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Fungus Gnats and Other Diptera in South African Forestry Nurseries And Research Articles South African Journal of Science 103, January/February 2007 43 the western Pacific Ocean: aircraft observations from Australia to Japan, 37. Carrico C.M., Bergin M.H., Xu J., Baumann K. and Maring H. (2003). Urban January 1994. Atmos. Environ. 38, 5945–5956. aerosol radiative properties: measurements during the 1999 Atlanta Supersite 25. Hara K., Yamagata S., Yamanouchi T., Sato K., Herber A., Iwasaka Y., Nagatani Experiment. J. Geophys. Res. 108, 8422, doi:10.1029/2001JD001222. M. and Nakata H. (2003). Mixing states of individual aerosol particles in spring 38. Mallet M., Van Dingenen R., Roger J.C., Despiau S. and Cachier H. (2005). In Arctic troposphere during ASTAR 2000 campaign. J. Geophys. Res. 108, 4209, situ airborne measurements of aerosol optical properties during photochemi- doi:10.1029/2002JD002513. cal pollution events. J. Geophys. Res. 110, D03205, doi:10.1029/2004JD005139. 26. Seinfeld J.H. and Pandis S.N. (1998). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air 39. Malm W.C., Sisler J.F., Huffman D., Eldred R.A. and Cahill T.A. (1994). Spatial Pollution to Climate Change. Wiley-Interscience, New York. and seasonal trends in particle concentration and optical extinction in the 27. Norman A-L., Belzer W.and Barrie L. (2004). Insights into the biogenic contri- United Sates. J. Geophys. Res. 99, 1347–1370. bution to total sulphate in aerosol and precipitation in the Fraser Valley 40. Bergin M.H., Cass G.R., Xu J., Fang C., Zeng L.M., Yu T., Salmon L.G., Kiang afforded by isotopes of sulphur and oxygen. J. Geophys. Res. 109, D05311, C.S., Tang X.Y., Zhang Y.H. and Chameides W.L. (2001). Aerosol radiative, doi:10.1029/2002JD003072. physical, and chemical properties in Beijing during June 1999. J. Geophys. Res. 28. South African Weather Service (2003). Daily Weather Bulletin August 2003. 106, 17969–17980. 29. 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Res. 107, 8002, STAAARTE-MED 1998 summer airborne measurements over the Aegean Sea 2. doi:10.1029/2002JD002304. Aerosol scattering and absorption, and radiative calculations. J. Geophys. Res. 46. Russell P.B., Redemann J., Schmid B., Bergstrom R.W., Livingston J.M., 107, 4451, doi:10.1029/2001JD001536. McIntosh D.M., Ramirez S.A., Hartley S., Hobbs P.V., Quinn P.K.,Carrico C.M., 35. Wiscombe W.J. (1980). Improved Mie scattering algorithms. Appl. Opt. 19, Rood M.J., Öström E., Noone K.J., Hoyningen-Huene von W. and Remer L. 1505–1509. (2002). Comparison of aerosol single scattering albedos derived by diverse 36. Mallet M., Roger J.C., Despiau S., Dubovik O. and Putaud J.P. (2003). techniques in two North Atlantic experiments. J. Atmos. Sci. 59, 609–619. Microphysical and optical properties of aerosol particles in urban zone during 47. Kittelson D.B. (1998). Engines and nanoparticles: a review. J. Aerosol Sci. 29, ESCOMPTE. Atmos. Res. 69, 73–97. 575–588. B. difformis in South Africa. Fusarium circinatum was not isolated Fungus gnats and other from any of the Diptera collected. Fusarium oxysporum and F. stil- boides were isolated from Chironomidae, but these fungi are not Diptera in South African considered important pathogens in the nurseries surveyed. forestry nurseries and their possible association with the Introduction Nematoceran Diptera belonging to the families Sciaridae and pitch canker fungus Mycetophilidae have a broad distribution and a wide range of habitats. These insects, known as fungus gnats, are found in rotten wood, under the bark of fallen trees, associated with a,b* a Brett P. Hurley , Prem Govender , wild fungi as well as in leaf mould and manure piles.1,2 They are b Teresa A. Coutinhob, Brenda D. Wingfield and also found in nurseries of various crops, including legumes,3,4 b 5 6 7 8 3 Michael J. Wingfield mushrooms, fuchsias, cucumbers, alfalfa, tomatoes, forestry plants,9,10 cloves11 and other ornamentals.12 Fungus gnat larvae feed on animal excrement,2 decaying and living plant tissues,2,4 and fungal structures,13 including Fusarium circinatum is the causal agent of a serious disease of cultivated mushrooms.14 The diet of the adult flies is not cer- seedlings in South African pine nurseries. Insects, especially fungus tainly known, although they have been fed on sucrose solutions gnats (Diptera: Sciaridae, Mycetophlidae), are suspected of in captivity.14 In nurseries the larvae also feed on decaying and transmitting this fungus in nurseries. The aim of this study was to healthy plant roots as well as fungi.15,16 ascertain which species of gnats are present in South African pine The feeding of fungus gnat larvae on healthy roots causes a nurseries, and to consider whether these and other Diptera carry reduction in plant vigour4,16,17 and provides infection sites for F. circinatum. Dipteran fauna were surveyed in four major forestry various pathogenic fungi.17 The larvae come into contact with nurseries between 2000 and 2001. Fungi were isolated from these fungi while moving in the soil, feeding on infected plant roots or flies and the resulting Fusarium species were identified. Bradysia directly on the fungi. Ingested fungal spores can remain intact difformis was the only fungus gnat species found and it occurred in and viable inside the digestive tract of the larvae, and may be all nurseries. Other Dipteran families collected included dispersed via the faeces, conveyed to the adult via trans-stadial Agromyzidae, Cecidomyiidae, Chironomidae, Ephydridae, transmission, and spread via adult cadavers.18,19 Alternatively, Muscidae, Simulidae and Tachinidae. This is the first report of the adult insects can acquire and distribute fungal pathogens by moving from infected to non-infected plants.19,20 Fungus gnats therefore can act directly or indirectly as vectors of fungal aDepartment of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa. pathogens. Pathogens reported to be transmitted by these flies bForestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria. include Botrytis cinerea Pers.: Nocca. and Balb on conifer seed- *Author for correspondence. E-mail: [email protected] lings,9 Verticillium albo-atrum Reinke and Berthold on alfalfa 44 South African Journal of Science 103, January/February 2007 Research Letters identification. Initially, yellow sticky traps were used to capture the adults.9 These traps consisted of yellow sheets of plastic (14.0 cm × 7.5 cm) covered with insect glue (Flytac). The traps were placed randomly within nurseries, among the pine seed- lings. Some of the traps were suspended just above the seed- lings, while others were placed upright on the seedling trays, at the level of the seedlings. The traps succeeded in catching the adult fungus gnats and other Diptera, but because of the sticky nature of the traps, the specimens could not be removed intact for effective identification. Paraffin and similar liquids could not be used to remove the insects from the traps, as the fungi would have been killed. As an alternative to sticky traps, aspirators were used to collect specimens from around the nurseries.18,25 Sweep nets were used when swarms of Diptera were observed and for foliage sweeping. The insects were then removed from the net using an aspirator. Although this method was time-consuming, the specimens Fig. 1. Locations of the four main pine-growing nurseries, in Mpumalanga and remained in good condition for later identification and fungal KwaZulu-Natal, sampled between 2001 and 2002. isolations. plants20 and Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht f. sp. radicis-lycopersici Identification of Diptera Jarvis and Shoemaker on bean and tomato plants.3 Dipteran families were identified using taxonomic keys.26–28 In South African forestry nurseries, the pitch canker fungus, Mervin Mansell (USDA-APHIS, Pretoria) assisted in confirming Fusarium circinatum Nirenberg et O’Donnell [formerly Fusarium some of the identifications. Specimens belonging to the subglutinans (Wollenw. et Reinking) Nelson et al. f. sp. pini)], is a Sciaridae and Mycetophilidae were divided into morpho- serious pathogen of pine seedlings.21,22 The fungus causes lesions species and later identified by Hans-Georg Rudzinski (Entomo- at the root collars and the cotyledon node regions of seed- graphisches Studio, Schwanewede, Germany).
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  • Leafminer Pests of Connecticut Nurseries
    Dr. Hugh Smith Valley Laboratory The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station 153 Cook Hill Road Windsor, CT 06095-0248 Phone: (860) 687-4763 Fax: (860) 683-4987 Founded in 1875 Email: [email protected] Putting science to work for society Website: www.ct.gov/caes Leafminer Pests of Connecticut Nurseries Leafminers are pests of annual flowering plants, Larvae that feed in a manner that clears a patch of perennials, shrubs and trees. The larvae of tissue produce blotch mines. There is considerable leafminers spend part or all of their development variation in the form and pattern of mines produced feeding between the two surfaces of the leaf. by different leafminer species. Larvae of the birch Leafmining behavior is found among the larvae of leafminer initiate several individual linear mines in certain moths, sawflies, flies and beetles. The the leaf which eventually coalesce to form a blotch. majority of leafminers damaging trees and woody Leafmining can combine with gall-making, stem- ornamentals are moth larvae; most leafminers boring, leaf-rolling and case-bearing damage in some attacking herbaceous perennials are fly larvae in the species. For example, the azalea leafminer produces family Agromyzidae. blotch-like mines for the first half of its larval life, then exits the mine and feeds as a leaf-roller or leaf- Moth females whose larvae are leafminers usually tier. lay their eggs on the leaf surface. Females of the azalea leafminer lay eggs individually on the Leafmining larvae may pupate in the mine, elsewhere undersides of leaves or along the midrib or vein. All on the plant, or in the ground, depending on species.
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