Chapter 12

Observational through Video-Based Models: Impact on Students' Accuracy of Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Task Knowledge and Writing Performances

Mariet Raedts, Gert Rijlaarsdam, Luuk van Waes and Frans Daems

In this study, we present experimental evidence that observational/earning is a pow• erful learning tool in academic writing education. Using a quasi pre- and post-test experimental/control group design we tested three effects of observational learning with first year university students (N= I 44 ). Both the students from the observational (N=72) and the control group (N=72) were given pre- and post-tests to benchmark and evaluate the accuracy of their self-efficacy beliefs, task knowledge and writing skills. The intervention consisted of three I -hour sessions in which they learned how to write up a literature review, a genre that was unknown to them. The control group practiced the new text genre by four short and one longer writing exercise. The par• ticipants in the experimental setting did not complete any writing exercise during the writing course. Instead, they observed pairs of video-based peer models who were performing the last writing exercise of the control group. The results demonstrate that (I) observational/earning had a more positive effect on the students' self-perceptions of their writing performances in the observational group than in the control group; (2) observational learning enlarged students' knowledge about how to write up a good summary from different sources; and (3) observational learning was effective for a complex writing task, such as the literature review: the experimental group linked the source material more often and wrote summaries with a better overall organization compared to the control group.

Writing and Motivation Copyright © 2007 by Elsevier Ltd. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISBN: 0-08-045325-2

Raedts, M., Rijlaarsdam, G., Van Waes, L., & Daems, F.(2007). Observational learning through video-based models: impact on student's accuracy of self-efficacy beliefs, task knowledge and writing performances In G. Rijlaarsdam (Series Ed.) and P. Boscolo & S. Hidi (Volume Eds.), Studies in Writing, Volume 19, Writing and Motivation (pp. 219-238). Oxford: Elsevier 220 Mariet Raedts et al.

1 Introduction

Observational learning occurs when people learn new skills from observing others, who act as models (Bandura, 1997). During the last two decades various studies have proven that learning-through-observation is an effective pedagogical tool with students of differ• ent ages and in various school subjects, such as mathematics (Schunk & Hanson, 1985, 1989; Schunk, Hanson, & Cox, 1987), reading (Couzijn, 1995, 1999) and writing (Braaksma, Rijlaarsdam, & Van den Bergh, 2002; Braaksma, Rijlaarsdam, Van den Bergh, & Van Hout-Wolters, 2004; Couzijn, 1995, 1999; Graham & Harris, 1994b; Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 2002). Learning through observation involves more than 'blind ', it presupposes a process of four higher order thinking activities, namely: , retention, production and motivation (Bandura, 1997). The degree to which the observer has mastered these cognitive activities affects the effectiveness of observational learning. First and foremost, the observer must pay attention to the crucial (details in the) actions of the model. If learn• ers concentrate on the wrong things or details, they do not benefit from the observed model. Because one usually does not duplicate the watched immediately, the observer must be able to store the in his memory in the form of rules and con• cepts for retrieval later. The third step involves the implementation of physical skills and the establishment of the necessary coordination to reproduce the watched behavior suc• cessfully. Finally, the learner must have the motivational desire to reproduce the behavior. Observed behavior that was evaluated as not useful or contra productive will probably not be imitated by the observer. If, however, individuals expect that imitation of the watched behavior will lead to some type of reward or (e.g. a raise in academic per• formance), they are more likely to imitate the watched behavior. This theoretical four-step pattern in observational learning was supported by Braaksma, Van den Bergh, Rijlaarsdam, and Couzijn (2001). They identified the elements of obser• vation tasks that were effective when students were learning to read and write argumenta• tive texts for the first time. Their study showed that students who were better in the identification of standpoints and arguments in the pre-test performed each of these activi• ties better during the observational writing course. The researchers also found positive effects of peer evaluation and product elaboration activities on post-test writing perform• ances. Observers who correctly evaluated the peer models turned out to be the better writ• ers. The same was true for product elaboration. Students who more often commented correctly on the argumentative texts and structures of the models wrote higher quality argumentative texts. Because modeling is a form of social comparison, it is hypothesized to be an important source of information about one's level of efficacy (Bandura, 1986, 1997). Self-efficacy beliefs are defined "as personal beliefs about one's capabilities to organize and implement actions necessary for attaining designated levels of performance" (Bandura, 1986, p. 391 ). According to Bandura's ( 1986, 1997) , these perceived feelings of self-efficacy are important predictors for human behavior. They affect people's motiva• tional and self-regulatory activities in many ways (Pajares, 1997), and as a result determine what people actually do with their knowledge and skills. Consequently, according to social cognitive theorists, student's self-efficacy beliefs are strong predictors for their level of