Invasive Species

The Resource for Semi-Arid Hydrology

Volume 6/Number 6 November/December 2007

Southwest Hydrology University of Arizona - SAHRA Invasive P.O. Box 210158-B Tucson, AZ 85721-0158

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Advisory Board Publisher David Bolin, R.G. Charles Graf, R.G. John Hoffmann South Americans, Europeans, Southeast Asians, Eurasians, and Ukranians. Immigration is an Jeff Johnson issue for more than just the human population. Non-native species—plants and invertebrates— David Jordan, P.E. are changing many ecosystems in the Southwest. Some were intentionally imported, initially Karl Kohlhoff, P.E., B.C.E.E. Stan Leake welcomed for providing benefits such as soil stabilization or control of another invader, while Ari Michelsen, Ph.D. others hitched a ride on the bottom of a ship. In their new environments, away from natural Peggy Roefer Martin Steinpress, R.G., C.HG. predators, many non-native species have proliferated, becoming invasive and crowding out native populations or otherwise upsetting the ecological balance of their adoptive homes. Printed in the USA by Spectrum Printing Company Invasive species also impact water resources and water quality, and that is the focus of this Southwest Hydrology is published six times per year by the issue’s feature articles. NSF Center for Sustainability of semi-Arid Hydrology and Riparian Areas (SAHRA), College of Engineering, The University We received many comments both praising and criticizing our last issue, on the water-energy of Arizona. Copyright 2007 by the Arizona Board of Regents. All rights reserved. Limited copies may be made for internal nexus. That was a tough issue to produce due to the myriad of perspectives, obscure and use only. Credit must be given to the publisher. Otherwise, incompatible units, and the mind-boggling intersection of gallons/KWh and KWh/gallon no part of this publication may be reproduced without prior written permission of the publisher. required just to get a drink of water or turn on a light. One reader was critical of including ISSN 1552-8383 lakes Powell and Mead evaporation in hydroelectric costs, while another thanked us for Subscriptions pointing out what a huge number it is. True enough, the lakes have many uses, and also true Subscriptions to Southwest Hydrology are free. To receive the is that some costs are often overlooked in our interdependent infrastructure. Many would magazine, contact us as shown below. consider it disingenuous to imply hydroelectricity comes without water costs, but how to Advertising Advertising rates, sizes, and contracts are available at calculate those costs?—there’s the rub. For these reasons we require authors to be specific www.swhydro.arizona.edu. Please direct ad inquiries to us about how their determinations are made and the assumptions that go into them. We welcome as shown below. Space must be reserved 50 days prior to publication date. the discussion and diverse viewpoints; please send us yours. Free Job Announcements Thanks to the contributors to this issue, and as always, to our advertisers who continue to Southwest Hydrology will publish job announcements in the Employment Opportunities section. The first 70 words for make this publication possible. each announcement is free; after that, the charge is $70 per additional 70 words. To place an ad, contact us as shown below. All announcements, of any length, may be posted on our website for no charge (www.swhydro.arizona.edu). Editorial Contribution Betsy Woodhouse, Publisher Southwest Hydrology welcomes letters and contributions of news, project summaries, product announcements, and items for The Calendar. Send submissions by mail or email as shown below. Visit www.swhydro.arizona.edu for additional guidelines for submissions. The quaggas are coming...and Arundo Web Sites and more! Can they be stopped? Check Southwest Hydrology - www.swhydro.arizona.edu out this issue’s feature articles. Cover SAHRA - www.sahra.arizona.edu illustration by Mike Buffington. CONTACT US Southwest Hydrology, The University of Arizona, SAHRA PO Box 210158-B, Tucson, AZ 85721-0158. Phone 520-626-1805. Email [email protected].

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[+1.858.546.8327] For FREE technical notes, access to web-based training 9940 Summers Ridge Road and product information, visit www.sontek.com. San Diego, California, USA Questions? E-mail: [email protected]. Inside This Issue Departments Invasive Species Invasive species invade: therein lies the problem. Floating and submerged plants such as 8 On the Ground hydrilla, water lettuce, water hyacinth, and giant salvinia form dense mats that literally • AZ town integrates water systems, cover waterways, shutting out light and restricting fl ow. Giant reed obstructs fl ood fl ows, by Robert B. Hardy crowds channels, consumes three times the water of native vegetation, and spreads fi re. • The dope on dowsing, Saltcedar thrives at the expense of native cottonwood and willow in the Southwest, particularly in the many riparian environments that have been affected by human activity. by Betsy Woodhouse The newest arrival to the area, the quagga mussel, hasn’t taken over yet, but wildlife • Aging water meters, managers and water providers need only look at the problems this mollusk has caused by Gary Woodard in the Great Lakes region to know what may await them. With all of these invaders, we’re not likely to be able to get rid of them. The best we can hope for is to manage 14 Government our ecosystems to keep the populations of newcomers in line with other species. • AZ mine issued strict WQ permit • Stockton rejects private water control • UT debates Scenic River status 18 The Quaqqas Have Arrived 26 Saltcedar Control and Riparian • Owens is declared a river Lawrence M. Riley and Rory K. Aikens Restoration—Be Careful • Record drought in CA, rains in TX Given that the quaggas are now With Generalizations • ADEQ primacy affi rmed among us, what are the little beasts Ondrea C. Hummel and Todd Caplan • EPA lists compounds for endocrine all about? Can western water Saltcedars have invaded extensive disruptor screening managers and biologists exploit their distinctive characteristics areas of riparian habitat in the West. • EPA launches tribal portal website to avoid a scenario like the Great They have been targeted for control or Lakes invasion of zebra mussels? removal based on arguments that they 16 Hydrofacts increase groundwater consumption, Southern Nevada Braces for Quaggas increase soil salinity, decrease wildlife 20 habitat quality, and proliferate after Peggy A. Roefer, David L. Johnson, fi res. But is an all-out battle to eradicate 34 R&D James F. LaBounty, and them warranted? Perhaps not. • CA peripheral canal idea revived Ronald E. Zegers • WWF weighs in on desal The recent discovery of quagga mussels 28 Native vs. Invasive Plant Water Use in • Good and bad news on pupfi sh in Lake Mead set off a fl urry of activity to assess their range and formulate the Middle Rio Grande Basin • Dust speeds distant snowmelt responses. The prolifi c quaggas Nabil Shafi ke, Salim Bawazir, and • Flushing water waste from prisons could signifi cantly impact Southern James Cleverly • Atriplex helps sequester mine metals Nevada Water Authority’s water Results of a comparison of • Truckee River Info Gateway debuts distribution system if left unchecked. evapotranspiration rates of saltcedar- dominated vegetation communities Business Directory 22 Impacts of Invasive Aquatic Plants to those of native cottonwood 38 Michael P. Masser communities in the Middle Rio and Employment Opportunities Grande Basin have implications for Invasive aquatic plants pose a salt cedar eradication programs. threat to surface waters and riparian 39 Society Page habitats. Hydrilla, water hyacinth, • NM water researchers convene water lettuce, and giant salvinia are 30 Hydrologic Changes and Riparian • UCOWR participants urged to buck prodigious growers that outcompete Forests: The Saltcedar Story status quo other species, impact water quality, and reduce native habitat. Juliet C. Stromberg • Trying to have it all in the Southwest Human alteration of streamfl ow in the Chipping Away at Arundo American Southwest seems to give People 24 a competitive edge to the non-native 40 Richard Zembal newcomer saltcedar. But where rivers • Carlon and Griggs recognized for An invasion of giant reed in Southern remain free-fl owing and perennial, River Partners accomplishments California has obstructed fl ood fl ows, native species such as cottonwoods • Stobel leaves NV for OR impacted water quality, and endangered and willows are holding their own. • Reclamation’s Rodgers retires native species; it consumes three times • Hoffmann leads USGS’s the water of native vegetation. But the concerted efforts of many are raising AZ Water Center hopes that eradication is possible. 42 Calendar Publishing Southwest Hydrology furthers SAHRA’s mission of promoting sustainable management of water resources in semi-arid regions.

This publication is supported by SAHRA (Sustainability of semi-Arid Hydrology and Riparian Areas) under the STC Program of the National Science Foundation, Agreement No. EAR-9876800. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of SAHRA or of the National Science Foundation.

Turn to Hach Environmental to get the total solution for water level monitoring. Nobody ever claimed measuring water level is a walk in the park. So Hach Environmental offers a complete line of OTT water level monitoring instruments to meet a full range of needs. Our autonomous bubbler and shaft encoder, as well as our radar level and pressure sensors are easy to install, easy to maintain and provide accurate results in unpredictable conditions. Plus, we’re backing you with the superior service and support of Hach Environmental. To learn more about how we can help make your job easier, call your local sales representative or toll-free at 1-800-949-3766 ext. 1 today. ON THE GROUND City of Cottonwood Acquires regulate strong drought management administrative costs and a tiered usage and water conservation programs. fee that covers the cost of delivering the Private Water Systems water and maintaining the water system. Robert B. Hardy – City of Cottonwood, Arizona The Acquisition Process But Cottonwood’s rate structure is unique Utilizing both uncontested condemnation The four private water companies ranged in that it includes four restricted accounts and asset purchase agreements, the City in customer meter base from about 600 to in addition to the base and usage fees. of Cottonwood, Arizona acquired four nearly 4,500; two were family-owned, one These accounts incorporate customer privately owned water systems to form an was part of a larger private water company, charges independent of usage for water integrated municipal system. The process and one was owned by a development resource development, adjudication took more than six years to complete; corporation. The acquisition process began expenses, the water conservation program, the city now operates and maintains a in 1999 after the owners expressed interest and participation costs in regional system serving approximately 10,000 in selling. Three companies were acquired associations. The highest fee is $4 per customers, including Cottonwood’s through uncontested condemnation in meter per month for the water resource 12,000 residents and an additonal 13,000 2004 and the fourth was acquired through development fund, while the lowest is 25 residents in unincorporated areas. an asset purchase agreement in 2006. As cents for the water conservation program. negotiations neared completion, the city By restricting these funds, the revenue A number of political and practical obtained revenue-bond financing and is applied only to the relevant program reasons led the city to embark on this bond ratings, adopted a rate structure, and and not mixed with other projects. complex project. The community had expanded its utility staff in preparation for been served by four different water performing maintenance, operation, and Among the many challenges of creating companies, each with separate rate billing services as of the day of closing. the new integrated system, some of the structures and policies. With few biggest were “surprises” encountered exceptions, the systems lacked fire Uncontested condemnation provided upon purchasing the water companies flow capability and emergency storage, tax advantages for the sellers, avoided “as is, where is.” Although city managers and were generally undercapitalized. sale approval hearings by the ACC, and were allowed cursory inspection of the Additionally, the private suppliers were allowed faster resolution with fewer systems and had general knowledge of not actively integrating water resource regulatory complications. However, the problems they might encounter, the development, planning for growth, or this process has high legal costs and widespread lack of maintenance of wells, taking active roles in regional water issues the system is obtained in an “as is, pumps, and water mains exceeded even such as the surface water adjudication that where is” condition, without warranty their estimates. As a result, the city had to could impact groundwater withdrawals. or representation. The asset purchase greatly accelerate the capital improvement process is more public and utilizes program to upgrade the infrastructure. City managers saw many benefits less specialized counsel, but the to acquiring the water companies, process takes longer and is subject to In spite of these challenges, the results to interconnecting the systems, and considerable last-minute maneuvering. date are impressive. The utility department expanding its utility department, which now has a staff of 16 employees with had for many years successfully operated System appraisals were obtained, a capital an annual budget of $2.1 million for a wastewater collection system and improvement program developed, and operations and $4.4 million in capital. treatment facilities. An integrated and long-term financial projections were municipally owned system would allow calculated for the initial three acquisitions The city is continuing to interconnect better growth planning and a massive and then modified when the fourth the systems and upgrade pumps, mains, capital improvement program. A single system was acquired. The city included and other facilities. These improvements municipal system also would provide the purchase price, a three-year capital have allowed Cottonwood to avoid the more local control and responsiveness improvement program, issuance costs, emergency summer water shortages to residents, with the city council—not and arsenic remediation costs in each of that had become an annual occurrence the Arizona Corporation Commission the two bond issuances. The first issue prior to the acquisitions. Other (ACC)—setting rates and hearing was valued at $14 million and the second successes include adoption of a drought complaints. Further, being a water at $20 million. The bonds are 20-year management plan, water conservation provider would increase the city’s term and rated AAA with insurance. plan, meter replacement program, ability to influence legislation and reuse program, aquifer testing, and participate in regional and state water The New System creation of a WaterCad system model. programs. The acquisition would Generally, monthly water system rate also allow the city to develop and structures include a base fee that covers Contact Robert B. Hardy at [email protected].

8 • November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology The Resource for Semi-Arid Hydrology We thank the following sponsors for their support:

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P.O. Box 210158B, Tucson, AZ 85721-0158 · visit our web site: www.swhydro.arizona.edu · 520.626.1805

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 9 ON THE GROUND (continued) Dowsing for Water and Answers alleged successes to the fact that in Tests Generally Fail many areas, groundwater is hard to miss Numerous tests to prove the validity Betsy Woodhouse – Southwest Hydrology, if the driller goes deep enough. Others University of Arizona of dowsing have been reported in the attribute dowsing successes to “ideomotor literature, and the majority indicate failure. Water witching. Dowsing. Divining. reaction,” or subconscious movement that One of the most cited was performed in Can a stick lead a man to water? Most the late 1980s involving scientists from scientists say “no way,” yet there multiple disciplines at the University of continues to be just enough anecdotal Munich (Betz, 1995). The experiment evidence of the phenomenon that the door was carefully designed to stand up to to the subject has never quite closed. scientific scrutiny, yet the outcome Dowsing is the practice of using a forked remains debated. Some say a few of the stick, bent wire, crossed metal rods, or 43 dowsers who participated showed an other devices to find groundwater. The extraordinary rate of success that could not tool is held in a two-handed position be explained statistically. Others dispute by the dowser, who then walks along that, saying the success of those particular with it extended in front of him. When dowsers was not duplicated in other water is detected, the tool—either of its tests they took, and the “extraordinary” own accord or perhaps in tune with the results were merely consistent with body or mind of the dowser—points statistical fluctuations (Enright, 1995). downward, in effect saying “drill here.” The James Randi Educational Foundation The practice is believed to be thousands (www.randi.org) offers a $1 million of years old. Some drillers in the Tucson area today regularly dowse before drilling; Howard Grahn Photo: prize to “anyone who can show, under Experienced dowser Tom Hunt shares the proper observing conditions, evidence others estimate that 15 to 20 percent power with publisher Woodhouse. of their customers, particularly in rural of any paranormal, supernatural, or areas, employ dowsers before drilling. accompanies an expectation in the mind occult power or event.” Two scientists (Raloff, 1995). In other words, the dowser from York University in Ontario In 1968, the U.S. Geological Survey consciously or unconsciously expects to designed and evaluated a test for a concluded that dowsing had no scientific find water in a certain location and causes candidate who claimed to have dowsing merit and attributed much of dowsers’ the dowsing tool to react accordingly. abilities (EEGS, 2002). The candidate failed and others have tried as well. The prize has never been awarded.

And Yet… Apart from the researchers who actively seek to prove or disprove dowsing, a number of reputable physical scientists Innovative Solutions in Hydrology have stumbled upon dowsing through a relative or friend, and, while they can’t explain it, they freely admit something happens. Among them are Groundwater an astronomer from the University of Recharge Studies Edinburgh, an electrical engineer from Mine Closure and the University of Virginia (Raloff, Reclamation Studies 1995), and an exploration geophysicist Water Resources from Stanford University. None claim Heap Leach Optimization to understand what happens, but all Vadose Zone Monitoring believe what they experienced is real. Flow and Transport Modeling

2015 N. Forbes Ave. Suite 105 Hydrologic Testing Laboratory Tucson, Arizona 85745 Doug Bates is a self-proclaimed geologist Phone: 520.628.9330 • Fax: 520.628.1122 and water diviner who uses his combined www.geosystemsanalysis.com abilities in an apparently successful consulting company, GeoDivining

10 • November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology International (www.geodivining.com) zones. J. Sci. Expl., 9(1), www. FastTimes, Feb. 2002. in Scotland. According to Bates, scientificexploration.org/jse/articles/betz/ Raloff, Janet, 1995. Dowsing expectations: New betz_toc.html reports reawaken scientific controversy over divining is a phenomenon “that can Enright, J.T., 1995. Water dowsing: The Scheunen water witching, Science News 148(6): 90. not be adequately explained within experiments, Naturwissenschaften, 82(8): 360-369. USGS, 1968. Water Dowsing. General interest our present framework of scientific Environmental and Engineering Geophysical publication, pubs.usgs.gov/gip/water_dowsing/ Society (EEGS), 2002. Dowser put to test, pdf/water_dowsing.pdf. understanding,” yet his website offers a discourse on what is understood and how divining may work.

OK, Let’s Try It Southwest Hydrology set out to do its own investigation of dowsing. We met with Tom Hunt, a dowser in demand in the Tucson Environmental and Water Resources Software area. Now retired, he spent his career 100+ Proven Software Solutions in real estate, but about 35 years ago, a family friend visited, demonstrated his own dowsing ability, and Hunt tried it and felt Surface-water GMS Automated H&H V. MODFLOW the tug of water. Now there are drillers in HGA southern Arizona who won’t site a well Flood Hydrology Water Quality GW Vistas without first calling him. Hunt claims Coastal Circulation & Waves SVE-3D River & Bay Hydrodynamics FEFLOW to have found water in many locations AquiferTest where no one else was able to. And Aquiferwin32 while he doesn’t make a living at it, he Geotechnical Multimed Borehole Logging sometimes accepts payment for his work. Gflow Site Characterization SVFlux Slope Stability Argus ONE Hunt freely calls the process “snake Soil Analysis MODRET oil” magic. He doesn’t know how it MINTEQA2 works—he just knows it does. We had Groundwater SMS 2D/3D Flow & Transport RIVERMorph him demonstrate in an area he was quite Bioremediation WMS familiar with: his yard. He used both Soil Vapor Vflo a forked stick (green mesquite) and a Aquifer Pump Testing MIDUSS Multi-phase Flow & Transport AquaDyn bent wire. They both readily bobbed Risk Assessment AQUASEA down. Could a skeptical hydrologist- Visualization & Animation 3D Master publisher get the same result? Apparently gINT WinLog she doesn’t have the touch. However, Air Pollution QuickLog when Hunt held one end of the rod and Air Dispersion Galena Accidental Toxic Release the publisher held the other, and the Surfer Roadway Pollution Grapher two held their free hands together, the Risk Management Planning Voxler pull was too strong for the publisher EVS to resist. What’s up with that? ChemPoint Visualization ISC-Aermod Surface/Terrain Modeling SLAB View Articles published in nearly every decade Advanced Site Graphics CALRoads of the past century can be found purporting GIS CALPuff to clarify the status of dowsing—and Graphing GWN-COGO Geostatistics yet they do not. Add this one to the pile. SoilVision Many more... From a hard science perspective, dowsing is without merit. But enough scientists Low-Price Guarantee & Free Shipping! and skeptics have either experienced or Get the best software to save time and money on your projects! witnessed the phenomenon that it seems Call or visit our website for more information and price quotes. dowsers will continue to be in demand. 1 866 620 9214 References 1 801 208 3011 Betz, H.D., 1995. Unconventional water detection: www.scientificsoftwaregroup.com Field test of the dowsing technique in dry

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 11 ON THE GROUND (continued) When Water Meters Grow Old Metro Water established a goal of having gpm) accounted for 22.5 percent. Flow no meters older than 10 years, as estimated rates above 2 gpm accounted for 66.5 Gary Woodard – SAHRA, University of Arizona by cumulative flow. A replacement percent of usage. Based on these findings, Two Arizona water utilities recently reported program began in 2000 and ran for 2.5 on studies of aging residential water meters years, during which time 9,300 3/4-inch Metro Water estimates its meter recovery that were conducted to 1) predict which and 1-inch meters were replaced, 63 program cost $378,000 but increased meters are most likely to be inaccurate, and percent of the meters in that size range. revenues by $1.7 million, for a net savings 2) develop cost-effective, proactive water- of $1.3 million. In addition, apparent meter replacement programs. Metropolitan Meter accuracy tests were performed on system losses declined from around 10 Domestic Water Improvement District 381 of the replaced meters, or 4 percent percent to around 5 percent. Metro Water of Tucson (Metro Water) and the City of the total. The tests were made at three estimates the ideal replacement age for of Phoenix Water Department (Phoenix flow rates, as defined by AWWA Standard its 3/4-inch meters to be 10.9 years. Water) focused primarily on 3/4-inch C700: low (0.25 gallons per minute), Phoenix Water: Manufacturer Matters residential water meters, the predominant medium (2 gpm), and high (15 gpm). In 2006, Phoenix Water randomly replaced meter size in their service areas. The results (see chart below) revealed 2,012 3/4-inch residential meters installed accuracy declining by 2.7 percent per before 2001. The pulled meters were tested As they age, most water meters eventually million gallons cumulative flow at low for accuracy at the three AWWA-defined begin to underrecord flows, particularly at flow rates, 0.5 percent per million gallons flow rates, plus a very low flow rate of low flow rates. Often, the meters’ rotors at medium flow rates, and 0.7 percent 0.125 gpm. The initial findings were: fail to turn at all until a minimum flow rate per million gallons at high flow rates. is reached; over time, that minimum rate • for high-volume flows, only 10 were increases. As a result, low flows may go Financial impacts of inaccurate meters, less than 80 percent accurate, of unmetered, while moderate and high flows and therefore the optimal meter which six registered no flow at all; continue to be metered with fair accuracy. replacement schedule, depend on the costs of meter replacement, the price of • for medium flows, 36 meters were This authorized but unbilled consumption water, and the relative amounts of water less than 80 percent accurate, has several negative effects, including lost delivered to customers at various flow including 18 showing no flow; utility revenues, erroneously high estimates rates. Replacing Metro Water’s meters • for low volumes, 306 meters were less of system losses, inequitable cost sharing cost $28 for each new meter plus $17 than 80 percent accurate, including 196 among customers, and misleadingly in labor and travel, or $45 per meter. with no flow; low per-capita water consumption rates. • for extra-low volume, 455 meters were Additionally, if inaccurate meters are In a separate test, Metro Water logged 171 geographically clustered, studies of water less than 80 percent accurate, including customer meters for a minimum of one 315 with no flow. use trends and conservation program week to determine water usage by flow effectiveness can be impacted. rate. Low flows accounted for 11 percent Early attempts to correlate meter accuracy of usage, while medium flows (0.25 to 2.0 Research by the American Water Works with age and cumulative flow were

Association indicates meter accuracy drops 105 significantly after 1,000 Ccf passes through the meter (one Ccf equals 100 cubic feet 103 or 748 gallons). For many utilities, the 101 majority of their meters have exceeded this 99 milestone, including 58 percent of the 3/4- 97 inch meters in Phoenix Water’s service area. 95

Metro Water: Age Matters 93 Metro Water’s study began in 1999. The 91 Linear (HighFlow) district serves 17,000 customers, and Linear (MediumFlow) Meter Accuracy (%) averaged 8.3 percent system losses between 89 Linear (LowFlow)

1993 and 1999. A sample of 10 meters 87 revealed a good correlation between total 85 water metered and decreased accuracy at 0.000 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 low flow rates. Based on these findings, Cumulative Flow (Millions of Gallons) Accuracy of Metro Water’s 3/4-inch meters as a function of flow rate and cumulative volume metered.

12 • November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology unsuccessful; some older 100 estimates replacement meters actually performed 90 costs to be $45 for a new more accurately than some meter plus $45 to $50 80 newer ones (see chart, next for labor, for a total of 70 page). Only when meter $90 to $95. The payback manufacturers were taken 60 period for replacing Kent into account did the data 50 meters is only one year. make sense; nearly all the 40 meters were from one of 30 High Phoenix Water has Medium four manufacturers. Overall, Meter Accuracy (%) 20 Low developed a meter Extra Low Badger and ABS meters 10 replacement plan that uses its accuracy were 98 percent accurate, 0 while Kent meters (no model to prioritize longer manufactured) were 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 meter replacement. Year of Installation only 82 percent accurate. Accuracy of Phoenix Water’s 3/4-inch meters as a function of flow rate and year The three-year plan There were not enough installed. calls for spending $1.2 Rockwell meters to draw million per year to any firm conclusions on their accuracy. Phoenix Water assumes residential water remove the backlog of underperforming usage to be 16 percent low flows, 67 meters, initially concentrating on After accounting for manufacturer, Phoenix percent intermediate flows, and 17 percent replacing approximately 30,000 Kent Water found the correlation between high flows. Based on this assumption, meters in the system. The utility expects meter age or total volume metered and annual revenue losses per meter due to a payback period of less than two years. accuracy to be relatively weak, averaging underrecording were about $12 for the Contact Chris Hill at Mero Water at 0.45 percent per 1,000 Ccf cumulative typical Badger or ABS meter, but a startling [email protected] and Andy Terrey at Phoenix flow and 0.10 percent per year. $94.07 for Kent meters. Phoenix Water Water at [email protected].

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November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 13 GOVERNMENT First Sulfate Restriction Issued selenium and lead, as well as nitrate, Court ruled in favor of the plaintiffs, in AZ Mine Permit benzene, and radiochemicals such as calling for the city to end the contract gross alpha particle activity, radium-226, for water and sewer services. Last Last summer, the Arizona Department and radium-228. January, the city council voted to appeal of Environmental Quality (ADEQ) • maintain about $18 million in financial the court’s decision, but July’s vote issued a strict water quality permit, assurance, the highest amount ever required the appeal to be withdrawn. known as an aquifer protection permit required in Arizona; (APP), for the Phelps Dodge Sierrita The Stockton Record reported that the • characterize and mitigate the sulfate copper mine in southern Arizona. city and OMI-Thames “struck a partial plume, conduct an inventory of wells settlement in which the company will in the area, and ensure that drinking The permit provides stringent new finish upgrading the city’s sewer plant water provided to area residents meets protections for groundwater in the and will pay the city about $2.1 million all applicable drinking water standards; area, including a 250 parts-per-million to settle outstanding issues before (ppm) limit for sulfate in drinking water • conduct quarterly water quality leaving Stockton.” Public operation affected by the mine’s operations, the sampling and keep community members and management of the water systems first sulfate restriction that ADEQ has informed of the company’s activities. will resume by March 1, 2008. ever imposed in a water quality permit. The permit is available at www.azdeq.gov/download/ Visit www.sierraclub.org and www.recordnet.com. sierrapermit.pdf. Elevated sulfate levels attributable to the mine have been identified in groundwater Utah Debates Scenic samples from area wells. Although sulfate Stockton Rejects Private is considered a nonhazardous substance Water Control River Status in water and is not regulated under While Utah is home to five national In July, the city council of Stockton, federal or state law, ingestion of water parks and six national forests, it is California, voted unanimously to containing levels of sulfate exceeding one of just 12 states with no federally regain control of its water systems and 250 ppm can cause health problems. designated Wild and Scenic rivers. The terminate its contract for services with Deseret Morning News reported that for Other aspects of the permit require private water giant OMI-Thames. The the past year, U.S. Forest Service and that the mine: $600 million, 20-year water contract was the largest of its kind in the West, Bureau of Land Management personnel • implement pollution controls at all according to a Sierra Club news release. have been reviewing about 2,000 miles of its discharging facilities. Potential and 230 segments of rivers in the pollutants at the mine include metals Stockton’s residents were opposed to state to identify those which might be such as arsenic, copper, chromium, private management from the beginning; presented to Congress for designation. their fight to regain control was featured in the documentary film “Thirst: Fighting the The 1968 Wild and Scenic Rivers Act Corporate Theft of Our Water.” In 2003, provides for the protection of free-flowing The Resource for Semi-Arid Hydrology they voted to approve a measure requiring rivers with important scenic, recreational, a public vote to determine whether water fish and wildlife, and other values. The services would be privatized, but the act prohibits construction of a dam, vote came less than two weeks after the water conduit, reservoir, powerhouse, Visit www.swhydro.arizona.edu to: city already signed the deal with OMI- or other power-related works on or browse all back issues and find Thames. The citizens’ primary concern directly affecting rivers in the National specific articles in the archive was that private water management Wild and Scenic Rivers System. swhydro.arizona.edu/archive/ would bring greater environmental impacts to the surrounding delta. In Utah, as in other western states, water find out how to advertise is scarce and past efforts to introduce swhydro.arizona.edu/advertise.html The Concerned Citizens Coalition, the Wild and Scenic designations have been view current job announcements Sierra Club, and the League of Women defeated by those hesitant to restrict swhydro.arizona.edu/jobs.html Voters of San Joaquin County jointly how water might be used in the future. appealed to the courts on the grounds that Summit, Wasatch, and Utah county learn about upcoming events the city did not abide by environmental officials jointly sent a letter to the Forest swhydro.arizona.edu/calendar.html requirements before signing the contract. Service in June, requesting that none The San Joaquin County Superior of the segments in those counties be

14 • November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology considered for inclusion in the system, again be levied if the flow or monitoring records began 170 years ago in 1877, the Morning News said. Their argument requirements are not met in the future. the National Weather Service reported, was that many of the segments in that area with just 3.21 inches of rain falling. The Visit www.latimes.com. already are protected through the National average precipitation for Los Angeles Wilderness Preservation System, and is 15.14 inches, and the previous record adding another designation would require SoCal Shrivels Under Record low was 4.42 inches during 2001-2002. more resources to maintain the area, as Dry Conditions It was the first year in which there was it would likely draw more people there. not a single month with at least one inch July 1, 2006 through June 30, 2007 was Meanwhile, environmentalists and the driest year in Los Angeles since continued on next page recreationalists, including the Utah Rivers Council, are embracing the possibility that waterways in the state that they particularly value will be protected for onset® the future.

Visit www.fs.fed.us/r4/rivers and www.deseretnews.com. Get a FREE White Paper Owens Update: It’s a River 5 Considerations in In the ongoing effort to restore flow in the Lower Owens River in eastern-central Choosing a Water Level Logger California, an Inyo County judge declared in July that the “Lower Owens River is a river,” reported the Los Angeles Times, and the $5,000-a-day fine imposed on the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power A new white paper from (LADWP) for failing to meet earlier flow Onset offers valuable deadlines was lifted. Penalties had reached about $3.3 million, according to the Times. tips on evaluating water level data loggers, and LADWP began diverting flow back into the Lower Owens River last December, points out key factors 93 years after the city began diverting to be aware of during the water away from it to supply its growing population (see Southwest Hydrology, product selection process. March/April 2007). The recent judicial ruling recognized that a discharge of 40 cubic feet per second or greater now is being maintained in the channel, as verified by 10 flow-measuring stations. These conditions were among the Download today at provisions for restoration specified in a www.onsetcomp.com/swh 1997 Memorandum of Understanding between LADWP, Inyo County, the or call 1-800-LOGGERS. California Department of Fish and Game, the State Lands Commission, the Owens Valley Committee, and the Sierra Club. ®

While the court ruling was welcome news to LADWP, the city still faces lawsuits filed by environmentalists, said the Times. Further, penalties will

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 15 GOVERNMENT (continued) of rain; the maximum rainfall was just the Carrizo Aquifer that is used when rules in order to maintain the state’s 0.5 inches, on April 20. Warm, dry Santa the karstic Edwards Aquifer, SAWS’ primary enforcement authority of the Ana winds, which typically blow 30 days primary water source, is overflowing. federal Safe Drinking Water Act. In this of the year, were observed on more than Water is injected from the Edwards into new rulemaking process, many of the 100 days, keeping firefighters on high the Carrizo for later use when needed. state’s current drinking water rules will alert. The Los Angeles Times reported that be repealed or restructured to incorporate Visit www.bizjournals.com/sanantonio/. the eastern Sierra, the source of about the federal National Primary Drinking half the city’s water supply, recorded its Water Regulations by reference. second-lowest snowpack ever, and the ADEQ Primacy Affirmed Colorado River entered its eighth year of This action will update the state drought. However, reservoirs filled from In June, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld drinking water regulations so that the previous year of high precipitation the authority of the Arizona Department they are as stringent as the federal kept water supply concerns relatively low, of Environmental Quality (ADEQ) rules rather than restating the federal although residents are urged to cut their to operate the National Pollutant regulations. The aim is to reduce the water usage by 10 percent. Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) potential for conflict between state Permit Program at the state level. and federal laws and ensure Arizona Visit www.weather.gov/climate/local_data. retains jurisdiction to implement the php?wfo=lox and www.latimes.com. Arizona has administered the Arizona Safe Drinking Water Act. Incorporation Pollutant Discharge Elimination System by reference will also facilitate review (AZPDES) program since December Texas Receives Record Rainfall and approval of Arizona’s rules by 2002 under a delegation agreement applicable state and federal entities. While California remained parched with the U.S. EPA. But in early 2003, over the summer, some areas of Texas ADEQ’s authority to administer the Visit www.azdeq.gov/environ/water/dw/rules.html. received more than 300 percent of normal program was challenged by Defenders precipitation. Although the weather of Wildlife and the Center for Biological caused huge problems for many, the Diversity in federal court. The plaintiffs EPA Releases List of San Antonio Business Journal reported claimed the state’s program would not Compounds to Screen for that the San Antonio Water System enforce endangered species regulations Endocrine Disruption (SAWS) used the opportunity to store as as thoroughly as federal statutes. much water as it could for the future. In June, the U.S. EPA released a list The court proceedings were monitored of 73 chemicals that are the first to According to the newspaper, SAWS by other states who feared similar be considered for screening under the estimated it would store nearly 42,000 legal challenges if the environmental 1996 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic acre-feet in its Twin Oaks Aquifer Storage interests won, however the recent ruling Act. The act required EPA to initiate an and Recovery and Water Treatment affirms ADEQ’s authority in this area. endocrine disruptor screening program Facility by the end of the year. The (EDSP) to screen pesticide chemicals facility is an underground reservoir in Meanwhile, ADEQ is working on a major and environmental contaminants for revision of Arizona’s drinking water their potential to affect the endocrine HydroFacts systems of humans and wildlife. Endocrine disruptor screening is currently Cartographic alterations in the 2007 edition of The Times Comprehensive Atlas of the proceeding on three fronts: 1) scientific World attributed to climate change: and technical testing to validate the Percent reduction in Aral Sea since 1967: 75 endocrine disruptor screens and tests; Percent reduction in Lake Chad since 1963: 95 2) setting priorities for selecting chemicals Decline in the Dead Sea since 1957, in feet: 82 for initial screening and testing; and Major rivers no longer reliably reaching the sea or drying out in summer: 3) developing the policies and procedures Rio Grande, Colorado, Yellow, Tigris the agency will use to require testing. Percent of coral reefs destroyed or degraded in recent decades: 40 In June 2007, EPA published a Number of U.S. Earth-observing satellites: 42 prepublication Federal Register notice Number predicted by 2010: 25 announcing the draft list of 69 pesticides Percent change in NASA’s earth-science budget, 2000-2006: -30 (Source: National Resource Council) and four inerts used in pesticides to be considered for screening under the

16 • November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. known to be endocrine disruptors to tribal environmental information and The 73 chemicals are to be screened be a waste of time and resources. data through a single access point. under Tier 1 of the program. Furthermore, said the article, some The portal is part of EPA’s effort to Comments were due to EPA in mid- of the pesticides themselves may not strengthen its partnership with Indian September. After reviewing the impact endocrine activity, but their tribes and governments to protect human comments, EPA will issue a second metabolites may, and that impact would health and the environment. The new Federal Register notice containing the be missed by the proposed screening cross-agency website allows EPA to final list of chemicals. Nothing in the process. Other critics pointed out consolidate and share environmental approach for generating the initial list that single-compound assays will not information reflecting tribal perspectives provides a basis to infer that any of the address the multicompound exposures and needs into a central, easy-to- chemicals selected interfere with or are most people receive, and questioned navigate structure. Various EPA suspected to interfere with the endocrine whether the assays would be sensitive programs, such as enforcement, waste, systems of humans or other species. enough to detect low-dose exposures. underground storage tanks, and water are also consolidating their tribal Visit www.epa.gov/scipoly/oscpendo/ and pubs.acs. The list was released eight years late and org/subscribe/journals/esthag-w/2007/july/policy/ information through this website. leaves much to be desired, according nl_endocrine.html to a July 3 article in Environmental Main categories on the portal include basic information (executive orders, Science and Technology Online. EPA Launches Tribal Researchers cited in the article said the EPA Indian policies, presidential list appears unbiased for not favoring Portal Website documents, newsletters), grants and funding, laws and regulations, tribal business interests, but considered In July, the U.S. EPA launched the programs, and tribal contacts. the subjection to screening of many first-of-its-kind portal website to help compounds widely and generally tribal communities and the public find Visit www.epa.gov/tribalportal.

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November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 17 Lawrence M. Riley and Rory K. Aikens – Arizona Game and Fish Department

or more than a decade, a small but the canal during scheduled outages last Quagga and zebra mussels have already wary group of scientists have been summer did not reveal any additional caused multimillion-dollar problems in Fpreparing for an invasion everyone quaggas. But their presence in the CAP the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River hoped would never happen: the infestation implies a direct path to Lake Pleasant in Basin. They often settle in massive colonies of an aquatic nuisance species such as central Arizona, connected to CAP, and the that can block water intakes and threaten zebra mussels in our western waters, potential for spread to nearby reservoirs. to affect municipal water supplies and especially the giant reservoirs along the Elsewhere, adult quagga mussels agricultural irrigation and power plant Colorado River. Most scientists thought have been reported in the Colorado operations. In the Southwest, a region the odds of these mussels making the River Aqueduct in California and an dependent upon irrigation, hydropower, 1,000-mile journey from the Great Lakes interconnected reservoir near San Diego. and municipal transmission, these mussels were fairly remote, but recognized that could impair water conveyance efficiency large boats from the Midwest routinely Monitoring for the presence of adult zebra by increasing roughness in canals and are brought to lakes Powell and Mead and quagga mussels has been ongoing distribution lines. Small apertures, such as on the Colorado River, making those for a number of years on a dispersed small-diameter intakes, irrigation lines, and the most likely places of introduction. basis. But strategies are now shifting to cooling water lines, could be susceptible earlier detection techniques, including to blockage. Congressional researchers Theory and speculation made way for monitoring for veligers, or quagga larvae, estimated that zebra mussels alone cost an unwelcome reality this year. On in concentrated plankton collections industries, businesses, and communities Jan. 6, 2007, a diver at the Las Vegas from 1,000-liter water samples. more than $5 billion from 1993 to 1999. Boat Harbor in Lake Mead discovered quagga mussels, a relative of the zebra Veliger monitoring at Lake Powell Quaggas are efficient filter feeders that mussel, on a submerged anchor cable. prompted announcement of their consume large amounts of plankton, Within a few weeks, they were discovered detection there in mid-August. However, removing it from the water and potentially in lakes Havasu and Mohave further no adult mussels had been found as of causing shifts in the ecological balance of downstream. Then they were detected September, and some uncertainty remains lakes. Their feeding habits often increase at the intakes for the Central Arizona regarding their identification. It is hoped water clarity, favoring different species. Project (CAP) and the Colorado River that further investigation will resolve Some evidence suggests that quaggas may Aqueduct. They were quickly determined this uncertainty soon, and clarify the act as bioconcentrators of contaminants to be widespread, although their process of veliger monitoring in lakes like heavy metals; it is unknown if they numbers were not large everywhere. as yet unoccupied by quagga mussels. become a sink for these contaminants or if they facilitate cycling and transfer of In August 2007, a single adult quagga Why the Concern? them back into the wildlife food chain. was collected from a monitoring device in Dreissena species, including the closely the CAP aqueduct near Phoenix. Its size related zebra and quagga mussels, are less Quaggas don’t pose a public health threat, implied a single season of growth. While than an inch long but reproduce by the but can change the water taste and odor. scientists expected larvae to move into millions. These rapidly spreading invaders As selective feeders, they can favor blue- and through the aqueduct, they hoped the can coat nearly every available surface, green alga, which may affect taste and high-velocity environment would prove clog pipelines, damage machinery, harm perceived quality of the water. In addition, inhospitable. Inspections of distribution fishery resources, change ecosystems, treatment to deter settlement of quagga lines, canal surfaces, and siphons on and foul water with their waste. mussels in conveyance facilities often

18 • November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology includes chlorination, which affects the Subtle differences in shell morphology Chlorination and use of potassium taste and odor of water, or use of potassium appear to make zebra mussels more permanganate are the most common permanganate, which can impart coloration. adept at “stacking,” a behavior that treatments for localized control of quagga exacerbates the problems those mussels and zebra mussels on equipment and in The Quagga Lifestyle cause in clogging water distribution water distribution systems. However, the Quaggas live three to five years, and systems. Thus, we may be fortunate to amount of chlorine needed for mussel a single female can produce up to a have “only” quaggas so far, but continued control in very large conveyance systems million eggs each year. The fertilized vigilance for zebra mussels is critical. may be costly and create other challenges. eggs become veligers that are carried in Nevertheless, alertness to the presence the water current for around three weeks Can They Be Controlled? of quagga mussels and preventative before settling and becoming adults. Quaggas and zebras do have predators maintenance of facilities is necessary. in western waters. A few resident fish Quaggas can colonize both hard and The Arizona Game and Fish Department species, such as the redear sunfish, will soft substrates, but prosper on rocky is collaborating with the Central Arizona likely feed upon adults, as will some bottoms and hard surfaces. They live Project, Salt River Project, several federal waterfowl. Many fish may feed upon in waters ranging from warm and agencies, and Nevada and California the larvae. However, it is unlikely that shallow to deep and cold, but seem to state agencies to actively monitor the predators will control mussel populations. prefer deeper water. In Lake Mead, movement of quagga mussels in the they have been found at depths greater Eradication of existing populations seems West. The agencies have also launched than 100 feet. Quaggas appear to avoid unlikely at this point. The State of Virginia publicity campaigns on the importance light, preferring deep shaded areas, successfully eradicated the zebra mussels of adopting best practices to stop making their detection more difficult. from an isolated quarry using potassium hitchhiking plants and animals. We may not be able to prevent the spread of salts, which proved lethal to the mussels Rays of Hope? quagga mussels, but public awareness while the remaining aquatic wildlife were Some scientists see a slim ray of hope that and action can help slow it down. unharmed. However, the transfer in scale we might escape a massive, Great Lakes- from a small quarry to Lake Mead is huge. Contact Larry Riley at [email protected]. style invasion. Because the Colorado River reservoirs are not as nutrient-rich as the Great Lakes, some think quaggas might not reproduce as prolifically or reach similar densities. Unfortunately, evidence from the Colorado River suggests that their populations are on a definite upswing.

Reservoirs such as Lake Mead stratify during summer months, developing zones of lower oxygen levels in deeper waters. Although the dissolved oxygen level in Lake Mead never reaches the point of lethality for the quaggas, it might slow their reproduction. Similarly, winter water temperatures in the reservoir may fall sufficiently to slow, but not stop, reproduction.

Arizona rivers may be less susceptible to quagga mussels than its lakes. While quaggas have proliferated in the Great Lakes, they have not entered into river systems there the way zebra mussels have. A recent risk assessment conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey for the Colorado River in Grand Canyon suggests that velocity and turbidity attributable to suspended inorganic material may make that area less hospitable to quagga occupation.

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 19 Southern Nevada Braces for Quaggas

Peggy A. Roefer, David L. Johnson, James F. LaBounty, and Ronald E. Zegers – Southern Nevada Water Authority he discovery in January 2007 of biological features of quagga mussels. Mead. The objective is to prevent a small striped mussel in Lake SNWA personnel worked with experts live mussels from attaching or being TMead was met with dread. Once experienced with quagga mussels in transported throughout the treatment the creature was positively identified by the Great Lakes region to formulate an system. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service experts as a quagga mussel (Dreissena bugensis), Experts familiar with the SNWA’s first activity following the the event marked the first recorded discovery of quagga mussels was to occurrence of the mollusk in the western Great Lakes invasion inspect the two drinking water intake United States. Water and wildlife managers agree that this situation pipes in Lake Mead. The first intake throughout the Southwest were well aware could be devastating was constructed in the 1970s. It exits of the havoc the mussels have already the rock face of Saddle Island about 80 created in the Great Lakes and Mississippi to the ecology feet below the water surface and extends River Basin due to blocked water intake and infrastructure to a depth of 130 feet. The second intake pipes and other physical and biological was constructed in the 1990s and is impacts. Now it was time for action. of the region. also at a depth of 130 feet. At first, divers found quagga mussels on the Immediately, all affected local, state, and steel pipe of the older intake from federal agencies began inspections of their depths of 80 feet (where the pipe exits infrastructure for quagga mussels. The the rock wall) to 90 feet. No mussels were extent of the infestation was evaluated found below 90 feet. Later inspections visually through weeks of diver surveys of the older intake in July 2007 revealed and collection of water samples in search that the density and extent of mussels of veligers, the free-floating immature had increased. Many were now found at form of quaggas. Numerous meetings of depths of 30 to 60 feet, with very few expert scientists and resource managers on the bar screens of the intake pipes. were held to develop a response plan to this potentially disastrous invasion. Scientists from SNWA and Metropolitan Water District of Southern California Southern Nevada Water Authority are conducting a joint investigation to (SNWA) personnel are active participants determine veliger settling rates and adult in this effort due to the potential risk to growth rates. Last July, 24 concrete drinking water intake facilities in Lake blocks were placed adjacent to the intake Mead. SNWA is the drinking water structures. Every other month, SNWA wholesaler for the Las Vegas Valley; 80 will remove two blocks and count and percent of the area’s drinking water is weigh the mussels. These investigations withdrawn from Lake Mead at Saddle Photo: David Kushner Photo: are being performed to determine the rate Island in Boulder Basin (see map). Quagga mussels observed at Sentinel Island in and magnitude of the infestation. This If the quaggas become as prolific as the Boulder Basin on 2/23/07. Photo courtesy information will be used to help SNWA of the 100th Meridian Initiative. their Great Lakes counterparts, their plan for future infrastructure construction abundance in untreated water facilities efficient and practical response program, in Lake Mead and to monitor water quality could significantly change SNWA’s including developing strategies at the aspects associated with the invasion. ability to pump water from Lake Mead. treatment plants that would disable veligers upon entering. This includes designing To determine the mussel growth potential Short-Term Response necessary alterations to the water intake from water entering the drinking water Short-term responses by SNWA focused infrastructure, including points where treatment plants, veligers were counted on determining the extent of infestation chlorine or other disinfectants can be in a known quantity of water. Veligers and gathering information about injected in the intake tunnel out in Lake were not detected in the January 2007

20 • November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology 450 samples, but reached Echo Bay AM the greatest abundance 400 so far (3.4 per liter) in deep tow Sandy Point J 350 May and were slightly shallow tow Temple Bar Hoover Dam less abundant in June. MJ MA MJ J 300

Willow Beach Marina Another study to determine M AMJJ 250 veliger numbers in lakes 200 Placer Cove Mead and Mohave was MA MJ J initiated in March 2007 150

by scientists from the U.S. per liter veligers Cottonwood Cove Bureau of Reclamation, with MA MJ J 100 funding from the National 50 Park Service. Monthly Katherine Landing 0 samples are collected from MA MJ J four locations each in the Locations of quagga mussel counts in the Las Vegas area (left), and their abundance as determined in monthly veliger two lakes. Results show that counts from May through July 2007. veligers are now found in since very little sampling of it has ever Population growth in 2007 has so far been every basin of Lake Mead and throughout been done. This deep portion of Lake explosive (see plots above). Experts familiar Lake Mohave. To date, the greatest Mead could be the most impacted by with the zebra/quagga invasion of the Great numbers in Lake Mead were observed quagga mussels, since zebra and quagga Lakes agree that this situation could be in May 2007, but they have continued to mussels are suspected of accumulating devastating to the ecology and infrastructure increase at most locations in Lake Mohave. organic materials in certain benthic regions of the region. SNWA is an active participant of the Great Lakes. Biologists are also in eradication efforts in order to protect In the continuing effort to find strategies tracking changes in water quality, and have the drinking water infrastructure. to control impacts of quaggas to already noted that smaller zooplankton Contact Peggy Roefer at [email protected]. SNWA’s intakes, engineering consultants are disappearing from the water column are evaluating treatment options for as the veliger abundance increases. controlling the mussels before they can Additional investigations will include Hydrogeologists Needed process evaluations of chemical control Water Management Consultants is an measures that have been employed at international company providing specialized services in groundwater, surface water, other facilities and studies to determine geochemistry and engineering. how quagga mussels in Lake Mead The company is expanding rapidly and has an respond to doses of various disinfecting interesting and challenging portfolio of projects in the US. Excellent experience and career chemicals. The objective is to eliminate development is offered to motivated individuals, any possibility of veligers or mussels together with competitive salary and benefits. Suitable candidates are sought for the following being able to attach in the internal vacancies, based in our Tucson, Reno, and infrastructure. Many features of the Denver Offices: treatment facilities use small-diameter Senior Hydrogeologist pipes and untreated water to cool water A minimum of 7 year experience with a Masters Photo: SNWA Photo: Degree in Hydrology or closely related Quagga mussels beginning to attach and pile for pumps and pump motors and for air discipline. Skills in numerical groundwater flow up on a pipe in Lake Mead. conditioning units. The smooth functioning modeling would be a strong advantage. infiltrate the water treatment plants. of pumps and valves within the treatment Staff and Project Hydrogeologists Graduate through 4 years experience, with a In July 2007, chlorine application in process would be negatively impacted Masters Degree in Hydrology or closely related the intake tunnel of the newer intake by the attachment of large numbers of discipline. Strong ability in numerical and analytical hydrogeology and a willingness to began, and plans are underway to mussels. SNWA is developing permanent participate in field programs. do the same in the older intake. disinfection capabilities and modifying For further information or to arrange an infrastructure to respond to this invasion. interview please contact Piccola Dowling: Telephone: 520 319-0725 Long-Term Response Email: [email protected] 3845 N Business Center Drive, Suite 107 SNWA’s long-term needs are in Uncertain Future Tucson, Arizona, 85705. the areas of biological monitoring, Although quagga mussels were discovered research, and treatment/control. in early January, they were likely introduced to Lake Mead in 2004 or 2005, based on One need is to investigate the benthic the number of larger individuals versus the (lake bottom) environment of Lake Mead, far greater number of small individuals.

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 21 S T C F A P O

M Invasive Aquatic Plants

I Water lettuce clogs a water supply canal Michael P. Masser – Texas A&M University in the Rio Grande Valley in Texas. any people are aware of the gardening. In the Southwest, hydrilla, and water lettuce was brought to Florida threats of invasive species water hyacinth, water lettuce, and giant by early Spanish settlers of St. Augustine Mdue to media attention to salvinia pose problems in public and in the 1500s. Giant salvinia is a fern (not “killer bees,” fire ants, and zebra mussels, private waters and water transport systems. a flowering plant like the others) first to name a few. However, most do not documented in South Carolina in 1995, recognize the significant problems Hydrilla is a submerged or underwater probably introduced from tropical water associated with invasive aquatic plants. plant native to Southeast Asia. The lilies imported by water gardeners. Today, Non-native or exotic species like plant grows up from the bottom of a all three species continue to expand hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata), Eurasian throughout much of the United States. watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum), The growth rate They are free-floating plants with roots giant salvinia (Salvinia molesta), water for water hyacinth suspended in the water, and like hydrilla lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), and water form dense floating rafts or mats. hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) are among exceeds all other the most problematic aquatic plants. They known vascular plants. Expansive Growth Rates form dense mats on the water surface that Water hyacinth, water lettuce, and salvinia change nutrient cycling, increase siltation water body to form dense mats across propagate vegetatively by producing rates, shade out native vegetation, alter the surface. Seventy percent of its total new plants as offshoots; water hyacinth the native ecology and water quality, biomass resides in these surface mats. and water lettuce also produce seeds. choke waterways, and reduce recreational The first documented incidence of Through vegetative growth, water hyacinth uses and waterfront residence values. can double in biomass in 6 to 18 days depending on water temperature (50°F or Removed from their native environments, above) and nutrient availability. In fact, the these plants are freed from the presence growth rate for water hyacinth exceeds all of the indigenous herbivores, diseases, other known vascular plants (terrestrial or and pests that kept their populations aquatic) on a dry biomass basis. under control or at least in ecological balance. An analogy would be the rabbit, Growth rates for water lettuce and giant whose population is not a problem in its salvinia are similar to water hyacinth native environment because of its many but they are smaller plants with less Photo: Michael Masser Photo: predators and diseases, but when released Giant salvinia is a floating fern. total biomass. Giant salvinia has been in Australia, rapidly overpopulated and hydrilla in the United States was in St. documented to double in biomass in 4 to wreaked ecological havoc. Without Louis, Missouri, via the aquarium trade 10 days and form mats up to 2 to 3 feet natural checks, non-native species can in 1947. Today it continues to expand thick. Hydrilla can grow 3 to 4 inches explode into massive populations. its range and is found in many states. per day and propagates from fragments, subterranean tubers, and turions (auxillary Interconnected waterways contribute Water hyacinth, water lettuce, and buds). Turions break off, disperse, sink to the spread of invasive plant species, giant salvinia are all of South American to the bottom, and germinate when as do human activities like origin. Water hyacinth was introduced conditions are good, but can stay dormant boating, fishing, and water into Florida’s St. John River in the 1880s for several years. Tubers are produced in

22 • November/December 2007• Southwest Hydrology large numbers (5,000 per square yard) at restriction. A study currently underway The plants can be mechanically harvested, the tips of the root system and germinate at Texas A&M University is trying to fill but their rapid growth and propagation when conditions are favorable. this information void. The results should capacity limit the success of this approach. provide important information for water In fact, fragmentation from mechanical The ecological impacts of these invasive managers trying to efficiently move water. harvesting often promotes their expansion. aquatic plants are primarily due to Furthermore, in all but isolated cases, their rapid growth and formation of a Governmental and private spending to mechanical harvesting has proven to be dense floating canopy that outcompetes manage invasive aquatic plants exceeds uneconomical in terms of initial cost plus native submerged and planktonic $100 million per year in the United maintenance. vegetation for nutrients and light. States. Mechanical, biological, and The shading and nutrient sequestering chemical methods all have been utilized. See Aquatic Plants, page 33 alter biogeochemical cycles and water quality. Dissolved carbon dioxide Photo: Michael Masser Photo: increases, while dissolved oxygen can drop to critical levels under these mats, particularly in small impoundments or coves with limited circulation, killing fish and invertebrates, such as mollusks, insects, crustaceans, and worms. The consequences of this anoxia are reduction of native population densities and species diversity or richness, and potentially of the birds and mammals using this food source. Temperature, pH, turbidity, conductivity, and bicarbonate alkalinity values also decrease. Where water hyacinth, water lettuce, and giant salvinia totally cover the water surface, particularly in backwaters and small impoundments, migrating waterfowl do not appear to recognize it as aquatic habitat and don’t land or utilize it.

Water Loss from ET One of the hydrological consequences of some of these non-native aquatic plants is increased evapotranspiration (ET) rates. Normal surface water evaporation rates vary greatly with environmental factors, and in Texas typically range from 20 to 60 inches per year. Water hyacinth ET rates are estimated to be three to six times those of normal evaporation rates, and water lettuce ET rates are two to ten times greater. Salvinia seems to have little net ET loss and no studies have been documented for hydrilla. Thus, when considering water storage or open water transport systems inhabited by water hyacinth or water lettuce, ET rates must be taken into account.

It has been hypothesized that both water hyacinth and hydrilla impede water flow in irrigation canals, but no investigations have yet documented the amount of

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 23 he widespread Arundo invasion in took over many the Santa Ana River of Southern streams and other TCalifornia has led millions of areas where water people to suddenly support environmental is abundant near the surface. restoration. The alien that catalyzed such Arundo reproduces vegetatively, a reaction took over half the floodplain, with new stalks sprouting from forming impenetrable thickets 30 feet roots and pieces of stalk that tall and covering 8,000 to 10,000 acres. break under high flows and Chipping The alien is a tall grass called giant reed replant themselves downstream. or Arundo donax. It resembles skinny Arundo is reported to grow up to 3 inches bamboo and became so pervasive so per day under optimal conditions. away quickly that it roused people to action. It single-handedly was responsible for The Santa Ana Watershed at very unusual partnerships to control the The Santa Ana River drains the largest invasion; there seems to be something coastal watershed in Southern California, for everyone to hate about Arundo. approximately 3,200 square miles. The ARUNDO waterways course 100 miles from the San Richard Zembal – Orange Arundo is pervasive, provides no Bernardino, San Gabriel, and San Jacinto County Water District redeeming wildlife value, and carries mountains to the Pacific Ocean, supporting fire. It obstructs flood flows and causes a great diversity and abundance of wildlife. However, more than 4 million people live Arundo consumes an along the river, affecting the functionality of this river system and the sustainability estimated 56,200 acre- of its wetlands and riparian forests. One feet of water annually of the most significant threats today is the from the Santa alien plant invasion. The resultant habitat reduction and continued degradation Ana River alone. has caused seven of the species most dependent upon these floodplains to be expensive beach clean-ups. Compared listed under the Endangered Species Act. to native habitat, it consumes nearly three times the water and provides Joining Forces poor stream shading, impacting water Local agencies and organizations with quality. Arundo consumes an estimated interests in the river recognized the urgent 56,200 acre-feet of water annually need for Arundo control. Support for its from the Santa Ana River alone. eradication has come from every sector. However, the level and consistency of Purposely Introduced funding needed to effectively tackle the Arundo is a genus of tall perennial grasses Arundo issue made it difficult to get that includes six species native to the significant results prior to the passage warmer regions of Europe. Giant reed is of State Proposition 13 in 2002, when the largest member of the genus and one $9 million was made available for these of the largest living grasses. Native to the important efforts. Arundo grew largely Mediterranean region, it was purposely unchallenged on the Santa Ana River introduced to California in the 1820s for so long that it became the dominant when it was planted along the banks of species. By the 1990s, the cost of ridding drainage canals in the Los Angeles area this watershed of one weedy species was for erosion control. The plant was also growing by millions of dollars annually. used as thatching for roofs and fodder for domestic animals. It came to California The Santa Ana River Watershed Program without the natural controls such as insects is attempting to counter-balance human- Arundo thickets become impenetrable. and fungi found in its native land and induced changes on the river through

24 • November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology control of invasive species, habitat Lytle Cr restoration, wildlife management ee emphasizing endangered species, and public k education and involvement. The nonprofit Big Bear k Santa Ana Watershed Association (SAWA) e io Creek Upland San Bernardino Cre ^ implements the program in partnership with ^ r ^ e ^ ^ Fontana Highland federal, state, county, and city agencies, ^ De Montclair ^ many organizations, and private interests. San Anton San Bernardino County Chino ^ SAWA’s governing board is comprised of Riverside County Riverside one voting member each from: the Orange Brea^ ^ County Water District, Inland Empire Fullerton^ Resource Conservation District (RCD), Orange^ Riverside-Corona RCD, San Jacinto RCD, Perris^ ^ San Jacinto and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Orange County ^ Work accomplished on the ground through ^Sun City East Hemet Lake Elsinore SAWA is done by the partnering agencies, ^ mostly the RCDs, or under contract with Newport^ Beach SAWA oversight. Funding for Arundo Mile Future Projects Inland Empire RCD 02.5 5 10 15 20 s control and the associated activities has Current Projects Riverside-Corona RCD come from grants and mitigation funds. Completed Projects San Jacinto Basin RCD Santa Ana Watershed Arundo removal projects in the Tributaries Cleared Santa Ana River Watershed. Fighting Back…and Winning Several techniques and tools have been hand removal is the only method allowed salicifolius), no removal or spraying used to remove Arundo, including removal in mixed stands or if sensitive species are of native vegetation is allowed. All by hand or using loppers, chainsaws, in the area. Where removal is by hand, native plants and animals are protected brush cutters, tractor-mounted mulching stockpile areas are established in order to from damage by equipment, personnel, mowers, arm-mounted tractor/cutters chip the stalks after surgical, biologist- and all other Arundo control activities. and other approved power equipment. supervised removal from sensitive habitats. Native shrubs and trees may be trimmed Care is taken to minimize impacts to Where access is poor, small piles of cane to provide access and to protect them native habitat that could result from the no higher than three feet can be left to dry from incidental spraying with herbicide, transport of personnel and equipment above the high-water line. In most areas the but only under close supervision by and from removal activities. material is chipped and scattered on site or a qualified field biologist. The field removed to be used as mulch elsewhere. biologist for each removal site approves The methods used for treating Arundo the equipment to be used and meets depend on the makeup of the stands. Pure For stands of invasive plants mixed at least daily with the work crew to stands of invasive, non-native plants can with willows, cottonwoods (Populus coordinate avoidance of sensitive be tackled with heavy equipment, but fremontii), and mule fat (Baccharis See Arundo, page 33

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 25 SALTCEDAR CONTROL and Riparian Restoration — be careful with generalizations Ondrea C. Hummel – U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Todd Caplan – Parametrix Inc.

ignificant changes in plant removal throughout the southwestern the probable causes of soil salinity, communities have occurred along United States. Justifications for these rather than saltcedar invasion itself. Srivers in the Southwest since the large-scale control projects vary, Thus saltcedar, a halophytic plant, is early 1900s. This is due, in part, to the but commonly include concerns well-suited to these altered conditions introduction of exotic plant species, that saltcedar increases groundwater whereas most native riparian vegetation particularly saltcedar (Tamarix spp.). consumption and soil salinity, decreases (such as cottonwood-willow) is not. The spread and abundance of saltcedar wildlife habitat quality, and proliferates However, saltcedar commonly occurs have been accelerated by management following floodplain fires. Some of in nonsaline floodplain environments actions that have disturbed these river these concerns are substantiated by including along dam-regulated rivers. systems (Parker and others, 2005; scientific research; others are less so. Thus, blanket statements about cause- Stromberg and others, 2005). These and-effect relationships between soil management actions, such as peak flow It is naive to assume salinity and saltcedar appear unfounded. attenuation, channel narrowing, and channel incision, often influence the that simply removing Some Species Like It hydrology and geomorphology of the saltcedar from a site Monoculture stands of saltcedar are rivers. River regulation and geomorphic commonly thought to have lower alterations, combined with seed source will automatically wildlife habitat value than native woody availability, have allowed saltcedar and translate to vegetation. Saltcedar often supports other non-native vegetation to spread improved habitat. a lower population of arthropods—a into many areas, and in some situations main food source for birds—than native to compete with native vegetation. riparian vegetation such as cottonwood Fairly extensive research attributes high (Populus spp.) and willow (Salix evapotranspirative water consumption to Saltcedar is a deep-rooted deciduous shrub spp.) (Shafroth and others, 2005). Yet saltcedar, at least in quantities equal to or tree that can grow up to 25 feet tall. this does not necessarily translate to native riparian overstory trees (see page Originally introduced from Eurasia for poor-quality habitat for insectivorous 28). Others state that while supporting erosion control, it is widely distributed animals. Sogge and others (2005) found data are not conclusive, it is generally throughout the West, and surveys have no evidence that nesting in saltcedar- accepted that saltcedar transpires at least estimated that over 1.5 million acres are dominated habitat is detrimental to the as much water as native overstory trees. populated with saltcedar in the Southwest. federally endangered Southwestern Saltcedar spreads through seed dispersal, but Conversely, claims that saltcedar willow flycatchers at breeding sites in it can also propagate vegetatively. In arid increases soil salinity are less central Arizona. Other research along and semiarid regions, dense stands are found substantiated by research. Stromberg the Rio Grande found rodent species in areas with adequate water availability and others (2005) argue that such richness to be greater in saltcedar (Ellis such as river banks and reservoir margins. and others, 1997) and no differences claims confuse the correlation in bird species richness between between halophytic saltcedar and saltcedar and native-dominated habitats Is Its Bad Rap Warranted? saline habitats with causation. They Saltcedar has been targeted by (Ellis, 1995). It seems that generalized suggest that flow regulation and other management agencies for control or statements about the wildlife value of human-induced river alterations are

26 • November/December 2007• Southwest Hydrology data before making assumptions about the benefits of saltcedar removal.

Although complete eradication of saltcedar may be attainable in small, secluded watersheds, this should not be a goal of the majority of restoration projects. In some situations, saltcedar may be the only woody riparian plant capable of growing at a site. Other sites may have considerable native riparian habitat restoration potential, but total saltcedar eradication may not be feasible. Saltcedar, if present, should be viewed as part of the riparian ecosystem. Successful wildlife habitat restoration through saltcedar removal and native riparian vegetation requires that managers prioritize restoration sites, collect site-specific information, and as importantly, avoid making assumptions based upon generalizations about saltcedar.

Contact Ondrea Hummel at ondrea.c.hummel@ usace.army.mil.

References Ellis, L.M., C.S. Crawford, and M.C. Molles, Jr., 1997. Rodent communicates in native and exotic riparian vegetation in the Middle Rio Grande Valley of Central New Mexico. The Southwestern Naturalist, 42(2): 13-19. Ellis, L.M., 1995. Bird use of saltcedar and cottonwood vegetation in the Middle Rio Grande Color infrared 3-D visualization of a saltcedar-infested tributary to the Colorado River in western Valley of New Mexico, USA. J. Arid Envir. 30: Colorado near Fruita, created from IKONOS satellite imagery. Saltcedar is the coarsely textured, 339-349. darker red vegetation. Image from the U.S. Forest Service Remote Sensing Applications Center. Merritt, D.M. and B. Johnson. 2006. An evaluation of the effects of wildfires on the health, resilience saltcedar should be used cautiously. the fire. Whether saltcedar dominates a and mortality of dominant riparian species, previously mixed stand following a fire Middle Rio Grande RMRS, RWU-4351: 2005 Increased fire frequency and severity in Preliminary Findings. USDA Forest Service, may depend upon a variety of issues, Rocky Mtn Res. Station, Albuquerque, NM, 18 p. densely vegetated floodplains near the including fire temperature, fuel load Parker, D.L., M. Renz, A. Fletcher, F. Miller and J. urban interface has become a serious characteristics, depth to groundwater, Gosz, 2005. Strategy for long-term management concern along the Middle Rio Grande of exotic trees in riparian areas for New or other site characteristics. Mexico’s five river systems, 2005-2014. USDA in New Mexico. Compared especially to Forest Service and New Mexico Energy, native cottonwood, saltcedar responds Each Site is Unique Minerals and Natural Resources Department. Shafroth, P.B., J.R. Cleverly, T.L. Dudley, J.P. Taylor, favorably to fire and legitimate concerns So what do we do with this information? C. Van Riper III, E.P. Weeks, and J.N Stuart, exist that fires in mixed native and exotic The primary message is that blanket 2005. Control of Tamarix in the western United vegetation have the potential to shift to States: Implications for water salvage, wildlife generalizations about saltcedar should use, and riparian restoration. J. Envir. Mgmt. exotic dominance. However, this is not not be used to justify a restoration 35: 231-246. always the case. Preliminary data from project. Rather, projects involving Sogge, M.K., E.H. Paxton, and A.Tudor, 2005. Merritt and Johnson (2006) found that Saltcedar and southwestern willow flycatchers: the removal of saltcedar should be Lessons from long-term studies in central native Goodding’s willow was moderately based upon site-specific information Arizona. Presented at Monitoring Science and tolerant of fire and had considerably Technology Symposium: Unifying Knowledge for and carefully weighed management Sustainability in the Western Hemisphere. Sept. lower post-fire mortality rates than considerations. It is naive to assume that 20-24, 2004, Denver, CO. Rio Grande cottonwood. Analysis of simply removing saltcedar from a site Stromberg, J., S. Lite, and C. Paradzick, 2005. vegetation data along the Middle Rio Tamarix and river restoration along the San will automatically translate to improved Pedro and Gila Rivers. Presented at Connecting Grande indicates that general plant habitat or site conditions. All projects, Mountain Islands and Desert Seas: Biodiversity species assemblages following fire are and Management of the Madrean Archipelago particularly those aimed at improving II, May 11-15, 2004, Tucson, AZ. often similar to those occurring before wildlife habitat, should have site-specific

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 27 NATIVE versus INVASIVE Plant Water Use in the Middle Rio Grande Basin

Nabil Shafike – New Mexico Interstate Stream Commission, Salim Bawazir – New Mexico State University, and James Cleverly – University of New Mexico

ater budget studies by the study that aimed to provide data that radiation, and convective heat flux into New Mexico Interstate could be used to develop estimates the atmosphere and the ground. Shallow WStream Commission (NMISC, of long-term evapotranspiration (ET) piezometers were installed at each ET 2003) in the Middle Rio Grande (MRG) and to provide input to models for measurement location to measure depth estimate that water use by riparian to groundwater. Initially, the study design vegetation constitutes 30 to 40 percent of For areas where was limited to saltcedar and cottonwood the total water consumption in the basin. vegetation communities; Russian olive Concern over the spread and potential the water table is and open water were added in 2003. high water consumption of non-native relatively shallow, species such as Russian olive (Elaeagnus The map at right shows where ET angustifolia) and saltcedar (Tamarix saltcedar stands use data are being collected in the MRG. spp.) has led to increasing debate over less or about the same The sites represent different groups of the importance of eradication of these amount of water as riparian vegetation and flood conditions species to maintain riparian health. as follows: 1) an unflooded cottonwood cottonwood stands. forest (Albuquerque); 2) a frequently Due to the lack of quantitative flooded cottonwood forest (Belen); 3) an data on actual water use of various predicting consumptive water use unflooded saltcedar thicket (Sevilleta); riparian vegetation communities in by several riparian communities. 4) a frequently flooded saltcedar thicket the MRG, the Bureau of Reclamation, (Bosque del Apache), and 5) a flooded in coordination with NMISC, New The ET Study Russian olive/willow grove (La Joya). Mexico State University, the University Data were collected from eddy covariance All sites are located in dense vegetation of New Mexico, and Los Alamos systems that allow water flux (ET) between the river and the adjacent levee. National Laboratory, formed the MRG measurements to be made either directly ET-Workgroup. The group initiated a or calculated from measurements of

28 • November/December 2007• Southwest Hydrology 5.0 Sparse Cottonwood

Dense Cottonwood Jemez River Albuquerque

Sparse Saltcedar Rio Puer 4.0 Bosque del Apache Dense Saltcedar Albuquerque La Joya co Belen Albuquerque cottonwood Russian olive & willow saltcedar and Russian olive understory 3.0 Flooding Rio Salado Belen Sevilleta cottonwood native understory No flooding La Joya Sevilleta Russian olive and coyote willow

Evapotranspiration (ft/year) saltcedar and saltgrass seepwillow and cottonwood

2.0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Bosque del Apache NWR dense, monospecific saltcedar Evapotranspiration rates over time from sites along the Middle Rio Grande allow comparisons to be sparse, regular cottonwood plantation made among various riparian vegetation communities and flood conditions. Rio GrandeElephant Butte Photo: James Hogan Photo: Preliminary Results delta site with a deep water table (more Reservoir A large volume of data have been than 10 feet below the ground surface) suggested that removal of saltcedar References collected at each site since 2000, but Bawazir, A.S., J.P. King, S. Kidambi, B. Tanzy, F. comprehensive analysis of these data from areas with a relatively deep water Nibling, N. Stowe, and M. Fahal, 2006. A joint table might produce some water savings investigation of evapotranspiration depletion has not yet been completed. Many of treated and non-treated salt cedar at the variables affect ET rates and it can be (Bawazir and others, 2006). However, Elephant Butte Reservoir, New Mexico, New given the short period of measurement Mexico Water Research Institute Technical difficult to determine conclusive cause- Completion Report 328. wrri.nmsu.edu/publish/ and-effect relationships or to compare (189 days), additional work is needed techrpt/tr328/tr328.pdf. data between sites. The chart above to substantiate those results. New Mexico Interstate Stream Commission, Middle Rio Grande Water Supply Study, www.ose.state. presents the annual evapotranspiration Contact Nabil Shafike at [email protected]. nm.us/isc_planning_mrgwss.html, 2003. rates at each of the tower locations for the period from 2000 to 2005.

In general, the data show that at sites with shallow depth to water (less than 10 feet below ground surface) the ET rate for cottonwood ranges from 3.7 to 4.4 feet per year while the ET rate for dense saltcedar ranges from 2.8 to 4.1 feet per year. Based on these data, for areas where the water table is relatively shallow, saltcedar stands use less or about the same amount of water as cottonwood stands. Further, sparse saltcedar stands used much less water than sparse cottonwood stands with the same groundwater conditions. The measured annual ET rate for Russian olive-dominated community varied from 3.5 to 4.2 feet per year, approximately the same as for cottonwood stands.

Based on the data collected and analyzed to date in the MRG, the current strategy of saltcedar eradication and replacement by native vegetation (cottonwood and willow) does not appear to result in water savings in areas of relatively shallow groundwater.

A study conducted at an Elephant Butte

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 29 Hydrologic Changes and Riparian Forests: THE SALTCEDAR STORY Juliet C. Stromberg – Arizona State University

ivers in many regions have conditions favor saltcedar over the more their seedlings can pre-empt space and undergone changes in their flow drought-intolerant cottonwood and willow. out-shade and overtop the later-seeding Rregimes, leading to changes in Where stream flows are intermittent, the saltcedar. Second, saltcedar seedlings composition of riparian vegetation. My riparian water table typically is lower are suppressed by competition from co-workers and I recently completed an and shows greater fluctuation. As the cottonwood; such stress-adapted plants ecological survey of the abundance of often have low competitive ability saltcedar (Tamarix chinensis and Tamarix when resource availability is high (Sher ramosissima), Fremont cottonwood In the American and others, 2000). Finally, subcanopy (Populus fremontii), and Goodding Southwest, flow saltcedar may be less able to withstand willow (Salix gooddingii) along rivers in regime changes are flood inundation and flood scour. the Gila and Lower Colorado basins of Arizona (see map) to test whether human creating conditions On dammed rivers, the mechanisms for alteration of streamflow regimes causes that favor dominance vegetation change are more complex, but a compositional shift in the riparian of a newcomer are partly due to influences on pioneer vegetation from native to introduced tree establishment. Reductions in flood species (Stromberg and others, 2007). to the region. frequency, shifts in flood timing, and abrupt decline of flood waters, together The study sites spanned a range of flow water table declines to three meters with changes in river geomorphology, have regimes from perennial to intermittent, or more below the floodplain surface, discouraged establishment of cottonwood and free-flowing to flow-regulated. We cottonwood and willows, but not saltcedar, and willow along some dammed rivers. found that river reaches with perennial are shifted out of their tolerance flow and a natural flood regime had high ranges for root-zone soil moisture Perennial undammed abundance of cottonwood and willow, (Lite and Stromberg, 2005). Intermittent undammed 60 the historically dominant pioneer riparian Perennial dammed Intermittent dammed trees in the region, and low abundance Flood Flows of saltcedar, an introduced species (see On unregulated rivers such as the chart at right). In contrast, reaches with Hassayampa, large winter floods 40 intermittent and/or dam-regulated flows episodically rework sediments, were dominated or codominated by

creating patches of seed beds (%) patch area saltcedar, which is comparatively more where tree seedlings can establish stress-adapted and more reproductively themselves without competition Tamarix 20 opportunistic than cottonwood and from an overstory. Receding willow. Members of the Populus, Salix, flows in spring moisten the bare and Tamarix genera have co-existed sediments during the short period c along Eurasian rivers for millennia; in when viable cottonwood and the American Southwest, flow regime 0 willow seeds are present. Slow 0204060 changes are creating conditions that favor recession of the flood waters and Populus-Salix patch area (%) dominance of a newcomer to the region. water table allows seedling roots Percentage of the floodplain occupied by to maintain contact with wet soil. Tamarix-dominated patches plotted against Stream Low-flows the percentage of the floodplain occupied by The abundance of saltcedar on intermittent Saltcedar also is a pioneer plant that Populus-Salix dominated patches. Each data point represents a study site. Sites above the river reaches suggests it is intrinsically colonizes newly disturbed areas, but it diagonal line have greater relative abundance adapted to the dry conditions of the remains subdominant to cottonwood of Tamarix, those below the line have greater Southwest. Further, where perennial rivers and willow on free-flowing perennial relative abundance of Populus-Salix. The “c” denotes a site from which Tamarix has been have become intermittent due to stream rivers for several reasons. First, because cleared. “Tamarix-dominated patches” are diversion or groundwater pumping (such cottonwood and willow begin dispersing wooded areas in which at least 50 percent of as portions of the San Pedro), the new seeds earlier in the growing season, the stem coverage is composed of Tamarix.

30 • November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology Where this occurs, such as along the lower Gila and Salt rivers, saltcedar seedlings don’t have to compete. However, abundance of cottonwood and willow varies widely among regulated reaches. In rivers with a low ratio of reservoir storage capacity to watershed runoff, for example the lower Verde, the reservoir can be overwhelmed in wet winters. The ensuing “run-of-the-river” spring-season flow regimes allow the successful establishment of cottonwood and willow (Zamora- Arroyo and others, 2001). But because saltcedar disperses seeds over a long period and its seedlings have wide tolerance for moisture conditions, it can establish where the river flow pattern differs from the climatic norm with respect to flood timing and recession rate. If floods are suppressed for a few years (as is common on regulated rivers), saltcedar seedlings that germinate on the low surfaces can grow to a size that enables high survivorship of subsequent disturbances.

Salinity Salty conditions favor saltcedar over cottonwood and willow. Although many rivers in the Southwest have relatively low solute content, others (such as portions of the Salt), have high salinity due to passage through ancient marine salt deposits. Our study did not include any free-flowing, salty river reaches, and saltcedar may have a natural competitive edge over cottonwood Location of study reaches. Also shown are locations of major dams. (Map is based on templates and willow in such settings. Discharge provided by Arizona Geographic Alliance). of municipal effluent or agricultural tail environmental conditions. Past decades of composition, climate, streamflow regime, water, interbasin transport of salty water, drought, intensive agricultural groundwater and hydrogeomorphic setting. In some parts and increased evaporation rate of water due pumping, or livestock grazing on the of the West, saltcedar grows on sites that to passage through multiple dam-reservoir more palatable cottonwood and willow, formerly supported riparian grasslands, systems can also increase salinity. And for example, would favor survivorship of and livestock grazing may be a key driver where floods are reduced in frequency, saltcedar during that time period. Indeed, of vegetation change in such areas. salts can accumulate in floodplains. This along the San Pedro River, we see shifting process may contribute to the vegetation patterns of forest dominance by decade, Another topic worthy of investigation is patterns observed on dammed rivers such with saltcedar giving way to cottonwood- the role of local flood regimes. Floods in as lower reaches of the Gila and Colorado. willow and vice versa (Stromberg, 1998). Sonoran Desert rivers are very powerful and occur in multiple seasons. Frequent Disequilibria Regional Variation scour and sedimentation may contribute Tree abundance patterns varied widely In our study area, where rivers remain to low abundance of saltcedar along free- within hydrologic reach types, a finding perennial and free-flowing, local riparian flowing rivers of the Sonoran Desert; that may reflect differing histories of water trees (cottonwood and willow) are more in contrast, saltcedar may have greater and land use and climate. Cottonwood, abundant than introduced species such as survivorship in regions where floods are willow, and saltcedar live for at least a saltcedar. This may not be true for other less intense, transport fewer sediments, century, and their population structure North American river basins, depending and are restricted to early summer. reflects the influence of past and present on factors such as local plant species continued on next page

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 31 continued from previous page assemblages are the norm, then the mere be fruitful to view saltcedar dominance (not River Restoration presence of an introduced species is not simply presence) as an indictor of altered in itself a call for action. Rather, studies riverine processes and thus as trigger for These results imply that restoration of should be conducted to determine if restoration of the key physical processes cottonwood-willow forest ecosystems will valued ecosystem functions have been that influence riparian biotic communities. require the return of perennial stream flows, affected along the reach of interest and shallow groundwater, and flood timing Contact Juliet Stromberg at [email protected]. to identify the causes of those changes and intensity in keeping with climatic before initiating restoration interventions. norms. The findings have management References implications with respect to saltcedar Large-scale saltcedar removal involving Lite, S.J., and J.C. Stromberg, 2005. Surface water removal efforts currently underway on and ground-water thresholds for maintaining bulldozing, aerial herbicide application, Populus - Salix forests, San Pedro River, many southwestern rivers, including fire, and biocontrol insects are underway Arizona. Biol. Conserv., 125: 153-167. those that are free-flowing and perennial. at several highly modified rivers in the Sher, A.A., D.L. Marshall, and S.A. Gilbert, 2000. Saltcedar appears to remain subdominant Competition between native Populus deltoides western United States. On these rivers, and invasive Tamarix ramosissima and the where the processes are present that allow saltcedar may fall within the “invasive implications for reestablishing flooding cottonwoods and willows to establish disturbance. Conserv. Biol., 14: 1744-1754. species as passenger” rather than the Stromberg, J., 1998. Dynamics of Fremont and survive, raising questions about the “invasive species as driver” model of cottonwood (Populus fremontii) and saltcedar rationale for saltcedar eradication efforts ecosystem degradation. If indeed a (Tamarix chinensis) populations along the San in settings such as the Upper Verde River. Pedro River, Arizona. J. Arid Environ., 40: 133- passenger, the removal of saltcedar, without 155. simultaneous restoration of streamflow Stromberg, J.C., S.J. Lite, R. Marler, C. Paradzick, On many naturally intermittent, free- regimes, may not restore the desired P.B. Shafroth, D. Shorrock, J. White, and M. flowing rivers, saltcedar is codominant White, 2007. Altered stream flow regimes and riparian vegetation. Furthermore, vegetation invasive plant species: the Tamarix case. Global with cottonwood and willow. Some clearing without other restorative actions Ecol. Biogeog., 16: 381-393. saltcedar clearing efforts in such settings Zamora-Arroyo, F., P.L. Nagler, M. Briggs, D. could reduce habitat for the federally are conducted with the goal of removing Radtke, H. Rodriquez, J. Garcia, C. Valdes, A. endangered Southwestern willow flycatcher Huete, and E. P. Glenn, 2001. Regeneration of an invader. If ecosystems are viewed as and other bird species that utilize saltcedar. native trees in response to flood releases from open systems, in which immigration is the United States into the delta of the Colorado From a river restoration perspective, it may River, Mexico. J. Arid Environ., 49: 49-64. an ongoing process and shifting species

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32 • November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology Aquatic Plants, continued from page 23 Biological management of hydrilla and giant salvinia has been successful in some cases. Hydrilla is very susceptible to grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella, another non-native species from Asia), but the fish can eliminate all submerged vegetation if stocked at too high a rate. Other biological agents attempted for hydrilla have included a non-native but species-specific fly (adults are Michael Masser Photo: Michael Masser Photo: Dissolved oxygen levels under giant salvinia Hydrilla is a submerged plant that forms dense introduced, lay eggs, and the larvae bore mats often do not support aquatic organisms. surface mats. into the plants), a weevil, and a fungus use restrictions, primarily related to managed to mitigate their impacts on that feeds on the plant. Similarly, a human and livestock consumption our aquatic environments. Based on species-specific weevil has been used and irrigation. Civic resistance to past history, we will never eradicate on giant salvinia and a few types of using herbicides to control aquatic any of them, but with integrated weevils on water hyacinth. These have plants in public waters is usually due management using a combination of not proved especially successful in to misconceptions of their toxicity to chemical, biological, mechanical, and most U.S. habitats and rarely achieve non-target species, ecological fate, nutrient manipulation, we can lessen the densities needed to elicit control. or persistence in the environment. their impacts and maintain an ecological When properly selected and correctly balance with native species. However, Chemical methods such as herbicides applied, these registered herbicides are much more research is needed to refine registered for aquatic use have been environmentally safe and effective. these means of controlling the pests. used successfully on all these plants. The problems inherent with herbicides Regardless of the methods used, these For help in identifying and managing these and other aquatic plants, visit aquaplant.tamu.edu. Contact are cost, public perception, and water non-native aquatic plants must be Michael Masser at [email protected].

Arundo, continued from page 25 time. Achieving total eradication of most of those acres and at least 11,250 species. Endangered nesting birds are Arundo in some parts of the Santa Ana acre-feet of water is back in the river not approached closer than 100 meters; River Watershed will take decades. annually. The alien invasion was once their territories are revisited for Arundo so expansive that the most widely held removal after nesting is completed. As of July 2007, SAWA has raised belief was that Arundo eradication on nearly $30 million and has more than the Santa Ana was not possible. We are On the Santa Ana River, Arundo control 3,000 acres of Arundo treated and under in the process of disproving that belief. starts with biomass reduction and removal. management (see map, page 25). Native Where possible, the canes are chipped in riparian forests once again dominate Contact Richard Zembal at [email protected]. place to pieces smaller than six inches. The roots are left in place to avoid the major excavation required to remove them. New growth is allowed to reach four to six feet tall and then sprayed with the systemic herbicide “Rodeo” (glycol is the active ingredient), which is taken in through the herbage to the roots. Over sufficient years of retreatment, the huge root masses eventually dry out and become unable to support new plant growth. Any unabsorbed herbicide degrades to water and other harmless ingredients within 48 hours. As resprouting diminishes and Arundo eradication approaches in an area, the need for riparian revegetation Photo: Richard Zembal Photo: is assessed, but the forest usually Floods stacked broken Arundo stalks against the River Road Bridge, giving flood waters the reclaims treated areas naturally over purchase to push the bridge off its foundation in 2004.

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 33 R & D California Delta Canal Déjà Vu? A February report by the Public Policy WWF on Desalination: Option Institute of California (PPIC) states that Amid unanimous agreement that the the forces driving the delta’s future are or Distraction? Sacramento-San Joaquin Bay is in an well beyond the control of environmental, Making drinking water out of sea ecological, economic, and management agricultural, urban development, local, water is a growing trend but a crisis, myriad ideas have been proposed and other interests now fighting at cross potential threat to the environment for saving the area. One idea, soundly purposes for its restoration. Subsiding that could also exacerbate climate defeated decades ago, is gaining land, rising sea levels, earthquakes, change, said the global conservation support: a peripheral canal that would climate change, invasive species, and organization WWF in a review of transfer water destined for Southern urbanization are all increasing the risks desalination plants worldwide. California around the Sacramento- and consequences of a sudden levee San Joaquin Delta, unlike the current collapse and are steadily degrading the The WWF review, Making Water: system which runs water through it. delta’s overall health. Furthermore, the Desalination—Option or Distraction report states that the commonly held for a Thirsty World? shows that some A peripheral canal was first proposed perception that the delta is a naturally of the driest and thirstiest places are in the 1960s as part of the State Water stable freshwater system―and should turning to desalination. These include Project. With a capacity of 22,000 cubic be maintained as such―is wrong. regions where water problems affect feet per second (cfs), it would have begun In fact, in its natural state, the delta large, populous areas—Australia, on the Sacramento River just below was subject to strong tidal cycles and the Middle East, Spain, the United Sacramento and flowed 43 miles around other fluctuations in water quality. Kingdom, and the United States, with the delta to the Clifton Court Forebay, the India and China following suit. reservoir for the water pumped south. The PPIC report recommended a smaller peripheral canal, not necessarily following “Desalinating the sea is an expensive, The peripheral canal initially received the same route as the earlier one, with energy-intensive, and greenhouse considerable support, with the California capacity of perhaps 10,000 cfs, as one of gas-emitting way to get water,” says Department of Water Resources officially nine alternatives that should be considered Jamie Pittock, Director of WWF’s adopting it as part of the State Water by the state in planning the delta’s future. Global Freshwater Program. Project in 1966, and the U.S. Bureau The smaller canal would be supplemented of Reclamation calling for Congress to by reduced direct pumping from the delta. “It may have a place in the world’s approve the project in 1969. However, Governor Schwarzenegger and some state future freshwater supplies but increased environmental awareness legislators have endorsed a canal of some regions still have cheaper, better, and and associated legislation passed in the sort, arguing it would obviate the need for complementary ways to supply water late 1960s and 1970s (including the pump shutdowns and thus protect the fish, that are less risky to the environment.” Endangered Species Act, the National protect the state’s water-delivery system Environmental Policy Act, the Clean from threat of levee failures, and allow the It is estimated that around 60 percent Water Act, and the Safe Drinking Water delta to be managed with an environmental of freshwater needs in the Arabian Gulf Act) caused support for the peripheral emphasis. But environmentalists, farmers, are met through desalination, and the canal to erode. In 1982, the peripheral and delta communities fear a peripheral Australian city of Perth may be looking canal was defeated in a state referendum canal would mean the delta would be to supply one-third of its freshwater due to environmental concerns and abandoned, left to become increasingly the same way. Spain is devoting an arguments that it would constitute a saline and stagnant, unfit for agriculture astonishing proportion of its desalinated major “water grab” from Northern and certain species. In addition, questions water to agriculture—at 22 percent, California by Southern California. about payment and land acquisition for the highest level in the world—and such a canal remain to be addressed. to vacation resorts in arid areas. Fast forward 25 years. The ecological health of the delta is rapidly declining. The 1980s fight over the canal was Impacts of desalination include Populations of endangered species are considered one of the biggest north- brine build-up, increased greenhouse falling. Levees are fragile and costly to south water battles Californians have gas emissions resulting from high maintain. Pumps that pull water out of weathered. It remains to be seen how energy demands, destruction of the delta for Southern California had to far the current proposal will go. prized coastal areas, and reduced be turned off for a while in an effort to emphasis on conservation of rivers protect species, threatening the water The PPIC report, Envisioning Futures for the and wetlands. Many of the areas Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, is available at supply for downstream communities. www.ppic.org/main/publication.asp?i=671. of the most intensive proposed or

34 • November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology planned desalination activity also have (OWDOYOUMANAGE a history of damaging natural water ONEOF%ARTHSMOST resources, particularly groundwater, through poor water management. PRECIOUSRESOURCES !SK'OLDER According to the report, managing water demand and assessing impacts of any large-scale engineering solution are needed early in order to avert irreversible damage to nature and the cost overruns, often paid by citizens over the long haul. Sustainable sources of water start with protecting natural assets such as rivers, floodplains and wetlands that purify 7EFOCUSONSUSTAINABLEWATERRESOURCESOLUTIONS and provide water as well as protect 4HEWORLDSMOSTPRECIOUSRESOURCEISBECOMINGMOREPRECIOUSBYTHEMINUTE4HATS against extreme or catastrophic events. WHYRESPONSIBLEMANAGEMENTISCRITICALTOENSURINGWATERFORINDUSTRYANDAGRICULTURE FOR HOUSEHOLDNEEDSANDFORTHEFUTURE'OLDERHASBEENPROVIDINGCOST EFFECTIVESOLUTIONS “Large desalination plants might rapidly TOSATISlEDCLIENTSFOROVERYEARS lNDINGBETTERWAYSTODISCOVER PRODUCE TRANSPORT become ‘the new dams’ and obscure MANAGEANDTREATWATER 'LOBAL)SSUES,OCAL3OLUTIONS the importance of real conservation of ¥ '!# rivers and wetlands,” adds Pittock. ,OCALOFFICES 4UCSON !LBUQUERQUE SOLUTIONS GOLDERCOM “As with any relatively new engineering WWWGOLDERCOM such as large dams that grew up in the 50s, the negatives become known when it is too late or too expensive to fix. What we need most is a new attitude toward water, not unchecked expansion of water engineering.”

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Pupfish on the Move: Good News/Bad News Rare pupfish recently discovered in test ponds near the Salton Sea are both good and bad news, according to the Riverside Press-Enterprise. The fish are in small, shallow ponds filled by water pumped from the Salton Sea and a nearby river and carried through a 1.5-mile pipeline to the ponds. The pump was designed to keep the fish out, but clearly some are making—and surviving—the journey, according to the newspaper. The abundance of juveniles found indicates that the fish are breeding in their new home as well; the Press-Enterprise said U.S. Geological Survey scientists initially estimated that more than 1,000 fish were in three of the four test ponds. continued on next page

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 35 R & D (continued)

While the surprising discovery was good because of deposition of heavy dust news for survival of the species and offers from the Four Corners region of the opportunities to study their sensitivity Colorado Plateau, 200 miles away. Dust to salinity, temperature, and predators, reduces the snow’s reflectivity, allowing it raised some complicated issues. more of the sun’s energy to warm the snowpack and causing it to melt earlier. According to the Press-Enterprise, the test ponds were created on land According to Painter, “The connection donated by the Imperial Irrigation between dust and lower snow reflectance District by USGS scientists seeking to is already established, but the amount determine whether small ponds could of the impact, measured and modeled, attract any of the hundreds of migratory in this integrated system of disturbed bird species that frequent the Salton desert and mountains stunned us. The Sea. Under current water management fact that dust can reduce snow cover agreements, the Salton Sea will shrink duration so much—a month earlier— in size significantly when more water transforms our understanding of mountain is diverted away from it beginning in sensitivity to external forcings.” 2017, bringing what many fear will be an ecological collapse. If the smaller Prior to the widespread disturbance of ponds successfully attract birds, said the western United States in the late the newspaper, larger versions will be 1800s and its likely enhancement of created as the Salton Sea shrinks. dust emission to the mountains, the cleaner snow cover would have lasted IID offered use of the land for a three- several weeks longer, the study said. year pilot test of the ponds, reported The progression of climate change the Press-Enterprise. But now that may alter the reliability of spring snow the endangered fish have moved in, melt’s quantity, timing, and duration. federal and state endangered species laws could require that the ponds be “Recent studies agree that with global maintained. If that happens, IID is warming, the southwest U.S. will wondering who will be responsible for be warmer and drier. Enhanced dust Total Water Management supplying water to the ponds. While deposition is likely, further shortening the district supports the project in snow cover duration,” Painter said. the short term, a district spokesman “Ultimately, a warming climate and the expressed concern to the newspaper dust it generates will affect river runoff about future water obligations. and soil moisture in the mountains, not only in the western United States, but Visit www.pe.com. across many of the world’s mountains.”

Visit the National Snow and Ice Data Center at the Desert Dust Speeds University of Colorado at Boulder at nsidc.org. Also Distant Snowmelt visit www.agu.org/journals/gl/. 19,000 professionals serving your needs in: According to a study led by National s7ATERRESOURCEANDDEMANDMANAGEMENT Prison Flushing: Who Knew? Snow and Ice Data Center scientist Tom s%NVIRONMENTALRESTORATION Painter, wind-blown dust from drought- An article in the Sacramento Bee s3USTAINABILITYSOLUTIONS stricken and disturbed lands can shorten reported that prison flushing is the Solutions Without Boundaries the duration of mountain snow cover cause of massive—and unnecessary— ch2mhill.com hundreds of miles away by one month. amounts of wastewater that can The study, which appeared June 23, 2007 overwhelm treatment facilities and +ATHY&REAS !LBUQUERQUE 4OM-C,EAN 0HOENIX in the online edition of Geophysical pollute groundwater. It turns out inmates Tel: 505.884.1682 x205 Tel: 480.966.8577 x6239 Research Letters, found that seasonal flush their toilets for more than just KATHYFREAS CHMCOM TOMMCLEAN CHMCOM snow coverage in Colorado’s San Juan the usual reason. According to the WB052007020MKT © 2007 CH2M HILL Mountains disappeared a month earlier article, “by flushing the toilets in their

36 • November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology cells, prisoners communicate with one tolerant four-wing saltbush (Atriplex online documents and reports in the another, relieve boredom, protest prison canescens) had an 80 percent survival categories of water quality, hydrology, conditions, dispose of contraband, and rate with or without compost amendments biota, modeling, and regulations; a even create in-cell swimming pools,” to the site’s neutral-pH soil and, with bibliography of abstracts, papers, and the latter created by one prisoner who the exception of lead, did not exceed reports; images, maps, and GIS layers; stopped up both his toilet and his cell regulatory guidelines for metals. hydrologic and watershed models; and door and kept on flushing. Successive links to external sources of information. flushing down a row of cells can Quailbush (Atriplex lentiformis) was communicate the approach of a guard. tested under greenhouse conditions on The website is part of a larger the lower-pH tailings from the Klondyke program focusing on the water To address this problem, California mine, a state-designated Superfund quality of the Truckee River from the prisons are installing “flushometers,” site. Results showed that a tailings California border to Pyramid Lake, electronic devices that “restrict the amendment of 15 percent compost was Nevada. Its objectives are to: number of flushes, delay flushing, required for normal plant growth, but • use available water quality data to and empty toilets in random patterns,” that little metal accumulation occurred. determine the potential for water quality according to the Bee. After they were improvements through restoration Visit clu-in.org/products/newsltrs/tnandt/view. installed in Corcoran State Prison in cfm?issue=0707.cfm#4. and stream-bank stabilization; Central California, wastewater production • determine the necessity of additional by the 120 inmates decreased 80 percent data collection (monitoring) to from 42,000 gallons per day to 8,300 New Clearing House Contains prove benefits from restoration; gallons per day, the newspaper said. Ten Truckee River Info other state prisons, as well as several • determine the role of anthropogenic county jails, have also been retrofitted. The University of California at Davis and and naturally occurring nitrogen, several state and local entities in Nevada phosphorus, and total dissolved Visit www.sacbee.com. are collaborating on a new Truckee River solids (TDS) on the water quality and Information Gateway website and seeking aquatic habitat of the Truckee River. relevant information to include. The site Metal Phytostabilization at Mike Brisbin, water quality coordinator at the is designed to be a central clearinghouse Truckee Meadows Water Reclamation Facility, Arizona Mines for data and reports related to the Truckee is a primary organizer of the clearinghouse and seeks additional content for the site. Visit www. Summarized from EPA’s Technology News and River in Nevada. It contains data sources; truckeeriverinfo.org. Trends newsletter, July 2007 University of Arizona researchers have been conducting field and greenhouse studies to evaluate the revegetation of barren mine sites with native plants capable of sequestering metals in the root zone without taking metals up into the plant tissues. This type of It’s a Southwest necessity. phytostabilization was studied at two Together we can attain it. semi-arid mine sites in Arizona, and focused on identifying simple, low-cost revegetation strategies with minimal site preparation, compost application, • Groundwater resource evaluation and basin inventory analysis or vegetation maintenance. Stabilization • Modeling of groundwater and surface water flow systems is needed to keep heavy metals out of • Wellhead and aquifer source protection groundwater or stormwater runoff, but • Assured water supply planning and development they must also not accumulate in plant • Litigation support for water rights and resource damage tissues where animals can consume them. • Water quality evaluation and treatment (including arsenic) For more information, contact Brad Cross at 480.905.9311 In an 18-month field trial at the 100- or via e-mail at [email protected]. acre Boston Mill mine-tailings site adjacent to the San Pedro River in LFR Inc. is an environmental management & consulting engineering firm with 29 offices nationwide. For more southern Arizona, salt- and drought- information, call 800.320.1028 or visit us at www.lfr.com.

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 37 Business Directory

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38 • November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology SOCIETY PAGE NM Water Researchers Convene Arizona provoked considerable discussion The two hosts joined forces in recognition with a talk on paleoflood events and of the 20th annual AHS symposium and The New Mexico Water Resources Martian hydrology, which segued into a Southwest Hydrology’s interest in bringing Research Institute convened the annual frontal assault on the concept of the 100- its readers together for a regional meeting. New Mexico Water Research Symposium year flood. Attendees were urged to act less at New Mexico Tech in Socorro in like engineers trying to solve problems, The meeting’s theme, “Sustainable Water, August, attended by around 100 people. and more like scientists whose role is to Unlimited Growth, and Quality of Life: The one-day program featured more than challenge the status quo. Can We Have It All?” was addressed by 25 talks and 27 posters. Two concurrent plenary speakers Peter Gleick of the Pacific technical sessions featured the topics Two special sessions examined the potential Institute and Jerome Delli Priscoli of the of surface and subsurface process impacts of the pending Water Resources U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Institute for modeling, remote sensing applications, Development Act, which authorizes more Water Resources, and in several technical ecosystem assessment and restoration, than 900 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers sessions. Moderated discussions allowed alternative water sources, and strategies projects, and modifies 22 statutes including speakers and the audience to hash out for improved resource management. some of the process, policies, and principles some of the difficult questions regarding of how water projects are evaluated. Also our current and future water resources. Financial support from Sandia and Los discussed was a proposed clarification of More than 100 speakers and 40 poster Alamos national laboratories, the New the definition of U.S. waters, following presenters covered topics ranging from Mexico Interstate Stream Commission, and the recent Supreme Court ruling limiting water policy and management to riparian the New Mexico section of the American federal jurisdiction over wetlands. restoration/preservation, water quality, Water Resources Association allowed water harvesting, GIS applications, the registration fee to be waived for any Visit www.ucowr.siu.edu. energy/water relations, and much more. student presenting a poster or talk, and kept In addition to the technical sessions, the fee very low for other attendees. New AHS-SWH Conference a Mexico’s three state universities and the U.S. five optional workshops and three field Successful Collaboration trips were attended by more than 100 Geological Survey were additional sponsors. people. The trade show featured 45 The 2007 Regional Water Symposium, a Abstracts are available at wrri.nmsu.edu/conf/tc07/ exhibitors during the main two-day collaborative effort between Southwest program.html. event. Attendees came from 18 different Hydrology and the Arizona Hydrological states, making it a truly regional event. Society (AHS), drew over 570 attendees UCOWR Meeting Has Message to Tucson, Arizona, at the end of August. Visit www.azhydrosoc.org and www.swhydro.arizona.edu. for Researchers Against a backdrop of drought and smoky skies, the Universities Council on Water Resources (UCOWR) and National Institutes for Water Resources convened their joint annual conference in Boise, Idaho, July 24-26 to discuss research, education, and policies related to hazards in water resources.

Plenary sessions addressed national hazards policy, floods and flood responses, and state and regional policy. Gerald Galloway, President of the American Water Resources Association, kicked off the conference with an overview of the evolution of national flood policies and a discussion of policy changes that are needed to reduce damages and costs of protection.

In the plenary session on floods and flood responses, Vic Baker of the University of

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 39 PEOPLE River Partners Recognized for The organization helps farmers, Strobel Leaves Nevada landowners, and public agencies craft Restoration Efforts restoration agreements that balance Mike Strobel left his position as associate John Carlon, president of the nonprofit environmental needs with local, district chief of the Nevada Water Science organization, River Partners, and economic, and recreational requirements. Center of the USGS in May to move its senior restoration ecologist Tom Carlon, a blueberry farmer, and Griggs, to Portland, Oregon, where he became Griggs won the 2007 James Irvine lead the effort with diplomatic skills and the director of the National Weather Foundation Leadership Award, which scientific expertise. By forging unlikely and Climate Center of the Natural brought $125,000 to the organization. alliances among stakeholders, River Resources Conservation District. The awards recognize individuals Partners has reforested 6,000 acres in 24 Strobel was a prolific contributor to Nevada who have demonstrated ingenuity, restoration projects along six major rivers. hydrology through his USGS activities and dedication, and collaboration to address California agricultural pioneer James his involvement with the Nevada Water major state challenges. Carlon and Irvine established his namesake Resources Association (NWRA). He led Griggs were honored for successfully foundation in 1937 to promote the the development of the Journal of the advancing the use of ecological “general well-being of the citizens and NWRA, web-based, peer-reviewed technical restoration for conserving wildlife residents of the state of California.” publication, and served as chief editor and enhancing flood protection along This was the second year the leadership since its inception. He also maintained the major rivers of California. awards were made. Five other recipients considerable involvement in NWRA’s other River Partners, based in Chico, California, statewide received them for projects activities, particularly its annual meeting. has a mission to create wildlife habitat and involving education in low-performing In addition, Strobel authored Water in protect the environment by implementing schools, community building, and air Nevada, a 122-page overview of hydrologic large-scale restoration along streams and quality and global warming issues. principles within the context of the state. rivers in California’s Central Valley. Visit www.riverpartners.org and www.irvine.org. Visit www.nvwra.org.

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40 • November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology Reclamation’s Rodgers Retires The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation announced that Kirk C. Rodgers, regional director of the Mid-Pacific Region, retired from his position in August. He joined Reclamation’s Pacific Northwest Region in 1973 and moved to the Mid-Pacific Region in 1981.

John Davis, the Mid-Pacific Region’s deputy regional director, will serve as acting regional director until a permanent replacement is announced. Rodgers will continue working for the Mid-Pacific Region, focusing on drainage in the San Joaquin Valley, restoration of the San Joaquin River, and issues in the Sacramento/San Francisco Bay-Delta.

Visit www.usbr.gov.

New Leadership at USGS’s AZ Water Science Center In July, John Hoffmann was appointed director of the USGS Arizona Water Science Center.

Hoffmann’s USGS career has taken him from a short stint with the Geologic Discipline at the Hawaii Volcano Observatory to several years working in Honolulu for the Pacific Islands Water Science Center, five years in Saipan, and then 12 years with the Arizona Water Science Center in Tucson. In MODFLOW Ground-Water Model-User Guide to the Subsidence and Aquifer-System Arizona, he has worked on a number Compaction Package (SUB-WT) for Water-Table Aquifers of major projects including the Verde http://pubs.usgs.gov/tm/2007/06A23/pdf/TM6a23.pdf River Rural Watershed Study, the Fort McDowell Hydrogeology Study, and Ground-water, surface-water, and water-chemistry data, Black Mesa Area, northeastern the Rillito River Recharge Study. Arizona, by Margot Truini and J.P. Macy, USGS OFR 2007-1041 (April 2007) http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1041 Prior to assuming his new position, Hoffmann was the associate director Ground-water flow model of the Sierra Vista subwatershed and Sonoran portions of the Upper San Pedro Basin, southeastern Arizona, United States, and northern Sonora, Mexico, by of the Arizona Water Science Center D.R. Pool and J.E. Dickinson, USGS SIR 2006-5228 (July 2007) and section chief of the Hydrologic http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2006/5228 Investigations and Research Program. Flow velocity and sediment data collected during 1990 and 1991 at National Canyon, In October, Jim Leenhouts, a USGS Colorado River, Arizona: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series Report 246, 6 p. (April 2007) hydrologist, was named the new available online, by Hornewer, N.J. and Wiele, S.M. associate director of the center. http://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/2007/246

Visit www.az.water.usgs.gov.

November/December 2007 • Southwest Hydrology • 41 THE CALENDAR

NOVEMBER 2007

November 7-9 Central Coast Agricultural Water Quality Coalition. 2007 National Conference on Agriculture and the Environment. Monterey, CA. www.agwaterquality.org/2007conference/ November 8-10 California Groundwater Association. 59th Annual CGA Convention and Trade Show. Reno, NV. www.groundh2o.org/events/events.html November 12-15 American Water Resources Association. 2007 Annual Conference: Hazards in Water Resources. Albuquerque, NM. www.awra.org/meetings/New_Mexico2007/index.html November 14-15 Groundwater Resources Association of California. DNAPL Source Zone Characterization and Removal. Long Beach, CA. www.grac.org/dnapl.asp November 15-17 International Center for Arid and Semiarid Land Studies. Water in Arid and Semiarid Lands: Innovative Approaches and Informed Decision-Making. Lubbock, TX. www.iaff.ttu.edu/home/icasals/conference/ November 27-30 Association of California Water Agencies. ACWA 2007 Fall Conference & Exhibition. Indian Wells (Palm Springs area), CA. www.acwa.com/events/FC07/FC07_index.asp November 28-30 Groundwater Foundation. 23rd Annual Conference. Lakewood, CO. www.groundwater.org/pe/conference/conference.html November 29-30 New Mexico Water Resources Research Institute. 52nd Annual New Mexico Water Conference - Beyond the Year of Water: Living within Our Water Limitations. Santa Fe, NM. wrri.nmsu.edu/conf/conf07/conf.html DECEMBER 2007

December 4-7 International Association of Hydraulic Engineering and Research, ASU and UA. 5th International Symposium on Environmental Hydraulics. Tempe, AZ. www.iahr.net/iseh/ December 9-11 Irrigation Association. 28th International Irrigation Show. San Diego, CA. www.irrigation.org December 10-14 American Geophysical Union. AGU Fall Meeting. San Francisco, CA. www.agu.org/meetings/fm07/ December 12-14 Colorado River Water Users Association. 2007 Annual Conference: Global Changes, Local Impacts. Las Vegas, NV. www.crwua.org/

JANUARY 2008

January 14-15 CLE International. Nevada Water Law. Reno, NV. www.cle.com/product.php?proid=917&page=Nevada_Water_Law January 22-25 Texas Ground Water Association. 2008 Annual Convention and Trade Show. Lubbock, TX. www.tgwa.org/meetings/2008annual/ January 27-29 American Water Works Association. Inorganic Contaminants Workshop. Albuquerque, NM. www.awwa.org/Conferences/Content.cfm?ItemNumber=3529&navItemNumber=29842 January 31-February 1 TX Water Conservation Assn and TX Rural Water Assn. TWCA/TRWA Water Law Seminar. Austin, TX. www.trwa.org/08%20Law%20Seminar%20Save%20the%20Date.pdf

FEBRUARY 2008

February 3-7 USDA - CSREES. National Water Conference: Research, Extension, and Education for Water Quality and Quantity. Sparks, NV. www.soil.ncsu.edu/swetc/waterconf/2008/home08.htm February 4-8 Princeton Groundwater Inc. The Groundwater Pollution and Hydrology Course. San Francisco, CA. www.princeton-groundwater.com February 10-13 American Water Works Association. Sustainable Water Sources: Conservation and Resources Planning. Reno, NV. www.awwa.org/Conferences/Content.cfm?ItemNumber=3540&navItemNumber=1545 February 28-29 CLE International. Climate Change Law. Los Angeles, CA. www.cle.com/product.php?proid=972&page=Climate_Change_Law

MARCH 2008

March 17-19 American Water Resources Association. 2008 AWRA Spring Specialty Conference: GIS and Water Resources V. San Mateo, CA. www.awra.org/meetings/San_Mateo2008/index.html March 17-20 New Mexico Rural Water Association. 2008 Annual Conference. Albuquerque, NM. www.nmrwa.org/2008conference.php March 24-26 WateReuse Association. 2008 California Section Annual Conference. Newport Beach, CA. www.watereuse.org/ca/2008conf/Index.html March 25-28 Midwest Geosciences Group. Improving Hydrogeologic Analysis of Fractured Bedrock with a Field Trip Inside the Yucca Mountain Repository Tunnel. Las Vegas and Nevada Test Site, NV. www.midwestgeo.com/ March 30-April 3 National Ground Water Association. 2008 Ground Water Summit. Memphis, TN. www.ngwa.org/2008summit/

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