sign in sign up
<<
Home , Magnesium in biology

In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.

Chemical Composition and Mineral Content of Soil, and Tissues in Some Camel Production Areas in the Sudan

BY

ALI MAHMOUD AHMED SHAMAT BVSc. (1979) University of Khartoum DTVSc. (1988), Edinburgh University U.K MSc. (1993) University of Reading U.K

A thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the University of Khartoum for the degree of the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D)

Supervisor Prof. Amir Mohammed Salih Faculty of animal production,University of Khartoum

Department of animal , Faculty of animal production, University of Khartoum

February- 2008 LIST OF CONTENTS Page List of contents…………………………………………………………… i List of tables……………………………………………………………… viii List of figures……………………………………………………………. xii List of appendix………………………………………………………….. xvi Dedication……………………………………………………………….. xvii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………. xviii English abstract…………………………………………………………… xix xxii .…………………………………………………………………… اﻟﺨﻼﺻﻪ Chapter one………………………………………………………………... Introduction……………………………………………………………… 1 Chapter two ………………………………………………………………. Literature Review………………………………………………………… 11 Agro-ecological zones…………………………………………………… 12 2.1.1. Desert…………………………………………………………………….. 12 2.1.2. Semi-desert……………………………………………………………….. 12 2.1.3. Low rainfall savannah……………………………………………………. 14 2.1.4. High rainfall savannah…………………………………………………… 15 2.1.5. Mountains…………………………………………………………………. 15 2.2. Camel owners of the Sudan (Aballa)…………………………………….. 15 2.3. Camel types in the Sudan…………………………………………………. 16 2.4. Interesting characteristics of camels……………………………………… 17 2.4.1. Sight and sense…………………………………………………………… 18 2.4.2. Body structure…………………………………………………………….. 18 2.4.3. Feeding habits……………………………………………………………. 18 2.4.4. Watering…………………………………………………………………. 20 2.4.5. Body temperature…………………………………………………………. 21 2.5. Camel management and husbandry practices……………………………… 21 2.5.1. Camels Migration Patterns…………………………………………………. 22 2.5.1.1. Darfur Region……………………………………………………………… 22 2.5.1.2. Kordofan Region…………………………………………………………… 23 2.5.1.3. Eastern Region…………………………………………………………….. 24 2.5.2. Herd structure……………………………………………………………… 25 2.6. Limitations to camel production in the Sudan……………………………. 27 2.6.1. Socio-economical problems………………………………………………. 27 2.6.2. Nutritional disorders of certain ………………………………….. 29 2.6.2.1. Watering…………………………………………………………………… 30 2.6.2.2. Feeding…………………………………………………………………….. 31 2.6.2.2.1. Energy and ………………………………………………………… 31 2.6.2.2.2. Vitamins……………………………………………………………………. 33 2.6.2.3.3. Minerals…………………………………………………………………….. 34 2.7. Factors Influencing Mineral Requirements………………………………… 37 2.7.1. Mineral status of Sudan soil………………………………………………... 37

i 2.7.1.1. Yermosols……………………………………………………………….. 38 2.7.1.2. Arenosols……………………………………………………………….. 38 2.7.1.3. Vertisols………………………………………………………………….. 39 2.7.1.4. Nitosols……………………………………………………………………. 40 2.7.1.5. Fluvisols…………………………………………………………………… 40 2.7.1.6. Hill soils……………………………………………………………………. 40 2.7.1.7. Ferralsols…………………………………………………………...... 40 2.8. Mineral status of …………………………………………………… 41 2.9. Mineral Status of Ruminants……………………………………………… 43 2.9.1. Blood……………………………………………………………………… 46 2.9.2. Bone……………………………………………………………………….. 48 2.9.3. Liver……………………………………………………………………….. 48 2.10. Mineral deficiencies, Toxicities and imbalances in the camel…………….. 49 2.10.1. and Phosphorus………………………………………………….. 49 2.10.2. (Mg)…………………………………………………………… 50 2.10.3. chloride……………………………………………………………. 51 2.10.4. Potassium (K)……………………………………………………………… 53 2.10.5. Copper and Molybdenum…………………………………………...... 53 2.10.5.1. Copper in liver…………………………………………………………….. 54 2.10.6. Iron (Fe)…………………………………………………………………… 55 2.10.7. (Zn)…………………………………………………………………… 56 2.10.8. (Mn)…………………………………………………………… 57 2.10.9. Cobalt (CO) and Selenium (Se)……………………………………………. 58 2.10.10. Fluorine (Fl)………………………………………………………………. 59 2.10.11. Sulphur (S) and Nitrogen (N)……………………………………...... 59 2.10.12. Iodine (I)…………………………………………………………………… 60 Chapter three……………………………………………………………… Materials and Methods…………………………………………………… 62 3.1. The study area……………………………………………………………… 62 3.1.1. Geographical and Major Topographic Features of the Study Areas……….. 62 3.1.1.1. Western Region……………………………………………………………. 62 3.1.1.2. Eastern Region……………………………………………………………... 63 3.1.1.2.1. Norther Sudan……………………………………………………………… 63 3.1.1.2.2. Central Sudan………………………………………………………………. 63 3.1.1.2.3. Eastern Sudan………………………………………………………………. 63 3.2. Sampling and data collection………………………………………………. 64 3.2.1. Western Region…………………………………………………………….. 65 3.2.1.1. Kordofan camels…………………………………………………...... 65 3.2.1.2. Darfur camels………………………………………………………………. 65 3.2.2. Eastern Sudan camels………………………………………………………. 66 3.3. Camel tissue samples collection……………………………………………. 67 3.3.1. Whole blood samples collection…………………………………………… 67 3.3.2. Liver and bone samples collection…………………………………………. 68 3.4. Plant, soil and water samples collection…………………………………… 69 3.4.1. Plant samples collection……………………………………………………. 69

ii 3.4.2. Soil and water samples collection………………………………………….. 70 3.5. Chemical analysis methods………………………………………………… 70 3.5.1. Plant analysis method……………………………………………………… 70 3.5.1.1. Weende proximate analysis……………………………………………….. 70 3.5.1.2. Plant wet digestion method for mineral content analysis…………………. 71 3.5.2. Soil analysis method………………………………………………………. 71 3.5.3. Water analysis method……………………………………………………... 72 3.5.4. Liver analysis method……………………………………………………… 72 3.5.5. Bone analysis method………………………………………………...... 72 3.5.6. Serum analysis methods……………………………………………...... 72 3.5.6.1. Serum calcium and magnesium determination method……………………. 73 3.5.6.2. Serum inorganic phosphorus determination method………………………. 73 3.5.6.3. Serum copper, zinc, and total iron determination methods………...... 73 3.5.6.4. Serum sodium and potassium determination methods……………………... 73 3.6. Natroun Supplementation Trial………………………………………...... 73 3.6.1. Ration formulation…………………………………………………...... 76 3.6.2. Experimental ………………………………………………………. 77 3.6.3. Collection of blood samples………………………………………………... 77 3.6.4. Laboratory Techniques……………………………………………………... 77 3.6.5. Live weight measurement………………………………………………….. 78 3.7. Statistical analysis……………………………………………………...... 78 Chapter Four Results 79 4.1. Browse and Forages Analysis Results……………………………………... 80 4.1.1. Browse and forage proximate analysis……………………………………. 80 4.1.2. Results of proximate analysis…………………………………………….. 80 4.1.3. Effect of location on browse and forage proximate composition………….. 80 4.1.4. Effect of season on browse and forage proximate composition……………. 81 4.1.5. The interaction effect of location and season on browse and forages……… 81 4.2. Hydrochemical evaluation of groundwater in Western and Eastern Regions Results ……………………………………………………………………. 82 4.3. Soil mineral concentrations………………………………………………. 85 4.3.1. Effect of location on soil mineral concentration…………………………. 85 4.3.2. Effect of season on soil mineral concentration…………………………… 85 4.3.3. The interaction effect of location and season on soil mineral concentration. 86 4.3.3.1. Soil pH, extractable soil sodium and extractable soil potassium………….. 86 4.3.3.2. Extractable soil mineral (Ca, P and Mg)…………………………...... 87 4.3.3.3. Extractable soil minerals (Cu, Zn and Fe)………………………………… 87 4.3.3.4. Extractable soil minerals (Co,Mo and Mn)………………………...... 88 4.4. Mineral concentrations of browse and forage…………………………….. 88 4.4.1. Effect of location on mineral concentration of browse and forages………. 88 4.4.2. Effect of season on mineral concentration of browse and forages…………. 89 4.4.3. The interaction effect of location and season on mineral oncentration of browse and forages……………………………………………………... 89 4.4.3.1. Calcium (Ca) ………………………………………………………………. 89

iii 4.4.3.2. Phosphorus (P) …………………………………………………………….. 89 4.4.3.3. Potassium (K) ……………………………………………………………… 90 4.4.3.4. Magnesium (Mg) ………………………………………………………….. 90 4.4.3.5. Sodium (Na) ………………………………………………………………. 90 4.4.3.6. Copper (Cu) ……………………………………………………………….. 91 4.4.3.7. Zinc (Zn) …………………………………………………………………... 91 4.4.3.8. Cobalt (Co) ………………………………………………………………… 91 4.4.3.9. Manganese (Mn) …………………………………………………………... 92 4.4.3.10. Iron (Fe) ……………………………………………………………………. 92 4.4.3.11. Molybdenum (Mo) ………………………………………………………… 92 4.5. Mineral concentration of camel tissues……………………………………. 94 4.5.1. Blood serum minerals……………………………………………………… 94 4.5.1.1. Blood serum calcium………………………………………………………. 94 4.5.1.1.1. Effect of season on serum Ca level………………………………………… 94 4.5.1.1.2. Effect of location on serum Ca level……………………………………….. 95 4.5.1.1.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum Ca level…………………... 95 4.5.1.1.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum Ca level……………….. 98 4.5.1.1.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum Ca level……………………. 100 4.5.1.1.6. Effect of sex, season and location on prevalence of calcium critical level………………………………………………………………………… 100 4.5.1.1.6. Interaction effect of location, sex and season on serum Ca critical 4. level………………………………………………………………………. 102 4.5.1.2. Blood serum phosphorus………………………………………………….. 105 4.5.1.2.1. Effect of season on serum P level…………………………………………. 105 4.5.1.2.2. Effect of locations on serum P level………………………………………. 106 4.5.1.2.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum P level…………………… 106 4.5.1.2.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum P level……………….. 107 4.5.1.2.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum P level…………………….. 107 4.5.1.2.6. Effect of sex, season and location on prevalence of phosphorus critical level………………………………………………………………………… 108 4.5.1.2.7. Interaction effect of sex, season and location on serum P critical level………………………………………………………………………… 114 4.5.1.3. Blood serum magnesium…………………………………………...... 116 4.5.1.3.1. Effect of season on serum Mg level………………………………………... 116 4.5.1.3.2. Effect of location on serum Mg level……………………………………… 116 4.5.1.3.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum Mg level…………………. 117 4.5.1.3.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum Mg level……………… 117 4.5.1.3.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum Mg level…………………… 118 4.5.1.3.6. Effect of sex, season and location on prevalence of magnesium critical level……………………………………………………………………….... 119 4.5.1.4. Blood serum sodium……………………………………………………….. 119 4.5.1.4.1. Effect of season on serum sodium level……………………………………. 120 4.5.1.4.2. Effect of location on serum sodium level……………………..………….. 120 4.5.1.4.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum sodium level……………… 121 4.5.1.4.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum sodium level………….. 121

iv 4.5.1.4.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum Na level………………….. 123 4.5.1.4.6. Interaction effect of location, sex and season on sodium level…………… 123 4.5.1.5. Blood serum potassium……………………………………………………. 124 4.5.1.5.1. Effect of season on serum potassium level………………………………… 124 4.5.1.5.2. Effect of location on serum potassium level………………………………. 124 4.5.1.5.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum potassium level...... 125 4.5.1.5.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum potassium level………………………………………………………………………… 126 4.5.1.5.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum potassium level……………. 127 4.5.1.5.6. Interaction effect of location, sex and season on potassium level………..... 127 4.5.1.6. Blood serum copper……………………………………………………….. 127 4.5.1.6.1. Effect of season on serum copper level……………………………………. 128 4.5.1.6.2. Effect of location on serum copper level…………………………………... 128 4.5.1.6.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum copper level……………… 129 4.5.1.6.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum copper level...... 130 4.5.1.6.5 Interaction effect of sex and season on serum copper level……...... 131 4.5.1.6.6. Interaction effect of sex, season and location on serum copper level………………………………………………………………………… 132 4.5.1.6.7. Effect of sex, season and location on prevalence of copper critical level………………………………………………………………………… 132 4.5.1.6.8. Interaction effect of location, sex and season on serum copper critical level……………………………………………………………………….. 135 4.5.1.7. Blood serum zinc………………………………………………………….. 138 4.5.1.7.1. Effect of season on serum zinc level………………………………………. 138 4.5.1.7.2. Effect of location on serum Zn level………………………………………. 138 4.5.1.7.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum zinc level………………… 139 4.5.1.7.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum zinc level……………… 140 4.5.1.7.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum Zn level……………………. 140 4.5.1.7.6. Interaction effect of location, sex and season on serum zinc level………………………………………………………………………… 142 4.5.1.7.7. Effect of sex, season and location on prevalence of zinc critical level………………………………………………………………………… 142 4.5.1.7.8. The interaction effect of location, sex and season on serum zinc critical level………………………………………………………………………… 145 4.5.1.8. Blood serum iron…………………………………………………………… 148 4.5.1.8.1. Effect of season on serum iron level………………………………………. 148 4.5.1.8.2. Effect of location on serum iron level……………………………………… 149 4.5.1.8.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum iron level…………………. 150 4.5.1.8.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum iron level……………… 150 4.5.1.8.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum iron level………...... 151 4.5.2. Liver mineral level………………………….……………………………… 152 4.5.2.1. Liver iron………………………….……………………………………….. 152 4.5.2.1.1. Effect of season on liver iron level…………………………….…………… 152 4.5.2.1.2. Effect of location on liver iron level……………………………………….. 153 4.5.2.1.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on liver iron level…………………… 154

v 4.5.2.1.4. Interaction effect of season and location on liver iron level……………….. 154 4.5.2.1.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on liver iron level……………………. 155 4.5.2.2. Liver cobalt………………………….……………………………………... 155 4.5.2.2.1. Effect of season on liver cobalt level………………………………………. 155 4.5.2.2.2. Effect of location on liver cobalt level…………………………………….. 156 4.5.2.2.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on liver cobalt level………………… 157 4.5.2.2.4. Interaction effect of season and location on liver cobalt level…………….. 157 4.5.2.2.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on liver cobalt level…………………. 158 4.5.2.3. Liver copper………………………….……………………………………. 159 4.5.2.3.1. Effect of season on liver copper level……………………………………… 159 4.5.2.3.2. Effect of location on liver copper level……………………………………. 161 4.5.2.3.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on liver copper level……...... 161 4.5.2.3.4. Interaction effect of season and location on liver copper level……………. 161 4.5.2.3.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on liver copper level…………………. 163 4.5.2.4. Liver manganese………………………….………………………………... 164 4.5.2.4.1. Effect of season on liver manganese level………………………………… 164 4.5.2.4.2. Effect of location on liver manganese level………………………………. 164 4.5.2.4.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on liver manganese level………… 165 4.5.2.4.4. Interaction effect of season and location on liver manganese level ……. 166 4.5.2.5. Liver molybdenum………………………….…………………………… 167 4.5.2.5.1. Effect of season on liver molybdenum level…………………………….. 168 4.5.2.5.2. Effect of location on liver molybdenum level…………………………… 168 4.5.2.5.3. Effect of sex and location on liver molybdenum level…………………... 169 4.5.2.5.4. Interaction effect of season and location on liver molybdenum level …… 170 4.5.2.5.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on liver molybdenum level...... 172 4.5.2.6. Liver zinc………………………….…………………………..…………. 172 4.5.2.6.1. Effect of season on liver zinc level………………………………………. 172 4.5.2.6.2. Effect of location on liver zinc level……………………………………… 172 4.5.2.6.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on liver zinc level…...……………… 173 4.5.2.6.4. Interaction effect of season and location on liver zinc level……………….. 174 4.5.2.6.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on liver zinc level…………………….. 175 4.5.2.6.6. Effect of sex, season and location on prevalence of liver zinc critical level………………………….……………………………………………... 176 4.5.2.6.7. interaction effect of sex, season and location on liver zinc critical level………………………….……………………………………………... 178 4.5.3. Bone minerals………………………….…………………………………… 179 4.5.3.1. Bone calcium………………………….……………………………………. 179 4.5.3.1.1. Effect of season on bone calcium level…………………………………….. 179 4.5.3.1.2. Effect of location on bone calcium level…………………………………… 179 4.5.3.1.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on bone calcium level………………. 179 4.5.3.1.4. Interaction effect of season and location on bone calcium level…………… 180 4.5.3.1.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on bone calcium level……...... 180 4.5.3.2. Bone phosphorus………………………….……………………………….. 182 4.5.3.2.1. Effect of season on bone phosphorus level………………………………… 183 4.5.3.2.2. Effect of location on bone phosphorus level……………………………….. 183

vi 4.5.3.2.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on bone phosphorus level...... 183 4.5.3.2.4. Interaction effect of season and location on bone phosphorus level………………………….………………………….………………….. 183 4.5.3.2.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on bone phosphorus level……………. 184 4.5.3.3. Bone Magnesium………………………….……………………………….. 186 4.5.3.3.1. Effect of season on bone magnesium level………………………………… 186 4.5.3.3.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on bone magnesium level...... 186 4.5.3.3.4. Interaction effect of season and location on bone magnesium level………. 187 4.5.3.3.5. 4.5.3.3.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on bone magnesium level…. 189 4.6. Natroun supplementation trial results……………………………………… 189 4.6.1 Natroun cation contents and its effect on intake, blood indecies and live weight gain………………………….……………………………………… 189 Chapter Five Discussion Summary and Conclusions…………………………………… 194 Bibliography..………………………….…………………………………… 231

vii LIST OF TABLES

No Title Page 1 Ecological Zones of the Sudan...... 13 2 Classification of domestic animal on the basis of feeding behavior, feed and water intake...... 19 3 Samples required and components to be estimated in tracing 45 different deficiencies...... 4 Detection of specific mineral deficiencies or toxicities in cattle.... 47 5 Concentration of Ca and P (mean and range) mg/ 100ml in the 50 camel sera (Sudan)...... 6 Serum copper concentration (mean and range), in various 55 localities, in Sudan...... 7 Concentrations of serum iron in camels in various localities...... 56 8 Sera samples of camels kept on natural pasture, in western Sudan.. 66 9 Camel on natural pasture, sera samples of eastern, Gezira and 67 northern Sudan...... 10 Numbers of camel tissue samples collected from abattoirs 68 11 Camel ration supplemented with natroun………………………… 76 12 Camel ration un-supplemented with natroun……………………. 76 13 Proximate composition of browses and forages by region, dry and 82 wet season as DM%...... 14 PA comparison between Regions Browse (DMB), Dry season….. 83 15 PA comparison between Regions Browse (DMB), Wet season…... 83 16 PA comparison between Regions Forage (DMB), Dry season…… 84 17 PA comparison between Regions Forage (DMB), Wet season…… 84 18 Hydrochemical characteristics of groundwater, during dry season.. 85 19 Soil pH and soil mineral analysis by region, dry and wet season… 86 20 Mineral concentrations in browses by region, dry and wet season... 93 21 Mineral concentrations in forages by region, dry and wet season… 94 22 Serum, liver and bone mineral concentrations in camel by region, 96 dry and wet seasons……………………………………………… 23 Mean serum calcium level in male and female camels in different 97 regions……………………………………………………………. 24 Mean serum calcium level in dry and wet season in different 99 regions…………………………………………………………… 25 Mean serum calcium level in male and female in different seasons. 99 26 Calcium level in different sex groups……………………………. 101 27 Dry and wet season serum calcium as related to critical level…….. 101 28 Different regions serum calcium as related to critical level………. 102 29 Sex and location effect on serum calcium as related to critical 103 level………………………………………………………………. 30 Season and location effect on serum calcium as related to critical 104 level………………………………………………………………..

viii 31 Mean serum phosphorus level in male and female in different 106 regions…………………………………………………………… 32 Mean serum phosphorus level in dry and wet seasons in different 108 regions…………………………………………………………….. 33 Mean serum phosphorus level in male and female in different 109 seasons……………………………………………………………. 34 Male and female serum phosphorus as related to critical level…… 109 35 Dry and wet season serum phosphorus as related to critical level… 110 36 Different regions serum phosphorus as related to critical level…. 112 37 Sex and location effect on serum phosphorus as related to critical 113 level……………………………………………………………….. 38 Season and location effect on serum phosphorus as related to 115 critical level……………………………………………………… 39 Serum magnesium level in different regions………………. 116 40 Male and female, serum magnesium level in different regions….. 117 41 Dry and wet season, serum magnesium level in different regions… 118 42 Male and female, serum magnesium level in different seasons…… 119 43 Mean serum sodium level in different regions…………………… 120 44 Male and female mean serum sodium level in different regions….. 121 45 Dry and wet season serum sodium level in different regions…….. 122 46 Male and female serum sodium level in different seasons… 123 47 Male and female mean serum potassium level in different regions.. 125 48 Dry and wet season mean serum potassium level in different 126 regions…………………………………………………………….. 49 Male and female mean serum potassium level in different seasons. 127 50 Mean serum copper level in different regions…………………… 129 51 Male and female mean serum copper level in different locations 130 52 Dry and wet season mean serum copper level in different locations 131 53 Male and female mean serum copper level in different seasons… 131 54 Sex effect on serum copper as related to critical level………….. 133 55 Dry and wet season effect on serum copper as related to critical 134 level…………………………………………………………….. 56 Locations effect on serum copper as related to critical level….. 135 57 Region and sex effect on serum copper as related to critical level.. 136 58 Region and season effect on serum copper as related to critical 137 level………………………………………………………… 59 Mean serum zinc level in different seasons………………………. 138 60 Male and female mean serum zinc level in different locations…. 139 61 Dry and wet season mean serum zinc level in different locations… 141 62 Male and female mean serum zinc level in different seasons……. 141 63 Sex effect on serum zinc as related to critical level……………… 143 64 Season effect on serum zinc as related to critical level……………. 144 65 Location effect on serum zinc as related to critical level…... 145 66 Location and sex effect on serum zinc as related to critical level…. 146 67 Location and season effect on serum zinc as related to critical leve 147

ix 68 Mean serum iron level in different locations………………. 149 69 Male and female mean serum iron level in different locations… 149 70 Dry and wet season mean serum iron level in different locations… 151 71 Male and female mean serum iron level in different seasons….. 152 72 Mean liver iron level in different locations……………………… 153 73 Male and female mean liver iron level in different locations……. 154 74 Dry and wet season mean liver iron level in different locations….. 155 75 Male and female mean liver iron level in different seasons……… 155 76 Mean liver cobalt level in different locations ……………………. 156 77 Male and female mean liver cobalt level in different locations…… 157 78 Dry and wet season mean liver cobalt level in different locations.. 158 79 Male and female mean liver cobalt level in different seasons…… 158 80 Mean liver copper level in different locations……………………. 160 81 Male and female mean liver copper level in different locations….. 161 82 Dry and wet season mean liver copper level in different locations.. 162 83 Male and female mean liver copper level in different seasons….. 163 84 Mean liver manganese level in different locations………… 165 85 Male and female mean liver manganese level in different locations 166 86 Dry and wet season mean liver manganese level in different 167 locations………………………………………………………… 87 Male and female mean liver manganese level in different seasons.. 167 88 Male and female mean liver molybdenum level in different 169 locations 89 Dry and wet season mean liver molybdenum level in different 170 locations 90 Male and female mean liver molybdenum level in different 171 seasons…………………………………………………………… 91 Mean liver zinc level in different locations……………………… 173 92 Male and female mean liver zinc level in different locations……. 173 93 Dry and wet season mean liver zinc level in different locations…. 174 94 Male and female mean liver zinc level in different seasons……… 175 95 Sex effect on liver zinc as related to critical level……………….. 176 96 Dry and wet season effect on liver zinc as related to critical level.. 177 97 locations effect on liver zinc as related to critical level………….. 178 98 Mean bone calcium level in different locations……………. 179 99 Male and female mean bone calcium level in different locations… 180 100 Dry and wet season mean bone calcium level in different locations 181 101 Male and female mean bone calcium level in different seasons…. 181 102 Mean bone phosphorus level in different locations……………… 183 103 Male and female mean bone phosphorus level in different……… 183 locations 104 Dry and wet season mean bone phosphorus level in different 184 locations…………………………………………………………. 105 Male and female mean bone phosphorus level in different seasons. 185 106 Mean bone magnesium level in different locations……………… 186

x 107 Male and female mean bone magnesium level in different 187 locations…………………………………………………………. 108 Dry and wet season mean bone magnesium level in different 187 locations………………………………………………………. 109 Male and female mean bone magnesium level in different seasons 189 110 Natroun cation contents……………………………………………. 190 111 Average daily roughage intake (Kg) under different treatment….. 190 112 Monthly weight gains of experimental camels*……………….. 191

xi LIST OF FIGURES Fig. title page 1 Map of Sudan……………………………………………………. 3 2 Serum calcium level in dry and wet season……………………… 97 3 Mean serum calcium level in different regions………………….. 97 4 Mean serum calcium level in male and female camels in 98 different regions…………………………………………………. 5 Mean serum calcium level in dry and wet season in different 99 regions………………………………………………………….. 6 Dry and wet serum calcium as related to critical level…………. 101 7 Different regions serum calcium as related to critical level…….. 102 8 Sex and location effect on serum calcium as related to critical 104 level………………………………………………………… 9 Season and location effect on serum calcium as related to critical 105 level……………………………………………………………… 10 Serum phosphorus level in dry and wet seasons…………… 105 11 Serum phosphorus level in different regions……………….. 106 12 Mean serum phosphorus level in male and female in different 107 regions………………………………………………………….. 13 Mean serum phosphorus level in dry and wet seasons in different 109 regions………………………………………………………….. 14 Mean serum phosphorus level in male and female in different 110 seasons…………………………………………………………… 15 Male and female serum phosphorus as related to critical level…. 111 16 Dry and wet season serum phosphorus as related to critical level. 111 17 Different regions serum phosphorus as related to critical level…. 112 18 Sex and location effect on serum phosphorus as related to critical 113 level……………………………………………………………… 19 Season and location effect on serum phosphorus as related to 115 critical level…………………………………………………… 20 Serum Mg level in dry and wet season………………………… 116 21 Male and female, serum magnesium level in different regions… 117 22 Dry and wet season, serum magnesium level in different regions. 118 23 Male and female, serum magnesium level in different seasons… 119 24 Mean Serum sodium level in dry and wet season………………. 120 25 Mean Serum sodium level in different regions…………………. 121 26 Male and female mean serum sodium level in different regions… 122 27 Dry and wet season serum sodium level in different regions…… 122 28 Male and female serum sodium level in different seasons……… 123 29 Mean serum potassium level in different seasons……………… 124 30 Mean serum potassium level in different regions………….. 125 31 Male and female mean serum potassium level in different 126 regions………………………………………………………….. 32 Dry and wet season mean serum potassium level in different 127

xii regions………………………………………………………… 33 Male and female mean serum potassium level in different 128 seasons………………………………………………………… 34 Mean serum copper level in different seasons………………… 128 35 Mean serum copper level in different regions…………………. 129 36 Male and female mean serum copper level in different locations.. 130 37 Dry and wet season mean serum copper level in different 131 locations……………………………………………………….. 38 Male and female mean serum copper level in different seasons… 133 39 Sex effect on serum copper as related to critical level…………. 134 40 Dry and wet season effect on serum copper as related to critical 134 level……………………………………………………………. 41 Locations effect on serum copper as related to critical level…… 135 42 Region and sex effect on serum copper as related to critical level 136 43 Region and season effect on serum copper as related to critical 137 level…………………………………………………………….. 44 Mean serum zinc level in different seasons……………………. 138 45 Mean serum zinc level in different seasons…………………… 139 46 Male and female mean serum zinc level in different locations…. 140 47 Dry and wet season mean serum zinc level in different locations. 141 48 Male and female mean serum zinc level in different seasons…… 142 49 Sex effect on serum zinc as related to critical level…………….. 143 50 Season effect on serum zinc as related to critical level………… 144 51 Location effect on serum zinc as related to critical level………. 145 52 Location and sex effect on serum zinc as related to critical level.. 147 53 Location and season effect on serum zinc as related to critical 148 level……………………………………………………………… 54 Histogram showing mean serum iron in different seasons……… 149 55 Mean serum iron level in different locations………………. 150 56 Male and female mean serum iron level in different locations…. 150 57 Dry and wet season mean serum iron level in different locations. 151 58 Male and female mean serum iron level in different seasons….. 152 59 Mean liver iron level in different seasons……………………… 153 60 Mean liver iron level in different locations……………………. 154 61 Mean liver cobalt level in different seasons…………………… 156 62 Mean liver cobalt level in different locations…………………. 156 63 Male and female mean liver cobalt level in different locations…. 157 64 Dry and wet season mean liver cobalt level in different locations. 158 65 Male and female mean liver cobalt level in different seasons….. 159 66 Mean liver copper level in different seasons…………………… 160 67 Mean liver copper level in different locations…………………. 160 68 Male and female mean liver copper level in different locations.. 162 69 Dry and wet season mean liver copper level in different locations 162 70 Male and female mean liver copper level in different seasons…. 163 71 Mean liver manganese level in different seasons……………….. 164

xiii 72 Mean liver manganese level in different locations……………… 165 73 Male and female mean liver manganese level in different 166 locations………………………………………………………… 74 Dry and wet season mean liver manganese level in different 167 locations……………………………………………………. 75 Male and female mean liver manganese level in different seasons 168 76 Mean liver molybdenum level in different seasons…………….. 168 77 Mean liver molybdenum level in different locations…………… 169 78 Male and female mean liver molybdenum level in different 170 locations………………………………………………………… 79 Dry and wet season mean liver molybdenum level in different 171 locations………………………………………………………… 80 Male and female mean liver molybdenum level in different 171 seasons…………………………………………………………. 81 Mean liver zinc level in different seasons……………………… 172 82 Mean liver zinc level in different locations…………………….. 173 83 Male and female mean liver zinc level in different locations….. 174 84 Dry and wet season mean liver zinc level in different locations.. 175 85 Male and female mean liver zinc level in different seasons……. 176 86 Dry and wet season effect on liver zinc as related to critical level 177 87 Locations effect on liver zinc as related to critical level………… 178 88 Mean bone calcium level in different seasons…………………. 179 89 Male and female mean bone calcium level in different locations.. 180 90 Dry and wet season mean bone calcium level in different 181 locations…………………………………………………………. 91 Male and female mean bone calcium level in different seasons… 182 92 Mean bone phosphorus level in different seasons…………. 182 93 Male and female mean bone phosphorus level in different 184 locations………………………………………………………… 94 Dry and wet season mean bone phosphorus level in different 185 locations……………………………………………………….. 95 Male and female mean bone phosphorus level in different 185 seasons…………………………………………………………. 96 Mean bone magnesium level in different seasons…………. 186 97 Male and female mean bone magnesium level in different 188 locations………………………………………………………… 98 Dry and wet season mean bone magnesium level in different 188 locations………………………………………………………. 99 Male and female mean bone magnesium level in different 189 seasons…………………………………………………………. 100 Average daily roughage intake under different treatment………. 191 101 Average daily roughage intake under different treatment………. 192 102 Haemoglobin level in experimental camels……………………... 192 103 WBC count in experimental camels…………………………….. 193 104 RBC count in experimental camels……………………………… 193

xiv LIST OF APPENDIX Appendix 1 Eastern Sudan trees……………………………………… 262 Appendix 2 Eastern Sudan grasses…………………………………… 263 Appendix 3 Western Sudan trees sampled…………………………… 264 Appendix 4 Western Sudan grasses…………………………………. 265

xv

DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my family, for their patience and long suffering during my field work absence. I owe them a great debt.

xvi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my sincere and profound gratitude to the Government of the Sudan through the administration of CVRL for sponsoring this study. I am very grateful to my supervisors, Professor Amir M. Salih (University of Khartoum) and Professor Faisal Awad, (Ministry of Science and Technology) for their constructive criticism, advice and encouragement. I strongly appreciate the effort made by my college Dr. El Zain Bashir for carrying out the statistical analysis, review of the manuscript and helpful suggestions. Professor Elgeblabi director of the CVRL for the support provided during the field trips and laboratory analysis. I am also thankful to Professor Bari (CVRL) for his moral support and guidance. I deeply thank my college Dr. Bader Eldin Wasila (Butana Camel Research Center) Mr. Ahmed Adam (Elobied Gum Arabic Research Institute) who made the necessary arrangements for the success of the field work. A note of thanks is also extended to, Aballa elders for their support during the field work. The collaboration, help and encouragement from a group of individuals, namely, Ahmed Osman, Wed Elabed, are acknowledged. All the staff members of the Central Veterinary Research Laboratories, I say thank you, particularly to the technical expertise of the staff of the Biochemistry, Nutrition and Toxicology Department. Mrs Rawda Hassan, Mr. Mohamed El Hassan and the Late Mr. Yassin Hassan Elfeki effort is highly appreciated.

xvii

ABSTRACT This investigation was designed primarily to study the mineral status of camel tissue, the nutritive value and mineral status of plants browsed, soil on which the plants grew and water consumed by camel. The objectives of the study are to identify mineral status in soil, water, plant and animal tissues as constraints to camel production, in some camel production areas of the Arid And Semi Arid lands (ASAL) of the Sudan. Investigations have been aimed at mapping out areas of marginal mineral deficiencies, the goal is justified because subclinical deficiencies cause high losses in livestock production. The study had four components:- Analysis of plant material, analysis of soil and water, analysis of animal tissues and experimental study to assess the effect of Natroun as supplement. Plants eaten by camels and perceived as important by herders, were sampled during, dry and wet seasons. Of the predominantly camel feed, in eastern and western Sudan, the common crop residues, pasture grasses and forbs collectively referred to, in this study, as ‘forage’, whereas shrubs and trees referred to as ‘browse’ were sampled. Regardless of the need for a balanced number of samples, twenty-nine browse and 24 forage samples were collected from western Sudan in dry and wet seasons. From eastern Sudan twenty–six browse and 27 forage samples were collected in both seasons. Nine soil samples were collected each from Kordofan and the Eastern Region during dry and wet season. Whereas 5 bore-well water samples collected from different camel watering points during dry season from each region. Camel herds selected did not receive any mineral supplements apart from the common salt and occasionally Natroun. Plant samples were analysed for Weende proximate analysis, sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, zinc, iron, cobalt, molybdenum and manganese, whereas soil and water samples were analysed for the same minerals in the plant.

xviii Whole blood samples were collected from camels on the natural range during dry and wet seasons. Whereas blood, bone and liver samples were collected from slaughtered camels. In the dry season, 314, 75 and 90 sera samples, 57, 61 and 91 of each blood and liver samples and 25, 33 and 77 bone samples were collected from the Eastern, Kordofan and Darfur Regions respectively. In the wet season, 192, 145 and 95 sera samples, 65, 51 and 62 of each blood and liver samples and 31, 28 and 47 bone samples from the Eastern, Kordofan and Darfur Regions respectively. Blood samples analysed for the same minerals in the plantn except cobalt, molybdenum and manganese. Liver was analysed for iron, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum and zinc. Bone was analysed for calcium, phosphorus and magnesium. Soil Minerals likely to be deficient throughout the year are phosphorus, manganese, copper, zinc, cobalt and potassium of both regions, but Fe in the Eastern Rergion. The pH of groundwater in both Regions aquifers detected characterized by a slight trend of alkaline chemical reaction. The cations, Ca, Zn, P, Cu, Fe and Co levels are higher in the Western region water, while Na, K and Mg, are comparatively in the Eastern Region. High levels of CP, EE, Ca, P, Mg, K, Na, Mo, and Cu in the browse species were detected in wet and dry seasons than in forage species. Forage samples studied had very low CP, Na, P, Mo, Zn and Cu contents, but excessive concentrations of Fe and Mn. However, excessive concentrations of Fe and Mo were detected in the browses while, their contents of Cu and Zn are relatively low. Co level was higher in browse during wet season and in forage during dry season. Forage had a significant higher level of CF, CHO and GE in both season (P<.05), while nonsignificant increase of Ash level. In plants, minerals most likely to be deficient throughout the year are: in browse Zn, P, Cu, Mn and Na; in forage Mo, Zn, Cu, P, Ca, Mg and Na. In both seasons minerals, which are most likely to be critical in camel serum in declining order of percent low level, are P and Zn. Severe low levels of P and Cu were detected in blood during wet season in Darfur and Kordofan Region. Liver minerals low levels were indicated for Zn in all regions and Cu in Darfur. Bone minerals did

xix not vary significantly among regions within seasons but nonsignificant lower level of P in the Eastern Region. The minerals most likely to be critical in animal tissues throughout the year are P, Cu and Zn, whereas Ca in wet season and potassium during dry season reflecting the mineral levels in soil and plants. Levels of nutrients in browse are sufficient for camels maintenance in both seasons while forage in wet season only; the two types of plants are complementary for feed purpose. Inspite of Natroun supplementation substantial role in increasing, food intake, haemogram indecis and body weight gain, attention to be considered that she-camel should not be fed buffers (Natroun) at any time during its dry period, due to negative effects on calcium .

xx

اﻟﺨﻼﺻﺔ

ﺍﺠﺭﻴﺕ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺴﻬﻭل ﺘﺭﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺒل ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻨﻴﺔ ﺒﻐﺭﺏ ﻭﺸﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺩ ﻟﺘﺤﺩﻴﺩ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻨﺴﺠﺔ ﺍﻻﺒل، ﺍﻟﺘﺭﺒﺔ ، ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺀ ﻭﻜﺫﻟﻙ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺌﺩﺓ ﻓﻰ ﻓﺼﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﺭﻴﻑ. ﺘﻡ ﺍﺨﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻋﺩﺩ ﻤﻥ ﻤﺭﺒﻰ ﺍﻻﺒل ﺍﻟﺭﺤل ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﺒﺎﺌل ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺒﺤﻴﺙ ﻻ ﺘﻌﻁﻰ ﺍﻻﺒل ﻤﺭﻜﺯﺍﺕ ﻋﻠﻔﻴﺔ ﺨ ﻼ ﻓ ﺎﹰ ﻟﻠﻤﻠﺢ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻁﺭﻭﻥ. ﺍﺒل ﺍﻗﻠﻴﻡ ﺩﺍﺭﻓﻭﺭ ﻤﺜﻠﺕ ﺒﺄﺒل ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﺠﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻁﺭﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻬﻠﻜﺔ ﺩ ﺍ ﺨ ﻠ ﻴ ﺎﹰ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﺨﺎﻨﺎﺕ. ﺍﺨﺫﺕ ﻋﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﻡ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻻﺒل ﻓﻰ ﻤﺴﺎﺭﺍﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻭﻋﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﻡ ، ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻅﺎﻡ ﻤﻥ ﺴﻠﺨﺎﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﻭﺩ – ﺍﻻﺒﻴﺽ ﺒﻐﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺩ ﻭﺘﻤﺒﻭل ﻓﻰ ﺸﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ. ﻓﻰ ﻓﺘﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ ﺒﺸﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﺠﻤﻌﺕ 314 ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻤﺼل ﻤﻥ ﺍﻻﺒل ﻓﻰ ﻤﺭﺍﻋﻰ ﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻭ 57 ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻤﺼل ﻭﻜﺒﺩ ﻭ25 ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻋﻅﻡ ﻤﻥ ﺴﻠﺨﺎﻨﺔ ﺘﻤﺒﻭل. ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺨﺭﻴﻑ ﺠﻤﻌﺕ 192 ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻤﺼل، 65 ﻤﺼل ﻭﻜﺒﺩ 31 ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻋﻅﻡ، ﻓﻰ ﻓﺘﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ ﻤﻥ ﻏﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﺠﻤﻌﺕ 75 ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻤﺼل ، 61 ﻤﺼل ﻭﻜﺒﺩ ﻭ23 ﻋﻅﻡ ﻤﻥ ﺍﺒل ﻜﺭﺩﻓﺎﻥ. 90 ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻤﺼل ﻤﻥ ﺍﺒل ﺩﺍﺭﻓﻭﺭ 91 ﻤﺼل ﻭﻜﺒﺩ ﻭ77 ﻋﻅﻡ. ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺨﺭﻴﻑ ﻤﻥ ﺍﺒل ﻜﺭﺩﻓﺎﻥ ﺠﻤﻌﺕ 145ﻋﺒﻨﺔ ﻤﺼل 15 ﻤﺼل ﻭ ﻜﺒﺩ ﻭ28 ﻋﻅﻡ. ﻤﻥ ﺍﺒل ﺩﺍﺭﻓﻭﺭ ﺠﻤﻌﺕ 90 ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻤﺼل 62 ﻤﺼل ﻭﻜﺒﺩ ﻭ47 ﻋﻅﻡ. ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺘﺘﻐﺫﻯ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻻﺒل ﺒﻌﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻼﺤﻅﺔ ﻭﻤﺸﺎﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺭﻋﺎﺓ ﺠﻤﻌﺕ ﻤﻨﻬﺎ ﻋﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻓﻰ ﻓﺼﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﺭﻴﻑ. ﻓﻰ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺴﻤﻴﺕ ﺍﻻﺸﺠﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﺠﻴﺭﺍﺕ ﺒﺎﻟﻤﺭﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﺤﺸﺎﺌﺵ ﺍﻟﺤﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻭﺴﻤﻴﺔ ﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﻠﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺯﺭﺍﻋﻴﺔ ﻓﺴﻤﻴﺕ ﺒﺎﻟﻌﻠﻔﻴﺎﺕ. ﻤﻥ ﻏﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﻓﻰ ﻓﺼﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﺭﻴﻑ ﺠﻤﻌﺕ 29 ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻤﺭﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﻭ24 ﻋﻠﻔﻴﺎﺕ. ﻤﻥ ﺸﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﺠﻤﻌﺕ ﻜﺫﻟﻙ 26 ﻋﻴﻨﺔ ﻤﺭﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﻭ27 ﻋﻠﻔﻴﺎﺕ ﺒﺨﺼﻭﺹ ﺍﻟﺘﺭﺒﺔ ﺠﻤﻌﺕ 9 ﻋﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻤﻥ ﻜل ﺍﻗﻠﻴﻡ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻠﻴﻥ ﺍﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﻓﺠﻤﻌﺕ ﺨﻤﺴﺔ ﻋﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻤﻥ ﻜل ﺍﻗﻠﻴﻡ ﺼ ﻴ ﻔ ﺎﹰ ﻓﻘﻁ. ﻋﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺭﺒﺔ ﺤﻠﻠﺕ ﻟﻤﻌﺭﻓﺔ ﻤﺤﺘﻭﺍﻫﺎ ﻤﻥ ﻋﻨﺎﺼﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﻭﺩﻴﻭﻡ، ﺍﻟﺒﻭﺘﺎﺴﻴﻭﻡ ، ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻭﻡ، ﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻭﺭ، ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻏﻨﺴﻴﻭﻡ، ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ، ﺍﻟﺯﻨﻙ، ﺍﻟﺤﺩﻴﺩ ، ﺍﻟﻜﻭﺒﺎﻟﺕ، ﺍﻟﻤﻭﻟﻴﺒﺩﻨﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎﻨﺠﻨﻴﺯ ﻭﻜﺫﻟﻙ ﻋﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﺎﺕ. ﺍﻻﻤﺼﺎل ﻗﻴﺴﺕ ﺒﻬﺎ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﻜﺎﻟﺘﻰ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺭﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺕ ﺒﺨﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﻜﻭﺒﺎﻟﺕ ، ﺍﻟﻤﻭﻟﻴﺒﺩﻨﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎﻨﺠﻨﻴﺯ.

xxi ﺍﻜﺒﺎﺩ ﺍﻻﺒل ﻗﻴﺴﺕ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻋﻨﺎﺼﺭ ﺍﻟﺤﺩﻴﺩ، ﺍﻟﻜﻭﺒﺎﻟﺕ، ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ، ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻨﺠﻨﻴﺯ ﺍﻟﻤﻭﻟﻴﺒﺩﻨﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺯﻨﻙ ﺍﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻅﺎﻡ ﻓﻘﻴﺴﺕ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻋﻨﺎﺼﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻭﻡ، ﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻭﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎﻏﻨﻴﺴﻭﻡ. ﻓﻰ ﻓﺼل ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ ﻭﺠﺩﺕ ﺘﺭﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻁﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺭﻗﻴﺔ ﺘﻨﻘﺼﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﺼﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺒﺘﺭﺘﻴﺏ ﺘﻨﺎﺯﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻭﺭ، ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻨﺠﻨﻴﺯ، ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ، ﺍﻟﺯﻨﻙ، ﺍﻟﺤﺩﻴﺩ، ﺍﻟﻜﻭﺒﺎﻟﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻭﺘﺎﺴﻴﻭﻡ. ﺍﻤﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻁﻘﺔﺍﻟﻐﺭﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻭﺭ، ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻨﺠﻨﻴﺯ، ﺍﻟﺯﻨﻙ، ﺍﻟﻜﻭﺒﺎﻟﺕ، ﺍﻟﺒﻭﺘﺎﺴﻴﻭﻡ، ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺩﻴﺩ. ﻓﻰ ﻓﺼل ﺍﻟﺨﺭﻴﻑ ﻭﺠﺩﺕ ﺘﺭﺒﺔ ﺍﺍﻤﻨﻁﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺭﻗﻴﺔ ﺘﻨﻘﺼﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﺼﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺒﺘﺭﺘﻴﺏ ﺘﻨﺎﺯﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻨﺠﻨﻴﺯ، ﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻭﺭ، ﺍﻟﺒﻭﺘﺎﺴﻴﻭﻡ، ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ، ﺍﻟﺯﻨﻙ، ﺍﻟﻜﻭﺒﺎﻟﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺩﻴﺩ ﻭﺒﺎﻟﻤﺜل ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻁﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﺭﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻭﺭ، ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻨﺠﻨﻴﺯ، ﺍﻟﺒﻭﺘﺎﺴﻴﻭﻡ، ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ ، ﺍﻟﺯﻨﻙ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻭﺒﺎﻟﺕ. ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﺍﻫﺎ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻁﻠﻭﺏ ﻟﺤﺎﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺕ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻻﻗﻴﻠﻴﻤﻴﻥ ﻁﻭﺍل ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﻫﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻭﺭ، ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻨﺠﻨﻴﺯ، ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ، ﺍﻟﺯﻨﻙ، ﺍﻟﻜﻭﺒﺎﻟﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻭﺘﺎﺴﻴﻭﻡ ﺒﺎﻻﻀﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﺩﻴﺩ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻻﻗﻠﻴﻡ ﺍﻟﺸﺭﻗﻰ. ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺭﻴﺒﻰ ﻟﻠﻤﺭﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻠﻔﻴﺎﺕ ﻓﻰ ﻓﺘﺭﺘﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﺭﻴﻑ ﻭﺠﺩﺕ ﺒﺎﻨﻬﺎ ﺘﺨﺘﻠﻑ ﺍ ﺨ ﺘ ﻼ ﻓ ﺎﹰ ﻜﺒﻴﺭﺍ ﺒﺎﺨﺘﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻭل ﺒﺤﻴﺙ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﺒﺭﻭﺘﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻡ، ﺍﻟﺩﻫﻭﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﺭﻤﺎﺩ ﺘﺯﺩﺍﺩ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺨﺭﻴﻑ ﻋﻨﻪ ﻓﻰ ﻓﺘﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ ﻭﻨﺒﺎﺘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺭﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺭﻭﺘﻴﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﺩﻫﻭﻥ ﺍﻋﻠﻰ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻔﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺘﺘﻔﻭﻕ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺸﻭﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﻤﻥ ﺜﻡ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗﺔ. ﻓﻰ ﻓﺼل ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ 3,7% ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺭﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﻭ 54% ﻤﻥ ﻋﻠﻔﻴﺎﺕ ﻏﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﻭ 55% ﻤﻥ ﻋﻠﻔﻴﺎﺕ ﺸﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﺘﺤﺘﻭﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻭ ﺘﻘل ﻋﻥ 7% ﺒﺭﻭﺘﻴﻥ. 18% ﻤﻥ ﻤﺭﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﻏﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﻭ 19% ﻤﻥ ﺸﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﺘﺤﺘﻭﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻜﺜﺭ ﻤﻥ 30% ﺍﻟﻴﺎﻑ. 22% ﻤﻥ ﻤﺭﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﻏﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﻭ 19% ﻤﻥ ﺸﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﺘﺤﺘﻭﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻜﺜﺭ ﻤﻥ 10% ﺭﻤﺎﺩ. 50% ﻤﻥ ﻋﻠﻔﻴﺎﺕ ﻏﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﻭ 59% ﻤﻥ ﺸﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﺘﺤﺘﻭﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻜﺜﺭ ﻤﻥ 30% ﺍﻟﻴﺎﻑ. 50% ﻤﻥ ﻋﻠﻔﻴﺎﺕ ﻏﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﻭ 57% ﻤﻥ ﺸﺭﻗﻪ ﺘﺤﺘﻭﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻜﺜﺭ ﻤﻥ 10% ﺭﻤﺎﺩ. ﻓﻰ ﻓﺼل ﺍﻟﺨﺭﻴﻑ ﻜل ﺍﻟﻤﺭﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﺘﺤﺘﻭﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻜﺜﺭ ﻤﻥ 7% ﺒﺭﻭﺘﻴﻥ ﻭﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻔﻴﺎﺕ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺭﻭﺘﻴﻥ ﺍﻻﻗل ﺍﻨﺨﻔﻀﺕ ﺍﻟﻰ 33% ﻭ 40% ﻓﻰ ﻏﺭﺏ ﻭﺸﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻭﺍﻟﻰ. 14% ﻤﻥ ﻤﺭﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﻏﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﻭ 11% ﻓﻰ ﺸﺭﻗﻪ ﺘﺤﺘﻭﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻜﺜﺭ ﻤﻥ 30% ﺍﻟﻴﺎﻑ. 27% ﻤﻥ ﻤﺭﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﻏﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﻭ 50% ﻤﻥ ﺸﺭﻗﻪ ﺘﺤﺘﻭﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻜﺜﺭ ﻤﻥ 10% ﺭﻤﺎﺩ. ﺒﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻠﻔﻴﺎﺕ 42% ﻤﻥ ﻏﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﻭ 52% ﻤﻥ ﺸﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﺘﺤﺘﻭﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻜﺜﺭ ﻤﻥ 30% ﺍﻟﻴﺎﻑ ﻭﻜﺫﻟﻙ 42% ﻭ 50% ﺍﻜﺜﺭ ﻤﻥ 10% ﺭﻤﺎﺩ. ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺭﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﻜل ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺍﻋﻠﻰ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻔﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻻ ﻓﻰ ﻋﻨﺼﺭﻯ ﺍﻟﺤﺩﻴﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎﻨﺠﻨﻴﺯ ﺍﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻔﻴﺎﺕ. ﻓﺼﻭل ﺍﻟﺴﻨﺔ ﻻ ﺘﺅﺜﺭ ﻓﻰ ﻤﺤﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﺭﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﻭﻟﻜﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻔﻴﺎﺕ ﻴﺫﺩﺍﺩ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻭﻡ، ﺍﻟﺼﻭﺩﻴﻭﻡ، ﺍﻟﻜﻭﺒﺎﻟﺕ، ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻨﺠﻨﻴﺯ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺩﻴﺩ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ ﺍﻤﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺨﺭﻴﻑ ﻓﻴﺯﺩﺍﺩ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻴﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﻭﺘﺎﺴﻴﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻭﺭ، ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ، ﺍﻟﺯﻨﻙ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻭﻟﻴﺒﺩﻨﻡ ﻭﻻ ﺘﺎﺜﻴﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻏﻨﺴﻴﻭﻡ.

xxii ﺍ ﻗ ﻠ ﻴ ﻤ ﻴ ﺎﹰ ﻤﺤﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﻓﻰ ﻨﺒﺎﺘﺎﺕ ﻏﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﺍﻋﻠﻰ ﻤﻨﻪ ﻓﻰ ﺸﺭﻗﻪ ﻭﻻ ﺘﻭﺠﺩ ﺍﺨﺘﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﻓﻰ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ، ﺍﻟﺯﻨﻙ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻭﺒﺎﻟﺕ. ﺍﻟﺨﻭﺍﺹ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﺎﺌﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﻭﻓﻴﺔ ﻋﺎﻤﺔ ﻗﺎﻋﺩﻴﺔ ﺨﺎﺼﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻻﻗﻠﻴﻡ ﺍﻟﺸﺭﻗﻰ ﻭﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻭﻡ، ﺍﻟﺯﻨﻙ، ﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻭﺭ، ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ، ﺍﻟﺤﺩﻴﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻭﺒﺎﻟﺕ ﺍﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻰ ﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﻏﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﺍﻤﺎ ﻋﻨﺎﺼﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﻭﺩﻴﻭﻡ ، ﺍﻟﺒﻭﺘﺎﺴﻴﻭﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎﻏﻨﺴﻴﻭﻡ ﺍﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻰ ﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺸﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ. ﻤﻘﺎﺭﻨﺔ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻤﺼﺎل ﺍﻻﺒل ﻓﻰ ﺸﺭﻕ ﻭﻏﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﻭﺠﺩ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻭﻡ ﻴﻘل ﺼ ﻴ ﻔ ﺎﹰ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻭﺭ ، ﺍﻟﺤﺩﻴﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎﻏﻨﺴﻴﻭﻡ ﻴﺫﺩﺍﺩ ﻓﻰ ﺍﺒل ﺸﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﻋﻨﻪ ﻓﻰ ﺍﺒل ﺍﻟﻐﺭﺏ. ﻓﻰ ﺍﺒل ﺩﺍﺭﻓﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﻭﺩﻴﻭﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻭﺘﺎﺴﻴﻭﻡ ﺍﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻭﺭ، ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻏﻨﺴﻴﻭﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ ﺍﻗل ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﺫﻯ ﻭﺠﺩ ﻓﻰ ﺍﺒل ﻜﺭﺩﻓﺎﻥ ﻭﺸﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻑ. ﻓﻰ ﺍﺒل ﻜﺭﺩﻓﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻭﻡ ﺍﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﺼﻭﺩﻴﻭﻡ ، ﺍﻟﺯﻨﻙ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺩﻴﺩ ﺍﻗل ﻋﻨﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﺭﻗﻰ ﻭﺩﺍﺭﻓﻭﺭ ﺼ ﻴ ﻔ ﺎﹰ. ﺍﻻﺨﺘﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﻓﻰ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺩ ﻟﻴﺴﺕ ﻜﺒﻴﺭﺓ ﻓﻘﻁ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ ﺍﻋﻠﻰ ﻭ، ﺍﻟﻤﻭﻟﻴﺒﺩﻨﻡ ﺍﻗل ﻓﻰ ﻜﺭﺩﻓﺎﻥ. ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﺯﻨﻙ ﻗﻠﻴل ﻓﻰ ﻜل ﺍﻻﻗﺎﻟﻴﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ ﻓﻰ ﺩﺍﺭﻓﻭﺭ ﻭﻤﻥ ﺜﻡ ﻴﺘﻀﺢ ﺒﺎﻥ ﻋﻨﺼﺭﻯ ﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻭﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺯﻨﻙ ﺘﻘل ﻓﻰ ﺍﻨﺴﺠﺔ ﺍﻻﺒل ﺼ ﻴ ﻔ ﺎﹰ. ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺨﺭﻴﻑ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺍﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻰ ﺍﺒل ﺸﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ. ﺍﺒل ﻏﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻥ ﺒﻬﺎ ﻨﻘﺹ ﻭﺍﻀﺢ ﻓﻰ ﻋﻨﺼﺭﻯ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻭﺭ ﻤﻊ ﻤﻼﺤﻅﺔ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻤﻌﺩل ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺼﺎﻥ ﻓﻰ ﻓﺼل ﺍﻟﺨﺭﻴﻑ ﻋﻨﻪ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ. ﻋﻨﺩ ﺍﺨﺫ ﻓﺼﻭل ﺍﻟﺴﻨﺔ ﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﺔ ﻭﺠﺩ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺴﻔﻭﺭ، ﺍﻟﻨﺤﺎﺱ، ﺍﻟﺯﻨﻙ، ﺘﻘل ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﻁﻠﻭﺏ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻨﺴﺠﺔ ﺍﻻﺒل ﻋﺎﻜﺴﺔ ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺭﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺕ. ﺃﺜﺭ ﺍﺴﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﺍﻟﻌﻁﺭﻭﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺘﻐﺫﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺒل ﺃﺘﻀﺢ ﺒﺎﻨﻪ ﻴﺭﻓﻊ ﻗﻠﻭﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺭﺵ ﺒﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﻷﺤﻤﺎﺽ ﻭﻤﻥ ﺜﻡ ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻜﻔﺎﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻭﺍﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻬﺭﻴﻪ ﻓﻰ ﻫﻀﻡ ﺍﻷﻟﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻔﻴﻪ ﻷﺴﺘﻔﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻭﺍﻥ. ﺘﺠﺏ ﻤﺭﺍﻋﺎﺓ ﺃ ﺴﺘﻌﻤﺎﻻﺕ ﻤﻀﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻤﻭﻀﻪ ﻗﺒل ﺍﻟﻭﻻﺩﻩ ﻟﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭﻫﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺃﺴﺘﻘﻼﺒﺎﺕ ﻋﻨﺼﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻭﻡ.

xxiii Introduction

Sudan is Africa’s largest country; embracing 2,505,813 square kilometers of northeast and central Africa between latitudes 40 and 220 N and longitudes 22o and 380 E figure 1. It has a predominantly rural population of about 30 millions, which is growing at the rate of 2.6% per annum. Sudan consists of a huge plain bordered on three sides by mountains: to the east the Red Sea Hills, to the west Jabal Marrah, and on the southern frontier the Didinga Hills and the Dongotona and Imatong mountains. Jutting up abruptly in the south-central region of this vast plain are the isolated Nuba Mountains and Ingessana Hills, and far to the southeast, the lone Boma Plateau near the Ethiopian border. Spanning eighteen degrees of latitude, the plain of the Sudan includes from north to south significant regions with distinctive characters–northern Sudan, western Sudan, the central clay plains, eastern Sudan, the southern clay plains, and the Jabal Hadid, or Ironstone Plateau, and southern hill masses. Climatic conditions are diverse, tropical, and arid to semi-arid, continental with hot, rainy summers and cool, dry winters. Rainfall is brought by south-west monsoons from about May to October. The rest of the year dry northern winds prevail. Rainfall decreases steadily from about 1500 mm annually in the south to 25 mm annually in the north, whereas the length of the rainy season shortens and the variability of rainfall increases from south to north. Mean daily temperatures vary from a maximum of more than 40°C in the north to a minimum of 6°C in Jebal Marra in the west. There are extensive plains of ironstone in the south, clay soils in the central plains, and sand in the north and west, with a few mountainous areas in the south, east and west. The country is traversed by the River Nile and its tributaries which have varying degrees of influence on irrigated agriculture and livestock production systems. There are also a large number of seasonal rivers and water courses; large ones, such as the Dinder, Rahad, Atbara, Gash and Baraka, originate within the Ethiopian highlands, the latter two form two inland deltas in Sudan, and are important for flood irrigation agriculture. Also there is

1 a vast resource of groundwater, estimated at about 9000 billion m3, which has a varied distribution, quantity and quality in different parts of the country, with the Nubian Sandstone acquifer the most important. Livestock raising, pursued throughout Sudan except in the extremely dry areas of the north and the tsetse-fly-infested area in the far south, was almost entirely in the traditional sector. Three types of animal production systems exist: • Nomadic represented by camel herders (Aballa), households move with their animals and have no perminant base to grow crops. • Transhumant agropastoral system, depends on livestock mainly cattle (Baggara) and • The sedentary system where there is rainfed, arable farming in settled villages. Livestock raising provided employment for so many people, modernization proposals have been based on improving existing practices and marketing for export, rather than moving toward the modern ranching that requires few workers. In 1997, the contribution of livestock to GDP was estimated at 20%, representing 42% of the contribution of the agricultural sector (Ministry of Finance and National Economy 1997). Sudan is probably the leading livestock exporting country in the region in the past few years. Nearly all live camel, sheep and goats are exported through Port Sudan. Chilled red meat is exported by air from Khartoum and occasionally from Nyala to various destinations. Exports through these two routes are formal and follow international trade procedures. Live camel export to Egypt is a cross-border operation through Dongola, and to Libya is also a cross-border operation but this is considered unofficial. However, export demanded production, particularly of camel and sheep, and the growth in demand for local consumption of red meat, is gradually gaining importance in the agro-pastoral sector and by those who invest in livestock. In Sudan rangelands occupy an area of 110 million hectares provide about 86% of feed for livestock. Sudan also produces about 18.6 million tonnes of crop

2 residues and agricultural byproducts (AOAD 1994), accounting for 10% of livestock feed while green fodder cultivation and concentrates accounting for 4%. Inspite of its vastness rangelands suffer from encroachment of both traditional and mechanised agriculture into traditional grazing land, which has led to reduction in grazing areas and in many instances to the blocking of traditional migration routes and water points, causing conflicts between transhumant and settled farmers.

Figure 1: Map of Sudan

3 Also bush fires, deforestation and uneven distribution of water sources lead to overstocking in some areas, particularly around settlements, while vast areas are undergrazed because of lack of water. A major constraint to animal production in the Sudan is the occasional drought, mean average rainfall in Sudan declined by 6.7 per cent between 1960-69/1970- 79 and by 17.7 per cent between 1970-79/1980-86. Pastoral and agro-pastoral communities living in harsh and fragile environments have always had to cope with drought or the threat of drought as a central feature of their existence that influences the patterns of production or reproduction. Droughts in the 1970s and 1980s, affecting the entire Sahelian zone, contributed to starvation, death, loss of animals, labour migration or migration to refugee camps.The long dry season, absence of legumes in natural pasture and the rapid decline of forage quality of native grasses as the rainy season progress leading to cyclic gain of weight with onset of the rains and the great loss of this gain during dry seasons are factors contributing directly to to low animal production. Poor veterinary services, high prevalence of endemic and metabolic diseases, difficulty of marketing and processing and lack of infrastructure. Sudan is well-known as one of the largest camel populated countries in the world. The estimates of camel populations are usually inaccurate due to lack of regular census. An FAO estimate in 1994–95, indicated that there were about 103 million livestock, of which about 3 million camels; in 2002, the camel population was estimated, at 3,342,000 camels (MoAR 2002). Camels are virtually the main source of subsistence for most of the people inhabiting the environmental region loosely referred to as arid and semiarid lands (ASAL) of the Sudan. This is part of the central rainlands which stretches from the Ethiopian border in the east to Darfur Region in the west, roughly occupying the area between isohyets 400 and 700 mm, made up of two distinct types of soil the ‘Qoz’ sand soil and the clay soils of the central clay plain. The main area of the ‘Qoz’ lies to the west of the Nile ‘northern Kordofan and Darfur’ of Western Sudan which is a generic term describing the regions known

4 as Darfur and Kordofan. The sandy soil is relatively poor in nutrients but it is productive due to the porous condition and low salt content. The central clay plain mainly in the centre and east of the country includes Al Butana, the Qash Delta, the Red Sea Hills, and the coastal plain, the soil is deep, extensively cracking and with about 65% clay and generally alkaline. Rainfall is brought by south-west monsoons from about may to October and decreases steadily from south to north. Important vegetation includes woody species like Acacia spp., Capparis deciduas, Maerua crassifolia, Salvadora persica and Ziziphus spina- christi. Grasses include Aristida spp., Eragrostis spp., Cenchrus setigerus, Cymbopogon proximus, Lasiurus hirsutus and Panicum turgidum. Unpredictable rainfall, long periods of drought, limited water, and inadequate knowledge and technology of water resource management characterize the ASAL. There is also rapid population growth, coupled with low or declining real incomes, low nutritional levels, and serious environmental degradation. The climatic and geographic conditions prompt the Abbala nomads to pursue animal husbandry with constant movement from place to place in search of better pasture and water. This economic system in part determines social relations and institutions and creates a division of labour whereby tasks essential for survival are allocated to particular groups of people. The camel is an important livestock species uniquely adapted to hot and arid environments (Schwartz, 1992) and therefore contributes significantly to the food security of the nomadic pastoral households.This unique adaptability makes it ideal for exploitation under the ASAL conditions. Aballa pastoralists are a camel community mainly because of the dry and harsh environment they live in; pastoralists, by definition, being those who primarily derive their living from the management of livestock on rangelands (Prior, 1994). Camel’s vital role in supporting human populations in some of the poorest and frequently drought-stricken areas of the world, such as the Horn of Africa, has now been widely acknowledged (Hjort af Ornäs, 1988). The devastating African drought in 1984- 1985 demonstrated that, in similar crises,

5 camel ownership can give pastoralists a competitive edge and an excellent chance for survival. Whereas entire herds of cattle, sheep and goats succumbed to the arid conditions, camel populations survived relatively unscathed. An FAO census (1977), taken in Niger, showed a 100 percent loss for cattle, 50 percent loss for sheep and goats and only 20 percent loss for camels. Consequently, some pastoral groups with deeply ingrained traditions of cattle herding, such as the Samburu in northern Kenya, started to acquire camels (Sperling, 1987), a fact which has come to the attention of development agencies and international organizations. Like the old cultural values, the traditional role of the camel is disappearing. Today, camels are raised for food – milk and meat – and for racing, but rarely for transport. Camel a vital element in the daily life and the culture of the Bedouin; it was his chief source of food, transport, wealth and medicine (milk and urine); according to the 11th-century Manafi ‘al-Hayawan (“The Uses of Animals”), the camel’s hump was a specific for dysentery, its marrow a cure for diphtheria, and its brain, when dried, a treatment for epilepsy. The contribution of camels to the human welfare of developing countries, including Sudan, is generally obscured by a combination of several factors, which tend to underestimate their true value. Firstly, the estimates of camel populations are usually inaccurate due to lack of regular census. Secondly, their products seldom enter a formal marketing system; thus their contribution to subsistence and the national economy tends to be grossly underestimated. As a consequence, less attention has been given to camel improvements for many years when planning national development. For example, the major livestock development effort in the Sudan, JP15 and PARC, aimed at developing livestock completely ignored the camel. However, the changing socio-economic and environmental conditions are leading to a change in pastoral production systems from mainly subsistence towards market orientation. Recently a new phase in the development of the camel emerged this is the result of many factors

6 ● Increasing demand for milk and meat as a consequence of large human population increases. Because foods from animal sources are the best means of overcoming the protein-energy malnutrition and deficiencies ●The extension of the desert in the Sahel region, and one of the most advantageous attributes of the camel in drought areas is its ability to utilize plants that grow well under arid conditions and are in the main unacceptable to other grazing animals makes camel a potentially important source of food. A further reason for this resurgence is ●The effect, of recent technical and scientific research, done by Wilson, Araya and Melaku (1990); and Farah (1993). This work has shown that the camel is the most efficient domestic animal for converting vegetative matter into work, milk and meat in hot arid areas. Recent advances in understanding camel pathology and physiology in relation to its products have led to better understanding of breeding and processing methods Hoste, Peyre de Fabregues and Richard (1985); Higgins (1986); Marie (1987); OIE (1987); IEMVT (1989); CIHEAM (1989); Wilson, Araya and Melaku (1990); Farah (1993). Generally, there are few practical, result-oriented studies on camel production. Wilson and Bourzat (1988) stated that the vast amount of research in the last two decades has contributed little to increased productivity. This has been attributed to the fact that most studies have had little general application to the practical aspects of camel production under pastoral production systems. In the Sudan, now there is some return to favour of general veterinary programmes, these are being oriented to the improvement of livestock productivity. It is known that of the various agricultural activities livestock production is the one most able to make an increased contribution to the Sudan’s economy. Pastoral camel production has the potential of yielding a positive impact on economic, social, environmental and gender-related aspects. Both the government and donor agencies should adopt appropriate policy recommendations aimed at fully exploiting the camels’ potential. There is, therefore, a need to improve on such management practices as ecognized

7 feeding to newborn calves, salt and mineral supplementation to both home- based and nomadic herds, breeding, and provision of animal healthcare. Camel production system is subsistence–oriented and based on milk production, which not only to rear the new-borne which will ensure long term continuity of the system, but also to form the mainstay of . Milk yield is the key to most improvements since increases in yield would make it possible to reduce new-borne losses, improve growth rates and thus to meet implicit objectives of the owners while also making possible an increase in the turn off of surplus male animals to meet national development needs. The literature shows that, although camel herds sustain fewer deaths during severe droughts than other types of livestock, their production efficiency is low. Markedly low rates of reproduction frequently considered as a major limitation to improving camel productivity.The parameters examined show female camel fertility rate is extremely low due to delay on the onset of puberty, increased age at first conception and the long interval between births. Poor milk yield, high calf mortality and low growth rates are important impediment to increasing productivity. The importance of salt for camels is common knowledge among camel herders. “Salt deficiency symptoms” revealed by the herders included chewing bones, eating soils from anthills, reduced milk yield, reduced water intake, and increased straying in search of salty plants. Mineral deficiency can cause a high susceptibility to skin disease (Dioli and Stimmelmayr, 1992; Bornstein, 1995) and consequently affect production. Camels manifesting bone chewing (pica), an indication of poor mineral nutrition, was observed by herders. Further, some herders claimed to have seen their calves born with bent or weak legs, which recovered later in life. This suggests that mineral deficiency is widespread, posing constraints to the performance of camels. All these symptoms were of the type thought to be caused by lack of nutrition. The protein content of grasses in the long dry season usually falls below 7%, the minimum required for microbial activity. Energy becomes the second

8 limiting factor, because of reduced intake of low quality forages, the phosphorus content of grasses drops during the dry season and it is conceivable that, minerals other than phosphorus and vitamins are also limiting factors of production. The traditionally raised camels do not usually receive mineral supplementation exept for common salt and natroun, depend almost exclusively upon forage for their mineral requirements. Wandering with camels to reduce or avoid undernutrition can be made more profitable by adopting the following: Grazing management practices which tend to limit seasonal migration, optimize grazing pressure by introducing plants readily eaten by the camel into the grazing areas and improve range plant utilization efficiency. Supplementary feeding protein concentrates (ground-, cotton and cake) or a cheaper non-protein nitrogen source (urea) is well established in developed pastoral countries. Compounded grain//urea supplements are easily made by appropriately small scale industry. For efficient production of animal products from pasture, deficient nutrients must be supplied at a minimum level to make up the difference in animal daily requirements. Identification of the deficient nutrients is then the first key step in systematic or planned camel management. Little work has been done on this major constraint; only investigations have been aimed at mapping out areas of marginal mineral deficiencies e.g. liver samples from abattoirs, soil and herbage have been used in western Sudan to detect areas of copper deficiencies (Tartour 1975). Correction of mineral deficiencies in haphazard manner or by the “shotgun” approach is unnecessarily expensive, can cause mineral imbalances; hence can create conditions worse than before their use. Only when a mineral is deficient is a producer justified in supplementing the or animal with the mineral in the amount required to make up the difference in daily intake. Continued consumption of saline water, common salt and/or natroun recommendations,

9 without regard to local conditions, is likely to impede rather than to promote improvement in camel production. This research was conducted to quantify some of the nutritional problems limiting camels’ productivity with the aim of identifying potential interventions to alleviate some of these constraints and to provide objective basis for efficient and low cost mineral supplementation by: • Study of chemical composition of plants found in camel producing areas of the Sudan in dry and wet seasons. • Study of some mineral content of soil, water, plant and animal tissues in some camel producing areas of the Sudan. • Establish a database on camels tissue mineral profile.The results obtained from this study will be added to a general database on mineral concentrations in free-ranging herbivores in the Sudan, and will be useful as a reference when determining the level and extent of pollution on natural pastures near to mines and refineries.

10 Literature Review

Camels are in the taxonomic order Artiodactyla (even toed ungulates), sub order Tylopoda (pad-footed). Camels belong to the family camelidae which is a comparatively small family of mammalian animals and genera Camelus and Lama with two and four species in each genus respectively (Mugerwa,1981). These species are Camelus bacterianum, Camelus dromedarius, Lama ilama, Lama guanicoe, Lama pucos and Lama vicugna. The old world camels the Arabian and the Bactrian living in Africa and Asia; Mason (1979) named the two species as Camelus ecognized and Camelus bactrianus. Although there are environmental conditions in other parts of the world that can support these animals, the most successful introductions far from their origin were in Australia, where they were turned loose and established feral herds. The Arabian camels have one hump on their backs and the Bactrian has two humps. The camels thrive in the harsh deserts of Africa and Asia. The camel is an important livestock species uniquely adapted to hot and arid environments (Schwartz, 1992) and therefore contributes significantly to the food security of the nomadic pastoral households. There are still Bactrian camels that exist in the Gobi desert as wild animals, but their numbers are dwindling due to human encroachment. The Arabian camels no longer have wild relatives but exist as domesticated animals. Camels are ruminants along with the giraffes, deer, cattle, sheep, goats and antelopes. They have several unique features: they walk on pads not hoofs, do not have horns or antlers, and their red blood cells are oval in shape. They also have very high red blood counts. All the family members have great water efficiency, long necks, two toes, and well-padded feet. Finally, a camel’s toes have a web connecting them. Most of these species have been integrated into and play very important roles in lives of the indigenous people. They have been traditionally used for transport of people and things, to supply hides and fibers for clothing,

11 other textile articles, and meat and milk products. The animals have been used and bred for several thousand years, but the efforts to understand their biology and diseases in greater depth has only been done fairly recently. Because camels are still such important animals in Africa, the Middle East and Asia, there has been more interest and need to understand their nutrition and health care needs, reproduction, behavior, physiology, diseases, veterinary care and responses to new climates. 2.1. Agro-ecological zones: Sudan can be divided into six agro-ecological zones, whose major plant communities have been described by Harrison and Jackson (1958) and by Wickens (1991) table (1). The study area comprises all ecological zones except the flood region and the southern fringes of the high rainfall savanna. Camels of the Sudan kept mainly in the desert, semi-desert and the low rainfall savanna zones. During exceptional drought camels were trekked southwards to the northern fringes of the high rainfall savanna. 2.1.1. Desert: The desert zone has shifted in recent years southwards towards shendi (17˚ N latitude) with rainfall of less than 75 mm, covers 29% of the country. Vegetation, which is virtually absent except on water courses and flat low lying areas that receive run off, consists essentially of trees like Acacia nilotica, Acacia ehrenbergiana, Leptadenia pyrotechnia and Capparis deciduas. Herbaceous, such as Cyperus spp. And Cynodon dactylon. Ephemeral herbs and grasses as ‘gizzu’, which include Khishain, Um showaika, Elmadan and Dorma.following rare rain showers in winter. These succulent plants provide grazing, mainly for camels and sheep during the dry period from November to February, with no need for drinking water. 2.1.2. Semi-desert: The semi-desert, covering 18% of the country, extends along a wide belt from the border with Chad to the Red Sea coast. Rainfall is between 75 and 300 mm,

12 and vegetation is mainly scrub and grassland. Semi-desert grazing lands are of three main types: • The Red Sea coast and associated hills with winter rainfall. • Range vegetation supported by sandy soils west of the White Nile including northern Kordofan and Darfur. • The range vegetation supported by clay soils mainly in the Butana area. Table 1: Ecological Zones of the Sudan*

Zone % of Sudan Mean annual Wet season Dry season Main land use types area rainfall (mm) Desert 28.9 <75 July to September October to Irrigated agriculture June Grazing along seasonal water courses Semi-desert 19.6 75-300 July-September- November- Irrigated agriculture November- June Dry land farming in conjunction with water January March- harvesting-Pastoral September Low rainfall 27.6 300-800 May-September November- Irrigated agriculture savanna April Rain-fed traditional cultivation Mechanized farming Pastoral Forestry High rainfall 13.8 800-1500 April-October December- Rain-fed traditional cultivation savanna February Mechanized farming Pastoral Forestry Flood region 9.8 600-1000 May-October December- Traditional cultivation April Pastoral Wild life Mountain 0.3 300-1000 Variable Variable Traditional cultivation vegetation Pastoral Forestry – Horticulture 316. . Source: Harrison and Jackson 1958.

Vegetation in the most northern zones is contracted and consists of trees, shrubs and annuals which provide livestock feed in the form of leaves and twigs and pods most valued during the long dry season when forage from grasses is both scarce and of low quality. Important among these woody species are Acacia ehrenbergiana, Capparis ecogniz and Aristida spp.as main species. The southern zones characterized by diffuse plant cover of trees, shrubs, herbaceous perennials and annuals, like A. tortilis, A. nubica, Panicum turgidum Capparis ecogniz, Maerua crassifolia, Salvadora persica and

13 Ziziphus spina-christi on clay soils and water courses. Grasses include Aristida spp., Eragrostis spp., Cenchrus setigerus, Cymbopogon spp., Lasiurus hirsutus and Panicum turgidum. Blepharis spp., and Schoenefeldia gracilis. Because of successive droughts and overgrazing, some desirable species such as Blepharis linarifolia and Cadaba ecogniz have disappeared in many areas of the range. Although, semi desert zone composed of large areas with high agricultural and grazing potentials, is characterized by a perennial shortage of drinking water and a relatively low population density. Traditionally, the people of the area depended on surface water such as intermittent streams, natural depressions- fulas, rahads, and turdas-and hand-dug wells. The Sudan Government has recognized these facts and has embarked on a programme to improve rural water supplies to support increases in human and animal populations. 2.1.3. Low rainfall savannah: The low rainfall savannah, with rainfall between 300 and 500 mm, covers 24% of the country, with 340,000 ha on clay and 240,000 ha on sandy soils. It is ecognized e by open woodland in some areas and by open grassland in others. Grazing lands occur both on the undulating sandy soils of western Sudan and the dark cracking clays of central and eastern Sudan; in general the northern parts are wet season grazing while the southern parts, where water is available, are dry season grazing lands. Depending on soil type and annual rainfall, major species in this Zone are: Acacia mellifera, A. nubica, A. ecogni, A. seyal, A. tortilis, Other species include Anogeissus leiocarpa, Boscia senegalensis, Cadaba glandulosa, Capparis ecogniz, Commiphora ecogniz, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Faidherbia albida, Grewia tenax, Indigofera oblongifolia, Tamarix ecognized, Terminalia spp. And Ziziphus spp. Balanites aegyptiaca, Cadaba rotundifolia, Combretum and the grasses Aristida species, Brachiaria obtusiflora, Cenchrus spp., Cymbopogon nervatus, Eragrostis, Schoenefeldia gracilis, Pennisetum pedicellatum, Setaria pallide- fusca Chloris pilosa and Andropogon gayanus. Among the important herbs are

14 Blepharis spp, Crotalaria spp. Aristida spp., Cyperus rotundus, Shoenefeldia spp. And Zornia spp. 2.1.4. High rainfall savannah: The high rainfall savannah, which covers 11% of the country, has rainfall from 500 to over 1000 mm. Acacia species such as Acacia polyacantha and A. seyal are dominant, but broadleaved trees are also found, including Anogeissus spp., Combretum spp., Dichrostachys cinerea, Lonchocarpus laxiflorus, Sclerocarya birrea, Sterculia setigera and Terminalia spp. Herbaceous plants include tall grasses such as Brachiaria spp. Cymbopogon spp. Hyparrhenia spp, Andropogongayanus, Chloris gayana and Sporobolus pyramidalis. Flooded areas have species such as Echinochloa stagnina, Hyparrhenia rufa and Oryza, that withstand some degree of inundation. The shorter Aristida spp., Blepharis spp., Cenchrus biflorus, Ipomoea spp., Setaria spp. And Zornia spp. On sandy soils. 2.1.5. Mountains: The mountain zone covers 6% of the country and includes Jebel Marra, the Nuba and Imatong Mountains, and the Red Sea Hills. The vegetation in these areas is quite diverse. Jabel Marra is the area utilized for agricultural production on a reasonable scale; important for horticultural production e.g. citrus, mangoes, potatoes, other vegetables and field crops such as and sorghum, and timber. 2.2. Camel owners of the Sudan (Aballa): The Republic of the Sudan has the second largest camel population in the world, estimated to number close to three million head (Salih, 1988), and the country is home to some of the most well-known camel nomads. Camels are well adapted to the harsh environment and were kept entirely by nomadic and semi nomadic peoples. Camels were largely concentrated in the desert and subdesert regions of northern Darfur, northern Kordofan and the southern regions of the eastern states, where they often trek long distances in search of feed and water. But, in central southern Sudan where in parts of the rain-fed

15 agricultural belt, current developments suggest that camels are indeed able to be integrated with crop cultivation systems. They can exploit efficiently the by- products of large-scale mechanized durra (sorghum) cultivation and may even mitigate some of the ecological side-effects for which these monocropping schemes are known. The only nomads and semi nomads in northern and central Sudan are also camel herders. Specialised camel owners (Aballa) are highly knowledgeable with regard to care and management of camels. Some Aballa of the Sudan are: • The Kababish, Kawahla, Hawaweer, Shanabla, Hamar and Maganeen in Kordofan Region. • The Shukria, Bawadra, Rashaida, Lahawin, Batahin, Bishareen, Ahamda, Beni Amir, Bija, and Hadendowa in eastern Sudan. • Rofaa tribes, Kawahla, Beni garar in central Sudan. • Hawaweer, Hassania, Ababda in northern Sudan. The Aballa of Darfur is traditionally nomadic but is increasingly becoming agro pastoralists inhabiting the semi-arid north. The majority of these groups claim to be of Arab descent Zyadia, Beni Helba, Rizeigat Mahria and Taisha, but there are also non-Arab Aballas who, by adapting similar livelihoods, have assimilated with them over time. Such groups include the Zaghawa and Meidobs.

2.3. Camel types in the Sudan: Most tribal groups breed distinctive types of camels (Mason and Maule, 1960), and the majority of breeds are often carry the name of the tribe. There are two major classes of camels, riding and the other pack or baggage animal. Djemali and Alhadrami (1991) mentioned that these classifications assign little importance to the main products (milk and meat). Well-known for the first class which, spread out in the eastern regions between the River Nile and Red sea, are the Anafi (Shukri) and Bishari breeds, prized for their racing and riding

16 capacities, the Bishari, owned by the Bija and Hadandawa, is slightly stronger and sturdier than the Anafi, (Gillepsi,1962). Pack camels (Arab camels) comprise 90% of the total number of camels in the Sudan, and are characterized by large, heavily built body, with the capacity for developing a relatively large hump; weight in mature camels relates mainly to breed or type character and management and varies from 400 to 800 Kg (Wilson R. T., 1984). Babiker (1988), in Sudan investigated camels’ live weight at maturity and found that most breeds weigh 450 to 550 Kg. Examples of pack camels are the Arab and/or Garbawy and the Rashida camels; the latter is not quite as heavy as the first and is sturdy and relatively short-legged beast. Arab camels are the most common types and are widespread all over arid zones and classified according to their body weights into the following: Light Arab camels bred by Hadandwa, Beni Amir and Amarar in the Red Sea State. Big Arab camels bred by Lahaween, Shukria, Bawadra, Bataheen and other tribes in central eastern Sudan and Gezira regions. Heavy Arab camels bred by Kababish Kawahla, Hawaweer and Shanabla of Kordofan. Garbawy and Fiesani camels bred by Darfour tribes differ from the Arab camels by its darker colour. 2.4. Interesting characteristics of camels: Some of the more interesting characteristics of camels are the anatomical and physiological changes that have taken place to allow them survive and flourish in harsh, arid environments. They exhibit several notable adaptations which affect its husbandry and management greatly, manifested in:

17 2.4.1. Sight and sense: The camel’s sight and sense of smell, for example, are exceptionally acute, the oblique flaps over the nostrils can be opened or closed at will to detect distant odors or shut out blowing sand, and a double row of eyelashes helps protect its eyes from the sand. 2.4.2. Body structure: Camels body structure that allows the animals to stand above the hot sand and allow for heat loss. Its broad feet are padded with a thick mass of fibrous tissue which permits silent, painless progress across flinty ground, as well as stability in soft sand. 2.4.3. Feeding habits: The camel is a browser (Farid et al 1984); Abbas et al (1995) found that dromedaries spent 81 % of their feeding time on herbs and Acacia bushes, and only 19 % on grasses, with Bracharia and Aristida species being the most preferred species. Wilson (1989) observed that dromedaries take as much as 90 % of their diet from browse plants. An important feature of their browsing habits is that they are not in direct competition with other domestic stock either in terms of the type of feed eaten or in the height at which they eat above the ground (Wilson 1989; Schwartz 1989) table (2). Examining the adaptation strategies of the camels on a thorn bush pasture in northern Kenya, Rutagwenda et al (1989) observed that unlike cattle, camels are able to seek out herbs, fruits and succulent leaves of a great variety of plants.

18 Table 2: Classification of domestic animal on the basis of feeding behavior, feed and water intake

Preferred Number of forage Height of browse Watering Livestock forage plants consumed*, above ground interval, type plant % level, m days Trees and Camel 170 3.5 10 – 14 shrubs Shrubs and Goats 184 1.6 3 – 4 herbs Herbs and Sheep 142 1.2 3 – 4 grasses Cattle Grasses 100 1.5 2 Source : Schwartz (1989) * Number of plants used by cattle is 100%

Camels feed diurnally or nocturnally and are unrivalled in their ability to ecogni desert and semi-desert vegetation (with certain attributes; thorny, odorous and secretive) which are unpalatable and unacceptable or inaccessible to many other animals (Schwartz et al 1983; Ghaji and Adegwa 1986; Yagil 1994). The camel can also be fed with green fodder or concentrates and can ecogni a wide range of agricultural by-products. It is noteworthy that most of the preferred plants are not readily eaten by other animals because they are thorny and bitter. Camels graze in the early morning and late afternoon which are the coolest times of the day for feeding. Its ability to reach tall forage coupled with its divided upper lip, prehensile and extensile, which permits the camel to examine its food by touch before ingesting fibrous, spiny bushes, low in nutritional value, and its taste has become so ecognized that except in extremity it refuses food with a high protein value. Although camels ruminate they are not true ruminants, as they lack the four well-defined stomachs of the ruminants; the rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasums, the missing compartment being the omasum, or third stomach. The camel’s digestive system is such that it can extract nutrition even from that meager diet; part of the urea that the camel’s kidneys extract from its blood is passed back to the stomach where, in

19 combination with partially digested cellulose from vegetable fibers, it gets reprocessed into new protein. The camel covers large areas while browsing and grazing, and is continually on the move, even if food is plentiful as it brought to graze on crop residues, such as sorghum stover, cotton stalks and sesame waste. Distance of 50–70 kilometers a day can be covered (Newman, 1979). In Pakistan ranged between 25 to 100 Km a day (Aujla et al, 1998). The grazing camel has low feed requirements (Gauthier-Pilters, 1980). Normal daily feed intake averages 10–20 kg fresh feed, i.e. 5–10 kg dry matter a day. The amount most frequently eaten was 6–7 kg of dry matter a day. Camels can thrive for months by eating only 5 kg of dry fodder a day. The minimum ration is about 2 kg a day, recorded in the drought of 1973. 2.4.4. Watering: More important, is the camel’s remarkable ability to go without water for extended periods in extremely harsh conditions, it can flourish where no other domestic animal can survive, as in the Sahara going without water for a full winter while thriving on green plants having high water content. This exceptional ability is the result of several anatomical and physiological characteristics. Where green forage is available in mild climates, the camel may go several months without drinking. This ability to dispense with water for long periods is confirmed by Gauthier-Pitlers and Dagg (1981) who reported that during the six or seven cool months in the Sahara region camels do not drink even if water is offered to them. Under very hot conditions, it may drink only every eight to ten days and lose up to 30 percent of its body weight through dehydration (Yagil and Etzion, 1979;Yagil,1982; Wilson, 1984; Yagil, 1985).Their ability to withstand water deprivation is truly, remarkable and stems from several factors. They don’t over heat, can withstand water loss, and store fats in the hump for use in times of food and water deprivation. It can endure more than 22 to 30% water loss from its body mass; conversely, a thirsty camel on a hot summer’s day has been observed to drink 27 gallons in

20 10 minutes and re-hydrate very quickly (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1964; Schmidt- Nielsen et al, 1967). In the Sudan, Köhler et al. (1991) studied the Rashaida camel and found that camels required watering approximately once every six days. Watering intervals differs in different seasons and ecological regions due to air temperature, type of nutrition and availability of water. In times of dehydration, the water seems to be lost from tissues, but not blood. For this reason there is no circulatory distress and the animals can sustain a loss of up to 30% of their body weight. (Humans lose water from blood and tissue and will die of sluggish circulation at a loss of 12% of their body water). 2.4.5. Body temperature: A final blessing for the camel is its temperature fluctuation, at night its body temperature falls as low as 93˚ F, and the heat of the morning merely serves to warm the animal up to105˚ F; therefore, sweating is reduced. Camel hair, furthermore, is one of nature’s better insulators protecting the camel’s back from the direct rays. On the other hand the location of its insulating fat concentrated just below the hump, keeps heat out; elsewhere on the animal’s body there is nearly no subcutaneous fat, and heat loss is not impeded as in other animals. 2.5. Camel management and husbandry practices: In an environment characterized by erratic rainfall and frequent droughts, proper husbandry and sound management techniques are the reasons for the success of the Aballa. Observations and discussions with camel herders revealed that selection and breeding are the most important husbandry techniques in camel management. These and other management practices are discussed below. Camel herders are mainly nomadic and semi-nomadic, as is the case in western Sudan, central eastern Sudan and southern Blue Nile where traditional movements occur between wet and dry season grazing areas. The wet season range is an attractive grazing area, during the rainy season, due to the availability of both pastures and water and because of the unfavorable conditions (mud and biting insects) in the dry season grazing areas. The great

21 advantage of nomadism is that it enables the nomads to use vast areas which have problems that make them either impossible or extremely difficult to be used by settled people. Thus, the nomads are able to raise large numbers of camels and sheep. Despite its advantages, nomadism has become a less suitable way of life in this age of advanced technology and national awareness. It is increasingly recognized that nomadism has several important disadvantages, such as extensive and destructive use of natural resources, inefficient use of human resources, and a marked inability to use social services. In Sudan rangelands occupy an area of 110 million hectares. Sudan also produces about 18.6 million tones of crop residues (AOAD 1994). Green fodder cultivation, however, is less than 126,000 ha. Rangelands provide about 86% of feed for livestock, crop residues and agricultural byproducts accounting for 10%of livestock feed, and irrigated forage and concentrates accounting for 4%. The rangelands suffer from overstocking in some areas and under stocking in others, from bush fires, deforestation, uneven distribution of water sources, and the encroachment of both traditional and ecognized agriculture. 2.5.1. Camels Migration Patterns: 2.5.1.1. Darfur Region: Greater Darfur Aballas dry season migration is towards west or east of the Jebel Mara Mountains; some of the Aballa groups move to Kubum and Rahaid El Birdi area or as far south as the Central African Republic. Others move into the northern fringes of West Darfur, Dar Reizeigat or into Chad. During the wet season, the Aballa return north, some towards Wadi Howar and others as far north as the oasis of El Altrun in the Sahara Desert. Cattle and camels swap grazing areas during the dry and wet seasons. The dry season grazing areas for camels becomes the wet season grazing area for cattle when camels migrate further north. The wet season grazing areas for cattle becomes the dry season grazing reserves for camels as cattle move further south in the dry season.

22 2.5.1.2. Kordofan Region: The northern Kordofan nomads Livestock, mainly camels and sheep, with some goats, are raised entirely on natural rangelands. Households move with their animals and have no permanent base on which to grow crops. They spend the rainy season in the northern, semi-desert zone and during the dry season, move further south into the savannah. The semi-arid zone, however, has good grazing potential, and the nomads use their mobility to raise a large number of livestock, mainly camels and sheep. With the onset of the dry season the nomads retreat to their dammering centers where they have some wells and hafirs (man-made depressions) that supply water for most or all of the year. There they camp, and the households remain in the vicinity of the watering points. Camels are taken away to graze under the supervision of the young and male members of the households. By the end of the dry season all the pastures, even distant ones, are eaten out, and the nomads wait for rain to relieve them. When rain falls the nomads move away from the dammering centers towards the desert to utilize the pasture of the more marginal areas while rainwater collects in the natural pools. Shanabla move in a north-south direction the amplitude of their annual migrations range is between 500 and 700 Km, at the beginning of the rainy season, to avoid biting flies and mud, they move northwards to Sodry and Um Badir in good season or near Elobied at Abu Snoon in bad rainy season. They move southwards quickly in October to avoid conflicts with the residents in northern Kordofan till they reach their dammering area where they exploit the permanently abundant range and water at the eastern Nuba mountains around Kalogi. The Kababish, Kawahla and Hawawir tribes spend the dry season (December – June), in west kordofan at Al Odaya which lies on the 12˚ parallel and 28˚ East it has an elevation of about 600 meters and annual rainfall varying from 400 – 600 mm with about 450 average rainfall, this area also, is visited by the Bagara from the south in the rainy season (July – October). Some of the Abbala spend

23 the dry season at their classical dammering centers in north Kordofan at Um Badir, Gerih Elserha and Um Sonta; they camp wherever water and good range land exist. In some good seasons with winter showers in the far north the Abbala move to the further north to graze the succulent Gizzu, their annual migration varies according to the rainfall and is between 500 and 1500 Km. 2.5.1.3. Eastern Region: In eastern and central Sudan the mechanized farming area of Gadariff, Nerw Halfa, Gezira and southern Blue Nile attracted the nomads Shukreia, Bawadra, Kawahla, Batahien, Bisharia and Lahawien to move with their herds to feed on the byproduct of the sorghum straw after the harvest from November to March of each year. In April there will be very little natural grazing left so they move to the interior of the Butana following the Atbara River course. In July after the onset of rain southern Butana become unsuitable and they move northwards grazing the newly seasonal natural grasses until the end of October. The Khashm el-Girba Scheme also attracted the Shukria and other nomads in April because the season of irrigated cultivation will be over and the tenants will allow their animals to enter the fields and graze the residues of the cotton and groundnut plants. Hadandawa utilize El Gash delta after the flood and in the rainy season they reach Qoz Ragab to the west or to the boundaries with Eritria east. Beni Amir at Sinkat area grazing the coastal and Red sea hills vallies. The Rashaida move in a north-south direction, the amplitude of their annual migrations varies from year to year depending on the amount of rainfall, but in a normal year the range is between 200 and 300 km. During the rainy season in June and July, to October they move northward reaching around Kassala to exploit the seasonally abundant forage. In years with abundant rainfall they may roam as far north to Tokar. At the end of the rainy season, the Rashaida and their herds slowly drift southward to the southern fringes of the traditional zone in Doka area.

24 2.5.2. Herd structure: A thorough literature search was carried out to determine the history and socio- economic aspects of the camel among the Aballa community. Camel pastoralists are not inclined to furnish details regarding the numbers of camels they own, thus making it difficult to establish individual herd sizes and the average number of animals per household. In the Butana (central eastern Sudan) the household economy is based on an agro-pastoralist system of production where both livestock (goats, sheep, cattle and camels) and crop production (sorghum) are practiced (Babiker, 1997). The geographical location within this important grazing area, and pastoralist mobility patterns, determine the proportion in the herd of each animal type as well as the relative importance of livestock production and cultivation in the household economy (Babiker, 1997). This differs from pastoral production systems in western Sudan where tribes are ecognized camel owners (Aballa) or cattle owners (Baggara) and the limited cultivation ecognize is to meet all or part of the household grain requirement. An estimate, of herd size, in eastern Sudan and Kordofan, approximately ranged (150 – 200), while that in Darfour not more than 100; of which 60 percent are breeding-age females. A study in eastern Sudan revealed that males represent 38% and females 62% of the total number, Saker and Majid (2002). Females are bred for the first time at the age of four to five years, which is mainly attributed to slow growth. Arthur (1990) reported that in intensive management they can reach puberty at the age of two years, but are not usually mated until three years. It is generally held that the normal calving intervals for camels is two years or more and that camels conceive no earlier than one year after giving birth with a gestation period of 13 months. There are two seasons when breeding peaks, the main one during and immediately after the beginning of the rainy season, lasting from July to September; and another occurring in December and January. Generally, one breeding male is kept for 40 to 50 females and is

25 selected according to, the milk yields of its female relatives, good temper and conformation. In larger herds there is more than one breeding male and the Aballa leave it to their stud males to establish their dominance. In dry years, when forage is scarce, maturity is delayed and first conception occurs at a later age. Under such circumstances the sexual activity of male animals is also depressed. According to Wilson (1984), sexual maturity in camels may be correlated not only with absolute age and condition but also with other factors affecting the onset of breeding season such as nutrition and climate. The implication of the wide variation in age at first calving presents a wide scope for improvement. Forage quality and quantity have been suggested (Grenot, 1992) to assume a central role in determining reproductive success in ungulates. However, Yagil (1994) states that it is possible to shorten the pre-pubertal period by hormone treatment as a result of which the females give birth at the age of 3 years. Wardeh (1989) states that camel calving rate varied from 40 to 70% depended on production system prevailing. Elamin (1990) reported that fertility rate in females 51%, while mortality in calves reached 11.7%. In eastern Sudan, Abbas, et al. (1993) on a study of camel herd productivity, reported that only 33% of the adult females were bred during one year and Agab (1993) in an epidemiological study, in the same area, reported that abortions amounted to 3.9%. Mohmed (2002) reported 40% calf mortality in Butana, within the range reported by (Cossins, 1971) in Ethiopia and (Bremaud, 1969) in Kenya. Herds also contained a number of older females that had never produced a living calf, or had given birth only once. Such animals are kept on, not out of a desire for large herds or for reasons of prestige, but because they often continue to produce milk, even without becoming pregnant again. According to results from several authors, lactation periods vary from 9 to 18 months, with annual milk yields of between 800 and 3 600 liters. Mean daily milk production is reported to range from 2 to 6 liters under extensive conditions and up to 12 to 20 liters under more intensive breeding systems. The lactation period for the

26 Sudanese camel was reported to extend between 10 to 20 months. (Wardeh, 1989) reported, average milk production during the lactation period varied from 1200 to 2600 Kg, excluding the consumption of the young offspring. On the other hand Köhler-Rellefson et al. (1991) reported that Milk yields were between 750 and 2 300 liters per year, with lactation usually continuing at the same level throughout the year. These large differences can be explained by the fact that measurements have often been made under local conditions without taking into account local factors that might influence milk production. Furthermore, camel breeds or individual animals probably exist with significantly different milk-producing potential that has not been fully exploited because the selective pressure of humans on the camel has been minimal compared with other domestic animals (Richard and Gérard, 1989). The Arab type of camel is well suited for meat production and transportation. Camel milk is important at the subsistence level but is rarely marketed. Cash is received for male camels sold for slaughter at the age of six to seven years. The Ministry of Animal Resources (MOAR 2002) projects the annual growth rate in camels’ population at 2.3 per cent, and estimated off- take rate of 16 per cent per annum, which is considerably higher than in the regional countries. The projected annual growth estimate, Bank of Sudan (2004) shows Sudan as having the second highest camels’ population in Africa. 2.6. Limitations to camel production in the Sudan: 2.6.1. Socio-economical problems: In the Sudan, free grazing and browsing of rangelands is the most common feeding system for camels. The climatic and geographic conditions prompt the Aballa pastoral nomads to pursue animal husbandry with constant movement from place to place in search of better pasture and water; the rainy season plays the decisive role in their management decisions. They have developed an elaborate subdivision of the seasons, related to the rotational use of the browsing areas. This system of migration is in harmony with the harsh environmental conditions and unreliable rainfall; and determines social

27 relations and institutions and creates a division of labour whereby tasks essential for survival are allocated to particular groups of people. The expansion of both dry land and irrigated farming has occurred at the expense of range and woodlands and blocked some of the migration routes forcing pastoralists to take longer and circuitous routes. The nutritional inadequacy of the dry season grazing imposes a major constraint on sustainable livestock production; it affects sedentary camel herders more, as they lack the advantage of mobility exercised in the transhumant and nomadic systems. Destruction and removal of vegetation resources by burning or cutting, beside their adverse effects in reducing available natural forage, causing many palatable species such as Belpharis, Bracharia and Panicum spp. To disappear. Although no reports have been made of camels having been responsible for any substantial degradation of the environment as has been attributed to other species, scientists have presented evidence that camel grazing is beneficial for range vegetation, (Gauthier-Pilters, 1984) and it appears likely that camel husbandry might retard some of the ecologically destructive effects of monocropping in sensitive environments. Examples of an attempt to integrate livestock into the developed cropping system, to compensate for the loss of natural grazing and browse. Some of the Aballa of eastern and western Sudan constitute an interesting example of the spontaneous integration of camel pastoralism with agriculture, and their system is worthy of closer examination. It is clear that the productivity of camel husbandry could be increased significantly, particularly under these circumstances, in spite of the emerging conflicts between farmers and herders. Most of the land assigned for sorghum cultivation by the Mechanized Farming Corporation had previously been used by pastoralists to graze their animals. One of a number of pastoral groups whose grazing grounds were encroached upon is the Rashaida in the Kassala area of eastern Sudan. An example of a beneficial effect of this integration is the Rashida system in eastern Sudan, studied by Köhler-Rollefson, et al. (1986) and reported that large-scale

28 mechanized monocropping is an agricultural production technique which initially yields high returns but, subsequently, productivity declines quickly and dramatically. However, as specialized camel breeders, Rashida have been able to adapt themselves surprisingly well to the expansion of sorghum cultivation into their grazing grounds. By utilizing sorghum byproducts to feed their camels, they not only contribute significantly to food output per hectare, but maintain themselves so well. Monetary returns of camel husbandry are low but, on the other hand, it is an ecologically sound, long-term, sustainable strategy for arid land exploitation. In western Sudan commercialization has altered century old traditions where farmers allowed pastoralists to feed their livestock on crop residues. Instead crop-stalks are now harvested and sold against this age-old tradition. This has created resentment amongst the pastoral communities sometimes leading to localized conflict when pastoralists let their animals into farms. Such conflicts can be serious if pastoralist herds move into farms before harvest. Stock theft or camel rustling is common in Darfur leading to the organization of armed groups on the basis of returning stolen animals but with some ulterior motives too. Banditry is common along some trade routes, for example, between Nyala and Umbitetih, traders concede to loose an average of 5 per cent of trade camels en route to terminal markets despite employing armed escorts. Camels are targeted largely because they are sold in Egypt or Libya where they cannot be traced. Services geared towards pastoralists such as education, health, extension and awareness programmes, water provision in terms of both quantity and quality, and animal health services, are in general poor. The situation has been accentuated by the sudden lifting of government subsidies and the application of a self-reliance policy (El-Sammani, et al., 1996). 2.6.2. Nutritional disorders of certain nutrients: Universally a major problem associated with the development of livestock production is the supply of feed. The nutrients required are water, energy, , vitamins and minerals. Nutritional disorders including deficiencies,

29 toxicities and imbalances of certain nutrients are limited to specific world regions and are severely inhibiting the livestock production of many countries. 2.6.2.1. Watering: It is quite obvious that non-salinous water is limited in many regions of the world. In arid and semi-arid areas of the world the supply of drinking water and water contained in the feed may be severely restricted, while at the same time demand for water may be at a maximum. Under these conditions, water becomes the limiting factor in animal production. In the study area drinking spots are scarce, and sheep and goats would be unable to move far enough from the few available water sources to utilize the vast expanses of range lands. Camels require watering approximately every six days, for which they are usually driven to long distances. The watering interval for the camels in ASAL, Sudan was generally in agreement with that of Evans et al., (1995) who reported an interval of between 7–10 days among the Somalis. Furthermore, only camels are able to migrate far enough north during the rainy season to utilize the no water remote lands. Camels are fast drinkers, like to drink clean water at the rate of 10 to 20 L a minute. When camel does drink this is to replenish the water lost in the past period rather than the animal storing water for the future as is sometimes popularly believed. Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg (1981), after a study in the Sahara of 600 animals of all ages over a period, observed that when the maximum temperature was 40˚ C or higher 6% of all adults drank between 100 and 135 L at their first drinking session. Water conservation mechanisms and requirements vary between different animals. Whittow (1968) reported that, camels, sheep and donkeys survive the loss of 27 to 32% of their body weight during dehydration; other species such as cattle, swine and poultry are less tolerant. Zaroug (1996) discussed the supply of drinking water situation in some parts of the study areas. He stated that, stock water is a limitation during the dry season, particularly in areas underlain by Basement Complex rocks (non-water bearing

30 rocks) as is the case of Butana, Hamar District, Baja and eastern Darfur. All these areas are important grazing lands where pastoralism is a major economic activity. Most pastoralists utilize these areas as wet season grazing land and move out before the surface water in natural ponds and dugouts is exhausted. In places boreholes have been drilled through cracks in the Basement Complex rocks and they furnish a limited source of water. Seasonal water points have become a source of conflict between pastoralists and farmers during the dry season. The expansion of irrigated agriculture in the Butana (New Halfa and Rahad schemes) provides additional sources of water through the network of canals. In a few cases water is transported by tankers to meet commercial herd requirements during the dry seasons, so that livestock will be able to utilize the large quantities of dry grass available in water deficient areas. 2.6.2.2. Feeding: 2.6.2.2.1. Energy and Protein: The dromedary is predominantly a browser except in areas where grass is the food of choice. Its food generally consists of the foliage of trees, and shrubs, grass and other ground herbage. In Australia, Newman (1979) reported that the diet is made up of species of Acacia, Indigofera, Dispera, and Tribulus. The Acacia, Salsola and Atriplex plants which contain the highest content of moisture, and oxalates are preferred. Köheler et al., (1991) studied camel pastoral system of the southern Rashaida tribe in Sudan. They revealed that sorghum stover, have become, an important nutritionally adequate type of fodder. In Eritrea, Gebrehiwet (1997) mentioned that camels live in desert and semi-desert region browsing and grazing all year round without any supplementary feeding. It is noteworthy that most of the preferred plants are not readily eaten by other animals because they are thorny and bitter. When browsing a camel takes a few mouthfuls from one tree or bush and then moves on to the next and in this way the diet can be made up of different plant species. The dromedary may eat some plants during one season and others at

31 other time. Higgins (1984) reported that Somali camel herders in Kenya’s north eastern zone insisted that they had to spend some of the year on the red soils and another part on the black soils. Camels have a high salt requirement than other livestock (Wilson, 1994). Salt is very important ingredient in the diet of a camel, the amounts mentioned vary from 45 to 60 g/day (Leese, 1927), to 140g recommended by Peck (1939) who suggested that this amount was necessary to prevent cutaneous necrosis and other condition. Mineral deficiency can cause a high susceptibility to skin disease (Dioli and Stimmelmayr, 1992; Bornstein, 1995) and consequently affect production. Nomads of the Sudan hold similar beliefs, provide Natroun and common salt, the former as anthelmenthic and the latter as appetizer. The precise role that ‘salt’ plays in the camel physiology has not been well explained. The grazing camel has low feed requirements (Gauthier-Pilters, 1979). Normal daily feed intake averages 10–20 kg fresh feed, i.e. 5–10 kg dry matter a day depends on the type of plant on which it is feeding. The amount most frequently eaten was 6–7 kg of dry matter a day. Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg (1981) observed that individual animals can do well on 5 Kg a day of Aristida pungens which, is a comparatively nutritious grass but required 6 times as much, ephemeral vegetation to obtain 5 Kg dry matter. The minimum ration is about 2 kg a day, recorded in the drought of 1973. Cohen (1975 ) notes that tropical forages are largely devoid of legumes and have a low protein content, a factor which is almost invariably associated with low organic matter digestibility. Milford, et a., (1965) and Minson, et al. (1967) reported that approximately 7% crude protein is the minimum level required for positive nitrogen balance in mature grazing animals. Wilson and Ford (1971) made simultaneous comparisons of the effect of temperature on two tropical grasses (Panicum and Setaria ) and two Lolium perenne cultivars. As temperature increases from 15.6/10 to 26.7/21.1 C (day/night temperatures), there was an increase in contents (CWC) in all grasses and a decrease in in-vitro dry matter digestion. High lignin content of tropical forages and

32 reduced microbial activity caused by low dietary protein increase the retention rate of digesta in the rumen, hence forage intake decreases. A major constraint to camel production is the lack of nutrition, as a consequence of the above mentioned reasons. Animals gain weight during the rainy season when there is a plentiful supply of feed which provides adequate protein and energy for the level of production. As forage quality declines, animals lose weight until at the end of the dry season; animals may lose as much as 30% of their peak weight in the rainy season (Van Niekerk, 1975). This alternation force camels to take 5 to 6 years to reach maturity and calf for the first time or sold. The parameters examined show low fertility and long calving intervals, poor milk yield, low growth rates and high mortality rates in calves. Considering only the situation where there is a plentiful supply of feed of low quality, Van Niekerk (1975) stated that the major factor on such a pasture is low protein content of grasses which usually falls below 7%, the minimum required for microbial activity (Hungate, 1966). Energy becomes the second limiting factor because forage intake decreases and retention rate of digesta in the rumen increases due to, high lignin content of low quality tropical forages and reduced microbial activity caused by low dietary protein. In cattle, grazing natural pasture during the dry season, in Zambia protein supplementation without energy supplementation did not show response, Walker, (1957). Van Niekerk, (1975) concluded that energy is not always the first limiting for grazing livestock in the dry season and that there is little point in supplementing with energy feeds unless more important nutrient deficiencies have first been corrected. 2.6.2.2.2 Vitamins: Animals obtain the necessary vitamins primarily from the different feedstuffs comprising their rations. A second major source is through microbial synthesis in the alimentary tract of animals. Also through maternal transfer to the embryo or some vitamins can be synthesized within the tissues of animals. It can be said that good quality green roughage or pasture will take care of most vitamin

33 needs (Philips, Ralph 1956). Vitamin A deficiency occurs only when grazing animals have to exist on mature dry herbage for long periods, as in tropical regions, where grasses mature rapidly with a large drop in their carotene content. Vitamin A deficiency limits cattle production by reducing calving rates reported by Slagsvold (1969) and Conrad et al. (1981). Under conditions in India, it has been reported by Ray (1963) that with the cessation of the monsoon rains, the grasses mature rapidly with a large drop in their carotene content. The value has been found to decrease from 100-200 mg per Kg on dry matter basis, in mid rainy season to as low as 0.5 to 1 mg per Kg, only in the summer months. As a result, symptoms like night blindness, blindness in new born calves and birth of weak calves have been reported from all parts of India. 2.6.2.3.3. Minerals: It has been widely established that available energy and protein of a feed are of primary importance to any animal but optimal performance is only possible if there is an adequate supply of minerals and vitamins (McDowell, 1985). A manifested deficiency does not present a problem because it can be identified and corrected using existing methods (Van Niekerk, 1975; Underwood, 1977; Conrad et al., 1981). The major problem is the suboptimal deficiency which can reduce growth rates and may cause low calving rates but is not readily apparent due to lack of specific clinical signs. There are three types of function of mineral elements: • structural components of body organs and tissues, such as phosphorus and sulphur in the muscle proteins, calcium, phosphorus and magnesium in bones and teeth and iron in haemoglobin. • constituents of the body fluids and tissues as electrolytes concerned with the maintenance of osmotic pressure, acid-base balance, membrane permeability and tissue irritability. For example, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and chloride in blood serum, cerebro-spinal fluid, gastric juice, etc.

34 • Catalysts in and hormone systems, as integral and specific parts of the molecular structure of metalloenzymes, as iodine and cobalt, or as less specific activators within these systems. Numerous mineral deficiencies, imbalances and toxicities are severely inhibiting the livestock industry in many countries. At least fifteen mineral elements, including calcium (Ca), chlorine (Cl), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sodium (Na), sulphur (S), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iodine (I), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), selenium (Se) and zinc (Zn) are nutritionally essential for livestock. In specific areas toxic concentrations of Cu, Fluorine, Nitrate, Nitrite, Mn, Mo or Se limit livestock production. Mineral deficiencies have been reported in many tropical countries, (McDowell, 1976). Throughout the world, nutritional disorders account for a major segment of the factors limiting productivity of livestock. Wasting diseases, loss of hair, depigmented hair, skin disorders, non-infectious abortion, ecogniz, anaemia, loss of appetite, bone abnormalities, tetany, low fertility and pica are clinical signs often suggestive of mineral deficiencies. Abu Damir (1998) concluded that, reports on mineral deficiencies, toxicities and imbalances in the dromedary are scanty and they are mainly with respect to macro minerals Ca, P, Mg and sodium chloride (NaCl); micro minerals Fe, Cu, I, Se Zn, arsenic (As) and vitamin E. He also stated that, there is lack of information on Co, and Mn deficiencies, fluorine and lead poisoning, parturient paresis and other metabolic disorders such as that caused by feeding high levels of (e.g. wheat bran), goitrogens, oxalates and vitamin D metabolites. Previous studies on the normal blood parameters of dromedary camels have been mostly concerned with the haemogram of these animals, while data on extracellular blood elements such as minerals, , proteins and various other metabolites are comparatively sparse. However, most of the parameters cited were at variance with each other. This, however, is not unexpected, since some of these parameters are known to be affected by breed, locality, age, sex, season and nutritional status of animals. Many workers compared results

35 obtained in camel sera with those of true ruminants (Abdalla et al., 1988; Haroun, 1994). In Sudan, livestock rarely receive mineral supplements except occasionally common salt. Pastures are thus the main source of minerals, and only rarely can forages completely satisfy all mineral requirements of livestock (Miles and McDowell, 1983). Mineral status of grazing animals in Sudan and other African countries has received very little attention. This may be due partly to the fact that the methodology of mineral nutrition studies, especially of trace elements, is rather complicated and signs of marginal mineral deficiencies are not easily detected but frequently it is mistakenly assumed that the grazing animal will obtain its mineral needs from the pasture. Mineral deficiencies, even if marginal, can result in depression of animal performance. Sub clinical mineral deficiencies are often widespread and are responsible for as yet unestimated, but probably great, economic losses in livestock production. An earlier mineral study in Western Sudan, Tartour (1975) indicated probable widespread copper and zinc deficiencies, and although much more information on the supplies of essential minerals for livestock is required, it is very likely that mineral deficiencies contribute to the poor performance of livestock in Sudan. Before measures can be undertaken to correct these deficiencies, it is necessary to assess the mineral status of forages and of the grazing animals as well as their production responses to mineral supplementation. This study was undertaken: • to investigate the nutrient status, with special regard to minerals, of the browse trees, pasture grasses, grass hays and common crop residues used as camel feeds in the Sudan. • to monitor the contribution of mineral deficiencies or toxicities on production level in free-ranging animals, it is essential to determine the natural background or baseline status of camels in a particular area.

36 2.7. Factors Influencing Mineral Requirements: These include nature and level of production, age, level and chemical form of elements, interrelationship with other nutrients, mineral intake, breed and animal adaptation. Specific mineral requirements are difficult to pinpoint since exact needs are dependent on chemical form and numerous mineral interrelationships. However, the mineral requirements of camels are not quantified and present data are mainly extrapolated from those for other species. On the basis of low tropical forage mineral concentrations during the dry season, it is logical to assume that animals would most likely suffer mineral inadequacies during this time. On the contrary, Rhodes (1956); Van Schalkwyk and Lambard (1969) noted that response to phosphorus supplementation (increasing weight gain) is obtained during the rainy season when animals have an accelerated rate of growth. In general, responses to mineral supplementation have been observed during the rainy season when animals are growing rapidly, hence increasing daily requirements (Conrad et al., 1981). Correction of mineral deficiencies in a haphazard manner or by the “shotgun” approach is unnecessarily expensive and can cause mineral imbalances and therefore, can create conditions worse than before their use. Only when a mineral is deficient is a producer justified in supplementing the diet or animal with the mineral in the amount required to make up the difference in daily intake. Continued use of blanket recommendations without regard to local conditions is likely to impede rather than to promote improvement in performance. Consequently, the first key step in the efficient use of mineral supplements is identification of mineral deficiencies in animals, in their feed and in the soil upon which the plants grow. 2.7.1. Mineral status of Sudan soil: The country is characterized by variable soil types, which reflect the broad climatic zonation of the country and the modifying effects of local factors such as topography and parent material. Soil types can be divided geographically into three categories. These are the sandy soils of the northern and west central

37 areas, the clay soils of the central region and the laterite soils of the south which is not included in this study. Less extensive and widely separated, but of major economic importance, is a fourth group consisting of alluvial soils found along the lower reaches of the White Nile and Blue Nile rivers, along the main Nile to Lake Nubia, in the delta of the Qash River in the Kassala area, and in the Baraka Delta in the area of Tawkar near the Red Sea in Ash Sharqi State. Soil types according to (Harrison and Jackson; Craig, 1991) classification include: Yermosols, Arenosols, Vertisols, Nitosols, Fluvisols, Hill soils and Ferralsols. 2.7.1.1. Yermosols: Common in the desert and semi-desert zones where rainfall is generally less than 200 mm/annum; mostly produced under conditions of desert erosion; three distinct groups: a. Skeletal soils of eroded desert mountains. b. Gravel (pavement) where the topsoil has been blown away leaving a layer of flat polished gravel. c. Wind blown sands. 2.7.1.2. Arenosols: Stabilised dune sands cover large areas in western Sudan and are also known as ‘Qoz’; The sandy soils in the semiarid areas south of the desert in northern Kordofan and northern Darfur states support vegetation used for grazing. Livestock raising is this area’s major activity, but a significant amount of crop cultivation, mainly of , also occurs. and sesame are grown as cash crops. The qoz sands are the principal area from which gum arabic is obtained through tapping of Acacia senegal (known locally as hashab). This tree grows readily in the region, and cultivators occasionally plant hashab trees when land is returned to fallow. The ‘Qoz’ sands are coarse-textured, buff to red in colour becoming paler with depth with a low cation exchange capacity; profile is generally structureless and pH ranges from 5 to 9; content of organic matter and mineral nutrients is naturally low; characterized by high permeability to water and relatively high water availability during the dry season (which is why,

38 under the same rainfall regime, the Qoz supports better perennial vegetation than heavy cracking clays). The Qoz sands are highly susceptible to erosion by wind and water; are easy to cultivate using hand tools hence most of the traditional production activities are practised on these soils. Within areas dominated by ecognized sands a non-cracking type of clay soil known locally as ‘Gardud’ occurs; this has better potential for retaining water and nutrients and under natural conditions they are compacted and have low infiltration, thus most rain water is lost as runoff; ‘Gardud’ soils are difficult to cultivate using traditional hand tools and therefore are mostly untouched by cultivators. 2.7.1.3. Vertisols: Dark cracking clays, which are often refered to as black cotton soils; mostly alluvial in origin from material transported by the Blue and White Nile, but some might have been formed in situ from basaltic rocks, such as the cracking clays of Gedarif State. These soils are characterized by clay contents of 60% or more, are alkaline in pH and have gypsum and calcium carbonate concretions, particularly in the lower horizons. Areas with Vertisols have impeded drainage and their vegetation is the result of edaphic rather than climatic factors. Agriculturally, the most important soils are the clays in central Sudan that extend from west of Kassala through Al Awsat and southern Kordofan. Known as cracking soils because of the practice of allowing them to dry out and crack during the dry months to restore their permeability; they are used in the areas of Al Jazirah and Khashm al Qirbah for irrigated cultivation. Vertisols support mechanized farming as well all large scale irrigated farming. Although areas like the Butana plains are used for wet season grazing, large areas are used for mechanized rainfed crops and are important for the supply of crop residues. West of the White Nile, these soils are used by traditional cultivators to grow sorghum, sesame, peanuts, and cotton in some areas of the Nuba Mountains.

39 2.7.1.4. Nitosols: Reddish-brown tropical soils with agrillic horizons and some organic matter, mainly occurring in the hilly areas with dense bushland in southeastern Sudan. 2.7.1.5. Fluvisols: Soils of recent alluvium located along the Nile and its tributaries, along major water courses and inland deltas of the Gash and Tokar; prime agricultural land for basin, flood and pump irrigation. 2.7.1.6. Hill soils: Various types occur and they owe their origin to hill and mountain formations; some, such as the soils of Jabel Marra, are derived from volcanic rocks and are of reasonable fertility and physical characteristics. 2.7.1.7. Ferralsols: Ferralsols are red tropical soils with organic topsoils over oxic subsoils in the southwestern part of the country. Most naturally occurring mineral deficiencies in livestock are associated with specific regions and are directly related to soil characteristics. The soil content of an element would seem the most important limitation. However, availability factors including soil pH, texture, moisture content and organic matter are probably more often the limiting factors than soil content (Williams, 1963). Poor drainage conditions increase extractable trace elements, thereby resulting in a corresponding increase in plant uptake. Large variations in mineral content of different plant species growing on the same soil have been reported by Thompson (1957) and Gomide et al, (1969). As soil pH increases Pfander (1971); Williams (1959); Latteur (1962); and Miller, et al. (1972) reported that the availability and uptake of iron, manganese, zinc, copper and cobalt decreases, whereas molybdenum and selenium concentrations increases. Hemphill (1977) quoted by (Reid and Horvath, 1980) stated that although mineral content of a soil ultimately depends on the parent rock from which the soil was derived, evidence indicates little relationship between soil chemistry and mineral composition of farm crops and vegetation growing on that soil.

40 Consequently, mineral intake by animals depends more on the type of plant and level of consumption than on the parent rock from which the soil was derived and on which plants were grown. Tropical soils are highly weathered and highly leached; phosphorus deficiency is widespread in eastern, central and southern Africa. Phosphorus fixation by aluminum is often cited to be the major problem of Oxisols (Lemos, 1978). Soil copper deficiency has been reported in Kenya (Howard, 1970) in Ethiopia (Roeder, 1980) and in Sudan (Tartour, 1975). Grazing livestock obtain part of their mineral supply from sources other than forages, particularly water and soil. Although highly variable, all mineral elements essential as dietary nutrients occur to some extent in water. African livestock herders have been taking animals to natural licks as they regard the practice as essential for the maintenance of health and fertility of stock. Soil ingestion is an unknown factor likely to supplement a deficiency in herbage mineral content. In tropical countries, coating of plants with fine soil particles due to wind is an important source of soil ingestion. Healy (1975) reported that under New Zealand conditions, annual ingestion of soil can reach 75 Kg for sheep and 600 Kg for dairy animals. Accidental soil ingestion increases the intake of minerals which are often in lower concentration in forages than in soil, such as cobalt, iron and iodine (Healy, 1973; Thornton, 1974) but may have adverse effects on phosphorus absorption if the soil contains high levels of aluminum (1.6%) and iron (0.4%) (Rosa, 1980). 2.8. Mineral status of plants: Browse species play an important role in the extensive animal production of inter-tropical Africa. The role varies from one ecological zone to the next, becoming greater as the zone becomes more arid. Likewise the fragility of browse ecosystems increases with the degree of aridity. Browse is the very basis of the diet of camels, goats and many wild herbivores and it plays a vital role as a complementary source of proteins, minerals and vitamins for cattle and sheep during the dry seasons.

41 Until recently, both scientists and technicians have underestimated the role of browse in animal production, as a result of difficulties in quantifying the primary production of browse and its use by livestock and wild animals. Tropical legumes generally contain high concentrations of most nutritionally valuable minerals except sodium (Norton, 1982 quoted by Elliot, 1986). However, nutritional requirements may not always be met, since availability for absorption and function varies with each element (Norton and Poppi, 1995). Animal production specialists have, in the past, found it more important to study and improve on the grazers (cattle and sheep) than on the browsers (goats and camels). Research programmes and studies are required on the most common and representative browse species found in the major ecological zones; which are or might be, important in livestock and wildlife diets, with particular emphasis on determining their nutritive value with particular reference to digestibility and methods of exploitation on a sustained yield basis. Camels feed on more than 80% of the vegetation in arid zones; they are very flexible with their food selection. They mostly use the freshest plant species, ignoring many other potential food plants. But they also show distinctive preferences for some plant species regardless of their supply. Being browsers they eat their food selectively. During dry periods leaves from trees and shrubs are the major components. In the wet season they predominantly utilise the ground vegetation, mainly forbs but grasses are of some dietary importance mostly after rainfall when forbs are not yet available. Some work has been undertaken in the Sudan on range management and ecology. Such aspects of a number of species which are native to Sudan or predominant in some other specific arid or semi-arid regions have been rather thoroughly studied (Nelson, Herbel, and Jackson, 1970; Smith, 1970; and Wilson, Weir, and Torrell, 1971). Mineral content of plants is affected by genus, species and stage of maturity (Long et al., 1969). Herbs and legumes are richer in a number of mineral elements than are grasses. Butler and Johnson (1957) concluded that species

42 was more important in determining iodine forage content than either soil or season. For most minerals “accumulator” plants exist which contain extremely high levels of a specific mineral (Schutte, 1964). As an example in certain regions Beeson (1961) reported that accumulator species containing over 1,000 ppm selenium are found growing alongside grasses containing less than 10 ppm. As plants mature, mineral contents decline due to a natural dilution process and translocation of nutrients to the root system (Fleming, 1973). Plants from wide areas in the savannas of eastern, central and southern Africa are deficient in phosphorus (Theiler et al., 1924; Du Toit et al., 1940a, b; Rhodes, 1956; Rodgers, 1975). Phosphorus content of pasture mostly dominated by Hyparrhenia species decreases as the rainy season progress, from a high of 0.2% phosphorus shortly after the beginning of the rainy season to as low as 0.05% (Du Toit et al., 1940b), 0.065% (Bemridge, 1970, quoted by Van Niekerk, 1975) and even 0.04% phosphorus (Rodgers, 1975) at the end of the dry season. Only browse shrubs contained high phosphorus during the dry season in Uganda {Willson and Bredon, 1963). Tropical forages (grasses and legumes) contain sufficient amounts of magnesium, deficiencies in animal grazing tropical pastures are likely to be rare (Minson and Norton, 1984). There is comparatively little information available on the content and availability of trace elements in tropical legume forages, and it is likely that the values reported are more indicative of the soil types (Norton and Poppi, 1995). Copper and cobalt are the most commonly measured trace elements reported. The latter authors indicated that insufficient data are available for manganese, zinc, selenium, iron, iodine and possibly molybdenum, although ruminants have demonstrable requirements for these elements. 2.9. Mineral Status of Ruminants: Mineral deficiencies and excess have been established by soil, water, plant and animal tissue analysis. A soil survey can provide clues to potential livestock deficiencies; its concentrations of cobalt, molybdenum, and iodine reflect the plant’s concentrations of these elements to a certain degree. However, as

43 previously noted, numerous factors affect forage mineral uptake from soils. Disadvantages of relying on forage element analysis to assess mineral adequacy for ruminants include: (1) uncertainty to collecting samples comparable to what ruminants consume, (2) difficulty of estimating forage intake and (3) possibility of forage samples containing soil contamination. Mitchell (1957) indicated that soil contains 20 to 1000 times the cobalt and iron content found in pastures grown on a particular soil. Forage analysis is a much better indicator of mineral availability than is soil analysis. Likewise, animal tissue mineral concentrations are better indicators of the availability of minerals than are forage analysis. The tissues of the greatest value in detecting various mineral deficiencies are indicated in table (3). Since livestock obtain part of their mineral supply from the consumption of water, soil, leaves, tree bark, etc. versus entirely from forages. Livestock tissue mineral concentrations, therefore, more accurately portray the contribution of the total environment in meeting the mineral requirements of grazing animals. As an illustration, Sutmöller et al. (1966) and Hartmans (1970) showed that, neither the available copper content of the soil nor the copper content in the herbage show any positive relationship with the copper status of the animal. However, Sutmöller et al. (1966) stated that copper liver concentrations of less than 25 ppm coincide with copper deficiency signs in cattle. The advantage of collecting samples from live animals is that the same animals can be used for testing mineral responses in feeding trials. The technique of serial bone biopsy showed a greater sensitivity than the slaughter technique in cattle fed graded phosphorus supplements after a depletion period (Little, 1972)

44 Table 3: Samples required and components to be estimated in tracing

Mineral Soil Diet Liver Componentin: Bone Saliva Milk Urine Other deficiency Blood plasma Calcium Ca Ca Phosphorus P P P Magnesium Mg, K, N Mg Mg Sodium Na Na, K Cobalt Co Co Co, vit. Serum vit. B12 B12 Copper Cu Cu b,c Iron Hbd Iodine I Manganese Mn, Ca, P Mn Selenium Se Se Zinc Zn Zn cortex different deficienciesª

ªUnderlined indicates greatest value according to Conrad (1978) and Committee on Mineral Nutrition (1973). b,d Percent saturation of transferring, haemoglobin and haematocrit of blood. cAlso plasma .

Mendes (1977) concluded that liver samples obtained by either liver biopsy or at slaughter could be used to study mineral status of cattle. Unfortunately, in surveys animal owners resent bleeding of their animals, and it may even be difficult, if not impossible, to convince camel herders to take biopsy samples from their animals. Social problems, compounded with technical problems and lack of incentives, have forced some investigators to use slaughtered animals from abattoirs (Boyazoglu, 1973); (Tartour, 1975) and dead animals dying from unknown causes (Van der Veen, 1973). The excitement which animals are exposed to at abattoirs may cause abnormally high valves of blood and plasma phosphorus (Gartner, et al., 1965). As indicated earlier, appropriate chemical analyses of animal tissues and fluids are invaluable aids in the early diagnosis of mineral abnormalities in livestock. A dietary deficiency or excess of a mineral is usually reflected in subnormal or above-normal concentrations of the mineral in various tissues and fluids; Imbalances are accompanied by significant changes in the activity or level of a particular enzymes, hormones or

45 metabolites with which the mineral is functionally related, and such changes may be evident before the onset of clinically obvious signs of mineral imbalances in the animal. The choice of tissue or fluid for analysis varies with the mineral in question, but blood, urine and hair have obvious general advantages for diagnostic purposes because of their accessibility. Table 4, illustrates analysis of considerable value in assessing specific mineral deficiencies and toxicities for cattle (McDowell, 1976).

2.9.1. Blood: The concentration of minerals in soil is a poor indicator of mineral uptake by plants and thus their availability to animals (Judson and McFarlane, 1998). However the chemical composition of body tissues generally reflects the dietary status of domestic and wild animals to varying degrees of accuracy, depending on the tissue and the element. Mineral assays on tissues can therefore be used to assist in the detection and definition of a range of mineral inadequacies and excesses in animals. Whole blood, or more usually blood serum or plasma, is the most widely employed test fluid because it reflects in its composition the mineral status of an animal. It can be obtained, transported or stored easily. Furthermore, the normal ranges of concentrations in the blood of healthy animals consuming adequate and well- balanced diets have been established for all the nutritionally important minerals for comparative purposes. A number of examples of some biochemical criteria of value in diagnosing mineral imbalances will be given to illustrate their use and their limitations. A dietary deficiency of phosphorus is accompanied by a decline in the inorganic phosphorus fraction of the blood plasma and withdrawal of Ca and P from the reserve in the skeleton. In normal well fed animals the inorganic phosphorus content of the serum lies between 4.5 and 6.5 mg/100ml for adult animal and 4 to 8 mg/100 ml for young animal (Conrad, 1978). Fluctuations

46 outside that range are not uncommon and individual variation is quite high. Blood phosphorus increases with exercise (Gartner et al., 1965), storage time and increased temperature because of hydrolysis of phosphoric acid esters (Burdin and Howard, 1963), water restriction (Rollinson and Bredon, 1960) and delay in treating plasma with protein precipitant (Little et al., 1971). Bone phosphorus patterns closely followed the phosphorus content of pasture as explained by Cohen (1973 a) who concluded that analysis of bone phosphorus was a more reliable estimate of phosphorus status of animals than blood or hair phosphorus.

Table 4: Detection of specific mineral deficiencies or toxicities in cattleª Element Dietary level Tissue Critical level indicating deficiency Calcium 0.18-0.60% Plasma 8 mg/100 ml Magnesium Serum 1-2 mg/100 ml Urine 2-10 mg/100 ml Phosphorus 0.18-0.43% Plasma 4.5 mg/100 ml Potassium 0.60-0.80% Sodium 0.10% Saliva 100-200 mg/100 ml Sulfur 0.10% Cobalt 0.05-0.1 mg/Kg Liver 0.05 mg/Kg Copper Liver 25 mg/Kg Iodine Milk 300µg/day Iron Haemoglobin 10 g/100ml 13-15% saturation Manganese 20-40 mg/Kg Liver 6-10 mg/Kg Selenium 0.05-0.10 mg/Kg Liver 0.25 0.5 mg/Kg Zinc 10-50 mg/Kg Plasma 0.04 mg/100ml Critical level indicating toxicity Copper Liver 700 mg/Kg Fluorine Bone 4500-5500 mg/Kg Manganese 1000-2000 mg/Kg Hair 70 mg/Kg Molybdenum 6-20 mg/Kg Selenium 5 mg/Kg Liver 5-15 mg/Kg ªTaken from: McDowell, (1976).

Calcium blood levels are much less readily influenced by varying dietary intakes than are serum inorganic P levels because of the effectiveness of hormonal control mechanisms. Like parathyroid hormone, calcitonin (Guyton,

1966) and 1,25-(OH)2 cholecalciferol (Boris et al., 1978). When these mechanisms break down, as in certain metabolic diseases such as milk fever, profound changes in serum calcium levels occur. Where the deficiency is severe

47 a significant fall in serum calcium also results. For example Franklin et al. (1948) showed that the serum calcium levels of lactating ewes confined to cereal-based rations very low in calcium (0.11 per cent) declined to one-half or one-third of normal within a few weeks. The decline was much less evident in non-pregnant ewes fed on this diet because of their less intensive demand for calcium. Serum calcium levels are thus of little value in the diagnosis of mild calcium deficiency. Copper deficiency in lambs, below 600 µg/100ml of blood, has been reported in Sudan (Tartour, 1975; Idris and Tartour, 1975; Idris et al., 1976) and in Ethiopia (Roeder, 1980). Feed Cu concentration is a poor indicator of capacity to meet nutritional needs, because the availability is affected by the presence of other elements (S, Mo, Zn, Fe) and the coefficent of absorption is low and varies with season (Norton and Poppi, 1995).

2.9.2. Bone: Bone provides a more reliable method for assessing calcium and phosphorus status of cattle than blood (Cohen, 1973a, b). It was suggested by Little and Shaw (1979) that 120 mg P/ml bone from the 12th rib indicates deficiency of phosphorus and that levels over 150 mg/ml indicate adequacy.

2.9.3. Liver: Some trace minerals such as Co and Mo cannot be determined in blood with a high degree of accuracy; however, they can be determined in liver where their concentrations are higher. According to McDowell (1997) the liver is particularly useful for evaluating the animal’s status in relation to cobalt, copper, manganese and selenium. The mineral concentration in the liver thus indicates the mineral nutritional status of the animals, and could serve as an indication of soil mineral levels and/or the ability of the forage plants to assimilate minerals from the soil (Judson and McFarlane, 1998). Domestic animals, such as cattle, sheep and goats, may be fed mineral supplements and, consequently, tissue levels may not reflect the position with regard to natural

48 herbage. Therefore, analyses of tissues from free-ranging herbivores, such as camels, may be valuable in establishing a baseline mineral status of the animals and may be used to monitor changes over time. Liver samples from abattoirs have been used in Sudan to detect areas of copper deficiencies (Tartour, 1975) as well as from dead animals in some investigations in South Africa (Van der Veen, 1973). Samples from dead animals are justified for detecting the cause of death but not as a means of detecting marginal mineral deficiencies. It is now a well established and recognized fact that expressing results on a dry matter basis makes comparisons more meaningful than expressing results on a fresh weight basis. 2.10. Mineral deficiencies, Toxicities and imbalances in the camel: 2.10.1. Calcium and Phosphorus: The physiological role of Ca and P in mammals is well established (Broadus, 1990). 99% of Ca and 80% of P in the body is located in the skeleton and act as a mineral source when dietary supply is inadequate (TCORN, 1991). Table 5, shows the concentration of Ca and P in Sudan camel sera extracted from Abu Damir (1998) who reported that, the mean Ca level in the serum of healthy camels is not lower and phosphorus not higher than those in other ruminants as claimed earlier (Wilson, 1984). Therefore, the critical plasma Ca (8 mg/dl) and P (4-4.5 mg/dl) levels (Simesen, 1972; McDowell, 1985) used for other ruminants may be applied to camels. Camel serum Ca elevates significantly by racing (Snow et al., 1988) and by dehydration (Yagil et al., 1975) and decreases by long serum separation time and during active trypanosome parasitaemia (Boid et al., 1986), while plasma P concentration is high when young and increases by cereal feeding and by haemolysis.

49 Table 5: Concentration of Ca and P (mean and range) mg/ 100ml in the camel sera (Sudan)a

Total No. Age Sex Ca P Ref No. 96 A M 9.2±0.99 5.3±0.9 (1) (6.3-11.0) (3.9-6.8) 25 A M&F 9.1±1.00 5.1±0.7 (2) (6.3-10.5) (4.1-7.3) 7 A M&F 9.7±0.60 6.2±0.5 (3) (8.7-10.3) (5.5-6.8) a Abu Damir (1998) A= adult; M= male (1) Wahbi et al. (1980), (2) Abu Damir (1980), (3) Abu Damir et al. (1990)

Camels grazing naturally may not need supplementation unless specific conditions arise, in contrast to those kept in confinement and racing camels. Therefore, with reference to the requirements of dairy and beef cattle and sheep (ARC, 1980; McDowell, 1985; TCORN, 1991), inclusion of 0.5-0.6% Ca and 0.3-0.35% P to camel diet might be satisfactory. Simple Ca deficiency is very rare in ruminants and it occurs only when pasture contains less than 0.2% Ca, However as stated earlier P deficiency is global (Reid and Horvath, 1980). P deficiency in the rumen will reduce microbial growth efficiency and in some cases the digestibility and intake of forage (Durand et al., 1986), especially tropical forages, and it can be severe in grazing animals.Ca and/or P deficiencies or imbalances have attributed various conditions in the camel known as: kraft, bend leg, acidosis, urinary calculi and pica (Mitti Khana). The latter due to primary P deficiency manifested by bone chewing has been reported in Australian camels (Manefield and Tinson, 1996). Animals showing depraved appetite are generally more vulnerable to botulism. Abu Damir (1998) concluded that, camelids seem to be more prone to bone deformities especially those resulting from vitamin D and/or P deficiency than other animals. 2.10.2. Magnesium (Mg): Magnesium (Mg) is an essential dietary element for animals (Speich and Bousquet, 1991; McDowell, 1992 b). Green plants are an excellent dietary source of Mg for animals because of the presence of Mg in (Wilkinson et al., 1990). Mg in soft tissues is concentrated within the cell; the

50 highest concentration is in the liver and skeletal muscles. 75% of blood Mg is in the red blood cells and 25% in serum (Church and Pond, 1988). Magnesium metabolism has been studied most extensively in cattle and sheep, because clinical disorders related to occur most commonly in those species (Birch, 1990). Serum magnesium concentration is less well controlled than that of Ca, and less is known concerning the regulation of serum Mg. There is a reciprocal relationship between Mg and Ca in the serum. Insufficient dietary Mg will lead to hypomagnesaemia. Mg homeostasis is a result of balance between intestinal absorption and renal excretion with additional regulation by adrenals, thyroids and parathyroid glands. However, no endocrine gland exerts a primary regulatory role on plasma Mg concentration. In an immature animal the skeleton is a partially labile source of Mg, whereas in the adult the skeleton is largely inert in relation to Mg mobilization. Magnesium is essentially an intracellular cation and functions as an activator or a catalyst for more than 300 enzymes in the body (Heaton, 1990). Mg plays vital role in muscle contraction, protein, fat and carbohydrate metabolism, methyl group transfer, oxidative , functional properties and stabilization of membranes, cell division, and immune responses. Magnesium regulates ribosomal RNA and DNA structure, thereby affecting cell growth and membrane structure (Gunther, 1990). Magnesium is required for maintenance of normal cellular potassium (Ryan, 1993), and Mg deficiency can lead to intracellular potassium depletion and excessive K excretion (Abbott and Rude, 1993). Magnesium regulates mitochondrial membrane permeability. Mg in the serum of healthy camels was measured by Wahbi et al. (1980) who found 2.5 mg/100 ml Mg in the blood of nomadic camels in the Sudan. 2.10.3. Sodium chloride: Sodium , principally extracellular, are important to maintaining osmotic pressure, acid base balance and membrane potential. Cl ions follow passively the movement of Na ions (Fraser et al., 1991). Camels in their natural habitat are exposed to dehydration, salty bushes or salty water and are well adapted to

51 it, because camel’s kidney has the ability to concentrate urine (Abdalla and Abdalla, 1979). The continuous need of the camel for osmotic pressure readjustment during rehydration and the loss of Na in urine (especially during dehydration), saliva, sweat and milk (Bengoumi et al., 1993) may partially explain the high demand for salt. A high level of corticosterone in the camel increases salt demand (Gauther-Pilters, 1980; Yagil, 1985).The camel sera show a wide range of normal levels of Na and Cl and these are generally higher than those reported for other ruminants (Bono et al., 1983; Abdalla et al., 1988). Wahbi, et al. (1980) reported mean range Meq/L 147 ± 4.2 (129-161). In Sudan camels consume more salt in the rainy season than in summer. This may be due to a high water and low Na content of the green tropical grasses and the frequent loss of Na in urine as a result of free access to water. However, grazing Halophytes such as Atriplex, Salsola, Sueeda spp. And Salvadora presica (salty plants) reduces the requirements for salt supplements. Manefield and Tinson (1996) found that an adult camel consumed between 120-150 g/day when given free access to crystalline salt, they also reported that animals with urinary retention are hypochloraemic, hyperkalaemic, azotaemic and hyponatraemic as a result of cell hypoxia. Sodium is one of the main macro minerals required by animals, and plays an important role in maintaining osmotic pressure, rumen pH and regulating the volume of fluid in the body (Xu et al., 1994). For optimum growth, reproduction and other physiological functions, adequate amounts of sodium need to be supplied through feeds, drinking water and other sources. NRC (1980) reported that minimum concentrations of sodium in the diet are 0.7-0.9 g/kg DM for sheep, and 0.8-1.2 g/kg DM for cattle, with a significant variation between animal species, breeds within species, and maturity status. Under grazing condition, animals may ingest excessive salt through feed, drinking water, and ingestion of soil (Howell, 1996). Excessive intake of sodium is one of the more commonly encountered problems and often causes loss of appetite, reduced milk production and reduced growth (Xu et al., 1994). It has been well documented that sodium is one of the key elements for

52 grazing animals, Wilson (1978) reported that saline water (about 1.5% of total salts) may not affect animal production subject to the environmental conditions, but over 2% total salt in the drinking water is detrimental to production and survival of sheep. For example, Peirce (1957; 1962; 1966; 1968a; 1968b) found that water containing 1.0-1.3% soluble salts reduced appetite and caused some deaths in adult sheep, and sometimes reduced the number of lambs born and their growth rate, but saline water (1.3% NaCl) had no effect on the concentrations of sodium, potassium, calcium or chloride in the blood plasma (Peirce, 1959; 1963). 2.10.4. Potassium (K): Potassium deficiencies in most conventional ruminant diets are unlikely to occur (ARC 1965). Potassium is the third most abundant element in the animal body and is the principal cation of intracellular fluid. It is also a constituent of extracellular fluid where it influences muscle activity. Potassium is required for a variety of body functions including osmotic balance, acid-base equilibrium, several enzyme systems and water balance. An ionic balance exists between K, Na, Ca and Mg. The homeostatic mechanism for K is inseparable from that of Na and aldosterone was found to affect K excretion, high level of K in the extracellular fluid stimulates aldosterone secretion in the same way that low Na does. In K deficiency some Na is transferred inside the cell to replace K, and in that way preserves osmotic and acid-base equilibrium (Church and Pond, 1988). The K requirement appears to be increased for livestock under stress such as pregnancy. Excitement tends to increase urinary loss of K. A high level of dietary K reduces the apparent absorption of Mg (Kemp et al., 1961). Prolonged elevation of K in blood plasma of ruminants may lead to a series of metabolic disturbances including elevated insulin (Lenz et al., 1976). 2.10.5. Copper and Molybdenum: Copper is present in all tissues of animals, and in ruminants is mainly stored in the liver (Underwood, 1977). Cu is necessary for haemoglobin synthesis,

53 erythrocyte production and it is a component of cytochrome oxidase, copper oxidase, lysyl oxidase and superoxide dismutase, which are necessary for the oxidative processes in the body (Underwood, 1977; Mills,1983; Fraser et al., 1991). Feed Cu concentration is a poor indicator of capacity to meet nutritional needs, because the availability is affected by the presence of other elements (S, Mo, Zn, Fe) and the coefficient of absorption is low and varies with season (0.01-0.06) (Norton and Poppi, 1995). Of the numerous world reports of copper deficiency in ruminants only a few are concerned with a deficiency induced by the presence of unusually low concentration of copper [<3 ppm] in the feed. The majority of reports refer to a “conditioned” copper deficiency where normal amounts of copper [6-16 ppm] are inadequate due to other forage constituents such as molybdenum and sulphate which block utilization of copper (Russell et al., 1956). Excess of molybdenum and/or inorganic sulphate, high iron, zinc or protein content in the diet interfere with Cu metabolism in ruminants (Blood and Radostits, 1989). Manefield and Tinson (1996) recommended daily intake of 15-20 mg CuSO4 and claimed that an intake of

100 mg CuSO4 is safe as judged by growth response. Physiological levels of Cu in serum of the camel are reported by many authors in the Sudan table 6, extracted from Abu Damir (1998). 2.10.5.1. Copper in liver: In camels of western Sudan, the mean hepatic copper concentrations of 274.8 (168-350) mg/Kg was reported by Tartour (1975), while in camels from eastern Sudan, the mean liver copper concentrations was 163.6 (30-543.1) mg/Kg (Tartour,1969). Clinical Cu deficiency was reported in many ruminants in countries with large dromedary populations (Sudan, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Kenya, Saudi Arabia, Sultanate of Oman and United Arab Emirates). No clinical cases of Cu deficiency were described in the camel (Hedger et al., 1968; Abu damir, 1980; Ivan et al., 1990; Ali and Al-Noaim, 1992). However there are indications of subclinical or mild hypocuprosis in the camel (serum Cu <0.6 mg/100ml and /or liver Cu <25 mg/Kg).

54 Table 6: Serum copper concentration (mean and range), in various localities, in Sudana

Total No. Age Sex Location Mean (mg/100ml) Reference 6 A M&F Sudan (Nuba Jabal) 109±53.8 (1) (59 – 198) 9 A M&F Sudan (Central) 90.4±14.5 (70 -114) 6 A M&F Sudan (Jebel Mara) 93.3±22.1 (67 – 137) 25 A M&F Sudan (Butana) 92.6±18 (2) (66 – 129) 7 A M Sudan (Eastern) 69±3.0 (3) (Nomadic) (60 – 150) 7 A M Sudan (Eastern) 125±7.0 (Resident) (60 – 150) 96 A M Sudan (Gezira) 118.3±28.8 (4) (60 – 172) a Abu Damir (1998) A = Adult; M = male, F = female (1) Tartour (1975) ; (2) Abu Damir et al. (1983); (3) Abdel-Rahim (1983); (4) Wahbi et al. (1980).

2.10.6. Iron (Fe): Except in animals with severe parasitism or haemrrhaging, iron deficiency is considered rare for grazing livestock due to generally adequate pasture concentrations together with contamination of plants by soil. Iron is a characteristic constituent of the blood and pure crystals of haemoglobin contain 0.335 about 70% of body Fe. Enzymes such as, cytochromes catalases and reductase and peroxidases and the flavoprotein enzymes, NADH and xanthine oxidase, have been found to contain Fe. As well as the muscles which have an oxygen- carrying compound myoglobin. In table 7, some data are available concerning serum iron concentrations, the levels are comparable and within ranges reported for cattle, horses and dogs (Kaneko, 1980). Interspecies comparative studies indicate that, although normal splenic iron level in, normal adult camel, is higher than its hepatic Fe level, it is lower than splenic Fe levels in other ruminants (Tartour, 1969; Awad and Berschneider, 1977). This is confirmed by Abu Damir et al. (1993).

55 Table 7: Concentrations of serum iron in camels in various localities

No. Age Sex Mean and Range Reference Mg/100 ml 10 A M 121 (94-172) (1) 66 A&Y M&F,P 94.6±14.8 (2) (58-128) 70 A&Y M&F,R 101.1±17.7 (61-135) 96 A M 98.5±19 (3) (62-133) - A M&F (84-112) (4) 32 A M&F 113±46 (5) (83-143) 30 101.1 (6) (94.9-122.8) 7 A M&F 70.3±10.2 (7) A = Adult; Y = Young; M = Male; F = Female; P = Pack; R = Riding (1) Bhattacharjee and Banerjee (1962), (2) Tartour and Idris (1970a), (3) Wahbi et al., (1980), (4) Higgins and Kock (1986), (5) Abdalla et al. (1988), (6) Bengoumi et al. (1992), (7) Abu Damir et al. (1993).

2.10.7. Zinc (Zn): More than 20 different enzymes are known to be either zinc metallo enzymes or to require zinc for activation. Zinc has been implicated in conditions such as dwarfism, parakeratosis, anorexia, growth failure, defected cell-mediated immunity and poor sexual development. In camels plasma zinc levels fluctuate between 0.7 – 1.2 mg/100 ml, the general range reported for other animals (Underwood, 1977). Mean serum Zn concentrations of 135 µg/100 ml (Abdel Moty et al., 1968) and 93.4±4.2 µg/100 ml (El Tohamy et al., 1986) were reported in Egyptian camels; 100.5 µg/100 ml in Ethiopian camels (Faye et al., 1986) and 104.8±9.5 µg/100 ml in Sudanese camels (Abu Damir et al., 1993). However, lower values were observed in Dijibouti (Faye et al., 1991) and in the United Arab Emirates Abdalla et al. (1988) reported very low serum concentrations (41 µg, range 37 to 46 µg/100 ml) of Zn in the camels and in the pasture of the UAE together with high infertility in females. These results are confirmed by Wensvoort (1992) who reported Zn in pasture as 1.2 to 21.8 mg/Kg DW which is far below the ARC (1980) recommendation for cattle (30 mg/Kg DM). It seems that camels have lower values than other species kept in

56 the same ecological and feeding conditions. The variation of plasma zinc level according to age and sex has rarely been studied. El Kasmi (1988) found that young camels have lower values. Other workers found that plasma zinc was a discriminant parameter of the age of camels (Faye and Mulato, 1991). But no variation owing to sex has been observed, although a significant decrease in plasma zinc was reported in the she camel at the end of pregnancy (EL-Tohamy et al., 1986), due to an active transfer to the foetus in the last part of gestation. 2.10.8. Manganese (Mn): Manganese deficiency is seldom encountered in large animals fed diets composed of natural ingredients, only common in poultry due to the higher requirement for this element. Mn is especially concentrated in the reproductive organs, so is essential for normal growth and normal reproduction. High mortality, testicular degeneration and poor lactation accompany manganese deficiency in rats. Conception rates in United Kingdom cattle were increased from 48 to 72% following Mn supplementation (Munro, 1957); cattle require approximately 20 ppm Mn and toxicity occur in volcanic soils of South America. Manganese may be a limiting factor in the diet of ruminants and there is a risk of deficiency considering observed levels of manganese in subdesertic forages (Faye et al., 1986). Only two reports could be traced in the literature concerning manganese concentration in the plasma of camels. El-Kasmi (1989) observed a mean value of 174 µg /100 ml with no age or sex differences. However, El-Tohamy et al. (1986) reported lower plasma manganese (33.6 µg/100 ml) in non-pregnant camels. According to these authors, no variation owing to pregnancy was observed, contrary to other trace elements. In ruminants plasma manganese values were generally lower than 10 µg/100 ml (Lamand, 1987). Low hepatic manganese values, as for other ruminants were reported in the camel. These values ranged between 2 – 10 ppm (Abu Damir, 1983; Awad and Berschneider, 1977).

57 2.10.9. Cobalt (CO) and Selenium (Se): As noted earlier the mineral most likely deficient for grazing animals in the world is phosphorus followed by cobalt and copper. Toxicity of both selenium and fluorine are widespread throughout the world. With Co and Se determination of the levels of the functioning forms of the element in the blood and tissues provides more satisfactory indices of the deficiency state in the animal than determination of the levels of the elements themselves. The need of ruminants for Co is related to its being an essential element for the synthesis of vitamin B12 (cyano-cobalamin) in the rumen; when the concentration of Co in the rumen fluid falls below a critical level, placed at 5 ng/ml (Smith and

Marston, 1970), the rate of vitamin B12 synthesis by the rumen organisms is reduced below the sheep’s needs. Cobalt deficiency signs are not specific and it is often difficult to distinguish between Co deficiency and malnutrition due to low intake of calories and protein. Consumption of feedstuffs containing both toxic (>5 ppm) and deficient (<0.1 ppm) concentrations of Se and (<100 mg) of vitamin E (Finlayson et al., 1971) present a world-wide problem to livestock. In grazing animals, three distinct syndromes of Se deficiency have been described: “white muscle disease” (WMD) in newborn or young lambs and calves; unthriftiness, with poor growth rates, which may occur in the absence of any other recognizable disease; retained placenta in cattle and reproductive disorders in all species (Underwood, 1977; Blood and Radostits, 1989). An interrelationship between Se and vitamin E has been established, because Se is partly bound to proteins in tissues and is a component of the enzyme glutathion peroxidase (GSHPx) in erythrocytes. Both GSHPx and vitamin E interrupt the oxidative process which destroy the cells and hence the tissues (Mc Murray et al., 1983).

The determination of tissue GSHPx activity provides a good index of the adequacy or otherwise of dietary Se intakes. GSHPx assays, as described by Hafeman et al. (1974) have therefore been proposed as useful aids in

58 diagnosing selenium deficiency and have been shown to provide a better index of Se levels (Hoekstra, 1975). In Morocco Hamilri et al. (1990) reported blood Se level (82-175 ng/ml) with no age or sex difference. However, Abu Damir (unpublished data) reported 178 and 256 ng/ml of Se in serum of healthy adult camels from eastern and western Sudan respectively. The Se low level reported by Hamilri may be due to dietary Se deficiency (0.02-0.107 mg/Kg DM) and WMD in Morocco. Hamilri et al.

(1990) also showed that the enzyme GSHPx activity is not affected by age and sex but it is linearly correlated with Se level in the blood. This is similar to previous reports in cattle (Wilson and Judson, 1976), sheep (Carlstrom et al.,

1979) and horses (Maylin et al., 1980). Therefore, GSHPx could be used for routine monitoring of Se status in the camel (Abu Damir, 1998). 2.10.10. Fluorine (Fl): Although apparently essential for most species, only the toxic effects of fluorine are likely to be of importance to livestock, chronic fluorosis observed from drinking deep wells water high in fluorine (3 to 15 ppm or more), originating from deep rock formations. Livestock are protected against fluorosis by increased urinary excretion and by deposition in the skeletal tissue. Flourine is a cumulative poison and once bone tissue is saturated continued intakes are deposited in soft tissues with the result being metabolic disturbances and death. 2.10.11. Sulphur (S) and Nitrogen (N): Sulphur is essential for the synthesis of S-amino acids and for microbial protein synthesis. Minimum recommended dietary requirements are 1.5 g S / Kg DM, which would be met from a diet containing 150 g CP / kg DM (Norton and Poppi, 1995). The absolute requirement for S is unrelated to CP content of a diet. Lower levels of S can deplete the microbial pool size and eventually lead to a reduction in digestibility of the diet. With the increasing use of non-protein nitrogen (NPN), there is a greater possibility of sulphur deficiencies. One part of inorganic sulphur to 15 parts of NPN is a standard rercommended for cattle.

59 Ørskov (1992) reported that the requirement for S by rumen microbes may be related to the requirement for N, since the S- containing amino acids comprise a constant proportion of microbial amino acids. The N: S ratios have been variously estimated. Harrison and McAllan (1980) suggested that a ratio of 20: 1 of rumen available N: available S should be satisfactory while the ARC (1980) recommended value is 14: 1. S deficiency in livestock is likely to occur in the tropics because of high rainfall and the highly soluble nature of most natural S salts in soil (Leng, 1990). Consequently, Hunter et al. (1978) observed responses to S supplementation in sheep fed on Stylosanthes guianensis grown on low S soils and with N: S ratios as high as 15: 1. 2.10.12. Iodine (I):

Deficiency of iodine results in a lack of thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) which are essential for cellular oxidation differentiation and growth, neuromuscular functions, reproduction and health of integument in mammals (Underwood, 1977). Although iodine deficiency results primarily from low dietary intake of iodine, its incidence is greatly enhanced by intake of goitrogens that interfere with iodine utilization, metabolic defects in thyroid hormonogenesis and high levels of rubidium, arsenic and fluorides. Iodine deficiency manifested by general weakness, suppression of oestrus periods, lack of libido in the male, stunted growth or stillborn animals with goiter, the degree of which depends on the nature and duration of exposure to causative agents (Smith et al., 1972; Underwood, 1977). More than two thirds of blood iodine is normally in an organic form and bound to albumin and two thirds of this is either thyroxine or related compounds. Thus plasma protein bound iodine (PBI) reflects the activity of the thyroid gland (Varley et al., 1976). Dixit et al. (1970) reported a range of 3.6-7.2 mg/100 ml for PBI in Indian camels during winter, and stated that PBI level decreased with age (<5 years) and during summer by 28%. A slightly higher PBI level was reported by Zein El-Abdin et al., (1974) in amles (7.3 mg/100 ml) and non-pregnant female Egyptian camels. The PBI level is higher in camels than in other domestic animals and is comparable to

60 that of man (Underwood; 1977; Kaneko, 1980). Presence of non-malignant, non-inflammatory enlargement of the thyroid gland together with decreased serum levels of the thyroid hormones (total T3, T4 and free T3 and T4) indicate iodine deficiency in adult camel. PBI of less than 3-4 mg/100ml indicate iodine inadequacy in cattle. Early investigation on mineral elements started as a means of curing mineral deficiencies in livestock, and proceeded to map out the areas of marginal deficiencies by analyzing soil, forage and animal tissues (using the systematic survey technique or regional reconnaissance). In contrast to the systematic survey technique, some investigations were devoted entirely to curing the mineral deficiency diseases. Recently, investigations have been aimed at mapping out areas of marginal mineral deficiencies. The goal is justified because subclinical deficiencies cause high losses in livestock production. For an investigation to contribute much more to the mapping out of marginal mineral deficiencies the following ideas should be considered: Macro-elements and essential micro-elements should be considered. Methods for sample collection and processing in the laboratory should be standardized to allow for objective interpretation of results and proper identification of the animals and areas where they graze before being slaughtered. Lastly but not least, surveys which attempt to use mapping survey techniques should be followed by animal feeding trials to test the response in animals to minerals detected to be deficient by chemical analysis.

61 Materials and Methods

3.1. The study area: Comprises the environmental belt north of 12ºN latitude Fig (1), loosely referred to as arid and semiarid lands (ASAL) of the Sudan; and is part of the central rainlands which stretch from the Ethiopian border in the east to Darfur Region in the west, roughly occupying the area between isohyets 400 and 700 mm, made up of two distinct types of soil in the west the ‘Qoz’ sand soil and the clay soils of the central clay plain in the east. Includes from north to south, significant regions with distinctive characters, Western Region (northern Kordofan and Darfur states), and Eastern Region (northern Sudan, the central clay plains and eastern Sudan states). 3.1.1. Geographical and Major Topographic Features of the Study Areas: 3.1.1.1. Western Region: Is a generic term describing the regions known as Darfur and Kordufan that comprise 850,000 square kilometers. Traditionally, this has been regarded as a single regional unit despite the physical differences. The dominant feature throughout this immense area is the absence of perennial streams; thus, people and animals must remain within reach of permanent wells. Consequently, the population is sparse and unevenly distributed. Western Darfur is an undulating plain dominated by the volcanic massif of Jabal Marrah towering 900 meters above the Sudanic plain; the drainage from Jabal Marrah onto the plain can support a settled population. Western Darfur stands in stark contrast to northern and eastern Darfur, which are semidesert with little water either from the intermittent streams known as wadis or from wells that normally go dry during the winter months. Northwest of Darfur and continuing into Chad lies the unusual region called the jizzu, where sporadic winter rains generated from the Mediterranean frequently provide excellent grazing into January or even February. The southern region of western Sudan is known as the Qoz, a land of sand dunes that in the rainy season is characterized by a rolling mantle of grass

62 and has more reliable sources of water with its bore holes and hafir than does the north. A unique feature of western Sudan is the Nuba Mountain range of southeast Kordofan in the center of the country 3.1.1.2. Eastern Region: Represent northern, eastern and central Sudan. 3.1.1.2.1. Northern Sudan: Lying between the Egyptian border and Khartoum, has two distinct parts, the desert and the Nile Valley. To the east of the Nile, lies the Nubian Desert to the west, the Libyan Desert. They are similar stony, with sandy dunes drifting over the landscape. There is virtually no rainfall in these deserts, and in the Nubian Desert there are no oases. In the west there are a few small watering holes, such as Bir al Natrun, where the water table reaches the surface to form wells that provide water for nomads, caravans, and administrative patrols, although insufficient to support an oasis and inadequate to provide for a settled population. Flowing through the desert is the Nile Valley, whose alluvial strip of habitable land is no more than two kilometers wide and whose productivity depends on the annual flood. 3.1.1.2.2. Central Sudan: Central clay plains stretches from Khartoum in the north to the far reaches of southern Sudan. The central clay plains provide the backbone of Sudan’s economy because they are productive where settlements cluster around available water. Furthermore, in the heartland of the central clay plains lies the Gezira, the land between the Blue Nile and the White Nile where the great Gezira Scheme was developed. This project grows cotton for export and has traditionally produced more than half of Sudan’s revenue and export earnings. 3.1.1.2.3. Eastern Sudan: Eastern states are the clay plains that stretch eastward from the Blue Nile to the Ethiopian frontier endless plains with occasional hills. Northeast lies eastern Sudan, which is divided between desert, semidesert and Savanna southwards, includes Al Butana, the Qash Delta, the Red Sea Hills, and the coastal plain. Al

63 Butana comprises 120,000 square kilometers and lies between latitude 13.5˚ – 17.5˚ N and longitude 32.4˚ – 36.0˚ E. Is an undulating land between Khartoum and Kassala that provides good grazing for camel, sheep, goats and cattle Al Butana traversed by perennial streams Dinder and Rahad between them a low ridge slopes down from the Ethiopian highlands break the plains. East of Al Butana is the Qash Delta, originally a depression, it has been filled with sand and silt brought down by the flash floods of the Qash River, creating a delta above the surrounding plain. Extending 100 kilometers north of Kassala, the whole area watered by the Qash is rich grassland. Trees and bushes provide grazing for the camels from the north, and the rich moist soil provides an abundance of food crops and cotton in New Halfa Scheme. Northward beyond the Qash lie the more formidable Red Sea Hills, Dry, bleak and cooler than the surrounding land, they stretch northward into Egypt, a jumbled mass of hills where life is hard and unpredictable for the hardy Beja inhabitants. Below the hills sprawls the coastal plain of the Red Sea, varying in width from about fifty- six kilometers in the south near Towkar to about twenty-four kilometers near the Egyptian frontier, it is dry and barren. 3.2. Sampling and data collection: Because of literacy and communication difficulties, circulating questionnaires to collect primary data on management and reproductive performance is of little value in this study. A multi-stage sampling procedure was adopted for the primary sampling units (regional locations) and secondary units (nomadic camps). During the wet season, in western Sudan, around Elobied and in eastern Sudan, Elsobag and Rawashda forest areas of Albutana; with the help of nomad representatives, camp elders were contacted randomly. They were asked for participation in the study after they were informed about its objectives and the sampling procedure. Their possible dammering sites during dry season were recorded. Out of a first list including names of those camps elders willing to participate, a second selection was randomly drawn (Snedecor and Cochran,

64 1980). A unique identification number was allocated for each visited camp, which was retained for all samplings. Nomad representatives interviewed in the wet season were re-interviewed during the dry season at the dammering sites to capture seasonal variations. Relevant data on production parameters (births, deaths, purchases and sales, husbandry practices and occurrence of mineral deficiency and toxicity symptoms pica, scouring, swayback etc) were recorded. From live camels only blood samples from jugular vein in plain vacutainers (silicon coated) were collected twice as wet and dry season samples. The sex and age of sampled camels were recorded. Sera were separated by blood centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes, and were kept frozen at -20 C for future analysis. 3.2.1. Western Region: 3.2.1.1. Kordofan camels: In western Sudan (northern Kordofan) Shanabla, Kababish, Kawahla and Hawaweer tribes sample units were chosen from the respective regions of Jebel Kordofan, Jebel Abu Snoon, Um Badir and Khor Tagat during wet season; whereas during dry season from the respective regions of Abkershola-Elmoraib, Alodia, Gerih El Sarha and Gebra respectively. Collectively 145 and 75 adult camels, blood samples for sera separation were collected from kordofan’s representing herds on the natural grazing land in wet and dry season respectively table (8). 3.2.1.2. Darfur camels: Darfor traditional trade routes to libya and Egypt were closed and crises there lead to formation of new trade routes to bypass security affected areas. From Saraf Umra and Zalinji, camel were driven far south to Buram, and further east to Adella bypassing the SLA controlled Eddaen area with the intention of joining Guebesh in west kordofan after crossing the railway line. Darfour camel sera were collected at Kordofan from Quarantine crushes at Elobied and Elrahad stations; 185 sera samples were collected from camels intended for export during brucellosis screening test. 95 sera collected during dry season

65 represent Darfur wet season samples, while the other 90 samples collected during the wet season represent the dry season samples of Darfur bear in mind that Darfur camels spent 20-25 days en route to Kordofan table (8). The local consumption of Darfour female camel intended for export increased; liver, blood and bone samples were collected from Elobied and Tamboul slaughter houses.

Table 8: Sera samples of camels kept on natural pasture, in western Sudan

Region Season No. Sex Age sampled Male Female Kordofan Dry 75 10 65 >5 years Wet 145 30 115 >5 years Darfur a Dry 90 90 >5 years Wet 95 95 > 5 years Total 405 225 180 aSera collected at El Rahad and Elobted Quarantine crushes

3.2.2. Eastern Sudan camels: At Al Butana interior Elsobag locality, during wet season Shukria, Bawadra and Rofaa tribe’s herds were purposively selected for ease of dry season sampling at Elgadarif rain fed schemes to represent the eastern states camel. They graze in natural grass land without any supplementary feeding, but durra cultivation byproducts for five to six months. The main problem is drinking water during the dry season; blood sera were collected in the dry and wet season at the respective regions as in the following: Dry season sera 232 (150 mature females, 40 female calves, 27 mature males and15 immature males). Wet season sera 192 (135 mature females, 32 female calves, 15 mature males and10 immature males). From northern Sudan 21 and from Gezira (Wad Belal) 61 camel sera samples were collected purposively once irrespective of the season because, it has no effect on camel feed composition table (9).

66 Table 9: Camel on natural pasture, sera samples of eastern, Gezira and northern Sudan

Region Season No. sampled Sex Age Male Female >5 years <3 years Albutana Dry 232 42 190 217 15 Wet 192 25 167 150 42 Geziera a 61 11 50 51 10 Northern Sudan a 21 13 8 12 9 Total 506 430 76 aOnly regions, the season has no effect on camel feed

3.3. Camel tissue samples collection Camels slaughtered at Elobied and Elnuhod are from western Sudan and those slaughtered at Tamboul included Darfur and eastern Sudan camels. Samples were also collected from northern Sudan and Khartoum state, irrespective of the season table, 10. Camel tissues, including whole Blood, liver and bone were obtained from camels that had been slaughtered for meat in the slaughter houses of the mentioned towns and from occasionally slaughtered camels elsewhere, during the dry season (December to April, 2000 – 2001) and during the rainy season (July to October of the same years). 87% of the slaughtered camels were >5 years old and 13% less, these camels had been fed entirely on natural grazing. They were clinically healthy and were found to be free oh patho-anatomical abnormalities at post-mortem examination. Tissue samples of Darfur camels were reciprocated, those collected during wet season considered as dry season samples and vice versa. The information about, the natural pasture areas where the slaughtered camel had grazed the previous four to six months, season, age and sex were recorded. During each period of collection, animals which had been sampled were traced back approximately to the region where these animals were kept in the last six months, where samples of soil, water, browse and/or forage from pastures grazed were collected. 3.3.1. Whole blood samples collection: At the slaughtering site camels were hoppled on the ground, using a rope the head was pulled to one side followed by strong hit at the neck center to

67 ecognized e the beast, then the carotid arteries severed and blood collected in McCartney bottles affixed with blank label and closed, kept in ice and forwarded to the laboratory. Sera were separated by blood centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes, and were kept frozen at -20 C. The majority of camels’ sampled, were females (83%) and more than 5 years old. Details about locality, total number, season, and sex of camels sampled were presented in table (10 ). 3.3.2. Liver and bone samples collection: Liver and bone samples were collected after using disposable plastic gloves and a stainless steel knife to avoid contamination. Samples were also collected from northern Sudan and Khartoum state 4 and 3 only liver samples respectively, irrespective of the season. Details about locality, total number, season and sex of camels sampled were presented in table, 10. A small portion of the lobus quadratus was scraped then an approximately 50 g sample of liver was extracted. Muscle tissue was removed from the 10th rib near the vertebral column a section of rib bone 4 to 5 cm in length was removed, samples put in labeled plastic bags and immediately frozen.

Table 10: Numbers of camel tissue samples collected from abattoirs Slab or slaughter Region Season Sex No. of sample Bone house name (blood & liver) Male Female Tamboul Darfur Dry 3 70 73 59 Wet 3 50 53 40 Butana Dry 17 40 57 25 Wet 16 49 65 31 Elobied Darfur Dry 7 11 18 18 Wet 2 7 9 7 Kordofan Dry 3 34 37 19 Wet 7 33 40 17 El nuhod Kordofan Dry 4 10 14 14 Wet 3 8 11 11 Northern &Khartoum States 7 Total 65 (17%) 312 (83%) 384 124

68 3.4. Plant, soil and water samples collection: Information required for collecting soil, water and plant samples were obtained from camp elders and the butcher’s Sheikhs. Slaughtered camels were traced back to their producers and so the communal pastures animals frequently browsed can be approximately located to collect samples of plant, water and soil towards the end of the dry season (March and April, 2000-2001) and wet season (September and October, of the same years). Observations on camels at pasture, examination of plants in grazing areas and conversations with herdsmen show that, camel feed, is largely drawn from browse species. 3.4.1. Plant samples collection: The food spectrum of the camels was determined qualitatively by direct observation. At regular intervals the food intake of the camels in the different vegetation units, was specifically observed. For a qualitative registration each 100 bites of one or more animals were recorded by direct observation to assess food preferences. In some places the grass cover provides sufficient feed supplies, but its utilization is only intermittent. The grass covers offer forage for a large proportion of the year, especially for sedentary herders. In northern Sudan If foliage Acacia nilotica is out of reach of the animals the herdsmen bend or cut branches. Most of all it has to be mentioned at this stage that due to the known flexibility of camels food selection, the list of observed food plants does not pretend to be comprehensive. In this study, for plant feed of camel in eastern and western Sudan the term ‘Forage’ refer to common crop residues, pasture grasses and forbs; whereas ‘Browse’ for shrubs and trees (as are called hereafter). The important plant species sampled in the different grazing areas of western and eastern Sudan are shown in (appendix tables).Twenty-nine browse samples of predominantly trees and shrubs and 24 forage types of crop residues, grasses and forbs were collected from western Sudan in dry and wet seasons. From eastern Sudan twenty–six browse samples of predominantly trees and shrubs and 27 of crop residues, grasses and forbs were collected in dry and wet seasons.

69 The plant samples collected are those recommended by herders in different regions and are the predominant species of plants found within each grazing area. The parts eaten (branches, leaves and fruits in the case of browse, and leaves and stems in the case of forage) during dry and wet season were collected by hand plucking and clipping or were cut with a sickle and freed from soil particles. Samples of crop residues of mechanized and traditional rain fed areas and schemes were collected using the same procedures as for natural land forages. Their local and botanical names were identified; regional plant samples were pooled according to species. After air dryness, cut into pieces (2 to 5cm), and ground in a hammer mill to pass through a 1 mm screen and mixing, 50 g sample was collected into plastic bags for subsequent chemical analysis. 3.4.2. Soil and water samples collection: Soil samples of 100 gm depending on moisture content were taken at a depth of 15 cm avoiding plant roots and humus were collected at the same spots where communal pastures camels frequently grazed. After air drying, soil samples were crushed in a stainless steel sieve and were kept in plastic bags. Bore well water samples were collected from the herds watering points in polythene bottles and identified according to region. 9 soil and 5 water samples from western and eastern Sudan were collected for mineral analysis. 3.5. Chemical analysis methods: 3.5.1. Plant analysis method: 3.5.1.1. Weende proximate analysis Proximate composition was determined for percentage of crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ether extract (EE) and ash according to the methods of AOAC (1990). The gross energy (GE), were calculated using equations from Hvelplund et al. (1995) as follows: GE (MJ/kg DM) = CP content (kg) *24.237 + crude fat content (kg)*34.116 + CHO Content (kg)*17.300.

70 3.5.1.2. Plant wet digestion method for mineral content analysis: Plant samples ranges between 0.5 g and 2.0 g were prepared for mineral analysis by the wet digestion method. The samples are placed in digestion vessels, kjeldahl flasks, using concentrated nitric acid and 70% perchloric acid heated slowly at a low temperature. After digestion, the samples are diluted to the appropriate volume with deionized water. According to UNICMP 929 atomic absorption spectroscopy cook book manual. Working standards prepared using the extracting solution. For calcium and magnesium determination, the final sample dilution and standards should contain 1 % lanthanum as a releasing agent and to overcome potential interferences e.g. from phosphorus and alkali . Calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), cobalt (Co), molybdenum (MO) and copper (Cu) were determined using air / acetylene flame and D2 corrector of the atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS), UNICAM 929. © Unicam Limited (Division of Analytical Technology Inc), 1991, Cambridge, UK.The concentrations of potassium (K) and sodium (Na) determined by flame photometer (Corning) whereas Phosphorus (P) determined Spectrophotometrically at 440 µm according to fertilizers and feedingstuffs regulations (1976 HMSO, 1976), after diluting the ash extract (1:20) and an aliquot of this reacted with ammonium vando molybdate reagent, to form the -yellow complex vanadium phosphomolybdate. 3.5.2. Soil analysis method: Soil samples were analysed for the same minerals analysed in plants after, extracting available cations by acids. Soil Ph was determined using a 1: 2 soil- to- water ratio in a standard glass electrode and a calomel reference electrode. The main method of soil digestion is to use aqua regia which is normally

HCL:HNO3 (3:1) as extracting solution to recover Zn, Cu, Co, Mn, Mo and Fe; for Ca, Mg, P, K and Na Double acid 0.10 HCL in 0.02 H2SO4 extracting solutions were used. All available elements were estimated as previously described.

71 3.5.3. Water analysis method: According to UNICAM 929, AAS methods manual; acid extractable metals obtained by hot 50% nitric acid added to sample prior to filtering. Then treated water samples were filtered through 0.45µm membrane filter. Water samples were analysed for the same minerals determined for plant and soil as previously described. 3.5.4. Liver analysis method: Liver minerals determined by the UNICAM 929 cook book methods, liver organic matter destroyed by a wet-oxidation procedure. 5 g of liver sample, placed in a 250 ml Kjeldahl flask with 10 ml of HNO3, 5 ml of H2SO4 added to complete digestion, finally the digest completed to 100 ml. The standards have the same acid concentration as samples. Liver was analysed for iron, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum and zinc by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry equipped with D2 corrector (UNICAM 929, AAS). 3.5.5. Bone analysis method: Bone samples were split into two halves and bone marrow was removed with a jet of deionized water. After drying and grinding, the organic matter is destroyed by ashing and the soluble mineral constituents dissolved in 6N HCL

+ 6N HNO3 to dehydrate any silica present thus render it insoluble. Subsequently the extract solution analysed for calcium, magnesium and phosphorus, adopted from Fertilizers and Feeding stuffs regulations, 1976 HMSO. Calcium and magnesium determined by AAS, in the presence of lanthanum. Phosphorus is determined Spectrophotometrically at 440 µm, after diluting the ash extract (1: 20) and an aliquot of this reacted with ammonium vando molybdate reagent, to form the orange-yellow complex vanadium phosphomolybdate. 3.5.6. Serum analysis methods:

Sera were analysed for Ca, Mg, Po4, Cu, Zn, Na, K and Fe.

72 3.5.6.1. Serum calcium and magnesium determination method: Serum calcium and magnesium were measured according to the method described by Willis (1961) using AAS (Unicam 929, spectrophotometer,

Unicam instruments, Ltd., Cambridge, England) equipped with D2 for background correction and an air / acetylene flame. The samples were diluted 1:50 with a 0.15 (w/v) lanthanum (as chloride) diluent, as a releasing agent and to overcome potential interferences e.g. from phosphorus and alkali metals. 3.5.6.2. Serum inorganic phosphorus determination method: Serum inorganic phosphate was determined by the method described by (Varley 1967) which was based on removal of protein from the serum by trichloroacetic acid (TCA) with consequent treatment of filtrate with acid molybdate. This will react with inorganic phosphate giving phosphomolybdic acid; the hexvalent molybdenum of the latter was reduced by the giving a blue measurable compound; its absorption measured at 440µm of the UV/VIS spectrophotometer. 3.5.6.3. Serum copper, zinc, and total iron determination methods: Serum copper, zinc and iron were determined by the methods described by Fernandez et al., (1971) and Makino et al., (1981), micro methods. The procedures are based on the precipitation of serum protein before analysis, by 20% (w/v) trichloroacetic acid (TCA), cations were analysed by flame AAS (UNICAM 929). 3.5.6.4. Serum sodium and potassium determination methods: For serum potassium determination, serum diluted 1:50 with deionized water, for sodium an additional 1:50 dilution is required. Also the dilution ratio can be adjusted, to insure that, concentrations fall within a suitable range using Corning (110) flame photometer. 3.6. Natroun Supplementation Trial: It has been well documented that sodium is one of the key elements for grazing animals, some of the Aballa used to supplement their camels with either common salt (El Gureshi) or Natroun. Salt is a very commonly used ingredient,

73 on its own or in mixed preparations. It is always present in skin preparations intended for the relief of musculoskeletal pains in worm drenches, in colic and poor appetite. Camels have a high salt requirement than other livestock (Wilson, 1994). In general, ruminants in tropical regions do not receive mineral supplements other than ordinary common salt (sodium chloride), but depend on pastures for their mineral needs (Mcdowell et al., 1995). Salt is commonly offered to camels (and occasionally other stock) to improve body condition. It is widely believed that salting animals prevents tick infestation, mange and helminthiasis. The contribution of soil, salty feed and saline water resources to total salt intake of camel cannot be ignored under grazing conditions. It has been well documented that sodium is one of the key elements for grazing animals, and plays an important role in maintaining osmotic pressure, rumen pH and regulating the volume of fluid in the body; excessive intake of sodium is one of the more commonly encountered problems and often causes loss of appetite, reduced milk production and reduced growth (Xu et al., 1994). The importance of salt and natroun for camels is common knowledge among camel herders. The consumption of natroun was then explained by the existing theory that camels consumed natroun to correct the salt (NaCl) deficiency in their diet. In the study area, camels depend on salt plants (halophytes), salty soils and sometimes commercial salt supplements for their mineral needs. Most herders claim to follow a regular deficiency preventive routine. Camels kept in the home-based herd were more frequently supplemented with cereals, purchased salt and natroun. This was attributed to the fact that they had limited access to distant grazing areas with salt plants. Wilson (1978) reported that saline water (about 1.5% of total salts) may not affect animal production subject to the environmental conditions, but over 2% total salt in the drinking water is detrimental to production and survival of sheep. The fermentation of feedstuffs by rumen microbes results in acid production, and feedstuffs such as browse also contribute acidity which must be neutralized or buffered to maintain pH. Despite the importance of the acid content of feed during consumption, the

74 release of acids from that same feed during digestion is even more substantial. Van Soest (1994) summarized data indicating that almost 1.8 kg of acetate and from 1 kg to 2.2 kg of propionic acid is absorbed daily from the dairy cow’s rumen. Acidic feedstuff, undoubtedly contributes significantly to the total acid load which must be neutralized by the ruminant to maintain desirable ruminal pH. As pH falls below 6.0, fiber-digesting microbes become less and less active, thereby reducing the extent of fiber digestion. In addition, sustained low pH can actually erode the rumen lining, causing it to become more permissive to the passage of from the rumen to the blood stream. This, in turn, makes the animal more susceptible to liver abscesses and increased histamine production. Ruminants has three primary means of buffering these acid sources: 1) buffers contained in the saliva, 2) inherent buffering capacity of consumed feeds, and 3) buffers added to the animal’s diet like Natroun. Natroun locally known as (Atroun or Jardiga): are special bitter tasting calcaceous soils obtained from certain locations, especially in the Nubian Desert. The rock apparently contains a lot of bicarbonate, calcium and salt (sodium chloride). Natroun is a primary source of sodium carbonate. It is used in the making of toothpaste, in glass and paper making, in soaps and detergents, in the treatment of water for domestic use and in the manufacture of a number of chemicals. One of its most important applications is its use in baking soda and baking powder. It is given in drinking water to improve the appetite and as a vermifuge in camels. In man, it is a widely used antacid, especially Jardiga. Holding believes that the salt functions as an appetizer and natroun above that assist camel in putting weight and appear in healthy condition. Therefore, the possibility that, camel consumes the natroun because of its buffer effect or because of some mineral elements such as P which is deficient in soil and plant of the study area needs to be investigated. This trial was conducted because proper data on the effect of natroun on camel performance is lacking.

75 The objective of this trial is to test the effect of feeding Natroun on the general health of camel. The following hypotheses were tested: measuring the level of voluntary feed intake, some haemogram indices and body weight gain. 3.6.1. Ration formulation: The practice of using molasses/urea as a supplementary feed for livestock has been well understood at semi intensive system around towns fattening farms and irrigated areas. In cattle fattening enterprises, Preston (1985) recommended that molasses (at free choice) should be supplemented with 2.5% urea, cereal straw (0.8% live weight on dry-matter basis) and protein meal about 0.25% of live weight basis. Supplemented and un-supplemented rations for this trial were formulated as in table, 11 and 12 they were iso-caloric and iso-nitrogenous. Natroun samples were analysed for the same minerals as in plants after extracting available cations by soil digestion and analysis methods as previously described.

Table 11: Camel ration supplemented with natroun

Ingredient Percentage (DMB) Molasses 44 % Wheat bran 40 % Ground nut cake 10.0 % Urea 2.5 % Salt 1.0 % Natroun 2.5 %

Table 12: Camel ration un-supplemented with natroun

Ingredient Percentage (DMB) Molasses 44 % Wheat bran 40 % Ground nut cake 12.5 % Urea 2.5 % Salt 1.0 %

76 3.6.2. Experimental animals: Six camels, 4 females and 2 males between (3 – 6) years old and an average weight of 279.6±16.14 Kg were used for a 120-day feeding trial.The selection of these breeds was based on the finding that they are the available ones in the market belonging to the light breed camels and were kept at the central veterinary research laboratories premises. After treatment from internal and external parasites, they were divided randomly into two groups 2 females and one male for each group; tethered individually apart from each other, after ear tagging for identification. For four weeks Abu Sabeen fodders as the only feed and water was provided for acclimatization. After the acclimatization period the quantity of fodder consumed (feed intake) in 24 hours interval by each animal of the two groups was calculated for 30 days as the difference between the residual amount of feed remaining and the amount offered. For 45 days the first group camels were provided individually 5 Kg of supplemented ration, the second group with 5 kg un-supplemented ration. For the second 45 days reciprocal in groups adopted, the second group received the supplemented ration while the first group the un-supplemented ration. Each animal was provided individually with roughage, 10 Kg of green Abu Sabeen fodder daily, after 24 hours the remains were collected and weighed to measure the quantity consumed. 3.6.3. Collection of blood samples: Blood samples were collected weekly by jugular vein puncture into EDTA containing vacutainers for haematological parameters determination. 3.6.4. Laboratory Techniques Blood values were determined based on standard haematological techniques (Jain, 1986). An improved Neubauer Haemocytometer was used to determine the values of RBC and WBC counts. Sahli Helling’s and Microhaematocrit methods were used to determine Hb and PCV values respectively.

77 3.6.5. Live weight measurement: Camels weighed initially and on monthly basis after recording certain body dimentions using a plastic tape according to the following equation as described by Kohler-Rollefson et al. (2001): Weight (Kg) = (AH X CG X AG) 50 Where in meters: AH represents animal height at withers. CG represents the chest girth behind the chest pad. AG represents abdominal girth over the highest part of the hump. 3.7. Statistical analysis: The data was entered into excel spread sheet and checked for error and consistency. SPSS and stata intercool statistical package were used in the analysis. The mean and parameters of dispersion (standard error and standard deviation) were calculated. T-test, Analysis of Variance (Anova), nested anova; chi-square and logistic regression were used in the analysis. Initially the data was explored and assessed visually using graphical presentation and tested for normality when necessary using kolomgrav and franchia test. The t-test was used to compare between two groups such as male and female, dry and wet season and analysis of variance (Anova) was used when more than two groups were compared. Nested anova was used when the effect of certain factors nested within other factors was assessed such the season within region. Binary data (deficient and healthy) was analysed with chi-square and logistic regression was used to identify the factors associated with deficiency (mineral content less than the critical level).

78 Results

This investigation was designed primarily to study the mineral status of camel tissue samples and the nutritive value and mineral status of plants browsed by camel, water consumed and the soil on which the plants grew and not the mineral status of Eastern and Western Sudan plants, soils and water per se. samples were collected in areas browsed by camel regardless of the need for a balanced number of samples. The objectives of the study are to identify mineral deficiencies in soil, plant and animal tissues as constraints to camel production in the Sudan. Western Sudan camel tissue, plant and soil samples were collected from northern Kordofan and fewer samples from Darfur, due to instability in the region, to represent the Western Region. More samples were collected from eastern the Blue Nile Butana area than Geziera and northern Sudan because, most camels were found in Butana area, to represent the Eastern Region. Western Sudan areas vary a great deal because of its vastness; Agro- pastoralists in the area favour livestock production in the Qoz rather than farming, while Eastern Sudan areas can vary within short distances in soil type and botanical composition due to mechanized agriculture. Most of the area in the central plain with clay soils is currently under rain-fed farming with dominant crops of sorghum and sesame. Consequently, the number of tissue and plant samples was disproportionately larger from Western Region (Kordofan and Darfur) than from Eastern Region. In study areas, the following division of seasons can be observed; the duration of these seasons varies with latitude: Dry Season: • Winter Season (December – February) • Advancing monsoon season (March – May), Wet Season: • Rainy or monsoon season (June – September), • Retreating monsoon season (October – November).

79 4.1. Browse and Forages Analysis Results: 4.1.1. Browse and forage proximate analysis: Plants eaten by camels and perceived as important by herders, were sampled during, dry and wet seasons, to investigate the nutrient status, with special regard to minerals. In this study, of the predominantly camel feed plants, in eastern and western Sudan, the common crop residues, pasture grasses and forbs collectively referred to as ‘forage’, whereas shrubs and trees referred to as ‘browse’ were sampled. Twenty-nine browse and 24 forage samples were collected from western Sudan in dry and wet seasons. From eastern Sudan twenty–six browse and 27 forage samples were collected in both seasons as shown in (appendix tables 1-4 ). 4.1.2. Results of proximate analysis: Browse species are preferred during the dry season while in the wet season, forage species were eaten more by camels. Appendix tables (1-4), Brings together the more commonly used forage and browse plants selected by camels per location in dry and wet seasons. The lists are not exhaustive, but are meant to focus on those feeds that are emerging as important in feeding system for camels. Of the most important feed sources listed, Acacia spp., Grewia spp., Maerua spp., Aristida spp., Cenchrus spp., and Indigofera spp., are widely used in the study areas. In the drier areas only Balanites aegyptiaca and Maerua crassifolia are evergreen. Results of the plant samples proximate analysis are presented in table (13). 4.1.3. Effect of location on browse and forage proximate composition: The levels in browses and forages of crude protein (CP), Ether extract (EE) and Ash were significantly higher (P<.05) in the Western Region than in the Eastern Region; whereas crude fiber (CF), Carbohydrate (CHO) and gross energy (GE) were higher in the Eastern Region plants. In both regions high levels of CP and EE were detected in browse than in forage, while high levels of ash, CHO, CF and GE were detected in forage than in browse. GE values well above 18.5

80 MJ/kg DM indicate a high fat content in the feed or a feed high in protein, while low levels would indicate a dilution due to high ash content. 4.1.4. Effect of season on browse and forage proximate composition: With few exceptions, the general trend was for browse and forage CP, EE and ash to increase significantly (P<.05) while CF, CHO and GE declined during wet season. 4.1.5. The interaction effect of location and season on browse and forages: Variation between Western and Eastern Regions, in distributions of seasonal proximate analysis components of browse and forage are shown in table (14) and (15) during dry season and table (16) and (17) during wet season, respectively. During dry season: Almost 3.7% of browse in both regions, 54% of forages in the Western Region and 55% in the Eastern region contained 7% CP or less. 18% of the Western Region and 19% of the Eastern Region browse contained over 30% crude fiber. Likewise 22% and 19% browse contained over 10% ash. 50% of the Western Region and 59% of the Eastern Region forage contained over 30% crude fiber. Likewise 50% and 57% forage contained over 10% ash. During wet season: All browse entries contained CP above 7% and the percentage of deficient forage declined to 33 and 40% in Western and Eastern Regions respectively. 14% of the Western Region and 11% of the Eastern Region browse contained over 30% crude fiber. Likewise 27% and 50% browse contained over 10% ash. 42% of the Western Region and 52% of the Eastern Region forage contained over 30% crude fiber. Likewise 42% and 50% forage contained over 10% ash. During dry and wet season, Forage CF and Ash levels are significantly higher in the Eastern Region than in the Western Region (P<.05). In wet season, forage CP level increased in the Western region than in the Eastern region.

81 4.2. Hydrochemical evaluation of groundwater in Western and Eastern Regions Results: The Ph and mineral contents of the water samples collected are presented in table (18). The Ph of groundwater in Western and Eastern Regions aquifers detected characterized by a slight trend of alkaline chemical reaction especially in the Eastern Region and varies within small ranges. The cations Ca, Zn, P, Cu, Fe and Co levels in water are higher in the Western region (P<.05), while Na, K and Mg, are comparatively low in the Western region than in the Eastern Region (P<.05). No variation in levels of Mo and Mn in both regions.

Table 13: Proximate composition of browses and forages by region, dry and wet season as DM%.

Regions Parameter Eastern Western Type of feed Level Season Mean S.E. Mean S.E. Browse CP% Dry 12.87b 0.65 13.75a 0.68 b a Wet 14.35 0.68 15.26 0.70

Forage Dry 8.68 b 1.13 9.54 a 1.28

Wet 9.85 b 1.15 11.00 a 1.33 Browse EE,% Dry 2.72 0.21 2.87 0.20 Wet 3.04 b 0.28 3.18 a 0.27 Forage Dry 2.01 b 0.31 2.51 a 0.45 Wet 2.00 b 0.35 2.46 a 0.45 Browse Ash,% Dry 9.29 b 0.86 9.43 a 0.92 Wet 9.15 b 0.81 9.56 a 0.81 Forage Dry 9.87 0.45 9.88 0.63 Wet 10.44 0.48 10.59 0.64 Browse CHO Dry 75.12 73.95 Wet 73.46 72.00 Forage Dry 79.44 78.07 Wet 77.70 75.95 Browse CF,% Dry 26.65 1.70 25.71 1.81 Wet 25.64c 1.84 24.21d 1.80 Forage Dry 34.23 c 1.53 31.72 d 1.66 Wet 34.03 1.41 31.16 1.53 Browse GE, MJ/kg Dry 25.21 24.89 Wet 25.07 24.4 Forage Dry 27.5 26.6 Wet 27.3 26.4 a,b,c,d Regional means within a row or seasonal within a column with different superscripts differ (p<.05)

82 Table 14: PA comparison between Regions Browse (DMB), Dry season

Distribution of Crude Protein Means (percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 7.0 7.1 to10.0 10.1 to 15.0 Over 15.0 Western 27 1 4 15 7 Eastern 26 1 4 15 6 Distribution of Ether Extract means (Percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 3.0 3.1 to 5.0 5.1 to 7.0 Over 7.0 Western 27 16 11 Eastern 26 17 8 1 Distribution of Crude Fiber means (Percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 20.0 20.1 to 30.0 30.1 to 40.0 Over 40.0 Western 27 6 14 5 2 Eastern 26 3 16 5 2 Distribution of Ash means (Percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 5.0 5.1 to 10.0 10.1 to 15.0 Over 15.0 Western 27 3 16 6 2 Eastern 26 1 15 5 5

Table 15: PA comparison between Regions Browse (DMB), Wet season

Distribution of Crude Protein Means (percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 7.0 7.1 to10.0 10.1 to 15.0 Over 15.0 Western 29 5 10 14 Eastern 26 3 13 10 Distribution of Ether Extract means (Percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 3.0 3.1 to 5.0 5.1 to 7.0 Over 7.0 Western 29 15 14 Eastern 26 16 8 1 1 Distribution of Crude Fiber means (Percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 20.0 20.1 to 30.0 30.1 to 40.0 Over 40.0 Western 29 10 13 4 2 Eastern 26 8 12 3 3 Distribution of Ash means (Percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 5.0 5.1 to 10.0 10.1 to 15.0 Over 15.0 Western 29 20 8 1 Eastern 26 1 11 13 1

83 Table 16: PA comparison between Regions Forage (DMB), Dry season

Distribution of Crude Protein Means (percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 7.0 7.1 to10.0 10.1 to 15.0 Over 15.0 Western 22 12 4 2 4 Eastern 27 15 4 3 5 Distribution of Ether Extract means (Percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 3.0 3.1 to 5.0 5.1 to 7.0 Over 7.0 Western 22 18 4 Eastern 27 23 4 1 Distribution of Crude Fiber means (Percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 20.0 20.1 to 30.0 30.1 to 40.0 Over 40.0 Western 22 1 5 13 3 Eastern 27 1 5 16 5 Distribution of Ash means (Percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 5.0 5.1 to 10.0 10.1 to 15.0 Over 15.0 Western 22 1 10 11 Eastern 26 2 11 15

Table 17: PA comparison between Regions Forage (DMB), Wet season

Distribution of Crude Protein Means (percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 7.0 7.1 to10.0 10.1 to 15.0 Over 15.0 Western 21 7 4 4 6 Eastern 25 10 5 4 6 Distribution of Ether Extract means (Percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 3.0 3.1 to 5.0 5.1 to 7.0 Over 7.0 Western 21 19 2 Eastern 25 22 2 1 Distribution of Crude Fiber means (Percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 20.0 20.1 to 30.0 30.1 to 40.0 Over 40.0 Western 21 3 8 9 1 Eastern 25 2 7 13 3 Distribution of Ash means (Percent) Location No. of samples 0 to 5.0 5.1 to 10.0 10.1 to 15.0 Over 15.0 Western 21 10 9 2 Eastern 26 11 13 2

84 Table 18: Hydrochemical characteristics of groundwater, during dry season

Parameters Western regiona Eastern Regiona Min. Max. Mean Min. Max. Mean Ph 6.8 9.6 7.72 6.5 7.6 7.56 Sodium mmol/L 96 505d 238.6 116 980e 501.2 Potassium mmol/L 45 220 d 126 55 235 e 168 Calcium ppm 23 45 31.4 b 17 35 27 c Magnesium ppm 20 55 d 29.8 34 75 e 58.8 Zinc ppm 17 32 22.6b 15 22 18.6 c Phosphorus ppm 0.03 0.75 0.41 b 0.08 0.62 0.27 c Copper ppm 0.55 0.82 0.68 b 0.35 0.55 0.46 c Iron ppm 0.5 0.80 0.66 b 0.3 0.5 0.42 c Cobalt ppm 1.1 1.3 1.18 b 0.92 1.2 1.1 c Molybdenum ppm 0.70 0.87 0.79 0.75 0.80 0.80 Manganese ppm 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.05 aMeans are based on 5 samples b,c,d,e Regional means within a row differ (p<.05)

4.3. Soil mineral concentrations: From each, Eastern and Western Region, 9 soil samples were collected from areas where camels were kept, regardless of the same point of collection within dry and wet season. The results of effect of location and season on soil pH and extractable cations are presented in table (19). 4.3.1. Effect of location on soil mineral concentration: The mean level of pH and of available Na, P, Fe, Mo, and Mn tended to increase in the Western Region than in the Eastern region, whereas K and Mg are higher in the Eastern region. 4.3.2. Effect of season on soil mineral concentration: Season effects on pH, K, Mg, Fe and Mo levels tended to increase in dry season whereas, extractable Na, Ca, P, Cu and Mn levels tended to increase in wet season. No significant variation due to season was detected on soil Zn and Co levels.

85 4.3.3. The interaction effect of location and season on soil mineral concentration: 4.3.3.1. Soil Ph, extractable soil sodium and extractable soil potassium: In dry and wet seasons, the pH of soil samples in Western and Eastern Regions were characterized by a slight trend of alkaline chemical reaction especially in the Western Region and varies within small ranges. Eastern Region soil tended to have lower pH than Western Region soil, while extractable soil Na and K were higher in the Eastern than Western Region. Effect of season on soil Na and K was significant, Na level increased during wet season, whereas K during dry season. Individual evaluation of samples based on a critical level of .15 meq/100g for plant growth (Sousa, 1978) potassium deficiencies significantly increased during wet season, in both regions, and variation in percent borderline to deficient samples was higher in Western than in the Eastern Region. Table 19: Soil pH and soil mineral analysis by region, dry and wet season

Critical Easternª %Def Westernª %Def Parameter level Season Mean Mean Ph Dry 7.37 7.49 Wet 7.27 7.37 Sodium, meq/100g Dry 0.22 0.17 Wet 0.34 0.27 Potassium, meq/100g <0.15b Dry 0.54 11 0.43 11 Wet 0.25 22 0.22 33 Calcium, meq/100g <0.35c Dry 5.58 0 5.94 0 Wet 9.46 0 7.76 0 Phosphorus, ppm <5 c Dry 1.74b 77 6.80c 55 Wet 2.70 b 55 8.01 c 44 Magnesium, meq/100g <0.07c Dry 3.80 c 0 2.78 0 Wet 2.1 c 0 1.74 b 0 Copper,ppm <0.6e Dry 2.98 33 2.72 b 11 Wet 8.74 22 2.88 22 Zinc, ppm <2d Dry 7.29 c 33 6.51 b 22 Wet 3.77 22 10.96 22 Iron, ppm <19f Dry 59.48 b 33 103.33 c 11 Wet 61.65 b 11 121.73 c 0 Cobalt, ppm <0.10g Dry 195.78 22 27.08 22 Wet 27.79 22 29.73 22 Molybdenum, ppm Dry 0.54 0.74 Wet 0.44 0.60 Manganese, ppm <19f Dry 8.36 b 56 78.66 c 44 Wet 8.80 b 56 80.62 c 44 b c d ª Means are based on 9 soil samples from each region. Sousa, 1978; Breland, 1976 Sanchez, 1976; eHorowitz and Dantas, 1973; fConrad et al.,1980; gKubota, 1968 hMcDowell and Conrad, 1977. c,d Regional means within a row differ (p<.05)

86 4.3.3.2. Extractable soil mineral (Ca, P and Mg): Extractable soil Ca was higher during wet season in the Eastern Region soils than in comparable soils of the western region and variation between regions was not significant during dry season. Based on a critical level of .35 meq calcium/100g soil for plant growth (Breland, 1976), none of the samples examined were deficient in calcium in both regions. Extractable soil P was significantly higher in Western region soils in both seasons, than in the Eastern Region (P<.05). Opposite to P, extractable soil Mg level was higher in the Eastern than Western region in both seasons. However, based on a critical level of less than 5 ppm P (Breland, 1976) Eastern Region soils had more deficiencies than Western Region in both seasons. Magnesium was not deficient in all samples in both regions based on critical value of .07 meq Mg/100g soil (Breland, 1976). 4.3.3.3. Extractable soil minerals (Cu, Zn and Fe): Variation in extractable soil Cu between regions and seasons is not significant but tended to be higher in the Eastern Region during wet season. Individual evaluation of soil samples indicated copper deficiencies less than 0.6 ppm (Horowitz and Dantas, 1973) higher in the Eastern than Western Region during dry season. In spite of the detected high copper level during wet season in the Eastern Region, soil copper deficient samples are equal in both regions. Variation in extractable soil zinc was not significant among regions during dry season, however during wet season higher levels detected in the Western than the Eastern region. Differences within regions, in dry and wet season, of extractable Zn are significant being higher during dry season in the Eastern Region and during wet season in the Western region (P<.05). Individual evaluation of samples based on a critical level of 2 ppm for normal growth of plants (Sanchez, 1976) indicated 22% of all samples analysed were deficient in Zn and variation in percent borderline to deficient samples was higher in the Eastern Region soils had more deficiencies than Western Region during dry season.

87 Extractable soil iron varies significantly between regions being higher (P<.05) in the Western Region than in the Eastern Region. Differences within region between seasons in extractable soil Fe, higher level detected during wet season in both regions. Individual evaluation based on a critical level of 19 ppm iron for plant growth (Conrad et al., 1980), Eastern Region soils had more deficiencies than Western Region in both seasons 4.3.3.4. Extractable soil minerals (Co,Mo and Mn): Extractable soil Co was very high in the Eastern Region in the dry season than in corresponding soils examined and apart from that no seasonal or regional differences were detected. Based on the critical level of 0.1 ppm cobalt for plants associated with deficiencies in animals (Kubota, 1968), 22% of all soil samples examined were deficient in cobalt and variation among regions was not significant in percent deficient samples. Extractable soil molybdenum tended to increase in dry season than wet season in both regions. Regional Differences were not significant in extractable soil Mo level tended to be high in the Western Region soils than in the Eastern Region. Extractable soil manganese did not vary significantly between regions, but tended to increase in wet season. Levels of Mn less than 19 ppm required for plant growth (Conrad et al., 1980), Eastern Region soils had more deficiencies than Western Region in both seasons. Extractable soil Co and Mn remained essentially the same in both seasons in both locations. 4.4. Mineral concentrations of browse and forage: The mineral contents, of the browse samples collected are presented in table (20) and that of forage in table (21). The mineral contents in browse were significantly higher than in forages in both seasons (P<.01), the exceptions are the levels of Fe and Mn higher in forage than in browse (P<.05). 4.4.1. Effect of location on mineral concentration of browse and forages: The levels of the macro minerals Ca, K and Na and the micro minerals Mn and Fe detected in browse samples are significantly higher in the Western than the Eastern Region (P<.05). Also in forage the levels of P, Mn and Fe detected, are

88 significantly higher in the Western than the Eastern Region. Only Mo levels in browse and forage, Na and K levels in forage are significantly higher in the Eastern than in the western Region. Levels of Cu, Zn and Co in browse and forage, showed nonsignificant variation, between locations. 4.4.2. Effect of season on mineral concentration of browse and forages: Season has no significant effect on levels of minerals in browse, only, Ca, K, Zn and Co tended to increase during wet season. In forage samples, higher levels of Ca, Na, Co, Mn and Fe are detected during dry season, while K, P, Cu, Zn and Mo during wet season, (P<.05), no significant variation due to season was detected on levels of Mg in forage. 4.4.3. The interaction effect of location and season on mineral concentration of browse and forages 4.4.3.1. Calcium (Ca): In both seasons, Location had high significant effect on levels of Ca in browse and forage being higher in the Western than in the Eastern Region (P<.05). In both regions, Season had a significant effect on Ca level of browse being higher in the wet season while Ca level of forage being higher in the dry season. Individual evaluation of plant samples based on dietary Ca requirement of 0.3% for mature cows (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) indicated adequate level of Ca in browse, whereas evaluation of forage samples indicated high percentage of deficient samples during wet season than dry season in both regions. Differences within regions, between seasons, in Ca deficient forage high percentage detected in Western Region than Eastern region during dry season. 4.4.3.2. Phosphorus (P) Season and location had no significant effects on P level of browse being higher in the Eastern Region during dry season and in the Western region during wet season. Season and location had significant effects on P level of forage, being higher in wet season than dry season in both regions (P<.05); and higher levels detected in Western Region than that of the Eastern Region in both seasons (P<.05).

89 Individual evaluation of browse and forage samples in both regions based on dietary P requirement of 0.24% for mature cows (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) indicated high percentage of deficient samples during dry season than wet season in both regions. 4.4.3.3. Potassium (K) In both seasons, location had significant effect on K level of browse and forage. Potassium level of browse being higher, in the Western than in the Eastern Region, while that of forage higher in the Eastern than in the Western Region. Generally Season had a highly significant effect on K level of browse and forage being higher in the wet season. Individual evaluation of plant samples based on dietary K requirement of 0.8% (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) indicated negligible deficiencies in browse and forage only 17% of forage samples were deficient in K during dry season in Western Region. 4.4.3.4. Magnesium (Mg) Season and location had no significant effects; the level of Mg in browse and forage were slightly higher in the Eastern Region during dry season and in the Western region during wet season. Individual evaluation of plant samples based on dietary Mg requirement of 0.2% (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) indicated >50% of forage samples were deficient in Mg during wet season in both regions. Regarding browse, 19% were deficient in the dry season, in both regions. 4.4.3.5. Sodium (Na) Location not season had a significant effect on Na level of browse, high Na level detected in the Western than the Eastern Region. Season and location had significant effect on Na level of forage, high levels detected during dry season than wet season, whereas high level detected in the Eastern Region than Western Region. Individual evaluation of plant samples based on dietary Na requirement of 0.06% (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) indicated high levels of deficiency were detected in forages than in browse. Variation in percent

90 deficient browse samples in Na was not significant among regions in both seasons. Variation in percent deficient forage samples in Na was significantly higher (P<.05) in wet season than dry season in both regions and higher percent deficient samples in Western Region than in Eastern Region in both seasons. 4.4.3.6. Copper (Cu) Season and location had no significant effects on level of Cu in browse; but had significant effect on level of Cu in forage generally being higher (P<.05) in the wet season than in dry season. In the dry season high level of Cu detected in forage in the Eastern region than in the Western Region. Individual evaluation of plant samples based on dietary Cu requirement of 8 ppm (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) indicated only a quarter of browse samples were deficient in Cu during dry and wet season in both regions. Regarding forage, in both regions high level of deficient samples detected during dry season than in wet season. 4.4.3.7. Zinc (Zn) Season had significant effect on levels of Zn in browse and forage, generally high level detected during wet season than dry season (P<.05). Location had no significant effect on level of Zn in browse, but in forage higher levels were detected in the Western Region in both seasons. Individual evaluation of plant samples based on dietary Zn requirement of 40 ppm (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) indicated high percentage of deficient browse in Zn in dry season than in wet season. Regarding forage samples, more than 87% of all forage samples analysed was deficient in Zn and variation in percent borderline to deficient samples was not significant among regions. 4.4.3.8. Cobalt (Co) Location had no significant effect, in both regions Co level of browse generally tended to increase in wet season, while that of forage in the dry season. Individual evaluation of plant samples based on dietary Co requirement of 0.1 ppm (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) indicated Co deficiencies in browse did not occur, only less than 5% detected in forage samples in both regions.

91 4.4.3.9. Manganese (Mn) Location had a significant effect on Mn level of browse and forage being higher in the Western than the Eastern Region. Season had significant effect on Mn level of forage, higher in dry season than wet season in both regions. Individual evaluation of samples based on dietary Mn requirement of 20 ppm (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) indicated more than 15% of browse samples were deficient in Mn and variation in percent borderline to deficient samples was not significant among regions; while evaluation of forage samples indicated Mn level generally was adequate especially in the Western Region. 4.4.3.10. Iron (Fe) Location had a significant effect on Fe level of browse and forage tended to increase in the Western than the Eastern Region. Season had significant effect on Fe level of forage (P<.05), generally high levels were detected in the dry season than wet season. Fe level of forage significantly higher (P<.01) than that of browse and individual evaluation of plant samples based on dietary Fe requirement of 50 ppm (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) indicated none of the forage samples from both regions were Fe deficient; while evaluation of all browse samples indicated 10% were deficient in both regions. 4.4.3.11. Molybdenum (Mo) Location had a significant effect on Mo level of browse and forage being higher (P<.05) in the Eastern than the Western Region. Season had significant effect on Mo level of forage, generally being higher in the wet season than dry season. Individual evaluation of browse indicated Mo level was higher than recommended in both regions. Molybdenum content of all forage samples was below the toxic level of 6 ppm (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) and ratio of Cu to Mo was not calculated because sulphur (S) was not determined in the plants. High levels of CP, EE, Ca, P, Mg, K, Na, Mo, and Cu in the analysed browse samples were detected in wet and dry season than in forage samples. Forage

92 samples studied had very low CP, Na, P, Mo, Zn and Cu contents, but excessive concentrations of Fe and Mn. However, excessive concentrations of Fe and Mo were detected in the browses, while their contents of Cu and Zn are relatively low. Co level was higher in browse during wet season and in forage during dry season. Forage had a significant higher level of CF, CHO and GE in both season, while no significant increase of Ash level may be due to silica and/or aluminum (Al) Table 20: Mineral concentrations in browses by region, dry and wet seaso

Regions Critical Easterna Westernb Mineral levelc Season Mean S.E. %Def Mean S.E. %Def Ca,% <0.3 Dry 1.24d 0.20 7.7 1.44c 0.19 3.7 Wet 1.45 d 0.24 0 1.71 c 0.22 1.8 P,% <0.24 Dry 0.25 0.04 73.1 0.22 0.03 74.1 Wet 0.23 0.02 61.5 0.27 0.05 55.2 K,% <0.8 Dry 1.76 d 0.21 11.5 1.82 c 0.26 7.4 Wet 1.93 d 0.27 11.5 2.05 c 0.27 10.3 Mg,% <0.2 Dry 0.72 0.21 19.2 0.74 0.20 18.5 Wet 0.68 0.21 11.5 0.81 0.22 6.9 Cu, ppm <8 Dry 23.20 3.19 23.1 23.24 3.27 25.9 Wet 23.92 3.34 26.9 23.04 3.24 31.0 Zn, ppm <40 Dry 32.15 3.09 73.1 33.69 2.97 74.1 Wet 35.64 3.75 65.4 35.12 3.58 69.0 Co, ppm <0.1 Dry 0.45 0.03 0 0.47 0.03 0 Wet 0.49 0.04 0 0.49 0.03 0 Mn, ppm <20 Dry 33.43 d 3.00 19.2 44.45 c 10.20 14.8 Wet 34.03 d 2.65 19.2 43.47 c 9.76 17.2 Na,% <0.6 Dry 0.37 0.04 15.4 0.39 0.04 14.8 Wet 0.36 0.04 15.4 0.42 0.05 13.8 Fe, ppm <50 Dry 107.5 d 17.95 7.7 131.08 c 27.40 11.1 Wet 109.88 d 18.10 11.5 113.45 c 17.45 10.3 Mo, ppm <6 Dry 61.43 c 9.28 0 54.02 d 10.56 0 Wet 62.54 c 9.29 0 54.46 d 10.03 0 aMeans are based on 26 samples; bMeans are based on 29 samples; cMcDowell and Conrad, 1977.c,d Regional means within a row differ (p<.05)

93

Table 21: Mineral concentrations in forages by region, dry and wet season

Regions Critical Easterna Westernb Mineral levelc Season Mean S.E. %Def Mean S.E. %Def Ca,% <0.3 Dry 0.89 e 0.17 33.3 0.91e 0.22 43.5 Wet 0.78 0.15 50.0 0.84 0.21 52.4 P,% <0.24 Dry 0.18 d 0.02 77.8 0.21 c 0.03 73.9 Wet 0.22 d e 0.03 61.5 0.26 c e 0.04 57.1 K,% <0.8 Dry 1.62 0.13 7.4 1.42 0.13 17.4 Wet 1.95 e 0.11 3.8 1.84 e 0.14 4.8 Mg,% <0.2 Dry 0.43 0.09 29.6 0.42 0.11 34.8 Wet 0.38 0.08 57.7 0.45 0.13 52.4 Cu, ppm <8 Dry 4.03 0.54 92.6 3.15 0.41 95.7 Wet 7.11 e 0.86 69.2 7.11 e 0.66 66.7 Zn, ppm <40 Dry 27.91 1.84 88.9 28.52 1.89 87.0 Wet 30.09 e 1.99 88.5 30.42 e 2.12 90.5 Co, ppm <0.1 Dry 0.49 e 0.13 3.7 0.52 e 0.15 4.3 Wet 0.32 0.11 3.8 0.31 0.14 4.8 Mn, ppm <20 Dry 91.25 d e 16.22 3.7 106.63 c e 20.54 0 Wet 79.75 d 10.62 3.8 80.54 c 10.10 0 Na,% <0.6 Dry 0.21 e 0.06 55.6 0.16 e 0.06 60.9 Wet 0.17 0.04 69.2 0.08 0.03 81.0 Fe, ppm <50 Dry 427.59 d e 51.24 0 474.70 c e 59.06 0 Wet 383.88 d 49.05 0 419.5 c 57.96 0 Mo, ppm <6 Dry 1.55 0.35 100 1.54 0.39 100 Wet 1.68 e 0.39 100 1.56 e 0.42 100 aMeans are based on 27 samples; bMeans are based on 22 samples; cMcDowell and Conrad, 1977.c,d,e Regional means within a row or seasonal within a column with different superscripts differ (p<.05)

4.5. Mineral concentration of camel tissues: Results for camel tissues mineral contents and number of deficient tissue samples, by region in dry and wet seasons are presented in table (22). 4.5.1. Blood serum minerals: 4.5.1.1. Blood serum calcium: 1087 camel sera samples were tested; the overall mean level of serum Ca detected was 9.08±0.02 (range 6.5-11.5) mg/100 ml. 4.5.1.1.1. Effect of season on serum Ca level: Calcium level in different seasons was explored visual and graphical as illustrated in histograms figure (2). Season did not affect serum calcium and no significant difference in serum calcium level in different seasons was established using t-test (P>.05).

94 4.5.1.1.2. Effect of location on serum Ca level: Variation between regions in mean serum Ca was not significant. Calcium level in different locations was explored visual and graphical as in graph figure (3). 4.5.1.1.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum Ca level: The mean, minimum and maximum reading of calcium level in different sex groups in different locations are shown in the table (23) and figure (4). No significant difference in calcium level in different sex group within location was established using t-test (P>.05).

95 Table 22: Serum, liver and bone mineral concentrations in camel by region, dry and wet seasons

Regionsª Parameter Critical Eastern Kordofan Darfur level Serum Season Mean S.E. %Def Mean S.E. %Def Mean S.E. %Def Ca, mg/100ml <8 b D 8.88 .70 0 9.31 .07 5.00 9.16 .06 9.90 W 9.30 .05 .35 9.04 .05 9.00 8.90 .06 11.50 P, mg/100ml <4.5c D 5.44mt .90 11.10 4.42 m 56.00 4.34 m .53 53.60 W 4.63nt 1.03 54.20 4.36 n 52.00 4.07 n .44 65.40 K, mmol/L D 4.11 .44 4.04 .09 4.16 .04 W 3.93 .03 4.38 .07 3.84 .03 Mg, <1c D 2.22 m .02 2.18 m .03 0.1 1.97 n .02 0.1 mg/100ml W 2.11 n .03 2.10 n .02 2.01 m .02 Na,mmol/L D 162.53 .58 149.74 1.90 162.62 1.07 W 160.18 .47 154.39 1.22 155.20 .99 Cu, ppm <.6d D .90 m .01 1.4 .90 n .02 9.6 .84 n .01 7.1 W .86 m .01 1.0 .84 n .01 17.9 .75 n .01 19.5 Zn, ppm <.6c D .99 .14 2.8 .95 .20 21.8 .98 .01 7.7 W .93 .09 2.6 .99 .17 10.9 .84 .10 42.12 Fe, ppm D 1.27 .01 .97 .02 1.22 .01 W 1.21 .01 1.00 .02 1.09 .01 Liver ppm Mn <8c D 11.54 .21 0 12.04 .26 0 11.35 .23 2.12 W 11.46 .18 0 11.73 .23 0 10.96 .21 0 Co <.05c D .46n .01 0 .47n .01 0 .49n .01 0 W .44m .01 0 .40m .01 0 .45m .01 0 Fe <180 r D 351.44 5.12 0 355.47 6.13 0 340.19 3.19 0 W 347.75 4.33 0 343.11 5.01 0 334.11 3.53 0 Mo <2 r D 3.15 .11 0 2.97 .09 0 3.02 .08 0 W 3.12 .09 0 2.83 .11 0 2.83 .07 0 Cu <75r D 156.16 4.85 0 177.86 7.26 0 158.42 4.29 1.06 W 147.68 3.61 0 160.24 7.17 0 153.86 4.96 0 Zn <84g D 162.65 5.08 8.8 165.88 4.69 3.9 153.65 3.35 6.6 W 153.74 4.09 7.7 160.06 4.19 0 151.81 3.77 3.2 Bone (DM fat free) Ca,% <24.5e D 27.94 .06 0 28.26 .05 0 28.22 .04 0 W 26.54 .11 0 28.06 .06 0 27.87 .09 0 Mg,% D .38 .01 0 .40 .01 0 .41 .003 0 W .39 .01 0 .41 .01 0 .39 .004 0 P,% <11.5e D 12.33 .06 0 12.50 .08 0 13.21 .04 0 W 11.02 .05 0 12.31 .08 0 12.50 .07 0

aMeans are based on the following number of samples: serum – 232, 125 and 183 for Ca, P, Na and Mg during dry season in Eastern , Kordofan and Darfur Regions, respectively. 217, 125 and 183 for the rest except Zn in Kordofan 165. During wet season 192, 196 and 159 for all minerals in Eastern , Kordofan and Darfur Regions, respectively. Liver – 57, 51 and 91 during dry season and 65, 51 and 62 during wet season for all minerals in Eastern , Kordofan and Darfur Regions, respectively. Bone – 25, 33 and 77 during dry season and 31, 28 and 49 during wet season for all minerals in Eastern , Kordofan and Darfur Regions, respectively. bMcDowell, 1976; cMcDowell and Conrad, 1977;dTartour, 1975; eLittle, 1972; gMiller et al., r 1968; McDowell et al., 1980. m,n,t Regional means within a row with different superscripts differ (p<.05) or seasonal within a column with different superscripts differ (p<.01)

96 Figure 2: Serum calcium level in dry and wet season

Dry Wet .6

.5

.4

.3

.2

.1

0 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 Fraction

Calcuim Histograms by Season Figure 3: Mean serum calcium level in different regions Calcuim 11.5

6.5 Darfur Eastern Kordofan

Table 23: Mean serum calcium level in male and female camels in different regions

Location Male Female Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Darfur 201 9.05±.05 6.5 11 140 9.03±.07 6.7 11.2

Kordofan 57 9.34±.07 7.1 11 264 9.10± .05 6.5 11.5

Eastern 67 9.19±.08 7.9 11.5 357 9.0 5±.04 6.5 11.5

97 Figure 4: Mean serum calcium level in male and female camels in different regions

9.35

9.3

9.25

9.2

9.15

9.1

9.05

9

8.95

8.9

8.85 Darfur Kordofan Eastern Male 9.047524 9.336843 9.18806 Female 9.028571 9.10303 9.049299

4.5.1.1.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum Ca level: The mean, minimum and maximum reading of calcium level in wet and dry seasons, in different locations are shown in table (24) and graph figure (5). Means of serum Ca concentration in Darfur, tended to be lower during wet season than in the dry season, whereas in the Eastern Region lower during dry season than wet season. Both were below the critical level of 9 mg Ca/100ml serum as suggested by Marshal et al., (1973). In Kordofan the level is higher during dry season than in the other regions, but lower during wet season than the Eastern region level.

98 Table 24: Mean serum calcium level in dry and wet season in different regions

Location Dry season Wet season Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma e . n x e . n x Darfur 183 9.16±.06 6.7 11.2 159 8.90±.06 6.5 10.4

Kordofa 125 9.31±.07 6.5 11.5 196 9.04±.05 6.5 11 n Eastern 232 8.89 ±.70 6.9 11 192 9.30±.05 6.5 11.5

Figure 5: Mean serum calcium level in dry and wet season in different regions

Mean calcium reading in dry and wet season in different location

10.2

10

9.8

9.6

9.4 Dry season 9.2 Wet season 9

8.8

8.6

8.4

8.2 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

Table 25: Mean serum calcium level in male and female in different seasons

Locatio Male Female n Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma e . n x e . n x Dry 160 9.13±.05 6.9 11 380 9.06± .06 6.5 11.5 Wet 166 9.13±.06 6.5 11 381 9.07± .03 6.5 11.5

99 4.5.1.1.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum Ca level: The mean, minimum and maximum reading, of serum calcium level, in different sex groups in dry and wet seasons shown in table (25). Ratio of males to females sampled less than 1:2, in both seasons significantly high levels were detected in males than in females. All the factors (sex season and location) that could possibly affect the level of serum calcium or could have a possible impact were assessed in nested ANOVA model and none of the previous factors was found to have a significant impact except the season when assessed as a nested factor within location. 4.5.1.1.6. Effect of sex, season and location on prevalence of calcium critical level: 1087 sera samples were screened against the critical level 9 mg calcium/ 100 ml serum (Marshall et al., 1973), the overall incidence of Ca deficiency was 40.8%. However when 8 mg calcium/100 ml serum is considered the critical level as suggested by (Simesen, 1972; McDowell, 1985; McDowell and Conrad, 1977), the overall incidence of Ca critical level was 8.5%. No significant difference between prevalence of calcium low level due to sex effect 5.5% of males and 9.7% of females in all samples analysed were low in Ca as shown in table (26). The effect of season on incidence of serum Ca low level is illustrated in table (27) and figure (6). High percentage of animals with calcium below the critical level was found in samples collected during wet season (10.2%) compared to sample collected in dry season (6.7%). No variation in the level of calcium deficient samples in different regions was established using chi-square, the lowest estimate detected in the Eastern Region as shown in table (28) and figure (7).

100 Table 26: Calcium level in different sex groups

SEX * DEFICIEN Crosstabulation

DEFICIEN Deficient Healthy Total SEX Male Count 18 307 325 % within SEX 5.5% 94.5% 100.0% Female Count 74 687 761 % within SEX 9.7% 90.3% 100.0% Total Count 92 994 1086 % within SEX 8.5% 91.5% 100.0%

Table 27: Dry and wet season serum calcium as related to critical level

SEASON * DEFICIEN Crosstabulation

DEFICIEN Deficient Healthy Total SEASON Dry Count 36 503 539 % within SEASON 6.7% 93.3% 100.0% Wet Count 56 491 547 % within SEASON 10.2% 89.8% 100.0% Total Count 92 994 1086 % within SEASON 8.5% 91.5% 100.0%

Figure 6: Dry and wet serum calcium as related to critical level

Calcium deficiency in different seasons

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0 Dry Wet

101 Table 28: Different regions serum calcium as related to critical level

LOCATION * DEFICIEN Crosstabulation

DEFICIEN Deficient Healthy Total LOCATION Darfur Count 31 310 341 % within LOCATION 9.1% 90.9% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 33.7% 31.2% 31.4% Kordofan Count 28 293 321 % within LOCATION 8.7% 91.3% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 30.4% 29.5% 29.6% Eastern Count 33 391 424 % within LOCATION 7.8% 92.2% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 35.9% 39.3% 39.0% Total Count 92 994 1086 % within LOCATION 8.5% 91.5% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Figure 7: Different regions serum calcium as related to critical level

Calcium deficiency in different regions

9.2 9 8.8 8.6 8.4 8.2 8 7.8 7.6 7.4 7.2 7 Darfur Kordofan Eastern 4.5.

1.1.6.4. Interaction effect of location, sex and season on serum Ca critical level: The interaction between effect of location, sex group and season was explored; a high percentage of animal with calcium below the critical level was found among female in Darfur (12.1%), followed by female in Kordofan (9.5%) and in the Eastern Region (9.0%). The least estimate obtained was in male camel in Eastern Sudan (1.5%) as illustrated in table (29) and figure (8). As shown in table (30) and figure (9), though no significant difference in the prevalence of calcium among the different sex groups and locations was established with chi- square, profound impact on calcium level in samples was detected when the

102 previous factors were assessed in a logistic model. Both factors were found to be a predisposing factor, the risk of deficiency in the wet season was almost twice that during the dry season (odds ratio=.698). The risk of deficiency in Kordofan (odds ratio=1.72) and Eastern (odds ratio =1.41) is very high in comparison to Darfur.

Table 29: Sex and location effect on serum calcium as related to critical level

SEX * DEFICIEN * LOCATION Crosstabulation

DEFICIEN LOCATION Deficient Healthy Total Darfur SEX Male Count 14 187 201 % within SEX 7.0% 93.0% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 45.2% 60.3% 58.9% Female Count 17 123 140 % within SEX 12.1% 87.9% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 54.8% 39.7% 41.1% Total Count 31 310 341 % within SEX 9.1% 90.9% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Kordofan SEX Male Count 3 54 57 % within SEX 5.3% 94.7% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 10.7% 18.4% 17.8% Female Count 25 239 264 % within SEX 9.5% 90.5% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 89.3% 81.6% 82.2% Total Count 28 293 321 % within SEX 8.7% 91.3% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Eastern SEX Male Count 1 66 67 % within SEX 1.5% 98.5% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 3.0% 16.9% 15.8% Female Count 32 325 357 % within SEX 9.0% 91.0% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 97.0% 83.1% 84.2% Total Count 33 391 424 % within SEX 7.8% 92.2% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

103 Figure 8: Sex and location effect on serum calcium as related to critical level

The percentage of animals with calcium below the critical level

14

12

10

8 Male Female 6

4

2

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

Table 30: Season and location effect on serum calcium as related to critical level

SEASON * DEFICIEN * LOCATION Crosstabulation DEFICIEN LOCATION Deficient Healthy Total Darfur SEASON Dry Count 12 170 182 % within SEASON 6.6% 93.4% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 38.7% 54.8% 53.4% Wet Count 19 140 159 % within SEASON 11.9% 88.1% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 61.3% 45.2% 46.6% Total Count 31 310 341 % within SEASON 9.1% 90.9% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% FigureKordofan 9: SeasonSEASON and locationDry effectCount on serum calcium as9 related 116to critical 125 level % within SEASON 7.2% 92.8% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 32.1% 39.6% 38.9% Wet Count 19 177 196 % within SEASON 9.7% 90.3% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 67.9% 60.4% 61.1% Total Count 28 293 321 % within SEASON 8.7% 91.3% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Eastern SEASON Dry Count 15 217 232 % within SEASON 6.5% 93.5% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 45.5% 55.5% 54.7% Wet Count 18 174 192 % within SEASON 9.4% 90.6% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 54.5% 44.5% 45.3% Total Count 33 391 424 % within SEASON 7.8% 92.2% 100.0% % within DEFICIEN 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

104 Percentage of camels with calcium below the critical level

12

10

8

Dry 6 Wet

4

2

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.1.2. Blood serum phosphorus: 1110 serum samples were tested, the overall mean level of serum phosphorus detected was 4.63±86 (range 3.0-7.6) mg/100 ml.

4.5.1.2.1. Effect of season on serum P level: Phosphorus level detected in different season was explored visually and graphically as in histograms figure (10). However, highly significant variation (P<.01) in phosphorus level between seasons detected, being higher during dry season (4.36±.04) than in wet season (4.57±.06) mg/100 ml.

Figure 10: Serum phosphorus level in dry and wet seasons

Phosphorus 5.8

5.1

4.4

3.7

3 Dry Wet

105 4.5.1.2.2. Effect of locations on serum P level: Phosphorus level in different locations was explored visual and graphical as in histograms figure (11). No variation between regioins in serum P level. Figure 11: Serum phosphorus level in different regions

Darfur Eastern .75 .7 .65 .6 .55 .5 .45 .4 .35 .3 .25 .2 .15 .1 .05 0 3 3.6 4.2 4.8 5.4 6 6.6 7.2 Kordofan .75 Fraction .7 .65 .6 .55 .5 .45 .4 .35 .3 .25 .2 .15 .1 .05 0 3 3.6 4.2 4.8 5.4 6 6.6 7.2 Phosphorus Histograms by Location 4.5.1.2.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum P level: Detailed account of phosphorus levels detected in serum samples collected from male and female camels in Darfur, Kordofan and Eastern Regions is shown in table (31) and Figure (12). No significant difference in phosphorus level in different sex groups was established using t-test. However, in Kordofan P level in male and female camels tended to be higher than in the other two regions.

Table 31: Mean serum phosphorus level in male and female in different regions

Location Female Male Sampl Mean±S.D Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.D Mi Ma e . n x e . n x Darfur 164 4.39±.60 3 5.8 202 4.3±.47 3.2 5.5 Kordofa 357 4.93±.97 3.1 5.8 67 5.82±1.10 3.5 7.6 n Eastern 263 4.41± .63 3 6 57 4.29±.45 3.3 5.9

106 Figure 12: Mean serum phosphorus level in male and female in different regions

Phosphorus in different sex group and locations

8

7

6

5

Female 4 Male

3

2

1

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.1.2.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum P level: Camel sera collected from different regions in dry and wet seasons were processed, results as in table (32) and figure (13). In all regions, higher serum P levels were detected during dry season than in wet season. Serum P level is significantly higher (P<.01) in the Eastern Region during dry and wet season than in the other two regions. 4.5.1.2.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum P level: Detailed account of the interaction effect of sex and season on serum P level is shown in table (33) and figure (14); in both sexes serum P level is higher during dry season than in wet season. No variation in serum P level due to sex during wet season, whereas during dry season female mean serum P level tended to be higher than in male.

107 4.5.1.2.6. Effect of sex, season and location on prevalence of phosphorus critical level: 1110 camel sera samples were screened against the critical level of 4.5 mg phosphorus/ 100 ml serum (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) the overall incidence of P below critical level was 47.1%. No significant difference with chi-square due to sex, in incidence of serum P deficiency, tended to increase in male than in female table (34) and figure (15). The effect of season on incidence of serum P deficiency is illustrated in table (35) and figure (16). High percentage of animals with phosphorus below the critical level was found in samples collected during wet season (56.7%) compared to sample collected in dry season (37%). Variation in the level of phosphorus deficient samples in different regions was established using chi-square, the lowest estimate detected in the Eastern Region as shown in table (36) and figure (17).

Table 32: Mean serum phosphorus level in dry and wet seasons in different regions

Location Dry season Wet season Sampl Meanm±S. Mi Ma Sampl Meann±S. Mi Ma e E. n x e E. n x Darfur 183 4.34±.53 3.0 5.8 159 4.07±.44 3.2 5.2 Kordofa 125 4.42 ± 3.0 6.0 196 4.36± 3.0 5.8 n Eastern 232 5.44 ±90 3.3 7.6 192 4.63±1.03 3.1 7.6 mn means with different superscripts differ (p<.01)

108 Figure 13: Mean serum phosphorus level in dry and wet seasons in different regions

Phosphorus in different seasons and locations

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Darfur Eastern Kordofan Dry season 4.340437 5.440517 4.4232 Wet Season 4.074843 4.629687 4.364615

Table 33: Mean serum phosphorus level in male and female in different seasons Season Female Male Sample Mean±S.D. Min Max Sample Mean±S.D. Min Max Dry season 380 4.86±.89 3 7.6 160 4.77±.92 3.2 7.6 Wet season 404 4.44 ±.74 3 7.5 166 4.46±.84 3.2 7.6

Table 34: Male and female serum phosphorus as related to critical level

Crosstab

Health status Below the Above the critical level critical level Total Sex Male Count 161 165 326 % within Sex 49.4% 50.6% 100.0% Female Count 340 397 737 % within Sex 46.1% 53.9% 100.0% Total Count 501 562 1063 % within Sex 47.1% 52.9% 100.0%

109 Table 35: Dry and wet season serum phosphorus as related to critical level

Crosstab

Health status Below the Above the critical level critical level Total Season Dry Count 191 325 516 % within Season 37.0% 63.0% 100.0% Wet Count 310 237 547 % within Season 56.7% 43.3% 100.0% Total Count 501 562 1063 % within Season 47.1% 52.9% 100.0%

Figure 14: Mean serum phosphorus level in male and female in different seasons

The mean phosphorus in different sex group

12

10

8

Dry season 6 Wet season

4

2

0 Female Male

110 Figure 15: Male and female serum phosphorus as related to critical level

The level of PO4 in different sex goup

56.00% 54.00% 52.00% 50.00%

48.00% Less than critical level 46.00% Above critical level Percentage 44.00% 42.00% 40.00% Male Female Sex

Figure 16: Dry and wet season serum phosphorus as related to critical level

PO4 level in wet and dry season

70.00%

60.00%

50.00%

40.00% Less than critical level Above critical level 30.00%

20.00%

10.00%

0.00% Dry Wet

111 Table 36: Different regions serum phosphorus as related to critical level

Crosstab

Health status Below the Above the critical level critical level Total Location Darfur Count 202 140 342 % within Location 59.1% 40.9% 100.0% Kordofan Count 172 149 321 % within Location 53.6% 46.4% 100.0% Eastern Count 127 273 400 % within Location 31.8% 68.3% 100.0% Total Count 501 562 1063 % within Location 47.1% 52.9% 100.0%

Figure 17: Different regions serum phosphorus as related to critical level

PO4 level in different location

70.00%

60.00%

50.00%

40.00% Less than critical level 30.00% More than critical level

20.00%

10.00%

0.00% Darfur Eastern Kordofan

112

Figure 18: Sex and location effect on serum phosphorus as related to critical level

Percentage of animals with PO4 less than the critical level

61.40% 59.60% 70.00% 55.70%

52.30% 60.00%

50.00% 37.20%

40.00% Male 30.00% Female

20.00%

4.50% 10.00%

0.00% Darfur Eastern Kordofan

Table 37: Sex and location effect on serum phosphorus as related to critical level

Crosstab

Health status Below the Above the Location critical level critical level Total Darfur Sex Male Count 124 78 202 % within Sex 61.4% 38.6% 100.0% Female Count 78 62 140 % within Sex 55.7% 44.3% 100.0% Total Count 202 140 342 % within Sex 59.1% 40.9% 100.0% Kordofan Sex Male Count 34 23 57 % within Sex 59.6% 40.4% 100.0% Female Count 138 126 264 % within Sex 52.3% 47.7% 100.0% Total Count 172 149 321 % within Sex 53.6% 46.4% 100.0% Eastern Sex Male Count 3 64 67 % within Sex 4.5% 95.5% 100.0% Female Count 124 209 333 % within Sex 37.2% 62.8% 100.0% Total Count 127 273 400 % within Sex 31.8% 68.3% 100.0%

113 4.5.1.2.7. Interaction effect of sex, season and location on serum P critical level: The interaction between effect of location, sex group and season was explored, a high percentage of animal with phosphorus below the critical level was found among male in Darfur (61.4%), followed by male in Kordofan (55.41%) and female in Darfur (55.7%). The least estimate obtained was in male camel in Eastern Sudan (4.5%) as illustrated in table (37) and figure (17). The interaction effect of season between regions data are presented in table (38) and figure (18). The discrepancy in the occurrence of phosphorus deficiency in different seasons (Dry and Wet) is pronounced in the Eastern Region and it was found to be statistically significant only there. It was (54.2%) in the wet season and (11.1%) in the dry season. Comparable results in the different seasons were obtained in Darfur and Kordofan. The three factors (sex, location and season) were assessed in a logistic regression model. The season was found to be a possible risk factor with profound effect on phosphorus level. The risk of deficiency during the wet season was found to be almost double the risk during the dry season (Odds ratio=.43). The risk of phosphorus deficiency in Darfur was found to be three times that in Eastern Sudan (odds ratio=3.6) and 1.6 the risk in Kordofan.

114 Table 38: Season and location effect on serum phosphorus as related to critical level

Crosstab

Health status Below the Above the Location critical level critical level Total Darfur Season Dry Count 98 85 183 % within Season 53.6% 46.4% 100.0% Wet Count 104 55 159 % within Season 65.4% 34.6% 100.0% Total Count 202 140 342 % within Season 59.1% 40.9% 100.0% Kordofan Season Dry Count 70 55 125 % within Season 56.0% 44.0% 100.0% Wet Count 102 94 196 % within Season 52.0% 48.0% 100.0% Total Count 172 149 321 % within Season 53.6% 46.4% 100.0% Eastern Season Dry Count 23 185 208 % within Season 11.1% 88.9% 100.0% Wet Count 104 88 192 % within Season 54.2% 45.8% 100.0% Total Count 127 273 400 % within Season 31.8% 68.3% 100.0%

Figure 19: Season and location effect on serum phosphorus as related to critical level

Percentage of animal with PO4 than the critical level

65.40% 70.00%

60.00% 56.00% 53.60% 54.20% 52.00% 50.00%

40.00% Dry 30.00% Wet

20.00% 11.10% 10.00%

0.00% Darfur Eastern Kordofan

115 4.5.1.3. Blood serum magnesium:

1087 camel sera samples were processed to determine the level of magnesium. The overall mean value of magnesium detected was 2.10±.011 (range1.0-3.6) mg/100 ml.

4.5.1.3.1. Effect of season on serum Mg level: The variation in the level of magnesium detected in dry and wet seasons was significant (P<.05). The average level of magnesium in samples collected during dry and wet season was 2.13±.016 and 2.08±.02 mg/100 ml, respectively. The frequency and the data distribution are shown in figure (20).

Figure 20: Serum Mg level in dry and wet season

Dry Wet .5 .45 .4 .35 .3 .25 .2 .15 .1 .05 0 1 1.37 1.74 2.11 2.48 2.85 3.223.59 1 1.37 1.74 2.11 2.48 2.85 3.22 3.59 raction F

Magnesi um Histograms by Season Table 39: Serum magnesium level in different regions Region Samples Mean S.E. S.d Min. Max Darfur 342 1.98 .017 .31 1 2.8 Kordofan 321 2.13 .019 .35 1 3 Eastern 424 2.17 .019 .40 1.2 3.6

4.5.1.3.2. Effect of location on serum Mg level

Variation in serum magnesium among locations was not significant. However, location was found to have a significant effect on magnesium level when was tested in an ANOVA model. The average magnesium levels detected were higher in the Eastern Region followed by Kordofan and least in Darfur, detailed results are presented in table (39).

116 4.5.1.3.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum Mg level: Detailed account of magnesium levels detected in serum samples collected from male and female camels in Darfur, Kordofan and Eastern Regions is shown in table (40) and figure (21).The highest value of magnesium detected in males of the Eastern Region and the lowest is in females of Darfur Region. Means of serum magnesium in samples tested indicated significantly higher levels in males than in females in all regions. The overall average of magnesium was higher among male than among female camels.

Table 40: Male and female, serum magnesium level in different regions

Location Male Female Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Darfur 202 2.03 ±.02 1.4 2.7 140 1.93± .03 1 2.8 Kordofan 57 2.19±.31 1.5 2.9 264 2.12±.36 1 3 Eastern 67 2.49 ±.05 1.4 3.5 357 2.11±.20 1.2 3.6 Figure 21: Male and female, serum magnesium level in different regions

The level of magnesium in different sex groups within different seasons

2.16

2.14

2.12

2.1

2.08 Dry Season Wet Season 2.06

2.04

2.02

2

1.98 Male Female 4.5.1.3.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum Mg level: Table (41), and figure (21 ) summarizes the level of serum Mg in different seasons within the three regions of the study. The mean serum Mg level seems to be a little high in wet season compared to the dry season in Darfur. In Kordofan and the Eastern Region serum Mg level is higher during dry season than wet season.

117 Table 41: Dry and wet season, serum magnesium level in different regions

Location Dry Season Wet Season Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma e . n x e . n x Darfur 183 1.97±.02 1.0 2.8 159 2.01±.02 1.4 2.7 Kordofa 125 2.18±.03 1.0 3.0 196 2.10±.02 1.1 2.8 n Eastern 232 2.22±.02 1.2 3.6 192 2.11±.03 1.2 3.5 Figure 22: Dry and wet season, serum magnesium level in different regions

The magnesium level in different seasons within different locations

2.25

2.2

2.15

2.1

2.05 Dry Season 2 Wet Season

1.95

1.9

1.85

1.8 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.1.3.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum Mg level Detailed accounts, of the interaction effect of sex and season on serum Mg level are shown in table (42) and figure (23). In male camels the level of Mg in both seasons are equal and tended to be higher than in female and generally the level is higher during dry season than wet season.

118 Table 42: Male and female, serum magnesium level in different seasons

Male Female No. Mean±S.E Min. Max No. Mean±S.E. Min. Max. Dry Season 160 2.15 ±.03 1.4 3.2 380 2.12 ±.02 1.0 3.6 Wet Season 166 2.15 ±.03 1.4 3.5 381 2.05± .02 1.1 3.0

Figure 23: Male and female, serum magnesium level in different seasons

The magnesium serum level in different sex groups in different locations

2.5

2

1.5 Male Female 1

0.5

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.1.3.6. Effect of sex, season and location on prevalence of magnesium critical level: 1087 camel sera samples were screened against the critical level of 1.0 mg magnesium/ 100 ml serum (McDowell and Conrad, 1977). 0.2% of all animals were deficient in Mg representing only.3% of the female population of Darfur and Kordofan Regions, one female from each region during dry season.

4.5.1.4. Blood serum sodium:

1087 serum sample were examined to assess the level of sodium, the overall mean value detected was 158.12±.44 (range110-195) mmol/L.

119 4.5.1.4.1. Effect of season on serum sodium level: The level of serum sodium was assessed in sera collected during dry and wet season. Variation in serum sodium level in the two season was highly significant (P <.01) using t-test. Mean serum Na in the dry season was (159.60± .67) and (156.66± .56) mmol/L in the wet season. The frequency of different values is shown in the graphs figure (24).

Figure 24: Mean Serum sodium level in dry and wet season

Sodium 200

185

170

155

140

125

110 Dry Wet 4.5.1.4.2. Effect of location on serum sodium level: The average value of serum Na in the three regions is shown in the table (43) and figure (25) variation is not significant. Higher level of serum sodium detected in the Eastern Region followed by Darfur and least Kordofan Region.

Table 43: Mean serum sodium level in different regions Region Samples Mean S.E. S.d Min. Max Darfur 342 159.17 .76 14.10 117 190 Kordofan 321 152.58 1.06 18.93 110 195 Eastern 424 161.46 .38 7.91 124 185

120 Figure 25: Mean Serum sodium level in different regions

Sodium 200

185

170

155

140

125

110 Darfur Eastern Kordofan 4.5.1.4.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum sodium level: Serum sodium level among different sex group was estimated in different locations. The highest was found among male camel in Eastern Region and the lowest among female camel in Kordofan. In Kordofan and the Eastern Region, male serum Na level higher than in females, but in Darfur female level tended to increase than in male, detailed summary shown in table (44) and figure (26).

Table 44: Male and female mean serum sodium level in different regions Locati Male Female on Sampl Mean±S. Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma e E. n x e . n x Darfur 202 158.73±. 11 185 140 159.81±1. 12 190 93 7 3 0 Kordofan 57 161.98±1 12 180 264 150.55±1. 11 195 .6 5 20 0 Eastern 67 167.79±. 14 181 357 160.28±.4 12 185 75 9 0 4

4.5.1.4.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum sodium level: In each region the average value of serum sodium was determined in wet and dry season table (45) and figure (27). Variation among regions within season is significant levels are higher in dry season than in the wet season except in Kordofan. During dry season the highest and lowest values detected in Darfur and kordofan Regions, respectively.

121 Figure 26: Male and female mean serum sodium level in different regions

The Sodium level in different sex groups

170

165

160

Male 155 Female

150

145

140 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

Table 45: Dry and wet season serum sodium level in different regions

Location Dry Season Wet Season Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Sample Mean±S.E. MinMax Darfur 183 162.62±1.08 117 190 159 155.201± .98 120 175 Kordofan 125 149.74±1.91 110 195 196 154.388±1.22 120 180 Eastern 232 162.53±.58 124 185 192 160.18±.47 135 181

Figure 27: Dry and wet season serum sodium level in different regions

The Sodium level in different locations

180

175

170

165

160 Dry Season Wet Season 155

150

145

140

135 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

122 4.5.1.4.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum Na level: As illustrated in table (46) and figure (28). Almost similar estimates for serum sodium level in female in dry and wet season and male in the wet season. Whereas, male serum sodium level in dry season is higher than in wet season.

Table 46: Male and female serum sodium level in different seasons

Male Female No. Mean±S.E. Min. Max No. Mean±S.E. Min. Max Dry Season 160 164.47±.92 117 185 380 157.55±.84 110 195 Wet Season 166 157.97±.96 125 181 381 156.09±.68 120 180

Figure 28: Male and female serum sodium level in different seasons

Sodium level in different sex groups

166

164

162

160

158

156

154

152

150 Male Female Dry Season 164.469 157.547 Wet Season 157.97 156.087

4.5.1.4.6. Interaction effect of location, sex and season on sodium level: There is a significant difference (P <.05) in male and female serum sodium level. However, sex and season factors in addition to location showed no significant effect on sodium level when fitted a nested ANOVA model. Season could have an effect when assessed with location.

123 4.5.1.5. Blood serum potassium: 1032 samples of camel sera were tested; the overall mean value of serum potassium detected was 4.08±.02 (range 2.9-6.6) mmol/L. 4.5.1.5.1. Effect of season on serum potassium level: Possible season effect on serum potassium level was examined, and variation in potassium level detected in different seasons was not significant. The average value of potassium in dry season was (4.11± .034) and (4.04±.03) mmol/L in the wet season. Details about the minimum, max and frequency of potassium are shown in figure (29).

Figure 29: Mean serum potassium level in different seasons

Potassium/mmol/L

6.5

5.9

5.3

4.7

4.1

3.5

2.9 Dry Wet

4.5.1.5.2. Effect of location on serum potassium level: Figure (30) is a graphical presentation of the potassium level in the three regions covered by the study. The average of serum K was almost similar in Darfur 4.01±.03 and in the Eastern region 4.03±.03 mmol/L, whereas in Kordofan higher level 4.23±.06 mmol/L detected.

124

Figure 30: Mean serum potassium level in different regions

Potassium/mmol/L

6.5

5.9

5.3

4.7

4.1

3.5

2.9 Darfur Eastern Kordofan 4.5.1.5.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum potassium level: Serum potassium level among different sex group was estimated in different locations. The sex of the animal was found not to have any effect on serum potassium level. It seems that the level of potassium is higher in Kordofan than in the other two regions. Generally the average of serum K in male is higher than in female camel. More details are available in table (47) and figure (31). Table 47: Male and female mean serum potassium level in different regions

Location Male Female Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma e . n x e . n x Darfur 202 4.03 ±.04 3.0 6.0 140 3.99± .05 3.0 6.3 Kordofa 17 4.41± .23 2.9 6.1 264 4.22± .06 3.0 6.6 n Eastern 52 4.39±.08 3.2 5.8 357 3.97± .03 3.0 6.2

125 Figure 31: Male and female mean serum potassium level in different regions

Pottassium level in different sex groups

4.5

4.4

4.3

4.2

Male 4.1 Female

4

3.9

3.8

3.7 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.1.5.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum potassium level: Interaction between season and location on serum K level was explored and the outcome is summarized in table (48) and figure (32). No variation in serum K level among regions between seasons detected. Dry season serum K level was higher than the wet season level except in Kordofan. Table 48: Dry and wet season mean serum potassium level in different regions

Location Dry Season Wet Season Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma e . n x e . n x Darfur 183 4.16±.05 3.0 6.3 159 3.84±.03 3.0 4.5 Kordofa 125 4.04±.09 2.9 6.6 156 4.38±.07 3.0 6.0 n Eastern 217 4.11±.04 3.0 6.2 192 3.93± .03 3.0 5.5

126 Figure 32: Dry and wet season mean serum potassium level in different regions

Pottassium level in different seasons

6

5

4

Dry Season 3 Wet Season

2

1

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.1.5.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum potassium level: The average value of serum potassium level was higher among male compared to female camel in dry season and vice versa during wet season. However serum potassium range, (min. and max), is wider in both male and female camels during dry season as shown in table (49) and figure (33). Table 49: Male and female mean serum potassium level in different seasons

Male Female No. Mean Min. Max No. Mean Min. Max Dry Season 145 4.3±.06 2.9 6.1 380 4.04 ± .04 3.0 6.6 Wet Season 126 3.92±.05 3.0 5.5 381 4.08 ± .03 3.0 6.0

4.5.1.5.6. Interaction effect of location, sex and season on potassium level: Using a nested ANOVA, location, sex and season has no effect on serum potassium level except the season when considered within the region (interaction between region and season). 4.5.1.6. Blood serum copper: 1072 serum sample were processed to assess the level of copper. The overall average detected was 0.85±.004 (range .45-1.85 ppm).

127 Figure 33: Male and female mean serum potassium level in different seasons

The pottassium in different seasons

4.3

4.2

4.1

Male 4 Female

3.9

3.8

3.7 Dry Season Wet Season

Figure 34: Mean serum copper level in different seasons

ppm 1.85

1.65

1.45

1.25

1.05

.85

.65

.45 Dry Wet 4.5.1.6.1. Effect of season on serum copper level The average and the range of copper level in the different seasons are shown in figure (34). 525 samples were tested in the dry season; the average reading was 0.88 ±.15 (range .55-1.85 ppm). In the wet season 547 samples were tested the average level was 0.82 ±.14 (range 0.45-1.65 ppm). Generally serum Cu level was slightly lower in wet season than in the dry season. 4.5.1.6.2. Effect of location on serum copper level: The level of serum copper was assessed for camels originated from Darfur, Eastern and Kordofan Regions. Variation among locations is significant, the

128 average level of copper was higher in the Eastern Region followed by Kordofan and the least detected in Darfur Region. The minimum, maximum and frequency of copper level in different samples collected from the three regions are shown in table (50) and figure (35). Table 50: Mean serum copper level in different regions

Region Samples Mean S.E Min. Max Darfur 342 .80 .11 .50 1.85 Kordofan 321 .86 .20 .45 1.85 Eastern 409 .88 .13 .64 1.55

Figure 35: Mean serum copper level in different regions ppm 1.85

1.65

1.45

1.25

1.05

.85

.65

.45 Darfur Eastern Kordofan

4.5.1.6.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum copper level: The effect of sex and locations on serum copper level was explored and illustrated in table (51) and figure (36).The average levels of copper generally, were higher in male than in female. Regionally the level is higher in males of Kordofan and the Eastern Region; whereas in females higher in the Eastern Region.

129 Table 51: Male and female mean serum copper level in different locations

Location Male Female Sampl Mean±S.D Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.D Mi Ma e . n x e . n x Darfur 202 .80 ±.01 .55 1.32 140 .79±.01 .50 1.12 Kordofa 57 .99±.04 .55 1.85 264 .84±.01 .45 1.54 n Eastern 52 .98±.03 .76 1.55 357 .87±.01 .64 1.55

4.5.1.6.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum copper level: Inter-play between the effect of location and season on serum Cu level was probed; the data was cross-classified. In all locations the average level of copper during dry season was higher than during wet season. Between location during season comparison, serum Cu level is higher (p<.05) in the Eastern Region in both seasons than in Kordofan and Darfur Region table (52) and figure (37). Figure 36: Male and female mean serum copper level in different locations

The copper mean reading in different sex groups

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 Male 0.5 Female 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

130 Figure 37: Dry and wet season mean serum copper level in different locations

Copper level in Camel Sera

1 0.9 0.8576562 0.74836 0.8436735 0.9012903 0.8 0.89648 0.7 0.6 Dry 0.8374863 0.5 Wet 0.4 0.3 0.2 Wet 0.1 Dry 0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

Table 52: Dry and wet season mean serum copper level in different locations

Location Dry Season Wet Season Sampl Mean±S.D Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.D Mi Ma e . n x e . n x Darfur 183 .84± .11 .55 1.32 159 .75±.09 .50 .95 Kordofa 125 .90 ±.20 .55 1.85 196 .84 ±.19 .45 1.65 n Eastern 217 .90±.14 .64 1.55 192 .86 ±.10 .64 1.50

Table 53: Male and female mean serum copper level in different seasons

Season Male Female Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Dry 158 .88 m ±.02 .55 1.85 367 .88 m ±.01 .55 1.85 Wet 153 .83 n ±.02 .50 394 .82 n ±.01 .45 1.45 1.65 mn means within a column with different superscripts differ (p<.01)

4.5.1.6.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum copper level: Possible interactions between sex and season were explored. In both seasons the average value of copper among female samples is comparable to values obtained in male samples. The difference in copper level in different seasons

131 and sex group was found to be highly significant (P<.01) using t-test. The details are shown in the table (53) and figure (38). 4.5.1.6.6. Interaction effect of sex, season and location on serum copper level: Sex and season factors on serum copper level turned out to be insignificant when assessed in addition to location in a nested ANOVA where only the location was found to be significant and the season within location. 4.5.1.6.7. Effect of sex, season and location on prevalence of copper critical level: 1072 camel sera samples were screened against the critical level of <0.6 ppm (Tartour, 1975), the overall incidence of Cu deficiency was 9.0%. No significant difference (at 5% level) in occurrence of copper below criticl level in different sex groups. Details are shown in the table (54) and figure (39). The effect of season on incidence of serum Cu below critical level is illustrated in table (55) and figure (40). More serum copper low level samples were detected during wet season, than in dry season and the difference is highly significant (P<01). Only (5.3%) were low during dry season compared to (12.4%) during wet season. Variation in the level of copper low level samples in different locations is illustrated in table (56) and figure (41). The lowest estimate of Cu deficient samples detected in the Eastern Region (1.2%). In contrast to Eastern Region low level samples represent a considerable percentage of the samples collected from Kordoran (14.6%) and Darfur (12.9%).

132 Table 54: Sex effect on serum copper as related to critical level Crosstab

Health status Less than the Above the critical level critical level Total Sex Male Count 29 282 311 % within Sex 9.3% 90.7% 100.0% Female Count 67 694 761 % within Sex 8.8% 91.2% 100.0% Total Count 96 976 1072 % within Sex 9.0% 91.0% 100.0%

Figure 38: Male and female mean serum copper level in different seasons

Copper level in different sex groups in different seasons

0.89

0.88

0.87

0.86

0.85

0.84 Dry Wet 0.83

0.82

0.81

0.8

0.79

0.78 Male Female

133 Figure 39: Sex effect on serum copper as related to critical level

Copper level in different sex groups

9.30%

9.30%

9.20% Less than the critical level 9.10% 9.00%

9.00%

8.90% 8.80%

8.80%

8.70%

8.60%

8.50% Male Female Overall

Table 55: Dry and wet season effect on serum copper as related to critical level Crosstab

Health status Less than the Above the critical level critical level Total Season Dry Count 28 497 525 % within Season 5.3% 94.7% 100.0% Wet Count 68 479 547 % within Season 12.4% 87.6% 100.0% Total Count 96 976 1072 % within Season 9.0% 91.0% 100.0%

Figure 40: Dry and wet season effect on serum copper as related to critical level

Copper in different seasons

12.40% 14.00%

12.00% 9.00%

10.00%

8.00% 5.30% Less than the critical level

6.00%

4.00%

2.00%

0.00% Dry season Wet season Overall

134 Table 56: Locations effect on serum copper as related to critical level

Crosstab

Health status Less than the Above the critical level critical level Total Location Darfur Count 44 298 342 % within Location 12.9% 87.1% 100.0% Kordofan Count 47 274 321 % within Location 14.6% 85.4% 100.0% Eastern Count 5 404 409 % within Location 1.2% 98.8% 100.0% Total Count 96 976 1072 % within Location 9.0% 91.0% 100.0%

Figure 41: Locations effect on serum copper as related to critical level

Copper in different locations

16.00%

14.00%

12.00%

10.00%

8.00% Less than the critical level

6.00%

4.00%

2.00%

0.00% Darfur Kordofan Eastern Overall

4.5.1.6.8. Interaction effect of location, sex and season on serum copper critical level: Based on the samples collected from Darfur and Kordofan; female camel are more likely to suffer from copper deficiency in comparison with the male camels. 15.0% and 15.5% of the female camels sera examined in Darfur and Kordofan respectively as shown in table (57) and figure (42).

135 Table 57: Region and sex effect on serum copper as related to critical level Crosstab

Health status Less than the Above the Location critical level critical level Total Darfur Sex Male Count 23 179 202 % within Sex 11.4% 88.6% 100.0% Female Count 21 119 140 % within Sex 15.0% 85.0% 100.0% Total Count 44 298 342 % within Sex 12.9% 87.1% 100.0% Kordofan Sex Male Count 6 51 57 % within Sex 10.5% 89.5% 100.0% Female Count 41 223 264 % within Sex 15.5% 84.5% 100.0% Total Count 47 274 321 % within Sex 14.6% 85.4% 100.0% Eastern Sex Male Count 52 52 % within Sex 100.0% 100.0% Female Count 5 352 357 % within Sex 1.4% 98.6% 100.0% Total Count 5 404 409 % within Sex 1.2% 98.8% 100.0%

Figure 42: Region and sex effect on serum copper as related to critical level

Percentage of animals with copper level below the critical in different sex within different locations

16.00%

14.00%

12.00%

10.00%

Male 8.00% Female 6.00%

4.00%

2.00%

0.00% Darfur Kordofan Eastern

The effect of sex, season and location was explored using graphical presentation and tables. The highest percentage of critical levels was detected in samples collected during wet season from Darfur and Kordofan (19.5%) and

136 (17.9%), respectively. The least percentage was obtained from Eastern Region during the wet season. Details as depicted in table (58) and figure (43).

Table 58: Region and season effect on serum copper as related to critical level

Crosstab

Health status Less than the Above the Location critical level critical level Total Darfur Season Dry Count 13 170 183 % within Season 7.1% 92.9% 100.0% Wet Count 31 128 159 % within Season 19.5% 80.5% 100.0% Total Count 44 298 342 % within Season 12.9% 87.1% 100.0% Kordofan Season Dry Count 12 113 125 % within Season 9.6% 90.4% 100.0% Wet Count 35 161 196 % within Season 17.9% 82.1% 100.0% Total Count 47 274 321 % within Season 14.6% 85.4% 100.0% Eastern Season Dry Count 3 214 217 % within Season 1.4% 98.6% 100.0% Wet Count 2 190 192 % within Season 1.0% 99.0% 100.0% Total Count 5 404 409 % within Season 1.2% 98.8% 100.0%

Figure 43: Region and season effect on serum copper as related to critical level

Perecentage of animals with copper level less than critical level in different season within different locations

20.00%

18.00%

16.00%

14.00%

12.00% Dry 10.00% Wet 8.00%

6.00%

4.00%

2.00%

0.00% Darfur Kordofan Eastern

137 4.5.1.7. Blood serum zinc: The level of zinc was evaluated in 1072 sera samples. The overall mean value detected was .95± .004 (range .56-1.7 ppm). 4.5.1.7.1. Effect of season on serum zinc level: A high significant difference (P <.01) in the level of zinc in the different seasons was established using t-test. The mean value of zinc was higher during dry season .97±.007 ppm than during wet season.92± .006 ppm. The frequency of the different values in the different season is shown in figure (44). Figure 44: Mean serum zinc level in different seasons

Zn/ppm 1.7

1.51

1.32

1.13

.94

.75

.56 Dry Wet

4.5.1.7.2. Effect of location on serum Zn level Variation among location was significant in serum zinc; serum zinc detected was higher in Kordofan followed by the Eastern and least in Darfur Region. The minimum, maximum, number of samples and the frequency distribution of zinc value are shown in table (59) and figure (45). Table 59: Mean serum zinc level in different seasons

Region Samples Mean S.E. S.d Min. Max Darfur 342 .91 .01 .14 .60 1.5 Kordofan 321 .97 .01 .19 .56 1.7 Eastern 409 .96 .01 .13 .72 1.42

138 4.5.1.7.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum zinc level: As illustrated in table (60) and figure (46). The difference is highly significant (P <.01) in zinc level between male and female within different locations. The mean value of zinc seems to be higher in male than female camel in Kordofan and Eastern Region, whereas in Darfur no variation between male and female in serum zinc level. Figure 45: Mean serum zinc level in different seasons

Zn/ppm

1.68

1.54

1.4

1.26

1.12

.98

.84

.7

.56 Darfur Eastern Kordofan

Table 60: Male and female mean serum zinc level in different locations

Location Male Female Sampl Mean±S.D Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.D Mi Ma e . n x e . n x Darfur 202 .91±.01 .60 1.35 140 .91± .01 .65 1.5 Kordofa 57 1.03 ±.22 .65 1.70 264 .95±.01 .56 1.5 n Eastern 52 1.09 ±.02 .85 1.40 357 .94 ±.01 .72 1.4

139

Figure 46: Male and female mean serum zinc level in different locations

The average zinc reading in different sex groups

1.1

1.05

1

Male 0.95 Female

0.9

0.85

0.8 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.1.7.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum zinc level: Details of the Interaction effect of season and location on serum Zn level are shown in table (61) and figure (47). The level of zinc could be affected by both season and location. Therefore the average value of zinc is higher during dry season than wet season in Darfur and the Eastern Region whereas in Kordofan the level is higher during wet season. 4.5.1.7.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum Zn level: Details of the Interaction effect of sex and season on serum Zn level are shown in table (62) and figure (48). Zinc level in samples collected from male camels during dry season is higher than in male camels sampled in wet season. The mean value of zinc in dry and wet seasons is comparable in female.

140 Table 61: Dry and wet season mean serum zinc level in different locations

Location Dry Season Wet Season Sample Mean±S.E. MinMax Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Darfur 183 .98n ±.01 .66 1.5 159 .84±.10 .6 1.2 Kordofan 165 .95m±.20 .56 1.7 156 .99n±.18 .6 1.4 Eastern 217 .99n±.14 .74 1.42 192 .93 ±.09 .72 1.4 mn seasonal within a column with different superscripts differ (p<.01)

Figure 47: Dry and wet season mean serum zinc level in different locations

The mean of zinc in different seasons

1.4

1.2

1

0.8 Dry Season Wet Season 0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

Table 62: Male and female mean serum zinc level in different seasons

Male Female No. Mean Min.Max No. Mean Min. Max Dry Season 185 1.01±.01 .65 1.7 380 .96±.01 .56 1.5 Wet Season 126 .99 ± .01 .75 1.4 405 .95±.01 .60 1.5

141 Figure 48: Male and female mean serum zinc level in different seasons

Zn in different sex groups in different seasons

1.02 1.01 1 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 Dry Season Wet Season Male 1.01373 0.9913492 Female 0.9553684 0.9519259

4.5.1.7.6. Interaction effect of location, sex and season on serum zinc level:

Fitting the three factors (location, season and sex) in a nested ANOVA model revealed that all the three variables effect on serum zinc level were not statistically significant except season within region variable.

4.5.1.7.7. Effect of sex, season and location on prevalence of zinc critical level: 1072 camel sera samples were screened against the critical level of <0.6 ppm (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) the overall incidence of serum Zn critical level was 13.5%.Variation among sex groups in level of occurrence of zinc low level was statistically insignificant (P-value>.05) with chi-square, (15.4%) of male camel was deficient in zinc below the critical level and (12.7%) of the female camels as shown in table (63) and figure (49). The effect of season on incidence of serum Zn critical level is illustrated in table (64) and figure (50). During wet season camels are more vulnerable to zinc deficiency than in dry season, where 9.9% of camels sampled during dry season were deficient in zinc compared with 17.6% in wet season. The difference was found to be statistically significant (P<.05).

142 Variation in the level of zinc deficient samples in different locations is illustrated in table (65) and figure (51). Serum zinc deficiency seems to be severe in Darfur in comparison with the Eastern and to some extent with Kordofan Region. 23.7% of Darfur camels sampled were deficient, 16.5% of the animals sampled in Kordofan and only 2.7% of the animals in Eastern Region. More than half of all deficient camels detected originated in Darfur Region. Table 63: Sex effect on serum zinc as related to critical level Crosstab

Health status Less than the Above the critical level critical level Total Sex Male Count 48 263 311 % within Sex 15.4% 84.6% 100.0% % within Health status 33.1% 28.4% 29.0% Female Count 97 664 761 % within Sex 12.7% 87.3% 100.0% % within Health status 66.9% 71.6% 71.0% Total Count 145 927 1072 % within Sex 13.5% 86.5% 100.0% % within Health status 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Figure 49: Sex effect on serum zinc as related to critical level

Percentage of animals with zinc below the critical level

16.00%

14.00%

12.00%

10.00%

8.00%

6.00%

4.00%

2.00%

0.00% Male Female

143 Table 64: Season effect on serum zinc as related to critical level

Crosstab

Health status Less than the Above the critical level critical level Total Season Dry Count 56 509 565 % within Season 9.9% 90.1% 100.0% % within Health status 38.6% 54.9% 52.7% Wet Count 89 418 507 % within Season 17.6% 82.4% 100.0% % within Health status 61.4% 45.1% 47.3% Total Count 145 927 1072 % within Season 13.5% 86.5% 100.0% % within Health status 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Figure 50: Season effect on serum zinc as related to critical level

The percentage of animal with zinc below the citical level

18.00%

16.00%

14.00%

12.00%

10.00%

8.00%

6.00%

4.00%

2.00%

0.00% Dry Wet

144 Table 65: Location effect on serum zinc as related to critical level

Crosstab

Health status Less than the Above the critical level critical level Total Location Darfur Count 81 261 342 % within Location 23.7% 76.3% 100.0% % within Health status 55.9% 28.2% 31.9% Kordofan Count 53 268 321 % within Location 16.5% 83.5% 100.0% % within Health status 36.6% 28.9% 29.9% Eastern Count 11 398 409 % within Location 2.7% 97.3% 100.0% % within Health status 7.6% 42.9% 38.2% Total Count 145 927 1072 % within Location 13.5% 86.5% 100.0% % within Health status 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Figure 51: Location effect on serum zinc as related to critical level

Percentage of animals with zinc defficiency in different locations

25.00%

20.00%

15.00%

10.00%

5.00%

0.00% Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.1.7.8. The interaction effect of location, sex and season on serum zinc critical level: Female camels are more liable to zinc low level according to this study, 27.1% of the female animals in Darfur have zinc below the critical level compared with 21.3% of male camel in the same area. In Kordofan the variation in the level of deficiency is clear; the 18.2% of female camels have zinc below the

145 critical level while only 8.8% of male camel and in the Eastern region it is 3.1% in female compare to none among male as shown in table (66) and figure (52). No consistence in the effect of season in the different locations, details presented in table (67) and figure (53). In Darfur 42.1% of the wet season samples analysed were below critical level compared with 7.7% of the dry season samples. In kordofan the picture is quite different more animal with zinc below the critical level are encountered (21.8% of the animal tested) in the dry season compared with 10.9% animal in the wet season. In Eastern Region almost similar estimate were obtained; 2.8% in the dry season and 2.7% in the wet season.

Table 66: Location and sex effect on serum zinc as related to critical level

Sex * Health status * Location Crosstabulation

Health status Less than the Above the Location critical level critical level Total Darfur Sex Male Count 43 159 202 % within Sex 21.3% 78.7% 100.0% Female Count 38 102 140 % within Sex 27.1% 72.9% 100.0% Total Count 81 261 342 % within Sex 23.7% 76.3% 100.0% Kordofan Sex Male Count 5 52 57 % within Sex 8.8% 91.2% 100.0% Female Count 48 216 264 % within Sex 18.2% 81.8% 100.0% Total Count 53 268 321 % within Sex 16.5% 83.5% 100.0% Eastern Sex Male Count 52 52 % within Sex 100.0% 100.0% Female Count 11 346 357 % within Sex 3.1% 96.9% 100.0% Total Count 11 398 409 % within Sex 2.7% 97.3% 100.0%

146 Figure 52: Location and sex effect on serum zinc as related to critical level

Percentage of male and female with zinc below critical level in different locations

30.00%

25.00%

20.00%

Male 15.00% Female

10.00%

5.00%

0.00% Darfur Kordofan Eastern

Table 67: Location and season effect on serum zinc as related to critical level

Season * Health status * Location Crosstabulation

Health status Less than the Above the Location critical level critical level Total Darfur Season Dry Count 14 169 183 % within Season 7.7% 92.3% 100.0% Wet Count 67 92 159 % within Season 42.1% 57.9% 100.0% Total Count 81 261 342 % within Season 23.7% 76.3% 100.0% Kordofan Season Dry Count 36 129 165 % within Season 21.8% 78.2% 100.0% Wet Count 17 139 156 % within Season 10.9% 89.1% 100.0% Total Count 53 268 321 % within Season 16.5% 83.5% 100.0% Eastern Season Dry Count 6 211 217 % within Season 2.8% 97.2% 100.0% Wet Count 5 187 192 % within Season 2.6% 97.4% 100.0% Total Count 11 398 409 % within Season 2.7% 97.3% 100.0%

147 Figure 53: Location and season effect on serum zinc as related to critical level

The percentage of zinc level below the critical level in different season

42.10% 45.00%

40.00%

35.00%

30.00% 21.80% 25.00% Dry Wet 20.00% 10.90% 15.00% 7.70% 10.00% 2.80% 2.60% 5.00%

0.00% Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.1.8. Blood serum iron: 1072 serum samples were tested, the overall level of iron was found to be 1.14± .01, (range.59-1.6 ppm). However, in natural conditions, iron deficiency is not observed in ruminants (Underwood, 1977). 4.5.1.8.1. Effect of season on serum iron level: Iron level in different season was explored, variation in serum iron level in the different season was significant using t-test (P>.05), being higher during dry season than wet season. The mean value of iron was 1.18±.01 ppm during dry season and 1.10±.01 ppm during wet season, the frequency of the different values in the different season is shown in the graphs figure (54).

148 Figure 54: Histogram showing mean serum iron in different seasons.

Fe 1.69

1.59

1.49

1.39

1.29

1.19

1.09

.99

.89

.79

.69

.59 Dry Wet 4.5.1.8.2. Effect of location on serum iron level: Variation among locations was not significant in serum iron level. Higher in the Eastern Region followed by Darfur and the least level detected in Kordofan. The minimum, maximum, number of samples and the frequency distribution of iron value are shown in table (68) and figure (55).

Table 68: Mean serum iron level in different locations

Region Samples Mean S.E. S.D. Min. Max Darfur 342 1.16 .01 .19 .85 1.6 Kordofan 321 0.99 .01 .22 .90 1.6 Eastern 409 1.24 .01 .12 .59 1.6

Table 69: Male and female mean serum iron level in different locations

Location Female Male Sampl Mean±S.D Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.D Mi Ma e . n x e . n x Darfur 140 1.13±.02 .85 1.6 202 1.18±.01 .85 1.6 Kordofa 264 .95 ±.01 .59 1.6 57 1.16±.03 .75 1.6 n Eastern 357 1.22 ±.01 .9 1.6 52 1.37±.02 1.2 1.6

149 Figure 55: Mean serum iron level in different locations

Fe 1.69

1.59

1.49

1.39

1.29

1.19

1.09

.99

.89

.79

.69

.59 Darfur Eastern Kordofan

Figure 56: Male and female mean serum iron level in different locations

The level of iron in different locations in different sex groups

1.4

1.2

1

0.8 Female Male 0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.1.8.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on serum iron level Variation among sex groups between locations was significant in serum iron, female had lower (P<.05) serum iron than males in all locations. In the Eastern Region both sexes level is higher than in the other regions. The details are shown in the table (69) and graphs figure (56). 4.5.1.8.4. Interaction effect of season and location on serum iron level: Variation between seasons among locations was not significant in serum iron; the average level was higher during dry season than wet season in Darfur and

150 the Eastern Region whereas in Kordofan the situation is reversed data are presented in table (70) and figure (57). 4.5.1.8.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on serum iron level: The difference in serum iron detected in different sex groups within seasons was highly significant (P<.01) using t-test being higher in dry season than wet season and males had higher level than females in both seasons as shown in table (71) and figure (58).

Table 70: Dry and wet season mean serum iron level in different locations

Location Dry Season Wet Season Sampl Mean±S.D Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.D Mi Ma e . n x e . n x Darfur 183 1.22 ±.01 .87 1.6 159 1.09± .01 .85 1.4 Kordofa 125 .97± .02 1.0 1.6 196 1.00 ±.02 .9 1.6 n Eastern 217 1.27 ± .01 .59 1.45 192 1.21± .01 .65 1.6

Figure 57: Dry and wet season mean serum iron level in different locations

The level of Iron in different locations and seasons

1.4

1.2

1

0.8 Dry Season 0.6 Wet Season

0.4

0.2

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

151 Table 71: Male and female mean serum iron level in different seasons

Female Male No. Mean Min. Max No. Mean Min. Max Dry Season 380 1.15n±.01 .59 1.6 145 1.27n±.01 .89 1.6 Wet Season 381 1.08m± .01 .65 1.6 166 1.15m±.01 .75 1.6 mn means within a column with different superscripts differ (p<.01

Figure 58: Male and female mean serum iron level in different seasons

The level of iron in the different sex group in the wet and dry season

1.3

1.25

1.2

1.15 Dry Season Wet Season 1.1

1.05

1

0.95 Female Male

4.5.2. Liver mineral level: 4.5.2.1. Liver iron: 377 liver samples were processed to assess the level of iron. The overall average reading was 344.65±1.82 (range 290-433 ppm). All liver samples were screened against the critical level of <180 ppm suggested by McDowell et al., (1980) and all were found adequate in iron. 4.5.2.1.1. Effect of season on liver iron level: The average and the range of hepatic iron level in the different season is shown in the graph figure (59). Liver iron decreased significantly in wet season; 199 samples were tested in the dry season; the average reading was 347.33±2.63

152 (range 290-443 ppm). In the wet season 178 samples were tested the average level was 341.6±2.49 (range292-430 ppm). 4.5.2.1.2. Effect of location on liver iron level: The level of liver iron was assessed for camels originated from Darfur, Kordofan and the Eastern Region. Variation between locations was not significant; the average level of liver iron was lower in Darfur Region than in the Eastern or Kordofan Region, where levels are equal. The minimum, maximum and frequency of iron level in different samples collected from the three regions are shown in table (72) and figure (60).

Figure 59: Mean liver iron level in different seasons Fe 455

440

425

410

395

380

365

350

335

320

305

290 Dry Wet

Table 72: Mean liver iron level in different locations

Region Samples Mean S.E. S.d Min. Max Darfur 153 337.72 2.38 29.50 290 435 Kordofan 122 349.48 3.99 36.64 296 443 Eastern 102 349.28 3.32 40.29 290 443

153 Figure 60: Mean liver iron level in different locations

Fe 455

440

425

410

395

380

365

350

335

320

305

290 Darfur Eastern Kordofan

4.5.2.1.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on liver iron level: Variation among sex groups between locations in liver iron was significant. Males had higher level than females in all locations; in Kordofan the level is higher in both sexes than in the Eastern and Kordofan Region as shown in table (73). Table 73: Male and female mean liver iron level in different locations Locatio Male Female n Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.E. Mi Ma e n x e n x Darfur 15 357.53±4.4 321 383 138 335.57±2.5 290 435 7 4 Kordofa 17 402.29±8.6 332 443 85 338.68±3.4 290 435 n 8 7 Eastern 33 387.33±7.7 324 443 89 335.44±2.1 296 395 3 0

4.5.2.1.4. Interaction effect of season and location on liver iron level Variation between seasons among locations in liver iron was significant. The level was higher in Kordofan during dry season and in the Eastern Region during wet season as shown in table (74).

154 Table 74: Dry and wet season mean liver iron level in different locations Locatio Dry Season Wet Season n Sampl Mean±S.E. Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.E. Mi Ma e n x e n x Darfur 91 340.19m±3.1 29 435 62 334.10m±3. 29 412 9 0 54 2 Kordofa 51 355.471n±6. 29 443 51 343.10m±5. 30 422 n 14 0 01 0 Eastern 57 351.44m±5.1 30 443 65 347.75n±4.3 29 430 2 0 3 6 mn means within a column with different superscripts differ (p<.05)

4.5.2.1.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on liver iron level Variation among sex groups within seasons in liver iron was significant. Males had higher liver iron than females in both seasons table (75). Table 75: Male and female mean liver iron level in different seasons

Male Female No. Mean Min. Max No. Mean Min. Max Dry Season 34 388.65±7.4 321 443 165 338.81±2.2 290 435 Wet Season 31 379.68±6.6 324 430 147 333.65±2.1 292 417

4.5.2.2. Liver cobalt: 377 liver tissue samples were processed to assess the level of cobalt. The overall average reading was .456±.004 (range.30-.59 ppm). All liver samples were screened against the critical level of <0.05 ppm as suggested by McDowell and Conrad, (1977); all livers were found adequate. 4.5.2.2.1. Effect of season on liver cobalt level: Possible effect for the season on liver cobalt level was examined, Variation between seasons in liver cobalt level was highly significant (P<.05). The average value of cobalt in the dry season was .48±.005 and it was .43±.005 ppm in the wet season. Details about the minimum, max and frequency of distribution are shown in figure (61).

155 Figure 61: Mean liver cobalt level in different seasons

Co .625

.57

.515

.46

.405

.35

.295 Dry Wet 4.5.2.2.2. Effect of location on liver cobalt level: The level of liver cobalt was assessed for camels originated from Eastern Region Kordofan and Darfur. Variation among locations in liver cobalt was not significant, the level tended to be higher in Darfur. The minimum, maximum and frequency of distribution are shown in table (76) and figure (62). Table 76: Mean liver cobalt level in different locations

Region Samples Mean S.E. S.d Min. Max Darfur 153 .47 .004 .059 .36 .59 Eastern 122 .45 .007 .079 .30 .59 Kordofan 102 .44 .076 .076 .31 .59

Figure 62: Mean liver cobalt level in different locations Co .625

.57

.515

.46

.405

.35

.295 Darfur Eastern Kordofan

156 4.5.2.2.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on liver cobalt level: Liver cobalt level among different sex group within locations was estimated. No variation in male liver cobalt level in different locations. Regarding females the highest level detected in Darfur as shown in table (77) and graphs figure (63). Table 77: Male and female mean liver cobalt level in different locations

Location Male Female Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Darfur 15 .50±.013 .38 .56 138 .47±.005 .36 .59 Kordofan 17 .50±.017 .36 .59 85 .42±.008 .31 .58 Eastern 33 .51±.005 .45 .59 89 .42±.007 .29 .55

Figure 63: Male and female mean liver cobalt level in different locations

The level of cobalt in male and female in different regions

0.6

0.5

0.4

Male 0.3 Female

0.2

0.1

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.2.2.4. Interaction effect of season and location on liver cobalt level: In each region the average value of liver cobalt was determined in the samples collected in wet and dry season. In the dry season the level is higher than in wet season in all locations; whereas Darfur Region had the highest level in both seasons table (78) and figure (64).

157 Table 78: Dry and wet season mean liver cobalt level in different locations

Dry Season Wet Season Location Sample Mean±S.E. MinMax Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Darfur 91 .50±.01 .37 .59 62 .45±.01 .36 .54 Kordofan 51 .47±.01 .34 .59 51 .40±.01 .31 .54 Eastern 57 .46±.01 .31 .59 65 .44±.01 .29 .55 Figure 64: Dry and wet season mean liver cobalt level in different locations

The level of cobalt in tissue samples collected in wet and dry season

0.49 0.47 0.45 0.46 0.5 0.44

0.45 0.40

0.4

0.35

0.3

Dry Season 0.25 Wet season

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.2.2.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on liver cobalt level: Variation between sex groups within season in liver cobalt was significant. Males had higher liver cobalt than female in both seasons as shown in table (79) and figure (65). Table 79: Male and female mean liver cobalt level in different seasons

Male Female No. Mean±S.E. Min. Max No. Mean±S.E. Min. Max Dry Season 34 .54±.01 .47 .59 165 .46±.01 .31 .59 Wet Season 31 .49±.01 .36 .55 147 .42±.01 .29 .55

158 4.5.2.3. Liver copper: Liver copper was evaluated in 377 liver tissue samples. The overall mean value was 158.35±2.17 (range 65-294 ppm). All liver samples were screened against the critical level of <75 ppm (McDowell et al., 1980) and all were adequate in Cu except 4 (1.06%) female samples from Darfur. 4.5.2.3.1. Effect of season on liver copper level Possible effect for the season on liver copper level was examined, Variation between seasons in liver cobalt level was highly significant (P<.01) using t-test. The mean value of copper was 162.75 ±3.09 during dry season and 153.43±3.0 ppm, during the wet season, the frequency of the different values in the different seasons is shown in the graphs figure (66). Figure 65: Male and female mean liver cobalt level in different seasons

The level of cobalt in male and female in the dry and wet season

0.6

0.5

0.4

Male 0.3 Female

0.2

0.1

0 Dry Season Wet Season

159

Figure 66: Mean liver copper level in different seasons

Cu 293.9

261.2

228.5

195.8

163.1

130.4

97.7

65 Dry Wet

Table 80: Mean liver copper level in different locations

Region Samples Mean S.E. S.d Min. Max Darfur 153 156.57m 3.24 40.12 65.00 n 290.00 Kordofan 102 169.05n 5.15 52.04 111.00 m 294.00 Eastern 122 151.64m 2.99 32.98 90.00 242.00 m n means within a column with different superscripts differ (p<.05)

Figure 67: Mean liver copper level in different locations

Cu 293.9

261.2

228.5

195.8

163.1

130.4

97.7

65 Darfur Eastern Kordofan

160 Table 81: Male and female mean liver copper level in different locations

Locatio Male Female n Sampl Mean±S.E. Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.E. Mi Ma e n x e n x Darfur 15 178.73m±5.1 15 220 138 154.16m±3. 65 290 5 1 50 Kordofa 17 232.24n±12. 14 294 85 156.41m±4. 11 290 n 58 8 57 1 Eastern 33 188.79m± 13 242 89 137.87n±1.9 90 182 6.60 5 5 m n means within a column with different superscripts differ (p<.05)

4.5.2.3.2. Effect of location on liver copper level: Variation between locations in liver copper level was assessed for camels originated from Darfur, Eastern Region and Kordofan and was significant (P<.05). The average level of copper was higher in Kordofan Region followed by Darfur and the least in the Eastern Region. The minimum, maximum and frequency of copper level in different samples collected from the three regions are shown in table (80) and graphs figure (67). 4.5.2.3.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on liver copper level: Liver copper level among different sex group within locations was estimated. Males had higher level (P<.05) than female in all locations and the highest level detected in Kordofan males. The lowest value in females detected in the Eastern Region table (81) and graphs figure (68) display a detailed summary. 4.5.2.3.4. Interaction effect of season and location on liver copper level: In each region the average value of liver copper was determined in the samples collected in dry and wet season. In the dry season the level is higher than in wet season in all locations; whereas in both seasons the highest value detected in Kordofan followed by Darfur and the least in the Eastern Region as illustrated in table (82) and figure (69).

161 Figure 68: Male and female mean liver copper level in different locations

Level of copper in different sex group within the three regions

250

200

150 Male Female 100

50

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

Table 82: Dry and wet season mean liver copper level in different locations

Location Dry Season Wet Season Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Darfur 91 158.42±4.29 65 290 62 153.86±4.96 83 276 Kordofan 51 177.86±7.26 117 294 51 160.24±7.17 111 275 Eastern 57 156.16±4.85 95 242 65 147.68±3.61 90 215

Figure 69: Dry and wet season mean liver copper level in different locations

The level of copper in different regions

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern Dry season 158.418 177.863 156.158 Wet season 153.855 160.235 147.677

162 4.5.2.3.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on liver copper level: Variation between sex groups within season in liver copper was significant. In both sexes, liver Cu dry season level is higher than the wet season level and males had higher level than females in both seasons as shown in table (83) and figure (70). Table 83: Male and female mean liver copper level in different seasons

Season Male Female Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Dry 34 204.91±7.55 136 294 165 154.07±3.0 65 290 Wet 31 190.07±7.23 135 275 147 145.70±2.93 83 276

Figure 70: Male and female mean liver copper level in different seasons

Copper level in female and male camel in the dry and wet seasons

250

200

150 Male Female

100

50

0 Dry Wet

163

Figure 71: Mean liver manganese level in different seasons

Mn 16.23

14.85

13.47

12.09

10.71

9.33

7.95

6.57 Dry Wet 4.5.2.4. Liver manganese: The level of liver manganese was evaluated in 377 samples. The overall mean value was 11.48±.09 (range 6.57-16.23 ppm). All liver samples were screened against the critical level of <8 ppm (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) and all were adequate in Mn except 8 (2.12%) female samples from Darfur Region, 2 during wet season and 6 during dry season. 4.5.2.4.1. Effect of season on liver manganese level: Possible effect for the season on liver manganese level was examined; Variation between seasons in liver manganese level was not significant using t- test. The mean value of manganese was 11.58±.14 during dry season and 11.37±.12 ppm, during the wet season, the frequency of the different values in the different season is shown in the graphs figure (71). 4.5.2.4.2. Effect of location on liver manganese level: The manganese level in samples collected from Darfur, Kordofan and Eastern were examined and no significant variations detected between regions the average value tended to be higher in Kordofan Region. The minimum, maximum, number of samples and the frequency distribution of manganese value are shown in table (84) and graphs figure (72).

164 Table 84: Mean liver manganese level in different locations

Region Samples Mean S.E. S.d Min. Max Darfur 153 11.1917 .1637 2.0246 6.57 16.23 Kordofan 102 11.8860 .1748 1.7650 8.65 15.95 Eastern 122 11.4989 .0063238 .1278905 9.10 14.75

Figure 72: Mean liver manganese level in different locations

Mn 16.23

14.85

13.47

12.09

10.71

9.33

7.95

6.57 Darfur Eastern Kordofan

4.5.2.4.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on liver manganese level: Liver manganese level among different sex group within locations was estimated. Males had higher level (P<.05) than female in all locations and the highest level in both sexes detected in Kordofan. The lowest value in females detected in the Eastern Region table (85) and graphs figure (73) display a detailed summary.

165 Table 85: Male and female mean liver manganese level in different locations

Locatio Male Female n Sampl Mean±S. Min Max Sampl Mean±S. Mi Max e E. e E. n Darfur 15 12.81±.42 10.2 15.4 138 11.02±.17 6.5 16.2 2 2 7 3 Kordofa 17 13.97±.32 10.8 15.9 85 11.47±.17 8.6 15.9 n 5 3 5 5 Eastern 33 13.23±.26 10.1 14.7 89 10.86±.10 9.1 12.8 1 5 3

Figure 73: Male and female mean liver manganese level in different locations

The level of managanese in male and female in the three regions

14

12

10

8 Male Female 6

4

2

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.2.4.4. Interaction effect of season and location on liver manganese level: In each region the average value of liver manganese was determined in the samples collected in dry and wet season. In the dry season the level is higher (P<.05) than in wet season in all locations; whereas in both seasons the highest value detected in Kordofan followed by the Eastern Region and the least level detected in Darfur Region. The details are shown in table (86) and graphs figure (74).

166 Table 86: Dry and wet season mean liver manganese level in different locations

Location Dry Season Wet Season Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Darfur 91 11.35±.23 6.57 16.23 62 10.96±.21 6.78 15.87 Kordofan 51 12.04±.26 8.65 15.95 51 11.73±.23 9.47 14.62 Eastern 57 11.54±.21 9.12 14.75 65 11.46±.18 9.10 14.5

Figure 74: Dry and wet season mean liver manganese level in different locations

The manganese level in different season within different regions

12.2

12

11.8

11.6

11.4 Dry season Wet 11.2

11

10.8

10.6

10.4 Darfur Kordofan Eastern 4.5.2.4.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on liver manganese level: Variation between sex groups within season in liver manganese was highly significant (P<.001). In both sexes, liver manganese dry season level is higher than the wet level and males had higher level than females in both seasons as shown in table (87) and figure (75). Table 87: Male and female mean liver manganese level in different seasons

Male Female No. Mean Min.Max No. Mean Min. Max Dry Season 34 13.59±.26 10.1 15.93 165 11.17±.14 6.57 16.23 Wet Season 31 13.04±.26 10.2 14.62 147 11.01±.12 6.78 15.87

4.5.2.5. Liver molybdenum: 377 samples of camel liver tissues were tested; the overall mean value of liver molybdenum detected was 2.99±.04 (range 2.0-4.95 ppm). All liver samples were screened against the critical level of <2 ppm (McDowell et al. 1980) and all were found adequate in molybdenum.

167 Figure 75: Male and female mean liver manganese level in different seasons

The level of manganese in different seasons

14

12

10

8

6

4

2 Wet Season

0 Dry Season Male Female

Figure 76: Mean liver molybdenum level in different seasons

Mo 4.95

4.655

4.36

4.065

3.77

3.475

3.18

2.885

2.59

2.295

2 Dry Wet

4.5.2.5.1. Effect of season on liver molybdenum level: Possible effect for the season on liver Mo was examined, and the difference in molybdenum level in the different season was found to be statistically insignificant. The average value of Mo in the dry season was higher than in the wet season figure (76). 4.5.2.5.2. Effect of location on liver molybdenum level: Liver molybdenum level in samples collected from Darfur, Kordofan and Eastern were examined a significant variations detected between regions the

168 average value was higher in the Eastern Region 3.13±.07 followed by Darfur 2.95±.06 and the least 2.90±.07 ppm in Kordofan. The minimum, maximum, number of samples and the frequency distribution of manganese value are shown in graphs figure (77). Figure 77: Mean liver molybdenum level in different locations

Mo 4.95

4.655

4.36

4.065

3.77

3.475

3.18

2.885

2.59

2.295

2 Darfur Eastern Kordofan

4.5.2.5.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on liver molybdenum level: Liver molybdenum level among different sex group within locations was estimated. Males had higher level (P<.05) than female in all locations and the highest value in females detected in the Eastern Region table (88) and figure (78) display a detailed summary. Table 88: Male and female mean liver molybdenum level in different locations

Location Male Female Sampl Mean±S.E Min Ma Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma e . x e . n x Darfur 15 3.67±.13 2.9 4.61 138 2.87±.06 2.0 4.95 4 Kordofa 17 3.79±.16 2.4 4.55 85 2.72±.06 2.1 4.35 n 5 Eastern 33 3.38±.14 2.2 4.55 89 3.04±.08 2.0 4.95 0

169 Figure 78: Male and female mean liver molybdenum level in different locations

Molybdenum level in male and female in different regions

4

3.5

3

2.5

Male 2 Female

1.5

1

0.5

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.2.5.4. Interaction effect of season and location on liver molybdenum level: In each region the average value of liver molybdenum was determined. Interaction between season and location was explored and the outcome is summarized in table (89) and graphs figure (79). In the dry season the level is higher (P<.05) than in wet season in all locations; the highest level in both seasons detected in the Eastern region.

Table 89: Dry and wet season mean liver molybdenum level in different locations

Location Dry Season Wet Season Sample Mean±S.E. MinMax Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Darfur 91 3.02n±.08 2.1 4.95 62 2.83n±.074 2.0 4.11 Kordofan 51 2.97n±.09 2.1 4.55 51 2.83n±.11 2.12 4.35 Eastern 57 3.15m±.11 2.1 4.95 65 3.12m± .09 2.0 4.75 m n means within a column with different superscripts differ (p<.05)

170 Figure 79: Dry and wet season mean liver molybdenum level in different locations

The level of Molybdenum in different seasons with the three regions

3.15

3.1

3.05

3

2.95

2.9 Dry season Wet season

2.85

2.8

2.75

2.7

2.65 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

Table 90: Male and female mean liver molybdenum level in different seasons

Male Female No. Mean Min. Max No. Mean Min. Max Dry Season 34 3.66±.12 2.9 2.22 165 2.92±.06 2.1 4.95 Wet Season 126 3.92±.05 3.0 5.50 147 2.83±.05 2.0 4.75

Figure 80: Male and female mean liver molybdenum level in different seasons

Molybdenum in male and female in different season

4

3.5

3

2.5

Dry Season 2 Wet Season

1.5

1

0.5

0 Male Female

171 4.5.2.5.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on liver molybdenum level: Variation between sex groups within season was significant (P<.05); males had higher level than females in both seasons and higher during dry season in both sexes, as shown in table (90) and figure (80). 4.5.2.6. Liver zinc: 377 liver tissue samples were processed to determine the level of zinc. The overall mean value of liver Zn was 157.24±1.70 (range70-220ppm). All liver samples were screened against the critical level of <84 ppm as suggested by McDowell and Conrad (1977), 5.3% of the all samples were deficient in zinc representing 6.4% of the female population. This difference due to sex was statistically significant using chi-square. 4.5.2.6.1. Effect of season on liver zinc level: The average level of zinc in samples collected during dry and wet season was determined and it was significantly lower (P <.05) in wet than in dry season.159.36± 2.45 ppm in the dry season and 157.24 ± 1.70 ppm in the wet season. The frequency and the data distribution are shown in the graphs figure (81). Figure 81: Mean liver zinc level in different seasons

Zn 220

205

190

175

160

145

130

115

100

85

70 Dry Wet

4.5.2.6.2. Effect of location on liver zinc level: The study covered Darfur, Kordofan and Eastern region, variation between regions was significant (P<.05 ) tested in an ANOVA model; the average value

172 of zinc level was higher in Kordofan followed by the Eastern Region and the least level detected in Darfur as presented in table (91) and graphs figure (82). Table 91: Mean liver zinc level in different locations

Region Samples Mean S.E. S.D. Min. Max Darfur 153 152.90n 2.50 30.97 73 219 Kordofan 102 162.97m 3.14 31.73 75 220 Eastern 122 157.90n 3.24 35.74 70 220 m n means within a column with different superscripts differ (p<.05)

Figure 82: Mean liver zinc level in different locations

Darfur Eastern .5 .45 .4 .35 .3 .25 .2 .15 .1 .05 0 70 95 120 145 170 195 220 Kordofan

raction .5 F .45 .4 .35 .3 .25 .2 .15 .1 .05 0 70 95 120 145 170 195 220 Zn Histograms by Location 4.5.2.6.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on liver zinc level Variation in liver zinc among sex groups between locations was significant (P<.05) tested in an ANOVA model. The highest value of zinc is among male and female of Kordofan followed by the Eastern Region and the least detected in Darfur Region as presented in table (92) and graphs figure (83). Table 92: Male and female mean liver zinc level in different locations

Location Male Female Sampl Mean±S.E. Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.E. Mi Ma e n x e n x Darfur 15 168.8±6.12 127 138 151.17±2.6 73 219 214 6 Kordofan 17 199.29±5.0 155 220 85 155.71±3.0 75 215 * 0 9 Eastern 33 174.55±5.9 101 220 89 151.73±3.6 70 219 0 7 * means differ (p<.05)

173 Figure 83: Male and female mean liver zinc level in different locations

Zinc level in different sex groups

200

180

160

140

120 Male 100 Female

80

60

40

20

0 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.2.6.4. Interaction effect of season and location on liver zinc level: In each region the average value of liver zinc was determined in the samples collected in dry and wet season. Interaction between season and location was explored and the outcome is summarized in table (93) and graphs figure (84). In the dry season the level is higher (P<.05) than in wet season in all locations; the highest level in both seasons detected in Kordofan Region and the lowest in Darfur. Table 93: Dry and wet season mean liver zinc level in different locations

Locatio Dry Season* Wet Season n Sampl Mean±S.E. Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.E. Mi Ma e n x e n x Darfur 91 153.65±3.3 73 219 62 151.81±3.7 76 209 6 7 Kordofa 51 165.88±4.6 75 220 51 160.06±4.1 89 215 n 8 9 Eastern 57 162.65±5.0 73 220 65 153.74±4.0 70 210 9 9 * means differ (p<.05)

174 Figure 84: Dry and wet season mean liver zinc level in different locations

The level of zinc in different seasons within different regions

170

165

160

155 Dry season Wet season

150

145

140 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

Table 94: Male and female mean liver zinc level in different seasons

Season Male Female No. Mean±S.D. Min. Max No. Mean±S.D. Min. Max Dry Season 34 182.59±57 73 219 165 154.58±2.5 1 3.6 Wet Season 31 176.52±4.6 101 215 147 150.31±2.5 70 210

4.5.2.6.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on liver zinc level: Table (94) and graphs figure (85) summarizes the level of zinc in different season and different sex groups within the three locations of the study. The level of zinc is significantly higher (P<.01) in males than in females and levels were higher during dry season in both sexes.

175 Figure 85: Male and female mean liver zinc level in different seasons

The level of zinc in dry and wet season

200

180

160

140

120 Dry Season 100 Wet Season

80

60

40

20

0 Male Female

Table 95: Sex effect on liver zinc as related to critical level Crosstab

STATUS Less than Above the critical level critical level Total SEX Male Count 65 65 % within SEX 100.0% 100.0% Female Count 20 292 312 % within SEX 6.4% 93.6% 100.0% Total Count 20 357 377 % within SEX 5.3% 94.7% 100.0%

4.5.2.6.6. Effect of sex, season and location on prevalence of liver zinc critical level All camel liver samples were screened against the critical level of <84 ppm (McDowell and Conrad, 1977) the overall incidence of hepatic Zn deficiency was 5.3%. Variation among sex groups in level of occurrence of liver zinc deficiency was statistically insignificant (P >.05) with chi-square, 6.4% of female was deficient in zinc representing 5.3% of camel population as shown in table (95). The effect of season on incidence of liver zinc low level is illustrated in table (96) and graph figure (84). More liver zinc below critical levels were detected during dry season, than in wet season and the difference is significant (P<.05).

176 Only 3.9% were deficient during wet season compared to 6.5% during dry season. The effect of locations on incidence of liver zinc deficiency is illustrated in table (97) and graph figure (85). No significance (P>.05) difference in the occurrence of deficiency in the different location was detected. More liver zinc deficient samples were detected in the Eastern Region followed by Darfur and the least detected in Kordofan Region.

Table 96: Dry and wet season effect on liver zinc as related to critical level Crosstab

STATUS Less than Above the critical level critical level Total SEASON Dry Season Count 13 186 199 % within SEASON 6.5% 93.5% 100.0% Wet season Count 7 171 178 % within SEASON 3.9% 96.1% 100.0% Total Count 20 357 377 % within SEASON 5.3% 94.7% 100.0%

Figure 86: Dry and wet season effect on liver zinc as related to critical level

Percentage of tissue samples with zinc below the critical level

6.50%

7.00%

6.00% 3.90%

5.00%

4.00%

3.00%

2.00%

1.00%

0.00% Dry season Wet season

177 Table 97: locations effect on liver zinc as related to critical level Crosstab

STATUS Less than Above the critical level critical level Total LOCATION Darfur Count 8 145 153 % within LOCATION 5.2% 94.8% 100.0% Kordofan Count 2 100 102 % within LOCATION 2.0% 98.0% 100.0% Eastern Count 10 112 122 % within LOCATION 8.2% 91.8% 100.0% Total Count 20 357 377 % within LOCATION 5.3% 94.7% 100.0%

Figure 87: locations effect on liver zinc as related to critical level

Percentage of tissue samples with zinc below the critical level

8.20% 9.00%

8.00%

7.00% 5.20%

6.00%

5.00%

4.00% 2%

3.00%

2.00%

1.00%

0.00% Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.2.6.7. Interaction effect of sex, season and location on liver zinc critical level In all locations liver zinc deficient samples detected in females and dry season had higher level than wet season. More liver zinc deficient samples were detected in the Eastern Region in both seasons followed by Darfur and the least detected in Kordofan Region in dry season.

178 4.5.3. Bone minerals: 4.5.3.1. Bone calcium: 243 camel bone samples were tested; the overall mean level of calcium detected was 27.89±.05 (range 25-28.9 ppm). All means for bone calcium samples were above critical level of 24.5% for normal animals suggested by Little (1972). 4.5.3.1.1. Effect of season on bone calcium level The average level of bone calcium in samples collected during dry and wet season was determined and it was significantly lower (P<.05) in wet than in dry season. The frequency and the data distribution are shown in the graphs figure (87). Figure 88: Mean bone calcium level in different seasons

Ca 28.9

28.25

27.6

26.95

26.3

25.65

25 Dry Wet 4.5.3.1.2. Effect of location on bone calcium level Bone calcium level in samples collected from Darfur, Kordofan and Eastern were examined, no significant variation in bone Ca level in different locations was detected. The mean, minimum and maximum levels of bone Ca are shown in table (98). Table 98: Mean bone calcium level in different locations

Region Samples Mean S.E. Min. Max Darfur 125 28.08 .08 26.5 28.7 Eastern 56 27.16 25.0 28.2 Kordofan 61 28.17 27.5 28.9

4.5.3.1.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on bone calcium level Variation in bone Ca among sex groups within locations was not significant (P<.05) tested in an ANOVA model. The Eastern Region level tended to decrease in male and female camels than in the other two regions as presented in table (99) and graphs figure (89).

179 Table 99: Male and female mean bone calcium level in different locations

Location Male Female Sampl Mean±S. Min Ma Sampl Mean±S. Mi Ma e E. x e E. n x Darfur 15 28.24±.11 26.9 28. 111 28.06±.05 26. 28. 0 5 5 7 Kordofa 17 28.38±.07 27.9 28. 44 28.09±.05 27. 28. n 5 9 5 6 Eastern 14 27.57±.17 26.5 28. 42 27.02±.14 25 28. 0 2 2

Figure 89: Male and female mean bone calcium level in different locations

Calcium in male and female in the three regions

28.5

28

27.5

Male 27 Female

26.5

26

Darfur Kordofan Eastern

4.5.3.1.4. Interaction effect of season and location on bone calcium level In each region the average value of bone Ca was determined in the samples collected in dry and wet season. Interaction between season and location was explored and the outcome is summarized in table (100) and graphs figure (90). No significant difference due to season within location, the Eastern Region level tended to decrease in both seasons. 4.5.3.1.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on bone calcium level Table (101) and graphs figure (91) summarizes the level of bone calcium in different season and different sex groups within the three locations of the study.

180 The level of calcium is significantly higher (P<.01) in males than in females and levels were higher during dry season in both sexes than in wet season. Table 100: Dry and wet season mean bone calcium level in different locations

Location Dry Season Wet Season Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Darfur 77 28.22±.04 26.9 28.5 49 27.87±.10 26.5 28.7 Kordofan 33 28.26±.06 27.5 28.9 28 28.06±.06 27.5 28.5 Eastern 25 27.94±.06 26.7 28.2 31 26.54±.11 25.0 27.5

Figure 90: Dry and wet season mean bone calcium level in different locations

Coppers in different season and locations

28.5

28

27.5

Dry season 27 Wet season

26.5

26

25.5 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

Table 101: Male and female mean bone calcium level in different seasons

Male Female No. Mean Min.Max No. Mean Min. Max Dry Season 25 28.28±.08 26.9 28.9 110 28.16± .03 26.7 28.6 Wet Season 21 27.87±.14 26.5 28.5 87 27.45±.10 25 28.7

181 Figure 91: Male and female mean bone calcium level in different seasons

Calcium level in bones of male and female camel in the two seasons

28.4

28.2

28

27.8 Dry Season Wet Season

27.6

27.4

27.2

27 Male Female

Figure 92: Mean bone phosphorus level in different seasons

PO4 13.6

13.3

13

12.7

12.4

12.1

11.8

11.5

11.2

10.9

10.6

10.3

10 Dry Wet

4.5.3.2. Bone phosphorus 243 samples of camel bones were tested; the overall mean value of phosphorus level was found to be 12.50±.05 (range 10-13.6 ppm). All means for bone P were above critical level of 11.5% for normal animals (Little, 1972) during dry season. Means for bone phosphorus in the Eastern Region were below the critical level of 11.5% during wet season .Of all samples analysed, 100% of both sexes were deficient in P.

182 4.5.3.2.1. Effect of season on bone phosphorus level: The average level of bone phosphorus in samples collected during dry and wet season was determined and it was significantly lower (P<.05) in wet than in the dry season. The frequency and the data distribution are shown in the graphs figure (92). 4.5.3.2.2. Effect of location on bone phosphorus level Bone phosphorus level in samples collected from Darfur, Kordofan and Eastern were examined, the level detected in the Eastern Region is significantly lower (P<.01) than in Kordofan and Darfur Region.The mean, minimum and maximum level of bone P are shown in table (102). 4.5.3.2.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on bone phosphorus level Variation in bone P among sex groups within locations was not significant (P<.05) tested in an ANOVA model. The Eastern Region level tended to decrease in male and female camels than in the other two regions as presented in table (103) and graphs figure (93). Table 102: Mean bone phosphorus level in different locations

Region Samples Mean S.E. Min. Max Darfur 126 12.93n .05 11.75 13.60 Eastern 56 11.90m .10 10.9 12.95 Kordofan 61 12.41n .06 11.54 13.25

Table 103: Male and female mean bone phosphorus level in different locations

Location Male Female Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Darfur 15 12.86±.11 12.35 13.5 111 12.94±.05 11.75 13.6 Kordofan 17 12.56 ±.09 11.95 13.2 44 12.36±.07 11.54 13.25 Eastern 14 11.95±.18 11 12.95 42 11.50±.11 10.90 12.6

4.5.3.2.4. Interaction effect of season and location on bone phosphorus level In each region the average value of bone P was determined in the samples collected in dry and wet season. Interaction between season and location was explored and the outcome is summarized in table (104) and graphs figure (94). No significant difference due to season within location, the Eastern Region level tended to decrease in both seasons.

183

4.5.3.2.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on bone phosphorus level: Table (105) and graphs figure (95) summarizes the level of bone phosphorus in different season and different sex groups within the three locations of the study. No variation due to sex within season detected and levels were higher during dry season in both sexes than in wet season.

Figure 93: Male and female mean bone phosphorus level in different locations

The phosphorus in male and female bones in samples collectedthe three regions

13

12.5

12

11.5

11

10.5 Darfur Kordofan Eastern Male 12.864 12.56294 11.95 Female 12.94162 12.35773 11.49524

Table 104: Dry and wet season mean bone phosphorus level in different locations Location Dry Season Wet Season Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Darfur 77 13.21±.04 12.5 13.6 49 12.50±.07 11.75 13.2 Kordofan 33 12.50±.08 11.54 13.2 28 12.31±.08 11.55 13.25 Eastern 25 12.33±.06 11.5 12.95 31 11.02±.06 10.90 11.5

184 Figure 94: Dry and wet season mean bone phosphorus level in different locations

The phosphorus in the two seasons in the three regions

13.5

13

12.5

12

Dry season 11.5 Wet season

11

10.5

10

9.5 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

Table 105: Male and female mean bone phosphorus level in different seasons

Male Female No. Mean Min. Max No. Mean Min. Max Dry Season 25 12.80±.08 12.2 13.5 110 12.89±.05 11.5 13.6 Wet Season 21 12.09±.13 11.0 12.85 87 12.01±.09 10.9 13.25

Figure 95: Male and female mean bone phosphorus level in different seasons

The level of phosphorus in male and female samples in the two season

13

12.8

12.6

12.4

Dry Season 12.2 Wet Season

12

11.8

11.6

11.4 Male Female

185 4.5.3.3. Bone Magnesium: 243 bone samples were examined to assess the level of magnesium; the overall average was .40±.002 (range.33-.48 ppm). 4.5.3.3.1. Effect of season on bone magnesium level: The average level of bone magnesium in samples collected during dry and wet season was determined and no variation due to season on bone Mg level The frequency and the data distribution are shown in the graphs figure (96).

Figure 96: Mean bone magnesium level in different seasons

Mg .475

.4605

.446

.4315

.417

.4025

.388

.3735

.359

.3445

.33 Dry Wet

4.5.3.3.2. Effect of location on bone magnesium level: Bone magnesium level in samples collected from Darfur, Kordofan and Eastern were examined, no significant variation detected between regions.The mean, minimum and maximum level of bone Mg are shown in table (106). Table 106: Mean bone magnesium level in different locations

Region Samples Mean S.E. Min. Max Darfur 126 .41 .003 .33 .45 Kordofan 56 .40 .039 .33 .45 Eastern 61 .40 .004 .34 .457

4.5.3.3.3. Interaction effect of sex and location on bone magnesium level Variation in bone Mg among sex groups within locations was not significant (P<.05) tested in an ANOVA model. The Eastern Region level tended to

186 decrease in male and female camels than in the other two regions as presented in table (107) and graphs figure (97). 4.5.3.3.4. Interaction effect of season and location on bone magnesium level In each region the average value of bone Mg was determined in the samples collected in dry and wet season. Interaction between season and location was explored and the outcome is summarized in table (108) and graphs figure (98). No significant difference due to season within location, the Eastern Region level tended to decrease during dry season. Table 107: Male and female mean bone magnesium level in different locations

Location Male Female Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma Sampl Mean±S.E Mi Ma e . n x e . n x Darfur 15 .41±.01 .38 .45 111 .41±.003 .33 .45 Kordofa 17 .43±1.01 .40 .48 44 .39±.003 .34 .45 n Eastern 14 .38±.01 .35 .45 42 .38±.004 .33 .45

Table 108: Dry and wet season mean bone magnesium level in different locations

Location Dry Season Wet Season Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Sample Mean±S.E. Min Max Darfur 77 .41±.004 .34 .45 49 .39±.004 .33 .44 Kordofan 33 .40±.005 .35 .475 28 .41±.006 .34 .45 Eastern 25 .38±.005 .35 .41 28 .39±.006 .33 .45

187 Figure 97: Male and female mean bone magnesium level in different locations

Magnesium level in male and female camels from different regions

0.44

0.43

0.42

0.41

0.4

0.39

0.38

0.37

0.36

0.35 Darfur Kordofan Eastern Male 0.4073333 0.4302941 0.3828571 Female 0.4052162 0.3938636 0.3811905

Figure 98: Dry and wet season mean bone magnesium level in different locations

Magnesium in bones collected in the dry and wet season from different regions

0.42

0.41

0.4

0.39 Dry season Wet season 0.38

0.37

0.36

0.35 Darfur Kordofan Eastern

188

Table 109: Male and female mean bone magnesium level in different seasons

Male Female No. Mean±S.E. Min. Max No. Mean±S.E. Min. Max Dry Season 25 .41±.007 .35 .475 110 .40±.003 .34 .45 Wet Season 21 .41±.006 .35 .450 87 .39± .003 .33 .45

Figure 99: Male and female mean bone magnesium level in different seasons

The level of manganese in female and male in the different season

0.415

0.41

0.405

0.4 Dry Season Wet Season 0.395

0.39

0.385

0.38 Male Female

4.5.3.3.5. Interaction effect of sex and season on bone magnesium level Table (109) and graphs figure (99) summarizes the level of bone magnesium in different season and different sex groups within the three locations of the study. Bone Mg level is higher in males than in females and tended to decrease in females during wet season. 4.6. Natroun supplementation trial results: 4.6.1 Natroun cation contents and its effect on intake, blood indecies and live weight gain: Natroun ore is an unrefined compound that contain high sodium salts as sodium sesquicarbonate and sodium carbonate, (Natroun ore is the parent material for

189 many of these purified compounds); considerable impurities amount of phosphorus, potassium and magnesium were also analysed as that in soil table (110). Although the impurities may dilute the buffering agents somewhat the compound is an effective buffer. The roughage intake did not differ significantly among the two initial groups. However, roughage intake increased significantly when natroun offered to the reciprocal groups compared to concentrate only groups table (111) and figure (100). The live weight gain performance of the experimental camels is significantly (P<.05 ) affected by natroun supplementation table (112) and figure (101). Haemoglobin level, WBC and RBC count increased significantly alongside with the increase in roughage intake and live body weight gain as shown in figures (102, 103 and 104). Table 110: Natroun cation contents

Element Conc ppm Sodium 300 Potassium 50 Calcium 1.39 Phosphorus 80 Magnesium 15 Copper 0.241 Cobalt Iron .578 Zinc .054 Manganese .105

Table 111: Average daily roughage intake (Kg) under different treatment

Treatment days Mean S.D. Min. Max. Group one initial 30 6.2 .84 3 8.5 Group two initial 30 5.7 1.16 2.5 7.6 Group one with concentrate+natroun 45 7.5 .96 4 10 Group two with concentrate 45 6.6 .61 5 7.5 Group two with concentrate+natroun 45 7.6 .86 6 10 Group one with concentrate 45 7.1 1.00 4 9

190 Figure 100: Average daily roughage intake under different treatment

Feed consumption of the different groups under different treatment

7.51 7.62 8.00 7.05

6.60 6.24 7.00 5.71

6.00

5.00

Kg 4.00

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00 Group one initial Group tow initial Group one with Group one without Group two with Group two without Natroun Natroun Natroun Natroun

Table 112: Monthly weight gains of experimental camels*

DWG DWG DWG DWG 27Da Camel Initial (17) Jan.- (30) Jan.- (17) Feb- (25) Mar- from No. Wt.Nov04 Dec-04 05 22 16 18 last co 1 250 273.9 1.40 289.7 0.52 299.5 0.51 296.3 -0.12 280.9 -0.57 2 280.5 305.0 1.47 320.0 0.50 329.5 0.55 328 -0.60 313 -0.55 3 277.2 300.5 1.37 317.5 0.56 326.5 0.52 327 -0.20 311.8 -0.56 4 288.5 307.6 1.12 321 0.51 339.5 1.09 349 0.38 341.5 -0.29 5 284.0 303.0 1.11 318 0.50 339.5 1.26 350 0.78 339.5 -0.40 6 297.5 316.9 1.14 331 0.47 357 1.52 362 0.20 351 -0.40 * Start Natroun supplementation day 19/11/2003 for camel (1-3), for camel (4-6) on 6/01/2003

191 Figure 101: Monthly weight gains of experimental camels

Camel weights

370 360 350 340 330 320 Camel 1 310 Camel 2 300 Camel 3 290 Camel 4 280 Camel 5 270 Camel 6 260 250 240 230 220 Nov-04 Dec-04 Jan.-5 Jan.-22 Febru-16 Mar-18

Figure 102: Haemoglobin level in experimental camels

Haemoglobin level in different camels

11

10

9

8 Camel 1 Camel 2 7 Camel 3 Camel 4

g/100 ml g/100 6 Camel 5 5 Camel 6

4

3

2

اﺑ b دﻳ دﻳ دﻳ دﻳ ﻧ اآ ﺮﻳ ﻣﺎر ﻣﺎر ﻳﻨﺎﻳ an n ﻞ ﻓﺒﺮا ﺮ- ﻮﻓﻤ ﺘﻮ - س س ﻳﺮ Jan Fe ﺴﻤﺒﺮ ﺴﻤﺒﺮ ﺴﻤﺒﺮ ﺴﻤﺒﺮ ﺒﺮ ﺑﺮ - - - - d J th t Ja 28 7- 4- 5- 28- 08- n is 1th 1 0 1 20 02 14 21 29 2 11 2 1

192 Figure 103: WBC count in experimental camels

White blood cells count in different camels

24000

22000

20000

18000

16000 Camel 1 Camel 2 14000 Camel 3 Camel 4 12000 Camel 5 Camel 6 10000

8000

6000

4000

2000 اﺑﺮﻳﻞ11th 17- 15- 20- ﻳﻨﺎﻳﺮ2nd 11th 2ist 28- 29- 21- 14- 02- 08- 28- ﻣﺎرس ﻓﺒﺮاﻳﺮ Jan Jan Jan Feb دﻳﺴﻤﺒﺮ دﻳﺴﻤﺒﺮ دﻳﺴﻤﺒﺮ دﻳﺴﻤﺒﺮ ﻧﻮﻓﻤﺒﺮ اآﺘﻮﺑﺮ

Figure 104: RBC count in experimental camels

RBCs count different camels

9000000

8000000

7000000

6000000

Camel 1 5000000 Camel 2 Camel 3 Camel 4 4000000 Camel 5 Camel 6

3000000

2000000

1000000

0 8-Nov 2-Dec 4-Mar 28-Oct 20-Apr 28-Jan 14-Dec 21-Dec 29-Dec 17-Feb 15-Mar 2nd Jan 2nd Jan 11th Jan 11th Feb

193 Discussion summary and conclusions

Camels are browsers, and possess a split upper lip which is well suited to this purpose. In pasture, the dietary preferences are the most important adaptive mechanisms. The camels showed preference for trees and shrubs in addition to the crop residues especially in the Eastern Region during the dry season while in the wet season, they selected more of herbaceous and grass species. In Western Region, camels mostly browsed on trees and shrubs in both dry and wet seasons, possibly because they dominated the vegetation. Camels browse trees and select a very wide range of plants, in contrast to other ruminants, accept the highest number of plant species in their diet. Browse and forage nutrient constituents tended to be higher in the Western Region than in the Eastern Region. This may be attributable to the rich porous sandy soil and climatic conditions. During both seasons, compared with forages, browse appears to be lower in fibre and ash, richer in protein, fat and minerals (except for protein for young grasses) as already shown by Rose-Innes (1964, 1966, and 1967); Piot (1969) and later by Boudet (1975). Forage fibre content declined while CP and ash increased from dry to wet season, which is characteristic of mature tropical forages. The increase in CP from dry to wet season was in agreement with Kayongo (1986); Field (1995) and Abbas et al. (1995). The increase in fibre and ash content of forages while protein level declined from wet to dry season was consistent with earlier reports by Wilson (1982) and Van Soest (1982) who noted that, the high levels of ADF ash in most of the grasses indicates the presence of large amounts of silica which may seriously reduce digestibility.These attributes made the browse more palatable in both seasons and were thus preferred by the grazing camels. The most interesting point to consider is that camels browsed selectively, preferring the more nutritious browse materials, with high moisture and contents (Newman, 1975; Field, 1995).

194 Approximately 7% crude protein is the minimum level required for positive nitrogen balance in mature grazing animals (Milford and Haydock, 1965; Minson and Milford,1967). The microbial requirements are met at 6 – 8 % CP while the animal requirements range from 7 – 20% CP in the diet depending upon species, sex and physiological state (Milford and Haydock, 1965; Huston et al., 1981). During dry season, more than 50% of forage has CP below the level of 7% whereas only 3% of browse in both regions. During wet season, all browse entries contained CP above 7% and the percentage of deficient forage declined to 33 and 40% in Western and Eastern Regions respectively. Wilson (1989) reported that, Camels are well adapted to low protein diets (although their feeding selectivity to some extent allows them to ingest material with higher total nitrogen content than the feed on offer) through efficient urea cycling mechanisms. This explains why camels can exploit efficiently dried grass at its least palatable, of poor feed value and often present in inadequate quantities or the by-products of large-scale mechanized durra (sorghum) cultivation. The browses analyzed in the present study have good levels of nutrients particularly protein and minerals but lower CHO and GE contents than forage. The browses lower energy value than forage plants may be due to their lower CHO and digestibility. In addition browse plants provide the following resources: a fresh green stage during the dry season, new shoots and buds and/or flowers and fruit. Some of the trees were evergreen shrubs act as precursors for vitamin A. They were therefore available throughout the year although herders perceived them as more important during the dry season. This was possibly because, in the dry season, such plants served the dual roles of supplying minerals to camels and also acted as the main components of the basal feed. This suggests that the Browse species were preferred and therefore sought after by the camel. Browses foliage also generally has higher lignin contents than grasses, and often has higher levels of tannins and other astringent compounds (Lefroy et al., 1992). Tannins adversely affect the digestibility of dry matter and utilization of

195 nutrients (Negi, 1986). However, tropical browses have been shown to contain varying quantities of condensed tannin and other anti-nutritional substances in their biomass that affect their optional utilization by animals. From the above analysis it may be seen that levels of CP in browse are sufficient for camels maintenance in both seasons while forage in the wet season only; therefore, the two types of plants are complementary for feed purpose. There is need to expand the study for levels of toxic constituents such as tannin, phytin and hydrocyanic acid and anti-nutritional factors such as oxalate, nitrite saponins and alkaloids. Feeding trails using ruminants and monogastric animals are recommended in order to fully ascertain the nutritional values of these browses. The word “critical” is used in this study to note a mineral concentration in soil, water and plants below (or above in case of excesses) the quantity estimated by the NRC (1976) to be the requirement for plant and livestock growth and maintenance. Concentration in plant material, not total consumption per day, would be used to determine the true adequacy of a mineral element. The influence of parent material is very clear on underground water mineral content; higher levels of Na, K and Mg were detected in water in the Eastern than Western Region matching with the extractable level of these cations in the soil. Groundwater is more saline than surface water because it is in contact with soil and rock for longer periods and has been concentrated by plants through transpiration. The quality of underground water is variable and significant quantities of Na, K and Mg may be consumed by grazing animals. This can’t be generalized because of the too few water samples analysed to represent the vast grazing areas with many watering points. Soils of the Western Region composed of the weathering of the Nubian Sandstone, while that of the Eastern Region of ecogni deposits. (Hartmans, 1970; Mitchell et al, 1957; Latteur, 1962; Pfander, 1971) reported that specific regional differences in soil characteristics such as differences in geological formations, drainage and pH, account for most of the naturally occurring mineral deficiencies in livestock. Extractable Na, P, Fe, Mo, Mn and pH levels

196 are significantly higher in the Western Region in both seasons than in the Eastern region, whereas K and Mg are significantly higher in the Eastern region. Consequently, incidence of mineral deficiencies was higher in the Eastern than Western Region, reflected in plants nutrient level. Mineral concentration in soil has a great effect on pH, which in turn has a major impact on mineral uptake by plants. All the soil samples analysed were adequate in Ca and Mg and individual evaluation of plant samples based on dietary Ca requirement of 0.3% and Mg requirement of 0.2% for mature cows McDowell and Conrad (1977) indicated adequate level of Ca and Mg in browse. Nevertheless >50% of forages in both regions were deficient in Ca and Mg during wet season and a considerable level of deficiency during dry season. This low level may not be attributed to level of extractable soil Ca and Mg, but to dilution process; as plants mature, mineral contents decline due to a natural dilution process (Fleming, 1973) and translocation of nutrients to the root system (Blue and Tergas, 1971). Soil phosphorus deficiency is widespread in both regions as detected in many tropical soils which are low in total and plant available phosphorus. Acid soils high in aluminum or iron produce insoluble phosphate compounds that cause a P deficiency in many pasture and crop plants. However, of all the soil samples analysed in both seasons >55% were below the critical level (<5.0 ppm) of 5 ppm Phosphorus as suggested by Breland (1976), no significant seasonal differences but the level of deficiency is higher in the Eastern Region. Browse and forage samples in both regions based on dietary P requirement of 0.24% for mature cows as suggested by McDowell and Conrad (1977) indicated >70% were deficient in P during dry season and >55% during wet season. In agreement with Lemos (1978) who reported that tropical soils are highly weathered and highly leached phosphorus fixation by aluminum is often cited to be the major problem. Extractable soil Na and K were higher in the Eastern than Western Region. Potassium was deficient during wet season in 33% of the Western Region soil reflected in the higher level of deficiency in forages in the

197 dry season. Regarding Na level, low levels detected in forages in agreement with McDowell (1976) statement that many tropical regions have reported low forage sodium concentrations. Apart from P the soil minerals most widely present in inadequate amounts are Cu, Zn, Mn and Na. 33% were below the critical level of Cu <0.6 ppm and Zn <2 ppm as suggested by Horowitz and Dantas (1973) and Sanchez (1976) respectively. More than half of all soil manganese concentrations were below the critical level of 19 ppm as suggested by Conrad et al. 1980. In both regions the alkaline and highly saline soil produces relatively large percentage of plants with borderline to deficient in concentrations of Mn, Cu, Zn and Na, which are less available when the Ph is raised. Several essential elements tend to become less available due to a reduction in availability as Ph increases from 5.0 to 8.0. Molybdenum and Se, on the other hand, are affected in the opposite way, being more available at the higher pH level (Brady, 1974). On the basis of requirements in livestock feed for concentrations of mineral elements the browse consumed were deficient in Zn and to lesser extend Cu whereas forage consumed were deficient in Cu, Zn, P, Na and in the wet season Ca and Mg. The high percentage of soil with deficient Mn level, appear not to aid the diagnosis of Mn deficiency in animals; because in forage excessive levels of Mn detected and levels in browse were within the normal limits. In both regions adequate soil Fe and Mo detected concentrations being higher in the Western Region than in the Eastern Region, reflected in forage species excessive concentrations of Fe but excessive browse Mo level. Generally forages were within the normal limits for molybdenum but high levels of Fe and Mn while browses were within the normal limits for Mn but high levels of Mo and Fe. The soil’s red colour of the Western Region results from the oxidation of Fe minerals, extractable soil Co higher in the Eastern than Western Region and individual evaluation of plant samples in all seasons indicated Co was adequate in both regions. Camels cannot avoid ingesting soil during browse or grain

198 supplements in mud or dust, under normal grazing conditions, ingested soil can be a source of more minerals than ingested pasture (Healy, 1973). It is believed that plant requirements for minerals such as K and probably Zn and Mn are higher than those for animals. However, the latter require more Na, Cl, Co and Se, but P is needed in equal amounts in plants and animals (Reid and Harvath, 1980). Higher Ca, Mg and Na levels were detected in browse than in forage; whereas no significant variation in K and P levels. Ca level increases and P levels decreases with plant maturity (Rodger, 1975). Since the majority of the browse and some of the forage are legumes, these findings are in harmony with Underwood (1977); Reid and Harvath (1980) who reported that, ‘Legumes contain higher Ca and Mg than grasses and equal amounts of K and P.’ This seems to agree with our findings. Forage Ca increases during dry season, from its concentration in wet season, while browse Ca concentrations did not. Reid and Harvath (1980) have reported increases in calcium concentration of forage in summer. The decrease in Ca concentration in forage in rainy season is attributed to lack of mobility of Ca which tends to accumulate in old organs and stems as plants mature; hence young plants have low concentrations of calcium (Sousa, 1978). The ca content of Eastern and Western Regions browse was adequate in both seasons, >90% of browse species had higher Ca than the recommended requirements (g /kg DM diet) of growing cattle (2.6-10.8), pregnant cows (2.1- 3.5) and lactating cows (2.9-5.3), (ARC 1980; INRA 1989; Underwood and Suttle, 1999). Based on the above recommendations 40% of forage species in both regions were deficient in Ca during dry season and 50% during wet season. Although P deficiency is indisputable, there seem to be conflicting reports on availability of Ca in tropical grasses. For example, Jumba et al. (1996a) in a survey of the macro-mineral concentrations in herbage in Western Kenya reported that 73% of the sampled forages would not meet the Ca requirement for maintenance of cattle and sheep. However, Youssef and

199 Braithwaite (1987) and Minson (1990) reported that most tropical grasses would satisfy the requirements of cattle and sheep. As acknowledged by Jumba et al. (1996a), the stage of growth of grasses at which the analysis was done could have affected the discrepancies observed in Ca concentrations. Browse P was not significantly affected by season in either location, while forage P level increased slightly in wet season in accordance with the general observation of P in tropical forages (Bembridge, 1970, quoted by Van Niekerk, 1978). Phosphorus is reported to be translocated to the roots and in some cases to the soil (Sousa, 1978). Lower forage P concentrations, observed in the summer probably due to higher light intensity and temperature (Minson 1990; Jumba et al., 1996a). The majority of browse and forage species examined had lower P level than established tropical pasture (2.7 g /kgDM) (Minson 1990; Underwood and Suttle,1999). Browse and forage plants had lower concentrations of P than the normal requirements of P (g /kg DM diet) of growing cattle (1.1-4.8), pregnant heifers and cows (0.9-2.0) and lactating cows (2.0-30), Underwood and Suttle, (1999), suggesting inadequacy during both seasons. The most common mineral deficiency in the world is that of phosphorus (McDowell, 1984a). Green plants are an excellent dietary source of Mg for animals because of the presence of Mg in chlorophyll (Wilkinson et al., 1990).Tropical forages (grasses and legumes) contain sufficient amounts of Mg, deficiencies in animal grazing tropical pastures are likely to be rare (Minson and Norton, 1984).The variation in the level of plant magnesium due to season was not significant in Western Region, only, slight increase during wet season, may be due to the fact that magnesium like calcium is reported to be immobile in plants hence is associated with old tissues (Gomide, 1978).Whereas in the Eastern Region plant Mg in dry season is significantly higher than in wet season in agreement with the observation that mineral concentrations in forages generally increased in wet season, but concentrations of calcium and magnesium decreased.

200 Based on Minson (1990); Underwood and Suttle (1999) recommendation (2.0 g /kg DM) Mg in the diets of ruminants; browse plants had higher levels of Mg than forages. Of all the browse samples analysed, approximately >80% in both seasons, and >70% of forage during dry season, had sufficient Mg level in agreement with (Youssef and Braithwaite 1987; Minson 1990; Schillhorn van Veen and Loeffler 1990) who reported that Mg in tropical forage was not considered to be limiting, although Jumba et al. (1996a) reported exceptionally low Mg concentrations in Kenya. During wet season, in both regions forage Mg declined to the level that more than half are deficient in agreement with (Gomide, 1978). During wet season there is a substantial drop in plant Na level, whereas K level generally increased in agreement with (Jones, 1963; Reid and Horvath, 1980) results; contrarily, extractable soil Na level increased during wet season and K during dry season. Potassium is reported to be extremely mobile in plants and is trans-located from the oldest to the fastest growing tissues Gomide (1978). Losses of potassium as the plant matures was attributed to translocation of potassium to the root system and then to the soil Blue and Tergas (1969). In Western and Eastern Regions, mean browse and forage K levels were adequate during both seasons. Higher Na levels were detected in browse than in forages in both seasons. Na level is adequate compared to normal levels (0.05% to 1.0%) reported by Poland and Schanabel (1980) but lower especially in forage than the ARC (1980) requirements (0.8-1.2%) for cattle. There seem to be a general agreement that Na is deficient in most tropical grasses, in agreement with McDowell (1976) statement that many tropical regions have reported low forage sodium concentrations. Sodium deficiency can be corrected by providing common salt ad libitum which can also satisfy the requirement for chloride McDowell (1985a). The need for Lactating animals suffer most from lack of salt in the diet due to high levels of NaCl secreted in milk McDowell et al. (1984a). The need for Na is particularly pronounced in hot weather to compensate for losses due to respiration and perspiration. Individual evaluation

201 of plants indicated high levels of deficiency were detected in forages than in browse. In the Eastern Region 55% and 69% and in the Western Region 60% and 81% of forage samples were deficient in Na in dry and wet season respectively. Extractable soil Na and K were higher in the Eastern than Western Region. Individual evaluation of plant samples based on dietary K requirement of 0.8% McDowell and Conrad (1977) indicated negligible deficiencies in browse and forage only 17% of forage samples were deficient in K during dry season in Western Region. Three quarter of browse species Cu level in this study were higher than recommended Cu in ruminants’ diets (7.0-11.0 mg/ kg DM) for the normal physiological functions of the animals, NRC (2001). However, availability of Cu from these feeds could be lowered by its low absorbability, Underwood and Suttle (1999), or even due to its negative interaction with dietary S, Mo and Fe, Spears (2003a,b). Forage Cu was significantly higher in wet season than dry season in both regions reflecting the nonsignificant increase in extractable soil copper in wet season. Sousa (1978) reported similar increases and suggested that copper may be associated with new tissues in plants and is translocated to the root system as plants mature. The Cu content of forage species was on the lower range of the normal dietary requirements in ruminants’ diets during dry season, while during wet season had lower concentration than recommended. These forage Cu concentrations were inadequate during both seasons compared to minimum recommended level of 8 mg/Kg DM (NRC, 1981). In Africa, Cu deficiency is common in the Rift Valley that stretches from Ethiopia to Tanzania, and in Kenya, Zaire, Malawi, Sudan and Nigeria (Schillhorn van Veen and Loeffler 1990). The browse and forage had higher level of Mo than most tropical forages (0.5-1.5 mg/ kg DM), McDowell, (1992). Browse had higher and forage lower levels of Mo than dietary requirements of ruminants (< 2.0 mg/ kg DM). All forage samples from both regions were deficient in Mo in the dry and wet seasons. High Levels of Mo of browse could be associated with induced Cu deficiency in camels due to its negative interaction with S on

202 lowered Cu. Antagonistic relationships between dietary Cu and S, or with Mo, contribute to induced Cu deficiency in ruminants, Spears (2003a, b). Copper combined with thiomolybdate is not available for absorption, and even that much of the thiomolybdate that is not combined with Cu in the rumen is absorbed into the blood stream, where it would be ecognize to tissue Cu, leading to liver Cu-loss. Both two-way interactions between Cu and S, and three-way interaction among Cu, Mo and S, have been ecognized in ruminants (Meschy, 2000; Spears, 2003a). The plant species had high concentrations of Fe that were comparable to high levels of Fe (100-700 mg/ kg DM) of tropical grasses and legumes, McDowell (1992). These species had higher levels of Fe than tabulated requirements of Fe of dairy and beef cattle (50 mg/ kg DM), INRA (1989); Meschy (2000), although its availability could vary due to the fact that Fe is absorbed according to the need, and thus its absorption would depend on dietary factors, age of the animal and body Fe status, Underwood and Suttle (1999). Fe high level detected in the Western Region than Eastern Region plants, reflecting the increase in extractable soil Fe in Western region. All plant species in both seasons had lower levels of Zn than mean concentration of most forages (36-47 mg /kg DM), Minson (1990). Individual evaluation of plant samples, in both regions, indicated that the majority meet the minimum dietary requirement of Zn (5.0-30 mg/ kg DM) of ruminants in both seasons. According to NRC (1981) recommendations of 30 mg/Kg DM, in both regions, >70% of browse during dry season and >65% during wet season had inadequate Zn content whereas >85% of all forage samples were deficient in both seasons. In recent years, Zn deficiency in grazing animals has been reported in a number of tropical countries where the Zn content in the diet was less than 40 mg/Kg Dm Mcdowell et al., (1983). Ranwana and Rajaratne (1985) also reported similar results of forages from different parts of Sri Lanka. Regional differences were highly significant in manganese content of the plants being higher in the Western Region. Manganese deficiency is not a problem in

203 plants as only a small percentage of plants analysed had low manganese levels. Plant Mn concentrations detected were extremely variable reflecting substantial species differences Reid and Horvath (1980). The browse had intermediate while forages had high levels of Mn that were comparable to the contents of Mn of pastures and established legumes (14-148 mg/ kg DM), Minson 1990. Although there was a slight increase in extractable soil Mn in wet season, high forage concentration of Mn in dry season was detected and attributed to low rates of Mn translocation and accumulation of Mn in older tissues Sousa (1978). All plant species had higher Levels of Mn than the normal dietary requirements of 20-40 mg/kg DM, ARC 1980; NRC 2001; Meschy, (2000), although, its supply could be lowered by its low absorbability efficiency, from forages, Underwood and Suttle (1999). High Mn concentrations may interfere with the metabolism of other minerals and has been observed to result in low reproductive rates of cattle McDowell et al. (1984a). Cobalt is a serious mineral limitation to livestock because even when grazing is abundant deficiency will lead to chronic starvation or wasting which is often indistinguishable from energy and protein malnutrition (French, 1952; Howard, 1963; McDowell et al., 1984). Co level of browse generally, tended to increase in wet season, while that of forage in the dry season. It is rare for grasses to contain Co in concentrations that meet the demands of grazing animals (Hodgson et al., 1962). When the content in the pastures herbage is 0.10 ppm or less (Hodgson et al., 1962) grazing animals are likely to suffer from Co deficiency. Content of Co observed in this study was comparable to that in most tropical grasses (<0.01 to 1.26 mg kg-1 DM) reported by Minson (1990). Browse and forage had higher levels of Co than the dietary recommended levels for cattle (0.06-0.07 mg kg-1 DM), ARC (1980), sheep and goats (0.11 mg kg-1 DM) (ARC 1980; INRA 1989; Meschy 2000). Individual evaluation of plant samples in all seasons indicated Co was adequate in both regions. Animals suffering from Co deficiency lose appetite and condition, may abort if

204 in calf or may have difficulty to conceive again, the condition seems to affect lactating cows more than any other type of stock (Hudson, 1944; French, 1952). Variations in the concentration of minerals among browse and forage in this study agreed with the statement by Conrad (1978) that trace minerals in plants may increase decrease or show no consistent change with stage of growth, plant species, soil or seasonal conditions. Variations in the concentration also could be accounted for by genotypic differences, efficiency of mineral uptake and retention and stage of foliage maturity coupled with proportion of leaf samples (i.e., leaf vs. twigs) harvested for mineral analyses. Younger leaves and leaflets contain higher levels of minerals than older mature leaves, twigs and stem parts, Minson (1990). High levels of CP, Ca, P, Mg, Na, and Co of the browse species could be considered sufficient as protein and mineral sources for camel maintenance. However, complete rely on these browse species as the only mineral sources for camels could be limited by their low contents of Cu and Zn. Forage species excessive concentrations of Fe and Mn and low Na coupled with excessive browse Mo that could be detrimental suggesting for low levels of inclusion of especially Mo in supplement formulation. The minerals most widely present in inadequate amounts are Na, P, Zn and Cu. Supplementation regimes involving these elements are very likely to produce beneficial results. There is an urgent need for appropriate experimentation so that soundly-based supplementation packages can be devised. It should be stressed that data of the type presented here can provide only an indication of the existence of potential mineral deficiency problems. Bearing in mind Abbas et al. (1995) observation that dromedaries on pasture select for protein rich forage species and camel selectivity usually results in the consumption of material of somewhat higher quality than that of the total available; conclusive diagnosis must be based on the occurrence of a positive response to supplementary supply of the mineral in question. However, such data are vital in the formulation of critical supplementation experiments, upon which recommendations for practical

205 supplementation regimes should be based. From the above analysis it may be seen that levels of nutrients in browse are sufficient for camels maintenance in both seasons while forage in the wet season only; as dry-season forages are extremely deficient in protein, phosphorus and carotene cannot, alone, meet the camel maintenance requirements. It is safe to say that browse constitutes a necessary and adequate supplement to forage in the dry season, lastly but not least, the two types of plants are complementary for feed purpose. The concentration of minerals in soil is a poor indicator of mineral uptake by plants and thus their availability to animals Judson and McFarlane (1998). The chemical composition of body tissues generally reflects the dietary status of domestic and wild animals to varying degrees of accuracy, depending on the tissue and the element. Mineral assays on tissues can therefore be used to assist in the detection and definition of a range of mineral inadequacies and excesses in animals. Critical animal tissue concentration were considered to be below or above values associated with specific signs as reported in the literature. Overall and regional mean serum Ca were in the same range as in other animals normal levels but lower than in the horse: Ca = cow 8.4-11.0; sheep 9.3-11.7; goat 9-11.6; horse 10.4-13.4 mg/dl ; Fraser et al. (1991). Therefore, the critical serum Ca 8.0 mg/dl level (Simesen, 1972; McDowell, 1985) or < 9 mg serum Ca /dl Marshal et al., (1973), used for other ruminants may be applied to camels. Serum calcium is recommended as a practical criterion for assessing calcium status in animals in severe deficiency Committee on Animal Nutrition, (1973), thus of little value in the diagnosis of mild calcium deficiency. Regional mean serum Ca concentrations detected during dry and wet season were comparable to levels of camel serum Ca reported by many authors in the Sudan; Wahbi et al. (1980), reported in male camels, mean serum Ca concentration 9.2 mg/dl (range 6.3-11.0), Abu damir (1980) reported 9.1 mg/dl (range 6.3-10.5), in male and female camels and in (1990), Abu damir et al. reported 9.7 mg/dl (range 8.7-10.3). In camels of Somalia; Biaki and Salutini (1982); Marx and Abdi (1983) reported (range 7.8-11.5) in males and (range

206 7.1-14.8) in females, respectively. Serum Ca level increased during dry season than in wet season and based on the critical level of 8 mg/100 ml as suggested by (Simesen, 1972; McDowell, 1985) incidence of deficiency is not high and detected in western regions (Darfur samples in both seasons and in Kordofan during wet season). All the soil samples analysed were adequate in Ca and Mg; nevertheless >50% of forages were deficient in Ca and Mg, especially during the wet season. Calcium and magnesium are reported to be relatively immobile in the plant; hence these minerals accumulate in older parts of the plant and in stems Gomide (1978). The results are in agreement with this observation because mineral concentrations in forages generally increased in wet season, but concentrations of calcium decreased. Forage calcium concentration is less affected by advancing maturity, thereby resulting in a detrimental increase of the ratio of this mineral with other elements (i.e., a wide calcium/phosphorus ratio). While dietary Ca concentrations of 2-6 g/kg, with higher requirements for lactation have been variously recommended for cattle and sheep (NRC, 1978, 1984, 1985: ARC, 1980), the findings of Sykes and Field (1972) suggest that levels of 2.5-3.0 g/kg are adequate in most circumstances. Individual evaluation of plant samples based on dietary calcium requirement of 0.3% for mature cows McDowell and Conrad (1977) indicated higher deficiencies in wet season forages of both regions and nothing in trees resulting, in low serum Ca level detected during wet season. Means of serum Ca concentration in Darfur, during wet season and the Eastern region, during dry season were below the critical level of 9 mg Ca/100ml serum Marshal et al. (1973). The insignificant decrease in Darfur serum Ca concentration during the wet season is in agreement with the general trend in mineral concentration of the other animal tissues in this investigation accentuated by large number of female camels sampled. The Eastern Region dry season serum Ca Level is lower due to the dry season low calcium level of trees and forages in comparison with western region. Also the effect of cereal feeding available in crop residues, during dry season, in the Eastern Region should be considered; Franklin et al. (1948)

207 showed that the serum calcium levels of lactating ewes confined to cereal-based rations very low in calcium (0.11 per cent) declined to one-half or one-third of normal within a few weeks. Individual evaluation showed that, camels of both sexes were not in severe calcium deficiency in different seasons at any location. Since the sera calcium concentration approaching the critical level in both seasons, the effect of season may not have been manifested clearly. So no significant difference in calcium level in different season and/or locations was established using t-test (P>.05), in agreement with the fact that calcium blood levels are much less readily influenced by varying dietary intakes of the mineral than are serum inorganic P levels because of the effectiveness of hormonal control mechanisms. Like parathyroid hormone, calcitonin Guyton (1966) and 1,25-(OH)2 cholecalciferol Boris et al. (1978). When these mechanisms break down, as in certain metabolic diseases such as milk fever, profound changes in serum calcium levels occur. Also where the Ca deficiency, is severe accompanied with physiological reasons, a significant fall in serum calcium results. The decline, was much less evident in non-pregnant animals fed on diet of low Ca level because, of their less intensive demand for calcium. Serum calcium levels are thus of little value in the diagnosis of mild calcium deficiency; the results of plant analysis indicated that problems of Ca deficiency would not be expected. Both gender and location were found to be a predisposing factor, the risk of deficiency in wet season, when animals have an accelerated rate of growth, was almost twice that during dry season. The risk of deficiency in Kordufan (odds ratio=1.72) and Eastern (odds ratio =1.41) is very high in comparison to Darfur. This may be attributable to the health status of Darfur camels during sample collection which, were in good condition ready for exportation. Overall mean bone calcium level was 27.89±0.04 (range 25-28.9%). Means for bone calcium in all Regions were higher than the critical level of 24.5% (fat free bone) for normal cattle Little (1972). Bone calcium did not show significant differences among regions but in the Eastern Region bone calcium

208 as bone phosphorus is a reflection of calcium content of pasture. Calcium deficiencies, though reported rare in grazing animals McDowell (1976), have been known to occur. Peducasse (1982) reported the incidence of Ca deficiency in Bolivia to be 100% as indicated by bone Ca and 43% as indicated by blood serum Ca. The interaction of season and sex had no effect on bone calcium level and the effect of season depended on region. Variation in bone calcium was not significant among regions in dry season whereas variation was significantly higher among regions in wet season, the level decreased in the Eastern Region. Lebdosoekojo (1977) in Colombia and Mendes (1977) in Brazil reported nonsignificant decrease in rib bone Ca. Animal requirements in wet season are increased because of the accelerated growth rate and forages were deficient in calcium (>50%) consequently, animals had to mobilize Ca from the bone. Overall and regional means of serum phosphorus were in the normal range reported in other ruminants but higher than that in the horse: P = 4.3-7.8 , cow; 4-7.3, sheep; 3.7-9.7, goat; 2.3-5.4 mg/ dl, horse; Fraser et al. (1991). Therefore, the critical serum P (4-4.5) mg/dl levels (Simesen, 1972; McDSowell, 1985) used for other ruminants may be applied to camels. Although serum P level varied significantly between regions X seasons, its practical significance is highly doubtful because serum phosphorus values generally were in the normal range reported in other ruminants. These levels, with the exception of Eastern Region dry season, are lower than levels of camel serum P reported by many authors in the Sudan. Wahbi et al. (1980), reported male mean serum P concentration of 5.3 mg/dl (range 3.9-6.8), Abu damir (1980) reported 5.1 mg/dl (range 4.1-7.3), in male and female camels and in (1990), Abu damir et al. reported 6.2 mg/dl (range 5.5-6.8). In camels of Somalia; Biaki and Salutini (1982); Marx and Abdi (1983) reported 5.7 mg/dl (range 2.0-9.4) in males and 6.2 mg/dl (range 3.4-10.0) in females, respectively. Generally serum P concentrations were significantly lower (P<.05) during wet season than during dry season in all locations.

209 A significantly high percentage (P<.05) of animals with phosphorus below the critical level 4.5 mg/dl suggested by McDowell and Conrad (1977) was found in samples collected during wet season compared to samples collected in dry season. Low camel sera P levels may be due to the fact that, the majority of browse and forages were deficient in phosphorus, below the critical level of 0.24% phosphorus required for animals McDowell and Conrad (1977). Underwood (1981) considered a dietary P level of 1.7 g/kg to be marginal for grazing animals, in essential agreement with work of Little (1980, 1985) which indicated that a figure of 1.4 g/kg should be regarded as minimal for growing cattle. The data show that most grasses and crop residues examined were marginal to deficient in P and supplementation with P is likely to be beneficial. Individual evaluation of plant samples (<0.24%) indicated higher percentage of phosphorus deficiencies in the Eastern Region than in the Western Region with the most deficiencies occurred during dry season. Considering the low level of plant phosphorus during dry season, a higher proportion of critical camel serum phosphorus concentrations (<4.5 mg/100 ml) were expected. Two explanations for the relatively high serum P levels during dry season were (1) access to phosphorus rich cereals of the rainfed schemes by products and (2) acceleration of animal growth during wet season. Body phosphorus decreased during the growing season due to high live weight gain and was static or increased during the dry season McCaskill (1990). Others (McDowell, 1976; Lebdosoekojo, 1977; McDowell and Conard, 1977; Mendes, 1977; Sousa, 1978; Van Neikerk, 1978) have observed that whereas mineral deficiencies in forages are prevalent in dry season, mineral deficiencies in animals are prevalent in wet season. During this time forages are supplying plentiful energy and protein which increases animal requirements for individual minerals to meet the requirements for the rapid growth rate in wet season. A high percentage of animals with phosphorus below the critical level were found in Kordofan, followed by Darfur camels, and the least estimate obtained was in male camel in Eastern Region. The discrepancy in the occurrence of phosphorus deficiency in

210 different seasons (Dry and Wet) is pronounced in Eastern Region and it was found to be statistically significant only there. It was 54.2% in the wet season and 11.1% in the dry season because of lowered P level in wet season plants and no supplementation. Comparable result in the different season was obtained in Darfur and Kordofan. This may be attributable to type of husbandry accentuated by cereal supplementation practiced in the Eastern Region. Although, the sandy ‘Qoz’ soil of western Sudan has relatively high P level than in the Eastern Region, Its cation exchange capacity and mineral nutrients are naturally low. Serum P is affected by many factors (Gartner et al., 1965; Fick et al., 1979) and is not recommended as a criterion for phosphorus assessment in cattle Committee on Animal nutrition (1973). Therefore, no significance was attached to the significant season x region interaction of serum phosphorus. Contradicting Scott and McLean (1981) who reported that plasma P is a good indicator of P status, Cohen (1973a, b, c) reported that blood phosphorus was less reliable than bone phosphorus in cattle. Therefore, the overall incidence of phosphorus deficiency indicated by blood serum P can only be an underestimation of the actual phosphorus status. Bone phosphorus patterns closely followed the phosphorus content of pasture as explained by Cohen (1973 a), who concluded that analysis of bone phosphorus was a more reliable estimate of phosphorus status of animals than blood or hair phosphorus. Overall and regional mean for bone phosphorus level were above the critical level of 11.5% for normal cattle Little (1972), but in the Eastern Region was approaching the critical level where bone phosphorus patterns closely followed the phosphorus content of pasture. The interaction of season and sex had no effect on bone phosphorus level and the effect of season depended on region. Variation in bone phosphorus was not significant among regions in dry season whereas variation was significantly higher among regions in wet season. In wet season Bone P decreased slightly in Darfur and Kordofan Regions but approaching the critical level in the Eastern Region because camels depended on plants without supplementation practiced during dry season. The

211 balance of the minerals is often upset when a wide ratio of Ca/P exists, when only overly mature tropical forages, particularly low in P; are available to grazing camel during extended dry seasons. It is still widely believed that a large excess of Ca over P resulting in Ca:P ratios approximating 10 or more, is deleterious to ruminants, although much conflicting evidence occurs in the literature reviewed by Little (1970). In this context it is noteworthy that the ARC (1980) concluded that “…it is not possible to state the optimal ratio of calcium to phosphorus for animal performance or whether such a ratio actually exists.” Where wide ratios occur, the dietary concentration of P per se is almost certain to be inadequate. Overall and regional mean serum Mg concentration were lower than that reported by Wahbi et al. (1980) who found 2.5 mg/100 ml Mg in the blood of nomadic camels in the Sudan. No significant difference in the average levels of regional serum Mg concentration all above the critical level of <1 mg/ dl, suggested by Netherlands Committee on Animal nutrition (1973) and McDowell and Conrad (1977) in normal blood of cattle. In spite of the adequate soil Mg level individual evaluation of plant samples based on dietary Mg requirement of 0.2% McDowell and Conrad (1977) indicated >50% of forage samples were deficient in Mg during wet season and 19% of browse during dry season in both regions. Serum Mg level seems to be a little high in dry season compared to wet season, reflecting feed Mg level. In Darfur serum Ca and Mg concentration during the wet season contrast each other Ca decreased while Mg increased may be due to major changes in dietary condition, also the level of Mg in browse and forage were slightly higher and the percentage of Mg deficient browse declined in the western region during wet season. Individual evaluation of serum Mg concentration based on the critical level of <1 mg/ dl, suggested by McDowell and Conrad (1977) is significantly variable. Camels in Darfur appeared to be more vulnerable to magnesium deficiency, followed by the Eastern Region especially during wet season, coincide with the

212 Mg level in the plants and supplementation practiced there. In Kordofan the level is stable to some extent with almost equal values in the dry and wet season. This variation can be explained by the fact that camels in the Eastern Region consume more grasses, forbs and crop residues which have low Mg than mature trees consumed in wet season. The difference in the level of magnesium in male and female was found to be statistically significant in this study but there is no explanation may be due to physiological reasons. The highest value of serum magnesium detected among male in Eastern Region during dry season, may be due to cereal feeding, and the significantly higher plant Mg concentration during dry season. The overall bone Mg level is 0.39± 0.002 (range 0.33-0.47 %), no variation due to region, season or sex effect. There were no regional differences in mean values of serum Na and K and were comparable with many authors’ results, either in free grazing camels or racing camels provided with supplements, Bhattacharjee and Banerjee (1962) in Indian camels; (Abdelgadir et al.1979; Salaheldin et al. 1979 and Wahbi et al. 1980), in Sudanese camels. Hussein et al. (1982) in S.Arabia camels. Abdalla et al. (1988) In U.A.E; Mohamed and Hussein (1999) in Kuwait racing camel. The camel sera show a wide range of normal level of sodium and these are generally higher than those reported for other ruminants (Bono et al. 1983; Abdalla et al. 1988). Due to large reserves of mobilizable body Na, serum Na is not a sensitive indicator of the Na situation. Between regions comparison shows that Kordofan Region had lower serum Na level and higher serum K level than Darfur and the Eastern Regions, while there were no regional differences in mean values of serum K and Na in the latter regions. In the Eastern Region higher level of serum sodium detected may be due to the practice of mixing certain clay soil having high sodium content with the drinking water. Regarding Darfur, camel traders generally feed their camels with common salt before marketing. In Both Regions, season had a pronounced effect on plant K and Na, potassium level increased significantly in wet season while sodium in the dry

213 season; in agreement with the fact that potassium content of pasture plants decreases with increasing maturity, hence low levels of potassium in the dry season whereas sodium level tended to decrease in wet season. Levels of sodium and potassium were higher in the Western Region trees but lower in forages than those of the Eastern Region. High dietary K in the Western Region trees may result in impaired intestinal absorption of sodium reflected in the lower serum Na level in Kordofan. High dietary K impaired intestinal absorption of sodium whereas low K increased urinary sodium excretion, Scott, 1970. The level of K in all the forages was above the level of 8 g/kg recommended for grazing animals Underwood (1981). It has, however, been suggested McDowell (1985) animals under heat stress, may require K level above 10 g/kg, but since browses and forages, approached this figure, it seems most unlikely that problems of K deficiency are likely to arise. With reference to Na, there is some debate in the literature concerning the dietary concentration required. While Underwood (1981) recommended 1 g/kg for most grazing animals, the findings of Morris (1980) and Little (1987) indicate that 0.7 g/kg is adequate for non-lactating cattle, and the ARC (1980) suggested that a level of 1.4 g/kg is required by sheep. The present data show that almost more than 50% of forage samples examined based on dietary sodium requirement of 0.06% for mature cows McDowell and Conrad (1977) were very poor sources of Na, such that routine supplementation is likely to be necessary. The effect of season on the level of serum K and Na concentrations were significantly higher in the dry season in Darfur and the Eastern Region following the rule that, unlike mineral concentration in plants, mineral concentrations in animal tissues were significantly lower during the wet season than the dry season. Whereas in Kordofan region the situation is vice versa, there is a drop in serum Na level during dry season and increase in serum K level in wet season may be due to the fluctuation of serum Na and K during dehydration, rehydration and food deprivation before sampling. In dehydration, serum Na level increases significantly (from 154 to191 mmol/L) while plasma

214 volume decreases only slightly Yagil et al. (1975). Campbell et al. (1965) reported that low K diets and the consequent low-feed and phosphorus intakes lead to reductions in serum P but little change in sodium, Ca or Mg. Sodium and/or potassium deficiency considered rare because Na, K, chlorine and water metabolism are closely related and camels in their natural habitat, are exposed to dehydration, salty bushes or salty water and are well adapted to it. Generally season and sex and location and sex had no effects on electrolyte levels, taking season and sex, in addition to location showed no significant effect on sodium and potassium levels when fitted a nested ANOVA model. Season could have an effect when assessed with location (P-value<.05) as seen earlier. Overall mean serum Cu concentration has a wider range and lower average level in comparison with the physiological levels reported in confined areas by many authors in the Sudan. This may be attributed to the fact that this study covered large number of camel population in the dry and wet seasons; Tartour (1975), reported male and female mean serum Cu concentration of 1.09 ppm (range 0.59–1.98 ppm), 0.90 (range 0.7 – 1.14 ppm) and 0.93 (range 0.67 – 1.37 ppm) at the Nuba Jebel, Central Region and Jebel Mara Regions respectively. Abu damir et al. (1983) reported .93 (range 0.66 – 1.29 ppm) in both camel sex of Butana Region, Abdel Rahim (1983) reported 0.69 and 1.25 (range 0.6 – 1.5 ppm) for both nomadic and resident male camels of Eastern Region respectively, while Wahbi et al. (1980) reported 1.18 (range 0.6–1.72 ppm) in male camels of the Gezira. Recently Faye and Bengoumi (1994) in comparative field studies reported camel Cu plasma values between 0.83-1.07 ppm and cow copper plasma values between 0.64-0.83 ppm In fact, all regional means for serum copper concentration were comparable to those of sheep, goats and cattle (Tartour, 1975; Abu Damir et al. 1983) and above the critical level of 0.6 ppm (McDowell and Conrad, 1977; Tartour, 1975). Three quarter of browse species Cu content have higher than recommended Cu in ruminants’ diets (7.0-11.0 mg/ kg DM) for the normal physiological functions of the animals, NRC (2001). Forage Cu was

215 significantly higher in wet season than dry season in both regions reflecting the nonsignificant increase in extractable soil copper in wet season. With the exception of the Eastern Region during wet season, most soils examined in both regions have available copper values that may be interpreted as either critical or deficient. Individual evaluation of forage, in both regions >90% and >65% were deficient in Cu during dry and wet season respectively. Clearly most of the forage materials examined provide a marginal to deficient supply of this mineral. In this study there were regional differences in serum Cu concentration; higher level detected in the Eastern Region followed by Kordofan and least Darfur Region. The status of copper in soil and plant of the Eastern Region were significantly higher than in the Western region. Individual evaluation of samples based on 0.6 ppm serum Cu indicated, the highest percentage of deficiency was detected in samples collected in the wet season from Darfur (19.5%) followed by samples collected from Kordofan (17.9%) and the least percentage was obtained from Eastern Region. Also the percentage of deficient plants is higher in the Western Region in both seasons than in the Eastern Region all these reflected in the Eastern Region serum Cu higher level. Generally serum Cu level was slightly lower in the wet season than in dry season in all three regions because animal growth requirement increases. Lebdosoekjo (1977) and Mendes (1977) reported similar results. During wet season female’s serum Cu level decreased to lower levels reported may be due to physiological reasons during this season of the year. In addition, Cu has a low percentage release in the rumen, which increases the problem of Cu deficiency Kabaija and Smith (1988). This situation may be even further complicated by high levels of dietary Fe which can be elevated by soil ingestion during browsing or grazing. Humpries et al. (1981) showed that dietary concentrations exceeding 1 g Fe/kg can profoundly reduce the availability of ingested Cu; relatively slight and doubtless common levels of dietary soil contamination can produce Fe concentrations of this order. So, soil

216 and the forage analysis did not aid in diagnosis of copper deficiencies in animal tissue samples because of the influence of factors such as sulfur, molybdenum and zinc (Bremner, 1959; Committee on Animal Nutrition, 1973). Like other ruminants, camels store copper mainly in the liver. Liver copper is reported to be the best criterion for assessing copper status of cattle Committee on Animal Nutrition (1973). The overall and regional means of hepatic copper concentration are comparable to the mean hepatic copper concentration of 155 ppm (range 30–286 ppm) on DM basis reported in 26 Egyptian camels by Khalifa et al. (1983).While in camels of western Sudan, the mean hepatic copper concentration of 274.8 (168–350) ppm was reported by Tartour (1975) and in camels from eastern Sudan, the mean liver copper concentration was 163.6 (30-543.1) ppm Tartour, (1969). Abu Damir et al. (1983) reported a mean Cu concentration of 174.3 (range 22.75-437.5 ppm) on DM in livers of 17 camels of both sexes in eastern Sudan. Hepatic copper vary significantly (P <.01) among regions and seasons, the highest level was detected in Kordofan and the least in the Eastern Region in agreement with Tartour’s findings. The mean value of hepatic copper was lower during wet season, when animal growth requirements increased, in agreement with blood copper levels and confirming general observations of mineral concentrations in animal tissues (Lebdosoekojo, 1977; mendes, 1977; Sousa, 1978). With the exception of the Eastern Region level during wet season, most soils examined have available Cu values that may be interpreted as either critical or deficient. The Eastern Region low level may be due to the high incidence of deficient soil, coupled with the highest browse molybdenum level than in the Western Region, Mo >6 ppm is toxic McDowell and Conrad (1977) and form complexes with copper and render it unavailable for absorption and metabolism. Individual evaluation of samples based on critical level 75 ppm McDowell et al. (1980) indicated only 1.1% of all samples analysed were deficient in copper and they were from Darfur Region female camels, collected during dry season, may be brought recently from the northern fringes of Darfur.

217 Hepatic copper level in males is higher in all regions and in both seasons than that of females in agreement with Tartour (1969). Although, serum copper concentration is higher in the Eastern Region than in Kordofan and Darfur Regions, yet liver copper is lower. The incidence of copper deficiency is almost similar in all three regions; but there is a tendency for Kordofan and Darfur Regions camels, to have higher copper deficiencies than the Eastern Region. Copper deficiency in animals is reported to be caused by many known and unknown conditioning factors complicated by the absence of direct relationship between incidence of copper deficiency in animals and copper in forages and soils Underwood (1966). Overall and regional mean serum zinc level were comparable to mean serum Zn concentrations of 0.93 ppm reported by El-Tohamy et al. (1986) in 45 Egyptian camels; 1.35 ppm reported by Abdel-Moty et al. (1968), 1.01 ppm in Ethiopian camels Faye et al. (1986) and 1.04 ppm in Sudanese camels Abu Damir et al. (1993). Serum zinc concentration in all regions fall within the general range reported for other animals (0.7-1.20 ppm; Underwood (1977). Little work has been done with respect to Zn in camels and the clinical deficiency is not known. Low values, in comparison with the present findings, have been observed in camels by Faye et al. (1990) who reported serum Zn levels of 0.46 ppm (range 0.09-0.1) in 52 camels in various localities in Djibouti. Also Abdalla et al. (1988) reported very low serum concentrations 0.41 ppm (range 0.37-0.46) of zinc in the camels and in the pasture of the UAE together with high infertility in females. However, it seems that camels have lower values than other species being kept in the same ecological and feeding conditions, this is substantiated by Faye and Bengoumi (1994) findings in temperate conditions, reported serum zinc levels of <0.5 ppm in zoo camels in France. Mean serum zinc values were lower (P<0.05) in Darfur Region than in Kordofan and Eastern Regions. Extractable soil zinc did not vary significantly between regions during dry season, however during wet season higher level

218 detected in the western than the Eastern region; reflected in plant zinc level, generally being higher in the wet season. However, based on critical level of 40 ppm zinc in diets a requirement for mature cows McDowell and Conrad (1977), none of plant samples in both regions contained adequate zinc. Zinc deficiencies were indicated in >65% of trees and >85% of forages in both regions and seasons reflecting the soil zinc deficiencies (22%) according to critical level 2 ppm suggested by Sanchez (1976). McDowell et al. (1978) considered 30 mg/kg to be a critical level of dietary Zn, although the ARC (1980) has suggested that concentrations of 12-20 mg/kg are adequate for growing cattle. Hence all trees, forages and crop residues may thus constitute an adequate supply of Zn; the necessity for supplementary Zn needs to be kept under review particularly zinc deficiency is comparatively rare under field conditions and camel can tolerate high levels of Zn. Growth response is seen for intakes up to 750 mg ZnSO4/day Manefield and Tinson (1996). Critical research is urgently needed to elucidate the impact of Zn deficiency on the camel health, fertility and performance. Regarding the effect of season and location, the average levels of serum Zn concentration were higher in the dry season than in the wet season in Darfur and Eastern Regions with accordance of the general idea that this is caused by increased animal requirements for minerals because protein and energy are no longer limiting factors. The higher level in Kordofan serum zinc concentration during wet season is abnormal and can’t be explained may be due to haemolytic blood tested or contamination during collection, storage or processing.

Individual evaluation of sera samples against the critical level < 0.6 ppm Zn, McDowell and Conrad (1977) indicated higher (P< 0.01) percentage of borderline to deficient samples during the wet season in Darfur Region, may be due to the gender effect and long trekking; followed by Kordofan and least the Eastern Region reflecting the percentage of deficient plants. Camels appear to have a normal lower level of the plasma zinc concentration and a deficient

219 threshold below 0.4 ppm has been suggested by Faye and Bengoumi (1997). Female camels are more liable to zinc deficiency according to this study, in Kordofan, Darfur and with lesser extent in the Eastern Region may be due to physiological reasons and different husbandry practice adopted. No consistence in the effect of season in the different regions due to abnormal high wet season zinc level in Kordofan. The overall and regional means of hepatic zinc concentration are slightly higher than levels 143 ppm and 138.6 ppm reported by Awad and Breschneider (1977) and Abu Damir et al. (1983) respectively. Hepatic zinc vary significantly (P <.01) among regions and seasons, the highest level was detected in Kordofan and the least in the Darfur Region. The mean value of hepatic zinc was lower during wet season, when animal growth requirements increased, in agreement with blood zinc levels and confirming general observations of mineral concentrations in animal tissues. Individual evaluation of liver samples against the critical level of <84 ppm zinc suggested by Miller et al. (1968), 8.8%, 3.9% and 6.6% were deficient during dry season and 7.7%, 0% and 3.2% during wet season in Eastern, Kordofan and Darfur Region respectively. All plant species in both seasons had lower levels of Zn than mean concentration of most forages (36-47 mg /kg DM), Minson (1990). Individual evaluation of plant samples, in both regions, indicated that the majority meet the minimum dietary requirement of Zn (5.0-30 mg/ kg DM) of ruminants in both seasons. According to NRC (1981) recommendations of 30 mg/Kg DM, in both regions, >70% of browse during dry season and >65% during wet season had inadequate Zn content whereas >85% of all forage samples were deficient in both seasons. In recent years, Zn deficiency in grazing animals has been reported in a number of tropical countries where the Zn content in the diet was less than 40 mg/Kg Dm Mcdowell et al. (1983). Ranwana and Rajaratne (1985) also reported similar results of forages from different parts of Sri Lanka. Zinc deficiencies were indicated by blood zinc and hepatic zinc. In all regions, hepatic zinc and blood zinc showed high incidence of deficiency during dry season, reflecting the high

220 percentages of deficient plants during dry season in all regions. Since both blood and liver zinc are reported not to be definitive for borderline deficiencies Miller et al. (1968), the verification of presence or absence of zinc deficiency in the region awaits the demonstration of zinc response in animals. Overall and regional means of serum iron were comparable to those reported by Tartour and Idris (1970a); Wahbi et al. (1980); Higgins and Kock (1986) and Abu Damir et al. (1993). These results are also comparable and within ranges reported for cattle, horses and dogs Kaneko (1980). However slightly higher serum Fe levels are reported by Abdel-Moty et al. (1968) and Hussein et al. (1982). Although, soil and plant analysis indicated significantly higher iron level in Western region, there were nonsignificant regional differences in serum iron concentration being higher in the Eastern Region followed by Darfur and Kordofan Regions. Fe is absorbed according to the need, and thus its absorption would depend on dietary factors, age of the animal and body Fe status, Underwood and Suttle (1999). Plant iron was not significantly affected by season and tended to decrease in wet season in both locations, reflected in Serum Fe concentration which is significantly higher (P>.05) during dry season, generally mineral concentration in animal tissues were lower during the wet season than during dry season. This is clear in Darfur and the Eastern Regions than in Kordofan Region. Iron content of plants was higher in the Western Region than in the Eastern Region although both levels were above the iron requirements of 50 ppm for mature cows McDowell and Conrad (1977). Serum iron concentration is significantly higher in males, (P-value<0.005), in contrast to El-Kasmi (1989) who reported no effect of sex and age but pregnancy which reduce the level drastically. The overall and regional hepatic iron level is comparable to that reported in normal camels by Abu Damir et al. (1993); Awad and Bershneider (1977); and by Wensvoort (1992). Similar hepatic iron levels were detected in Kordofan and the Eastern Regions and are higher than that of Darfur because the majority

221 of camels slaughtered from the latter region are females. The highest values detected in both sexes in the dry season in agreement with Conrad et al. (1980) who reported lower levels of liver iron in rainy than in dry season. Based on critical level of 180 ppm incidence of iron deficiencies did not occur. Low energy and protein levels in the forages cause animals to lose weight or maintain weight during prolonged dry periods in the tropics. Therefore, animal requirements for individual minerals are less than when forage is supplying adequate energy and protein in the wet season. Consequently, individual minerals become the limiting factors to animal productivity on pasture. Iron, like most other minerals in this investigation, decreased in liver because of the increased animal growth during the wet season. Even with a moderate and permanent excess of Fe in the diet, the liver becomes saturated with Fe, which is then deposited as the harmful colloidal iron sulphate, Georgievskii (1982b). According to McDowell et al. (1984), the liver is particularly useful for evaluating the animal’s status in relation to Co, Cu, Mn and Se. Liver Mo was measured in this investigation not selenium. The mineral concentration in the liver thus indicates the mineral nutritional status of the animals, and could serve as an indication of soil mineral levels and/or the ability of the forage plants to assimilate minerals from the soil Judson and McFarlane (1998). Analyses of tissues from free-ranging herbivores, such as camels, may be valuable in establishing a baseline mineral status of the animals and may be used to monitor changes over time. Means of Co, Mn and Mo liver concentrations detected in the respective regions of Darfur, Kordofan and the Eastern Region, were the highest; all means were above the suggested critical levels. Individual evaluation of liver samples based on their respective critical levels (McDowell and Conrad, 1977, McDowell et al. 1980) indicated that 2.12% of Mn, were deficient in Darfur camels, regarding Co and Mo all samples were adequate. Season did not affect liver manganese, contrary to that, Mo tended to increase whereas Co significantly increased during dry season, Lebdosoekojo (1977) reported similar findings. Soil analysis which, indicated 56% and 44% Mn

222 deficiency in soil of Eastern and Western Regions respectively; coupled with higher Mn level in plants especially forage during dry season in Western Region do not appear to aid diagnosis of Mn deficiencies. Generally plants were within the normal limits for molybdenum, cobalt and manganese. Plant molybdenum was significantly higher in wet season than dry season. Sousa (1978) reported nonsignificant increase in concentration of Mo in forages in rainy season. Although Molybdenum is essential for animal health, intake of Mo can cause large reductions in Cu absorption Chesworth (1992). Cases of Mo deficiency in farm animals have never been recorded in practical conditions but excess Mo has adverse effect on digestive and metabolic processes in ruminants Georgievskii (1982b). Molybdenum content of forages was below the toxic level of 6 ppm McDowell and Conrad (1977) whereas trees Mo varies considerably; >55% of the Western Region and >75% of the Eastern Region trees had Mo higher than the toxic level. The functioning of dietary Cu can be inhibited by excess molybdenum resulting in a conditioned Cu deficiency. Animals consuming forages with Mo concentrations above 15 to 20 ppm showed Cu deficiency symptoms even though the Cu levels in the forage were higher than 5 ppm Hodgson et al., (1962). Conditioned Cu deficiency does not seem to be a problem because forages contain low Mo level. Overall hepatic Co concentration was .46 ppm DM (range .30-.59). No data are available regarding camel blood or hepatic cobalt. Cobalt is required for the synthesis of vitamin B12 by the ruminal microbial population. A dietary concentration of .1 ppm Co usually provides adequate Co for rumen function. Cobalt deficiency signs are not specific and it is often difficult to distinguish between a deficiency of cobalt and malnutrition due to low intake of energy and protein. Soil Co level is adequate in both regions, plant Co content observed in this study was comparable to that in most tropical grasses (<0.01 to 1.26 mg kg- 1 DM) reported by Minson (1990). Soil and plant (forage) analysis which indicated cobalt deficiencies of 22% and <5%, respectively, appear not to aid the diagnosis of cobalt deficiency in camels. As stated by Healy (1973) under

223 normal grazing conditions, ingested soil can be a source of more minerals than ingested pasture; camels can’t avoid ingesting soil during browse or grain supplements in mud or dust. The primary feed additive buffer on the market is chemically synthesized sodium bicarbonate. Numerous studies with sodium bicarbonate used in diets consisting predominantly of corn silage (acidic feedstuff) and concentrates indicate that the buffer improves rumen pH, DMI, milk fat percentage, and milk yield. This buffer is most stable and active at a pH of approximately 6.1; at which it supports vigorous fiber digestion in the rumen. Compounds which are similar to sodium bicarbonate such as natroun have a similar chemical make up and would be expected to perform similarly based on similarities in chemistry. Roughage intake, average monthly weight gain and haemogram indices are significantly (P ) affected by natroun supplementation. The number of scientific trials are far less numerous than those performed with sodium bicarbonate, but there are good comparisons in existence. Staples and Lough (1989) summarized this area and reported that sodium sesquicarbonate performed as well as sodium bicarbonate, and unrefined sodium sesquicarbonate (trona) produced mixed results in several trials, although it was nearly as effective as sodium bicarbonate in several trials. The authors concluded that some additional refining of the trona might be necessary to increase its efficiency. A standard rule of thumb for sodium bicarbonate inclusion is 0.75% of the total diet dry matter or 30 lb per ton of grain mix. Increased roughage intake was attributed to the ruminal alkalizing potential of natroun. However, the value of a buffering agent is a function of both, its alkalizing capacity and ruminal reactivity or soluability. The ruminal reactivity of sodium bicarbonate is very high (50% reacted in .6 min at Ph 6.0 James and Wohu (1985). It is likely that the ruminal reactivity of natroun is slower and less complete than that of sodium bicarbonate due to impurities. Attention to be considered that she-camel should not be fed buffers at any time during the dry period, due to negative effects on ; because of dietary cation-anion difference (DCAD). The

224 DCAD concept involves the use of compounds which create a mild metabolic acidosis at calving to minimize the incidence of disorders like, milk fever, and which may enhance milk yield; opposite to that involves the use of compounds to create an alkaline condition during lactation, to improve the acid-base status. Ruminal alkalizing potential and ruminal effects of natroun versus sodium bicarbonate in camels needs to be evaluated. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This study was conducted in the arid and semi arid lands (ASAL) of western and eastern Sudan in camel rasing areas to assess mineral status of camels by determining mineral contents of soil, water, some camel tissues and chemical composition of the plants. In Kordofan and the Eastern Region some tribal camel herders (Aballa) were selected, their camel migration pattern recognized. Herds selected did not receive any mineral supplements apart from the common salt and occasionally natroun. Camels from Darfur were selected on the exportation route during quarantine period at Kordofan and the Eastern Region. Proximate analysis of plants and mineral content of soil, water, plants and camel tissues were carried out during dry and wet season.. Whole blood samples were collected from camels on the natural range during dry and wet seasons. Whereas blood, bone and liver samples were collected from slaughtered camels at Elobied, Elnuhood and Tamboul slaughter houses. In the dry season, 314, 75 and 90 sera samples, 57, 61 and 91 of each blood and liver samples and 25, 33 and 77 bone samples were collected from the Eastern, Kordofan and Darfur Regions respectively. In the wet season, 192, 145 and 95 sera samples, 65, 51 and 62 of each blood and liver samples and 31, 28 and 47 bone samples from the Eastern, Kordofan and Darfur Regions respectively. All camel tissue samples were prepared immediately and kept frozen for further laboratory analysis. Plants eaten by the camels and perceived as important by herders, were sampled during, dry and wet seasons, to investigate the nutrient status, with special

225 regard to minerals. In this study for camel feed in eastern and western Sudan the term ‘Forage’ refer to common crop residues, pasture grasses and forbs, whereas ‘Browse’ for shrubs and trees. Twenty-nine browse samples of predominantly trees and shrubs and 24 forage types of grasses and forbs were collected from western Sudan. From eastern Sudan twenty–six browse samples of predominantly trees and shrubs and 27 of grasses and forbs were collected. Nine soil samples were collected from Kordofan and the Eastern Region during dry and wet season. Whereas 5 bore-well water samples collected from different camel watering points during dry season from each region. Soil samples were analysed for sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, zinc, iron, cobalt, molybdenum and manganese, whereas plant samples were analysed for the same minerals in the soil. Blood samples analysed for the same minerals in the soil except cobalt, molybdenum and manganese. Liver was analysed for iron, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum and zinc. Bone was analysed for calcium, phosphorus and magnesium. During the dry season, the minerals most likely to be deficient in Eastern Region soils, in declining order of percent deficiency are phosphorus, manganese, copper, zinc, iron, cobalt and potassium. Likewise phosphorus, manganese, zinc, cobalt, potassium, copper and iron in Western Region soils, In the wet season, the minerals most likely to be deficient in Eastern Region soils, in declining order of percent deficiency are manganese, phosphorus, potassium, copper, zinc, cobalt and iron. Likewise phosphorus, manganese, potassium, copper, zinc and cobalt in Western Region soils. Minerals likely to be deficient throughout the year are phosphorus, manganese, copper, zinc, cobalt and potassium in soils of both regions, but Fe in the Eastern Rergion. Variations in proximate composition of browse and forage in dry and wet seasons were significant (P<.05). With few exceptions, the general trend was for browse and forage crude protein, ether extract, and ash to increase

226 significantly while crude fibre, carbohydrate and gross energy to decline during wet season. Between regions, the levels in browses and forages of crude protein, Ether extract and Ash were significantly higher in the Western Region than in the Eastern Region; whereas crude fiber, Carbohydrate and gross energy were higher in the Eastern Region plants. In both regions high levels of crude protein and ether extract were detected in browse than in forage, while high levels of ash, carbohydrate, crude fibre and gross energy were detected in forage than in browse. In the dry season, almost 3.7% of browse in Western and Eastern Regions, 54% of forages in the Western Region and 55% in the Eastern region contained 7% CP or less. 18% of the Western Region and 19% of the Eastern Region browse contained over 30% crude fiber. Likewise 22% and 19% browse contained over 10% ash. 50% of the Western Region and 59% of the Eastern Region forage contained over 30% crude fiber. Likewise 50% and 57% forage contained over 10% ash. In the wet season, all browse entries contained CP above 7% and the percentage of deficient forage declined to 33 and 40% in Western and Eastern Regions respectively. 14% of the Western Region and 11% of the Eastern Region browse contained over 30% crude fiber. Likewise 27% and 50% browse contained over 10% ash. 42% of the Western Region and 52% of the Eastern Region forage contained over 30% crude fiber. Likewise 42% and 50% forage contained over 10% ash. Variation in mineral concentrations of plant type was significant (P<.05), the mineral contents in browse higher than in forages in both seasons, except for the levels of iron and manganese higher in forage than in browse. Season has no significant effect on levels of minerals in browse, only, Ca, K, Zn and Co tended to increase during wet season. In forage samples, higher levels of Ca, Na, Co, Mn and Fe are detected during dry season, while K, P, Cu, Zn and Mo during wet season, no significant variation due to season was detected on levels of Mg in forage.

227 Variation in mineral concentrations of plants between regions was significant (P<.05), the levels of the macro minerals Ca, P, K, Na, and Mg and the micro minerals Mn and Fe detected in browse samples higher in the Western than the Eastern Region. Also in forage the levels of Ca, P, Mg, Mn and Fe detected, are significantly higher in the Western than the Eastern Region (P<.05). Only Mo levels in browse and forage, Na and K levels in forage are significantly higher in the Eastern than in the western Region, Levels of Cu, Zn and Co in browse and forage, showed nonsignificant variation, between locations. Minerals which are most likely to be deficient throughout the year in browse are Zn, P, Cu, Mn and Na; in forage Mo, Zn, Cu, P, Ca, Mg and Na. High levels of CP, EE, Ca, P, Mg, K, Na, Mo, and Cu in the browse species were detected in wet and dry seasons than in forage species. Pasture grasses and crop residues studied had very low CP, Na, P, Mo, Zn and Cu contents, but excessive concentrations of Fe and Mn. However, excessive concentrations of Fe and Mo were detected in the browses while, their contents of Cu and Zn are relatively low. Co level was higher in browse during wet season and in forage during dry season. Forage had a significant higher level of CF, CHO and GE in both season (P<.05), while nonsignificant increase of Ash level may be due to silica and/or aluminum (Al). The Ph of groundwater in Western and Eastern Regions aquifers detected characterized by a slight trend of alkaline chemical reaction especially in the Eastern Region and varies within small ranges. The cations, Ca, Zn, P, Cu, Fe and Co levels are higher in the Western region, while Na, K and Mg, are comparatively low in the Western region than in the Eastern Region. Levels of Mo and Mn are the same in both regions. In the dry season, serum Ca (P<.05) was lower; whereas P, Fe and Mg higher (P<.05) in the Eastern Region than in Kordofan and Darfur. Serum Na and K were higher; whereas P, Mg and Cu lower in Darfur than in Eastern Region and Kordofan. In Kordofan serum Ca (P<.05) was higher, while Na, Zn and Fe lower than in Darfur and Eastern Regions. Incidence of Ca deficiency in blood

228 was higher in Darfur than in Kordofan and Eastern Regions, whereas incidence of P, Cu and Zn was higher in Kordofan than in Darfur and Eastern Regions. Variation in liver minerals among regions was not significant except for liver Cu which was higher (P<.01) and Mo lower (P<.05) in Kordofan than in the other two regions; in Darfur liver Zn level lower (P<.01) than in the other two regions. Liver deficiencies were indicated for Zn in all regions and Cu in Darfur, but not for the other minerals. In dry season, bone minerals did not vary significantly among regions. In dry season minerals, which are most likely to be deficient in camel tissue in declining order of percent deficiency, are P and Zn. In wet season, serum Ca, P, Na, Cu and Fe were higher (P<.05) in Eastern Region than in Kordofan and Darfur. Serum K and Zn were higher in Kordofan than in Darfur and Eastern Regions. Incidence of Ca. P and Zn deficiencies in blood was higher in Darfur than in Kordofan and Eastern Regions. Incidence of Cu deficiency was higher in Darfur and Kordofan Region. Severe deficiencies of P were indicated in blood during wet season. Since serum P is not recommended as a criterion for P assessment in animals, little significance was attached to these values. Variation in liver minerals among regions was not significant except for liver Cu which was lower (P<.01) and Mo higher (P<.05) in the Eastern Region than in the other two regions. Liver deficiencies were indicated for Zn in the Eastern and Darfur regions. In wet season, bone minerals did not vary significantly among regions, but nonsignificant lower level of P in the Eastern Region. In wet season minerals, which are most likely to be deficient in camel tissue in declining order of percent deficiency, are P and Zn as in the dry season. Incidence of serum mineral deficiencies was higher (P<.01) in wet than in dry ecogn except for serum P in Kordofan and Zn in Kordofan and Eastern Region. Regarding liver mineral, incidence of Zn, Cu and Mn are higher in dry season than in wet saeason (P<.05).

229 Lastly but not least soil minerals of both regions likely to be deficient throughout the year are phosphorus, manganese, copper, zinc, cobalt and potassium. In plants, minerals most likely to be deficient throughout the year are: in browse Zn, P, Cu, Mn and Na; in forage Mo, Zn, Cu, P, Ca, Mg and Na. The minerals most likely to be deficient in animal tissues throughout the year are P, Cu and Zn, whereas Ca in wet season and potassium during dry season only reflecting the mineral levels in soil and plants. From the above analysis it may be seen that levels of nutrients in browse are sufficient for camels maintenance in both seasons while forage in the wet season only; the two types of plants are complementary for feed purpose. Attention to be considered that she-camel should not be fed buffers (Natroun) at any time during its dry period, due to negative effects on calcium metabolism.

230 Bibliography

Abbas, B.; Chabeuf, N.; Saint-Martin, G.; Bonnet, P.; Millairid, A.; Bashir, H.; Musa, M. E. (1992b).Camel pastrolism in Butana and northern Sudan. Nomadic Peoples, 31: 64-84.

Abbas, B.; Saint-Martin, G.; Planchenault, P. (1993). Constraints to camel production in eastern Sudan: a survey of prospects for better conception. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb., 32: 33-39.

Abbas, A. M.; Mousa, H. M.; Lechner-Doll, M. and von Engelhardt, W. (1995). Nutritional value of plants selected by camels (camelus dromedarius) in the Butana area of the Sudan. Journal of Animal Physiology and Nutrition 74: 1-8

Abbott, L.G., and Rude, R.K. (1993). Clinical manifestations of magnesium deficiency. Miner Electrolyte Metab. 19, 314-322.

Abdalla, M. A.; Abdalla, O. (1979). Morphometric observations on the kidney of the camel (Camelus dromedaries). Journal of Anatomy 129, 45-50.

Abdalla,O.M.;Wasfi, I.A.;Gadir,F.A.(1988).The Arabian race camel normal parameters.1. Haemogram, enzymes and minerals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 90 A, 237-239.

Abdelgadir, A.W.; Salaheldin, H.A.; and Omer, F. I. (1979). Plasma electrolytes and minerals of normal camels in the Sudan. In: IFS Provisional Report No.6, Camels, (International Foundation for Science, Stockholm), 355-364.

Abdel-Moty, I.; El Mulla, A. and Zafer, S.A. (1968). Copper, iron and zinc in the serum of Egyptian farm animals. Sudan Agriculture Journal, 3, 146-151.

Abubakar, M. M. and Mohamed, A. (1992).Utilization of slaughterhouse by- products for sustainable livestock production in Nigeria, In: J A T Ojo (ed), Mobilizing finance for Natural resources conservation in Nigeria. National Resources Conservation Council, Abuja pp. 13 – 20.

Abu Damir, H. (1980). Studies on Mineral Status in Animals and Pasture plants in the Butana with Special Reference to Toxicity of Heliotropium ovalifolium and Ipomoea carnea in small ruminants. M.V.Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum.

231 Abu Damir, H. (1998). Mineral deficiencies, toxicities and imbalances in the camel (Camelus dromedarius): a review. Veterinary Bulletin 68, 1103- 1119.

Abu Damir, H.; El Dirdiri, N.I.; Adam, S. E. I.; Howarth, J. A.; Salih, Y. M.; Idris, O. F. (1993). Experimental copper poisoning in the camel (Camelus dromedaries). Journal of Comparative Pathology 108, 191- 208. Abu Damir, H.; Tartour, G.; and Adam, S.E.I. (1983). Mineral contents in Livestock in Eastern Sudan. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 15, 15-16.

Aderemi, F.A.; Tewe, O. O. and Ogundola, F. I. (1999). Enzymic supplementation of root chaff (CRC) and its utilization by pullet chicks. Tropical Animal Production Investigation, Volume 2 pp. 195 – 203.

Aduku, A.O.(1999).Tropical feed stuff analysis table. Dept. of animal science, Ahmadu Bello, University, Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria.

Agab, H. (1993). Epidemiology of camel diseases in eastern Sudan with emphasis on brucellosis, M. V. Sc thesis, U of K.

Agricultural Research Council (ARC, 1965). The nutrient requirement of Farm livestock, No. 2, Ruminants. Agricultural Research Council, London.

Agricultural Research Council (ARC, 1980). The nutrient requirement of Ruminal livestock. Technical Review. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux.

Ahn, J. H.; Robertson, B. M.; Elliot, R.; Guttridge, R. C. and Ford, C. W. (1989). Quality assessment of Tropical browse legumes: Tannin content and protein degradation. Animal Feed Science and Technology, Volume 27 pp. 147 – 156.

Aklilu, Y. (2001). An Audit of the Livestock Marketing Systems in Kenya, Ethiopia and Sudan,Volume I. Nairobi: AU-IBAR.

Aletor, V. A. and Omodara, O. A. (1994). Studies on some leguminous browse plants with particular reference to their proximate, mineral and some endogenous antinutritional constituents. Animal Feed Science Technology, Volume 46 pp.343 – 348.

232 Alekan, J. A. (1989). Performance of West African Dwarf sheep fed corn cob diets supplemented to different protein levels. Ph D Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Ali, K. E.; Al-Noaim. (1992). Copper status of Najdi sheep in eastern Saudi Arabia under penned and grazing conditions. Tropical Animal Health and Production 24, 115-120. Animal Services Resources Company (ASRC). (1999). Statistics for Livestock Markets in Sudan,

Annenkov, B.N. and Samokhin, V.T. (Eds), Mineral nutrition of animals. Butterworths, London, UK. pp. 171–224.

ARC (1980). The Nutrients Requirements of Ruminant Livestock. 4th ed. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 73-310.

ARC (1985). Agricultural Research Council.The nutrient requirements of farm animals, N0 2, Ruminants: Tech. Rev. of summaries, ARC, London.

Arigbede, O. M. and Tarawali, S. A. (1997). Preliminary evaluation of the biomass production, seasonal chemical composition and relative preference of some indigenous multi-purpose tree species, by goats in South Western Nigeria, In proceedings of the 22nd annual NSAP conference, March 1997. Pp. 177 – 187.

Arthur, G. H. (1990). An overview of reproduction in camelids. Proc. 1st Int. Camel Conf. Tobruk, Libya, 109-113.

AOAC (1990). Official methods of analysis, 15th ed. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington D C.

AOAD (Arab Organization for Agricultural Development). (1994). A study on the utilization of agricultural by-products in the formulation of animal feeds in Arab countries (in Arabic)

Aujla, K. M.; Jasara, A. W.; Munir, M. (1998). The socio-economic profile of camel herders in South-Western Mountainous areas of Pakistan. Proceeding of the 3rd annual meeting for animal production under arid condition, Vol. 2: 154-174. Australian Society of Animal Production 14: 357-360.

Awad, Y.L.; Berschneider, F. (1977). Selenium content of internal organs of the camel (Camelus dromedarius). Egyptian Journal of Veterinary Science, 14, 71- 75.

233 Babiker, Mustafa. (1997). Resource Competition and the Future of Pastoralism in the Butana Plain. University of Khartoum.

Babiker, S. A. (1988). Studies on camel meat. (Abstr.) In: Internat. Symposium on the development of animal resources in Sudan, 1-3, 1988. Khartoum, Sudan 14-15.Bank of Sudan. Quarterly Bulletins 2004;Volume I - III.

Bengoumi, M. (1992). Thesis Doct. Agronomiques I.A.V. Hassan II Rabat, Maroc, pp. 184.

Bengoumi, M.; Riad, F.; Giry, J.; De La Forge, F; Safwate, A.; Davico, M. J.; Barlet, J.P. (1993). Hormonal control of water and sociumin plasma and urine of camels during dehydration and rehydration. General and Comparative Endocrinology 89, 378-386.

Bhattacharjee, R.C. and Banerjee, S. (1962). Biochemical studies on the Indian camel (Camelus dromedaries). 2. Inorganic constituents of serum. Journal of Science and Industries Research, 21C, 106-107. Biological Systems, Vol. 26, Compendium on Magnesium and its Role in Biology, Nutrition, Physiology”. (H. Sigel, and A. Sigel, eds.), PP. 119-133.Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.

Birch, N.J. (1990). Magnesium in biology and Medicine: an overview. In “Metal Ions in Biological Systems. Vol. 26, Magnesium and its Role in Biology, Nutrition and Physiology”. (H. Sigel, and A. Sigel, eds.), PP. 105-117. Marcel Dekker, N. York.

Blood, D. C.; Radostits, O. M. (1989). Veterinary Medicine. 7th Edition. London, UK; Bailliere Tindall. Pp 402-408, 1150-1238.

Blue, W. G. and L. E. Tergas. (1969). Dry season deterioration of forage quality in the wet-dry tropics. Soil and Crop Sci. Soc. Fla. Proc. 29:224.

Boid, R.; Jones, T. W.; Luckins, A. G. (1986). Protozoal diseases of camels. In: The Camel in health and Disease. Edited by Higgins, A. J., London, UK; Bailliere Tindal. pp 41-59.

Bono, G.; Mohamed, A. S.; Dahir,A.M.(1983). Comparative review of the main physiological and clinical values of the dromedary (Camelus dromedaries)_. Bollettino Scientifico della Facolta di Zootecnia e Veterinaria, Universita Nazionale Somala 4, 51-85.

234 Boris, A.; J. F. Hurley; T. Trmal; J. P.Mallon and D. S. Matuszewski. (1978). Evidence for the promotion of bone mineralization by 1 alpha, 25- dihydroxycholecalciferol in the rat unrelated to the correction of deficiencies in serum calcium and phosphorus. J. Nutr. 108:1899.

Bornstein, S.(1995). Skin diseases of camels. In: J.O. Evans, S.P. Simpkin and D.J. Atkins (Eds.): Camel Keeping in Kenya. Range Management Handbook of Kenya, Volume III, 8, Range Management Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Marketing, Republic of Kenya, 7.7-7.14.

Boudet, G.M. (1975). Manuel sur les pâturages tropicaux et les cultures fourrageres. Maisons-Alfort, IEMVT.

Boyazoglu, P. A. (1973) Mineral imbalances of ruminants in southern Africa. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 3: 149.

Brady, N. C. (1974). The Nature and Properties of Soils. 8th edition. Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., New York.

Bremaud, O. (1969). Notes on camel production in northern districts of republic of Kenya. Institut d’Elevage et de.

Brewbaker, J. L. (1986) Nitrogen fixing trees for fodder browse in Africa, In: Alley farming in the humid and sub-humid tropics. Kang B T and Reynolds L (eds), IDRC - 27l., Ottawa, Canada. Pp. 55-70

Broadus, A. E. (1990). Physiologic function of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. In: Primer on metabolic Bone Diseases and Disorders of Mineral Metabolism. First Edition [Edited by Favus, M.J.] Kelseyville, USA; The American Society for Bone and Mineral Research. Pp. 29-30.

Burdin, M. L. and D. A. Horward. (1963). A blood preservation and anticoagulant for inorganic phosphate and other determinations. Vet. Rec. 75:494.

Butler, G. W. and Johnson, J. M. (1957). Factors influencing the iodine content of pasture herbage, Nature, 179, 216-217.

Campbell, L.D., and W. K. Roberts. (1965). The requirements and role of potassium in ovine nutrition. Canadian J. Animal Sci., 45:147.

235 Carlstrom, G.; Jonsson, G.; Pehrson, B. (1979). An evaluation of selenium status of cattle in Sweden by glutathione peroxidase. Swedish Journal of Agricultural Research 9, 43-46.

Chesworth, J. (1992). Ruminant nutrition. MacMillan Press Ltd. London, UK. 170 pp. Church D C (1975) Digestive physiology and nutrition of ruminant 2nd ed. Corvallis, Oregon, A and B Books

Church, C.D. and Pond, V.G. (1988). Macro- and micro-minerals. In: Basic Animal Nutrition and Feeding. 3rd ed. John Willey and Son Inc., USA. Pp. 472.

CIHEAM.(1989). Le lait dans la région méditerranéenne Options Méditerranéennes. Série. A/6. Morocco, Actes du colloque de Rabat

Cohen, R. D. H. (1973a). Phosphorus nutrition of beef cattle. 2. Relation of pasture phosphorus to phosphorus content of blood, hair and bone of grazing steers. Australian J. Exper. Agric. Anim. Husb. 13:5.

Cohen, R. D. H. (1973b). Phosphorus nutrition of beef cattle. 3. Effect of supplementation on the phosphorus content of blood and on the phosphorus and calcium contents of hair and bone of grazing steers. Australian J. Exper. Agric. Anim. Husb. 13:625.

Cohen, R.D.H. (1975). Phosphorus and the grazing ruminant, World Review Animal Production XI (No.2), 27-43.

Coles, E. H. (1986). Veterinary Clinical Pathology 4th Ed. WB Saunders Co. Philadelphia pp, 53-55.

Committee on Mineral Nutrition, The Hauge. (1973). Tracing and Treating Mineral Disorders in Dairy cattle. Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Docunentation, Wageningen, Netherlands.

Conrad, J. H. (1978). Soil, plant and animal tissue as predictors of the mineral status of ruminants. In: J. H. Conard and L. R. McDowwell (Ed.) Proc. Latin American symposium on Mineral Nutrition Research with Grazing Ruminants. pp 143-148. Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.

Conrad, J. H.; R. McDowell and J. K. Loosli. (1981). Mineral deficiencies and toxicities for grazing ruminants in tropics. In: International

236 symposium – Animal Production in the Tropics. pp. 1-31. Univ. of Gezira, Wad Medani, Sudan.

Cooper, S. M. and Owen-Smith, N. (1985). Condensed tannins deter feeding by browsing ruminants in a South African Savannah. Oecologia (Berlin), Volume 67 pp.142 – 146.

Cossins, N. J. (1971). Pastrolism under pressure. A study of the Somali clans in the Jijiga area of Ethiopia. Mimo, Livestock and meat board; Addis Ababa. pp 18.

Craig, G.M. (1991). The Agriculture of the Sudan. Oxford University Press.

Dewes, H. F. (1996). The rate of soil ingestion by dairy cows and the effect on available copper, calcium, sodium and magnesium. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 44, 199-200.

Dioli, M. and Stimmelmayr, R. (1992). Important camel diseases. In: H.J. Schwartz and M. Dioli (Eds.): The Onehumped Camel in Eastern Africa. A Pictorial Guide to Disease, Health Care and Management. Verlag Josef Margraf, FR Germany.

Dixit, V. P.; Agarwal, V. K.; Nangia, O. P. (1970). Plasma protein –bound iodine levels in camel. Journal of Endocrinology 48,463-464.

Djemali, M.; Alhadrami, G. (1991). The future of camels in their present. Proceedingof the 3rd annual meeting for animal production under arid conditions, Vol 1:1-8. D'Mello, J. P. F. and Fraser, K. W. (1981). The composition of leaf meal from Leucaena leucocephala, Tropical Science, Volume 23 pp.75-78

D'Mello, J. P. F. (1992). Nutritional potentialities of fodder trees and shrubs as protein sources in Monogastric nutrition, In: Speedy A and Pugliese P L (eds), Legumes trees and other fodder, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. pp. 115 – 127

Du Toit, P. J.; A. I. Malan; P. K. Van der Merwe and J. G. Louw. (1940b).Mineral supplements for stock. Fmg. S. Africa, June issue, p. 223.

Du Toit, P. J.; J. G. Louw and A. I. Malan. (1940a). A study of the mineral content and feeding value of natural pastures in the Union of South Africa (Final report). Onderstepoort J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Ind. 14:123.

237 Durand, M. ; Beaumatin, Ph. ; Dumay, C. ; Maschy, R. and Komisarczuk, S. (1986) Influence de l’addition de phosphore sur la digestion d’une paille traitee a l’ammoniac par les microorganisms du rumen en fermenteur semi-continu (Rusitec). Reproduction Nutrition Development. 26: 297-298.

El- Kasmi, K. (1989). Constribution a I’etude des proteines seriques et de certains mineraux chez le dromadaire: influence de l;age et du sexe. [Investigation of serum proteins and some minerals in dromedaries: influence of age and sex.] Memoire (Premier cycle) Institute Agromique et Vererinaire, Universite Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco. pp. 46.

El Tohamy, M.M.; Salama, A. and Youssef, A.E.M. (1986). Blood constituents in relation to the reproductive state in she-camel (Camelus dromedarius), Beitrage Zur Tropischen. Landwirtschaft und Veterinarmedizin. 24, 425-430.

El-Amin, F.M. (1979). The dromedary camel of the Sudan. In: Camels. IFS Symposium Sudan 5–54, 19 35–54, 1979.

ElAmin, E. A. (1990). The camel economic state in Sudan. ACSAD. Camel Newsletter, Vol 7. Dec,1990. Damascus, Syria.

Elliot, R. (1986). The use of green forage material to improve the nutritional status of animals fed low quality crop residues. In Ruminant Feeding Systems utilizing fibrous agricultural residues (ed. R. M. Dixon). Camberra, ACT, Australia pp. 49-67.

Everist, S. L. (1981). Poisonous plants of Australia. Revised edition. Angus and Robertson, Sydney

El-Sammani, M.O.; Mahgoub, Zaroug and Faisal, Awad. (1996). Review of OXFAM/ Livestock Programme. OXFAM U.K., Khartoum, Sudan.

Fadlalla, B. (1987). The dry season nutritional status of transhumant Baggara sheep in Sudan. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Animal Production in Arid Zones, Damascus, Syria, 7–12 September 1985, part 2, pp. 834–844. ACSAD (Arab Centre for Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands) and AOAD (Arab Organization for Agricultural Development

FAO (1997). Livestock and Red Meat Export Marketing Study. Volumes I and II. Khartoum, Sudan: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN.

238 Farah, Z.(1993). Composition and characteristics of camel milk. J. Dairy Res. 60: 603-626.

Farid, M. F.; Shawket, S. M. and Abdel-Rahman, M. H. (1984). The nutrition of camels and sheep under stress. In: Cockrill W R (editor) The camelid. An all-purpose animal. Proceedings of the Khartoum workshop on camels, 293-322

Faye, B.;Bengoumi,M.(1997). Données nouvelles sur le métabolisme des principaux elements-traces chez le dromadaire, Rev. Elev. Méd. Vét. Pays Trop. 50: 47-53.

Faye, B.;Bengoumi, M.(1994). Trace elements status in camels, Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 41-11.

Faye, B. and Mulato, C. (1991). Facteurs de Variation des parameters Proteo- energeiques; enzymatiques et mineraux dans le plasma chez le dromedaire de Djibouti. [Factors of variation of mineral, biochemical and enzymatic parameters in the blood plasma of dromedaries in Djibouti.] Revue d Elevage et de Medecine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux 44, 325-334.

Faye, B.; Grillet, C.; Tessema, A. (1986). Teneur en oligo-elements dans les fourrages et le plasma des ruminants domestiques en Ethiopia . [ Trace mineral contents in forages and plasma of domesticated ruminants in Ethiopia.] Revue d Elevage et de Medecine veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux 39, 227-237.

Faye, B.; M. Rotavonanahary; J.P. Chacornac; P. Soubre. (1995). Metabolic profiles and risks of diseases in camels in temperate conditions. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A. Physiology. Kidlington, Oxford, U.K.: Elsevier Science Ltd. Sept.112A(1):67-73.

Fernandez, F.J.and Kahn, H.L.(1971).Clinical Methods for Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. Clin. Chem. Newsl. 3, 24.

Field, C. R. (1995). Camel nutrition. Range Management Handbook of Kenya Volume III, 8 (Ed: Evans, JO, Simpkin, SP, Atkins, DJ). Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development andMarketing, Nairobi, Kenya.

Finlayson, R.; Keymer, I. F.; Manton, V. J. A. (1971). Calcific cardiomyopathy in young camels, Camelus spp. Journal of Comparative Pathology 81, 71-77.

239

Fleming, G. A., (1973). Mineral composition of herbage, Chemistry and Biochemistry of Herbage, G. W. Butler and R. W. Baily, Academic press, London, 529-563.

Franklin, M. C.; Reid, R. L. and Johnstone, I. L. (1948). Commonw. Austral. Counc. Sci. indust. Res. Bull. No. 240.

Fraser, M. C.; Bergeron, J. A.; Mays, A.; Aiello, S. E. (1991). The Merck Veterinary Manual, Seventh Edition. Merck and Co, Inc. Rahway, N. J., USA.

French, M.H. (1952). Mineral deficiencies in farm livestock. East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal 10:4-8.

Gartner, R. J. W.; J. W. Ryley and A. W. Beatie, (1965). The influence of degree of excitation on certain blood constituents in beef cattle. Aust. J. Exp. Biol.Med. Sci. 43: 713. Gauthier-Pilters, H. (1969). Bulletin :Institiute fondamental Afrique Noire Ser.A. p.1306.

Gauthier-Pilters, H. & Dagg A. I. (1981). The Camel, Chicago: The University of Chicago press.

Gauthier-Pilters, S. (1980). Some ecological aspects of the camel in the western Sahara: Workshop on Camels, held at Khartoum, Sudan, 18- 20 December 1979. IFS Provisional report No. 6 pp. 387-398. Gauthier-Pilters, H. (1984). Aspects of dromedary ecology and ethology. In W.R. Cockrill, ed. The Camelid. Uppsala, Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.

Georgievskii, V.I. (1982b). The physiological role of microelements. In: Georgievskii V.I.,

Ghaji, A. and Adegwa, A. O. (1986). The significance of camel production in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Animal Science 13: 29-35

Goering, H. K. and van Soest, P. J. (1970) Forage fiber analysis Agric. handbook No. 379. ARS, USDA, Washington DC

Gomide, J. A.; Noller, C. H.; Mott, G. O.; Conrad, J. H. and hill, D. L. (1969). Minmeral composition of six tropical grasses as influenced by plant age and nitrogen fertilization, Agronomy journal, 61, 120-123.

240 Grenot, C.J. (1992). Ecophysiological characteristics of large herbivorous mammals in arid Africa and the Middle East. Journal of Arid Environments, 23: 125-155.

Günther, T. (1990). Functional compartmentation of intracellular magnesium. In “Metal ions in Biological Systems, Vol. 26, Magnesium and its Role in Biology, Nutrition and Physiology”. (H. Sigel, and A. Sigel eds.), PP. 193-213. Marcel Dekker, New York.

Guyton, A. C. (1966). Parathyroid hormone, calcium and phosphate metabolism, Vitamin D, bone and teeth. In:Textbook of Medical Physiology (3rd Ed.). pp. 1100-1118. W. .Saunders Co.,Philadelphia.

Hamliri, A.; Khallaayoune, K.; Johnson, D. W.; Kessabi, M. (1990). The relationship between the concentration of selenium in the blood and the activity of glutathione peroxidase in the erythrocytes of the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedaries).Veterinary Research Communications 14, 27-30.

Haroun, E. M. (1994). Normal concentrations of blood constituents in young Najdi camels (camelus dromedaries). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 108, 619-622.

Harrison, D. G. and McAllan, A. B. (1980). Factors affecting growrh yields in the reticulo-rumen. In Digestive Physiology and Metabolism in Ruminants (eds. Y. Ruckebusch and P. Thivend). MTP Press, Lancaster, UK pp. 205-226.

Harrison, M.N. and J.K. Jackson. (1958). Ecological Classification of the Sudan. Forest Department, Forest Bulletin No. 2. Ministry of Agriculture, the Republic of the Sudan.

Hartmans, J. (1970). The detection of copper deficiency and other trace element deficiencies under field conditions. In: Mills C F (ed), Trace element metabolism in animals. Proceedings of the WAAP/IBP International Symposium, Aberdeen, Scotland. Livingstone, Edinburgh and London, UK pp. 441-445.

Healy, W. B. (1973). Nutritional aspects of soil ingestion by grazing animals. In: G. W. Butler and R. W. Bailey (Ed.) Chemistry and Biochemistry in Herbage, Vol. 1. pp. 567-588. Academic Press, London.

Healy, W. B., Ingested soil as a source of elements to grazing animals, Trace Element Metabolism in Animals-2, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1974, 448-450.

241

Heaton, F.W. (1990). Role of magnesium in enzyme systems. In “Metal ions in Biological Systems, Vol. 26, Compendium on Magnesium and its Role in Biology, Nutrition, Physiology”. (H. Sigel, and A. Sigel, eds.), PP. 119-133. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.

Hedger, R. S.; Howard, D. A.; Burdin, M. L. (1968). The occurrence in goats and sheep in Kenya of a disease closely similar to swayback. Veterinary Record 76, 493-497.

Higgins, A. J. (1984). The camel in health and disease: introduction. British Veterinary Journal. London: Bailliere Tindall. Sept/Oct 1984. 140 (5): 482-484.

Higgins, A. (1986). The camel in health and disease London, Baillière Tindall. 168 pp.

Higgins, A. J.; Kock, R. A. (1986). A guide to the clinical examination, chemical restraint and medication of the camel. In: The Camel in Health and Disease. [Edited by Higgins, A. J.] London, UK; Baillere Tindal. pp. 21-40.0

Hjort af Ornäs, A., ed. (1988) Camels in development. Stockholm, Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.

Hodgson, J.F., Leach, R.M. and Allway, W.H. (1962). Micronutrients in soils and plants in relation to animal nutrition. Journal of Agriculture Food and Chemistry 10:171-174. Hoekstra, W. G. (1975). Fed. Proc. 34: 2083.

Hofeman, D. G.; Sunde, R. A. and Hoekstra, W. G. (1974). J. Nutr. 104: 580

Hoste, C., Peyre de Fabregues, B. & Richard, D.(1985). Le dromadaire et son élevage Coll. Etudes et Synthèses Inst. Elev. Méd. Vét. Pays Trop. France, Maisons-Alfort. 162 pp.

Howard, D.A. (1963). Notes on animal diseases. XXIII. Mineral deficiency diseases. East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal 28:191-194.

Howard, D. A. (1970). The effects of cobalt and copper treatment on the weight gains and blood constituents of cattle in Kenya. Vet. Rec. 87:771.

242

Howell, J. M. (1996). Toxicities and excessive intakes of minerals. In “Detection and Treatment of Mineral Nutrition Problems in Grazing Sheep”. D. G. Masters and C. L. White (Eds). ACIAR Monograph No. 37. Watson Ferguson & Co., Brisbane, Australia, pp. 95-117.

Humpries, W.R.; Young, B.W.; Phillippo, M. and Bremner, I. (1981). The effects of iron and molybdenum on copper metabolism in cattle. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 40:68A.

Hungate, R. E. (1966). The rumen and its microbes. P. 317. Academic Press, New York.

Hunter, R. A.; Miller, C. P. and Siebert, B. D. (1978). The effect of supplementation or fertilizer application on the utilization by sheep of Stylosanthes guianensis grown on sulphur deficient soils. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 18: 391.

Huston, J.E.; Rector, B.S.; Merrill, L.B.; Engdahl, B.S. (1981). Nutritional value of range plants in the Edwards plateau region of texas. Texas Agricultural Experimental Station, Bull B – 1357, College station, USA.

Hvelpund, T.; J. Andrieu; M. R. Weisbjerg; M. Vermorel. (1995). Prediction of the energy and protein value of forages for ruminants. In: Recent developments in the Nutrition of Herbivores (Jounet, M., E. Grenet, H-M Farce, M. Theriez, C. Dermaquilly, Eds.). Proceedings of the IVth International symposium on the Nutrition of Herbivores. INRA Editions, Paris, 205-227

Idris, O. F.; G. Tartour and S. A. Babiker. (1976). Blood mineral status and haematological values in sheep in the Gezira Province of the Sudan. Trop. Anim.Hlth. Prod. 8:13.

Idris, O. F. and G. Tartour. (1975). Neonatal ataxia of copper deficiency in lambs in the Sudan. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 7:12.

IEMVT.(1989). Le dromadaire. Revue Elev. Méd. Vét. Pays Trop. 42: 1-143.

243 INRA (1989). Mineral requirements. In Jarrige, R. (ed.). Ruminant Nutrition: recommended Allowances and Feed Tables. Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA). John Libbey Eurotext Pub.,

Ivan, M.; Hidiroglou, M.; Al-Ismaily, S. I.; Al-Sumry, H. S.; Harper, R.B. (1990). Copper deficiency and posterior paralysis (shalal) in small ruminants in the Sultanate of Oman. Tropical Animal Health and Production 22, 217-225.

Jaddalla, Juma Barram. (1994). The Effects of Supplementation of Dry Season Grazing with Groundnut Haulms on Nutrients Utilization and Sheep Performance. M.Sc. Thesis, Faculty of Animal Production, University of Khartoum.

Jain, C. N. (1986). Schalm’s Veterinary hematology, Lea and Febire, Philadelphia.

Judson, G. J. and McFarlane, J. D.(1998). Mineral disorders in grazing livestock and the usefulness of soil and plant analysis in the assessment of these disorders. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 38:707-723.

Jumba, I.O.; Suttle, N.F. and Wandiga, S.O. (1996a). Mineral composition of tropical forages in the Youssef F.G. and Braithwaite R.A.I. 1987. The mineral profile of some tropical grasses in Trinidad. Tropical Agriculture 64(2):122–128.

Kabaija, E. and Smith, O.B. (1988). The effect of age of regrowth on content and release of manganese, iron, zinc and copper from four tropical forages incubated in sacco in rumen of sheep. Animal Feed Science and Technology 20(2):171–176.

Kaneko, J. J. (1980). Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals. 3rd Edition.Academic Press, New York, USA.

Kayongo, M.H. (1986). Nutritive value of important range forage species for camels Marsbait District, Kenya. In: Integrated Project for Arid Lands Technical Report E. 8, UNESCO, Nairobi, Kenya.

Kemp, A.; Deijs, W.B.; Hernkes, O.J. and Vanes, A.J.H. (1961). Hypomagnesemia in milking cows. milking cows. Utilization of magnesium from herbage from lactating cows. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 9, 134.

244 Kendall, K. A.; R. L. Hays; and E. E. Ormiston. (1968). Postpartum serum calcium and phosphorus levels associated with calcium carbonate and monosodium phosphate feeding. J. dairy Sci., 51:978. Köhler-Rollefson, I.; Mundy, P. and Mathias, E. (2001). (Eds.). A Field Manual of Camel Diseases. London, U.K.; Intermediate Technology Group Publishing, 254.

Köhler-Rollefson, I., Musa, B.E. & Fadl Achmed, M. (1991) The camel pastoral system of the southern Rashaida in eastern Sudan. Nomadic Peoples, 29.

Kumar, R. and D'Mello, J. P. F. (1996). Anti-nutritional factors in forage legumes. In: Tropical legumes in animal nutrition D'Mello J P F and D Devendra (eds) CAB international Wallingford UK.

Lamand, M. (1987). Rev. Vet. Med. 163, 1071-1082.

Latteur, J.P. (1962).Cobalt deficiencies and sub-deficiencies in ruminants, Center D’Information Du Cobalt, Brussels, Belgium.

Leese, A.S. (1927).A treatise on the One-Humped Camel in Health and Disease. Stamford:Haynes and Son.

Lefroy, E.C.; Dann, P.R.; Wildin, J.H.; Wesley-Smith, R.N. and McGowan, A.A. (1992). Trees and shrubs as sources of fodder in Australia. Agroforestry systems 20, 117-139.

Le Houerou, H. N. (1980). Chemical composition and nutritive value of browse in tropical West Africa. In: Browse in Africa, the current state of knowledge. Le Houerou, H. N. (ed.), ILCA, Addis Ababa. pp. 261 – 289

Lemos, R. (1978). Classification and distribution of the tropical soils. In: J. H. Conrad and L. R. McDowell (Ed.) Proc. Latin American Symposium on Mineral Nutrition Research with grazing Ruminants. Pp. 9-14. Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.

Leng, R. A. 1990. Factors affecting the utilization of ‘poor quality’ forages by ruminants particularly under tropical conditions. Nutritional Research Review 3: 277-303.

Lentz, D.E.; Madsen, F.C.; Miller, J.K. and Hansard, S.L. (1976). Effect of potassium and hypomagnesemia on insulin in cattle. Journal of Anim. Sci. 43, 10.

245

Little, D.A. (1970). Factors of importance in the phosphorus nutrition of beef cattle in northern Australia. Australian Veterinary Journal 46:241-248.

Little, D. A.; P. J. Robinson; M. J. Playne and K. P. Haydock. (1971). Factors affecting blood inorganic phosphorus determinations in cattle. Australian Vet. J. 47: 153.

Little, D. A. (1972). Bone biopsy in cattle and sheep for studies of phosphorus status. Australian Vet. J. 48:668.

Little, D.A. (1980). Observations on the phosphorus requirement of cattle for growth. Research in Veterinary Science 28:258-260.

Little, D.A. (1985). The dietary mineral requirements of ruminants; implications for the utilization of tropical fibrous agricultural residues. In: P.T. Doyle (ed.),The utilization of fibrous agricultural residues as animal feeds. IDP, Canberra, Australia. pp. 34-43.

Long, M. I. F.; W. K. Ndyanabo, B. Marshall and D. D. Thornton. (1969). Nutritive value of grasses in Ankole and the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda. IV, Mineral content. Trop. Agric. (Trinidad) 46:201.

Maga, J. A. (1982). Phytate, its chemistry, occurrence, food interaction, nutritional significance and methods of analysis, Journal of Agriculture Food and Chemistry, Volume 30 pp. 1-5.

Makino, T. and Takahara, K. (1981). Direct Determination of Plasma Copper and Zinc in Infants by Atomic Absorption with Discrete Nebulization. Clin. Chem. 27, 1445.

Manefield, G. W.; Tinson, A. H. (1996). Camels, a Compendium. Series C No.22. Sydney, Australia; University of Sydney Post Graduate Foundation in veterinary Science.

Manefield, G. W.; Tinson, A. H. (1996). Camels, a Compendium. Series CNo.22.Sydney, Australia; University of Sydney Post Graduate Foundation in Veterinary Science.

Marie, M. (1987). Bases endocriniennes de la fonction sexuelle chez le dromadaire Paris. (Thesis)

246 Mason, I.L. & Maule, J.P. (1960). The indigenous livestock of eastern and southern Africa. Farnham Royal, UK, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau.

Mason, I.L. Origins, Evolution and Distribution of Domestic Camels. Volume 1. W. Ross Cockrill, eds Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala. Note: Proceedings of the Khartoum Workshop on Camels, December 1979, p. 16-35. NAL Call no.: SF401. C2K48 1979 v. 1

Maylin, G. A.; Rubin, D. S.; Lein, D. H. (1980). Selenium and vitamin E in horses. Cornell Veterinarian 70, 272-289.

McCaskill, M.R. (1990). Phosphorus and beef production in Northern Australia. Tropical Grassland 24(3):231–238.

McDowell, L.R. (1985). Detection of mineral status of grazing ruminants. In: Nutrition of Grazing Ruminants in Warm Climates. [Edited by McDowell, L.R.] New York, USA; Academic Press, Inc.pp.339-357.

McDowell, L.R.; Conrad, J.H. and Ellis, G.L. (1984). Mineral deficiencies and imbalances and their diagnosis. In: F.C.M. Gilchrist and R.I. Mackie (eds), Herbivore nutrition in the subtropics and tropics. The Science Press.

McDowell, Lee R. (1976). Mineral deficiencies and toxicities and their effect on beef production in developing countries, Proc. Beef cattle Production in developing countries, Edinburgh, Scotland, 216- 241.

McDowell, L.R., Houser, R.H. and Fick, K.R. (1978) Iron, zinc and manganese in ruminant nutrition. In: J.R. Conrad and L.R. McDowell (eds), Latin American symposium on mineral nutrition research with grazing ruminants. University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. pp. 108-116.

McDowell, L.R. (1985). Nutrition of grazing ruminants in warm climates. Academic Press, New York.

McDowell, L. R. (1992a). Minerals in Animals and Livestock Nutrition. Academic Press Inc., San Diego, California.

McDowell, L.R. (1992b). Magnesium. In “Minerals in Animal Nutrition”. PP.115-136. Academic Press, San Diego.

247 Mcleod, M. N. (1974). Plant tannins - their role in forage quality. Nutrition Abstract Review, Volume 44 pp. 803 – 815

McMurray, C. H.; , D. A.; Kennedy, S. (1983). Nutritional myopathy in cattle, from a clinical problem to experimental models for studying selenium, vitamin E and polyunsaturated fatty acids interactions. In: Trace Elements in Animal Production and Veterinary Practice. [Edited by Suttle, N. F.; Gunn, R. G.; Allen, W. M.; Linklater, K. A.; Wiener, G.] London, UK; The British Society of Animal Production, Occasional Publication No. 7.

Mecha, I and Adegbola, T. A. (1980). Chemical composition of some southern Nigeria forage eaten by goats, In: Browse in Africa the current state of knowledge. Le Houerou H N (ed). ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. 303 – 306

Mendes, M. O. (1977). Mineral ststus of beef cattle in the northern part of Mato Grosso, Brazil, as indicated by age, season and sampling technique.Ph.D. Dissertation. Univ. of Florida, Gainesville.

Meschy, F. (2000). Recent progress in the assessment of mineral requirements of goats. Livest. Prod. Sci. 64:9-14.

Miles, E.H. and McDowell, L.R. (1983). Mineral deficiencies in the Llanos rangelands of Colombia. World Animal Review 46:2-10.

Milford, R. and Haydock, K. P. H. (1965).The nutritive value of protein in sub- tropical pasture species grown in southeast Queensland, Aust. J. Exp. Agr. Anim. Husb., 5, 13-17.

Miller, W. J.; L. G. Martin; R. P. Gentry and D. M. Blackmon. (1968). Zinc and stable Zn absorption, excretion and tissue concentration as affected by type of diet and levelof zinc in normal calves. J. Nutr. 94:391.

Miller, W. J.; Lassiter, J. W. and Jones, J. B. (1972). Problems in the use of mineral values for feed formulation, Proceedings Georgia Nutrition Conference for Feed Industry, pp. 94-106.

Mills, C. F. (1983). The physiological and pathological basis of trace element deficiency disease. In: Trace Elements in Animal Production and Veterinary Practice. [Edited by Suttle, N. F.; Gunn, R. G.; Allen, W. M.; Linkalter, K. A.; Wiener, G.] London UK; The British Society of Animal Production, Occasional publication No.7. pp. 1-10.

248 Ministry of Finance and National Economy, Sudan. (1997). Report by the Committee on Macro-economy (in Arabic)

Minson, D.J. (1990). Forage in ruminant nutrition. Academic Press Inc., London, UK.483 pp.

Minson, D. J. and Norton, B. W. 1984. The possible cause of the absence of hypomagnesemia in cattle grazing tropical pastures, review. Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production 14: 357- 360.

Minson, D. L. and Milford, R. (1967). The voluntary intake and digestibility of diets containing different proportions of legume and mature Pangola grass (Digitaria cecumbens)., Aust. J. Exp. Agr. Anim. Husb., 7, 546- 551.

Mitchell, R. L.; Reith, J. W. S and Johnson, I. M. (1957). Trace-element uptake in relation to soil content. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, Supplement 8:51-59.

MoAR. Statistical Bulletin for Animal Resources, Issue No 11. Khartoum: Ministry of Animal Resources, 2002.

Mohamed, H.A. and Hussain, A. N. (1999). Studies on normal Haematological and serum biochemical values of the ‘Hijin’ racing camels(Camelus dromedaries) in Kuwait. Veterinary Research Communication, 23(4), 241-248.

Morris, J.G. (1980). Assessment of sodium requirements of grazing beef cattle: a review. Journal of Animal Science 50:145-152.

Mugerwa, M. (1981). The Camel : a. Bibliographical Review, ILCA Monograph No.5, ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Munro, I. B. (1957) Infectious and non-infectious herd infertility in east Anglia, Veterinary Record, 69(7), 125-129.

Ndon, B.A. and Essien, A. I. (1987).The establishment of local browse species in comparison with Leucaena sp. and Gliricidia sp.Browse and small ruminant production in Southeastern Nigeria Proceedingof a symposium. International Livestock Centerfor Africa (I LCA). Humid zone programme, Ibadan, Nigeria

249 Negi, S.S. (1986). Foliage from forest trees: a potential feed resource. In Agroforestry Systems: a new challenge. Khosla, P.K., Puri, S. and Khurana, D.K., eds. Nauni, Indian Society of Tree Scientists.

Nelson, A.D.; Herbel, C.H. and Jackson, H.M. (1970). Chemical composition of forage grazed by cattle on arid zone. N. Ag. St. Bull., No. 561.

Newman, D.M.R. (1975). The camel, its potential as a provider of protein in arid Australia. Proceedings of 3rd World Conference on Animal Production, Melbourne, Australia (1973) (Ed: Reid, RL). Sydney University Press, Sydney, 95.

Newman, D.M.R. (1979).The feeding habits of old and new world camels as related to their future role as productive ruminants. In: Camels, IFS Symposium, Sudan. 171–200.

Norton, B. W. (1994). The nutritive value of tree legumes, In: Gutteridge R C and Shelton M (eds). Forage tree legumes in tropical Agriculture. CAB International, Wallingford, pp. 177 - 191.

Norton, B. W. and Poppi, D. P. (1995) Composition and Nutritional Attributes of Pasture Legumes. In Tropical Legumes in Animal Nutrition (eds. J. P. F. D’Mello and C. Devendra) pp. 23-47.

NRC. (1978). Nutrient requirements of domestic animals. Nutrient requirements of dairy cattle. 5th edition. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.

NRC. (1984). Nutrient requirements of domestic animals. Nutrient requirements of sheep. 6th edition. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.

NRC. (1985). Nutrient requirements of sheep. 6th edition. National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

NRC. (2001). Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. 7th rev. ed.Washington, DC.

Oduguwa, B. O.; Oduguwa, O. O. and Amore, E. A. (1999). Effect of season on the anti-nutritive factors of some foliage of some leguminous trees, In:Joseph J K, Awosanya B, Apata D F, Belonwu M A, Attah J O and Ayorinda K L (eds), Enhancing livestock production in Nigeria

250 Proceedings of the 26th Annual Conference of NSAP, 21- 25 March 1999. Ilorin, pp. 11 – 12

OIE(International Office of Epizootics). 1987. Les maladies des Camélidés. Rev.Scientifique et Technique de l'Office International des Epizooties 6: 309-495.

Oji, U. I. and Isilebo, J. O. (2000). Nutrient characterization of selected browse plants of the humid tropics. In Proc. 27th Annual NSAP conference, 18th - 21st March 2000, Umudike, Nigeria. Pp.54-56.

Okoli, I. C.; Ebere, C. S.; Uchegbu, M. C.; Udah, C A. and Ibeawuchi, I. I. (2002). Survey of the diversity of plants utilized for small ruminant feeding in Southeastern Nigeria. Agriculture Ecosystem and Environment, (accepted for publication)

Okoli, I. C.; Ebere, C. S.; Emenalom, O. O.; Uchegbu, M. C. and Esonu, B. O. (2001). Indigenous livestock paradigms revisited 11: An assessment of the proximate value of most preferred indigenous browses of Southeastern Nigeria, Tropical Animal Production Investigation, Volume 4 No, 2 pp. 99 – 107

Onwuka, C. F. I.; Akinsoyinu, A. O.; and Tewe, O. O. (1989). Feed value of some Nigerian browse plants: chemical composition and "in vitro" digestibility of leaves. East African Agriculture and Forestry Journal, Volume 54 No. 3 pp. 157 – 163

Onwuka, C. F. I. (1994). Nitrate and Nitrite in ruminants browse leaves. Nigerian Journal of Animal Production, Volume 21 pp. 96 – 100

Onwuka, C. F. I. (1996). Plant phytates, oxalates, and their effects on nutrient utilization by goat, Nigerian Journal of Animal Production, Volume 23 No. 1 53 – 60

Ørskov, E. R. (1995). Optimizing rumen environment for cellulose digestion. In Rumen Ecology Research Planning (eds. R. J. Wallace and A. Lahlou- Kassi). Proceedings of a Workshop held at ILRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 13-18 March 1995 pp. 177-182.

Osagie, A. U. (1998). Anti-nutritional factors, In: Osagie A U and Eke O U (eds), Nutritional quality of plant foods, Post harvest Research unit, Dept of Biochemistry, University of Benin. Nigeria

251 Oyennga, V. A. (1955). The composition and agricultural value of some grass species in Nigeria, Empire Journal of Experimental. Agriculture, Volume 23 No. 81

Pearson, D. (1976). The chemical analysis of foods. Churchill Livingston, Edinburgh. Pp 352 – 354

Peducasse, A. C. (1982). Mineral status of grazing beef cattle in the tropics of Bolivia. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Florida, Gaineville, Florida.

Peirce, A. W. (1957). Studies on salt tolerance of sheep. I. The tolerance of sheep for sodium chloride in the drinking water. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 8:711-722.

Peirce, A. W. (1959). Studies on salt tolerance of sheep. II. The tolerance of sheep for mixtures of sodium chloride and magnesium chloride in the drinking water. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 10:725-735.

Peirce, A. W. (1962). Studies on salt tolerance of sheep. IV. The tolerance of sheep for mixtures of sodium chloride and calcium chloride in the drinking water. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 13:479-486.

Peirce, A. W. (1963). Studies on salt tolerance of sheep. V. The tolerance of sheep for mixtures of sodium chloride, sodium carbonate, and sodium bicarbonate in the drinking water. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 14:815-823.

Peirce, A. W. (1966). Studies on salt tolerance of sheep. VI. The tolerance of wethers in pens for drinking waters of the types obtained from underground sources in Australia. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 17:209-218.

Peirce, A. W. (1968a). Studies on salt tolerance of sheep. VII. The tolerance of ewes and their lambs in pens for drinking waters of the types obtained from underground sources in Australia. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 19:577- 587.

Peirce, A. W. (1968b). Studies on salt tolerance of sheep. VIII. The tolerance of grazing ewes and their lambs for drinking waters of the types obtained from underground sources in Australia. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 19:589- 595.

Pfander, W. H., (1971). Animal nutrition in the tropics-problems and solutions, J. of Anim. Sci., 33, 843-849.

252 Philips, Ralph W., (ed), Recent developments affecting livestock production in the Americas, FAO Agriculture Development Paper, No. 55, 83-98 1956.

Piot, J. (1969). Pâturages aériens au Cameroun. Utilisation des ligneux par les bovins. Rev. Elev. Méd. Vét. Pays Trop. 23 (4): 403–517.

Prior, J. (1994). Pastoral Development Planning. Development guidelines No. 9 Oxfarm (UK and Ireland). 150pp.

Ramet, J.P. (1987). Production de fromages à partir de lait de chamelle en Tunisie Mission Report. Rome, FAO. 33 pp.

Ranaweane, S.S.E. and Rajaratne, A.A.J. (1985). A study of the mineral status of cattle in small- farmer dairies in Seri lanka P 774. In: Proc. 3rd SAREC Congress, Seoul, Korea.

Ray, S. M., Discussant’s paper to topic 2 (India), Proceedings of the 1st World Conference on Animal Production, European Association of Animal Production, Rome, 2, 109-114, 1963.

Reid, R.L. and D. J. Horvath. (1980). Soil chemistry and mineral problems in farm livestock. A review. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 5, 95-167.

Reynolds, L.; Attah – Krah, A. N. and Francis, P. A. (1992). Alley Farming with livestock - guidelines, Humid Zone Research Site. ILCA 1992, pp 20

Rhodes, F. B. (1956). The effect of feeding mineral, protein and carbohydrate supplements to growing cattle in Mashonaland. Rhod. Agric. J. 53:969. Richard, D. & Gérard, D. (1989). La production laitière des dromadaires Dankali (Ethiopie). Rev. Elev. Med. Vét. Pays Trop. 42: 97-103.

Rodgers, W. A. (1975). Mineral content of some soils, range grasses and wild animals from southern Tanzania. E. Afr. Agric. For. J. 41: 147.

Roeder, P. L. (1980). Effects of copper and cobalt treatment of cattle in the Ethiopian rift valley. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 12:63.

Rollinson, D. H. L. and R. M. Bredon. (1960). Factors causing alterations of the levels of inorganic phosphorus in the blood of Zebu cattle. J. Agric. Sci. 54:235.

253 Rosa, I. V. (1980). Dietary phosphorus and trace element interrelationships in ruminants. Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.

Rose-Innes, R. (1966). The concept of the "woody pasture", i low altitude tropical tree savanna environments. Proc. IXth Int. Grassl. Cong. Sao Paulo.

Rose-Innes, R. (1967). Land and water survey in the Upper and Northern Regions, Ghana. Final Report Vol. IV, pp. 175–181; FAO/SF: 31 GHA, Rome FAO.

Rose-Innes, R.; Mabey, G.L. (1964). Studies on browse plants in Ghana. I. Chemical composition: a/ monthly chemical analyses of seven species of trees, shrubs and vines browsed by free ranging cattle on the Accra Plains. Emp. J. Exp. Agric. 32 (126): 114–124.

Russell, F. C. and Duncan, Dorothy L. (1956). Minerals in pasture: Deficiencies and excess in relation to animal health, Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Nutrition, Technical Communication No. 15, Rowett Institute, Bucksburn, Aberdeenshire, Scotland.

Rutagwenda, T.; Lechner-Doll, M.; von Engelhardt, W.; Schultka, M. and Schwartz, H. J. (1989). Adoption strategies of camels on a thornbush savannna pasture. Comparision with other domestic animals. In: Options Méditerranéennes-Séries Séminaires No 2, 69-73

Ryan, M.P. (1993). Interrelationships of magnesium and potassium homeostasis. Miner Electrolyte Metab. 19, 290-295.

Saker, I.; A. M. Abdel Majid. (2002). The socio-economics of camel herders in Sudan. The Arab Centerfor the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD). CARDN/ACSAD/Camel/P102/2002.

Salaheldin, H.A.; Abdelgadir, A.W.; and Omer, F. I.. (1979) Biochemical studies of some blood and plasma constituents on camel (Camelus dromedaries). In: IFS Provisional Report No.6, Camels, ( International Foundation for Science, Stockholm), 365-372.

Salih, M. (1988). Camel reproduction in the arid lands of the Sudan: national and local perceptions of the potential. In Camels in development, p. 19-29. Stockholm, Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.

Schillhorn van Veen, T.W. and Loeffler, I.K. (1990). Mineral deficiency in ruminants in sub-Saharan Africa: A review. Tropical Animal Health and Production 22(3):197–205.

254 Schmidt-Nielsen, K. Desert Animals. Adaptation and Environment. Oxford, Oxford University Press. pp. 277, 1964.

Schutte, K. H. (1964). Biology of the Trace Elements. Their role in Nutrition, J. P. Lippincott, Philadelphia.

Schwartz, H. J. Rosemary, D. and Wilson, A. J. (1983). Camel production in Kenya and its constraints. Journal of Tropical Animal Health and Production 15:169-178

Schwartz, H. J. (1989). Produktionsleistung und Produktivität von Dromedaren (Camelus dromedarius). In: Tierhaltung im Sahel. Göttinger Beiträge zur Land- und Forstwirtschaft in den Tropen und Subtropen, 51, 171ff

Schwartz, H. J. (1992). Introduction: The camel (Camelus dromedarius) in eastern Africa. In: H.J. Schwartz and M. Dioli (Eds.): The One- humped Camel in Eastern Africa. A Pictorial Guide to Diseases, Health Care and Management. Verlag Josef Margraf, FR Germany.

Scott, D. (1970). Aspects of renal function in ruminants. Rowett Res. Inst. Ann Rep., 26:98.

Seigler, D. S.; Maslin, B. R. and Conn, E. E. (1989). Cyanogensis in the Leguminosa. In: Stirton H H and Zarchi J L (eds), Advances in Legume Biology, Monograph systematic Botany. Missouri Botanical Garden, Volume 29 pp. 645 – 672

Simesen, M.G. (1971). Calcium, inorganic phosphorus and magnesium in health and disease. In: Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals. Volume 1, 2nd Edition. [Edited by Kaneko, J.J.; Comelius, E.C.] New York, USA; Academic Press. pp. 313-375.

Slagsvold, P. (1969). Some aspects of livestock feeding and fertility. E. Afr. Agric. For.J.35:174.

Smith, D.F. (1972). Hordeum species in grassland. Herbage Abstract.

Smith, H. A.; Jones, T. C.; Hunt, R. D. (1972). Veterinary Pathology. 4th Edition. Philadelphia, USA; Lea and Febiger. pp. 1357-1364.

Smith, R. M. and Marston, H. R., (1970). Brit. J. Nutr. 24: 857 and 879. Snow, D. H.; Billah, A.; Ridah, A. (1988). Effects of maximal exercise on the blood composition of the racing camel. Veterinary Record 123, 311- 312.

255

Sousa, J. C. de. (1978). Interrelationships among mineral levels in soil, forage and animal tissues on ranches in Northgen Mato Grosso, Brazil. Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.

Spears, J.W. (2003a). Trace mineral bioavailability in ruminants. J. Nutr. 133(Suppl.):1506S-1509S.

Spears, J.W. (2003b). Overview of mineral nutrition in cattle: the dairy and beef NRC. Proceedings of the 13th Annual Nutrition, Florida Symposium, pp. 113-126.

Speich, M. and Bousquet, B. (1991). Magnesium: Recent data on metabolism, exploration, pathology and therapeutics. Magnesium-Bulletin 13, 116- 121.

Sperling, L. (1987). The adoption of camels by Samburu cattle herders. Nomadic Peoples, 23: 1-18.

Steel, G. D. and Torrie, J. H. (1980). Principles and procedures of statistics, 2nd (ed) McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc New York

Staples, C. R., and D. S. Lough. (1989). Efficacy of supplemental dietary neutralizing agents for lactating dairy cows. A review. Anim. Feed Sci. and Tech. 23:277-303.

Wilson, A. D. (1966b). The intake and excretion of sodium by sheep fed on species of Atriplex (saltbush) and Kochia (bluebush). Aust. J. Agric. Res. 17:155-163.

Sutmöller, P.; Vahia de Abreu, Ant., Van der Grift, J. and Sombrock, W. G. (1966). Mineral imbalances in cattle in the Amazon valley, Department of Agricultural Research, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Communication No. 53.

Sykes, A.R. and Field, A.C. (1972). Effects of dietary deficiencies of energy, protein and calcium on the pregnant ewe. I. Body composition and mineral content of the ewes. Journal of Agricultural Science (Cambridge) 78:109-117.

Tartour, G. (1969). Studies on the metabolism of copper and iron in the camel. Sudan Journal of veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry 10, 14- 20.

256 Tartour, G. (1975). Copper status in livestock, pasture and soil in Western Sudan. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 7:87-94.

Tartour, G.; Idris, O. F. (1970a) Serum iron and serum iron binding capacity in the dromedary (Camelus dromedaries). Journal of zoology, London 161, 351-354.

Technical Committee On Response to Nutrients, TCORN (1991) Report No.6. A preappraisal of the calcium and phosphorus requirements of sheep and cattle. Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews 61, 573-612

Theiler, A.; H. H. Green and P. J. Du Toit. (1924). Phosphorus in the livestock industry. J. Dept. Agric. S. Afr. 8:460.

Thompson, A. (1957). The trace-element contents of herbage plants with some refrence to their availability to the animal, Journal of Science and Food Agricultyre, 8, Supplement Issue, pp. 72-81.

Thornton, I. (1974). Biogeochemical and soil ingestion studies in relation to the trace-element nutrition of livestock. In: W. G. Mertz (Ed.) Trace Element Metabolism in Animals – 2. pp. 451-454. Univ. Park Press. Bartimore, Maryland.

Thornton, I. (1983) Soil-plant-animal interactions in relation to the incidence of trace element disorders in grazing livestock. In “Trace Elements in Animal Production and Veterinary Practice”. Occasional Publication of the British Society of Animal Production No. 7 (Eds. N. F. Suttle, R. G. Gunn, W. M. Allen, K. A. Linklater and G. Wiener) pp. 39-49 (Haddington UK)

Tian, G.; Broussard, L. and Kang, B. T. (1998). The role of plant residues with different chemical compositions in sustaining productions in sub-mined topical environment. In: strategies and tactics of sustainable agriculture in the tropics (M A Badejo and A O Togun (eds), pp 68-84

Underwood, E J. (1966). The mineral nutrition of livestock. The Central Press, Aberdeen, UK.

Underwood, E. J. (1977). Trace elements in Human and Animal Nutrition (3rd &4th Ed.). Academic Press. New York.

Underwood, E.J. (1981). The mineral nutrition of livestock. 2nd edition. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, London.

257

Underwood, E.J. and Suttle, N.F. (1999). The Mineral Nutrition of Livestock. 3rd ed. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

Uwechue, N. P. (1990). The effect of level of fertilizer application and stage of maturity on the yield and chemical composition of threes tropical grasses in Western Nigeria. MSc. Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan Nigeria

Van der Veen , R. R.(1973). A trace element survey in the Transkei. S.Agr.Med. J. 47: 344.

Van Niekerk, B. D. H. (1975). Supplementation of grazing cattle. Potential to Increase Beef Production in Tropical America. CIAT CE-No.10. pp.83-97.

Van Schalkywk, A. and P. E. Lombard. (1969). The influence of phosphorus supplementation on body function and growth of young steers. Agroanimalia 1:45.

Van Soest, P.J. (1982). Nutritional ecology of the ruminant. O and B Books, Oregon.

Varley, H.; Gowenlock, A. H.; Bell, M. (1976). Practical Clinical biochemistry. Volume 2, 5th Edition. London, UK; William Heineman Medical books LTD. pp. 1-44.

Wahbi, A. A.; Abdel Gadir, S. E.; Awad El-said, N. A.; Idris, O. F. (1980). Plasma electrolytes and minerals of normal camels in the Sudan. Workshop on camels, held at Khartoum, Sudan, 18-20 December 1979. IFS Provisional report No. 6. pp. 355-364.

Wahua, T. A. T. and Oji, U. I. (1987). Survey of browse plants in upland areas of Rivers State, Nigeria. In: Reynolds I and Attah - Krah H N (eds), Browse and small and small ruminant production in Southeastern Nigeria. Proceedings of a symposium, ILCA Humid zone programme. Ibadan, Nigeria

Walker, C. A. (1957). Studies of cattle of northern Rhodesia. I. The growth of steers under normal veld grazing and supplemented with salt and protein. J. Agric. Sci. 49:394.

Wardeh, M. F. (1989). The Arabian Camel, Origin Breed and husbandry. Al- Mallah publisher, Damascus, Syria. (In Arabic)

258

Wensvoort, J. (1992). Observaions on the liver copper concentration and diet of race camels (Camelus dromedarius). Proceedings of 1st International Camel Conference, Dubai, U.A.E., 2-6 February, 1992 (Edited by Allen, W.R.; Higgins, A.J.; Mahew, I.G.; Snow, D.H.; Wade, J.F. J.R. and W. Publications. pp. 319-322.

Whittow, G.C. (1968). Body fluid regulation, Adaptation of Domestic Animals, E. S.E. Hafez, Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, 119-126.

Wickens, G.E. (1991). Natural vegetation. In: Craig G.M. (ed), The Agriculture of the Sudan. Oxford University Press, London. pp. 54–67.

Wilkinson, S.R.; Welch, R.M.; MayLand, H.F.; and Grunes, D.L. (1990). Magnesium in plants: Uptake, distribution, function, and utilization by man and animals. In “Metal ions in Biological Systems, Vol. 26, Compendium on Magnesium and its Role in Biology, Nutrition and Physiology”. (H. Sigol and A. Sigel, eds.), PP. 33-56. Marcel Dekker, New York.

Williams, R. Dorrington. (1959). Minor elements and their effects on the growth and chemical composition of herbage plants, Mimeographed Publication No. 1, Commonwealth agricultural Bureaux, Bucks, England,1963.

Willis, J. B. (1961). Determination of calcium and magnesium in Urine by Atomic absorption Spectroscopy. Anal. Chem. 33, 556.

Wilson, A. D. (1978). Water requirements of sheep. In “Studies of the Australian Arid Zone”. K. M. W. Howes (Ed). CSIRO, Australia, pp. 179.

Wilson, A.D.; W, W.C. and Torell, D.T. (1971). Comparison of methods of estimating the digestibility of range forage and browse. Journal Ag. Sci.,.

Wilson, J. G. and R. M. Bredon. (1963). Nutritional value of some common cattle browse and fodder plants of Karamoja Northern Province, Uganda. E. Afr. Agric. For. J. 28:204.

Wilson, J. R., and Ford, C. W. (1971). Temperature influences on the growth, digestibility, and carbohydrate composition of two tropical grasses, Panicum maximum var. trichoglume and setaria sphacelata, and two cultivars of the temperate grass Lolium perenne, Aust. J. Exp. Agr. Res.,22, 563-571.

259

Wilson, P. S.; Judson, G. J. (1976). Glutathione peroxidase activity in bovine and ovine erythrocytes in relation to blood selenium concentration. British Veterinary Journal 132, 428-434.

Wilson, R.T. (1978). Studies on the livestock of Southern Daufur. Sudan V. Notes on camels. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 10: 19–25.

Wilson, R.T. (1984). The Camel 1st Edition. London, UK; Longman Group Limited. pp69-82, 128.

Wilson, R.T., Araya, A. & Melaku, A. 1990. The one-humped camel Technical Papers Series No. 3. New York, UNSO. 300 pp.

Wilson, R.T. and Bourzat, D. (1988). Past, present and future research on the one-humped camel in Africa. J. Arid Environments, 14: 1-15.

Wilson, J.R. (1982). Environmental and nutritional factors affecting herbage quality. In: Nutritional limits to animal production from pasture (Ed: Hacket, JB). Commonwealth

Wilson, R.T. (1989): The nutritional requirements of camel. ILCA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Series seminars 2: 171-179.

World Bank. (1993). Sudan Agricultural Sector Review-Review of Livestock Sub-sector.

Xu, Z. Y.; S. X. Yang and S, Yang. (1994). Animal Nutrition. Chinese Agricultural Publishing Co., Beijing, China, pp. 44.

Yagil, R. and Etzion, Z. (1979). Antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone in the dehydrated and rehydrated camel. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 63A: 275–278.

Yagil. R.; Etzion, Z.; Berlyne, G. M. (1975). acid-base parameters in the dehydrated camel. Tijdschrift voor Dicrgeneekunde 100, 1105-1108.

Yagil, R. (1982). camels and camel milk.FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 26, Rome.

260 Yagil, R. (1985). The Desert camel. Comparative Physiological Adaptation. Basel, Switzerland; Karger.

Yagil R. (1994). Dromedary in today's world. Research report Number 1, Deutsche Welthungerhilfe, Bonn

Yagil. R. (1985). The Desert camel. Comparative Physiological Adaptation. Basel, Switzerland; Karger.

Zaroug, Mahgoub, G. (1996). The Pastoral Sector: Present Status and Development Opportunities. Paper presented to the Agricultural Conference, Khartoum, Sudan.

Zein El-Abdin, Y; Hamza, S. M.; Hamza, G. M. (1974). A comparative study on the normal levels of protein-bound iodine in the blood of different farm animals. Egyptian Journal of Veterinary Science 11, 45-52.

261 Appendix 1Eastern Sudan trees

Latin Name Local Name Acacia albida Haraz Acacia seyal Tallih Acacia senegal Hashab Acacia tortilis Sayal Balanites aegyptiaca Heglig Boscia angustifolia Sereh Capparis decedua Tundub Combretum aculeatum Shuheit Dichrostachys cinerea Kadad Grewia tenax Goddeim, Guiera senegalensis El Gibaish Salvadora persica Arak zizyphus mauritianus Siddir Acacia nubica Laaot Acacia mellifera Kitter Prosopis juliflora Mesquite Acacia nilotica Sunnut Sclercarya birrea Homyaid Acacia etbaica Arrad, Q'arad Combretum glutinosum Hebeel Terminalia spp. Daroot Boscia senegalensis Mokhait- Korsan Cordia africana Gimbeel Khaya senegalensis Mahogany Maerua senegalensis Sereh Bauhinia rufescens Kulkul

262 Appendix 2 Eastern Sudan Grasses

Latin Name Local Name Andropogon gayanus Abu rikhis Aristida adscensionis Gau Homra Cenchrus setigerus Heskaneit Cynodon dactylon Nagila Echinochloa colona Difra Eragrostis tremula Bano, Aish, Elfar, Um Hawa Panicum turgidum Tumam, Aburokba Schoenefeldia gracilis Um Feraido, Danab Elnaga Aristida pallida Gew Um semama Blepharis ciliaris Bigheil, Siha Brachiaria spp. Umfraow Cymbopogon spp. Nal Astrochaena lachnospermum Umi Glela Indigofera bracteolata Dhasir, Dormah Sprobolus helveolus Laakh Medicago sativa Berseem Ipomoea spp Tamr Elfar, Tabar, Hantod Zornia spp. Shileni Chloris virgata Temla Pennisetum spp. Um Hareiba Cassia spp Kaoal Tribulus terrestris Dereisa Sesbania spp. Soreeb Sorghum bicolor Abu sabeieen Sorghum Stalks Wheat Straw Maize Hay

263 Appendix 3 Western Sudan Trees sampled

Latin Name Local Name Acacia albida Haraz Acacia seyal Talih Acacia senegal Hashab Acacia tortilis Sayal Balanites aegyptiaca Heglig W Boscia angustifolia Sereh Capparis decedua low feeding value Commiphora africana Gafal Dichrostachys cinerea Grewia tenax Goddeim, Guiera senegalensis El Gibaish Leptadenia pyrotechnica Marikh Salvadora persica Arak tamarindus indica Aradeib zizyphus mauritianus Siddir Acacia ehrenbergiana Salam Acacia nubica Laaot Acacia mellifera Kitter Acacia nilotica Sunnut Sclercarya birrea Homyaid Acacia etbaica Arrad, Q'arad Combretum glutinosum Hebeel Adansonia digitata Tabaldi Terminalia spp. Daroot Boscia senegalensis Korsan or Mokhait Cadaba farinosa, glandulosa Cordia africana Khaya senegalensis Mahogany Maerua senegalensis Sereh Bauhinia rufescens Kulkul

264

Appendix 4 Western Sudan Grasses

Latin Name Local Name Andropogon gayanus Abu rikhis Aristida adscensionis Gau Homra Cenchrus setigerus Heskaneit Eragrostis tremula Bano, Aish, Elfar, Um Hawa Panicum turgidum Tumam, Aburokba Schoenefeldia gracilis Um Feraido, Danab Elnaga Aristida pallida Gew Um semama Dactyloctenium aegyptium Blepharis ciliaris Bigheil, Siha Ipomoea cordofana Teber Brachiaria spp. Umfraow Cymbopogon spp. Nal Astrochaena lachnospermum Umi Glela Indigofera bracteolata Dhasir, Dormah Sprobolus helveolus Laakh Ipomoea spp Tamr Elfar, Tabar, Hantod Zornia spp. Shileni Cyperus conglomeratus Asha Chloris virgata Temla Cassia spp Kaoal Tribulus terrestris Dereisa Sesbania spp. Soreeb Sorghum Stalks

265