CRIME AND MISCONDUCT Child-focused sexual abuse COMMISSION prevention programs How effective are they in preventing child abuse?

Dr Jennifer Sanderson

QUEENSLAND 2 Introduction that underlie this form of abuse. Child- focused sexual abuse prevention programs Under section 23 of the Crime and are an important component of these Misconduct Act 2001 the CMC has an efforts to decrease child sexual abuse. RESEARCH & ISSUES PAPER important role to play in preventing SERIES paedophilia. One way we do this is through evaluating current research and Child-focused disseminating this information to a wider NUMBER 5, JUNE 2004 audience. prevention programs Child-focused sexual abuse prevention This paper examines the current research programs may be targeted at the ISSN: 1446-845X into the effectiveness of programs community, parents, teachers, or a designed to prevent the sexual abuse of combination of these, but most are children. It: ABOUT THE AUTHOR targeted directly at children, usually in the  examines the prevalence of child This paper was prepared by school environment.3 Dr Jennifer Sanderson of sexual abuse Research and Prevention, CMC.  describes the core concepts Although some authors have suggested underpinning child-focused sexual that these programs place too much The papers in this series are refereed responsibility on children,4 others are more papers. They can also be accessed on abuse prevention programs convinced that children should be www.cmc.qld.gov.au/PUBS.html.  discusses how these programs are targeted.5 Through exposure to prevention Information on this series and other being evaluated CMC publications can be obtained training, they argue, children can learn to  examines their effectiveness from: identify potentially abusive situations, Crime and Misconduct Commission  examines differences in how children resist advances and report approaches, and 140 Creek Street, Brisbane acquire knowledge GPO Box 3123, Brisbane Qld 4001 at the same time be reassured that they are Telephone: (07) 3360 6060  focuses on conceptual weaknesses in not to blame for any abuse.6 Because Toll Free: 1800 06 1611 naivety increases children’s vulnerability Facsimile: (07) 3360 6333 current programs that may be render- 7 E-mail: [email protected] ing them less effective. to sexual victimisation, these programs Website: www.cmc.qld.gov.au seek to counter children’s ignorance about We hope this paper may provide useful sexual abuse. Therefore, without negating © Crime and Misconduct Commission 2004 information for policy makers, service and adults’ primary responsibility for the Apart from any fair dealing for the educational providers, parents, and the protection of children, child-focused purpose of private study, research, general public. criticism or review, as permitted under programs play a vital preventive role. the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without permission. Inquiries should be made to the publisher, the Crime and How prevalent is child Core concepts Misconduct Commission. sexual abuse? Sexual abuse prevention programs for Estimates of the prevalence of child sexual children generally do three things: abuse vary considerably across studies. 1. They define sexual abuse. Children are Depending on how the term ‘sexual abuse’ taught definitions of sexual abuse, is defined, from 7 to 62 per cent of women

RESEARCH & ISSUES and from 3 to 19 per cent of men have experienced some form of childhood 1 Dunne et al. 2003; Finkelhor et al. 1990; Goldman & Padayachi 1997; Western 1 sexual abuse on at least one occasion. Australian Government 2003. 2 Conte, Rosen & Saperstein 1986; Finkelhor What is being done about it? 1990; Oates 1990; Wurtele 2002. The recognition that child sexual abuse is 3 Finkelhor & Dziuba-Leatherman 1995. a significant problem has led to an 4 Kaufman & Zigler 1992; Melton 1992. increase in prevention initiatives. These 5 Finkelhor 1984; Wurtele 1998. initiatives need to involve comprehensive 6 Wurtele 1998. interventions that target individuals and 7 Bagley, Thurston & Tutty 1996; Budin & Johnson 1989; Elliott, Browne & Kilcoyne families as well as the sociocultural factors 1995. which usually involve the notion of and neglect prevention programs in Despite the importance of including a ‘bad’ touch, touch that causes Australia, for example, received details of control group in an evaluation of a ‘uncomfortable’ or ‘confusing’ feelings, 1814 individual programs, 67 per cent of program’s effectiveness, some providers or touching of ‘private parts’.8 which reported targeting sexual abuse.14 have argued that it is unethical to deny any 19 2. They teach children how to resist or Unfortunately, the national audit had a children access to prevention programs. If refuse overtures. This may involve low response rate, with only 5.3 per cent the prevention training has not been teaching them to say ‘no’ and escape of service providers responding to requests demonstrated to be effective for the the situation, with some programs also for information on their prevention particular client group, however, there is encouraging them to yell or scream, or, programs. Therefore this figure is likely to no evidence that participants are being less frequently, to physically resist the underestimate the number of child sexual denied access to an effective program. perpetrator.9 abuse prevention programs. Completing a thorough program evaluation, and giving it to the control 3. They encourage children to tell their group at a later date if it is shown to be parents or other trusted adults about effective, is preferable to continuing to what happened.10 Evaluations of current provide children with untested programs Many programs also teach children that: programs that may be of dubious merit. Despite the large number of programs  They are not to blame for any sexual already in use, the national audit found The continuing provision of untested abuse. The adult or adolescent that many organisations appeared to be programs is of particular concern, because perpetrator is always responsible, never independently developing very similar prevention programs can engender false the child victim. programs. This is occurring because it is complacency in those parents who think  Perpetrators may be people children easier to get funding to set up a pilot their children have been protected from know and trust. While generally program than it is to evaluate and adapt an sexual abuse simply because they have 20 avoiding the issue of incest, some existing program.15 Scarce resources, completed the program. Consequently, programs rebut the commonly held which could be used to evaluate and such parents may not maintain the same misconception that most perpetrators improve existing programs, are thus vigilance and supervision of their 11 21 are strangers. (An exception is the diverted into ‘new’ programs, which often children. Indeed, the completion of an New Zealand program ‘Keeping only duplicate what already exists.16 The ineffective program may increase rather Ourselves Safe’, where teaching emphasis has been on the provision of than decrease children’s vulnerability to 22 children about incest is included in the programs, rather than on testing their assault. As Tomison has pointed out, 12 prevention training. ) effectiveness. there is a social cost to providing  There is ‘good’ touch as well as ‘bad’ ineffective programs. touch. Many programs focus on the Typically, programs are not tested before importance of caring, and teach being implemented. The national audit children to differentiate between ‘good’ found that 85 per cent of programs audited Program effectiveness and ‘bad’ touch. included some evaluation afterwards. Currently, many providers use programs However, the majority of these were non-  There are ‘good’ secrets and ‘bad’ that either lack rigorous evaluation or have experimental, with 77 per cent involving secrets. Programs often deal with not been shown to be effective with the only an internal evaluation based simply secrecy, making a distinction between population being administered the on attendance and satisfaction. While non- appropriate secrets, which involve program. Many of these programs are experimental evaluations provide useful pleasant, ‘fun’ surprises, and inappro- imported from the United States23 where information about participant characteristics priate secrets, which are frightening very few of the commercially available and program implementation, they and must be disclosed.13 prevention materials have been adequately demonstrate little about the effectiveness evaluated.24 Programs vary in their emphasis on of the prevention training.17 particular concepts and skills. They also In contrast, 24 per cent of the evaluated 8 Tharinger et al. 1988. use different ways to teach prevention programs in the national audit examined 9 Wurtele 1998. concepts, such as films, videos, books, changes in children’s prevention skills by 10 Finkelhor & Strapko 1992. songs, plays, drama, colouring books, 11 Bagley et al. 1996. administering a test before and after the comics, symbolic modelling, role-playing, 12 Woodward 1990, pp. 13–16. program. However, only 2.6 per cent of puppets, teaching sessions, behavioural 13 Finkelhor 1984; MacIntyre & Carr 2000. these programs included a comprehensive skills training, and group discussions. 14 Tomison & Poole 2000. evaluation that compared the prevention 15 Tomison 1997; Tomison & Poole 2000. Some programs use only one method knowledge of participant children with 16 Tomison & Poole 2000. while others combine several. The their counterparts in a control group that 17 Chalk & King 1998; Harrington & Dubowitz duration of programs also differs. Some did not receive the program. The presence 1993; Melton & Flood 1994; Tomison & offer only one session while others involve Poole 2000. of a control group is essential for showing comprehensive programs lasting more than 18 Davis & Gidycz 2000. that any gains in children’s pre- and post- three hours, often delivered over several 19 Kaufman & Zigler 1992; Seitz 1987. test knowledge are related to the 20 Krivacska 1990; Wurtele, Kvaaternick & sessions, which may include later booster prevention program, rather than a pre-test Franklin 1992. sessions to reinforce the earlier training. sensitising effect or other incidental 21 Bagley et al. 1996; Kaufman & Zigler 1992; Wald & Cohen 1986. factors. Evaluations without control groups While programs may vary, many children 22 Tomison 2000. these days are exposed to some type of typically overestimate program 23 Tomison & Poole 2000. program. A national audit of child abuse effectiveness.18 24 Roberts, Alexander & Fanurik 1990.

2 CRIME AND MISCONDUCT COMMISSION • RESEARCH & ISSUES PAPER • NO. 5 • JUNE 2004 Consequently, several critics have reasons. Firstly, child sexual abuse often individual programs may make children questioned the utility of providing sexual involves a prolonged grooming process more fearful after training.42 abuse prevention programs to children.25 rather than a sudden attack,33 and Standardised materials. Programs are more intervention potentially can occur before effective if they involve the use of Yet several reviews and meta-analyses of the abuse has progressed to a more serious standardised materials, content, and evaluations of these programs have found level. Secondly, threats of disclosure from consistent evidence that the majority of administration procedures and are taught children may be an important deterrent to 43 evaluated programs resulted in increases in by trained instructors. For example, when some offenders. Many have reported 44 26 Briggs and Hawkins compared the non- children’s knowledge about sexual abuse. fearing disclosure by the child34 and standardised ‘Protective Behaviours’ However, this effectiveness does not seeking children who will maintain program45 with the standardised New necessarily apply to all prevention secrecy about their abusive relationship.35 programs, as those without rigorous Zealand program, ‘Keeping Ourselves evaluations are excluded from this Safe’, they found the New Zealand research. There is a need either to use Characteristics of program effective in teaching children properly evaluated programs or to prevention skills. In contrast, ‘Protective complete methodologically sound effective programs Behaviours’ was found not to be effective, with children making few knowledge gains evaluations when programs are There are several specific program features and only a small percentage (30%) of the administered. Without these evaluations of associated with children’s acquisition and oldest children (8- and 9-year-olds) who current prevention programs it is retention of prevention concepts and skills. impossible to know whether many were taught the program by highly programs are effective. What can be Active participation. Programs that committed teachers providing any safe 46 concluded is that prevention programs can encourage the active participation of responses to abusive scenarios. children (e.g. role-plays) are more effective be effective in teaching children Integrated into school curriculum. than those that use either passive methods prevention knowledge and skills. Programs are more effective if they are (e.g. teaching concepts, discussion) or no integrated into the school curriculum with With this caveat in mind, the current participation (e.g. films, videos, or designated times for administration.47 reviews and meta-analyses do suggest that individual study of written materials).36 prevention programs can increase Explicit training. Explicit training is the children’s knowledge about sexual abuse, most effective method for teaching with certain concepts being easier for children prevention skills. Having children 25 For example, Kaufman & Zigler 1992; Melton children to learn and retain. More 1992; Reppucci & Haugaard 1989, 1993; rehearse appropriate behaviours is difficulties are generally experienced by Reppucci, Woolard & Fried 1999; Trudell & associated with greater gains in skills and Whatley 1988; Wald & Cohen 1986. younger children.27 Defining sexual abuse knowledge than other non-behavioural 26 Berrick & Barth 1992; Carroll, Miltengerger & is the easiest concept for children to grasp methods such as lectures, written O’Neill 1992; Daro 1991; Davis & Gidycz and retain, while the concept of abuse by 2000; Finkelhor & Strapko 1992; MacIntyre & materials, plays, discussion, videos or familiar and trusted adults is the most Carr 2000; O’Donahue & Greer 1992; films, or the use of animals or puppet Rispens, Aleman & Goudena 1997; Wurtele difficult.28 Children also experience shows.37 2002; Wurtele & Miller-Perrin 1992. particular difficulties with saying no to 27 Finkelhor & Strapko 1992. authority figures, knowing the rules about It is easier to teach children concepts than 28 Finkelhor 1986; Finkelhor & Strapko 1992; 38 keeping secrets and breaking promises, to teach specific behaviours, so Ray & Deitzel 1985. and recognising that the child victim is not opportunities to practise skills are essential 29 Briggs 1991; Perniskie 1995; Tutty 1995, to encourage behavioural change in 1997, 2000. responsible for abuse. Some children also 30 Rispens et al. 1997. children. The adult’s inherent authority have difficulty understanding the concept 31 Kolko, Moser & Hughes 1989; Sorenson & of strangers; they often believe strangers and superior physical and psychological Snow 1991; Wurtele 2002. will look recognisably ‘evil’ or ‘bad’ with power, along with the child’s need for 32 Finkelhor, Asdigian & Dziuba-Leatherman easily distinguishable features such as affection and approval, may make it 1995. difficult for the child to translate 33 Bagley et al. 1996; Conte, Wolf & Smith ‘wearing black’, ‘talking funny’ or having 1989. 29 knowledge into action. Without eye patches. While there is some 34 Conte et al. 1989; Elliott et al. 1995. deterioration in children’s knowledge and behavioural rehearsal, any subsequent 35 Budin & Johnson 1989; Gilgun & Connor skills over time, there is reasonable transfer from knowledge to behaviour in a 1989. 39 retention of prevention concepts, particularly potentially abusive situation is unlikely. 36 Davis & Gidycz 2000; Finkelhor & Strapko 1992; Rispens et al. 1997. 30 Behavioural rehearsal should also include if they receive further training. 37 Davis & Gidycz 2000; Finkelhor & Strapko practising disclosure, as this is a 1992; McCurdy & Daro 1994; Rispens et al. One important additional benefit from particularly difficult skill for children to 1997; Wurtele, Marrs & Miller-Perrin 1987. prevention programs is that they encourage acquire,40 and the current approach 38 Finkelhor & Strapko 1992. children to disclose sexual victimisation. favoured by many programs — where 39 Melton 1992. Trained children are more likely than children are told to keep telling until they 40 Wurtele 2002. untrained children to disclose incidents.31 are believed — does not give children 41 Reppucci & Haugaard 1989. 42 Garbarino 1987; Finkelhor & Strapko 1992. Children who have received the most enough information to plan and implement 43 Finkelhor & Strapko 1992; MacIntyre & Carr 41 comprehensive prevention education are reporting. 2000. 32 the most likely to disclose. 44 1994a, 1994b. Group training. Training is better 45 Flandreau-West 1989. Encouraging early disclosure from children conducted in a group setting than 46 Briggs & Hawkins 1994a, 1994b. may be particularly important — for two individually because the isolation of 47 McCurdy & Daro 1994.

3 CRIME AND MISCONDUCT COMMISSION • RESEARCH & ISSUES PAPER • NO. 5 • JUNE 2004 Long rather than short programs. Longer programs do not recognise this fact. preschoolers, several authors have argued programs involving repeated presentations, Problematically, many prevention that it nonetheless makes sense to target with follow-up ‘booster shots’ to reinforce educators fail to consider developmental these children.67 Firstly, preschoolers need earlier training, are more effective than issues when designing training and simply programs as significant numbers of young shorter programs.48 There is a linear trend apply programs designed for older children children are targets for sexual abuse.68 in relation to effectiveness so that, as to preschoolers.57 According to Melton,58 When in 2001 Smallbone & Wortley program duration increases, effectiveness prevention educators have little knowledge interviewed 182 males who were improves.49 Prevention education has a of child development, with the concepts incarcerated for sexual offences against cumulative effect, with children’s included in programs being remarkably children, 22.8 per cent of their victims knowledge and skills continuing to similar, regardless of the children’s age were aged between five and eight years. improve with further exposure to group:59 Secondly, prevention training may provide programs.50 Little effort has been made to apply an some protection against abuse by child- understanding of ways in which the care staff. Lastly, prevention education has It is particularly important that program socioemotional and cognitive maturity of a cumulative effect, so children will gain sessions are spaced to allow sufficient time children of various ages would affect their more knowledge and skills from later for children to integrate the information understanding of sexual abuse. prevention programs if they have received into their cognitive repertoire.51 At present As children do not understand concepts in previous education.69 no study has identified the best interval the same manner as adults, consideration between presentations. needs to be given to the developmental Socioeconomic status Parental involvement. Children will level and cognitive capacity of the Children of lower socioeconomic status 60 benefit more from prevention training if children receiving the program. For tend to learn and retain fewer prevention their parents are also included in the example, programs for young children concepts than children of middle socio- 52 program. Parents’ misconceptions about should avoid abstract terms, explaining economic status.70 Nonetheless it is child sexual abuse can be confronted, and concepts and teaching skills clearly and important that they receive training programs may sensitise parents to signs of simply. Young children need to be given because their parents are less likely to abuse. Also, parents can play an important concrete rules for distinguishing between provide prevention education at home. role in facilitating their children’s learning appropriate and inappropriate touch. They by answering their questions, reinforcing cannot understand programs that instruct program concepts and testing prevention them to identify their feelings about 48 Daro 1991; Finkelhor et al. 1995; Finkelhor & Strapko 1992; Hazzard et al. 1991; MacIntyre 53 different types of touch and then use their skills. Importantly, parents are modelling & Carr 2000; Whetsell-Mitchell 1995; the permissibility of discussing sexual intuition as a guide to when a touch Rispens et al. 1997; Wurtele 1998. topics, which may increase the likelihood becomes inappropriate (e.g. the touch 49 Davis & Gidycz 2000. that children would disclose sexual continuum, ‘Protective Behaviours’).61 50 Davis & Gidycz 2000; Finkelhor & Strapko Preschoolers also have difficulty 1992; MacIntyre & Carr 2000; Rispens et al. victimisation. 1997. generalising prevention concepts to other While parental involvement increases the 51 Davis & Gidycz 2000; Rispens et al. 1997. effectiveness of child-focused prevention situations that were not presented in the 52 Conte & Fogarty 1989, cited in Wurtele 1998; 62 programs, parental programs do not appear program, so behavioural rehearsal of Finkelhor & Dziuba-Leatherman 1995; responses to a wide range of possible Finkelhor et al. 1995; Wurtele, 1993, 1998; to be an effective replacement for child- Wurtele et al. 1991; Wurtele et al. 1992; directed activities.54 victimisation scenarios is particularly Wurtele, Kast & Melzer 1992. important. Because of these difficulties, 53 Finkelhor & Dziuba-Leatherman 1995; Teacher education. Programs that also several authors have questioned whether Hazzard et al. 1991; Miller-Perrin & Wurtele, include teacher education to present a the resources devoted to programs with cited in Bagley et al. 1996; Tutty 1997. 54 Berrick 1988; MacIntyre & Carr 2000. multisystemic program targeting children, young children are worthwhile.63 parents and teachers are more effective in 55 Finkelhor 1984; MacIntyre & Carr 2000. Yet if programs are carefully designed for 56 Kaufman & Zigler 1992; Perniskie 1995; helping children to retain their prevention Wurtele 2002. 55 younger children they can be successful in training. 57 Berrick 1991; Melton 1992. teaching prevention concepts and skills. 58 1992. When children are administered high- 59 Melton 1992, p. 182. Individual differences quality, developmentally appropriate 60 Barth & Derezotes 1990. prevention programs with later booster 61 Blumberg et al. 1991; Gilbert et al. 1989; in learning capacity sessions, younger children can retain Wurtele et al. 1989. 62 Conte et al. 1986, cited in Kaufman & Zigler Children’s capacity to benefit from significant amounts of information; on 1992. prevention education is influenced by their some occasions, they have learnt even 63 Kaufman & Zigler 1992; Krivacska 1990; age, socioeconomic status and self-esteem. more than older children.64 There is little Reppucci & Haugaard 1989. evidence that prevention training is 64 For example, Davis & Gidycz 2000; Peraino effective with three-year-olds, however.65 1990; Ratto & Bogat 1990; Rispens et al. Age 1997; Staiger, Wallace & Higgins 1997; Programs for young children that are not Wurtele 1990; Wurtele et al. 1986. Overall, preschoolers often learn and tailor-made to their needs, or involve only 65 Liang, Bogat & McGrath 1993. retain less information from prevention one presentation with no booster sessions, 66 Reppucci & Haugaard 1989. training than primary-school aged are unlikely to provide any benefit because 67 Daro & Salmon-Cox 1994; Finkelhor, 56 Williams & Burns 1988. children. The immaturity of preschoolers’ the durability of such training is weak.66 68 Conte & Berliner 1981; Finkelhor 1984. cognitive and emotional development Despite the controversy over the 69 Berrick & Gilbert 1991; Finkelhor & Dziuba- accounts for some of their difficulty with Leatherman 1995. appropriateness of providing programs to prevention concepts, but many current 70 Rispens et al. 1997.

4 THE CRIME AND MISCONDUCT COMMISSION • RESEARCH & ISSUES PAPER • NO. 5 • JUNE 2004 Such parents are often reluctant to discuss Conceptual weaknesses They may present abusive situations as sexual topics including sexual abuse, and involving a sudden attack by a are reticent to teach their children the in programs perpetrator.85 Sexual abuse more anatomically correct names for their While child sexual abuse prevention frequently involves a grooming process, 71 genitals. This lack of education increases education can provide children with taking place over a prolonged period these children’s vulnerability to sexual important knowledge and skills, many of during which the child is desensitised to 86 abuse; prevention programs may be their the current programs have the following sexual touching. Programs typically do only source of training. conceptual weaknesses: not teach children the skills to resist grooming. Despite learning less from prevention They may not be providing children with programs, children from lower appropriate sex education and may be They may not be explaining the socioeconomic status groups do benefit inadvertently teaching children that appropriate use of adult authority. from prevention training. Compared with discussing sexuality is taboo. Numerous Perpetrators often use their authority to 87 their more affluent counterparts, these programs encourage children to believe sexually exploit children, because children find the programs more interesting that sexuality is a taboo topic by avoiding children find it difficult to resist the 88 and helpful, and are almost twice as likely using any sexual terminology, or not authority of an adult. Therefore, it is 72 to report using the information. The providing appropriate sex education or important that programs explain the smaller knowledge gains these children even including an accurate description of appropriate use of adult authority. It is typically make after training may occur sexual abuse. Many adults do not believe possible to teach even children as young because of the lack of education provided that sexual abuse prevention programs as three years of age that it is improper for by their parents to supplement the should include sex education or teach adults to use their authority to engage 89 program. Therefore, these children will children the correct names for body parts.78 them in sexual activities. specifically benefit from ongoing Some programs bypass the controversy They do not always acknowledge that education to offset the lack of training surrounding children’s sex education by sexual abuse may not involve touch at all provided at home. avoiding sexuality altogether. Melton has (e.g. exposure to pornography, suggested this avoidance may either deter exhibitionism), or that ‘bad’ touch may Self-esteem children from disclosing, or increase their actually feel good.90 Programs have Children with higher self-esteem learn and embarrassment and negative feelings if assumed that children never find sexual 79 retain more information from child sexual they do report. Instead, the emotionally arousal pleasurable; however, hyper- abuse prevention programs than children charged issue of sex education, and sexualisation is a common response to 73 with low self-esteem. They are more discussions of sexuality in prevention sexual abuse.91 Failure to acknowledge the 80 likely to resist a perpetrator when programs, have been avoided. possibility of favourable responses could presented with an actual dilemma have detrimental effects on children. It involving requests to accompany a This is particularly concerning because offenders report preferring naive children may increase victims’ guilt and shame stranger.74 Therefore, several researchers have suggested that prevention programs who have received little sex education for 81 should include additional material their victims. A lack of sex education may make a child particularly vulnerable to 71 Briggs & Hawkins 1996; Wurtele 1993. designed to improve children’s self- 72 Finkelhor & Dziuba-Leatherman 1995. manipulation by an offender. For example, esteem.75 This may increase the benefits 73 Bagley et al. 1996. children receive from completing an ignorant child could be told that sexual 74 Fryer, Kerns-Kraizer & Miyoshi 1987. prevention training and make children less activity is a normal, and secret, way of 75 Daro & Salmon-Cox 1994; Krivacska 1990. vulnerable to sexual abuse. Certainly, expressing love, or marking the ‘specialness’ 76 Budin & Johnson 1989; Conte et al. 1989. 77 Grober & Bogat 1994. children with low self-esteem are more of the relationship between a child and an adult. 78 Mahoney 1998, p. 130; Williams & Stith likely to suffer sexual victimisation. 1987, cited in Melton 1992. Perpetrators report targeting passive and Similarly, programs that fail to teach 79 1992. emotionally needy children with low self- children the correct terminology for their 80 Finkelhor 1986. esteem because they are more vulnerable sexual organs may increase children’s 81 Bagley et al. 1996; Budin & Johnson 1989; Elliott et al. 1995. to manipulation.76 vulnerability to sexual assault. Children 82 Finkelhor 1986. Children may also benefit if prevention need to use anatomically correct terms to 83 Kaufman & Zigler 1992. education includes social problem-solving describe their experiences to adults in a 84 McCurdy & Daro 1994; Whetsell-Mitchell way that adults can understand.82 1995; QCC & QPS 2000a, 2000b, 2000c, where children are presented with 2000d. problematic social situations that require They are either failing to deal with the 85 Bagley et al 1996; Conte et al 1989. resolution. Children with better social issue of abuse by a familiar adult, or over- 86 Bagley et al. 1996; Budin & Johnson 1989; Conte et al. 1989; Elliott et al. 1995; problem-solving skills are more adept at 83 emphasising the risk posed by strangers. Finkelhor 1986; Kaufman, Hilliker & resolving sexual dilemmas because they Molestation by strangers is relatively Daleiden 1996; Kaufman et al. 1998; QCC & offer more thoughtful solutions to infrequent, with strangers believed to be QPS 2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2000d; 77 Smallbone & Wortley 2001. situations. responsible for only 10–20 per cent of 87 Bogat & McGrath 1993. 84 reported child sexual assaults. Children 88 Pelcovitz et al. 1992. are most likely to be abused by someone 89 Bogat & McGrath 1993. they know. 90 de Young 1988; Whetsell-Mitchell 1995, p. 173; Wurtele 1987. 91 Friedrich, Urquiza & Beilke 1986; Melton 1992.

5 THE CRIME AND MISCONDUCT COMMISSION • RESEARCH & ISSUES PAPER • NO. 5 • JUNE 2004 CONCLUSION about their experiences, thereby encouraging children to feel responsible A well-designed prevention program can be Before more ‘new’ programs are put into for their abuse. Alternatively, if programs effective in teaching children how to protect widespread use there need to be compre- themselves from sexual abuse. To be hensive evaluations of current prevention describe abusive touches as feeling ‘bad’ effective, programs need to: programs and their appropriateness for or ‘confusing’, children may decide that as  involve children, with explicit training in specific groups of children. All prevention their experience felt ‘good’ or ‘pleasurable’ preventive behaviours and disclosure programs are not equally good. There is a it must not be abuse. In either situation,  involve group training using standardised continuing economic and social cost in administering unevaluated programs which, children may be less likely to disclose the materials, content and administration, with programs taught by trained instructors at worst, may actually increase children’s victimisation. So children need to be vulnerability to sexual abuse, rather than  be of longer duration, involving repeated taught that, even if such touches feel good, making an important presentations they are abusive.92 contribution to protecting children.  be incorporated into the school curriculum Even an effective child-focused program does Program content is designed primarily to  involve a multisystemic approach, which targets children, parents and teachers. not negate adults’ primary responsibility for meet the protection needs of girls, and the protection of children, or the need for may not provide adequate prevention As well, programs need to address the additional strategies to redress the causes of remaining conceptual weaknesses in many training for boys.93 Gender differences childhood sexual abuse. These prevention current programs by: programs are just one way to reduce the need to be incorporated into prevention  providing children with appropriate sex prevalence of childhood sexual abuse. They training. Boys are less likely to believe that education and clearly defining sexual seek to provide children with the knowledge they can be sexually abused, so they often abuse and skills that may either make sexual engage in more risk-taking behaviour.94  giving proper emphasis to the risk posed victimisation less likely to occur or result in They are more likely to define abusive by familiar adults rather than over- the early disclosure of incidents, but they do emphasising ‘stranger danger’ not provide guaranteed immunity from experiences as experimentation, rather  providing information to children about victimisation. than victimisation.95 Also, boys are more the grooming tactics normally used by Further efforts depend on a commitment, inclined to blame themselves for any perpetrators from both government and non-government abusive sexual victimisation, because they  acknowledging that sexual abuse may sectors, to providing children with evidence- believe they have the power to stop not involve touch and that abusive touch based programs that are comprehensively unwanted sexual advances.96 may actually feel good evaluated to ensure they are effective in  Consequently, boys are less willing to providing a program that meets the needs teaching self-protection skills. of both boys and girls. disclose these experiences.97

The resistance strategies presented in many programs may not benefit boys, as boys These programs usually have not been References typically prefer techniques that are not comprehensively evaluated so their Asdigian, N & Finkelhor, D 1995, ‘What works 98 effectiveness for specific populations is taught in prevention programs. Compared for children in resisting assaults?’, Journal of with girls, boys have poorer problem- unknown. These conceptual weaknesses in Interpersonal Violence, vol. 10, no. 4, solving skills when they are presented with programs limit their effectiveness as pp. 402–18. sexual dilemmas.99 Instead, many boys prevention tools. The more divergence Bagley, C, Thurston, WE & Tutty, LM 1996, Understanding and preventing child sexual favour ‘superhero’ responses, or more between what children are taught in prevention programs and the abuse, vol. 1, Children: Assessment, social confrontational, less planned strategies, work, and clinical issues, and prevention which are often focused on physical circumstances they are faced with in a education, Ashgate Publishing Ltd, England. aggression.100 real-life abusive situation, the less likely it Barth, RP & Derezotes, DS 1990, Preventing is that the children will be able to avoid adolescent abuse, Lexington Books, Consequently, boys rate programs less sexual abuse. Lexington, MA. highly than girls, believing they are less Berrick, JD 1988, ‘Parental involvement in child helpful, less interesting, and less likely to abuse prevention training: what do they learn?’, Child Abuse and Neglect, vol. 12, contain any new information. Not pp. 543–53. surprisingly, boys are less likely to make —— 1991, ‘Sexual abuse prevention training for use of the prevention skills taught in preschoolers: implications for moral programs.101 Therefore, prevention development’, Children and Youth Services programs also need to focus on the Review, vol. 13, pp. 61–75. protection needs of boys rather than 92 Conte 1986. Berrick, JD, & Barth, RP 1992, ‘Child sexual abuse prevention: research review and simply applying programs that are 93 Bagley et al. 1996. 94 Bagley et al. 1996; Finkelhor 1984; Sang recommendations’, Social Work Research and primarily targeted at girls. 1994. Abstracts, vol. 28, pp. 6–15. 95 Briggs & Hawkins 1997. Berrick, JD & Gilbert, N 1991, With the best of Similarly, programs that are offered to 96 Bagley et al. 1996; Sang 1994. intentions: the child sexual abuse prevention other specific audiences such as children 97 Bagley et al. 1996; DeVoe & Faller 1999; movement, Guilford Press, New York. with special needs, ethnic minorities and Finkelhor et al. 1990; Gries, Goh & Blumberg, EJ, Chadwick, MW, Fogarty, LA, Indigenous children need to be Cavanaugh 1996. Speth, TW & Chadwick, DL 1991, ‘The touch appropriate for the audience.102 Typically, 98 Asdigian & Finkelhor 1995. discrimination component of sexual abuse prevention training: unanticipated positive current programs involve reusing training 99 Grober & Bogat 1994. 100 Asdigian & Finkelhor 1995; Grober & Bogat consequences’, Journal of Interpersonal designed for other groups, either without 1994; Sang 1994. Violence, vol. 6, pp. 12–28. any modification or with some changes 101 Finkelhor & Dziuba-Leatherman 1995. Bogat, GA & McGrath, M.P 1993, ‘Preschoolers’ thought to make the program more 102 Tomison 1996, 1997. cognitions of authority, and its relationship to relevant to the target group.103 103 Tomison & Poole 2000. sexual abuse education’, Child Abuse and Neglect, vol. 17, pp. 651–62.

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