Geological Setting, Classification, Genesis and Exploration
Total Page:16
File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb
A REVIEW OF THE SEDIMENT-HOSTED, DISSEMINATED PRECIOUS METAL DEPOSITS OF NEVADA : Geological Setting, Classification, Genesis and Exploration by Philip J Ash Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Mineral Exp loration) , Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa January, 1986 This dissertation was prepared in accordance with specifications laid down by the University and was completed within a period of eight weeks full-time study. ABSTRACT Carlin-type, fine-grained, "invisible" or Disseminated Replacement Type gold silver deposits are all different names for a major new type of are deposit that is currently being extensively developed in the Western United States. This type of deposit is now being found elsewhere. Thus a descriptive empirical model that emphasizes the geological and geochemical environment of formation is needed to assist the mining industry in the search for similar deposits. These deposits are typically formed in carbonaceous, silty dolomites and I imestones or calcareous siltstones and claystones. Gold-silver mineralization is disseminated in the host sedimentary rocks and is exceedingly fine-grained, usually less than one micron in size in unoxidized ore. Primary alteration types include decalcification, argillitization, silicification and pyritization. Silicification is commonly intense resulting in the formation of jasperoid bodies which may be the host to higher grade ore. Supergene alteration is dominated by oxidation resulting in the formation of numerous oxides and sulphates and the release of gold from its association with sulphides and organic carbon. Commonly associated trace elements are As, Ba, Hg, Sb, and TI. Available geological, geochemical, fluid inclusion and stable-isotope studies lead to the conclusion that a circulating hydrothermal system is the important factor necessary for gold-silver concentration and deposition. A direct genetic or only casual relation between are deposition and discrete igneous formations remains unclear. However, it is considered that volcanism provided the source of heat necessary for the generation of a circulating hydrothermal system. High angle faults and fold structures facilitate transport and are of prime importance in directing are fluids to favourable host lithologies. The host rocks, overwhelmingly carbonate - rich, include those whose original and/or altered compositions and resulting permeability provide favourable sites for the precipitation of disseminated gold. The processes resulting in the formation of these deposits are not specialized. Any th ick section of carbonate rocks has the potential to produce Disseminated Replacement Type deposits wherever underlying igneous activity has developed a hydrothermal system. CONTENTS PAGE 1 . INTRODUCTION 2.GOLD : DISTRIBUTION AND ASSOCIATIONS 3 2.1 General Geochemistry 3 2.2 Distribution of Gold in Time and Space 6 2.3 Classification of Gold Deposits 10 3.SEDIMENT-HOSTED, DISSEMINATED PRECIOUS METAL DEPOSITS OF NEVADA 15 3.1 Geological Evolution of the Western United States 17 Palaeozoic evolution Mesozoic evolution Cenozoic evolution 3.2 Mineral Belts of Nevada 24 The Carlin belt The Cortez be I t The Getchell belt Isolated deposits 3.3 Classification of Sediment-Hosted, Disseminated Precious Metal Deposits 41 3.3.1 Carlin-type subset: The Carlin gold deposit 44 Host lithology Igneous rocks Structure Al teration Ore types Chemical changes Organic chemistry Vein types Fluid inclusions Stable isotopes Age of mineralization Paragenesis - a summary 3.3.2 Jasperoidal-type subset : The Pinson and Preble gold deposits 72 Host lithology Igneous rocks Structure Alteration and mineralization Vein types Age of mineralization 3.3.3 Jasperoidal-type subset: The Taylor silver deposit 77 Host lithology Igneous rocks Structure Ore types Alteration and oxidation Geochemistry of jasperoids Vein types Paragenes is 3.3.4 Summary of geological characteristics 89 11 4.0RE GENESIS 95 4.1 Epithermal Precious Metal Deposits 95 4.1.1 General characteristics 96 4.1.2 Conceptual models 97 4.2 Source of the Water, Ore and Gangue Components 99 4.3 Transport and Deposition of Gold in Hydrothermal Systems 103 4.3.1 Transport 103 4.3.2 Deposition 105 4.4 Genetic Model 106 4.4.1 Environment of formation 107 4.4.2 Plate tectonic setting 108 4.4.3 Fault and fracture control 109 4.4.4 Hydrothermal circulation 110 4.4.5 Alteration and deposition 111 5. EXPLORATION 112 5 .1 Geological Prospecting 112 5.2 Geochemical Prospecting 115 5.2.1 Lithogeochemical methods 115 Al tered rocks Vein filling and fracture coatings 5.2.2 Pedo- and hydrogeochemical methods 120 5.2 .3 Atmogeochemical methods 121 5.2.4 Biogeochemical methods 122 6 . CONCLUS ION 123 7.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 125 REFERENCES 126 BIBLIOGRAPHY 137 APPENDIX A Geological time scale 138 111 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE ABBREVIATED TITLE PAGE 2. 1 Source of world gold 7 2.2 Gold mineralization in geological time 7 2.3 World distribution of primary gold deposits, and occurrences, of Precambrian age 8 2.4 Distribution of Archaean provinces 8 2.5 World distribution of primary gold deposits, and occurrences, of Palaeozoic age 9 2.6 World distribution of primary gold deposits, and occurrences of Palaeozoic age 9 2.7 World distribution of primary gold deposits, and occurrences, of Cenozoic age 11 2.8 The major tectonic features of the World 11 2.9 Generalized chemical and mineralogical associations within the epi- meso-hypothermal zones 13 3.1 Principal physiographic and some structural features of the Western United States 16 3.2 Geological sketch map of western North America 16 3.3 Distribution of mio- and eugeosynclinal facies in the Cordilleran geosyncline 18 3.4 Distribution of Roberts Mountain thrust and principal mining districts in Eureka County, Nevada 19 3.5 Phanerozoic intrusive rocks of the western United States 21 3.6 Limits of Mesozoic magmatic arc activity 21 3.7 Major structural and magmatic elements developed during the Laramide Orogeny 23 3.8 Arc-type magmatism and structural elements of Cenozoic age 23 3.9 Locations of ma jor sediment-hosted, disseminated precious metal deposits in the western United States 25 3.10 Regional geology of the Carlin belt, Nevada 31 3. 11 Regional geology of the Cortez belt, Nevada 34 lV FIGURE ABBREVIATED TITLE PAGE 3.12 Regional geology of the Getchell belt, Nevada 36 3.13 Stratigraphic section of the Palaeozoic rocks exposed in the vicinity of the Northumberland gold mine, Nevada 39 3.14 St ratigraphic section of the Palaeozoic sediments, and Tertiary volcanics, exposed in the vicinity of the Alligator Ridge gold mine, Nevada 40 3.15 Generalized geology map and cross sections through the Alligator Ridge gold deposit, Nevada 42 3.16 Geological map of the area around the Carlin gold deposit in the northern part of the Lynn window, Nevada 45 3.17 Simplified geological map of the Carlin gold deposit, Nevada 46 3.18 Schematic north-south section through the Main Ore Zone and Popovich Hill, Carlin gold depos it, Nevada 47 3.19 Chalcedonic seams from chimney structures at the Carlin gold deposit, Nevada 53 3.20 Chemica! changes in dolomitic carbonate rocks of the Roberts Mountains Formation during ore deposition, Carlin gold depOSit, Nevada 61 3.21 Chemical changes in dolomitic carbonate rocks of the Roberts Mountains Formation during mineralization, acid-leaching and oxidation, Carlin gold deposit, Nevada 63 3.22 Hydrothermal system and solution paths inferred for the formation of the Carlin gold depOSit, Nevada 70 3.23 Paragenesis of the Carlin gold deposit, Nevada 70 3.24 Schematic cross section of the main ore zone at the Preble gold deposit, Nevada 74 3.25 Generalized geological map of the Pinson gold deposit, Nevada 75 3.26 Stratigraphic section of the Taylor silver mining district, Nevada 78 3.27 Geological plan and cross sections of the Taylor silver deposit, Nevada 80 3.28 Average grade versus depth plot, Taylor silver district, Nevada 82 v FIGURE ABBREVIATED TITLE PAGE 3.29 Enr ichment factor anomaly maps, Taylor silver district 85 3.30 Var iations in elements across jasperoid body, Taylor silver district 86 3.31 Cross-section through Cortez gold mine 92 4.1 Spatial relationship of alteration mineralogy and trace element concentrations, Steamboat Springs, Nevada 98 4.2 Crossection of the Broadland thermal area, New Zealand 98 4.3 Schematic representation of depositional environments of epithermal precious metal deposits 100 4.4 Schematic illustration of continental tectonic environments with a high heat flow 109 4.5 Fracture patterns, and hydrothermal convective system, above an intrusive pluton. 109 5.1 Histograms for Au, As, Sb and Hg analyses at the Pinson and Preble deposits 118 5.2 Maps showing concentrations of Au, As, Sb and Hg at the Pinson and Preble deposits 119 5.3 Profiles for Au, As, Sb and Hg across the Pinson and Preble deposits 120 VI LIST OF TABLES TABLE ABBREVIATED TITLE PAGE 2.1 Gold minerals 3 2 . 2 The Lindgren "depth-zone" classification of mineral deposits 12 2.3 Classification of gold deposits 13 3.1 Geological characteristics of major known sediment-hosted, disseminated precIous metal deposits in the Western United States 26 3.2 Geological characteristics and form of ore bodies in major known sediment-hosted, disseminated precious metal deposits in the Western United States 28 3.3 Chemical analysis of samples of unaltered Roberts Mountains Formation, Lynn window, Nevada 50 3.4 Spectrographic analyses of samples of unaltered Roberts Mountains Formation,