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The Origins and Primary Types of Groundstone

Qian Yaopeng

Keywords: origin type groundstone

Following C.T. Thomsen’s “three-period” theory, Brit- small- tradition which was characterized by ish scholar John Lubbock defined “Old ” and . The , however, did not disappear but continue “New Stone Age” based on tool manufacture to be used in a great extend. and their morphological forms. Thus this began a new In China, groundstone tools were found within ar- phase of understanding nature of . Since then, chaeological sites of transitional period from Palaeolithic with accumulation of archaeological data and progress to Neolithic and across lands from north to south. Espe- of research around the world, debates on criteria of the cially during 14,000–9,000 BP in south China, it was a beginning of Neolithic occurred frequently. In this paper, clear fact that there was a co-existence between chipped we will discuss one of these criteria: the emergence of stone tools and groundstone with grounded edges and groundstone and their primary types, on the basis of grounded perforation. Within a few of these tools, mor- current research and new data from the field of world phological types include axes, , chisels, as well as archaeology. cutting tools and drill-shape tools; however, types of axes, adzes, and chisels are dominant (Fig. 2). In addition, I. Emergence of Groundstone and Its Primary in the northeast hunters-gatherers societies where chipped Types stone tools including microblades were primary toolkits, Primary types of groundstone is defined here as those the earliest types of groundstone were also of axes, tools that occurred in the beginning and continued adzes, and chisels. throughout time. We will first examine these tools that In Vietnam, Hoa Binh-Bac Son cultures ( first emerged in different regions of the World. to Neolithic period, c.a. 10,000–5000 BP) were repre- In Japan Islands, the earliest type of groundstone sented by predominant -chapped pebble tools occurred is the with grounded edge, dated to Upper including elongated axes, short and broad axes, oval Palaeolithic around 20,000–30,000 BP. During the Jomon axes, and circular tools, as well as mortars and pestles. period (c.a. 1,000 BCE–3rd century BCE), chipped The only type of groundstone is axe with grounded edge. stone is predominant types, while groundstone type is In following prehistoric cultures, additional groundstone primarily of “stone axe” (including axe, , chisel). In type like hoes, spades, , and sickles, and other the following Yayoi period (c.a. 3rd century BCE–3rd types started to increase. century AD), with the emergence and spread of Groundstone tools vary in the different part of the agriculture, the use of groundstone types started to be World, but share some characteristics that are shown on intensive, showing new types of , , and the types of these tools and that their toolkit consisted of sword. Nevertheless, stone axes are still of primary type axes, adzes, and chisels, among which axes are mostly (Fig. 1). notable. In some areas, the primary form of these tools In Australia, stone technology in Stone Age is classi- appeared in Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. fied as the “Australia core-tool and scraper tradition” and In some parts of Japan, groundstone axes occurred along “Australia small-tool tradition,” while their subsistent with chipped-stone axes. Within Upper Palaeolithic strategy was still hunting-gathering. Within the core- cultures, such as Xiachun 下川 Culture, there were also tool and scraper tradition, axe with grounded edge ap- chipped stone tools in forms of axe-shaped, adze-shaped, peared around 22,000–18,000 BP. After 5,000 BP, this and chisel-shaped. There were large axe-type tools ex- core-tool and scraper tradition was replaced by the isted in European Mesolithic cultures. Those chipped

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Fig. 1 Major types of stone implements from late Palaeolithic to initial Jomon period in Japan 1. micro-stone tools and micro-blades 2. micro-cores and micro-flakes 3. micro-core 4. macro- heads 5. micro- 6. axes with polished edge 7. micro-stone edges 8. whet-stone with (1, 2. late Palaeolithic period; 3–8. initial Jomon period) stone tools must have been earliest forms of groundstone and open sites in the upperlands, which may not be ideal tools with edge grounded. Thereafter, grounded axes, locations for living. However, while living , adzes, chisels continued to appear in Neolithic and Palaeolithic hominids also selected seasonally open-site Bronze Age cultures. It is clear that these three types of in lowland and near lakes. At the Dela Amorta site at groundstone tools should be the so-call primary types, or Nice city of southern France, archaeological excavations basic types. reveal small structures as later spring and early summer camp settlement. During the Upper Palaeolithic, such II. Primary Types of Groundstone Tools and non- settlement camps are frequently found around Advancement of Architecture Technology the world. From those archaeological discoveries so far, Groundstone not only was one of natures of Neolithic, we come to following understanding. First, during Up- but also represented evolutionary changes in tool per Palaeolithic, human beings began to have desires to manufactures. The reason for this kind of change did not be living in the river plain and lakesides for permanent necessarily coordinate with the transition from settlement, instead of cave living. Second, Palaeolithic Palaeolithic to Neolithic; it must be relied on the way of structures were mostly likely made with animal bones, life in the Neolithic settlement. skins, and rocks. Wooden structures were relatively rare. Palaeolithic settlement are mostly limited to caves Those structures thus were not durable but rough, not

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Fig. 2 Major types of stone implements from the Late to Early Recent Epoch from the Southern Five Ridges 1. (Chenqiao 陈桥 CC020) 2. pint-end scraper (Bailiandong 白莲洞BLWS③:75) 3, 4. choppers (Zengpiyan 甑皮岩 DT5 ③:7, Liyuzui 鲤鱼嘴 T2①:1) 5–7. objects with perforations (Zengpiyan 甑皮岩 T1③:1, Liyuzui 鲤鱼嘴 T1②:6, Xianrendong 仙 人洞 T1③:56) 8. dish-shaped object (Xianrendong 仙人洞 T2③:17) 9. style I axe (Dushizai 独石仔 T3②:3) 10, 12. style II adzes (Zengpiyan 甑皮岩 BT2 ③:2, Liyuzui 鲤鱼嘴 T2 ①:2) 11, 15. style I adzes (Xianrendong 仙人洞 T3 ①:1, Bailiandong 白莲洞 BLES④:2) 13. style III adze (Chenqiao 陈桥 CC030) 14. style II axe (Zengpiyan 甑皮岩 BT1③:3) 16, 17. style III axes (Zengpiyan 甑皮岩 BT1③:4, Baozitou 豹子头 T2:2–42) 18. pestle (Xianrendong 仙人洞 T3③:12) 19. whet-stone with grooves (Xianrendong 仙人洞 T3 ③:81) (Note: 1–8. chipped stone tools, 9–19. polished stone tools) good enough for human who desire for permanent Palaeolithic structures were not ready for evolutionary settlement. Third, while it was easy to obtain animal change yet. bones for construction materials, the size and scale of the Therefore, evolutionary change in structures called structures were limited due to the size of bones; thus for new materials and technology. In Neolithic, woods

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Fig. 3 Subterranean house structures in the early Jomon period in Japan 1. Iwashitamukai A site 2. Miya-bayashi site 3, 4. Souji-yama site 5. Kacu-zaka site 6. Sendai-uchimae site 7. Maeda-kouchi site 8, 9. Omiya-no-moriura site

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Fig. 4 Shang and Zhou period stone implements from Zhongbazi 中坝子 site in Wanzhou 万州 1. core (IIT1003④:45) 2. axe (IIT0303⑥:17) 3. flake (H26:3) 4. dish-shaped implement (IIT1003④:51) 5. adze (M7:2) 6. axe (M7:3) 7. wedge (IIT0803 ④:6) 8. chisel (M7:1) became one of major construction materials. In Japan, Neolithic also indicates that the use of groundstone tools subterranean house structures were frequently found in was close associated with woodworking relating to house early Jomon period, showing a series of post moulds building. For instance, forms of groundstone tools from (Fig. 3). The ceiling and beams must also have been Yangtze River valley and southern China were compli- made of woods, indicating technological advancement cate and delicate, accordingly in this areas wooden over Palaeolithic structures. The complicity of Chinese structures were well developed. However, in the areas of

Volume 5 173 Yellow River valley, Neolithic settlements were mostly function requirement. Chipped stones were gradually underground house or subterranean house, therefore replaced with well-developed groundstones for wood- requirement for woodworking in this area is not as high working function. However, chipped stone tools still as in the south. In the Three Gorges area, cultural continue for other preferred function, co-existing with development was rather different from abovementioned groundstone in some areas. areas. In this area chipped stone existed in large quantity In West Asia, architectural technology was well de- in the Bronze Age, while groundstone was rare. Those veloped at Pre- Neolithic Jericho, Moore, and chipped stone included cores, flakes, and tools. Type Gan Ni. Da Ne sites prior to groundstone and pottery tools included choppers, circular tools, axes, knives. techniques, but that fact does not necessary that their However, groundstone tools, although few, have set of construction technique has nothing to do with axes, adze, chisels, and wedges (Fig. 4). groundstone. In West Asia, house construction was Apparently, in the views of early Neolithic groundstone applied with technique other than groundstone toolkits as well as natures of Neolithic culture diversity, woodworking. At Na Tu Fu site, clay-bricks and stone it suggests that appearance of groundstone tools was were used in house building, while clay-brick techniques closely related to woodworking and house constructions. appeared in China as later as in Longshan 龙山 Culture Thus we conclude that the emergence of groundstone around 3000 BCE. Although groundstone tool occurred tools occurred during the transition from Palaeolithic to related later in West Asia, woodworking tools like chipped Neolithic, and in accordance with demands of techno- adze and chisel developed clearly during Upper logical advancement and increase of woodworking. In Palaeolithic. Especially in the Pottery Neolithic (PNA), hunting-gathering economic subsistence, groundstone the first types of groundstone were also combination of tools were likely used for making wooden tools, whereas axes and adzes. Therefore, this also supports the view in agricultural societies, the use of groundstone tools that emergence of groundstone was association with became intensified, thus grounding technique was the house construction. dominant method of tool manufacture. As a result, types From what we have discussed above, we should arrive of groundstone become more diversified. at following conclusions: First, origins of groundstone has no direct relation to introduction of agriculture, III. Functions and Significance of Primary especially true during early stage of agricultural origins. Types Second, although criteria using groundstone emergence From the fact that those primary types of groundstone are for defining Neolithic is misinterpreted, the same is true the earliest ones to appear and continued, emergence of for original agriculture and appearance of pottery to groundstone seemed not necessarily to have relation to define Neolithic beginning. Thus, there is no single introduction of agriculture, which is exemplified by criteria to mark the beginning of Neolithic so far. Third, evidence from Japan, Australia, and West Asia. Neolithic, or New Stone Age, was created because the It is no doubt that axes, adzes, and chisels were new form of groundstone, suggesting the process of woodworking tools. During Upper Palaeolithic and cultural development－such process has been accepted Mesolithic periods, there were evidence for the existence by scholars worldwide. Thus, it is not necessary to, or of woodworking tools. In Japan, wooden specimen were could not, suggest a new term for this period. Last, from identified with worked marks from Noshiriko site in the view of origins of groundstone and their primary Naganoken (radiocarbon dating 37220 ±1240 BP). types, it is hardly to suggest that there would be a Wooden boat, paddle, and bow were recovered from “Wooden Age” prior to “Stone Age.” Even if there were European Mesolithic. Theoretically speaking, tools of likely to have wooden tools used by hominids before manufacturing wooden objects could not be wood, in- using stone tools, such “wooden tools” are not evidence stead should be harder materials like stone. Thus exist- enough to mark an “Age” featuring wooden materials. ence of chipped axes, adzes, and chisels probably func- References tioned as such tools. However, a main problem of using chipped stone tools on wood materials is that chipped 1. Jiao Tianlong 焦天龙 (1994). “Gengxinshi Mo Zhi working edge of the tools did not function well on wood. Quanxinshi Chu Linggnan Diqu de Shiqian Wenhua 更 Therefore, chipped stones with grounded edges, like 新世末至全新世出岭南地区的史前文化” (Prehistoric axes, adzes, chisels, were first appear to fit into this Cultures in the Southern Five Ridges from the Late

174 Chinese Archaeology Pleistocene to Early Recent Epoch). Kaogu Xuebao 考 he Dushi de Qiyuan 稻作·陶器和都市的起源 (Rice 古学报 1994.1. Cultivation, Pottery and the Origin of City). Beijing: 2. Shi Xingbang 石兴邦 (1989). “Xiachuan Wenhua Wenwu Chubanshe 文物出版社. Yanjiu 下川文化研究” (A Study of Xiachuan Culture). 4. Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu Kaoguxue Bianji Qingzhu Su Bingqi Kaogu Wushiwu Nian Lunwenji 庆祝 Weiyuanhui 中国大百科全书考古学编辑委员会 苏秉琦考古五十五年论文集 (Collection of Papers on (1986). Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu: Kaoguxue 中国 the 55 Years Su Bingqi in Archaeology). Beijing: Wenwu 大百科全书·考古学 (Encyclopedia of China: Chubanshe 文物出版社. Archaeology). Beijing: Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu 3. Yan Wenming 严文明 (ed.) (2000). Daozuo, Taoqi Chubanshe 中国大百科全书出版社.

Note: The original paper, published in Kaogu 考古 2004.12: 66–75 with 4 illustrations, is written by Qian Yaopeng 钱耀鹏. The summary is prepared by the original author and English-translated by Shen Chen 沈辰.

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