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Mapping of LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES for Vehicles Mapping of LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES for vehicles A study of their fate in the Nordic countries Mapping of lithium-ion batteries for vehicles A study of their fate in the Nordic countries Lisbeth Dahllöf, Mia Romare and Alexandra Wu TemaNord TN2019:548 Mapping of lithium-ion batteries for vehicles A study of their fate in the Nordic countries Lisbeth Dahllöf, Mia Romare and Alexandra Wu ISBN 978-92-893-6293-1 (PDF) ISBN 978-92-893-6294-8 (EPUB) http://dx.doi.org/10.6027/TN2019-548 TemaNord TN2019:548 ISSN ISSN-Nummer Standard: PDF/UA-1 ISO 14289-1 © Nordic Council of Ministers 2019 This publication was funded by the Nordic Council of Ministers. However, the content does not necessarily reflect the Nordic Council of Ministers’ views, opinions, attitudes or recommendations Disclaimer This publication was funded by the Nordic Council of Ministers. However, the content does not necessarily reflect the Nordic Council of Ministers’ views, opinions, attitudes or recommendations. Rights and permissions This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0. Translations: If you translate this work, please include the following disclaimer: This translation was not pro- duced by the Nordic Council of Ministers and should not be construed as official. The Nordic Council of Ministers cannot be held responsible for the translation or any errors in it. Adaptations: If you adapt this work, please include the following disclaimer along with the attribution: This is an adaptation of an original work by the Nordic Council of Ministers. Responsibility for the views and opinions expressed in the adaptation rests solely with its author(s). The views and opinions in this adaptation have not been approved by the Nordic Council of Ministers. Third-party content: The Nordic Council of Ministers does not necessarily own every single part of this work. The Nordic Council of Ministers cannot, therefore, guarantee that the reuse of third-party content does not in- fringe the copyright of the third party. If you wish to reuse any third-party content, you bear the risks associ- ated with any such rights violations. You are responsible for determining whether there is a need to obtain per- mission for the use of third-party content, and if so, for obtaining the relevant permission from the copyright holder. Examples of third-party content may include, but are not limited to, tables, figures or images. Photo rights (further permission required for reuse): Any queries regarding rights and licences should be addressed to: Nordic Council of Ministers/Publication Unit Ved Stranden 18 DK-1061 Copenhagen Denmark [email protected] Nordic co-operation Nordic co-operation is one of the world’s most extensive forms of regional collaboration, involving Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland. Nordic co-operation has firm traditions in politics, economics and culture and plays an important role in European and international forums. The Nordic community strives for a strong Nordic Region in a strong Europe. Nordic co-operation promotes regional interests and values in a global world. The values shared by the Nordic countries help make the region one of the most innovative and competitive in the world. The Nordic Council of Ministers Nordens Hus Ved Stranden 18 DK-1061 Copenhagen [email protected] Download and order Nordic publications from www.norden.org/nordpub Contents Summary .................................................................................................................................. 7 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 9 1.1 Background ............................................................................................................. 9 1.2 Definitions and abbreviations .................................................................................. 11 1.3 Research questions and report structure ................................................................. 11 2. Method ............................................................................................................................. 13 2.1 Method for assessing current recycling rates of the used vehicle batteries ............... 13 2.2 Method for estimating flow data for batteries 2025–2030 ........................................ 13 2.3 Method for current and future techniques for reuse, second life and recycling ........ 16 3. How many of the used vehicle batteries that are currently sent for recycling ...................... 17 3.1 Batteries from cars .................................................................................................. 17 3.2 Batteries from buses ............................................................................................... 18 3.3 Small batteries from e-bikes and e-scooters ............................................................ 18 4. Number and weight of batteries placed on market and reaching EoL ................................ 21 4.1 Batteries placed on market – Base case results ....................................................... 22 4.2 Placed on market for battery flows with smaller tonnage ....................................... 24 4.3 Batteries reaching end of first life – Base case ......................................................... 27 4.4 The sensitivity to changes in EoL handling ............................................................. 29 5. Current and future techniques for reuse, second life and recycling ..................................... 33 5.1 Reuse ...................................................................................................................... 33 5.2 Second life .............................................................................................................. 33 5.3 Recycling ................................................................................................................ 35 6. Discussion and conclusions ............................................................................................... 45 References ............................................................................................................................. 49 Svensk sammanfattning .......................................................................................................... 53 Mapping of lithium-ion batteries for vehicles 5 6 Mapping of lithium-ion batteries for vehicles Summary This report regards the fate of the lithium-ion batteries used in vehicles in the Nordic countries. The intention was to give a background for the referral on the revision of the Battery Directive (EC, 2006). The report was written by researchers at IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute and was commissioned by the Nordic Waste Group under the Nordic Council of Ministers. There is currently lack of data regarding how many batteries that are sent for recycling, mainly because many other types of batteries are included in the same category as lithium-ion batteries for vehicles in the Battery Directive which stipulates how to report collection. Even if it is hard to determine how many batteries that are collected and sent to recycling, data regarding the amount of batteries that reach end of life is possible to calculate. This means that it is possible to determine how many batteries that are available for recycling, even if we cannot say exactly how many that have been or will be recycled in a near future. Until today, very few batteries from cars and buses have been collected and many of them are from warranty and accident cases. For e-bikes around 30,000–43,000 batteries per year are calculated to currently reach end of life. Regarding the weight of batteries entering end of life, car and bus batteries dominate the flow both now and even more so in the future, making them the most important flows to consider for recycling in order to recover the raw materials. Based on the life length of batteries in current electric cars, the current flows of new batteries (2015–2018) are the ones that will be available for recycling in 2025–2030. They are, however, quickly out-shadowed by the projected increase in number of car batteries on the market, growing from around 0.5 million units 2018 to 4 million units by 2030. Batteries for e-bikes contribute a significant quantity but a low weight in the near term. In terms of quantity placed on the market in 2018 they were in the same order of magnitude as batteries for large vehicles, with an estimated 170,000 pieces for e-bikes and 140,000 for cars and buses. In terms of mass, however, batteries for e-bikes made up for about 320 tons, while larger vehicle batteries contributed in the order of 30,000 tons. This makes e-bike batteries important to target from a quantity perspective, but they contribute less to the availability of secondary resources from recycling. E- scooters are a product group similar to e-bikes from where we can expect several batteries ready for recycling. As mentioned, the flows described above only represent the batteries that are available for recycling, but they will only be recycled if they are collected and sent for recycling. Currently, batteries from heavy duty vehicles are to a great extent collected in a controlled way by the producers, due to the producer’s responsibility in the Battery Directive as well as thanks to business contracts. For cars the risk for uncontrolled
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