Psychographics and

Psychographics Defined and three variables that neatly categorize and Discussed summarize the dimensions of consumer lifestyle that are most relevant to marketers. Just as the term demographics refers Second, we turn to some social and to certain physical and social characteristics psychological factors that help predict and of people, the term “psychographics” refers explain consumer lifestyle choices, and in to people’s lifestyle characteristics. particular how those lifestyle choice affect Psychographics gained popularity among their marketplace behaviors. marketers beginning in the late 1960s and became a staple of by the mid Lifestyle Variables: Activities, 1970s. Marketers realized that the Interests, and Opinions emotional and psychological connections people make with particular brands often What is lifestyle? arise from how well the brands fit into the lives of consumers. As such, market Lifestyle is one of those terms that researchers were presented with the we understand intuitively but may find challenge of measuring consumer lifestyles, difficultly coming up with our own and the term psychographics was born. definition. One definition states that Psychographics was never intended lifestyle is “the patterns in which people live to replace demographics as a means of and spend time and money.” This definition predicting and explaining consumer is useful to marketers because it casts marketplace behavior. Instead, lifestyle in terms of consumption patterns. psychographics supplement demographics In other words, the definition is largely by adding the richness of the social and behavioral. Behind the behaviors that behavioral sciences to standard demographic encompass lifestyle, however, lie a myriad descriptions of people. This way marketers of complex influences, particularly from could not only describe the types of people consumers’ personalities and values. that buy their products, they could also In most people, the relationships consider more systematically the reasons between personality, values, and lifestyle why those people buy them. behaviors are relatively stable, which In the following sections, we discuss suggests that the relationships are also two main aspects of psychographics. First, predictable to some degree. Thus, by we consider what comprises consumer establishing reliable connections between lifestyles. Certainly, such an endeavor could the social, psychological, and the behavioral, quickly become too complex and many marketers have come to rely heavily cumbersome for straightforward discussion. on lifestyle information as an important However, early in the history of component to predicting and building brand psychographic study, marketers zeroed in on loyalty. Psychographics and Lifestyle – page 2

The Lifestyle Variables activities. This is because not only does a given activity reflect consumer lifestyle, but To make lifestyle useful to so too do the means by which consumers marketing strategy, marketers have over learn about, acquire and pay for the products time focused on a three dimensional they use. conceptualization of lifestyle. The three sets For example, consider two golf of variables that operationalize lifestyle are enthusiasts who use identical brands of activities, interests, and opinions. In other clubs. Here the activity (golf) and the words, to marketers, lifestyle is comprised equipment necessary to play (clubs) are the of what consumers do, what consumers like, same. Suppose one golfer made his club and what consumers think. Among brand selection after consulting with a golf marketing professionals, activities interests, professional who custom fitted the clubs’ and opinions are frequently referred to as the handles and grips. The other may have seen “AIO variables.” advertisements in a golfing magazine and Activities . Activities represent the then bought the clubs off-the-shelf from a behavioral portion of lifestyle. Because the sporting goods store at a considerably lower range of human activities seems virtually price. Though the two hypothetical golfers limitless, the variable may seem too broad to play the same sport with the same brand of be of real value to marketers. However, to clubs, lifestyle differences affect their the extent that engaging in many human acquisition of brand information and actual activities requires some kind of purchased purchase of the golf clubs. good or service, then studying activities The lesson for marketers in this represents a valuable means of example is to consider consumer activities understanding consumers. not only in terms of requisite products, but Think about virtually any activity in to consider all marketing mix components as which you participate. From taking a walk, part of a total market offering that meets to cooking a meal, to studying for an exam, consumer needs. to relaxing after a hard day, even the most Interests . Consumer psychologists mundane and ordinary activities may require define interests as the degree of excitement purchased products. Walking requires and arousal that comes from anticipated or shoes; meals require food; study requires continuing participation in some endeavor. course materials, and so on. Therefore, one Given this definition, one could correctly fairly obvious way marketers can use assume that interests are generally good lifestyles to help identify customer needs is predictors of activities. can through studying activities. use interests to gauge potential participation Regarding any particular activity, in certain activities by measuring interest in marketers should view consumer the activity, especially among consumers participation in that activity from the who have not yet participated in it. perspective of a “total market offering.” Depending on the circumstances, Too often marketers view fulfilling marketers may wish to examine consumer consumer needs strictly in terms of products interests by varying degrees of specificity. and give little attention to other components As you might expect, general consumer of the marketing mix. However, depending interests may predict a participation in a on the activity in question, modifications to very broad range of activities, while specific any of the marketing mix components may interests predict a narrower range of help consumers to engage in desired Psychographics and Lifestyle – page 3 activities. Marketers may find examining about which they hold negative opinions. both to be useful. The positive or negative responses translate For example, consider how a into interests and ultimately activities. manufacturer of kayaks and whitewater Importantly, not all opinions produce rafting equipment might estimate growth activities but all activities were preceded by potential. On one hand, they could survey opinions. consumers specifically about interest in Given its foundational role in these activities. While this approach might shaping consumer behaviors, you will study seem the most obvious and accurate means opinions in much greater detail when we of gauging demand, it may overlook many consider the formation of attitudes in the otherwise potentially interested but consumer decision making process. How uninformed consumers. Many of these opinions are formed and the strength with consumers might believe that rafting or which they are held may have very large kayaking is too dangerous for them and as implications for how products are marketed. such, would express little interest in the That they represent a combination of factual activity. On the other hand, these beliefs and evaluations of importance consumers could be surveyed for their suggests that marketers can do much to general interest in outdoor activities and either inform consumers of the factual truth their general interest in exciting vigorous about market offerings or suggest the physical activities. A high interest in both importance with which those facts should be these activities might indicate a potential regarded. interest in kayaking or rafting, which, with education and information through Predictors of Consumer Activities, or other marketing Interests and Opinions communication, might be cultivated into future sales. As noted earlier, different social and Opinions . To consumer personal characteristics influence consumer psychologists, opinions and attitudes mean lifestyles. The characteristics of greatest largely the same thing. Opinions are formed interest to marketers and their relationships when people evaluate the importance of to lifestyle are shown in Exhibit 1. Two of things they believe to factually correct. We these characteristics, reference groups and all hold views of what is true and not true social class are shown as being the result of about a particular subject, and whether or consumer demographics, which are not that subject is important to our lives. discussed in separate Web Notes. The intersection of factual beliefs and Personality is shown exerting an importance evaluations comprise opinions or independent influence on lifestyle. These attitudes about a particular subject. three predictors of lifestyle are explored Opinions constitute one of the below. lifestyle variables because they form the basis of our interests and our activities. In Reference Groups other words, before an activity can be pursued, an individual must develop a Consumers take many of their cues favorable enough opinion to at least try it. about what to buy from a variety of groups Obviously, people respond favorably to that exert influences on the consumer those things about which they hold positive decision making process. We call these opinions and negatively to those things groups “reference groups” and they’re Psychographics and Lifestyle – page 4

Demographics Social Class Lifestyle Reference Groups

Personality

Exhibit 1. Predictors of Consumer Lifestyles

defined as “any group of people that primary reference group. Here on campus, influences consumers’ purchase decisions.” consider someone who belongs to a Reference groups assume great importance fraternity or sorority. For that person, the to marketers because consumers frequently fraternity or sorority would be a membership receive important cues on how and what to group, a primary reference group, and a buy from reference group influences. formal reference group because of the Reference group types . Reference formal requirements and initiation involved groups can be categorized into several types, in joining. which are given in Exhibit 2. Examining the Second, the reference groups that exhibit might give you some insight into influence an individual’s purchase behaviors why reference groups can be so useful to need not be very well-defined to that person. marketers. Individuals look to reference The examples of family, and fraternity or groups for cues about acceptable or sorority illustrate reference groups that are preferred behaviors, including purchase well-defined sets of people. However, the behaviors. Therefore, marketers may use people in other reference groups may not be reference group influences as a means of so easily identified, yet they can be highly attracting customers. We’ll discuss some of influential. Consider someone who runs to the specific ways they do this later in these stay fit. This person may consider himself notes and in class. or herself a “runner,” and therefore a A couple of comments about the member of the informal group of all runners. reference group types shown in Exhibit 2 are He or she may look to other runners for cues in order. First, more than one label can about how to dress, shoe selection, diet, and simultaneously apply to a single reference other running related purchases. Yet, the group. For example, we would certainly group, “runners,” is certainly less clear in its expect that many of our membership composition than one’s family. reference groups will also be primary Process of reference group reference groups. Consider your family. influences . Reference group influences You’re certainly a member of this group, follow a relatively straightforward process making it a membership group, and you through which they exert influence on probably have regular face-to-face behavior. The steps of this process, which is interaction with them, making them a illustrated in Exhibit 3, apply to all reference Psychographics and Lifestyle – page 5

Type Description 1. membership group any group to which a person belongs irrespective of whether formal membership is required 2. formal membership group group for which some degree of formal application and initiation is required such as a club, fraternity or sorority 3. informal membership group group that has no formal requirements for membership such as a circle of friends or neighbors 4. primary reference group reference group with whom a person has much face-to-face interaction such as family or coworkers 5. secondary reference group group with whom one has little face-to-face interaction such as professional colleagues who are not coworkers 6. aspirational group group to which a person wishes to belong but does not belong such as a young person’s emulation of celebrities 7. dissociative group group to which a person does not wish to belong or be associated Exhibit 2. Types of Reference Groups group types, though they are more extensive behaviors at work may come from some and better-defined for primary membership combination formal training, informal reference groups than others. conversations from those “in the know” and The first step in the process is simple observation of the behaviors of “socialization.” Socialization simply refers others. People frequently learn about the to the learning of group norms, values, and norms, values, and desired behaviors of desired behaviors. How these norms, other less accessible or less well-defined values, and behaviors are learned depends groups through the media, which includes on the reference group in question. In advertising and other marketing family settings, children learn from their communications. parents through instruction, example, The second step in the reference reward, and discipline. Learning norms of group influence process is a “comparison to self-concept” of what’s learned during socialization. As people learn what’s valued Socialization and desired by a particular reference group, they make comparisons to what they themselves value and desire. Because people generally wish to protect or enhance their self-concept, they will embrace Comparison with reference groups whose values and Self-Concept expectations are consistent with their own. Note that embrace does not necessarily mean join. It’s common for people to be influenced by reference groups Behavior to which they don’t belong. The point is (compliance or deviance) that as people learn reference group values and norms of behaviors, they will react Exhibit 3. Process of Reference Group favorably to those that appear consistent Influence with their own individual self-concepts.

Psychographics and Lifestyle – page 6

The third step is behavior itself, 5K race might look to other runners to see which generally means either “compliance” what brands of shoes they wear. or “deviance.” To the extent that group Second are “utilitarian influences.” norms and values are consistent with one’s Utilitarian influences occur when own, an individual will behave in ways that individuals look to reference groups for promote those norms and values. This is information that will help them either attain compliance. From a consumer standpoint, or maintain membership in the group. For compliant behavior simply means that a example, new employees in an organization reference group influenced purchase frequently look to coworkers or bosses for behavior because the consumer believed a cues about how to dress, what kinds of cars purchase would be consistent with the to drive, and other purchase information that group. To the extent that an individual will help them fit in or advance in the perceives a reference group’s norms and organization. Utilitarian reference group values to contradict his or her own, then the influences occur in other group settings as individual will behave in ways inconsistent well. Seeking membership to clubs or trying with the group. This is deviance. In terms to assimilate into a particular circle of of purchase behavior, deviance is a friends prompts people to seek information consumer’s attempt to distance himself or about acceptable purchases. herself from a particular reference group. Third are “value expressive” In many cases, the products people influences. Value expressive influences buy or the brands they select become a occur when an individual purchases a brand behavioral means by which they internally because it represents the values of certain strengthen and clarify their self-concept and groups that the individual admires. The a means through which they express their difference between value expressive and self-concept to others. An individual utilitarian influences can be subtle, but the clarifies or strengthens his or her own self- difference is important as a means of concept by purchasing products or brands distinguishing between reasons for purchase. believed to be consistent with the values and The primary difference is that value norms of important reference groups, expressive influences do not occur in order thereby more closely aligning his or her own to gain or maintain membership in a self-concept with impressions of the group. particular group. They occur because the Certain particularly visible purchases consumer identifies with the particular value (clothing, for example) help a person or values associated with a group, not communicate those values to important because they wish to become a member. audiences. Mechanisms of reference group Social Class influences. Three basic mechanisms of influence exist for reference groups to affect Closely related to reference groups is purchase behavior. First are “informational social class. That’s because one’s social influences.” Informational influences occur class greatly influences an individual’s when people look to reference groups to values and norms, as well as the groups he learn about brand performance. In such or she looks to for behavioral cues. As a circumstances, consumers consider the feature of society, social class is not an easy reference group particularly knowledgeable concept to deal with. For one thing, about the product or brands in question. For although easily defined, it’s not terribly example, a novice runner in his or her first precise. For another, it’s one many people Psychographics and Lifestyle – page 7

upper-upper

lower-upper

upper middle

middle

working

upper-lower

lower-lower

= social classes of the American mainstream

Exhibit 4. U.S. Social Class System

feel uncomfortable with because it involves discrimination. However, the problems of a sort of social ranking, which may conflict an entrenched discriminatory social class with American society’s traditionally system persist. egalitarian view of itself. For most Western industrialized What is social class? As noted nations, social class systems are far less above, social class is based on a system of formal, far less rigid, and far less well- ranking members of society. We define a defined than in developing nations. In the “social class system” as an “ordered and United States, we might think of our system hierarchical division of society into distinct of social stratification less in terms of groups with respect to norms, attitudes, distinct classes and more as a continuum of values, and lifestyles.” An individual’s social ranks. Moreover, social mobility in social class would be the division of the industrialized countries is far easier than in social class system to which he or she countries with formalized social class belongs. Social class systems stratify systems such as the caste system. societies in part to divide the privileges, In industrialized democracies, social rights, and other resources offered by the rank derives from some combination of society. “achievement dimensions” and “ascribed In some countries, social class dimensions.” In the United States, systems are very well defined and even achievement dimensions are the dominant formalized. For example, India has for determinant of social class. These include years struggled with the injustices of a rigid such factors as education, income, caste system under which people were occupation, and to a lesser extent, assets placed into a particular social class based such as place of residence. Ascribed solely on their birth. As India became more dimensions play an important role in social industrialized, it outlawed caste based rank determination in the U.S., but not the Psychographics and Lifestyle – page 8 dominant role. These include such factors class comprises about 12.5% of the as race, gender, surname, and community population. longevity. Fourth is the “middle class,” which The U.S. social class system . As males up 32% of the population. The noted above, the U.S. social class system is middle class is made up of college educated best thought of as a continuum of social mid-level managers and other average pay ranks rather than distinct sets of classes. white collar workers. Still, for explanatory purposes, many writers The fifth social class is called the describe the U.S. social class system as a “working class.” People in the working series of points on the continuum that can be class may hold skilled and semi skilled blue labeled as social classes and serve to collar jobs. Many in this social class may illustrate the social differences that exist earn more than those in the middle class but between groups of Americans. We will are categorized in the working class because adopt the most common view of the they may lack a college education and American social class system, which divides because they do not hold white collar jobs. the population into seven social class This social class makes up about 38% of the groups. These social class groupings are total. shown in Exhibit 4 on the preceding page. Sixth is the “upper lower” class. At the top of the social class People in this social class live at or just hierarchy is the “upper upper” class, which above the poverty level, may lack a high comprises approximately only about 0.3% of school diploma, and frequently hold the total population. Individuals in this unskilled service sector jobs that pay social class tend to extremely affluent, with minimum wage or only slightly better. The most of their wealth inherited. Many carry upper lower class is about 9% of the aristocratic names suggesting “old money.” population. Just below this group is the “lower At the bottom of the U.S. social upper” class. People belonging to this class hierarchy is the “lower lower” class. People also tend to be very wealthy. Indeed, in in this social class are poverty stricken. terms of income or assets, they can be They may be unemployed or underemployed substantially wealthier than the upper and frequently receive some sort of public uppers, however, but their wealth may be assistance. They make up about 7% of the somewhat more recent. Corporate population. executives and the professional elite in the As shown in Exhibit 4, the most country frequently belong to this social striking feature of the U.S. social class class. As you might expect, this social class system is the large proportion of people is rather small as well, comprising only falling into the middle range. In fact, over 1.2% of the population. eight in ten Americans occupy the upper The third social class from the top is middle, middle, or working classes. referred to as the “upper middle” class. Collectively, these three social classes are People in this social class also enjoy affluent referred to by some sociologists as the lifestyles but tend to lack the overall levels “American mainstream” because they of assets found in the two top social classes. represent such a large majority of Members of this social class occupy mid to Americans. upper managerial positions in the corporate The presence of the American world or may be professionals such as mainstream as a feature of our social doctors, lawyers, or engineers. This social structure adds much to America’s way of Psychographics and Lifestyle – page 9

Working Class Middle Class Upper Middle Class Tend to be “family folk;” More interested than working Compared to other more than half live within five class in investing time and mainstream classes, work miles of close relatives. resources on future plays a major role in social improvement (education, interactions; friends are those Prefer local news to national retirement, etc.) from work or in similar newscasts relative to other professions. mainstream classes. Money tends to be more important to middle class than More likely than other groups Tend to take vacations within other mainstream classes, in to be involved in charitable two hour drive of home. part because they see work, though often not opportunity to move up in directed at poor (PTA, Very patriotic and supportive social status. Chamber of Commerce) of American industry; many union members belong to Strongly prefer home Watch less TV than other working class. ownership. mainstream social classes.

Family tends to structured Tend to purchase national Prefer prestige brands, tend to traditional sex roles. brands more than store or spend with “good taste.” economy brands. Close affinity to Travel more often and further neighborhood. Strong interest in being seen than other mainstream classes, as “respectable.” in part due to higher incomes. Exhibit 5. Characteristics of the American Mainstream

life. That so many Americans live in such behaviors exist between groups. Some but comparative affluence – at least by world not all of these differences can be explained standards – and enjoy a comfortable by differences in income. It’s worth noting standard of living plays a major role in the again that many skilled blue collar general social stability of our country and occupations associated with the working our economy. class pay more than some white collar Because they make up such a huge managerial occupations associated with the proportion of the population and because middle class. As such, many of the they enjoy a materially comfortable standard marketplace differences between groups are of living, the American mainstream more attributable to values and beliefs comprises a rather large target for marketing within social classes than strictly to income. efforts. And as you might expect, some notable differences exist in the general Personality values and purchasing habits of the three social class groups that make up the Over the years, the study of American mainstream. These differences personality as a predictor of shopping are summarized in Exhibit 5. behavior has met with mixed results. One As noted in the exhibit, broadly reason is because of the disparate views of defined differences in brand preferences, personality that exist in psychology; some motives for purchasing, and shopping views predict consumer behavior better than Psychographics and Lifestyle – page 10 others. Therefore, we will utilize one of the Dogmatists can dislike change, but when more successful views of personality called faced with its inevitability, adapt their the “trait view” of personality. The trait behaviors to the change quite easily. view suggests that all people contain greater As you might expect, dogmatic and or lesser amounts of a set of personality rigid people do not easily adopt new traits. In combination, they create an products nor do they venture into new individual’s personality. In turn, that experiences. Marketers find such people personality produces reasonably predictable unattractive targets for new products, but marketplace behavior. In this section, we once they feel comfortable with a brand, briefly examine several personality traits dogmatists tend to stick with them. Unlike that have been shown in various studies to self-confidence, dogmatism tends to be a affect such behaviors. rather pervasive personality trait. It’s rarely Self-confidence . People with high situation specific; dogmatists tend to be degrees of individual self confidence are dogmatic in all areas. those who feel comfortable with their Compliance, aggressiveness, and product and brand selection decisions. As detachment . These three personality traits such, they frequently do not hesitate to try pertain to how people cope with stress or new stores, products, or brands. People high anxiety. People with compliant personalities in self-confidence present something of a tend to move toward (i.e., get closer to) the double edged sword to marketers. While an source of stress or anxiety and may even attractive target for new product or brand develop dependencies on the source of the introductions, many highly self-confident stress, particularly if the source is another people do not tend to develop strong or long person. Research has shown that those with lasting brand loyalties. compliant personalities respond more Importantly, self-confidence favorably to products or brands that help manifests itself in a variety of ways. It can build social relationships. Compliant people be a highly generalized personality trait, also tend to complain less than others in the meaning that people may feel self-confident face of dissatisfaction or product failure in in virtually all situations. It can also be part because compliant people also tend to situation specific, where people have great avoid conflict. confidence in some situations and not People with aggressive personalities others. This suggests that they may feel tend to move against the source of their confident buying certain types of products stress or anxiety and seek to eliminate it. but not others. Research shows that aggressive types Dogmatism and rigidity . Dogmatism respond well to brands that emphasize status can be described simply as “closed- and control as product benefits. As you mindedness.” Dogmatic people tend to be might expect, those with aggressive view change negatively, in large part personalities complain easily and may be because they frequently view the world in difficult customers to satisfy. Other studies relatively simple terms. While dogmatism have shown a correlation between refers to the mental state of closed- aggressiveness and the number of people mindedness, rigidity can be thought of as its told of a dissatisfying consumption behavioral side. That is, rigidity refers to experience. In other words, aggressive how much people resist change personality types tell more people about behaviorally. While the two almost always their unhappiness than nonaggressive types. go hand-in-hand, technically, they need not. Psychographics and Lifestyle – page 11

People who tend to detachment will preference for emotional appeals in favor of move away from the source of any stress or purchase. anxiety, perhaps to assert their independence Self consciousness and self- from it. Indeed, research has shown a monitoring . These personality traits pertain preference by detached personality types for to how individuals feel about and respond to brand appeals that emphasize independence. the image they present to others. Self- Need for cognition . An interesting consciousness refers to how keenly aware a line of research has focused on the degree to person is of himself or herself in social which people need to think about decisions situations. Commonly, self-consciousness is before making them. This personality trait thought to mean feeling uncomfortable in has direct application to advertising and given situations, though this need not be so. other forms of marketing communication. The trait simply refers to the awareness one This is because people with high needs for feels of his or her public image in certain cognition respond well to advertisements situations. The discomfort arises when that that contain well reasoned arguments and public image conflicts with one’s desired solid evidence in favor of buying the self-concept. product. Conversely, people with high A related personality trait is “self- needs for cognition tend to respond less monitoring,” which refers to the degree to favorably to advertisements that focus which individuals adapt their behavior to fit heavily emotional appeals and do not the situation at hand. High self-monitors present rational, reasoned arguments and look to their immediate social surroundings evidence. for cues on how to behave. In the extreme, Affect intensity . The trait of affect high self-monitors may actually contradict intensity simply means that one responds themselves depending on the situation. For very emotionally to environmental stimuli. example, a person may claim to hate country As such, according to theory, an individual music when among a group of rock fans, can possess high levels of both need for then later claim to love country music when cognition and affect intensity. In other in the midst of country music fans. words, it’s theoretically possible for a However, high self-monitors need not be so person to think heavily and deeply about blatantly inconsistent. Instead, they may decisions and to respond with great look for more innocuous ways to fit into the emotional intensity to environmental circumstances of the moment. stimuli. In practice, however, these two As you might expect, high self- traits tend to correlate negatively. That is, monitors tend to also be highly self- people with low needs for cognition are less conscious. That is, they are keenly aware of likely to be affectively intense than people the public image they present, which is why with low needs for cognition. they frequently put forth the effort to adapt it This suggests that people with strong situationally. However, the converse is not affect intensity respond more favorably to always true. That is, highly self-conscious marketing communications that emphasize people may not be high self-monitors. They emotion in their appeals. Research supports may be aware of their public image, but do that assumption. Just as need for cognition little to alter it to fit the needs of the produces a preference for rational evidence moment. based arguments in favor of buying a Extraversion and introversion . product, affect intensity produces a These two well known personality traits anchor two extremes of a continuum. The Psychographics and Lifestyle – page 12 extroversion-introversion continuum refers these relationships. While qualitative to how much stimulation people seek from research may lack the generalizability of their environments. While we’re all pretty well-executed quantitative studies, studies of aware of the definitions associated with these variables often requires delving into these traits (extroverts as socially active, consumer feelings and emotions in ways not introverts as loners), the sources of these well captured by surveys and characteristics are not as well known. experimentation. Where an individual falls on the Often, marketers simply rely on continuum between extroversion and intuition when utilizing lifestyle variables introversion is in part determined by the and their predictors. While the intuitive sensitivity of one’s nervous system to approach can be effective and certainly environmental stimuli. The nervous systems inexpensive, marketers should make certain of introverts tend to be highly sensitive to that they understand the dimensions of the environmental stimuli. As such, they avoid lifestyle variables and not overlook situations filled with loud or intrusive noises important possibilities. For example, if and bright lights or colors, which frequently marketers believe personality may affect describe social gatherings. Avoiding such lifestyle in ways important to consumption situations often means being alone or in of their brands, they should consider as small controlled groups. Extroverts, on the many personality traits as possible before other hand, possess nervous systems that are exercising their judgment. less sensitive to loud, active, and rapidly changing environmental stimuli. Therefore, Sources they feel more comfortable in unstructured social situations and often seek out such Material on the definition and history of stimulations. psychographics, and some of the material on reference groups and social class came from: Using AIO Predictors in and Strategy Engel, James F., Roger D. Blackwell, and David T. Kollat (1978), Consumer Behavior . By way of conclusion, you should New York: Dryden Press. note that researching lifestyle connections to social class, reference groups, and Other reference group material came from: personality can be difficult and time consuming. Quick, easily applied, and valid Solomon, Michael R. (2002), Consumer questionnaire items do not exist for all of Behavior: Buying, Having, and Being . these variables because of their complexity Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. and somewhat enigmatic nature. Still, many firms do invest heavily in researching how The discussion of social class was adapted these variables influence lifestyle, and how in part from: lifestyle in turn affects purchase behavior. We will discuss some quantitative Hawkins, Del I., Roger J. Best, and Kenneth measurement techniques for these variables A. Coney (2001), Consumer Behavior: in class. Building Marketing Strategy , Boston: Irwin That said, you should be aware that McGraw-Hill. qualitative research is frequently the most effective and efficient means of addressing Psychographics and Lifestyle – page 13

Some of the material on personality was adapted from:

Lindquist, Jay D. and M. Joseph Sirgy (2003), Shopper, Buyer, and Consumer Behavior: Theory, Marketing Applications, and Public Policy Applications , Cincinnati: Atomic Dog Publishing.