Missouri Ozark Forest Soils: Perspectives and Realities

/.~~ ~OO©W~~------

R. David Hammer 1

Abstract.-Ozark forest soils are dynamic in space and time, and most formed in multiple parent materials. Erosion and mass move ment have been variable and extensive. Soil attributes including texture, cation exchange capacity, and mineralogy are related to geologic strata and to geomorphic conditions. Soil organic carbon content is influenced by surface shape, position in landscape, and aspect. Phosphorus is universally low, and most P is occluded. Many soil attributes are distributed in patterns related to topo graphic, geologic, and geomorphic features, but the patterns often are masked by site-specific variability such as tree throw, micro-relief, and slumps. Generalizations about Ozark soil landscapes must be given cautiously and are most meaningful in the context of attribute ranges rather than means.

The Missouri Ozark Forest Ecosystem Project ideas being developed as a consequence of (MOFEP) has provided an opportunity to inves recent studies and projects. The objective is to tigate Ozark forest soils in a context and with a illustrate important soil-landscape principles, rigor not previously possible. Soils are as with particular emphasis on their applicabilities essential for most terrestrial life as water and in Ozark forests. Rigorous, systematic data solar energy. However, soils are complex bodies evaluation will not be employed because it is that are difficult to study. They do not exist as assumed that most readers are not well versed discrete individual entities, such as trees, deer, in soil science concepts and terminology. The or fish. Soils have many attributes, most of presentation will be framed within a systematic which vru.y temporarily and are difficult to evaluation of a previously published document measure. All soil attributes change at different whose primru.y tenents seem to persist among spatial rates into other attributes. Soils are not non-soil scientists. The purpose in comparing as aesthetically appealing to most natural new ideas with old is not to discredit or embar resources students as the biota, particularly rass others. Rather, it is to force readers to trees, fish, and wildlife. Consequently, soils are confront old belief systems with new ones and not so well understood as other ecosystem to make conscious, informed choices. Old components and are infrequently included as paradigms are replaced slowly and reluctantly, components of ecosystem studies. When they even when individuals are confronted with hard are included, soils often are trivialized. Miscon evidence (Peters 1991, Rowe 1984, Simonson ceptions and untested assumptions often guide 1968). sampling schemes, thus ensuring that the sampling will not test the hypothesis. These "Landscape" is a currently popular term in circumstances have created an unfortunate, biological sciences, but it has not been well often costly situation. One of the most funda defined and often is presented in the context of mental ecosystem components is poorly under "scale." In this paper, a landscape is defmed as stood and frequently mismanaged. a population of geomorphically related land forms. Geomorphology is the study of pro This paper investigates prevailing concepts of cesses that shape the Earth's surface features. Ozark forest soils and compares them with Geomorphology and pedology (the study of soil forming processes) are synergistic because the temporal and spatial distributions of water and 1 Associate Professor of Pedology, School of energy control both (Daniels and Hammer Natural Resources. University of Missouri 1992). A landform is an individual Earth Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211. 106

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mantle mantle

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entire entire

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vegetation vegetation

basic basic

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on on

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and and

ecologists ecologists

vegetation. vegetation.

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of of

by by land land

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various various

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systems systems

many many

of of

the the

removed removed

of of

eroded eroded

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geologic geologic

loess loess

Why Why

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(1984) (1984)

soils soils

was was

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ways ways

Ozark Ozark

spots spots

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wind. wind.

the the

limit limit

Ozark Ozark

the the

Missouri Missouri

bulletin bulletin

the the

silt-size silt-size

complexity complexity

1991). 1991).

original original

prevail? prevail?

features, features,

"original" "original"

the the

removed removed

natural natural

by by

sameness." sameness."

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River River

"historicfl "historicfl

to to

information information

foresters, foresters,

easily easily

condition condition

biota. biota.

training. training.

introductory introductory

to to

Rowe's Rowe's

small small

of of

and and

"restore" "restore"

plateaus, plateaus,

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ignorance ignorance

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that that

materials materials

Missouri Missouri

vegetation. vegetation.

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the the

originally originally

not not

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because because

complexities complexities

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can can

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Missouri Missouri

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botanists, botanists,

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establishing establishing

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main main

professional professional

(1963) (1963)

key key

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widespread, widespread,

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ages. ages.

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who who

specific specific

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illustrates illustrates

skeptics skeptics

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to to

except except

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soils, soils,

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botanist botanist

landscape landscape

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characterized characterized

forests forests

Ozark Ozark

biota biota

". ".

Salem Salem

natural natural

veneer veneer

1997a), 1997a),

Ozark Ozark

untrue: untrue:

Krusekopfs Krusekopfs

system system

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all all

tions tions

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include include

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material material Earth Earth

idea idea

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geologic geologic

Ozark Ozark

foresters, foresters,

very very

rugged

(Gilbert (Gilbert

Ozark Ozark

botanist botanist

and and

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represen

tempo

need need

concepts concepts

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landform, landform,

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early early

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disciplines disciplines

respect respect

statewide statewide

Missouri Missouri

this this and and

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surveys surveys

decline decline

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1963). 1963).

MOFEP MOFEP

parts parts

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widely widely

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soil soil

said said

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1992) 1992)

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Problem Problem

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1975) 1975)

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that that

of: of:

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be be

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of of

Ozark Ozark

entities entities

the the

scientist scientist Gott Gott

soils soils

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the the

(landforms), (landforms),

precise precise

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PREVAILING PREVAILING of of

spatial spatial

vegetation vegetation

(4) (4)

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suggested suggested

coarse, coarse, 1971, 1971,

argued argued

(1963). (1963).

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key key Illustrating Illustrating

the the

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Ozarks Ozarks

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ing ing

would would

during during

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1997a). 1997a).

sites, sites,

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recently, recently,

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ness ness

investigate, investigate,

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Primary Primary

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and and convex), convex),

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materials. materials.

landforms, landforms,

rally. rally.

context context surface surface M©W~~------

"Soils are consistently light in color-either surveys published prior to the 1990's and gray or brown, shallow in thickness of containing areas of Ozark forest soils were Dent surface soil, of medium (silt loam) texture, County (Gilbert 1971) and the Mark Twain and of relatively low fertility. Varying National Forest Area (Gott 1975). The legends amounts of chert stone characterize nearly of both surveys have relatively few soil series. all the soils except in the Ozark Border The Dent County survey contains 14 series, 4 ·of region." (p. 7). which are alluvial (table 1). Five of the 12 series mapped in the Mark Twain National Forest are "The lower subsoil tends to have a brown or alluvial (table 2). Thus, the complex upland reddish-brown color and is consistently landscape is portrayed as a small group of acid-a pH value of less than 5. The per relatively uniform soils. Is this phenomenon a cent of base saturation is low." (p. 7). consequence of Krusekopfs perspective of "sameness" of soils in the Ozark region? "There are no sharp contrasts in either forests or soils, and all changes tend to be Conversely, site-specific soils investigations gradational." (p. 7). conducted by Meinert (Meinert et al., 1977) on the MOFEP sites, an area much smaller then "Variations in the forest cannot be corre either Dent County or the Mark Twain National lated with depth or thickness of the surface Forest, resulted in 4 7 soil mapping units. soil because the latter is remarkably uni Meinert's soil units were conceived to meet form throughout the region." (p. 10). MOFEP needs, and were based upon a combi nation of soil and geomorphic attributes impor "On ridges and on slopes of less than 10 tant for forest composition and growth. One percent, most Ozark soils have a fragipan." would expect scores of mappable soils to be (p. 14). identified in individual Ozark counties, particu larly if mappers attempt to identify soil at "Fragipans do not occur in ve:ry stony soils, tributes important to the variety of current and on steep slopes, or in soils that have a potential land uses. reddish clay subsoil." (p. 14). Many of the upland soils in Dent County and "... geologic boundaries and soil bound the Mark Twain National Forest are mapped aries rarely conform." (p. 16). across ridges and sideslopes (backslopes). Slope phases within series separate slope soils "Soil erosion is not a serious problem in from ridgetop soils. This conveys a false per most of the Ozark region." (p. 16). spective of soil homogeneity. Many soils are mapped on multiple aspects. Figure l, an "Soil boundaries are too rigid to serve as excerpt from the Mark Twain National Forest forest type boundaries, especially over large Area survey, illustrates this model. In the lower areas." (p. 17). center is a ridge with west- and east-facing slopes. Dashed lines on the backslopes indicate "In general, moisture appears to be the most ephemeral drainageways. These drainageway important soil factor that can be consis incisions indicate that the backslopes contain a tently related to forest type distribution and mosaic of convex and concave surfaces. A then only as the extreme of soil moisture single soil series, with separate "phases" for condition is reached." (p. 17). slope steepness is mapped over the entire ridge. This is a false perception and false portrayal of The preceding statements will be addressed the soil. individually in the context of current knowl edge. Pedologic studies indicate that different soils occupy different geomorphic surfaces in com Soil Surveys plex, steeply sloping terrain, and that aspect creates measurable differences in soil attributes Soil surveys traditionally have presented forest which are important for tree growth (Carmean ers with unique and consistent challenges, 1975, Hammer et al. 1991). Such relationships many of which have been addressed by Grigal now are being observed and quantified in (1984) and Hammer (1997b). The two soil Missouri Ozark forest landscapes.

108

109 109

valleys valleys

with with

sideslopes sideslopes

rivers rivers

slopes slopes

and and

valleys valleys

bottoms bottoms

and and

bottoms bottoms

setting setting

in in

with with

setting setting

sideslopes sideslopes

major major

upper upper

sideslopes sideslopes

upper upper

presented presented

and and

depressions depressions

stream stream

bottoms bottoms

ridges ridges

footslopes footslopes

stream stream

and and

terraces terraces

and and

sideslopes/coves sideslopes/coves and and

near near

stream stream

ridges ridges

are are

terraces terraces

slopes slopes

and and

presented presented

Landscape Landscape

Ridges Ridges

Broad Broad

Depressions Depressions

Narrow Narrow

Ancient Ancient

Ridges Ridges

Lower Lower

Broad Broad

Bottoms Bottoms

Terraces Terraces

Narrow Narrow

Landscape Landscape

Ridges Ridges

Toe Toe

Lower Lower

Slopes Slopes

Low Low

Ridges Ridges

Narrow Narrow

Ridges Ridges

Ridges Ridges Stream Stream

Ridges Ridges

Toe Toe

Ridges Ridges

Series Series

are are

settings. settings.

Series Series

1975). 1975).

limestone limestone

(Gott (Gott

residuum residuum

dolomite dolomite

1971). 1971).

dolomite dolomite

landscape landscape

or or

sandstone sandstone

MO MO

sandstone sandstone

and and

cherty cherty

fill fill depression

cherty cherty

residuum residuum

from from

limestone limestone

residuum residuum

and and

(Gilbert (Gilbert

material material

Area, Area,

material material

dolomite dolomite

alluvium alluvium

dolomite dolomite

over over

and and

over over

materials materials

survey survey

Forest Forest

Parent Parent

Loess Loess

Alluvium Alluvium

Colluvium Colluvium

Loess Loess

Resdiuum Resdiuum

Residuum-cherty Residuum-cherty

Alluvium Alluvium Loess Loess

Parent Parent

Alluvium Alluvium

Loess Loess

Colluvium Colluvium

Alluvium Alluvium

Cherty Cherty

Loess Loess

Cherty Cherty

Alluvium Alluvium

Cherty Cherty

Dolomitic Dolomitic

Dolomite Dolomite

Cherty Cherty

Colluvium Colluvium

Alluvium Alluvium Loess Loess

soil soil

parent parent

MO MO

National National

with with

Twain Twain

County, County,

Eutrochrepts Eutrochrepts

Hapludalfs Hapludalfs

Fragiudalfs Fragiudalfs

Paleudults Paleudults

Fragiudults Fragiudults

Dystrochrepts Dystrochrepts

Humaquepts Humaquepts

Haplaquepts Haplaquepts

Hapludalfs Hapludalfs

subgroup, subgroup,

Mark Mark

Dent Dent

Paleudults Paleudults

Hapludalfs Hapludalfs

Paleudults Paleudults

Ochraqualfs Ochraqualfs

Fragiudalfs Fragiudalfs

Udifluvents Udifluvents

Haplaquepts Haplaquepts

Fragiaqualfs Fragiaqualfs

the the

Subgroup Subgroup

the the

Typic Typic

Ultic Ultic

Typic Typic

Aerie Fluvaquents Aerie Fluvaquents

Dystric Dystric

Typic Typic

Lithic Lithic

classification classification

Typic Typic

Mollie Mollie

to to

in in

Subgroup Subgroup

Typic Typic

Fluventic Fluventic

Typic Typic

Fluventic Fluventic

Typic Typic

Tyupic Tyupic

Typic Typic

classification classification

Tyipic Tyipic

Fluventic Fluventic

Typic Typic

Mollie Mollie

mapped mapped

classifications classifications

series series

2.--Soi/ 2.--Soi/

1.--Soil 1.--Soil

series series

taxonomic taxonomic

series series

taxonomic taxonomic

co co

tina tina

Elsah Elsah

Gladden Gladden

Moniteau Moniteau

Lebanon Lebanon

Hobson Hobson

Elkins Elkins

Coulstone Coulstone

Clarksville Clarksville

Baxter Baxter

Soil Soil

Bado Bado Atkins Atkins

Ashton Ashton

Table Table

Secesh Secesh

Wilderness Wilderness

Viraton Viraton

Poynor Poynor

Opequon Opequon

Mid Mid

Doniphan Doniphan

Coustone Coustone Newark Newark

Macedonia Macedonia

Soil Soil

Clarksville Clarksville

Claiborne Claiborne

Cap Cap

Ashton Ashton Table Table + JMII(J)ID'Jl:IP------ N !

0 0 0 0 N 0 0 .. ':"'

0 0 0 "'

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0 ~ 0 .,.0

0 0 0 ttl

Figure I.-A portion ofthe Mark 1ivainArea soil survey (Gott 1975) showing a single soil series mapped across aU aspects and landforms on a ridge. This figure is from the survey .field sheet number 30. Letter and number combinations within delineations are mapping unit symbols. The first two letters of mapping unit symbols represent the soil series and the last letter indicates the slope class. llO

Cotter Cotter

111 111

Keokuk Keokuk

The The

Potosi Potosi

Decorak Decorak

Porphyry Porphyry

City-

Most Most

forest forest

which which

depres

and and

formed formed

erosion erosion

deposi

of of

region region

combined combined

accepted. accepted.

horizons, horizons, (1963). (1963).

some some

Cambian: Cambian:

Hillslope Hillslope

soils soils

Burlington Burlington

Granite Granite

Cheltenham Cheltenham

Gasconade Gasconade Ronbidoux Ronbidoux

Jefferson Jefferson

Eminence Eminence

Joachim Joachim

place). place).

LANDSCAPE LANDSCAPE

single single

accumulated accumulated

in in

material material

Ozark Ozark

the the

(Daniels (Daniels

Ordovician: Ordovician:

Pennsylvanian; Pennsylvanian;

Perceptions Perceptions

in in

mosaic mosaic

or or

that that

Although Although

a a

longer longer

the the

SOIL SOIL

surface surface

no no

of of

~Mississippian: ~Mississippian: ~Pre ~Pre

!:::::;;:;:::;:;::::;:;::] !:::::;;:;:::;:;::::;:;::]

~Cambian: ~Cambian:

~ ~

llllJ llllJ

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illiiill illiiill

under under

Krusekopf Krusekopf

remain remain

was was

gravity gravity

agree agree

positions. positions.

surficial surficial

is is

found. found.

1987). 1987).

sediments sediments

by by

material material

as as

most most

weathered weathered

and and

area area

OZARK OZARK

original original

Krusekopfs Krusekopfs

would would

rarely rarely

has has

Vegetation Vegetation

that that

forested forested

downslope downslope

(Nelson (Nelson

parent parent

most most

water water

A-horizons A-horizons

Ozark Ozark

hillslope hillslope

landscape landscape

are are

defined defined

now now

of of

Highlands Highlands

is is

the the

which which

Forest Forest

COMPLEX COMPLEX

single single

slowly slowly

of of

event event

where where

buried buried

higher higher

a a

Countering Countering

originally originally

savanna savanna

statement statement

removed removed

Ozark Ozark

THE THE

the the

moves moves

influences influences

has has

sediment sediment

sions sions

and and

thick thick Original Original

from from

tional tional

Much Much

pedologists pedologists

material material

from from

was was

The The

absent. absent.

in in

was was

of of

a a

to to

that that

a a

soils soils

as as

impor

text text

land

in in

geo

geology" geology"

have have

conveys conveys

exposed exposed

effort effort

perceived perceived

to to

concept concept

than than

all all

surveys surveys

thought thought

and and

cited cited

(geologic (geologic

surveys surveys

soil-forming soil-forming

map map

determinants determinants

locally locally

uniform uniform

perception perception

of of

two-dimen

the the

soil soil

is is

were were

that that

soil soil

as as

seem seem

dissected dissected

"swjicial "swjicial

a a

were were

important important

in in

rather rather

a a

mapping mapping

of of

as as

false false

geology geology

early early

2), 2),

layer layer

of of

are are

series series

soils soils

residuum residuum

region region

(1963) (1963)

the the

relatively relatively

topographic topographic

figure figure

the the

in in

(fig. (fig.

indicates indicates

regulators regulators

of of

Soil Soil

attributes attributes

of of

current current

most most

the the

geology geology

two-dimensional two-dimensional

nor nor

feature feature

user user

Ozark Ozark

a a

and and

of of

idea idea

the the

and and

clearly clearly

feature feature

Krusekopfs Krusekopfs

representation representation

components components

stratigraphic stratigraphic

primarily primarily

3 3

the the

perceptions perceptions

upon upon

Thus, Thus,

spectrum spectrum

3). 3).

portion portion

landscape. landscape.

displayed displayed

conditions. conditions.

geomorphic geomorphic

Krusekopf Krusekopf

2.-A 2.-A

the the

single single

preceded preceded

surface surface

conditions conditions

(fig. (fig. He He

uninformed uninformed

Figure Figure

formed formed

based based

a a

lower lower

widespread, widespread,

the the

soil soil

Figure Figure

have have

as as

of of

morphic morphic

perpetuated perpetuated

processes. processes.

Neither Neither

across across

mention mention

scape scape

sional sional

dissected dissected

only only three-dimensional three-dimensional

stratigraphic stratigraphic

tant. tant.

soils. soils.

which which to to

Krusekopfs Krusekopfs been been • JMI(Q)JFJEIP------

CRYPT REEF

UPPER GASCONADE

LOWER GASGONADE

GUNTER

EMINENCE DOLOMITE

Figure 3.-A three-dimensional representation of stratrigraphic- and landform-related soils in a dissected portion of the Ozark Highland landscape. Specific soils are delineated by lines and and identified by mapping symbols (63D, BOF, etc.). This .figure illustrates the importance of geologic strata on soil distributions in a dissected Ozark landscape. From Meinert et al. (1997).

Hammer 1992). Knowing how to recognize often within single soil profiles. The buried depositional from erosional surfaces is a key to Mollisol mentioned in the previous paragraph locating buried soils which presexve soil fea was underlain by a red paleosol (old soil). tures inherited from past vegetation communi Within 100 feet of the Mollisol were an Alfisol ties. An excellent buried savanna Mollisol (soil with illuvial clay and high base saturation) (prairie soil with a thick surface horizon) re and an illtisol (soil with illuvial clay and low cently was exhumed at Ha-Ha Tonka State Park base saturation). Thus, three soil orders exist just below a ridge summit. A monolith was within an area that many people would perceive taken for subsequent display at the park's as a single geomorphic surface, in this case, an tourist center. Laboratory analyses are being upper backslope. conducted on samples taken from the profile. A recent visit to upland summits at MOFEP site 8 The Sameness of Soils revealed silty depositional surfaces similar to the one containing a buried Mollisol at Ha-Ha This idea was partially addressed in the preced Tonka. Soils at site 8 will be examined carefully ing paragraph. Pronounced differences in soil to determine if they retain a record of savanna texture, stoniness, structure, base saturation, vegetation. Experienced pedologists and geo pH, and color exist over short distances on morphologists would expect to find "relict" soils MOFEP sites. For example, a 5-acre site near a of past conditions underlying depositional ridgetop on MOFEP site 1 contained distinct surfaces. differences in base saturation in three soils within 60 m of each other (fig. 4). Base satura Striking differences in Ozark soil attributes can tion is the percentage of a soil's exchange be found within relatively short distances and capacity which is occupied by nutrient cations.

112

a a

113 113

in in

by by

130 130

of of

base base

a a

excep

when when

(ver

a a

higher higher

preced

geo

mate

This This

with with

satura thick. thick.

silty silty

from from

Base Base

have have

labora

vermicu

with with

environ

thick thick

examined examined

indicate indicate

surfaces. surfaces.

with with

slowly slowly

backslope backslope

and and some some

and and

cycling. cycling.

Horizons, Horizons,

residuum residuum

em em

co-exist co-exist

swell swell

some some

higher higher

soils soils

portion portion

both both

em. em.

red, red,

we we

exchange exchange

within within

base base

the the

5.0. 5.0.

of of

can can

intensely intensely are are

positions. positions.

controlled controlled

well-drained well-drained

dry. dry.

than than parent parent

in in

concavities concavities

the the

minerals minerals

which which

of of requires requires

temporal temporal

lower lower

and and

100 100

also also

humid humid

in in

contained contained

with with

which which

have have

soils soils

by by in in

concentration concentration

in in

cation cation

some some

inherited inherited

correlated correlated

analyses analyses

have have

tens tens

enriched enriched

in in

stony, stony,

for for

approximately approximately

Surface Surface

cation cation

material material

in in

more more

Ultisols Ultisols

is is

clay clay

when when

in in

but but

soils soils

the the

over over

be be

these these

They They

and and

clay clay

Vermiculite Vermiculite

vermiculite, vermiculite, depositional depositional

refuted refuted

be be

the the

partially partially

exceptionally exceptionally

strongly strongly

of of

warm, warm,

in in

of of

exceeding exceeding

percent percent

mineralogy mineralogy

2:1 2:1

and and

sites sites

section section

landscape landscape

carbon carbon to to

a a

is is

surfaces surfaces

of of

on on

color color

can can

affected affected

distribution distribution

an an

higher higher

The The

constituents constituents

40 40

collected collected

organic organic

pH pH

increase increase

leached, leached,

Shallow Shallow

been been

harden harden

is is

Subsoil Subsoil

percent percent

clay clay

horizons horizons

more more

concentrate concentrate

with with

a a

horizons horizons

Laboratory Laboratory

red red

a a

particularly particularly

and and

of of

B-horizons B-horizons

depth depth

tend tend

to to

soils soils

B-

have have

Generally, Generally,

higher higher

leaching, leaching, B-

40 40

a a

has has

primarily primarily

Alfisols Alfisols

expresses expresses

kaolinite. kaolinite.

and and

MOFEP MOFEP

depth depth

been been

convex convex

organic organic

The The

in in

the the

horizon horizon

percent percent

materials materials

Soils, Soils,

About About

turn, turn,

reddening reddening

of of

mobile mobile

montmorillonite) montmorillonite)

in in

Soils Soils

to to

red. red.

preceding preceding

Lower Lower

distances. distances.

than than

tend tend

had had

on on

which which

input input

on on

positions, positions,

in in

was was

contained contained

30 30

from from

soil soil

periods periods

than than

and and

residuum. residuum.

have have

that that

high high

The The

are are

the the

and and

A A

Fertility Fertility

overlying overlying

attributes attributes

horizons, horizons,

shrink shrink

contained contained

more more

Acid Acid

montmorillonite. montmorillonite.

carbon carbon

short short

landscape landscape

soils soils

in in

horizon. horizon.

slope slope

than than

exceeding exceeding

content content

residual residual

of of of of

statement statement

time time

as as

data data

Soil Soil

oxides, oxides,

percent) percent)

profiles profiles

B B

intensity intensity

loam loam

Low Low

kaolinite. kaolinite.

profiles profiles

B-

sections. sections.

which, which,

and and

the the

in in tions, tions,

saturations saturations

miculite miculite

mineralogy. mineralogy.

clay. clay. kaolinitic

positions positions saturations saturations

Clay Clay

portion portion soil soil

ing ing

Brown, Brown,

the the

tions tions

tory tory

(0.3 (0.3

sediments sediments

More More

soil soil

This This

kind kind continuous continuous

Soil Soil within within

lower lower

relatively relatively

ment. ment.

Surface Surface

soils soils

logic logic

leached. leached.

Most Most

iron iron

indicated indicated

observed observed

and and Light-Colored Light-Colored

rial, rial,

pH, pH,

particular particular

fragipan fragipan

Montmorilonite Montmorilonite clay clay

physical physical

lite. lite.

capacities capacities

trace trace

mineralogy mineralogy

was was

montmorillonite montmorillonite

wet wet

m m

soil soil

59 59

to to

60 60

plant plant

of of

clay clay

sand sand

parent parent

the the

dis

loam loam

Fragipan Fragipan

mini

to to

below below

com

bulk bulk

and and

' '

concave concave

60 60

Kaolinite Kaolinite

17 17

clay clay

C C

silt silt

the the MOFEP MOFEP

below below

The The

and and

a a

many many

capacity capacity

base base

was was

.· .·

within within

with with

from from

··:-o ··:-o

material, material,

a a

combination combination

c c

high high

m m

which which

on on

of of

on on

of of

appeared appeared

soil soil

50 50

hillslope hillslope

The The

through through

of of

(from (from

Discontinuity Discontinuity

60 60

B B

the the

below below

silty silty

were were

indicated. indicated.

roots. roots.

,jt ,jt

percolation percolation

exchange exchange

origin. origin.

was was

Chad Chad

was was

of of

roots roots

below below

horizons horizons em. em.

surface surface

kaolinite. kaolinite.

40 40

J' J'

B B

Soil Soil

below below

layer layer

are are

profiles profiles

exchange exchange

the the

and and

to to

80 80

a a

Material Material

Soil Soil plant plant

......

em, em,

of of

profiles profiles

position position

Soil Soil

recent recent

abruptly abruptly

is is

soil soil

b b

discontinuity discontinuity

at at

30 30

B B

......

by by

B. B.

7 4 4 7

distributions distributions

structure, structure,

toxic toxic

··············~~~~~~~=·:~.~---

deposits deposits

cation cation

probably probably

downward downward

cycles. cycles.

soil soil

unresponsive unresponsive

Parent Parent Fragipan Fragipan

_.P'~ _.P'~

shoulder shoulder

Saturation Saturation

of of

significantly significantly

primarily primarily

is is

distance distance

was was

much much

(percent) (percent)

three three

soil soil

20 20

a a

<>······· <>·······

\ \

.. ..

convex convex

low low

two two

watershed watershed

depth depth

o o

textural textural

both both

r~ r~

fragipan fragipan

a a

three three was was

on on

for for

Base Base

relatively relatively

in in

which which

increased increased

drying drying

same same

depth depth

massive massive

discontinuities discontinuities

from from

soils. soils.

A A

10 10

which which

of of

on on

infiltration infiltration

a a

All All

of of

another. another.

The The

small small

was was

limit limit

the the

occupies occupies

increased increased

to to

and and

1. 1.

acid acid

profile profile

structurally structurally

4.-Soil 4.-Soil

0 0

10m 10m

was was

and and

relatively relatively

one one

formed formed

content content

in in 0 0

is is

Depth Depth

microtopography. microtopography.

a a

A A

upper upper

(em) (em)

material material

of of same same

saturation saturation

site site

so so

this this

which which

100 100

fragipan. fragipan.

continuity, continuity,

content content

the the

have have sediments sediments

has has

and and

of of

density density in in

clay clay wetting wetting

percent). percent).

position position

a a surface surface

mal mal

water water

C, C,

about about

plex plex

Soil Soil

species, species,

Aluminum, Aluminum,

Figure Figure Soil Soil "'~' ~M@W~W------

leached and to have kaolinitic clay mineralogy. concentrating coarse fragments on the erosional Red subsoils are common, but often underly surface. Subsequent deposits can bury the several layers of hillslope sediment and/ or mass stone line. New surface (A and E) horizons form movement materials. in the truncated profile, but have different textural and chemical attributes than surface No Sharp Contrasts in Soils, Gradational horizons in nearby, uneroded soils. Changes Mass movements and hillslope sediments are Sharp color, textural, and structural contrasts the most common burial processes. Many exist within and among soil profiles. Abrupt existing soil surfaces have high concentrations changes are associated with different parent of stones (sometimes called "armor plating" by materials within profiles, with different geomor soil mappers), which indicate that erosion has phic surfaces within small and large water occurred relatively recently. High surface stone sheds, and with different geologic strata on concentrations impede subsequent surface backslopes. Alluvial soils have numerous erosion. These attributes combine to support abrupt changes over short distances, both the idea of geologically recent accelerated soil horizontally and vertically. Abrupt differences erosion, probably caused by past land use in stone content are found on surfaces and practices in the Ozarks. within soil profiles. Buried stone lines, which indicate past erosional episodes (Ruhe 1956), Remarkably Uniform Surface Soil, Lack of are common. Abrupt textural discontinuities Correlation with Forest Variation often occur across buried stone lines, because the stone lines often overly eroded argillic As previously mentioned, A-horizon thicknesses (enriched by illuvial clay) horizons. vary considerably across the Ozarks. Some of this variation is the natural consequence of soil Stone line genesis is illustrated in figure 5. forming processes across the mosaic of aspects, Erosion selectively removes sand, silt, and clay, slope steepnesses, slope lengths, slope surface

A. B. C. Original Truncated A and E Profile Profile Horizons in Truncated A Stone Line Soil E ¥ Btl Btl A E

2Bt2 2Bt2 Btl

2Bt3 2Bt3 Bt2

Figure 5.-Representation of stone line development in an eroded soil. Part A is the uneroded soil. Part B illustrates the concentration ojrockjragments on the eroded soil swjace after finer par ticles have been removed. Part C illustrates the new soil swjace (A and E) horizons developing after the new sw-jace has stabilized. 114

115 115

cut. cut.

do do

soil soil

study study

water water

a a

Knox Knox

review review

of of

but but

aspect, aspect,

10 10

and and

(Quercus (Quercus

underlying underlying

correlated correlated

and and

deviation deviation

Project Project

even-aged even-aged

the the

within within

with with

(1975) (1975)

Fragipan Fragipan

an an

oak oak

Than Than

and and

McQuilkin McQuilkin

in in

1.9 1.9

4.4 4.4

2.5 2.5

3.1 3.1 1.8 1.8

1.9 1.9

8.0 8.0

4.8 4.8

1.5 1.5

1.7 1.7 4.4 4.4

1.6 1.6

1.8 1.8

0.8 0.8

a a

been been

restrict, restrict,

density density

numerous numerous

(Witty (Witty

increasing increasing

and and

infiltration infiltration

Standard Standard

Less Less

Ecosystem Ecosystem

decreasing decreasing

has has

black black

cut, cut,

Have Have

bulk bulk

material material

of of

with with

cites cites

carbon carbon

roots roots

the the

correlated correlated

of of

overlying overlying

Carmean's Carmean's

with with

fragipan. fragipan.

Forest Forest

generally generally

is is

index index

attributes. attributes.

Soils Soils

to to

index index

plant plant

higher higher

Slopes Slopes

and and

6.3 6.3

9.6 9.6

than than

3.9 3.9

3.3 3.3

2.3 2.3

3.5 3.5

2.6 2.6

0.7 0.7

3.2 3.2

3.0 3.0

site site

Variance Variance

19.1 19.1

19.0 19.0

organic organic

63.5 63.5

23.0 23.0

Ozark Ozark

of of

increasing increasing

prohibit, prohibit,

uneven-aged uneven-aged

site site

on on

volumes volumes

Ozark Ozark

aspects. aspects.

content. content.

depth depth

have have

an an

soil soil

uplands uplands

horizon horizon

productivity productivity

Fragipans Fragipans

and and

which which

are are

------

and and

Lam.) Lam.)

Missouri Missouri

Most Most

9.7 9.7

9.9 9.9

7.8 7.8

5.4 5.4

3.5 3.5

site site

4.3 4.3

4.1 4.1

2.5 2.5

5.1 5.1

4.7 4.7

thickness thickness

in in

thickness thickness

sand sand

structure structure

10.6 10.6

12.5 12.5

Mean Mean

obsexved obsexved

which which

em em

Ozark Ozark

six six

control, control,

shape, shape,

surface surface

a a

penetration penetration

in in

necessarily necessarily

west-facing west-facing

Ridges Ridges

the the

forest forest

Horizon Horizon

and and

profile profile

velutina velutina

and and

coarser coarser

(1972) (1972) not not

On On

materials. materials.

Fragipans Fragipans

stances stances

Percent, Percent,

slope slope

horizon horizon

of of

horizons horizons

in in

horizon horizon

with with

8 8

6 6

7 7

8 8

7 7

4 4

14 14

15 15

10 10

18 18

27 27

21 21

27 27

thickness thickness

east-

treatments, treatments,

the the

E-Horizons E-Horizons

Maximum Maximum

on on

A-Horizon A-Horizon

and and

------

index index

horizon horizon

pre

growth. growth.

water

-· -·

3 3

E-horizon E-horizon

variable variable

human human

A-

They They

that that

area area

among among

site site

MOFEP MOFEP

observed observed

communi

farming, farming,

natural natural

tree tree

management management

6 6

4 4

7 7

5 5

differential differential

4 4

2 2

3 3

2 2

3 3

2 2

and and

surface surface

small small

perennial perennial

from from

and and

the the

Table Table

total total

----

were were

by by

The The

A-

Mill.) Mill.)

demonstrated demonstrated

with with

Minimum Minimum

soil soil

six six

forest forest

showed showed

on on

illustrate illustrate

and and

the the

summits. summits.

harvest, harvest,

for for

has has

botanical botanical

of of

within within

three three

pits pits

from from

resulting resulting

1972) 1972)

treatments treatments

( (

8 8

7 7

9 9

6 6

8 8

6 6

7 7

9 9

and and

ridge ridge

uplands. uplands.

clearly clearly

10 10

48 48

10 10

48 48

echinata echinata

are are

soil soil

combined combined

both both

recreation. recreation.

attributes attributes

timber timber

exacerbated exacerbated

summits summits

of of

samples samples

Number Number

portion portion

48 48

information information

represent represent

research research

data data

and and

soil soil

and and

Ozark Ozark

(Pinus (Pinus

of of

been been

profiles profiles

plots plots

deposition deposition

Ferguson Ferguson

textures, textures,

from from

small small

management management

east east

west west

east east

west west

interfluve interfluve

index index

the the

a a

including including

These These

east east

west west

has has east east

pine pine

west west

The The

interfluve interfluve

soil soil

thicknesses thicknesses

and and

east east

west west

east east

west west

site site

near near

forest forest

These These

.--Statistical .--Statistical

A-horizon A-horizon

3 3

withil:i withil:i

All All

plots. plots.

sites sites

All All

Control Control

Even-aged Even-aged

Control Control Uneven-aged Uneven-aged

Uneven-aged Uneven-aged All All

Even-aged Even-aged

Control Control

Uneven-aged Uneven-aged

Control Control

Even-aged Even-aged

Plot Plot

Table Table

Graney Graney

shortleaf shortleaf

streams. streams.

Forest Forest

horizon horizon

sheds sheds sites. sites.

activities, activities, sents sents

erosion erosion

relationships relationships

home-building, home-building,

shapes, shapes,

between between

ties ties

represent represent

thicknesses thicknesses

watersheds. watersheds. variation variation

~OO@WEW------

growth growth

forest forest The The importance importance

hydrology hydrology

Hack Hack

cesses cesses

manly manly

of of

central central

Clarksville Clarksville

thy thy

confusing confusing Krusekopfs Krusekopfs

observed observed is is

Much Much

soils, soils,

established established summarized summarized

ogy, ogy, strata strata

strata, strata,

recently, recently,

souri souri

Rarely Rarely

Amertca. Amertca.

with with

these these

Geologic Geologic

or or

fragipans fragipans

tion tion Missouri, Missouri,

They They

Service, Service, unlike unlike

Wisconsin Wisconsin

the the

in in Fragipans Fragipans

weathered weathered Fragipans Fragipans

stony stony

off off

slope. slope.

seldom seldom

divides divides

surface surface

1989). 1989).

116 116

well well

how how

mapped mapped

Soils Soils

the the

example. example.

Missourt Missourt

coincidence coincidence

investigations investigations

soils, soils,

both both

was was

occur occur

and and

geomorphology, geomorphology,

fragipans fragipans

site site

work work

soils, soils,

were were

identified identified

documented documented

as as

Conform Conform fragipans fragipans

to to

and and

Fragipans Fragipans

summit summit

within within

Fragipans Fragipans

Appalachians Appalachians

on on

are are

with with

(Franzmeier (Franzmeier

as as

Boundaries Boundaries

the the

that that

conduct conduct

an an

in in

has has

The The

Goodlett's Goodlett's

restricted restricted

at at

and and

attributes. attributes.

stones stones

and and

in in

Do Do

which which

glacial glacial

and and

parent parent

in in

part part

that that

unique. unique.

in in

of of

most most confirming confirming

that that

in in

(1963) (1963)

Ozark Ozark

in in

scales scales

important important

Ozark Ozark

a a

Fletcher Fletcher

Ozarks Ozarks

the the

detail. detail.

distinguishing distinguishing

Not Not

contemporary contemporary

conducted conducted

and and

alluvial alluvial

Natural Natural

red red

unclear unclear

biota biota

Reddish Reddish

Eminence. Eminence.

his his

onto onto

than than

of of

the the

of of

Ozark Ozark

shortleaf shortleaf

in in

Ozark Ozark

and and

often often

loess loess

occur occur

are are

epoch. epoch.

a a

Occur Occur

matertal matertal

clay clay

the the

among among

to to

soils soils

treatise. treatise.

soils. soils.

1952 1952

important important

other other

throughout throughout

soils soils

systematic systematic soils soils

to to

was was

upper upper

Fletcher Fletcher

(1960) (1960)

et et

have have

and and

others others

quantify quantify

remains remains

not not

clay. clay.

Their Their

and and

deposits, deposits,

accelerated accelerated

Resources Resources

four four

for for

on on

was was

subsoils, subsoils,

soils, soils,

the the

al. al.

determinant determinant

Clay Clay

Highlands Highlands

where where

with with

treatise, treatise,

had had

conducted conducted

in in

developed developed

special special

parts parts

Soil Soil

Less Less

always always

Fragipans Fragipans

watersheds. watersheds.

pine pine

broad broad

physical physical

several several

forest forest

1989). 1989).

McDermott McDermott

synergisms synergisms

backslopes. backslopes.

overlies overlies

Very Very

investigation investigation

distinct distinct

deposited deposited

Many Many

work work

because, because,

geomorphic geomorphic

Subsoil Subsoil

including including

criterea criterea

geologic geologic

not not

Coile's Coile's

and and

Boundaries Boundaries

to to

a a

attributes attributes

relatively relatively

is is

growth growth

of of

evaluation evaluation

the the

regardless regardless

classic classic

interfluve interfluve

and and

Stony Stony

forest forest

ecology ecology

characteriza

known known

on on

been been

revealed revealed

is is

Conservation Conservation

North North

McDermott McDermott

fragipans fragipans

of of

Fragipans Fragipans

soil soil

occur occur

morphology morphology

an an

world. world.

from from

geologic geologic

a a

before before

summits. summits.

the the

research, research,

may may

of of

in in

were were

until until

materials materials

notewor

during during

survey survey

in in

(1957) (1957)

older older

studied studied

of of forest forest

tree tree

Soils Soils

the the

template template

soils soils

com

about about

in in

pro

of of

of of those those

Mis

geol

extend extend

the the

of of

the the

in in

soil soil

or or

the the

in in

geomorphic geomorphic

much much

landscape landscape

obvious obvious

have have

of of the the

Soil Soil

effects effects

and and

backslopes, backslopes,

more more

Soil Soil

ticularly ticularly

the the on on

mineralogy. mineralogy. saturations saturations

site site

Eminence Eminence addition addition

tend tend Roubidoux Roubidoux

geologic geologic

Structural Structural

(carbonate (carbonate and and

Figure Figure

work work

which which

attributes attributes

and and

tant tant

clearly clearly

Meinert Meinert

strata strata

Upper Upper

Lower Lower

past past

Eminence Eminence

backslope backslope

geologic geologic

Ozark Ozark

soil soil

Ozark Ozark

lower lower

productivity productivity

Erosion Erosion

erosion erosion

can can

the the

as as

general general

to to

lower lower

montmorillonite. montmorillonite.

on on

Gasconade Gasconade

of of

Gasconad~e~~~~~~"'"'\ Gasconad~e~~~~~~"'"'\

as as

are are

of of

6.-A 6.-A

erosion erosion

illustrated illustrated

be be

determinants determinants

and and

is is

cryptozoic cryptozoic

strata strata

be be

et et

the the

to to

those those

MOFEP MOFEP

erosion erosion

structural structural

Ozark Ozark

region. region.

Region Region

formations formations

the the

in in

portrayed portrayed

tend tend

convex. convex.

benches benches

al. al.

rock rock

base base

and and

calcium), calcium),

locally locally

and and

geomorphic geomorphic

record. record.

strata. strata.

often often

is is

contemporary contemporary

is is

Gunter\ Gunter\

Lower Lower

soil-geologic soil-geologic

hypothetical hypothetical

the the

surfaces. surfaces.

(1997) (1997)

presence presence

a a

with with

not not

such such

is is

to to

Upper Upper

which which

Highland Highland

sertous sertous

saturations saturations

SHALLOW SHALLOW

clay clay

will will

sites sites

Ozark Ozark

Member Member

on on

everywhere everywhere

with with

be be

the the

Erosion Erosion

severe. severe.

a a

reef. reef.

The The

landscape landscape

are are

soils soils

The The

controls controls

species species

as as

Serious Serious

be be

in in

mineralogy mineralogy

tend tend

more more

SOILS SOILS

of of

produce produce

importance importance

of of

has has

Gasconade Gasconade

contains contains

a a

figure figure

the the

this this

Highlands. Highlands.

caused caused

Lower Lower

difficult. difficult.

of of

attributes attributes

soil soil

Soils Soils

Gasconade Gasconade

problem problem

Backslopes Backslopes

"stair-stepping" "stair-stepping"

most most

shallow shallow

relationships, relationships,

cross-section cross-section

landscape landscape

to to

chert chert

revealed revealed

Disentangling Disentangling

has has

strongly strongly

soil soil

Gunter Gunter

symposium symposium

and and

distribution distribution

with with

have have

Problem Problem

in in

present present

higher higher

6. 6.

positions, positions,

widespread widespread

Gasconade Gasconade

concave concave

been been

surface. surface.

by by

the the

magnesium magnesium

stone stone

landform landform

containing containing

over over

to to

The The

kaolinitic kaolinitic

/ /

related related

higher higher

of of

formations formations

resistant resistant

sandstone sandstone

some some

landscape landscape

leached leached

dolomite dolomite

Meinert's Meinert's

widespread widespread

in in

geologic geologic

indicating indicating

in in

evidence evidence

much much

lines lines

of of

the the

some some

the the

have have

Most Most

par

and and

pattern pattern

Stone Stone

base base

the the impor

the the

to to

and and

on on

the the

and and

in in

of of

of of of of

117 117

(a (a

2. 2.

be be

multi

differ

map map

soil

that that

growth growth

suited suited

distribu

soil soil

scale scale

Ozark Ozark

and and

mapped. mapped.

concave concave

can can

unit. unit.

forest forest

for for

Hammer Hammer

the the

maps maps

survey survey

1 1

Footslope Footslope

that that

5-acre 5-acre

on on

with with

is is

less less

combinations combinations

astutely astutely

and and

biometrician, biometrician,

leam leam

a a

distribution, distribution,

soil soil

area. area.

is is

towards towards

carbon carbon

sites sites

to to

made made

as as

which which

variable variable

few few

Missouri Missouri

Mapping Mapping

a a

on on

be be

and and

slope slope

forest forest

Position Position

segregate segregate

bias bias

assume assume

used used

mappable mappable

familiar familiar

allows allows

the the

problem problem

transects transects

their their

species species

units units

use-specific use-specific

Mid Mid

homogeneous homogeneous

units, units,

organic organic

identified identified

in in

(Grigal1984, (Grigal1984,

research research

Only Only

not not

to to

soils soils

the the

for for

would would

surprised surprised

area. area.

1997b). 1997b).

be be

which which

strong strong

soil soil

map map

Slope Slope

are are

primarily primarily

a a

soils soils

afford afford

smallest smallest

be be

of of

1:24,000 1:24,000

soils. soils.

map map

can can

Project Project

commonly commonly

techniques techniques

mapping mapping

same same

experienced experienced

a a

relatively relatively

swjaces swjaces

of of

downslope downslope

has has

the the

were were

Summit Summit

sizes sizes

forest forest

could could

contribute contribute

an an

The The

Hammer Hammer

would would

as as

the the

soil soil

agricultural agricultural

attributes attributes

mappers mappers

Ozark Ozark

scale scale

by by

of of

delineations delineations

survey survey

along along

the the

roads, roads,

of of

compounding compounding

All All

convex convex

and and

0 0

nature nature

7.-A-horizon 7.-A-horizon

40 40

10 10

30 30

20 20

attributes attributes

soil soil

delineate delineate

1995, 1995,

many many

for for

soil soil

taxonomy taxonomy

uses uses

hypotheses. hypotheses.

tions tions

and and

Transects Transects

Forest Forest

mapping mapping

Dl Dl

soil soil

al. al.

managers managers

0 0

c c

ca-.. ca-..

CCI CCI

u u

...... 0 0

C)Dl C)Dl

......

different different ent ent

map map

etc.), etc.),

If If

of of

species species

0 0

Further Further

0 0

landscape landscape .Q .Q

delineation delineation

(/) (/)

pattems. pattems.

delineated. delineated.

c.:.: c.:.:

et et

Many Many

mapping mapping

variate variate

are are restricts restricts

Soil Soil

tributes tributes

for for

observed observed

units units

bodies. bodies.

Figure Figure

with with

by by

of of

by by

site site

and and

so so

to to

one one

and and

from from

mix mix

Forest Forest

is is

and and

no no

but but

slopes slopes

loca

readily readily

con

land land

differ

of of

Ham

sloping sloping

plant plant

are are

only only

to to matter matter

soil soil

as as

surface surface

indicated indicated

soil soil

and and

manu

familiar familiar

forest forest

soil soil

In In

on on

fans fans

litter litter

concavi

confirmed confirmed

units units

higher higher

concept concept

discrimi to

Thus, Thus,

Krusekopf. Krusekopf.

of of

The The

west-facing west-facing

of of

previously previously

concept concept

of of

most most

accumula

conse

movement, movement,

Many Many

abruptly abruptly

1991, 1991,

that that

not not

textural textural

conducted conducted

system system

Wetter Wetter

this this

by by

concave concave

is is

Serve Serve

the the

(Carmean (Carmean

was was

However, However,

Results Results

and and

are are

have have

organic organic

trends trends

al. al.

in in

forest forest

higher higher

7. 7.

revealed revealed

profiles. profiles.

in in

combine combine

to to

terrain. terrain.

never never

alluvial alluvial

east-facing east-facing

The The

important important

series series

surfaces surfaces

mass mass

concavities, concavities,

"representative" "representative"

et et

profile. profile.

variable variable

the the

soil soil

This This

shown shown

of of

and and

inventory inventory

Thus Thus

are are

downslope downslope

in in

soil soil

or or

1997b). 1997b).

landscape. landscape.

locations. locations.

matter. matter.

has has

multiple multiple

concentrations concentrations

soil soil

this this

erosion erosion

and and

indicators indicators

south-

Rigid Rigid

hydrologic hydrologic

figure figure

transition transition

scientists scientists

transects transects

too too

soil soil

collect collect

expect expect

depressions, depressions,

(1995). (1995).

in in

data. data.

distributions distributions

has has

statement statement

soil soil

of of

throw throw

in in

the the

attributes attributes

in in

created created

to to

the the

processes processes

in in

and and

literature. literature.

concentrations concentrations

previously previously

areas, areas,

drier drier

the the

soil soil Concave Concave

Too Too

processes processes

poor poor

trends trends

and and

of of

Hammer Hammer

the the

tree tree

higher higher

north-

cooler cooler

of of

organic organic

presence presence

has has

would would

24 24

the the

Hammer Hammer

are are

all all

positions. positions.

transects transects

increasing increasing

tend tend

create create

are are

transects. transects.

spatial spatial

these these

downslope downslope hillslope hillslope

of of

represented represented

that that

concentrations concentrations

on on

resource resource

than than

Hammer Hammer

suspect suspect

in in

large large

distinction distinction

other other

of of

puzzling puzzling

drainages drainages

by by

research research

and and

evidence evidence

higher higher

1984, 1984,

much much

of of

have have

also also

because because

is is

the the

matter. matter.

bottoms; bottoms;

materials materials

concentrations concentrations

and and

and and too too

to to

1995, 1995,

described described

and and

portion portion

and and

many many

scales scales

productivity productivity

in in

This This

very very

hollows; hollows;

reveals reveals

summarized summarized

discontinuities discontinuities

over over

drier drier

One One

probably probably

matter matter

a a

surrounding surrounding

Other Other

of of

al. al.

7 7

means means

are are

silty silty

Grigal Grigal

generally generally

level level

expect expect

transect transect

Ozarks Ozarks

upland upland

effects effects

landscapes, landscapes,

landscape landscape

landforms landforms

Boundaries Boundaries

tend tend

reported reported

site site

on on

is is

were were

et et

and and

Boundaries Boundaries

of of

profiles profiles

organic organic

creep creep

upper upper

the the

1975, 1975,

managers managers

mer mer

Considerable Considerable

series series nate nate

productivity productivity

mapping mapping

soil soil Soil Soil

"representative" "representative"

which which

means means

Type Type single single

decreasing decreasing

concentrations concentrations

heterogeneous heterogeneous

been been

This This

Figure Figure

by by

vexities. vexities.

partially partially

slopes. slopes. Udawatta Udawatta

in in

lower lower

than than

organic organic

tions tions

concentrations concentrations

observed observed

soil soil

ential ential

higher, higher,

soil soil

lower lower

the the

would would

forest forest

quences quences

ties, ties,

nutritional nutritional

lines lines

Erosion Erosion

material material

nearly nearly script. script.

The previously discussed synergism of soils and Phosphorus Dynamics landforms has led many who study forest ecosystems to conclude that a mapping system Phosphorus dynamics may be an important which more closely identifies related soils and determinant of botanical interactions in the landforms is the most meaningful and useful Ozarks. Phosphorus is known to be an impor mapping approach (Rowe 1984, Grigal1984, tant constituent of proteins and amino acids, Hammer etal. 1991, Hammer 1997b). This and is a necessary nutrient for plant metabo philosophy has formed the conceptual frame lism. Primary minerals, primarily apatite, are work of the MOFEP soil inventory. the sources of soil phosphorus, and the forms of phosphorus in soils are controlled by pH In general, moisture appears to be the most (Walker and Syers 1976). Thus, as soils important soil factor that can be consistently weather, phosphorus tends to become limiting. related to forest type distribution, and then only As soil acidity increases, phosphorus becomes as the extreme of soil moisture condition is occluded by iron and aluminum, and the bio reached. logically available P pool is reduced. This well established relationship is illustrated in figure This statement is generally true, but Krusekopf 8. carried it to extremes. "The extreme of soil moisture condition" could be intrepreted to mean that extremely dry and wet sites are the ..... ends of the continuum he perceived in soils and c: C1l ..... vegetation, and that only the ends of the con c: 0 tinuum were observably different. The forest u Total P a. hydrology, soil, and vegetation mosaic is more C1l Primarg p subtle and complex, as has previously been > discussed. --- SecondaryP~ ~OccludedP Nutrient Relationships Organic P ~------General Knowledge Time

Increasing evidence suggests that nutrient Figure B.-Changes in phosphorus form and distributions influence forest species distribu abundance with weathering and time in a tions, competitive interactions, and growth, yet hypothetical soil (from Walker and Syers little is known about Ozark forest nutrient 1976). dynamics. Remley's (1992) research in Ozark forest soils revealed tree root response to in The primary source of phosphorus in pre creased soil pH and to calcium inputs. Remely European settlement Ozark soils would have was unable to determine if the observed re been the veneer of Pleistocene loess, much of sponses were to reduced aluminum activity or which has since eroded. One soil component of were positive responses to calcium. Unpub the MOFEP soil research is a quantification of lished subsequent work (G.S. Henderson, phosphorus forms and distributions. Prelimi personal communication) strongly suggests a nary results indicate that phosphorus concen positive root response to calcium. trations are low in Ozark soils and that most of the total phosphorus is occluded by iron and Donaldson and Henderson (1990) investigated aluminum. This fmding conforms to estab nitrification dynamics in Ozark forest soils. lished knowledge of phosphorus distributions in Their work suggests that low soil pH and the highly weathered soils. presence of polyphenolic compounds combine to inhibit nitrification. Vegetational repression However, phosphorus distributions are corre of nitrification could be a mechanism to con lated to geologic parent materials as well as to serve a limited biological nitrogen pool. Much hillslope sediments and silt materials which remains to be learned about the nitrogen cycle probably are of loessal origin. Figure 9 shows and its effects on other nutrients in Ozark forests.

118 Available P (mg/kg) than are indicated in the literature. The inter actions of nitrogen, and phosphorus are un 0 100 200 300 0 known, and the potential responses of native • ...• • ••• • vegetation to calcium, nitrogen and phosphorus ••• • inputs are unmeasured . s • •• • • ~ • • • The complex Ozark landscape presents a formi .:: • dable challenge to scientists wishing to under '!.., • • • ~ -100 stand ecosystem pattem and process. ·s ... 00 • ' •• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS •• • • • Roubidoux This paper is a consequence of cooperation, e Lower Gasconade(Van Buren) research, and dialog among several scientists -200 and agencies. Dr. Gray Henderson, Dr. Ranjith Udawatta. Dr. David Larsen, Dr. John Kabrick, and Dennis Meinert have participated in many Figure 9.-Available (organically complexed) soil discussions in the office and in the field. Their phosphorus distributions with depth in soil insight is appreciated. Randy Jensen worked profiles developed in residuum.from Gascon tirelessly to help locate research plots and ade and Roubidous geologic strata on the gather data. Brian Brookshire has been a Missouri Ozark Forest Ecosystem Project steady and persevering influence. Most of the research area. credit for our more complete understanding of soil-landscape interactions is a result of Dennis Meinert's extraordinary work in the Ozark that available phosphorus concentrations are landscape. Dan Childress and Dennis Potter higher at the surface and with depth in a soil also have unselfishly contributed time and associated with the Lower Gasconade formation energy. than in a soil developed from Roubidoux re siduum. The Missouri Departments of Natural Resources and Conservation have provided fiscal and CONCLUSIONS philosophical support to the research. Both agencies deserve commendation for their will The Ozark soil landscape is a complex mosaic of ingness to interact on this project. The Natural parent materials and soil attributes whose Resources Conservation Service has responded relationships with the associated biota are quickly and professionally when help has been poorly quantified. Early assumptions of ecosys requested. tem and soil homogeneity were inaccurate and were based upon supposition rather than LITERATURE CITED systematically acquired data. Carmean, W.H. 1975. Forest site quality evalua Most soils formed in multiple parent materials. tion in the United States. Advances in Erosion has been widespread and locally severe. Agronomy. 27: 209-258. Important synergisms exist among soils. geo logic materials, and geomorphic landforms. Coile, T.S. 1952. Soil and the growth of forests. Trends occur in the landscape, but large sample Advances in Agronomy. 4: 329-398. numbers are necessary to identify pattems and relationships. Site-specific variability creates a Daniels, R.B.; Hammer, R.D. 1992. Soil geomor "noisy" ecosystem in which single transects are phology. New York, NY: John Wiley and unlikely to represent pattems. Data must be Sons, Inc. 236 p. interpreted cautiously and in the context of local site attributes. Donaldson, J.M.; Henderson, G.S. 1990. Nitrifi cation potential of secondary-succession Much remains to be leamed about the role of upland oak forests: I. Mineralization and nutrients in vegetative behavior in the Missouri nitrification during laboratory incubations. Ozarks. Preliminary examinations indicate Soil Society of America Joumal. 54 (3): 892- more complex nutrient pattems and processes 897. 119 • OO

120

121 121

of of

role role

the the

E.J., E.J.,

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of of

and and

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classifica

Variation Variation

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surface surface

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distribution distribution

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pedogenesis. pedogenesis. 1989. 1989.

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