulated. Frost stays in the ground until a very late date in the muskeg areas. An observation on June 9th, 1926, revealed frozen ground nine inches below the surface. It may not be out of place at this point to indicate the possi- bilities that are provided by nature for outdoor enjoyment. In the Birch Hills there are numerous lakes surrounded by woods and glades with a peaceful charm and beauty. Among these may be mentioned Round Lake-a small summer-resort situated between the towns of Kinistino and Birch Hills. Many lakes contain an abundance of fish, notably Fishing Lake on the Carrot River a few miles south-west of Waterhen Lake, Eagle Lake in the south-east corner of the area directly south of Melfort and others. Many picnic spots are to be found in the forest reserve, and some excellent views of the Saskatchewan River which flows _ in a deep steep-sided and well-wooded valley, often winding its way in great loops. Wild, edible berries grow in abundance in many places. It is felt that the insertion of the preceding paragraph in a practical bulletin has justification, not only because of the in- timate relation between topography, vepetation, soils and scenery, but also because of the added interest there is in an agricultural community situated among beautiful surroundings or with beauty spots within easy reach. CLIMATE* The average monthly, seasonal and annual temperature and rainfall figures are given in Table 1. These figures represent the average of records of stations at Lost River, Melfort, Pilger and Prince Albert. These stations, with the exception of Melfort, are not situated in the area itself but are geographically near. Lost River lies about 10 miles in an easterly direction from the north- east corner, Pilger about 6 miles south of the centre of the southern boundary, and Prince Albert 13 miles north of the western ex- tremity of the area, SO that the average of these stations Will give a fairry representative picture of the climatic conditions to be found in the area itself. The mean annual temperature (32.3,, F.) is some 2” F. lower than the mean of the Province, and also the summer temperature is less than the summer temperature of the Province by about the same amount. On tp other hand,

*Reco’Sfsslfg-- Lwlow are taken from reporta of the Dominion Meteorological

7 the rainfall in the district (15.98 inches) is a little higher than that of the Province (15.3 inches). Records for Melfort and Pilger may be taken as fairly rep- resentative of the climatic condition found on the Melfort Plain and in the Birch Hills respectively. It Will be seen by reference to Tables 2 and 3 that the Birch Hills have a higher rainfall and a shorter frost-free period than the Melfort Plain. These facts Table l.-Monthly, Seasonal and Annual Temperature and Rainfall. Average for Stations at Lost River, Melfort, Pilger and Prince Albert. l

Precipitatio Il --I- Temperature -- A*:’ t Ay;’ t Abso- Abso- in M"&ZO:nd lute lute wettesi &t High- Low- year year Mean est est MeaIl 1879 1910 ~~- “F. - Inches December ...... 4.0 0.48 0.81 0.18 January ...... -4.2 E 27 0.68 1.96 0.81 - February ...... 0.5 52 -70 0.52 0.04 0.4 ~~- Wiri$er ...... 0.1 58 -70 1.68 2.81 1.44 March ...... 13.8 68 44 0.75 1.84 0.31 April ...... 36.6 -23 0.74 1.03 0.40 May...... 48.9 95 2 1.68 1.97 0.69 ~~- Spring ...... 33.1 95 44 3.17 4.84 1.40 --- June ...... 56.6 2.65 4.36 0.34 July ...... 62.6 ;; 2 2.88 4.86 1.37 August ...... 59.7 22 2.60 8.01 0.69 --- Summer ...... 59.6 97 17 8.13 17.23 2.40 --- September ...... 50.6 1.59 2.31 0.79 (Tctober ...... ,8s5 1; 1.53 0.16 November ...... Zt:: 66 41 “02 1.16 1.21 --- Fall...... 36.5 88 41 3.00 5.0 2.16 --- Par...... 32.3 ’ 97 1 -70 1 15.98 1 29.88.. I 7.40 *La.& River, 1911-1925; [elfort. 1901-1925: Pilger. 1911-1925: Prinœ Albert, 18841924. * *Prince Albert are not reflected in the agricultural results. The excess rainfall in the Birch I-Us runs off rapidly because of the greater slopes and better, drainage: and although the frost-free period is shorter, there is a general impression in the district that the crops grown on the hills suffer less from frost damage than those grown on the Plain. This is probably due to the frost affecting only small 8 Table 2.-Temperature and Rainfall Records at Melfort and Pilger I I Melfort, 1901-1925 Pilger, 1911-1925 Monkh and Season Tempera- Tempera- ture Raisfall ture Rainfall

“F. Inches OF. December ...... 3.9 0.48 January ...... 0.1 0.54 -2: February ...... 0.28 0.8 Winter ...... -0.2 1.30 1.1 March ...... 16.6 0.68 13.7 April ...... 37.2 0.66 37.1 E May ...... 48.8 1.84 49.4 1.53

Spring...... 34.2 3.18 33.4 2.96 June...... :. . 57.6 2.27 52.7 3.11 July ...... 62.6 3.14 63.3 3.45 August ...... 59.0 1.99 60.9 2.06 Summer ...... 59.7 7.40 59.0 8.62 I September ...... 50.6 1.57 52.0 1.58 etober ...... 37.2 .81 38.6 0.69 November ...... 20.2 .67 21.3 0.45 Fall ...... 36.0 3.05 37.3 2.72 Year ...... 32.4 14.93 32.7 16.18

Table a.-Frost Records

Melfort Pilger Station (1992-1907) (1913-1917) Average frost-free period...... 80 days 73 days Average date for last spring frost...... June 14 Average date for first fa11 frost ...... Latest recorded date of spring frost ...... Earliest recorded date of fa11 frost......

Table 4.-Humidity Records. (Months of April to September.)

e Station Humidity Precipitation Prince Albert...... 79% 15.81 inches Moose Jaw...... 14.43 inches Swift Current ...... 14.83 inches

9 low patches in the hills, whereas it is more likely to affect more estensive areas when it strikes the low Plain country. There have been very few trop failures due to frost in the area as a whole. In Table 4; the mean humidity of the atmosphere for the six months, April to September, inclusive, for stations at Prince Albert, Moose Jaw and Swift Current are given, and it is seen that there is a humidity value about 10 per cent higher in the Prince Albert country than in the south parts of the province. The rainfall is distributed favorably for trop production, over 60 per cent (9.81 inches) of the total precipitation falling in the growing season of May, June, July and August. The area has proven penerally successful, both for grain and mixed farming systems. Weeds, rust, occasional frost damage and other factors constantly increase the hazards of straight grain farming and favor greater diversity and increased numbers of live stock. Economie considerations, dur’ng a given period, however, frequently outweigh, in importance, the natural factors as determinents of the type of farming to be followed. Hail causes damage from time to time, but is not considered serious in the area. Hail insurance is generally carried. AGRICULTURE Development and Type.-Ranching was carried on to an appreciable extent before the homesteading movement initiated a rapid development of the area for grain growing and mixed farming. There are records of cattle and horse ranches as early as 1882, and of grain farming as early as 1900. Rapid develop- ment, however, did not begin until 1905. At this time the C.N. Railway from Prince Albert through Melfort was completed. The homesteading movement had pretty well subsided by 1911, although there has been an appreciable amount of settlement since. Carrot River Municipality No. 429, was settled somewhat later than the rest of the area, as the railway branch through this district was not started until 1910. The general development of the Birch Hills-Melfort area, as well as of similar “Park” and “bush” districts, has been some- what slower than on most of the prairie and plains. This is due, largely, no doubt, to the necessity of clearing the growth of trees and shrubs. The amount of such vegétation varies considerably, some soi1 types being quite open and others quite heavily covered. On the other hand, there has been far less abandonment of land than in many of the drier plains areas, and the promise of the future on the better soi1 types is for steady development and improvement of agriculture. The system of farming has been quite similar to thàt of most of Saskatchewan, viz., spring wheat as the principal cash trop, sufficient oats for feed, and some barley and flax as late season and “breaking” crops. Live stock production has been relatively 10 .

more important than on most prairie and plains farms. However, it has fluctuated considerably in importance and popularity from period to period, and still is far less extensively conducted than is grain growing. Natural conditions are well suited to mixed farming, and this Will no doubt ultimately become the prevailing system of agriculture over this and similar areas. Although the area is located in the northern part of settled Saskatchewan, frost damage has been serious in only a few years, SO that it is not considered a serious handicap. Drought has seldom seriously damaged crops, and hail only in odd years and in isolated districts. Rust and weeds have become increasingly important as pests. The former has been serious only in the bad rust years, and there is apparently a definite programme for combatting weeds, which promises to be effective. On the whole, the better soi1 types of this and neighboring areas promise to be- corne one of the more important agricultural belts of Saskatchewan. Crops.-Crop acreages by municipalities, from the Dominion Census for the year 1921, are given in Table 5. Yields per acre are given for Crop District No. 8, of which the survey area is a part, for the years 1916 to 1926 inclusive. These are taken from the annual reports of the Department of Agriculture of Sas- katchewan. Table B.-Acreages of Crops for the Surveyed Area for 1921, and Yields Der Acre for Croc District No. 8 for the years 1916-1926.

Acr bges by unicipa lit ;ies Total l :yJj Yield Crops Munit. Muqic. Per I Mz2v 430 459 Mute- Crops Acre _- -- Sawx-sygwheat . 30,923 1;,;;; 18,842 17,431 80,725 17.9 ...... 20,806 7,125 5,501 39,193 37.4 Bar!ey ...... yg 1:;:; 1,831 1,181 11,130 27.2 E;T for hay.. 3,737 . ..* ‘133 282 “E 8g: 437 . P&%e-s.:::::: 89 111 129 417 . . . . Cultivated hay 104 136 . . . . t5 265 . . . . Fwage crops . . . 97 70 2 250 419 Flax ...... 8 7 4 44 63 .9:i .~ -- Al1 Field Crops. 1 59,596 22,591 28,843‘- 25,590 ( 136,620 1 About 59 per cent of the average of field crops for the year considered (1921) was in spring wheat, about 21 per cent in oats, about 9 per cent in barley, about 2.7 per cent in grain for hay, and less than 1 per cent in each of the other crops listed. Table 6 gives figures for acreages in crops, idle or fallow, pasture, unimproved, woodland and marsh or waste. These are from the Dominion Census of 1921. From the figures in Table 6 it may be seen that about 30.9 per cent of a11 farm land in 1921 was improved and 69.1 per cent 11 .

unimproved. Land in field crops made up 80.6 per cent of im- proved land and 39.9 per cent of the total farm acreage, and idle or fallow 16.9 per cent of improved land and 6.5 per cent of the total farm acreage. The following percentages are based on total farm acreage. Natural pasture, 39.7 per cent; tame pasture, 0.5 per Cen!t; woodland, 10.8 per cent; and marsh or waste, 11.2 percent. The total acreage of a11lands in the area is about 825,000. On this basis, about 20.5 per cent of the total area was improved and about 79.5 per cent unimproved. Since 1921, however, considerable development has taken place, SO that the percentage of improved land and field crops must be appreciably higher. Most of the unimproved land is in Indian and forest reserves, in rough and stony areas of the Birch Hills, in the sand belt east of Invergordon and in the poorly drained areas.

Table o.-Condition of Farm Land in 1921 by Municipalities

Spring Wheat.-Wheat has been. and Will likely continue to be, the predominant trop for many years to corne, on most of the developed soi1 types of the area. It is commonly grown for a number of consecutive years following breaking. Later, however, the summerfallow is, in most cases, introduced into the farming system, and two wheat crops are usually grown after the fallow year. A trop of oats or barley usually follows the wheat, and the land is fallowed again in the fourth year. A number of farmers have not yet adopted the fallow system, many of them growing green feed, usually oats, in place of fallow, the control of weeds being the principal purpose of the fallow in this region. Both fa11 and spring plowing are practised, the amount of each depending much on the nature of the season. Farmers interviewed generally agreed that spring plowing gives a cleaner trop and better yields. However, more wheat is sown on fa11 plowing than are either oats or barley. Some farmers practise both fa11 and spring plowing for the same trop, especially on the heavier and blacker soils. In such cases the fa11 plowing is shallow-about three inches deep-and the spring plowing deeper-five or six inches. Increased yields and more effective weed control are advantages claimed for the system. Wheat is commonly SOWR 12 on cultivated stubble land, but is seldom “stubbled in” with no cultivation. Marquis is the leading variety. Garnet, a comparatively * new, early maturing’variety, has made great gains in popularity in the past few years. Red Fife, Ruby and other varieties are grown, but not to an. appreciable extent. The grade of wheat is more frequently No. 2 than No. 1. Piebald or yellow berry wheat is more frequently produced than on most of the prairies and plains. This quality of wheat seems to be associa&4 with newly broken black lands which have been covered with bush and also with the timbered areas; but the difficulty apparently becomes less marked as time of cultivation increases. Yields and quality of wheat vary greatly, especially with seasonal differences, soi1 types and rotation year. Drought, short

Fig. 4.-View Over Pleasant Valley ut Harvest Time growing seasons, rust and weeds have made serious inroads in occasional years, and other generally less important factors have occasionally decreased local yields. The heavier, better drained, blacker soils, as a rule, produce better than the sandier, rougher, lighter colored or poorly drained soils. Fallow lands, in most seasons, produce better crops than stubble fields. On the whole, the yields of wheat on the better lands of the area compare very well with yields on the better lands of Western Canada. Twenty- five to thirty-five bushels per acre are considered good yields, although much higher are sometimes obtained. Fifteen to twenty bushels are considered fair yields, and less than that as low. Oats.-Of the grains, oats rank second to wheat in acreage, according to the Census of 1921. In that year the acreage is given 13 as about a third that of wheat. The crop is grown principally for feed for horses, both as grain and in the sheaf. It usually follows wheat in the rotation, although it is frequently grown in low areas too wet and too late for wheat. Soi1 preparation is, in gen- eral, quite similar to that for wheat. Banner and Gold Rain seem to be favored -varieties. Sixty to eighty bushels per acre are considered good yields, although higher yields are obtained in more favorable years on the better lands. Bar1ey.-The barley acreage in 1921 was about 6.5 per cent of that of wheat and about 50 per cent of that of oats. This crop is used principally for checking the growth of weeds and as a late

Fig. 5.-Vegetable and Forage Crops Grow Exceptionally Well on Soila of the Melfort Series season crop. It usually follows wheat or oats in the rotation of fallow and small grains. The crop has not proven as good a general crop as wheat or oats for this area. O.A.C. 21 is a favored varietv. Miscellaneous Crops.-Rye, flax for seed, sweet clover, sunflowers, potatoes, corn, brome gras and western rye grass are grown in small acreages, mostly as experiments or for other special purposes. Rye is grown principally on light lands, especially in fields which tend to drift. Most garden crops suited to the climate do very well. The favorable moisture conditions, high organic matter content of the soi1 and excellent soi1 tilth favor a very good growth of vegetables in most years, especially on lands of the Melfort and Crystal Springs series. 14 Wild hay is produced in abundance in sloughs and creek bottoms. A good growth of natural grasses, for wild pasture, is also produced on most uplands of the "park" area. Thc former type of vegetation is usually poorcr for feed than the.latter, as the sedges and marsh grasses, which makc up most of it. are. in general. of lower feeding value than the upland grasses. Wild pea vine, a legume, grows quile abundantly in the wooded arcas, especially areas in the Waitville Series of soils which has been partially cleared and burned over. Livestock.-Conditiovs in the area are generally quite suit- able to livestock production as part. of mixed farming systcms. Good water is generally available in sufficieut and frequently abundant quantities: soils and climate favor the growth of most forage crops; and natural pasture is generally good, although constariily decreasing in area. P'urtliermore, the increasing ncces- sity of followinp adapted and balanced rotations will no doubt greally stimulate live stock production in order to profitably utilize forage crops gronm. Table 7 gives the numbers of live stock for the arca for thc year 1916. Table ?.-Nuinbers of Livestock in the Birch-Aills-Melfort Area for 1916

Total Anirnals for

p~~~pp .... -- ...... Horses...... '. .. 2,9.54 990 1.609 1,313 7,045 C'attlu ...... 8,349 4.210 7,63(183 5,827 2fi.005 Shccp ...... 213 683 1,110 727 2,733 Ski* ...... 3,902 5 2,096 1,4fi8 8.619 On the basis of the number of farms (1306) and total niirnben of animals foi- 1916, there was an average of 19.8 head of cattle per farm, 5.4 horses, 6.6 swine and 2.1 sheep. The acliial number varies greatly with individual farms. Most fariners raise some cattle, horses, swine and poultry, but very few have sheep. The quality of animals, in general, is fair to yood. Sonie excellent pi~rc-bredsare produced on a nunibcr of farms and good quality of grades on others, while scruù stock is still produced in an appreciablc number. Percherons and Clydesdales seem to be the niost popular breeds of horses: Shorthorns, Ayrshires, Holst,eins and Durhams, thc breeds of cattle; and Yorkshire the predotninaiit breed of hogs. Land Values, Tenure, Improvements, etc.-In 1926, wlieii data was collected for tfiis report, the hetter lands of the Melfort Series were selling for about $30.00 to $45.00 per acre iinproved, and about $18.00 to $30.00 unimproved. Better lands of the Transition and Crystal Springs Series sold for a little less than 15 these prices; while lands of the Waitville Series, in most cases, were valued at considerably less. The variation in price in this type is considerable, due principally to great differences in the amount of timber cover, topography, stoniness, distance from market, and soil texture. Much of the land of this type and of the Pines Sand is hardly saleable for agricultural purposes. In general, values of al1 soil types are considerably influenced by distance from market, amount of timber and shrub vegetation, number and extent of poorly drained areas, and improvements, in addition to the inherent characteristics peculiar to each par- ticular soil type. Accordin~cto the Dominion Census figure; for 1921 about 50 per cent of Che farms in the area were OYf quarter-section * size, I and about 40 per cent were of half-section or more in size. Few i

Fig. 6.4ne of the Better Types of Farmsteads in the Area farms are smaller than quarter-section, and a number are as large as one or more sections. 4 According to the 1921 Census about 84 per cent of al1 farms l were occupied by their owners, about 9 per cent by part owner I and part tenant, and about 7 per cent by tenants. Renting is T usually on a crop share agreement basis. Most labor is supplied by the farm operators and their families, 1 except during harvest season, when transitory labor is largely I depended iipon for harvesting and threshing. The improvements Vary greatly wifh soil types, distance from markets, nationalities and lefiph of period of settlement. In general, buildings are fair to good. Although conditions are l

*A section contains 640 acres I 16 very favorable to the development of a balanced and lasting agri- culture, development is necessarily slower than on the prairie and plains, due to the necessity of clearing bush and light timber on much of the land. Miscellaneous.-Water is usually obtainable from shallow wells-about 20 ta 25 feet deep-in the rolling bdts and sandy land and is generally of good quality. On the smoother, medium to heavy lands, especially of the Melfort Serics, wells are much deeper-about GO to 120 feet deep-and the water is usually of poorer quality, being generally somewhat alkaline. Deficient supplies are supplemented by rain-water, creeks, sloughs and small dams. Market conditions are generally good. Most farms are within ten miles of shipping points and retail merchandise centres, and few are more than fifteen milcs distant. The lands alonp." the~~~- north border and in the southwest part of the area areleast favored by distance or roads or both. The more prevalent weeds are wild oats, French weed, Canada thistle, wild mustard, dandelion, lambs' quarters and Russian pipeed. Sow thistle has appeared in small patches recently, especially on the more moist places, but definite measures have been taken for the purpose of effectively checking this serious pest. SOILS System of Classification There are various systrtns of soi1 classification. The one used in this bulletin is very similar to that used by the United States Bureau of Soils. It is the scheme which is most generally accepted and used on this continent. A brief explanation of the system is given to aid those who are not acquainted with its prin- ciples. Soils are groupcd into classes, series and types. The soi1 class refers to the texture, that is to the proportions of clay, silt and various-sized sands. Sandy loam, loani, clay loam, clay, etc., for example, are classes of soil. Table 8, on page 18 gives the sizes and proportions of soi1 particles (separates) making up each of the thirteen standard soi1 classes. Thc soil series is a general group including al1 soils alike in al1 essential characteristics (not considering texture). That is, soils in the same series will usually have the same general color, structure, chernical composition, etc., not only for the surface, but for al1 the different corresponding natural layers below the surface. The series corresponds very much to a family of plants or of animals in biological classifications. The soi1 typc is a group which includes al1 soils theoretically alike in al1 characteristics; chat is, in texture as well as in other properlies. Types are therefore units of series, differentiated on 17 the basis of texture, and correspond to individuals or species in plant and animal classifications. Soils of a given type are as nearly alike as obsewa"ci0n may determine. The soil map (back cover) shows the areas of soil types in colors and groups the types into several series. For example, in the Melfort Series, the Melfort silty clay loam is a definite type or kind of soil. The class in this case is silty clay loam. In addi- tion to soil series, several general land classes are given. These include soils which, because of their variability, or for some other 1 reason, do not fit well into a definite series classification. Soil descriptions are given largely on the basis of the soi profile. The profile refers to the arrangement in depth of natura layers of soil, these layers differing in such characteristics as color texture, structure, chernical nature, compactness, etc. Soils of the same type theoretically have the same profiles. Actnally, in such a varied uatural body as soil, appreciable differences must be allowed even for types. As the character of a profile varies principally with climatic differences, the profiles over broad climatic belts are usually quite alike under similar conditions of topography and drainage.

Table %-Soi1 Classes * as Determined by the Proportionv of the Various-Sized Soil Separates * * for Each Class 1.-Soils oontaining less than 20% of silt and olay: 1. Coarse send: Over 25% fine gravel and ooarse sand, and under 50% of any other grade. 2. Meliium sand: Over 25% fine gravel, ooarse and medium sand, and nnder 50%.. fine sand. 3. Fine sand: Over 54% fine smd, ar under 25% fine grave], coarse and medium sand. 4. Very fine sand: Over 50% very fine sand.! 11.-Soils oontaining 20% to 50% silt and olay: 1. Sandy loam: Over 25% fine gravel, ooarse and medium sandl 2. Fiue sandy Io=: Over 50% fine sand, or under 25% fine gravel, comse and medium sand. 3. Very fine sandy loam: Over 50% very fine sand. 4. Sandy olay: Under 20% silt. III.-Soils containing over 50% silt and clay: 1. Loam: Undar 20% Clay and under 50% silt. 2. Silt loam: U.Üder 20% olay and over 50% silt. 3. Clay loam: From 20% to 3C% olay and under 50% silt. 4. Silty elay loam: From 20% to 30% olay, and over 50% silt. -5. Clay: Over 30% &y. *System establhüed and used by the United Statea Bureau of Soils. **Severi sepanates or si- of soi1 particles are wdfor the olassiîic%tios:fine Bpavel. coarw mnd, medium ad,fine saad, vers fine sand, silt and clw. 18 Soi1 Series Melfort Series.-Soils of this series are of lacustrine (lake) origin. They are usually free of Stones and grav~l. The topogr?phy is generally smooth in the south areas, and, witha few exceptions, undulating to moderately rolling in the north. Drainage tends to be somewhat deficient, but seems to rapidly improve with clearing and cultivation. Sloughs are fairly prevalent. The types of this series are found under prairie, park and timber vege- tation. The probabilities, however, are that most of the timber cover is of comparatively recent age. Soils of this series generally have hi& extents of nitrogen and organic matter, are neutral to hmy in reaction, are generally quite fertile and productive and work readily to excellent tilth. Four types and one (topographical) phase (r~lling)were mapped, viz., silty clay loam, smooth and rolling phases; silt loam; loam; and very fine sandy loam. Waitville Series.-Soils of this series are of glacial origin (usually morainic) and of the greyish timber or "bush" group of lands common to the north of the park belt. These soils are mostly loam in texturc and usually moderately to very stony. The topography is predominantly rolling to quite hilly and rough. The most exLensive smooth area occurs in Town- ship 43, Range 23, and is mapped as a separate type. Drainage differs from excessive to deficient, depending largely upon topography. The rougher portions tend to be somewhat droughty, while the depressed areas and smoother belts of elevated plateaus, are usually somcwhat swampy. Natural vegeta.on is mostly second growth poplar with soine birch. A characteristic association of shrubs and herbs is also usudly found on soils of this series. Hazelriut, wild cranberry, Saskatoon berry, dogwood are common shrubs, and wild pea vine and firenreed characteristic herhs. Soils of this series are usually light colo!ed, low in organic matter, slightly to moderately acid in reaction, of rather poor tilth, somewhat droughty and usually poorly developed. The cost of clearing, roughness of topography, stoniness and poor marketing are no douht largely responsible for the slow develop- ment of much of this land. Although iisually cultivated only in small portions, surprisingly good crops have been produced, at least during early ycars of cultivation. One type, Waitville loam, and a tppographic phase, Wait- ville hilly loam, are mapped and described. Melfort-Waitville Transition Series.-Belts approximat- ing about three townships in area were mapped in this class. Such belts include soils having somewhat the character of both series, aswell as small patches of soils distinctly of one.or the other series. The mapping of a mixed zone was thought to be the best way of outlining and describing such areas. These transition soils are, in rnost cases, located along the junction of the park lake beds (Melfort Series) and in the more elevated, glacial till, bush belts. The topagraphy is generally broadly rolling. Stony and bowldery areas occur frequently in the belt. Crystal Springs Series.-Soils of this series are of alluvial , , origin, deposited in the valley of Carrot River. The vegetation is of the park type.

Fig. 8.- Projile of Melfort Siltf~ Fig. 7.- Proyile O] Waitville Loam. Clay Loam. For Description see For Description see Page 25. Page 21. The general profile is quite similar to that of a well-drained type of the Melfort Series, especially of the Melfort very fine sandy loam or loam. The principal difference in the soils of the two series is the presence of a gravelly or sandy subsoil in many places in the Crystal Springs soils, especially in the lower parts of the valley. The soils are almost as low in elevation as are those of the 20 Melfort Series. They are generally quite free of Stones, except along some of the upper dopes near the Waitville Series of soils. As a result of the sandy and gravelly subsurfaces and subsoils, much of the lands of this series tend to be droughty. In general fertility these soils are similar to the light and medium textured types of the Melfort Series. One type, a loam, is described and mapped. Pines Series.-These soils occur near the Saskatchewan River to the north and alqng the Carrot River west of Waterhen Marsh. They are probably of alluvial and windblown origin. Thrse soils are generally quite smooth and stone free, some- times with gravelly subsoils. Drainage is usually excessive. al- though occasionally locally deficient (in sloughs and spruce swamps in the fine sandy loam type). Jack-pine (Pinus banksianna) grows on the sands in the north part, and stunted poplars in the south area. Park and timber vegetation covers most of the fine sandy loam. The coarse texture of surface and subsoils results in marked droughtiness in the sand and frequent droughtiness in the fine sandy loam. The former type is seldoin cultivated. The latter type has been ranched to some extent and is now appreciably cultivated in small farm areas. Although these soils are easily worked, the difficulties of clearing, droughtiness, distance from market, drifting and low potential fertility make the profitable working of these soils a difficult proposition Two types, a Sand and fine sandy loam have been mapped. Soils mapped as general land classes are described with soi1 types on pages 33 and 34. Soi1 Types' and General Land Classes Melfort Siltv Clav Loam Description.-The typical profile * * consists of a black or very dark, fine granular, friable surface of silty clay loam, 5 to 8 inches deep; a second layer of dark brown heavy silty clay loam or clay loam, of coarser granular structure and about 8 to 12 inches thick; a third layer of clay or heavy clay loam, grayish brown in color and high in lime carbonate (accumulation); and a fourth zone of dark gray clay, mottled with srnall brownish ferric iron accumulations. This zone grades into the dark gray clay parent soi1 below. In the more poorly drained profiles, the lower subsoils are strongly mottled with both bluish splotches and brown- ish concretions and splotches. In the well-drained profiles, brown- ish and yellowish brown color3 are quite marked in the second and third layers. Small areas of silt loam and of light clay occur at a few places in- the belts of the type, and also small patches of whitish soi1 of *Table 9, on page 80. gives a summwy of the more outstanding oharsoteriatics of the various son tmer. * thrrangsment of soi1 in natnral layeig or zones. dth depth 21 acid reaction in somewhat poorly drained spots which have been covered with poplar bluff or luxuriant sedge vegetation for a con- siderable time. Some moderately alkaline spots also occur, espe- cially in the rolling phase of the belt in the north part of the area. The Melfort silty clay loam is typically high in nitrogen and organic matter, usually neutral and rarely slightly acid in reaction, works to excellent tilth, drains well except in local low areas, and is quite free of stones and gravel. Extent and Distribution.-This type is the most extensive.-- in the district surveyed, occupying about one-quarter of the total area. It occupies most of the smooth park land of rather low elevation in Municipalities Nos. 429 and 460, Topography and Drainage.-The topogaphy is typically undulating with very occasional low knolls and broad swells and an appreciable number of sloughs and small lakes.

Fig. 9.-View over the Park Area of the Melfort Plain Drainage ranges from moderate to deficient. The lands of this type are comparatively low lying and stream drainage is sluggish. However, except in very wet seasons, drainage is favor- able over most of the type. Agricultural Deve1opment.-This type is, on the whole, the best in the area, at least for grain growing. The soils are high in native fertility, especially in nitrogen, and have produced high yields of grain during most years since the country has been settled. Wheat has been the principal crop, although oats and barley , have been grown to some extent. Although the quality of wheat 22 does not usually quite equal that produced on the better prairie and plains lands, the grades are usually good. The straw tends to be ta11 and heavy and, in wet seasons, there is occasional diffi- culty with lodging, especially with barley and oats. These lands produce excellent forage crops and luxuriant stands of natural grasses. Climatic conditions are quite unfavor- able to corn, but sunflowers, sweet clover, potatoes and most crops suited to rlimatic conditions do very well on this type of soil. Water is usually more difficult to obtain than on the lighter and rougher lands, and is more frequently somewhat alkaline. However, in most localities satisfactory water supplies are obtained from deep wells, streams and sloughs. Improved land sells for about $35 to $45 per acre, and un- improved for about $25 to $30. Farm buildings are not as good as one usually finds, in the province, on lands of such good quality, but there is much evidence of prosperity, optimism and steady development. Dué to the neces- sity of clearing bush from fairly large portions of some farms, de- velopment is necessarily slower than on the open plains. However, moisture conditions are usually more favorable, and, consequently less failures have occurred and the general agricultural adaptation of the area is probably qreater. Melfort Silty Clay Loam. Rolling Phase.-This type is penerally quite similar to the smooth phase of the same type. The principal natural differenres are the strongly undulating to rolling topography, the generally somewhat lighter textured soil, the greater growth of bush, vegetation and a greater number of larger, deeper and usually alkaline sloughs, in the rolling phase as compared to the smooth. The area of the former is slightly less than that of the latter. The rolling silty clay loams are, on the whole, not generally SO well suited to grain growing as the smooth lands of the type, but the former have some advantages for mixed farming although this relation does not hold true for many farms in either belt. In general, land values are lower, development less and im- provements poorer on the lands of the rolling phase. Water is, in most localities, more easily obtained in the rolling belt. Melfort Silt Loam Description.-The profile of this tvpe is verv similar to that of the Melfort silty clay loam. The texture is lighter through the whole depth, with a lower clay content and usually more ver-y fine Sand. A high silt content is as noticeably evident as in the silty clay loam. The more marked brownish and yellowish colors in the Upper layers of the profile, the deeper lime layer and less frequent occurrence of strongly mottled subsoils indicate a generally more open structure and better soi1 drainage. The bush growth is generally fairly heavy over most of the northern areas of the type. 23 Extent and Distribution.-The type occupies about 1.7 per cent of the total area surveyed. Most of this soi1 occurs in the north, not far from the river, in four separate belts. Topography and Drainage.-Topography is generally un- dulating and drainage good in nbrmal seasons, except in the fairly numerous water-holes. Agricultural Development.-Agricultural adaptations differ but little from those of the Melfort smooth and rolling silty clay loams. The rather heavy bush growth and greater distance from market have tended to retard settlement and development some- what as compared to the silty clay loams. Melfort Loam This type is quite similar in character, adaptations and develop- ment to the silt loam. The areas are associated in location and have the same general natural vegetation-fairly heavy poplar, willow and shrub growth. The principal difference is in the some- what coarser texture of the loam, resulting in a somewhat more open type of soil. The loam is also generally more variable in texture and contains more sloughs and light soi1 areas. . Melfort Very Fine Sandy Loam Description.-Soils of this type have very fine sandy loam surfaces, about 4 to 8 inches deep, very dark brown or black in color and loose to fine granular in structure. Under this is usually a slightly heavier and more compact brown soil, grading into a yellowish brown light loam or a very fine sandy loam of looser structure. A brownish or yellowish gray layer, the zone of lime accumulation, is usually deeper than in the heavier types of the Melfort Series, occurring usually below the two foot depth. These soils are the lightest type of the Melfort Series and are consequently somewhat more droughty and generally lower in potential fertilitv. Except for the greater prevalence of wolf-willow, wild cherry, and sage, the natural vegetation is similar to that of the medium types of the Melfort Series. Extent and Distribution.-The type occupies- only about 1.8 per cent of the area surveyed. Three belts were mapped. These are in the north and west parts of the area, not far from the river. Topography and Drainage.-The topography is generally undulating. Drainage is more effective than on most types of the Melfort Series, and in dry years tends to be excessive from the standpoint of moisture conservation. Agricultural Development.-The soi1 belts of this type have been developed to about the same degree as the silt loam and loam of the same series, and, on the average, has much the same general value and agricultural adaptations. Due to the 24 fairly light texture, however, soils of this type are more subject to drought and to drifting. Waitville Loam Description.-These soils are known locally as “white clay,” and are characterized principally by a light gray soi1 under a sur- face of dark colored forest leaf mold 1 to 2 inches thick. This light colored layer is usually a loam, slightly to moderately acid in reaction, low in organic matter and of powdery or lumpy struc- ture, depending upon the texture and moisture conditions. Under this gray layer, which varies from 2 to 8 inches in thickness, is a zone of brown to coffee brown heavy loam or clay loam, quite hard and compact. This subsurface layer breaks into tough, coarse granules when dry. It is usually moderately acid in the Upper part of the zone and is underlain by the grayish lime zone common to most western soils. This zone of lime concentration usually begins at depths of from 25 to 30 inches from the surface. The basa1 or parent soi1 is usually dark gray glacial till speckled with small, brown ferric iron accumulations. Although loam is the predominant surface texture, small areas of fine sandy loam, silt loam and clay loam occur in the areas of this type, as well as rather low small areas of darker, richer soils which are frequently wet and marshy. The Waitville soi1 types are typical of northern soils, developed under a timber vegetation of many years standing. Much of the soi1 of Northern Saskatchewan is of the same general nature. The Waitville loam is generally undulating in topography. Rolling to hilly areas of the same type are mapped as a hilly phase. The type is generally somewhat stony. Most of the unbroken areas are covered by a fairly heavy growth of poplars and various shrubs. * Extent and Distribution.-The smooth phase of this type occupies about 3.2 per cent of the total survey area. An extensive belt occurs in the south part of Municipality No. 430 and a number of small areas in the south-east part of Municipality No. 429. Topography and Drainage.-The smoother phase of the type is generally undulating and occasionally slightly rolling. The strongly rolling and hilly areas are mapped and described as “Waitville loam, hilly phase.” Drainage varies greatly over the type. Marshes and small lakes are fairly numerous. However, the upland areas are gener- ally well drained. Agricultural Development.-Lands of this type have not been extensively developed. In general, only small areas have been cultivated, and the results of farming efforts have been far less satisfactory than on most lands of the Melfort or Melfort- Waitville Transition Series. Some of the reasons for this are the *Je0 page 4 for nstural vegetstion. 25 ,difficulties and cost of clearing the fairly heavy growth of timber and bush which is generally prevalent; the comparatively long distance from market and the small number of good market roads; the large percentage of waste land and poor land-marshes, stony belts, etc. ; and certain inherent characteristics of the soi1 itself which tend to lower its fertility, viz., low organic matter, acid reaction, frequent sandy or gravelly subsoils and a poor soi1 struc- ture. Although good crops of wheat, other small grains, potatoes, garden crops and other crops suited to the area have been pro- duced in favorable years, these lands have been generally less productive than most soils of the survey area. However, crops generally mature earlier, have shorter straw, and are, in general, !ess subject to bail, frost and lodging as compared to crops on

Fig. 10.-View over Waitwille Loam, Hilly Phase

the lower, blacker lands such as the Melfort and much of the Transition types. Appreciable development and best general results on the Waitville soils have been generally attained where farms are located where the above difficulties are least pronounced. At best, the lands of this type Will develop far more slowly than those of the better lands nearer the railways. The use of sweet clover, barnyard manures, and, in some cases, the use of lime, Will undoubtedly greatly improve these lands. The chemical analysis of some samples indicated a lack of available phosphorus, although sufficient investigations have not yet been made to warrant definite recommendations.

26 Lands of this type Will no doubt be best utdized for mixed farming, and the tendency is already definitely in that direction. Results to date would also seem to indicate that the small farm Will prevail at least for many years to corne. Water is usually quite easily obtainable, not only in quite shallow Wells, but, for live stock, from streams, marshes and lakes. Land values vary greatly, some of the better improved lands selling for as much as twenty-five dollars per acre, while much of the land is .practically unmarketable for agricultural purposes-at least at the present time. Waitville Loam, Hilly Phase Soils of this general type differ from the smoother phase principally in having rougher topography, greater variation in texture and a greater proportion of stony land. On the average the hilly phase is far less developed agriculturally than the smooth, and has far more waste land represented by stony belts, Sharp ridges, marshes, etc. There are exceptions to this, as some small areas have been quite successfully farmed. Wheat has appar- ently been a more successful trop than oats or barley. About 15 per cent of the total surveyed area is occupied by this type of soil. Lt ranks third in extent of area of a11 types mapped. Land values are generally low. These lands make up most of the soils of the Birch Hills. A fairly considerable proportion of the number of farms have been abandoned. Waitville-Melfort Transition Series This element of the classification was provided to take tare of a group of soils containing not only many small areas of both series, but also soils intermediate in nature between these types. The belts are, in most cases, found between the extensive areas of typical soils of the Melfort and Waitville Series. They usually occur at an elevation which marks the general boundary of the upland glacial till of the Waitville Series and the lower old lake bottom soils of the Melfort Series. They also mark the general junction of the black park lands and the bush lands of the Birch Hills, these vegetation belts corresponding in most cases to the geological soi1 belts above mentioned. Soi1 belts of the Transition Series occupy about 10 per cent of the total area. As a consequence of their mixed and intermediate nature, these soils vary greatly in character, agricultural adaptation and value. Such variation is marked, even on individual farm holdings in many cases. Crystal Springs Loam Description.-This type includes a group of soils bordering the Carrot River in the vicinity of Crystal Springs. 27 The general profile is similar to that of the Melfort loam, the chief difference being the presence of a gravelly or sandy sub- surface or subsoil in many places, especially in the area of lower elevation near the valley bottom. These lands are almost as low in elevation as those of the Melfort Series. They are quite free of stones, but low, gravelly ridges and knolls are of frequent occurrence. Although the belt, in general, tends to be droughty, due to the light subsoils, there are a number of areas of farm size or somewhat larger which do not have light subsoils at shallow depths and are usually about equal in quality to the medium types of the Melfort Series. Most of these better lands lie along the higher valley slopes. Extent and Distribution.-About 1.5 per cent of the total survey area is made up of this soi1 type. Only one belt was mapped. This occurs in the valley depression of the Carrot River near Crystal Springs, in a district surrounded by the rough bush lands of the Waitville Series in the Birch Hills. Topography and Drainage.-The topography is generally undulating to gently rolling, with a moderate slope from the hills to the stream bed. Drainage is generally good, especially on the slopes, but is somewhat deficient at a few points near the stream and the small lakes. Where the gravelly subsoils prevail, rapid percolation and poor capillary rise of water tend to make these soils droughty in dry years. Agricultural DeveIopment.-The agriculture of this soi1 type is typical of that of the other park lands of the area. Wheat and other small grains are the principal crops. There are small acreages of potatoes, grasses and vegetables. Small numbers of cattle, horses, hogs and poultry are also raised on most farms. Improvements are generally good. Land values vary con- siderably. They are generally lower than those of the Melfort silty clay loam and much better than those of the Waitville Series. Pines Fine Sandy Loam Description.-This type includes most of the light textured soils under cultivation. The surface soi1 is usually a dark brown to very dark brown fine sandy loam, over a brown, slightly heavier and somewhat more compact subsurface. Under this is usually a yellowish brown, rather loose, fine sandy loam, grading downwards into a grayish soi1 of much the same texture. These soils are quite loose in structure, and tend to drift after a few years cultivation and to dry out fairly readily in dry years. There are usually few stones and little grave1 present. The natural vegetation is predominantly small trees and 28 shrubs, both as “bluffs” and in solid stands. There is usually more wolf-willow and wild cherry present than on heavier soi1 types of the area. Extent and Distribution.-About 6.5 per cent of the area is occupied by this type. Al1 of the belts are located near the Saskatchewan River and the greater portion of the type borders the Pines Sand, the lightest soi1 type in the area. Topography and Drainage.-The topography is typically undulating. Surface drainage is generally good, although sloughs occur in depressions even on these light lands. Percolation and capillary rise of moisture are both rapid in these soils, and, consequently, the Ioss of moisture by seepage and evaporation are compara- tively intense. The high organic matter content and the sheltered position from winds, however, tend to check such losses appreci- ably as compared to such losses on similar textured open prairie or plains lands. . Agricultural Development.-This soi1 type is, in general, not well developed. The distance from the railway and towns, the droughty character and drift tendency of the soi1 and the comparatively heavy growth of tree and shrub vegetation no doubt are largely responsible for this. The type Will likely find its best development under a mixed farming system of agriculture. Good water supplies are usually available, and good yields of sweet clover, grasses and cultivatecl crops may be obtained. In most cases satisfactory natural pastures are also available. Under such a system of farming, provision is made to check soi1 drifting, to maintain fertility, to control weeds and to return organic matter. As a permanent system of agri- culture, straight grain farming Will not be satisfactory. Pines Sand Description.-This type of soi1 is typically a brown fine or medium sand under a timber caver of Jack-pine. Local areas of fine sandy loam and of heavier types occur throughout the areas. Such variations are usually in lower places and support a naturai vegetation of poplars, willows and associated shrubs. Subsurface and subsoils are usually yellowish or brownish loose sands, fine sandy to coarse sandy in texture. Most of these soils are located in the Fort a La Corne Forest Reserve. They are generallyistone free. Extent and Distribution.-Belts of this type occupy about 6.2 per cent of the area surveyed, and occur along the Saskatchewan River in the extreme north part of the area and along the Carrot River west of Waterhen Marsh. At the latter place the vegetation is mostly aspen. Topography and Drainage.-The topography is typically undulating. 29 .- -API,ro1 rlmate A 3as Occupll I by Sol1 T YPes. and the B#ore 6utstandlng CharacterIsUcs of Eaeh = - = = I Il f ~haracteristl icB SOI-- .- Soi1 Type r%otai1 G k33logical Natural Topog- Usual Utmal General Area Origin Drainage raphy Surface structure, stonas “,ô”“’ s%%~ceColor Texture Cultivated tat P on _- - -- .- Melfort -L, acustrine; ufficient bfostly gg” Silty clay ‘in0 grmm- V‘ery few ?ark Weil suited to grain or Silty Clay 313.2 23.3 xcept in mdulatmg loam. Some ii LF mixed farming. Land Loam ame low clay and silt values and extent of reaa and in loam. development greatest. wt seasom. on average. of a11 types in area. .------.- Melfort << Silty clay General adaptations p;ymClay 290.7 22.1 loam and very similar to that of silt loam smooth phase of t pe Roll& Not 80 well suit IXT tO stra ht grafn farming. Usua f 1s somewhat low- er in value. - _- -- _- Melfort Generally Silt loam i;ake;nd General adaptations 8 23.4 1.8 undulating similar to heavier t es Silt Loam of Melfort Series. Yot SO well developed or 80

denser stand of treea and shrubs. _- -- -- _- Melfort Predominant ;ypd&nu- F ‘ew Similar to silt loam in Loam 17.6 1.3 ly loam. -E value and agricultural l Small arem 81na11 lumpy adaptations. of siit loam and very fin e sandy loam .- - -- _- .- Melfort rery dark Very fine oose to Droughtier. and of 25.7 1.9 Brown to sandy loam. ne granu- ‘< areater drift tendencv ;z;;yE*ine llack Some fine È v. is com sandy loam t peso Melfort Series. Loam dasier worked.rd t” Other-Other wise quite similar to - - -- the loam an. silt loam Table S (Contlnued)-Approxlmate Areas Occnpled bp Sol1 Tnws, ad the MOM OUtStandhw CharacterIstlcr Of Em I 9011 Oharacterist hs -- -- Soi1 Type Natural Usual UsUal General Drainage “y$ Surface StNcture. stonee “v”’ Color Texture Gultivated -- tat 7 on ufficient. r,e-paun;t- Jght gray. Loam. Pre- Powdery and Ïij pprfxi- Usually somewhat acid 43.2 xcept in ray or quently loose when ble tl in reaction. low in 3me IOW gent1y awn heavy fine dry. Lumpy Sl INbs organic matter. some- mas rolling sandy loam if plowed what droughty. Gen- too moi& erally quite far from market snd covered with considërable trëë and shrub growth. Rather oorly develop- ed andplow in values ex&apt in small local belti. -- - _- g wawge - Generally Loam. E”re- (( Generally SMlar to Waitville 195.3 14.8 rollfng and ~f-&t;b.dlt somewhat loam, smooth phase, Hllly ’ hilly “eyfrall more var- other med- V d erior qual- lum texturee tt~to~u& but llttle de -- - -- Transition or fixed ulte vari- dixed Mlxed silty Ikt~kt\;;fine ;%&;le. & fixed Ver variable. In- 140.4 10.7 lac&l” a< &a le. Mix ray, dark clay loam. ark and clu Bes small areas of M%2” ed smooth ;zkand ;til&oam and powdery’and many 8 mber Melfort Series aud lumpy Waltville Serfes. but %Prne is mostly of an lnter- rolling mediate nature be- tween the two. -- - -- Cr stal Springs .lluvial ufficient to Undulat- slack Loam. Fine granu- G&rrerally P ‘ark Frequently underlain E oam 18.9 1.4 nd glacial xcessive. Small areas p&t;ysmall by gravelly or sandy xcept in ~%Yd of lighter subsoils. and therefore ,w places rolling textures tending to be drough- ty. Shnilar to Melfort t es where these light su“g soi16 are not pres- ent. - - ! 8 (C NInaed)-ApproxImate Arc Occwled bv Sol1 Types, and the More OntstandIng Characterlstics of Each I 1 I Soi1 Characteristica -- I Soi1 Typa Natural Usual Usual General Drainage :gg- “z%l~ Surface Structure. stones Color Texture Cultivated l ~::cltation I -- PineS ;enerally Very dark Fine sandy 1 roose. very few Pa?a;end Easily worked. but Fine Sandy 86.4 mdulating brown to 10alll s. ingle grain droughty, and tend to L0am black drift after a few years cultivation. Generally quite far from market, @te low in value. and rather poorly develop- ed. QuIte heavy clear- ing necassary on most new lands. -- Pines Jndulat- L Noose fery few Jack-pine. Mostly in forest re- Sand 81.0 w Some pop-z serve. Too drought lar and infertile for colt P- vation in most places. _- h: Lacustrine: mooth, Dark gray Clays and ticky. Itone Marsh Used mostly for pas- Slough and nv lying clay loams h UnPY ree plants- turc. except a portion ;o%mntsL&ke sedges. of Waterhen Lake (drained ) , which is :i%ses used for cropping. High rushes alkali content and poor drainage render much of the type poorly adapted to cultivated crops. Peat II Dark Peat -P, po$;h (suite raw) for pasturo. Subsur- face and part of sur- face quite alkaline. Alluvium River ter- Generally .L( )Ose. fine ‘ew Fg’end Rather variable. 2.0 fitoxz and sufficlent. gr anular and Rather poorly develop- some poor1y sandy loam s11~alllumpy 1 ed in most places. Plains and loam i?E” por- .- , Alluvial Ge.u~.u~;;y L< me ‘ew Park Droughty. Rather 0.07 ! - / I poorly developed. Drainage is generally excessive, especially through the soil, resulting in a very droughty and quite infertile type of land. Agricultural Development.-Due principally to the ex- treme droughtiness, acid reaction, comparatively low fertility and the reservation of much of these lands for a forest reserve, agri- cultural development has been quite insignificant. They Will probably find no better use than for pasture and forest reserve timber. General Land Classes Lacustrine Soils Lands mapped in this group are rather low and poorly drained, occurring in the bottoms of sloughs and recent lakes. They are usually alkaline and quite heavy in texture, with high con,tents of silt and clay. In the dry state such soils are usually dark gray in color, and the subsoils dark gray and frequently strongly mottled with bluish and brownish splotches, indicating poor drainage and poor aeration. Small areas of this type are scattered over much of the land included in the Melfort Series. However, only the more extensive areas are mapped. The former Waterhen Lake, drained by deep ditching, is the most extensive belt of the class. A large portion of it has been leased and cropped during the past few years. Only fair success has apparently been attained from the cropping standpoint. Much of the land is quite high in white alkali, and some of it is quite poorly drained. With effective washing out and drainage, the salt content Will no doubt be reduced sufficiently to ultimately result in a productive type of soil.

Peàt The Waterhen Marsh, also recently drained by deep ditching, contains the only area of this type extensive enough to warrant mapping. In this belt there is typically one to two feet of peaty material, composed largely of the remains of marsh grasses, reeds and rushes which have accumulated over a long period of time. Under the peat there is a layer of mottled, alkaline, gray, heavy silty clay loam containing numerous small shells; and a deeper layer of bluish gray clay, also with numerous shells. The peat supports a luxuriant growth of grasses and sedges, and has provided pasture for a number of leases taken by neighbor- ing farms. However, attempts to grow common field crops have not been generally successful. Alluvium These lands occupy terraces along the Saskatchewan River. The soils and natural vegetation vary considerably, but the greater 33 portion is of fine and very fine sandy loam, although medium textured soils high in silt occur fairly extensively in places. The topography is generally level to gently undulating, and drainage fairly good. As is true of most of the lands in the north part of the area, a large portion is uncultivated. Sand and Grave1 A single small belt of this land class was mapped. It is located near Invergordon. The soils of this belt are coarse in texture, very loose, open and droughty. The fertility of such lands is seldom very lasting. The general quality of the soils is therefore poor. PRINCIPLES OF SOIL FERTILITY General.-Fertility is defined as the relationship existing between soi1 conditions and plant growth. Soi1 conditions are the result of two groups of factors, namely, (1) those which are dependent upon, or are the result of, influences outside the soil, such as climatic conditions and topography, etc., factors which have already been discussed; and (2) those factors which are intrinsically part of the soi1 itself-the chemical composition, physical composition and biological condition. Plant Foods.-Ten chemical elements are generally con- sidered essential for the growth of plants, and, although, for cer- tain plants, other elements are necessary, these are usually re- quired in very minute quantities and are present in sufficient quantity in most soils. The important elements are given in the three groups- 1. Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. 2. Calcium, Magnesium, Iron and Sulphur. 3. Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium. The elements comprising Group 1 are obtained by the plant from air or water. Carbon is derived from the air in the form of the gas, carbon dioxide (COz), oxygen from either the air or water, and hydrogen from water. These elements, which are already combined in the form of carbon dioxide and water, com- bine further in the plant. By an elaborate process4ight playing an important part and providing the necessary energy-starches, sugars and Woody fibres are built up. Calcium, magnesium, iron and sulphur, the elements named in Group 2, though necessary for the growth of the plant, occur in a11 normal soils in relatively large amounts in proportion to the amounts required, and therefore are not likely to limit trop yield. Calcium, in the form of lime carbon ate (CKO*), is an important constituent of soils, keeping the soi1 from becoming acid or sour and also promoting good physical condition and tilth . 34 The elements of Group 3-nitrogen, phosphorus and potas- sium-are the most important from the standpoint of soi1 fertility, since they are the ones most likely to limit trop yield. Commercial fertilizers are composed of ingredients containing one or more of these elements, and deficiencies of nitrogen, potassium or phos- phorus in the soi1 cari readily be remedied by the application of the necessary fertilizer. Nitrogen occurs in the soi1 almost entirely in the organic form, and the supply therefore may become exhausted with the depletion of the organic matter. Al1 plants, except legumes, depend upon the supply in the soil, but the legumes, when inocu- lated, may draw upon the free nitrogen gas which makes up three- fourths of the atmosphere bv weight. It is not usually economical, therefore, to buy commercial fertilizers containing nitrogen, be- cause this element cari be obtained at little or no cost from the inexhaustible supply contained in the air; one needs only to grow legumes, making sure that they are inoculated, and to plow under a certain amount of the growth for the benefit of succeeding crops. Sweet clover has thus far proven to be our best adapted trop for this purpose in Saskatchewan. More tare must be exercised here than in humid regions, however, in the quantity of organic matter plowed under at one time. A large quantity of moisture is re- quired in its decomposition and, under such conditions of limited supply, there is danger not only of retarded decomposition, but also of insufficient moisture for following crops. Considerable organic matter and nitrogen may also be added in barnyard manures. Phosphorus occure in soils in combination with calcium as the mineral, apatite, and in organic remains, principally in bones, and in plant and animal residues. It frequently happens that the total supply of phosphorus in the soils is comparatively abundant, but due to its being locked up in more or less insoluble form it is not available for the plant, and consequently to obtain maximum trop yields it is necessary to add fertilizers containing phosphorus, such as bone meal, ground rock phosphate or acid phosphate. Potassium is an essential constituent of the mineral, ortho- clase felspar, and, as such, is fairly abundant in a11 the prairie soils of this province thus far examined. Plants cannot take the potassium directly from orthocase, and it is only by slow de- composition of the minera1 that potassium becomes available. The rate of decomposition seems to keep pace with the demand, and no indications of potassium starvation of plants has been observed.

3.5 Table 10 .-Chemical Composition of Birch Hills-Melfort Soils (Surface Samples) = = I , Soi1 L2.s Total Tc%a! Ta% 1 Sample Type Nitro Phos- ?Otas Reaction IgSion gen sium / -- Composite Melfort Silty -.75116.33 1.88 ,330 Neutral Clay Loam -- -_ ComposiY Melfort Loam 12.63 ,550 1.47 ,159 Neutra) and Silt Loam -- -- Composite Melfort Very ,467 _OS5 1.32 ,189 Neutral Fine Sandy Loam -- -. Composite Pines Fine .219 ,053 1.29 .032 Medium acid Sandy Loam -- -- Composite Transition ,341 .061 1.79 ,080 Slightly ac#d Soils * * -~ I Composite ro$zlle 131 ,042 1.70 032 Medium acid -- -- No. 46 (sod) Melfort Silt,y 16.73 ,752 1.9 ,883 ‘Jeutral Noi5;z;t. Clay Loam 15.00 ,712 : :;4 1.75 .105 Slightly acid --- No. 53 (sod) Melfort Silty 18.10 ,904 .121 ,073 Neut.-Slightly acid NT~~;$~II~>~. Clay Loam 16.31 ,836 ,107 ,064 Rlightly acid -~ Go. 56 (sod) Melfort Silty ,633 ,099 .059 Neut.-Slightly acid N0,59$zft. Ciay Loam ,600 ,096 ,032 Slightiy acid

- - *Calcium carbonate as calculated from the amount of CO2 given off the soi1 on treatment with acid. * Composite sam le of Transition soils is representative only of the belta in the south-west corner of t ! e axa.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BIRCH HILLS- MELFORT SOILS SampIes.-In order to study the chemical and physical composition of the soils in the Birch Hills-Melfort area, samples were taken at points considered to be representative of the various soi1 types mapped. Samples were taken of the natural layers found in th< soil-that is, the soi1 profile-based upon the color, structure and textural differences found in a vertical section of the soil. Samples were also taken of the surface in many places within each belt, and composite samples of these made up in the laboratory and analyzed. The analyses of these composite samples, which are given in Table 10, give an average of the compositiqn of the soi1 belts, but do not represent the composition for any definite locality. Within any one belt great variation is to be found. The variation is illustrated in Table 11. 36 Table Il.-Loss on IQnition of Birch Hills-Melfort Soils

Mean Variation Total Value, Nitro- Soi1 Type Number LO~S oa w Highest LoITest of Ignition % * Loss Loss Samples % % % -~~~ Melfort Silty Clay Loam 9 15.10 ,700 17.23 8.30 (rolling phase) Belfort Silty Clay Loam 16 16.93 ,775 24.26 9.30 (smooth phase) Waitville Loam 11 3.68 .131 7.97 1.44 Transition Soils 14 12.32 .550 20.33 1 G3

*Nitrogen value estimated Prom 10s on ignition. Results of Chemical Analysis. In tables 10, 11 and 12 the results of chemical analysis and tests of field samples selected to represent the more important soi1 types are given. The determinationp made are for total plant food and not soluble or available. The latter gives a far more valuable indica- tion of the Sully immediately available to croos; the former gives only an inventory of total supoly, indicating any marked deficiency or an unusually plentiful supply. The available plant food varies with a number of factors and may be increased by good farming practice. Tillage, aeration, the action of organic acids from decaying orgar$c matter, the action of certain species of bacteria on particular classes of organic and minera1 plant food, for example, a11 aid in the conversion of insoluble tc soluble plant food.

Table 12-Fertility of Birch Hills-Melfort Soils as Measured by Supply and Demand of Essential .Plant-Food Elements

Pou$ls Pounds in Number of E ~;s;al per Acre * 30 Bushels Soi1 Type of of Wheat, 3;rpsof’ Food including Wheat Straw Possible Melfort Silty Clay Loam Nitrogen 15,020 ‘57.6 261 Phosphorus 2,140 224 Potassium 37,600 3::: 1140 Waitville Loam Nitrogen 2,620 57.6 44 Phosphorus 840 Potassium 34,000 3::“s 9:: - *In order to express the amount of plant-food per acre, me surrace 6 2-3 lnches of mil bave been assunmd to welgh 2 million pounds. 37 Nitrogen and Organic Matter.-Most of the nitrogen of soils is contained in the organic matter, SO that an estimate of the quantity of either serves as an index of the quantity of the other. The dark color of soils is largely due to the presence of organic matter, SO‘that comparisons of colur give some indication of the approximate amount of nitrogen and organic matter present in the soil. Analysis of composite samples of the main soi1 types are given in Table 10, the nitrogen percentaqe being given in column 4. The variability of nitrogen in regard to soi1 types will readily be seen. Table 11 .oives the average values of the loss of weight in samoles of sol1 when ignited. Since the organic matter is the most important substance lost, the loss on ignition is comparable with the nitrogen value. It was possible to determine the loss on a11 the individual samples collected from the types, and there- fore it is possible to indicate the approximate range or variability of the soils within a type in regard to nitrogen and organic matter content. It Will be seen that the average value for the Melfort silty clay loam, smooth phase, is higher than that for the rolling phase of the same type. The variation in both phases is con- siderable. Out of nine samples of soils representative of thr rolling phase, analysis shows the highest loss on ignition to be 17.23 per cent and the lowest 8.30 per cent, indicating a range in nitrogen content from about 0.8 per cent to 0.4 per cent. Out of sixteen samples of the smooth phase, the highest is 24.26 per cent, and the lowest 9.30 per cent loss on ignition. Also the great varia- bility of the soils mapped in the transition belt (20.33 to 1.63 per cent) is seen. This indicates that some soils in the transition belt are as high in nitrogen as the Melfort silty clay loam, whereas others are as low as the Waitville bush loam. A method of interpreting the results of chemical composition of soils is by comparison with the amounts of plant-food necessary to produce a trop. Assuming 30 bushels of wheat to be the maxi- mum average, we may calculate theoretically the number of such crops that may be produced by a comparison of the amounts of plant-foods contained in the types under consideration with the amounts necessary to produce a 30. bushel trop. Table 12 shows such a comparison and indicates the number of crops that could be produced on the Melfort silty clay loam and on the Waitville loam if it were possible to exhaust the essential plant-food ele- ments under consideration. In considering the above calculations, several reservations must be made. Only the surface layer is considered in the table, though it should be noted that plants do obtain food from below the six inch depth. However, the greatest bulk of plant roots is to be found in the top soil, and, if the surface is not fertile, the soi1 Will not remain productive, regardless of the fertility of the subsurface and subsoil. Also plants cannot remove 38 the entire amount of an essential plant-food element as the table wouldindicate, but trop yields Will decline before anywhere near the total amount is exhausted. The calculations in Table 12 therefore are not to be taken at their face value, but are intended merely to show the relative fertility of the soi1 as measured by trop needs. The supply of nitrogen is plentiful in the soils of the Melfort Series, but is low in the Pines fine sandy loam and particularly in the Waitville loam, and it Will be necessary to replenish the supply in the latter soi1 if successful crops are to be grown for any length of time. As indicated above, nitrogen and organic matter may be replaced with farm manures, legumes and organic fertilizers. The growing of legumes such as sweet clover, in order to add nitrogen to the soils which show a shortage, is strongly recommended. Phosphorus.-A moderate supply of phosphorus is present in a11 the soils of the Melfort Series, but the supply is compara- tively low in the Waitville soils in which it represents a reserve for only 87 crops (Table 12). This figure--87 crops-as is the case in regard to the 224 crops estimated for the Melfort silty clay loam, does not give a complete statement of the phosphorus position. Much’ of the phosphorus is locked up in minera1 form. If it exists in certain minerals such as monozite, a very stable mineral, it cannot be- corne available as a plant-food; and if, on the other hand, the phosphorus is contained in apatite, a minera1 of less stability than monozite, it becomes available slowly, but the rate of release of the phosphorus may be less than rate of demand by crops. SO that, in spite of analysis showing plentiful supply, trop yields may be stimulated by the addition of phosphorus fertilizers to the soil. Mineralogical examination of the Birch Hills-Melfort soils shows that both monozite and apatite are present. There are indications in various parts of the province that yields are increased by phosphorus fertilizers, though up to the present none have corne from this area. It is evident, however, that the Wait- ville soi1 Will require such fertilizers in the near future. A de- ficient supply of phosphorus is frequently indicated in a normal season by shrivelled grain with an otherwise normal growth. Potassium.-Potassium is present in abundant quantities in a11 the soi1 types. The potassium problem is not one of supply, but availability or solubility. Potassium occurs in the soi1 in various minerals, and it is rendered available to crops by the solution action of water and acids. The maintenance of organic matter and cultivation Will facilitate the liberation of potassium. Reaction.-Soi1 acidity or “sourness” is directly related to the lime (calcium carbonate) content of the soil. It Will readily be seen by reference to Table 10 that this is the case (in the table acidity is recorded under the headink of reaction), and that soils 39 with low calcium carbonate content tend to be acid. Soils of the Melfort Series are generally free from acidity, the surface soi1 containing sufficient lime to keep the soi1 neutral. However, prolonged cultivation tends to produce acidity, even in these soils. There is an accumulation of lime in the lower soi1 horizons which Will tend to counteract the il1 effect of slight acidity at the surface. Due to a greater leaching action of organic acids on light textured soils, and soils which have been covered with timber and bush for some time, the lime originally present in the surface of the soils of the Pines and Waitville Series has been carried below to some considerable depth in the soil, resulting in the development of a medium degree of acidity. It is doubtful if the sour state of this soi1 cari be removed with- out the addition of lime in some form such as ground limestone or marl. General Conclusions.-In general, the chemical composi- tion of Birch Hills-Melfort soils indicate that the soils of the Melfort Series, particularly the silty clay loam, are as high in nitrogen content as any soils in the province, and higher than the majority. There is no observed deficiency of phosphorus or potash. In some cases, after prolonged cultivation, it may be found advis- able to make applications of lime, though, as yet, there are no indications of the necessity. Of the essential plant-foods, phos- phorus is the one most likely to limit trop yields. The Waitville loam and the Pines fine sandy loam are not as well supplied with njtrogen as soils of the M’elfort Series. The system of farming employed should include live stock and the growing of legumes such as sweet clover, SO that the nitrogen and organic matter content of the soi1 cari be maintained by appli- cations of barnyard manure and green manuring. Although the Waitville loam yields good crops at present, it is to be expected that yields Will decrease and remedies Will be found in the main- tenance of nitrogen and the addition of lime and phosphorus fertilizers to the land.

PHYSICAL COMPOSITION OF BIRCH HILLS- MELFORT SOILS Field samples representing soi1 types were selected for mechanical analysis. Results of these analyses giving the per- centages of the various soi1 separates-sands, silt and clay-are recorded in Table 13. Soils with a high percentage of the Sand separates-that is, light soils-tend to be dry, and difficulties arise in the farming of these soils due to drif@ng and to drought in dry summers. Soils of this kind are much more open in stiucture, and rain-water percolates into the soi1 rapidly and is not retained near the surface unless the water table is high. These soils are best suited to mixed 40 Ta .bl le l3-Mechanical Analysis of Birch Hills-Melfort Soils = Sizes 0 f Soi1 S#cpi xates in Mme. and Percentage * of Emh Separate ** ** -- -- Loss Loss l Soi1 Type Fine Coarse Medium Fine Silt Clay @.i.E?” Grave1 Sand Sand Sand VeS&nF .05 to Below IgSion SolUtion 2 to 1 1 to .5 .5 to .25 .25 to .l .l to .05 .005 A05 % % % % % % % % % -- ~- -. -- 401 Melfort Silty Clay 0.15 0.44 1.95 22.42 ( 46.50 1 28.20 1 16.98 ( 6.16 fioam (rolling phase 405 “ (smooth phase) 0.23 0.42 2.28 M53 (smooth phase) 0.11 0.97 1.92 M57 “ (smooth phase) 0.11 0.13 0.36 ?s8. -- ~- -- 407-l Waitviife Loam 1.08 2.40 4.46 31.43 Z% 14.28 2.66 2.21 M24 0.47 1.04 1.47 “42 45.86 12.59 2.90 3.04 k M28 1‘ 2.88 5.42 22:oo 24.73 25:62 9.74 1.44 1.41 M26 “ 1.42 2.47 X0 16.04 27.95 33.80 12.41 5.54 3.05 ------M67 Transition 3.51 6.14 11.82 27.07 17.50 20.15 14.66 2.40 1.87 -. ~------M21 Crystal Springs Loam 0.37 0.57 0.96 5.69 27.80 43.70 19.83 13.20 8.71 -_ ~- -- -- M30 Melfort Very Fine 0.04 1.37 44.43 37.40 9.19 7.00 7.38 3.52 Sazdy Loam 0.0 421 “ 1‘ 0.04 0.48 22.20 -. ------406 1?ines Fine Sandy 0.07 0.20 1.92 40.01 Loam ------400 Pines Medium Sand 0.54 5.31 33.24 49.65 5.74 1 2.67 ( 2.80 I1.cl 0.75 - - - - *Percentage expreesed on organic-snd-soluble-m-matter free soi:. **Percentage on air-dry eoil. farming, in which grasses and legumes are used liberally in order to maintain or increase the organic matter content. The summer- fallow must be carefully handled to prevent drifting, and the amount of land devoted to summerfallow must, of necessity, be proportionately less than on the other heavy soi1 types. Com- paction at seeding-time is usually advisable. Soils with high percentages of clay and silt retain moisture much more readily than light soils and are more drought resistanr. They are often harder to work than light soils, and tare must be taken to avoid puddling and clodding. The high organic matter content in the Melfort types reduces the danger of clodding and renders the soi1 comparatively easy to work and facilitates good tilth. The moisture equivalent of a number of soils was de- termined (Table 14). This value is the percentage of water re- tained in a soi1 after subjection to a force of 1,000 times gravity, the force being developed in a centrifugal machine. Though not representing any critical moisture content, the moisture equiva- lent furnishes a very convenient constant for comparison of different soils on the basis of their moisture-retaining power.

Table 14.-Moisture Equivalents of Birch Hills-Melfort Soils

Sample Soi1 Type Moisture Equivalent Number Gmposite Melfort Filty Clay Loam 45.5 Composite Waitville Loam 19.3 M23 Transition Heavy Loam 29.1 M25 Transition Clay Loam 35.1 M37 Melfort Loam to Silt Loam 37.0 --- M63 Melfort Loam 24.59 MB2 Melfort Loam 36.4 M9 Melfort Very Fine Sandy Loam 19.0 M64 Melfort Very Fine Sandy Loam 17.8 M30 PiyosEie to Very Fine Sandy 22.7

M36 Pines Fine Sandy Loam 6.7

SOIL MANAGEMENT Clearing and Breaking.-The clearing and breaking of land is a factor of considerable importance in the development of park and timber lands such as occur over much of the Birch Hills- 42 ll.- -Balsam, Poplar and Aspen Form Fairly Heavy Stands OJ Ti mber in the Birch Hills and in the North Part of the Area

43 Melfort district. In fact, much of the contrast in the general development of park and open plains lands is closely associated with this very factor. Method sand costs of clearing vary considerably. This is to be expected when one considers the great differences in the type and amount of tree and brush growth to be cleared, as well as differences in available equipment and labor, in topography and in other factors involved. This discussion merely purposes to present information as to approximate costs and popular methods of clearing as determined by interviews with local men who have had experience in clearing lands in the area. The cost of clearing and breaking apparently ranges from

Fig. 12.-Breaking Brush Lands with Brush Breaker Plow and Tractor about ten to twenty-five dollars per acre. These figures are based on data from both farmers and clearing contractors, and applies to a range of growth from thin park to quite heavy poplar timber. As the cost of breaking is quite appreciable, the above costs Will, of course, be much less for clearing and burning alone. In many instances the cost of breaking has equalled that of clearing and burning. In general, extensive clearing operations with the use of power, are cheaper and far more rapid than small scale operations with only man and horse labor. At present most land is cleared and broken by hiring Indians and Indian breeds to tut, and by using the tractor and heavy bush breaker plow to break. With the use of power, one cari probably prepare these bush and brush 44 lands at least three times as quickly as by hand methods. As a consequence, large areas may be put in trop in a reasonably short time. This Will enable the farmer to produce on a sufficiently large scale to fairly quickly pay clearing costs and to successfully operate his farm. The sale of wood, principally for fuel, aids appreciably in reducing clearing costs where markets and marketing conditions make this possible. The application of labor and equipment to clearing, at times when the same would otherwise be idle, also cheapen,s clearing costs. Much of the work is, in fact, done in this way, especially on farms which already have considerable land under cultivation. Methods vary principally with the type of growth and the equipment available. Stands of quite small willows and poplars, snowberry, hazel, dogwood and other bush vegetation are fre- quently turned under with a brush breaker plow, either with or without previous burning. Scattered trees are frequently pulled out with horses or tractor, especially the smaller sizes. As the size and density of stand of trees increase, slashing, burning, cutting or grubbing are usually resorted to, the particular practice or practices followed depending much on the character of the vegetation, the time of year, the individual, the extent of clearing operations and equipment available for subsequent operations. Usually a combination of these practices is followed out before the final piling and burning prior to breaking. Generally there is sufficient dry bush, even in the denser poplar timber, to provide an effective burning in a dry season and on a windy day. Slashing is resorted to when an appreciable length of time is to be allowed for clearing operations. Special types of power brush cutters have been used, with varying success, for clearing heavy brush and fairly heavy tree growth . These usually have heavy cutting edges which tut swaths as they are forced through the thicket. In the heavier timber, such as occurs over much of the Wait- ville Series of soils and across much of the north part of the survey area, clearing is qcessarily a slow procedure for an individual. On such lands, therefore, a man without the capital to hire extra labor and equipment, cannot expect to clear sufficient land for extensive farm operations within a short time. On most of the Melfort silty clay loam in the Pleasant Valley district, on the other hand, clearing has been a comparatively simple proposition due to the large porportion of open grassland. Over most of the remainder of the land, the clearing requirement has been about average of the above cited cases. Sufficient working capital is necessary for the rapid development of lands with the heavier timber growth, not only in this area but in much of the northern bush country. The breaking of cleared lands is usually done with large bush 45 breaker plows, generally with tventy inch bottoms. These are very strongly built and are able to tut through fairly large roots. Although both horses and tractors are used for power, it is gener- ally conceded that the latter are, in most cases, more efficient for the work. Both deep and shallow breaking are practised. The former, however, seems to be far more general for the area. The general practice under this system is to break five or six inches deep in late spring or early summer, and disc in the fall. Coarse roots are gathered and burned. Shallow breaking is recommended by some successful farmers for the poorly drained spots which have been covered with willows and poplars and have whitish subsurfaced soils under rather shal- low black surfaces. Such spots occur frequently in the types of the Melfort Series. The shallow plowing avoids turning under the dark surface layer and exposing the less fertile light-colored soi1 below. Deeper plowing is resorted to in subsequent years by increasing the depth slightly each year. Shallow plowing is also practised by some on black lands which have little or no brush caver. In such cases the depth of plowing is about three inches, and the fields are backset usually with a stubble bottom plow. General Tillage.-There is a wide range, in the district, in the methods of preparing soils for crops, even on lands of the same soi1 type. Farmers differ greatly in opinion, for example, as to the need and value of summerfallowing, the respective merits of fa11 and spring plowing, methods of breaking, etc. Such differ- ences are to be expected when one considers the distinctly pioneer status of the agriculture and the stage of development of the region. - Some lands have been under cultivation for more than twenty years, while much of the land has been but recently broken. Careful, long-time field experiments and the experiences and .observations of successful local farmers Will no doubt in time result in the establishment of more uniform tillage practices well suited to local conditions. The purpose of this part of the report is merely to discuss the matter of tillage from the standpoint of local practice and general principles of scientific soi1 management. The concensus of opinion seems to be that spring plowing gives cleaner crops and better yields than fa11 plowing, especially with oats and barley. Fall plowing is far more general for wheat than for either of these coarse grain crops. A number of successful farmers practise both fa11 and spring plowing for the same trop, skimming to a depth of about three inches in the fa11 and five or six inches in the spring. The claim is made that the better quality and greater yield of trop easily pay for the expense of the extra plowing. Summerfallowing has generally not been practised until the 46 lands have been cropped a number of years. On the older soils, however, the fallow is becoming increasingly popular, principally as a check to the serious inroads of weeds. At present most old lands are fallowed every three, four or five years, the second system being by far the most popular. A number of farmers have not yet adopted the fallow system. A few grow green feed-usually oats-or intertilled crops such as potatoes, sunflowers or corn, m place of the fallow, either occasionally or as a regular practice. This system of substitution seems to be effective in controlling most weeds and, at the same time, lessens the danger of soi1 drifting, a difficulty which has become somewhat serious on a few soi1 types. At the same time, the growing of fallow substitutes is less costly than the bare fallow. Very good crops are usually obtained without fallowing for a number of years after breaking, on the better soi1 types, during most seasons. In fact, fallowing during this stage is sometimes somewhat obiectionable, due to increased danger of lodging of grain, a difficulty encountered in the area, especially in moist seasons. Some advantages of the fallow on old lands are the cleaning of land of weeds, the conservation of moisture and accumulation of plant food for the succeeding trop, the utilization of labor during the non-rush seasons, the preparation of a large acreage for early spring season, and usually much higher yields as com- pared to a- trop on stubble. Some disadvantages of the fallow are the high cost of produc- tion of the succeeding trop, the more rapid loss of nitrogen and organic matter, due to the more rapid decomposition of the latter in the fallow as compared to ordinary cultivation, the greater teadency of the soi1 to drift, the increased danger from frost and rust due to later maturity and the ranker growth and the. greater danger of grain lodging. The following suggestions may be found helpful in managing the summerfallow . 1. Fall surface cultivation to kil1 weed growth and to pro- mote weed seed germination in next year’s fallow. This is espe- cially advisable when the plowing for the fallow is to be delayed. 2. Late spring or early summer plowing to catch the early rains. 3. Harrowing shortly after plowing, followed by cultivation with the duckfoot cultivator frequently enough to control weed growth. The checking of weed growth is much more important than the mere maintenance of a soi1 mulch in checking evapora- tion and in conserving moisture. 4. Duckfooting or otherwise cultivating in the late fa11 or early spring if biennial weed growth is appreciable. Great differences in the nature of various soi1 types Will necessitate somewhat different handling to produce best results. 47 For example, the soils of the Melfort Series are usually high in organic matter and not deficient in lime, and therefore work readily to good tilth and granular structure. Some caution, however, needs to be exercised not to cultivate the heavier types of the series when too moist in order to avoid a lumpy structure. The soils of the Waitville Series, on the other hand, are usually . low in organic matter and low in lime in the surface layer. The same is usually true of the light-colored spots in the Melfort silty clay loam areas, in small patches which have been covered with a clump of trees for many years. Bath. the Waitville types and brush spots in the Melfort types tend to become lumpy and not to granulate well. The addition of manure and the avoidance of cultivation when the soils are too moist, Will help considerably in correcting this difficulty. The addition of finely ground lime- stone or an equally good form of lime might be advisabre where the soils are quite acid to six or more inches of depth. Weed Control. * -Weeds are one of the most serious menaces to the agriculture of the area. The problem is likely to become more acute here than on the open prairies and plains, due to the fact chat more favorable moisfure conditions and higher nitrogen and orgaqic matter contents favor a more luxuriant growth and make it more difficult to kil1 weeds by the usual methods followed for the purpose of causing wilting. Weeds which seem to be giving the most trouble are the annuals-wild oats, musmrds, stinkweed or French weed, lambs’ quarters, red-root pigweed; and the percnnialssow thistle, Can- ada thistle, dandelion and quack grass. Stinkweed and some of the mustards are winter annuals; that is, many of their seeds may germinate in the fall, the Young plants which survive the winter growing rapidly in the spring and seeding in the summer or fall. Wild oats is probably the worst weed at present, but sow thistle has recently invaded the area and Will be a very serious pest if effective steps are not quickly taken to keep it well under control. Most of the other weeds are not as serious either, be- cause of lesser prevalence or because of less difficulty in controlling them. Summerfallowing or the growing of fallow substitutes and rotat- ing crops are practices which, if properly carried out, Will not only prove very helpful in controlling weeds, but will also fit well into locally adapted methods of farming. Prevent ive as well as remedial measures are also necessary. For example, the use of clean seed and feed, tare in using manures, the cleaning of grain separators coming from other farms, the cutting of roadside and fente-row weeds, etc., Will a11 prove worth while in preventing the spread of weeds. *Bulletins and clrculars dealing with weed rontrol may be obtained from th6 Domin- ion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, and the Provincial Department of Agrkultura. R@d=. 48 Methods of control varv with the life period of the weed. The various methods of *killing annuals airn chiefly to germin- ate the seeds, to destroy seedlings and to prevent seeding. In the fallow, discing after the first *ring growth and plowing after the second, is usually quite effective. In the early fa11 germination may be started by double discing or shallow plowing, and the resulting growth severely checked by freezing. Early maturing crops such as early barley, sown on land disced and plowed in the spring; smothering, or the combination of smothering and early cutting, by the growing of such crops as winter rye, oats for feed and tame grasses, are useful in. the more severe cases. Biennials and winter annuals-that is, annuals which ger- minate in the fa11 and complete their growth next season-are effectively checked by late fa11 or early spring cultivation, or both, on both falldw and stubble. Biennial crops, like sweet clover, and fa11 sown crops such as winter rye, tend to favor the growth of these weeds and should be avoided if practical. An effective practice in combatti.ng perennials, especially sow thistle, * is to plow about four or five inches .deep in the lat,e fa11 and cultivate deeply with a duckfoot cultivator as soon as weed growth starts in the spring and to surface-cultivate during the growing season until freeze-up, to keep down leaf development. Perennials such as quack grass are often effectively controlled by plowing when the weather turns warm in May, and sowing thickly to leafy crops such as oats or barley. Canada thistle is frequently checked by mowing and removing weeds shortly after blossoming, plowing deeply and following this by deep, thorough and frequent cultivation to keep the land black. Additional points worth keeping in mind m sow thistle control are that the duckfoot cultivator is about the best cultivating implement to use and that a disc harrow is one of the least desir- .able as it cuts up the root-stalks and these produce new plants; that roots should be gathered and burned and not trailed over fields; and that best results are obtained in dry seasons, when using cultivation methods. Rotatidns.-As the range of time of cultivation of lands in the district varies from very recently broken land to land culti- vated a little over forty years, there are naturally great differences In practice and opinion as regards trop rotations for the district. Furthermore, a number of soi1 types differ greatly in character. Consequently, one cannot yet make sound recommendations as to .definite rotations except in some specific cases. Lessons of local experience and careful long-time experiments Will likely result in the ultimate establishment of rotation systems well adapted to the area. But, even at the present stage of agricultural develop- ment, much may be done in the way of rotation practice to improve many cropping methods followed.

+Bull%in 68. Revised Edition. Departmmt of Amhltnre, Redm. 49

. The general practice thus far has been to grow successive crops of wheat after breaking, until unsatisfactory returns forced a change. Decreased yields, increased weediness and other factors have finally necessitated the growing of other crops, and, in many cases, the practice of summerfallowing. The most popular rotation at present is fallow, wheat, wheat, oats or barley. This is modified by some by fallowing every third year, and by others by fallowing every fifth year or even less frequently. TO check ‘soi1 drifting and to replenish supplies of organic matter, some farmers are growing sweet clover and grasses. Potatoes, sunflowers and other intertilled crops and green feeds, especially oats, have also been included, in some cases to consider- able advantage. The matter of wise choice of rotations depends largely upon conditions on individual farms and must therefore be worked out largely by farmers themselves, at least until dependable in- formation is obtained by careful experiments. There are, how- ever, a number of rotation practices which should be generally helpful in the individual consideration of the matter. 1. Legumes and grasses Will replenish soi1 fibre and check drifting tendencies, and the legume itself Will, in addition, add soi1 nitrogen, if part of the trop is turned under as green manure. These crops Will also aid greatly in smothering out many weeds. On most of the black lands on which grain tends to lodge, addi- tional nitrogen is usually not needed and in fact may not be desirable, SO that one must consider soi1 type in turning under legumes. 2. The growing of sunflowers, potatoes, grain in rows and possibly corn or other cultivated crops Will aid in checking weeds and Will lessen the need of summerfallowing. The live stock necessary to profitably handle the forage Will spread the trop risk, add to the general farm income, give a better distribution of labor, and provide manure for building soi1 fertility. 3. On most old land, at least, a carefully worked summer- fallow, as part of a systematic rotation system, Will no doubt prove well worth while, for a period at least, especially for combat- ting weeds, conserving moisture and releasing plant food in an available form. 4. The cash trop, which Will be wheat, on most farms, at least for a period of years, should be given a favored position in the rotation from the standpoint of soi1 preparation, fertilization, etc. The following rotations are suggested. They embody the essential principles,, already discussed. 1. Fallow; wheat; wheat, oats or barley seeded down to sweet clover or grasses or mixtures of the two; hay or pasture; pasture (when grasses are used). Both Brome and Western rye grasses have been successful in the area. 50 2. Fallow; wheat, cereal in rows, sunflowers, potatoes or other fallow substitutes which may be economically utilized; wheat or other cereal seeded down and utilized as in Rotation 1. These rotations may prove satisfactory as giveu, for certain individuals, or may be modified in a number of ways to advantage for conditions on particular farms. In most cases, the rotations Will likely prove most economical when applied to only a part of the farm at one time, gradually applying it to a11 or to most of the land under cultivation. Alkali *.-The alkali in this area is of the white type, and the predominant salt is usually sodium sulphate. The soils af- fected are, in most cases, quite limited in area and generally occupy rather low and poorly drained spots, usually slough bottoms. The largest single areas with appreciable contents of alkali are Waterhen Lake and Waterhen Marsh, both quite recently drained. In general, there are more alkali low spots across the north part of the area, especially in the Melfort rolling silty clay loam. Most of the alkali accumulations represent the deposition of soluble salts washed out of higher lands and carried to these low drainage basins. The working into the soi1 of well-rotted horse-manure, fre- quent cultivation, and the growing of alkali resistant crops, have probably given greater success than most practices. Manur- ing adds to the fertility, and counteracts the sticky and cloddy condition of the soi1 to a great extent. Cultivation, besides im- proving the soi1 tilth, greatly reduces evaporation and checks the rise of subsurface alkali to the surface. Crops vary greatly as to their comparative tolerance for alkali. The selection of crops which are comparatively resistant is therefore always an important consideration in cropping alkali soils. The following crops, com- monly grown in Saskatchewan, are listed in order of their general tolerance to alkali: Brome and Western rye grasses, sweet clover, barley, oats, wheat, corn, potatoes and most garden crops. Corn and most vegetables are quite intolerant. Sweet clover is usually valuable for growing in alkali places, as its roots feed deeply. This enables the plant, n6t only to get moisture and plant food below the high alkali concentration near the surface, but also to open up the subsoil and improve natural soi1 drainage and aeration. There is frequently some difficulty in getting the sweet clover trop through the seedling stage, due to the alkali concentration at the surface. Washing out the alkali is usually economically feasible only on areas quite readily flooded and drained. Open ditches, by lowering the water table, gradually lowers the alkali content of the Upper soi1 layers.

+See Dominion Bulletin No. 21, “Alkali SOUS. Their Nature md Reclamation.” Dominion Department of Agriculture. Ottawa. 51 Soi1 Drifting.-Although soi1 drifting has not become nearly as serious a problem as on the prairies and plains, it has become sufficiently acute to demand serious consideration in planning farming systems on certain soi1 types. The problem Will likely become more pressing with increased cultivation, and especially with the more general adoption of the practice of summerfallowing. Cultivation hastens organic matter (soi1 fibre) decomposition and tends to change the soi1 structure from lumpy to fine granular and powdery. Soils of such finer grain structure tend to blow far more readily than those with coarser. Due principally to the greater wind protection, the higher original content of organic matter, lesser evaporation and generally greater precipitation in the park belt lands as compared to those of the prairies and plains, the drifting difficulty is likely to be far less acute in the former belt than in the latter. The drifting difficulty, like the weed problem, will probably be permanently controlled most effectively by systematic and adapted trop rotations. These should include grasses and legumes for restoring organic matter (fibre) to the soil. Each field should, in. turn, be seeded down and subsequently broken. Potatoes and other fallow substitutes may be used to advantage to reduœ the amount of bare fallow. The extent to which these practiœs may be advantageously followed Will necessarily vary with individual farms and Will depend largely upon such factors as length of time of cultivation, texture of soil, the type of farming, etc. Sandier lands are more apt to drift badly than medium and heavy soils. As a rule, medium types, especially loams, are the least apt to drift, due probably to the greater tendency to lumpy rather than to granular structure. In this soi1 survey area the Pines types of soils and Melfort silty clay loams have, in general, given most difficulty. Temporary remedies for soi1 drifting commonly used where the problem is quite acute, are protective caver crops such as fa11 rye and late sown oats, the reduction to a minimum of culti- vation, and plowing of furrows at regular inter-vals, Maintenance of Soi1 Fertility.-This phase of soi1 manage- ment is discussed under the head of “The Principles of Soi1 Fer- tility,” on pages 34 to 40. SUMMARY Location and Extent of Area.-The district surveyed is situated about thirteen miles east of Prince Albert and about thirty-two miles north of Humboldt. It comprises Municipalities Nos. 429, 430, 459 and 460. The total area is about 1,315 square miles, of which about 27 square miles is occupied by water. Topography.-The area includes kvo main topographical formations, the Melfort Plain and the Birch Hills. The former is generally level to undulating and is part of an old lake basin whose 52 south shore was along the slopes of the Birch Hills. The Plain has an average elevation of about 1500 feet above sea-level, while the Birch Hills rise, on the average, about 300 feet higher. The Birch Hills are predominantly strongly rolling or .hilly. Drainage.-The drainage of the Plain is very poorly develop- ed, resulting in sluggish small streams and many shallow depres- sions, which hold water at least part of the year. The Carrot River and its tributary creeks drain most of the area; the Saskatchewan Riber and its tributaries drain a com- paratively narrow belt along the north border of the area. The former stream empties into the latter not far east of the Sas- katchewan-Manitoba boundary. Drainage is generally east and north. Although a number of marshes and small lakes exist in the formation, the Birch Hills are generally well drained. Natural Vegeta tien.-The natural vegetation has been grouped into five general classes, viz., prairie grassland; parkland; poplar timber and bush; Jack-pine; and spruce and muskeg. The predominant type of vegetation for the various districts is indi- cated by sketch map Fig. 1 on page 3. The clearing problem is most acute in the belts of popla timber and bush, where the trees attain a maximum height of about fifty feet. Aspen (Popdus tremuloides) and black poplar (PO@U~ balsamifera) predominate. In the parkland, the amount of clearing varies considerably ,with the density and type of tree and bush vegetation, but is seldom as great as in the timber and bush belt. The Jack-pine belt is mostly in the Fort a La Corne Forest Reserve. The spruce and muskeg areas are very inextensive. The grasses of the grassland and park areas are medium and tall, forming a far more luxuriant growth than on the open prairies and plains farther west. Pou, Agropyron and Bromus are the predominant genera on better drained lands. Shade grass (Avena striata) is common in the tree clumps, and Calamagrostus with various species of sedges (Carex) in the low spots. Pea vines of the genera Vicia and Lathyrus are fairly abundant in the wooded and burnt-over areas. Agriculture.-Ranching was carried on to some extent in the area as early as 1882. General agricultural development, however, did not proceed appreciably until about 1905. At this time the C.N. Railway line from Prince Albert was built through, and homesteading began in earnest. Since that time settlement has been quite steady. Quite a large part of the area, however, is still undeveloped. The clearing of trees and brush is a matter of considerable importance in the development of much of these northern lands. Spring wheat growing has been the predominant enterprise in agriculture, with other crops and livestock production varying 53 in importance with season and periods, but always secondary tu wheat production. The better soi1 types are well adapted to many other crops than wheat, and the country Will no doubt turn more and more to mixed farming. Econbmical factors and the usual difficulties resulting from straight grain growing have already resulted in a definite trend to such a system of agriculture. Oats, barley, rye, flax, potatoes, sweet clouer, Western rye grass, brome grass, sunflowers and most garden crops suited to temperate climates do well on many soi1 types. Most farms raise a few horses, cattle, hogs and small poultry flocks. Sheep are raised on but a few farms. At the time of writing, improved lands of the better types were valued at from about $25 to $45 per acre, and improved lands of poorer types from about $5 to $20 per acre. Raw lands of the better types were valued at $20 to $35 per acre, and of the poorer types $15 or less. Much of the raw land of poorer types is hardly marketable at the present time. It has been the general practice to trop newly broken lands to wheat until there is a noticeable decrease in yield, and then to substitute other crops or to introduce the summerfallow. The present general practice on older lands is to fallow every third to fifth year, to grow wheat as the principal trop, and to include barley, oats or other crops above listed in smaller acreages. Fall and spring plowing are both practised, the former being more popular for wheat and the latter for oats and barley. Soirs.-The soils mapped and described are grouped into series and types. The former division includes soils alike in a11 essential characteristics, not considering texture (proportions of sands, silt and clay). The type is a division including soils alike in texture as well as in other ways. In such a grouping, the whole soi1 profile, or arrangement of natural layers in depth, is the basis of consideration. The Melfort Serz’es includes the black or very dark soils of lacustrine origin lying at lower elevations north and east of the Birch Hills elevation. There is park vegetation over most of the belt. Four types and one topographical phase were mapped: silty clay loam, smooth and rolling phases; silt loam; loam, and very fine sandy loam. Such soils are quite high in organic matter, quite free of stones, and generally well developed agriculturally. Some areas, fairly distant from market or with quite heavy stands of trees and brush, have considerable portions still undeveloped. Soils of the Melfort Series, and the closely related Transition Series, include most of the better lands of the area. The Waitille Series includes lands with characteristic grayish or whitish surface soils, developed under timber vegetation of long standing. One type and a topographical phase are mapped and described-an undulating. and a rolling loam. The undulat- ing areas are generally superior in agricultural adaptations, values 54 and development to the rolling. Lands of both types are usually acid in reaction, low in organjc matter, moderately to very stony, somewhat droughty and lower in fertility than most lands of the Melfort an,d Crystal Springs Series. A large proportion of the series is still undeveloped, and agriculture over most of these soils has not been as successful as in belts of the other series mention.ed . The Trunsitz’on group includes mixed lands of the Melfort and Waitville Series and soils intermediate between the two in generaI character. Such soils naturally vary considerably in character, value and development. The Cryslaj Springs Series includes dark-colored alluvial lands along the Carrot River near Crystal Springs P.O., which are frequently underlain by subsurface and subsoils with much sand or gravel. There is park vegetation over most of the belt. The better lands in the belt correspond in general to the medium tex- tured lands of the Melfort Series. The poorer lands tend to be droughty. The PZnes Series includes light textured soils near the Sas- katchewan River, lands which are loose in structure, droughty, low in fertility and poorly developed as compared to most lands of the area. Poplar trees and shrubs caver most of the fine sandy loams, and Jack-pine most of the sands. The latter type is mostly included in the Fort a La Corne Forest Reserve. Lacustrine and #eut soils are most extensive in the drained basins of Waterhen Lake and Waterhen Marsh respectively. The former type is heavy in texture, qu’ite alkaline, and quite difficult to work. The latter is made up of a peat layer a foot or two deep over a quite alkaline, heavy soil. Much of both types are quite poorly drained, and, to date, attempts to trop these soils have not been very successful. Improved drainage over a period of time Will no doubt aid in developing such soils. The aJJurrium soils are derived from stream deposits on flood plains and terraces of the Saskatchewan River. Most of these soils are fine and very fine sandy loams with a number of areas. of silty types. The terrace lands have been cultivated to some extent with varying success. The sand and gruvel group includes only a small area near Invergordon P.O., soils generally too loose, light and infertile for successful and lasting agricultural development. APPENDIX

Population Table 15 gives the population by municipalities, and Table 16 the population of towns and villages from the Dominion Census.

Table 15 *.-Population by Municipalities for 1921 and the Four Preceding Census Periods

Municipality 1921 1916 1911 1906 1901 --~~-~ Carrot River, No. 429. . . 2,144 1,766 1,574 1,180 358 Invergordon, No. 430...... 1,825 1,319 831 468 127 Weldon,. No. 459...... 2,053 2JO2 1,658 * 1,083 327 Birch Halls, No. 460...... 1,710 1,130 863 944 682 ~~--~ Total for Survey Area. . 7,732 6,317 4,926 3,675 1,494

Table 16.-Population of Towns and Villages for 1921 and the Four Preceding Census Years

Towns and Villages 1921 1916 1911 1906 1901 ~.~~ ~~ Towns : Melfort**...... 1,746 971 599 351 . . . . Villages : Beatty...... Birch Hills...... 3% ...* ‘i45 1::: 1::: Kiqistino ...... 382 :ti 166 ...... Weldon...... 150 98 ...... Figures in the above tables reveal a rapid and steady increase in population from 1901 to 1921, the last date for which census figures are available. The number of people per square miles (exclusive of Indian reserves) in 1901 was about 1.2, in 1906 about 2.9, in 1911 about 3.9, in 1916 about 5.0, and in 1921 about 6.1. No towns or villages existed previous to 1906, and no in- corporated villages previous to 1911. Municipality 429, with the largest population, has the largest proportion of the better soi1 types and is favored with two railways. The comparatively small population of Municipality 460 is due largely, no doubt, to its small size. In general, the Waitville hilly loam and Pines sand have fewer people per unit area than the other soi1 types. Quite a variety of nationalities are represented in the area, and there are some settlements of foreign-born people. Galicians occupy most of Townships 43 in Ranges 21, 22, 23 and 24; Indians and breeds, Reservations Nos. 99 and 100, and much of the light *Figures for Municipalities Nos. 429, 459 and 460 are not as accura 430. due ta the nemsity of e3timating for portions of the township~ wh& %cfos?i in other muntdpalitiea. l *Located along the ewt border of the survey area at the junction of the raibaya 56 land across the north part of the area and the bush lands near Waitville P.O.; the Prench-Canadians, much of Township 44 in Range 22, Township 43 in Ranges 20 and 21, and some lands near Crystal Springs; and the Scandinavians much of Municipalities 459 and 460. The remaining population came mostly from Eastern Canada, Great Britain and the United States and are scattered throughout the area. Community Development In general the district is well served with schools. Isolated parts of Municipality No. 430 and the south-east portion of No. 429 are somewhat poorly served. There are about two schools for every township, taking an average of the whole area. There are high schools at Melfort, Kinistino, Birch Hills and Weldon. The following denominations have churches or meeting- places: Anglican, United, Greek and Roman Catholic, and Lutheran. * Most of the area is well served with phones. Municipality 430 is probably the most poorly served. Railwzys. Roads and Markets The Canadian National Railway from Prince Albert to Hud- son Bay Junction crosses the central part of the area. It runs generally east to south-east. The branch line from Melfort to Humboldt crosses the south-west. More than two-thirds of the farmed part of the area is within twelve miles of railway shipping points and town or village markets. The central and north-east portions and the south part of Municipality No. 430 are least favorably located in respect to railway lines and markets. Road allowances have been provided in most districts, one mile apart for roads running north and south and two miles apart for roads east and west. Except in poorly drained lands, hilly types, and lands under heavy growth of bush, these allowances have quite good roads. Most of them are dirt graded. There is usually some difficulty for autos after heavy rains and in early spring when sloughs usually have their maximum amount of water. In general, however, road drainage is good and the roads dry out quite rapidly and are therefore quite good most of the year. The south part of Municipality 430 and the north part of the area probably have the fewest and poorest roads. The “Green Trail,” a Government highway from Prince Albert to the east, passes through Melfort and the villages along the main railway. There is another main highway from Melfort south, connecting with the “Blue Trail” at Watson. Market conditions are quite good, except in the north and southwest parts of the area. Many points in these districts are comparatively distant from town and village markets, and grain elevators and roads are frequently poor. Grain elevators are 57 Iocated at nine points within the area and at six points within twelve miles of the area. There are creameries at Birch Hi& and Melfort, and adequate live stock shipping arrangements at a num- ber of points. SOIL SURWY METHODS The general purposes of a soi1 survey are to identify, classify, map and report on the essential characteristics of soils of a given area. In dealirfg with such a variable natural material as soil, methods and final reports Will vary appreciably. However, the principles followed are usually much the same from place to place. The methods followed in Saskatchewan are essentially those considered adapted to a fairly close reconnaissance-a fairly general type of soi1 survey and one suited to our extensive systems of farming. The party worked from a car, examining soils at a11 points where it was deemed advisable to do SO. Practically a11 roads and trails accessible by car were travelled. Soi1 boundaries were out- lined on field maps; a variety of observations of soi1 characteris’tics, agricultural adaptations, natural vegetation, general geology, etc., were recorded; a number of successful farmers were consulted as to local agricultural practice; and, after the completion of the field mapping, samples were taken for analyses and further observation at points considered representative of the various soi1 types. The present report and accompanying soi1 map represent the final product of such work in this area. The method of mapping in the field involved certain diffi- culties. Boundaries between soi1 types are seldom abrupt, but * t$ere is usually a transition from one type to another, sometimes of considerable width. It is impossible, therefore; to establish soi1 boundariès exactly. It is also to be expected that soi1 boundaries follow no very regular course, and that mapping from road allow- ances alone involves a certain amount of guess-work. Minor vari- ations which must be ignpred are constantly encountered in a11 types. TO show these variations would require t.he use of a large scale map and close, detailed soi1 inspection. In areas of strongly rollirrg or hilly topography, inspection and mapping were less satis- factory, due to inaccessibility by roads and trails. However, the soi1 survey as carried on in Saskatchewan is intended to map and classify the extensive types, minor variations being, of necessity, ignored, at least for the present. It is hoped and believed that the detail shown is sufficient and in keeping with the extensive sys- tems of agriculture practised. It is not intended that the soi1 map shah be used in the purchase OY sale of Zano! without further inspection, since the map does not pretend to appraise each quarter-section. It seems hardly necessary to warn prospective purchasers always to make inspection first, either in person or by a trusted agent. However, the map does outline the extensive soil types, and may serve as a use%: guide if rightly used. 58 SURFACE CEOLOGY Pre-Glacial.-The geological history of the area is essentially that of the areas of the Province lying to the south of the great plains generally, marked by alternate elevations and depressions during which the sea was admitted and thicknesses of sediment were laid down. It is probable that shales of the Pierre formation ,of Upper cretaceous age underlie the area and that they form the floor on which glacial material was deposited during the Pleistocene ïce age, though there are no indications of these beds at the sur- face. In passing northwards or eastwards towards the Pre- Cambrian rocks of Northern Saskatchewan and Manitoba, a series of Mesozoic a$d Palaeozoic sediments with gently southwesterly dip are met; deep borings at various points in Saskatchewan have shown that these beds extend under the Pierre shales. It is not known if beds of Tertiary age were laid down on the Pierre shales at points as far north as this area. However, for some time prior to glaciation, dry land conditions existed and considerable erosion took place. During the time of erosion, the major topographie features of the plains were developed, and it is possible that the present topography of the area, with its two main units of hi11 and plain, is a reflection of the land as it existed before glacial times. The Birch Hills represent a modified remnant of an older elevated ridge. Glacial Ceology.-The Tertiary period ended with a change from a very temperate to a frigid climate, and during Pleistocene times the whole area was over-ridden by a continental glacier which had its centre at some area west of the Hudson’s Bay, from whence it extended radially, reaching, when at its maximum, con- siderably south of the international boundary. Glacial drift consists of stones and boulders incoiporated with clay and sands, artd is frequently called boulder clay. The stones and boulders have been. brought from the Palaeozoic and Pre- Cambrian rocks of the north country and represent many types .of rock. Boulders of limestone are common in the Birch Hills- Melfort area, and outcrops of similar stone are to be seen in the . vicimty of The Pas. The clay and sands originate in part from the broken and crushed fragments of the rocks, and largely from the soi1 and earthy covering of weathered rock which existed prior to glaciation. Incorporation or mixing of the heterogeneous material took place in the slowly moving base of the ice sheet. .Some of the load may have been dropped under the moving ice; forming a ground moraine; also on a change of climatic conditions, with &e in temperature and consequent retreat of the ice sheet, the load would be dropped; and if the end of the sheet remained fairly stationary for a period of time, a terminal moraine would be formed. The glacial drift of the Birch Hills is probably a part of a large terminal moraine. In the Birch Hills the drift is not uniform and has in places been subjected to considerable modification by water action. 59 Grave1 and Sand beds which show a rough stratification are to be found. These stratified deposits were probably formed by the grading action of water at the time of ice retreat, the rapidly flow- ing water from the end of the sheet being effective in sorting and resorting the grave1 and Sand. Similar beds of grave1 and Sand serve as reservoirs for ground water, water for domestic purposes being found in shallow Wells in the Birch Hills country. The soils mapped as Waitville loam and Transition are glacial; the Melfort and Pines Series soi1 are lacustrine and overlie glacial drift, which may be seen in a number of sections where creeks have tut their valleys sufficiently deep in the lake silts of the Melfort Plain to expose the drift below. Good examples are seen five miles west of Birch Hills village in a road-tut, and also on the north side of the South Saskatchewan River at Fenton Ferry. Drift cornes to the surface on the Melfort Plain wherever the lake- bottom deposits have been thin. Islands of drift occur south of Weldon and west of Kinistino, where the soils are mapped as Transition. Thickness of Glacial Deposits.-Wells on the Birch Hills are shallow, and no estimate cari be made of the thickness of the drift. On the Melfort Plain water is obtained from sands occurring in the glacial drift at an average depth of 80 feet. The irregu- larity of the water-bearing sands is illustrated by their variability in depth, and differences of 20 to 40 feet in Wells situated close together is not uncommon. In some cases the sands seem to be absent altogether, and water has not been reached at depths of 200 feet. It is not possible to state whether or not they are in boulder clay a11 the way. Wells to 130 feet in drift are recorded. One well situated one-half mile north of Brancepath may have reached Pierre shale at 96 feet. According to the driller, dark colored shales not resembling glacial boulder clay were struck. It is probable, however, that on the Melfort Plain the thickness of the drift is variable and generally more than 96 feet. Lacustrine and Associated Deposits.-The general nature of the surface of the Melfort Plains, its siltiness. uniformity of texture and freedom from stones and boulders, indicates that the . area was at one time occupied by water. Towards the cIose of glacial times the drainage of the country was very differen’t from that of the present time. The ice sheet stopped drainage in a northerly direction, and the vast amount of water from the melting ice and normal precipitation had to find its wa? south to the Mississippi drainage system. As a consequence of the general slope of land being to the north, lakes were formed covering great stretches of land, such a lake occupying the Melfort Plain basin, the northern shore being the ice sheet, the southern the Birch Hills. The lake-which may be called the Melfort Lake-was an arm of a large inland sea which covered a great part of Manitoba and is called Lake Agassiz, though it very probably had a separate 60 existence for part of the time. Traces of shore sand are to l)e found along the edge of the Birch Hills, but these beach deposits are not very general. Delta flats are more common, and occur where small streams from the Hills entered the lake. These deltas are now seen as high level flats fringing the plain. The sands n-est of Waterhen Marsh and Lake are relies of deltas of larger creeks from the hills, the sand being deposited where they entered the lake. The esistence of the Waterhen Marsh and I,ake basins with a very thin col-ering of lake-bottom silt, the glacial drift coming to the surface of land southwest of Kinistino, seems to imply a scouring action of the creeks, the largest being the Carrot River, which prelyented the deposition of silt at that locality. The general thickness of lake deposit o\*erlying the boulder clay on the Melfort Plain is about twelve feet. The area of mised soi1 types in the north, including the Pines sands, may possibly represent delta or channel deposits of the Saskatchewan River. The sands have been modified subsequently to a slight entent by wind action. Up to the present it has not been possible to estimate the time that has elapsed since the drainage of Melfort Lake. The Saskatchewan River has eroded for itself a very deep channel, and it would seem to postulate an early drainage of the lake. How- ever, consideration of the unforested condition of the Melfort Plain (Melfort silty clay loam soil) compared with the Birch Hills, and the islands of Transition soi1 on which a gray timber soi1 has developed and which must have been covered by tree growth for some considerable time, brings one to the conclusion chat the Plain must have remained a marsh or lake area in spite of the erosion of the river channel, and that the old levees of the Saskatchewan River formed a barrier against the rapid draining of the lake and formed a north boundary of a smaller lake after the ice sheet had disappeared. It should be noted that the Saskatche- wan River is established in entrenched meanders and therefore must have commenced erosion from a flood plain position.

61