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An Update on Sepsis Biomarkers Infect Chemother. 2020 Mar;52(1):1-18 https://doi.org/10.3947/ic.2020.52.1.1 pISSN 2093-2340·eISSN 2092-6448 Review Article An Update on Sepsis Biomarkers Mi-Hee Kim and Jung-Hyun Choi Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea Received: Feb 29, 2020 ABSTRACT Corresponding Author: Jung-Hyun Choi, MD, PhD Sepsis is a dysregulated systemic reaction to a common infection, that can cause life- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department threatening organ dysfunction. Over the last decade, the mortality rate of patients with of Internal Medicine, Eunpyeong St. Mary's sepsis has decreased as long as patients are treated according to the recommendations of the Hospital, 1021 Tongil Ro, Eunpyeong-gu, Surviving Sepsis Campaign, but is still unacceptably high. Patients at risk of sepsis should Seoul 03312, Korea. Tel: +82-2-2030-4374 therefore be identified prior to the onset of organ dysfunction and this requires a rapid Fax: +82-2-2030-2698 diagnosis and a prompt initiation of treatment. Unfortunately, there is no gold standard E-mail: [email protected] for the diagnosis of sepsis and traditional standard culture methods are time-consuming. Recently, in order to overcome these limitations, biomarkers which could help in predicting Copyright © 2020 by The Korean Society the diagnosis and prognosis of sepsis, as well as being useful for monitoring the response to of Infectious Diseases, Korean Society for Antimicrobial Therapy, and The Korean Society treatments, have been identified. In addition, recent advances have led to the development of for AIDS newly identified classes of biomarkers such as microRNAs, long-non-coding RNAs, and the This is an Open Access article distributed human microbiome. This review focuses on the latest information on biomarkers that can be under the terms of the Creative Commons used to predict the diagnosis and prognosis of sepsis. Attribution Non-Commercial License (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) Keywords: Sepsis; Biomarkers; Diagnostic; Prognostic which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. INTRODUCTION ORCID iDs Mi-Hee Kim According to the third international consensus definition, sepsis is defined as a life- https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4568-8497 threatening organ dysfunction that occurs due to a dysregulated host response to infection. Jung-Hyun Choi Septic shock is a subtype of sepsis that is clinically identified by a requirement for the https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6941-463X administration of vasopressors to increase the mean arterial blood pressure to 65 mmHg or Conflict of Interest greater despite sufficient fluid resuscitation, or by an increase in serum lactic acid levels by No conflicts of interest. 2 mmol/L or greater [1]. Sepsis is one of the most common causes of ICU hospitalization, and its frequency continues to increase. In a meta-analysis of 27 studies in high-income Author Contributions countries, the incidence rate of sepsis was found to be 288 cases per 100,000 person-years Conceptualization: MHK, JHC. Data curation: MHK, JHC. Formal analysis: MHK, JHC. [2]. A multicenter cohort study in Korea reported that the incidence of sepsis in patients Funding acquisition: JHC. Investigation: admitted to the emergency department was 1.5%, of which 36.5% were accompanied MHK, JHC. Methodology: MHK, JHC. Project by septic shock [3]. Several studies have shown that mortality related to sepsis has been administration: MHK, JHC. Resources: MHK, decreasing annually, but in low and middle-income countries there is still a high mortality JHC. Software: MHK, JHC. Supervision: JHC. rate that can be up to 80%. Sepsis treatment is the most expensive in the United States, https://icjournal.org 1 Sepsis biomarkers Validation: MHK, JHC. Visualization: MHK, resulting in more than 20 billion dollars each year. Patients at risk of sepsis should be JHC. Writing - original draft: MHK, JHC. identified prior to the onset of organ dysfunction and they require rapid diagnosis and onset Writing - review & editing: MHK, JHC of treatment. Unfortunately, there is no gold standard for the diagnosis of sepsis, and the sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) score [4], recommended for assessing organ dysfunction in sepsis criteria-3 [1], runs the risk of premature recognition of the signs of a potentially fatal infection [5-9]. In addition, because traditional standard culture methods are time-consuming, accurate microbial diagnosis can be delayed. The development of sepsis biomarkers that can help in predicting the diagnosis and prognosis of sepsis and monitoring treatment responses is an ongoing process [10]. Sepsis begins with the activation of an innate immune response mediated by the detection of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) or pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) on host cells. In the activated innate immune response to sepsis, pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) are released, followed a rise in the levels of acute phase proteins such as procalcitonin, calprotectin, pro-adrenomedulin, pentraxin-3, and C-reactive protein (CRP). In addition, the serum levels of glycoproteins on cell membranes such as presepsin, soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cell 1 (sTREM-1), and soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR) may be increased, and the expression of CD64, an immunoglobulin receptor, may also be upregulated [11, 12]. Many of these molecules have been proposed as sepsis biomarkers (Table 1). In particular, procalcitonin and CRP are already widely used as biomarkers for the prediction of diagnosis and the severity of sepsis [13, 14]. MCP-1 is a soluble chemokine that is secreted by monocytes, endothelial cells, fibroblasts and other cells under pro-inflammatory conditions and initiates the inflammatory cascade allowing the recruitment of immune cells to the site of injury. The increase in the levels of MCP-1 in sepsis patients is correlated with organ dysfunction and may help to predict a poor prognosis (Table 2) [15]. sTREM-1, a soluble form of TREM-1, is expressed mainly on monocytes and neutrophils, and plays an important role in the inflammatory and cytotoxic response to sepsis including the synergic activation of Toll-like receptors and the increase of production of pro-inflammatory cytokines [16]. Several studies have demonstrated that the serum levels of sTREM-1 are a useful diagnostic biomarker for sepsis (Table 1) [17]. suPAR, a soluble form of uPAR, is expressed on immune cells such as neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, and macrophages, as well as on endothelial cells, and is involved in a variety of immunological functions including cell migration, cell adhesion, angiogenesis, fibrinolysis, and cell proliferation [18]. Higher serum levels of suPAR are associated with a higher mortality (Table 2). suPAR levels are thought to have a limited diagnostic value, but a recent meta-analysis has reported that the area under the curve (AUC) of suPAR for predicting sepsis was as high as 0.83 [19]. CD64, a high- affinity Fcγ receptor I, is present at low levels on resting neutrophils, but its expression is up-regulated in the early stages of activation of the innate immune response. The CD64 index has been suggested to be a diagnostic marker of sepsis in several studies (Table 1) [20-22]. In addition to the biomarkers described above, various proteins, soluble receptors, cytokines, and chemokines, which are involved in the pathophysiology of sepsis, have been proposed and evaluated as novel biomarkers. Recent advances have also led to the development of newly identified classes of biomarkers such as microRNAs, long-non-coding RNAs, or the human microbiome. This review focuses on the latest information on biomarkers that can be used for predicting the diagnosis and prognosis of sepsis. https://icjournal.org https://doi.org/10.3947/ic.2020.52.1.1 2 Sepsis biomarkers Table 1. Diagnostic markers of sepsis Category Biomarker Ability to predict Patients Variables AUC 95% CI Ref Soluble Presepsin Sepsis diagnosis Sepsis [93] (n = 72), Presepsin 0.954 0.910 – 0.998 [31] receptors healthy controls or SIRS (n = 43) PCT 0.847 0.793 – 0.955 CRP 0.859 0.782 – 0.936 Sepsis diagnosis Sepsis [93] (n = 73), Presepsin 0.937 [30] healthy controls or SIRS (n = 45) PCT 0.915 hs-CRP 0.853 IL-6 0.869 sTREM-1 Differentiation between Sepsis [93] (n = 52), SIRS (n = 38) sTREM-1 0.78 0.69 – 0.86 [94] SIRS and sepsis PCT 0.65 0.53 – 0.76 APACHE II 0.71 0.60 – 0.81 Septic shock diagnosis Septic shock [95] (n = 60), sTREM-1 0.955 [96] healthy controls (n = 30) PCT 0.844 CRP 0.791 IL-6 0.898 suPAR Sepsis diagnosis Sepsis [95] (n = 40), suPAR 0.99 0.93 – 1.00 [18] healthy controls (n = 40) Lactate 0.84 0.74 – 0.91 Membrane CD64 Sepsis diagnosis Sepsis [1] (n = 151), CD64 0.879 0.795 – 0.962 [20] receptors healthy controls (n = 20) PCT 0.868 0.795 – 0.962 CRP 0.609 0.491 – 0.727 SOFA 0.701 0.579 – 0.874 DAMP Calprotectin Sepsis diagnosis Sepsis [1] (n = 77), CaPT 0.67 [42] non-sepsis (n = 194) PCT 0.55 Sepsis diagnosis Sepsis [1] (n = 300), CaPT 0.901 0.852 – 0.942 [44] healthy controls (n = 53) CC chemokine MCP-1 Septic shock diagnosis Sepsis [1] (n = 43), MCP-1 0.716 0.564 – 0.868 [15] ligand 2 healthy controls
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