SUBJECT GUIDE SubjectHeat Treating Guide Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002 :: 440.338.5151 :: www.asminternational.org :: [email protected] Published by ASM International® :: Data shown are typical, not to be used for specification or final design. Overview Heat treating, as the name implies, is a series of treatments • Annealing (softening) in which heat is used to alter the properties of a metal or alloy. • Hardening Because time at temperature is also important, heat treatment • Surface hardening can be further defined as a series of time-temperature treat- ments. Heat treatments are used for a variety of purposes, the • Miscellaneous most important being to control the mechanical properties, especially hardness, ductility, strength, toughness, and internal Annealing stresses. When a metal is cold worked (deformed at room temperature), Hardness is the resistance of a material to plastic indentation. the microstructure becomes severely distorted because of an Hardness values are roughly proportional to the strength of a increased dislocation density resulting from the deformation. metal and can give an indication of the wear properties of a mate- Cold working is also referred to as work hardening or strain rial. Hardness values can be useful during the materials selection hardening. As a metal is cold worked, the strength and hardness process and for quality-control evaluations, but the values can- increase while ductility decreases. Eventually, it is necessary to not be applied directly during the design of a part. anneal the piece to allow further forming operations without the risk of breaking it. In addition, some metals are strengthened pri- Ductility is the capability of a material to deform plastically with- marily by cold working. In this case, it is important that the metal out fracturing, and it is usually measured by the amount that a not soften appreciably when placed in service. bar under tensile load will elongate before fracturing. The elonga- tion is expressed as a percentage of the original length of the bar. Cold-worked materials with highly distorted microstructures are in a high-energy state and are thermodynamically unstable. Strength is the ability of a material to withstand an applied Annealing is the heat treatment process that softens a metal that force, and three types are commonly discussed. Elastic strength, has been hardened by cold working. Annealing consists of three referred to as the elastic limit, is strength before the material stages: recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. Although deforms permanently. The yield strength is the strength of a a reduction in stored energy provides the driving force, anneal- material before appreciable plastic deformation occurs. The ing usually does not spontaneously occur at room temperature. ultimate tensile strength is the maximum strength that a metal Because the reduction in stored energy must occur by diffusion, exhibits during tensile deformation. the activation energy needed to start the diffusion process is Toughness is the ability of a metal to absorb energy in the plas- normally insufficient at room temperature. Therefore, heating tic range. Although there are a number of approaches for defin- is necessary to provide the thermal activation energy needed to ing toughness, one of the oldest is to consider it as the total area transform the material to a lower-energy state. As the internal lat- under the stress-strain curve. This area is an indication of the tice strains are relieved during annealing, the strength decreases amount of work per unit area that can be done without causing while the ductility increases. It should be noted that some low- it to fail. Because toughness is the area under the stress-strain melting-point metals have recrystallization temperatures lower curve, it is a function of both strength and ductility. than room temperature and cannot be hardened by cold working. Residual or locked-in stresses arise in components from many For example, lead, tin, and zinc have recrystallization tempera- sources and, if left untreated, can lead to component distortion, tures below room temperature. stress concentration, and failure. One of the most common causes The three distinct processes that occur during annealing—recov- of residual stresses is nonuniform cooling from elevated tempera- ery, recrystallization, and grain growth—are described as follows. tures. On cooling, the surface cools quickly and contracts, while Recovery. During recovery, there is a rearrangement of internal the inner core remains hotter longer and cools more slowly, thus defects, known as dislocations, into lower-energy configurations; setting up residual stresses. Components are heated to a suitable however, the grain shape and orientation remain the same. There temperature and held at temperature for a time long enough to is also a significant reduction in residual stresses, but the strength reduce residual stresses and are then cooled slowly enough so and ductility are largely unaffected. Because there is a large that new residual stresses are not introduced. decrease in residual stress during recovery, recovery-type pro- There are many types of heat treatment processes, some of which cesses are usually conducted to reduce residual stresses, often to are applied only to steels and others that are applied only to prevent stress-corrosion cracking or minimize distortion. During other alloys. Heat treatment processes can be classified into four stress-relief operations, the temperature and time are controlled general categories: so there is not a major reduction in strength or hardness. Copyright © 2015, ASM International®. All rights reserved. 1 SUBJECT GUIDE SubjectHeat Treating Guide Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002 :: 440.338.5151 :: www.asminternational.org :: [email protected] Published by ASM International® :: Data shown are typical, not to be used for specification or final design. Recrystallization is characterized by the nucleation and growth Solution annealing, sometimes referred to as quench anneal- of strain-free grains out of the matrix of the cold-worked metal. ing, is an important category of annealing. The heat treatment During recrystallization, the badly deformed cold-worked grains is called solution annealing because the heat treatment takes are replaced by new, strain-free grains. New orientations, new advantage of the solid-solution regions of the iron-carbon phase grain sizes, and new grain morphologies form during recrystal- diagram (for steels) or, in the case of nonferrous alloys, the phase lization. The driving force for recrystallization is the remain- diagrams for the major components of the alloy system (see the ing stored energy that was not expended during recovery. The topic summary “Phase Diagrams”). strength reduces and the ductility increases to levels similar to For steels, solution annealing involves heating to a sufficiently those of the metal before cold working. high temperature for a sufficiently long time to drive free carbides Recrystallization is considered complete when the mechanical into solid solution and then rapidly quenching to freeze them. properties of the recrystallized metal approach those of the metal The resulting steel has improved formability, and corrosion resis- before it was cold worked. Recrystallization and the resulting tance to certain acids can be improved. mechanical softening completely cancel the effects of cold work- For nonferrous alloys, solution annealing is a preliminary step ing on the mechanical properties of the piece. An annealing curve to hardening of the alloys. The solution heat treatment involves for an alloy, such as a typical brass, will show minimal changes heating the alloy to a high enough temperature to drive the alloy- in mechanical properties during recovery and large changes in ing elements into solid solution, yielding a metastable, supersatu- properties that occur during recrystallization (Fig. 1). Mechanical rated solid solution. These alloys are then precipitation hardened properties, such as hardness, yield strength, tensile strength, per- (also known as age hardening). cent elongation, and reduction in area, change drastically over a very small temperature range. Although physical properties, such as electrical conductivity, undergo large increases during recov- Hardening ery, they also continue to increase during recrystallization. Hardening is the process by which heat treatments are employed to harden an alloy. Hardenability is the capability of an alloy to Grain growth is the growth of some recrystallized grains, and it can only happen at the expense of other recrystallized grains. be hardened by heat treatment. There are several hardening Because fine grain size leads to the best combination of strength treatments. and ductility, in almost all cases, grain growth is an undesirable Quench Hardening. For ferrous alloys, quench hardening is an process. Although excessive grain growth can occur by holding austenite-forming (austenitizing) heat treatment, followed by the material for too long at the annealing temperature, it is usu- cooling at a rate such that a substantial amount of austenite ally a result of heating at too high a temperature. transforms to martensite. Quench hardening can be applied to Some steel-specific annealing heat treatments include normal- suitable alpha-beta alloys (usually copper or titanium alloys) by izing, spheroidizing, and solution annealing, which is described solution treating