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Volume 3 No 2 Dec., 2019 ISSN: 2651 - 5512 NTAtvc Journal of Communication ABOUT THE JOURNAL VOLUME 3 NO 2, DEC,. 2019 Published by: NTA College Journal of Communication is a peer NTA Television College, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria reviewed journal published by the Nigerian http:/www.ntatvcollege.com.ng Television Authority College, Jos, an affiliate of All rights reserved. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The Journal is No part of this journal should be reproduced, stored in a aimed at promoting scholarship in all aspects of retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any Mass Communication and Allied Fields: means in whole or part without the written approval of Publishing, Journalism, Broadcasting, Film, the copyright owner. Digital Communication, New Media, Media Culture, Politics, Economy, Print, Media Law and EDITORIAL BOARD Ethics, Gender, Public Relations, Marketing and Advertising, Development Communication, Editor - in - Chief International Communication, Language and Dr Barnabas Gbam, NTA Television College, Jos, Nigeria Communication, ICT, etc. Managing Editor Submission Guide Mrs Chinelo Ude-Akpeh - The entire paper should not be longer than 15 Dept. of TV Journalism, NTA Television College, Jos pages inclusive of Tables, Figures and [email protected], 0806 614 4316 References. Associate Editors - The article should be typed in Times New Dr Comfort Ukwela Roman font (size 12) and double spaced Ms Banke Ozewe - The referencing style to be adopted is APA 6th Mr Ismaila Yakubu Edition. All works cited must be listed in the References Consulting Editors - The paper should have an abstract of not more Prof. Ema Ema Department of Media Arts University of Jos. than 200 words. Prof. Emman Owuamalam - Five key words should be provided Department of Mass Communication immediately below the abstract. Anambra State University Igbariam - The first page should contain the contributor’s Prof. Suileman Salau name in this order: First name, Middle name Department of Mass Communication (optional), and Surname. Other details like Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria department/institution, address, email and Prof. Patrick Chukwudi Obinne telephone number should be included. Department of Mass Communication - Articles should be sent to editor.tvcjomc Federal University of Agriculture, Markudi Prof. Justina Nnabuko @gmail.com for consideration. Department of Management - Upon acceptance of article for publication University of Nigeria, Nsukka after review, a letter of notification shall be Prof. Stella Okunna sent to the contributor specifying the Department of Mass Communication publication fee and the mode of payment. Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka - After publication, each contributor is entitled Prof. Ayedun Aluma to one complimentary hardcopy. If extra Department of Mass Communication copies are requested, the contributor shall be University of Jos required to pay additional charges. Dr. Mamoud Umar Department of Mass Communication Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Dr. Chinelo Ezekulie Printed in Nigeria by: S Dept. of English University of Jos Nigeria SANIEZ PRESS Dr. Tyotom Keghku 0803 367 1902; 0803 701 9530; 0805 360 7277 Department of Mass Communication Benue State University, Markudi T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

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NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2) iv NTAtvc J of Comm. Dec., 2019;3(2)

O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

The Handling of Peace Journalism by Select Local News Tabloids in Akwa Ibom State

GODSPOWER UDOH, PhD, CHRISTIANA BASSEY UDOSEN & GODWIN TOMMY Department of Communication Arts University of Uyo, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract This study was aimed at investigating the handling of Peace Journalism by select local newspapers in Akwa Ibom State. Using two Akwa Ibom-based newspapers, namely, The Pioneer and The Sensor, the article specifically assessed treatments given to peace-related news reports carried by the select newspapers. The period of the study covered an interval of three months, from January to March, 2019, which, because of the country's General Elections, was a height of security concerns. A major finding was that the two newspapers gave relative prominence to peace- oriented stories.

Keywords: Media Form, Favourable Lead, Unfavourable Lead, Conflict, News Angle, News, Feature, Categories, Peaceful coexistent

Introduction displacements; churches, mosques, hospitals, Words that signify peace such as the Hebrew etc. are destroyed”. Violence could be said to word shalom, the Arabic word salaam, the occur when conflict is mismanaged or not Yoruba word alaafia, and the Igbo word udo, all properly managed. Violence depicts signify many things that human beings desire destruction, loss, danger, sadness, sorrow, pains such as safety, welfare, prosperity, security, and death. fortune, and friendliness. The media – which are also known as the Orgeret and Tayeebwa (2016) note that Fourth Estate of the Realm – have a role to play peace is a difficult thing to measure. Peace is a here. If the media serve as the watchdog and difficult word which suggests calm, an absence intermediary between the government and the of conflict. A society genuinely at peace is not people, they can employ the principles of peace one where there is never any conflict. There is journalism in their reportage, and give relative no direct or collective violence and there is the prominence to peace and peace-related issues. possibility for all to fulfill their potential. By so doing, peace can be sustained and conflict Therefore, to McGoldrick and Lynch (2000), eradicated or reduced in the society. peace is a condition as well as a process. According to Remi (2013), the word “conflict” • Statement of the Problem is as old as mankind. This is because the word For every conflict issue in the society, has been in existence in all spheres of human newspapers usually (or ought to) try to study, life since the inception of the world. Conflicts understand and suggest a way or ways in which can be positive and constructive by opening the society can prevent or manage conflicts. But avenues of change if managed effectively. what appears worrisome is the manner in which As observed by Ozor (2009, pp.32-33), local newspapers apply the basic principles of violence occurs at the severe stage of conflict information dissemination, and, by extension, where “nothing is considered sacred - lives are manage peace and conflict-related stories, to lost; there is large scale population encourage peaceful co-existence. In other

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):1 - 9 1 GODSPOWER UDOH, et al The Handling of Peace Journalism by Select Local News Tabloids in Akwa Ibom State words, the approach used by the select local was content analysis. Content analysis was newspapers in Akwa Ibom State, namely, The employed here since the researcher studied the Pioneer and The Sensor, in handling or reporting content and the pattern or direction of peace and peace-related stories deserves a coverage of topical issues by the newspapers. penetrating study. Therefore, how do local Wimmer and Dominick (2006) view content newspapers in Akwa Ibom State handle their analysis as a research design that is systematic, peace-related reports as a contribution towards objective and quantitative in nature, unbiased peaceful co-existence in the society? and having the ability to describe communication contents. Objectives The select newspapers, which acted as the The objectives of this study are to: population of the study, were The Pioneer and • find out the content prominence given to The Sensor. The two newspapers were chosen news stories that promote peaceful based on their relative credibility and reliability coexistence in the society. in their area of operation, which is Akwa Ibom • identify the media forms used by news State. The period of study covered an interval of tabloids in Akwa Ibom State to present three months, from January to March, 2019. peace-related stories. The two newspapers gave a total of 182 issues, • ascertain the news lead angles of peace- with 91 taken from each newspaper. The sample related stories carried by the select tabloids. for this study was 36 issues of the newspapers. Stratified random sampling technique was Conceptual Definitions employed in selecting the sample for the study. Content Prominence: These are content The stratified sampling technique, according to categories into which peace-related stories Wimmer and Dominick (2006) ensures that a are divided. They include political, sample is drawn from a uniform division of the economic and health stories that are rooted population, that is, from a population that has in peaceful coexistence. similar characteristics. This method helps Media Forms: These are the structures through researchers to reduce sampling errors. The total w h i c h n e w s p a p e r c o n t e n t s a r e number of issues of the two newspapers for the disseminated. They include news, feature, three months amounted to 182. As Wimmer and editorial. and Dominick (2006) suggest, 20% of the News Lead Angle: This is the framing of the first population was chosen as sample. This gave a sentence of a peace-related story to show sample of 36 editions, meaning it was six whether such a lead promotes peace or not. editions per newspaper per month. The angle could be favourable or positive; or unfavourable or negative. Literature Favourable/Positive Lead Angle: This is a lead According to Lynch (2000), in Peace angle that directly suggests ways of Journalism, editors and reporters make choices bringing peace to a conflict situation. – about what to report and how to report it – that Unfavourable/Negative Lead Angle: This angle create opportunities for society at large to does not directly suggest peaceful consider and to value non-violent responses to resolution of conflict. conflict. Similarly, Lynch and McGoldrick (2000) see it as when editors and reporters make Research Design choices that improve the prospects for peace. To The design employed for this research study them these choices, including how to frame

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):1 - 9 2 GODSPOWER UDOH, et al The Handling of Peace Journalism by Select Local News Tabloids in Akwa Ibom State stories and carefully choosing which words are help galvanize public opinion and convey same used, create an atmosphere conducive to peace to other sections of the society (Dimitrova & and supportive of peace initiatives and peace- Strömbäck, 2008). Imtihani (2014) in Adeyanju makers, without compromising the basic (2018) observes that the role of mass media in principles of good journalism. From these disseminating information as a matter of views, it could be argued that Peace Journalism knowledge in human awareness can actually be explores the backgrounds and contexts of both constructive for peace as well as conflict formation, presenting causes and deconstructive. The constructive aspect of mass options on every side (not just both sides); gives media is grounded on the formation of reality voice to the views of all rival parties, from all during peace process in conflict resolution. levels; offers creative ideas for conflict The print media play key role in violence/ resolution, development, peacemaking and conflict situation; which may take two different peacekeeping; exposes lies, cover-up attempts and opposing forms. Either the media stay out and culprits on all sides; reveals excesses of the conflict and are independent, hence committed by, and suffering inflicted on peoples become a critical tool for the resolution of of all parties; and pays attention to peace stories conflict and management of violence or they and post-war developments. Again, Mogekwu take an active part and have responsibility for (2000) states that Peace Journalism can be increased violence. The role of media in a given described as the kind of journalism that strives conflict, and in the stages before and after, to prevent conflict from moving from a latent to largely depends on a complex set of variables, a manifest level in order to avoid the violence including relationship between the media and that is often the main characteristic of manifest actors in the conflict and independence the conflict. It also applies some fundamentals of media have with the power holders in society. traditional journalism. Mogekwu (2000) states Fundamentally, strong and independent media that conflict occurs all around the society today, contribute to not just the management of violent adding that the most recognizable conflict conflicts, but retention or creation of peace and situation is war and that all conflicts, to varying stability in conflict-affected areas (Puddephatt, degrees, tend to threaten group, local, national 2006). and/or international peace. To deal with The growing acknowledgement of immense conflict, we must understand its nature and role the media play in helping to fuel conflict has character, which implies an identification of the turned scholars towards examining how they salient issues at play and the adoption of can equally play a constructive role in conflict appropriate methods. There is, thus, a need to resolution, peace-building and state-building in focus on the causes of conflict, its nature and Nigeria and other parts of the world. The need dynamics. This is where journalism comes in. It for unfettered access to unbiased information is must be understood that not all conflict is critical for Africa's development. violent. Conflict is normal when there is change. Disinformation can, at any stage of a Some people want change, but others disagree. conflict, make people desperate, restless and If their disagreement or their conflict is easy to manipulate (Kuusik, 2010). According managed peacefully, it can be a positive process. to a former American President, Harry Truman But when conflict is not managed properly, it “You can never get all the facts from just one becomes violent. In violent conflict, people fear newspaper and unless you have all the facts, you for their safety and survival. cannot make proper judgments about what is However, the media are also sensitive and going on” (Colgan, 2009, in Adeyanju, 2018).

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):1 - 9 3 GODSPOWER UDOH, et al The Handling of Peace Journalism by Select Local News Tabloids in Akwa Ibom State

As such, for the media, it is difficult to find a falsify materials. He only uses fair methods to balance between preventing harm caused by find information, photos and other materials. In information and protecting individual case he accidentally publishes news which later expression. However, finding the balance is proves to be wrong, he will correct it (Kunzik, important, especially in conflict situations. Zipfel, 1998, pp.83-84). Goran and Karamarko Koven (2004) supports this view when he states also note that although it has been more than 60 that “mass media and journalism must help to years since the Declaration was adopted, these distribute information that counter hate-speech published rules are still universal and actual. If a and foster environments of balanced opinions”. journalist, in his work, violates the principle of Responsible journalism must be truthful, truthfulness consciously, he endangers his own balanced and must carry fair accounts of events; internal journalistic freedom, and therefore his without judgmental representations and journalistic creativity, two important embellishment of reality. The media possess preconditions of being a good journalist (Goran ability to defuse tensions before reaching & Karamarko, 2015). breaking points and keep a critical observation Integrity is also one of the important on government, opposition and society. Supply professional standards. Integrity is a category of credible information enhances reach and introduced in journalism by Bennet (according conflict management and also advances to Malovic, 1997, pp.158-159). For Bennet, the democratic principles (Adeyanju, 2018). notion of integrity means that a journalist Adeyanju (2018) also observes that in most should collect as much information as possible, armed conflicts, parties often make overtures to trying to show all sides equally, with their draw a majority of the people to “their” side, commentaries and interpretations, while w h i c h i n m a n y o c c a s i o n s i n d u c e s integrity points more to the good intentions of a misrepresentation of facts and an attempt to journalist rather than to the objectivity. seize control over the distribution of It is quite understandable that in their information. Therefore, the intervention of private lives journalists can be ideologically and unbiased and free media is important not only politically allocated and that they can have their for societies, but people directly affected by own points of view, but it certainly should not be violent conflicts: prompting peace-promoting seen in their professional work (Goran & citizen media, media regulation to prevent Karamarko, 2015). incitement of violence and conflict-sensitive However, in their opinion, McGoldrick and and peace journalism. Lynch (2000) say that Peace Journalism uses Goran and Karamarko (2015) note that in conflict analysis and transformation to update 1954 the International Federation of Journalists the concept of balance, fairness and accuracy in adopted a declaration which prescribes the rules reporting. The Peace Journalism approach of professional decency. It includes respecting provides a new road map tracing the the truth and the public right to the truth, which connections between journalists, their sources, is the first obligation of journalists. A journalist, the stories they cover and the consequences of in recognition of this commitment, defends the their reporting – the ethics of journalistic principles of freedom and the right to comment intervention. Galtung in McGoldrick and and critique while finding and reproducing the Lynch (2000) adds that Peace Journalism makes news properly. A journalist reports only the facts audible and visible subjugated aspects of reality. obtained from a trustworthy source; he does not Osadolor (2001) cited in Orhewere and Kur suppress important information and he does not (2004) advises that the most critical role of the

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):1 - 9 4 GODSPOWER UDOH, et al The Handling of Peace Journalism by Select Local News Tabloids in Akwa Ibom State media should be in helping to prevent or at least acts of violence occur before they are reported attenuate the severity of conflicts. Neumann (Lynch & Galtung, 2010) in Neumann and and Fahmy (2016) conceptualizing the Fahmy (2016). distinction in peace and conflict journalism, Subsequently, Ghorpade (1986) considers opine that peace journalism-based practices the press as playing an influential role in a include a focus on solutions instead of country's political milieu. According to him, differences, reporting on long-term effects why readership of newspapers is known to grow instead of short term events, seeking opinions higher during election years and that by from and basing reports on common people emphasizing certain issues over others, the press instead of political and military elites, and the plays agenda-setting roles among the educated use of precise language instead of simplistic and elite in a society. Haque cited in Udomisor dichotomous terms that pitch good against evil. (2002) observes that the news media devote a According to Lynch and Galtung (2010), substantial part of their time and resources to conflict was seen as an opportunity for progress covering politics. In support of this viewpoint, by 'being imaginative, creative, transforming the Brookfield's (1986) states that the mass media conflict so that the opportunities take the upper play a crucial role in framing our views of the hand'. They later characterized war reporting as world and the context within which we decide a journalist following the 'low road' by focusing which issues and problems are significant in the on violence, war, and winners. Peace reporting, political realm. on the other hand, has been considered as After an analysis of media coverage of following the 'high road' by focusing on the diversity and conflict issues by various scholars, conflict and its peaceful transformation Pate (2011) listed common practices adopted by (Galtung, 1998a). the media which tend to contribute negatively to Again, Neumann and Fahmy (2016) state crises situations as follows:– selective reporting that in an effort to explain principles of both of prejudicial stereotypes about groups and modes, scholars have broadly identified the individuals, reporting inter-group conflicts out following: Peace journalism represents framing of their fundamental sociological, economic, stories with focus on peace initiatives, political and other contexts, shallow and minimizing cultural and religious differences episodic coverage, total blackout on some and promoting conflict resolution (Galtung, groups, individuals or community; use of 1986, 1998a, 1998b; Lee & Maslog, 2005; Lynch inflammatory, misleading and sensational & Galtung, 2010). Further, Peace Journalism is headlines to attract sales, publishing a proactive stance that is usually taken to enlarge inflammatory statements against some people the reporting time frame in such a way that or groups as letters to the editor, attributing reporting occurs before and after a particular statements by individuals to groups, making conflict (Lynch & Galtung, 2010). generalized statements not supported facts, etc. War journalism, on the other hand, These are activities which the media need to represents framing stories with focus on the desist from to make meaningful impact in reactive nature of covering a conflict, combating insecurity in Nigeria; otherwise they differences between opposing parties of war, (mass media) will continue to be seen as fueling and urging violence as means to a resolution and insecurity. thus sometimes causing even further conflicts The mass media need to allot specific (Galtung, 1986, 1998b; Lee & Maslog, 2005). In airtime and space to reports on terrorism, fact, war journalism tends to be reactive, i.e., kidnapping and other forms of crime capable of

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):1 - 9 5 GODSPOWER UDOH, et al The Handling of Peace Journalism by Select Local News Tabloids in Akwa Ibom State breeding insecurity. This is a way of Media forms frequently used for peace-related stories emphasizing the negative impact of such acts on the society. The allotment of specific airtime Units of Analysis The Pioneer The Sensor Total and space to reporting terrorism, including News 16 (27.58%) 15 (27.77%) 31 (29.39%) sponsorship of reporters to embark on Editorial 13 (22.41%) 10 (18.51%) 23 (20.53%) independent investigations of terrorist acts in Opinion 14 (24.13%) 13 (24.07%) 27 (25.60%) the country were among the suggestions made Features 15 (25.86%) 16 (29.62%) 31 (27.67%) by journalists in a study on how to combat Total 58(100%) 54(100%) 112(100%) terrorism through mass media strategies (Udoudo & Diriyai, 2012). This will provide the This shows the media forms frequently used by needed reinforcement of the negative impact of the two tabloids to present peace stories. While such crimes on the society. news was the most frequently used media form in peace and conflict reporting by The Pioneer Data Presentation, Analysis and Discussion newspaper in Akwa Ibom State; Feature was Categorized prominence given to peace-related The Sensor newspaper's most frequently used stories by the news tabloids: frame in reporting peace issues. The Sensor newspaper reported peace and conflict issues in Prominence of Report Features most at 16 (29.62%) followed by News S/N Content Categories The Pioneer The Sensor Total stories at 15 (27.77%) while The Pioneer had 1 Politics 25(43.10%) 20(39.04%) 45(40.18%) most of its report of peace in news at16 2 Economy 9(15.52%) 13(24.07) 22(19.64%) (27.58%) followed by Features with 15 3 Education 5(8.62%) 6(11.11%) 11(9.82%) (25.86%). 4 Insecurity 16(27.59%) 11(20.37%) 27(24.11%) 5 Health/Environment 3(5.17%) 4(5.41%) 7(6.25%) Table 4: Lead Angle of Peace-related Stories Total 58(100%) 54(100%) 112(100%)

Categories Lead Angle Frequency Total The Pioneer newspaper published 25(43.10%) The Pioneer The Sensor peace-related political stories, 9(15.52%) stories Government/ Favourable 9(15.52%) 7(12.96%) 16(14.29%) about peace-related economic stories, 5(8.62%) Politics Unfavourable 8(13.80%) 13(24.07%) 21(18.75%) peace stories on educational matters, Neutral 5(8.62%) 3(5.56%) 8(7.14%) 16(27.59%) stories on insecurity and only Business/ Favourable 4(6.90%) 3(5.56%) 7(6.25%) 3(5.17%) stories on peace-related health issues. Economy Unfavourable 3(5.17%) 6(11.11%) 9(8.04%) This shows that The Pioneer newspaper gave Neutral 3(5.17%) 3(5.56%) 6(5.36%) more prominence to peace-related political Education Favourable 2(3.45%) 1(1.85%) 3(2.68%) stories. Unfavourable 2(3.45%) - 2(1.79%) On the other hand, The Sensor newspaper Neutral 4(6.90%) 2(3.70%) 6(5.36%) published 20(39.04%) peace-related political Crime/ Favourable 1(1.72%) 3(5.56%) 4(3.57%) stories, 13(24.07%) peace-related economic Insecurity Unfavourable 11(18.96%) 7(12.96%) 18(16.07%) stories, 6(11.11%) peace-related stories on Neutral 2(3.45%) 3(5.56%) 5(4.46%) education, 11(20.37%) stories on insecurity and Health Favourable 1(1.72%) 3(5.56%) 4(3.46%) 4(5.41%) peace-related stories on health. The Unfavourable 2(3.45%) - 2(1.79%) two newspapers gave prominence to peaceful Neutral 1(1.72%) - 1(0.89%) politics. Total 58(100%) 54(100%) 112(100%)

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):1 - 9 6 GODSPOWER UDOH, et al The Handling of Peace Journalism by Select Local News Tabloids in Akwa Ibom State

The two newspapers reported 16(14.29%) in a country's political milieu, which is, political stories whose leads were peace according to him, why readership of favourable, while 21(18.75%) of their leads were newspapers is known to grow higher during unfavourable and 8(7.14%) were neutral story election years. Brookfield (1986) states that the leads. A lead is favourable if it is written in a mass media play a crucial role in framing language that directly suggests solution to the human views of the world and the context problem at hand. In that order, the economic within which we decide which issues and stories for the two papers were 7(6.25%) problems are significant in the political realm. favourable, 9(8.04%) unfavourable and This as well confirms the result of this finding. 6(5.36%) neutral stories. Direction of stories on However, The Sensor newspaper did well in education were 3(2.68%) favourable, 2(1.79%) reporting peace-related issues on Economy, unfavourable and 6(5.36%) neutral. The which contributed to 24.07% of overall coverage directions of story on insecurity were 4(3.57%) of the selected subject areas, making Economy favourable, 18 (16.07%) unfavourable and the second prominent coverage by this 5(4.46%) neutral. The two newspapers reported newspaper. In contrast, instead of Economy, 4(3.46%) favourable health stories, 2(1.79%) The Pioneer newspaper, within the period, unfavourable stories and 1(0.89%) neutral story directed its next attention to issues on Insecurity on health issues. with 16 peace and conflict reports contributing to 27.59% of 58 reports in the selected subject Discussion areas. This result however indicates that the two This study presented the parameters of Peace newspapers placed issues on Economy and Journalism reportage by local news tabloids in Insecurity within the same range of importance, Akwa Ibom State – The Pioneer and The Sensor. A taking cognizance of their reportage on these total of 112 reports were established on Politics, subject areas. Ibrahim and Jimoh (2017) Economy, Education, Insecurity, and Health in therefore note that the central idea of the 36issues of the selected newspapers. The result framing theory is that communication sources of the study has revealed disparity in the level of (the journalists) define and construct an prominence given to issues on Politics, occurrence in a given way in order to influence Economy, Education, Insecurity, and Health. the thought and opinion of others (listeners, According to findings, particularly on Table readers or viewers). 1, Politics had the highest frequency of Table 2 sought to identify the most reportage on peace-related issues in the two frequently used media forms by The Pioneer and selected newspapers as against other content The Sensor newspapers in Akwa Ibom State to categories and peace-related issues. This report peace-related issues. Accordingly, it was indicates that more attention was given to issues observed that News and Features were the most on politics than issues in 2015 when the country frequently used media forms in the reportage of was experiencing serious cases of insecurity, peace-related stories by the newspapers. The particularly the ones perpetrated by the Boko Pioneer newspaper had the highest number of Haram insurgents. This finding agrees with peace-related news reports with 16 stories Udomisor's findings (2002) that the news media (27.58%) while The Sensor newspaper had 15 devote a substantial part of their time and (27.77%), making a total of 31 (29.39%). While, resources to covering politics. The findings also The Sensor newspaper reported peace and correlate with that of Ghorpade (1986) who conflict through Features 16(29.62%) in the observed that the press plays an influential role period under study, The Pioneer had 15 (25.86%)

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):1 - 9 7 GODSPOWER UDOH, et al The Handling of Peace Journalism by Select Local News Tabloids in Akwa Ibom State which amounted to a total of 31 (27.67%). by the media which tend to contribute It could be deduced from the study that the negatively to crises situations as follows – two news tabloids in Akwa Ibom presented selective reporting of prejudicial stereotypes peace-related stories mostly under news and about groups and individuals, reporting features. This finding agrees with Entman's intergroup conflicts out of their fundamental (1993) assertion which explains that to frame or sociological, economic, political and other give a form is to select some aspects of perceived contexts, shallow and episodic coverage, total reality and make them more salient in a blackout on some groups, individuals or communicative context, in such a way as to community; use of inflammatory, misleading promote a particular problem definition, causal and sensational headlines to attract sales, interpretation, moral evaluation and/or publishing inflammatory statements against treatment for the item described. Consequently, some people or groups as letters to the editor, Opinion with the total of 27 (25.60%) and attributing statements by individuals to groups Editorial with a total of 23 (20.53%) got less making generalised statements not supported prominence by the two news tabloids. facts, etc. These are activities which the media Table 3 evaluates the angle of the peace- need to desist from to make meaningful impact related story leads in the select newspapers. The in combating insecurity in Nigeria, otherwise result is that there was a total of 52 (46.42%) they (mass media) will continue to be seen as unfavourable, 34(30.35%) favourable, and 26 fueling insecurity. (23.21%) neutral stories on the The Pioneer and Therefore, in answering the question: what The Sensor newspapers within the study period. parameters do news tabloids in AkwaIbom use Furthermore, political issues received the in their peace journalism reportage?, Lynch and highest number of unfavourable leads by the McGoldrick (2000) say that Peace Journalism is two local tabloids, with 21 reports contributing when editors and reporters make choices that to 18.75% of the total coverage of selected improve the prospects for peace It could be subject areas. This result supports the argument deduced from the study that The Pioneer and The of Akpan, Ering, and Adeoye, (2013) that the Sensor newspapers apply peace journalism media can play a vital role in promoting peace parameters that have brought out their and preventing conflict by embracing the contribution towards peaceful co-existence in principle of peaceful coexistence as against the the State and the country at large. policy of disseminating only the kind of information those who pay their wages want Conclusion and Recommendations them to. The finding of this study contradicts This research work was conducted to analyze with Altschull's (1984) dictum that “The the handling of peace-related stories by The content of the news media always conforms to Pioneer and The Sensor newspapers between the interests of those who finance the press”. January and March 2019, which, because of However, the result also contradicts the findings political transition in the country, was a period by Brown and Udomisor (2015) who reported a filled with security challenges. From the tilt on the part of the media to favour the findings, which among other things, showed government in most of their reports. The reason that the select newspapers gave reasonable may stem from the fact that this study was prominence to peace-related stories, is carried out during election and the atmosphere commendable that local newspapers, which, was full of political issues. observably, are more interested in political Pate (2011) lists common practices adopted happenings in the country, are in a way in tune

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with Peace Journalism principles advocacy, Ibrahim, M. & Jimoh, I. (2017). Daily Trust and which seeks positive prominence for peace Vanguard newspapers Framing of the bombing reportage. However, it could be recommended of oil installations in the Niger Delta by the that: Niger Delta Avengers. UNIUYO Journal of • Local newspapers should not restrict Communication Studies, UJCS, 1(1), 24 - 34. Imtihani, N. (2014). The mass-media role in conflict themselves to political reportage only, but resolution: A case study of Kompas Daily should also look at peace and conflict issues Coverage on Aceh Conflict 2003-2005. The 4th in other areas of life so as to fairer in the International Conference on Sustainable Future for reportage. Human Security, Sustain 2013, 451- 458. • For more peace to come, more news tabloids Koven, R. (2004). An antidote to hate speech: in the country should structure the leads of Journalism. Pure and simple. Barry James (ed.) their peace-related stories in such a way that Media conflict prevention and reconstruction, 46 – such leads promote peaceful co-existence. 57. Puddephatt, A. (2006).Voices of war: Conflict and the References role of the media. Copenhagen: International Adeyanju, C. G. (2018). The mass media and violent Media Support. In Adeyanju, C. G. (2018), The conflicts in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of mass media and violent conflicts in Sub- Liberty and International Affairs, 4(3), 73-87. Saharan Africa. Journal of Liberty and Altschull, J. H. (1984). From Milton to McLuhan: The International Affairs, 4(3), 73-87. https://nbnre Ideas behind American Journalism. New York: solving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-61761-8. Longman. Udomisor, I.W. & Bwala, S, J. (2010). Newspaper Brookfield, S. (1980).Independent and adult coverage of development and cultural issues in Learning. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, Nigeria, I, 27-34. University of Leicester, UK. Udoudo. A. & Diriyai, N. (2012).Reportage of Colgan, F. (2009).The media monster that's eating terrorism in Nigeria. Journal of the African the dems. The Inquirer, February 9. Assessed Council for Communication Education (ACCE), January 19, 2019.Retrieved from http://www. Nigeria Chapter, 1(3), 23 -35. philly.com/philly/columnists/flavia_colgan. Wimmmer, R. D. & Dominick, J. R. (2000). Mass Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Clarification of a media research: An introduction. Belmont: fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, Wadsworth Publishing Company. 43(4): 51-58. In Ibrahim, M. & Jimoh, I. (2017). Galtung, J. (1996). Peace by peaceful means: Peace and Daily Trust and Vanguard Newspapers framing conflict, development and civilization. International of the bombing of oil installations in the Niger Peace Research Institute. Oslo: Thousand Oaks. Delta by the Niger Delta Avengers. UNIUYO Lynch, J. (2008). Debates in peace journalism. Sydney: Journal of Communication Studies, UJCS, 1(1). Sydney University Press. Ghorpade, S. (1986). Agenda Setting: A test of Lynch, J. & McGoldrick, A. (2005). Peace journalism. advertising's neglected function. Journal of Stroud: Hawthorn Press. Advertising Research, 2(4), 23-27. Mogekwu, M. (2000). Media and the establishment Goran, P. & Karamarko, M. (2015). Ethical of regional peace in Africa. In Ursula O. Spring principles of journalism: Content analysis of the (Ed), Peace studies from a global perspective: Human covers of most read daily newspaper in Croatia. needs in a cooperative world (296-325). Delhi: Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 6 (4), 25 – Maadhyam Book Services. 40.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

The Role of Discourse Markers in the Acquisition of English as Second Language in Nigerian Schools.

RUTH IBBI I. (PhD) Department of English, University of Jos.

Abstract This paper examines the importance of including discourse markers in the teaching and instruction of English as second language in Nigerian schools. The aim is to provide insight into the existence of discourse markers in English and the need to treat it as part of features to be acquired in English as second language. Several studies done on acquisition of English in Nigerian schools focus on problems like usage, tenses, concord, phonology, and so on, but no attention is given to the current study which is emphasizing on the need for integration of discourse markers in the teaching and learning of English as second language. The paper adopts Wilson and Sperber's Relevance Theory (“RT”). This theory views discourse markers as characterizing human communication that underlies the presentation of intentions without putting the interlocutor through too much processing effort. Information about discourse markers are obtained from secondary data of written materials/texts.Classification and examples of discourse markers in English from textbooks and journal articles are utilized for the analysis and discussion. The study concludes that discourse markers play crucial role in achieving a successful communicative act and should be considered relevant in second language acquisition.

Key Words: Discourse, Markers, Relevance, Interlocutor.

Introduction or registers. They are intriguing objects of study Discourse markers constitute other central and they can occur as lexical equivalents of features of a language. English language proves more elusive intonational cues that subtly guide to be rich in discourse markers which mean that and modulate the interlocutors understanding acquisition of English as second language (in or they can saliently signal relations between Nigeria) requires the acquisition of discourse utterances or larger discourse units. There are markers as well. Previous studies on acquisition multitudes of things we try to accomplish of English as second language in Nigeria seem during conversations for example, we negotiate to neglect this important feature of the language. turns, make points, concede points, This study therefore aims at establishing the acknowledge receipt of information, request need for inclusion of discourse markers in the receipt of information, hedge, emphasize, signal instruction of English as second language in speech acts, initiate repairs as well as convey the Nigerian schools, hence English language basic message to be communicated all in the learning classes. This is based on the belief that attempt to establish discourse coherence. This conversation is a functional feature of language discourse coherence is often achieved by the acquisition and discourse markers are often “joint efforts from interactants to integrate employed in conversations. knowing, meaning, saying and doing” Discourse markers are a set of linguistic (Schiffrin,29). items that function in discourse of various styles The study employs secondary data which is

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):10 - 16 10 RUTH IBBI I. The Role of Discourse Markers in the Acquisition of English as Second Language in Nigerian Schools. a product of exclusive library based research that discourse markers function as markers of consisting of critical works, journals and relationships between units of discourse and scholarly publications in related areas to obtain they are essential tools that enhance coherent information about discourse markers and series discourse. of examples. Brinton says discourse markers are phonologically short items that have no little Literature Review referential meaning but serve pragmatic or A few studies on the acquisition of English as a procedural purpose (1). He further notes that second language in Nigeria focus on the they fall into two categories (having a two-fold problem of students' writing (Manjuk, 2009), function): those which belong to the textual Use of concord (Digga, 1990), Use of English mode of language and those that belong to the tense forms (Inekwe, 2006), Quality of graduate interpersonal mode of language. Brinton states English in Nigeria (Ofuokwu, 1984), that in the textual mode, the speaker structures Communicative Competence in L2 English meaning as text, creating cohesive passages of (Adesida, 2011), and so on. These works are discourse. The interpersonal mode is the restricted to the problems of what affects usage expression of the speaker's attitudes, evaluation, and learning but no attention is given to the judgments, expectations and demands as well as current study which is emphasizing on the need the nature of the social exchange, the role of the for integration of discourse markers in the speaker and the role assigned to the hearer (38). teaching and learning of English as second Although many scholars do not agree on how to language. Equally, Nigerian scholars like define discourse markers or even what to call Spencer 1971; Jowitt 1991; Bamgbose, Banjo them, discourse markers have been studied from and Thomas 1995; Aliu 2003; Adegbite 2005; different labels including: discourse markers and Adesida 2011; all dwell on the task of (the term adopted in this study), discourse describing and analyzing forms of English connectives, discourse operators, pragmatic language in Nigeria. connectives, sentence connectives and so on. Blakemore explains that discourse markers Other terms include; discourse particles, “guide the hearer in finding the most relevant (Abraham, 1991), pragmatic Marker (Brinton, interpretation in the given context by 1996), pragmatic expressions (Erman, 1987), constraining the number of possible cue phrases (Knott, 1996), Utterance Particles interpretations”. She further observes that there (Kwong,1989),Pragmatic particle, (Ostman, are no consensus among linguists as to what 1983), discourse Connective (Sadler,2006). The discourse markers are and how many they are in situation is further compounded with the English, some scholars have used such terms as disagreement in the literature of discourse pragmatic marker, discourse connective or markers on which particular linguistic discourse particles to describe a discourse expression qualifies, and which do not. For marker and again it is difficult to conclude that example, Schiffrin characterizes expressions they all refer to the same thing. She offers such as Y'know as a discourse marker (66), while examples of discourse markers in English as Fraser does not (392). Discourse markers are 'well', 'but', 'so', 'indeed', “in other words''; 'as a believed to offer a framework that makes result', and 'now' (202). On the other hand, comprehension easier for the listener. Schiffrin Stenstrom presents discourse markers as operationally defined them as non-obligatory conversations that are much less likely and less utterance-initial items that function in relation personal (17). Given these definitions, it is clear to an ongoing talk and text (31). Schiffrin

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):10 - 16 11 RUTH IBBI I. The Role of Discourse Markers in the Acquisition of English as Second Language in Nigerian Schools. analyses the following items as discourse utterance encodes procedures for manipulating markers: those conceptual representations, it is said to be a) Oh, well (particles) p r o c e d u r a l . T h e r e f o r e, i n f e r e n t i a l b) and, but, or, so, because (conjunctions) comprehension involves the construction and c) now, then (time deictics) manipulation of conception representations d) Y'know, I mean (lexicalized clauses) (Wilson and Sperber, 10), thus aid in the search for relevance by guiding an audience to the Discourse markers are also defined as the lexical appropriate contextual effects which ultimately items that indicate the kind of semantic/ lead to the appropriate interpretation of an rhetorical relationship holding between utterance. It is also recognized that discourse adjacent text spans on the linguistic surface markers may encode both types of information (Knott, 96). A clear factor from these definitions (i.e. procedural and conceptual) for example, is that discourse markers function as markers of the non-truth-conditional discourse markers relationships between units of discourse and such as “in contrast”, “in other words”, “as a they are essential tools that enhance coherent result” have been argued to encode concepts discourse. Consequently, acquisition of English rather than procedures (Blakemore, 230). discourse markers becomes paramount in the acquisition of English as second language in Discussion Nigeria. The English Language characterizes many discourse markers such as “well, “yes”, “surely” Theoretical Framework on the contrary, 'so' and 'nevertheless': They are The Relevance Theory (“RT”) which grammatical forms that typically serve to relate characterizes human communication (Wilson one utterance to another in a discourse. and Sperber,612) is adopted in this study. The Discourse markers are considered as signals for underlying principle here is that the the reader or the hearer that make cohesion and communicators present enough evidence of coherence. As a matter of fact these markers are their intentions without putting the interlocutor found in various grammatical forms such as through too much processing effort in interjections, linking adverbials, greetings, computing cognitive effects (working out a farewells and so on. They play a very crucial role relevant interpretation).Once the interlocutor's not only in conversation, but also in written text expectation of relevance is satisfied, the too. The term discourse marker has several interlocutor can stop. Insum, communication is terms proposed by different scholars. This, of achieved through an inferential process which course, is a problem because different scholars culminates in the interlocutor's appropriate refer to discourse markers differently; for interpretation. RT suggests that “every example, 'conjuncts and disjuncts' (Quirk et al ostensive stimulus conveys a presumption of its 1985); 'hedges' (Lakoff 1975); 'particles'( own optimal relevance” (Wilson and Sperber, Svartvik, 1980); “linking words and phrases” 612). What figures predominantly in relevance (Eastwood 1999). This study adopts the term theory (RT) is the idea that there are two types 'discourse makers', and captures all the of linguistic meaning: conceptual or mentioned phenomena. Importantly too, the procedural. When a linguistic construction (an multifunction of these markers' performance do utterance) encodes conceptual representations not restrict only to the sentence level, they also (i.e. a concept, or what Schiffrin might term as have semantic and pragmatic functions. The an idea unit), it is said to be conceptual. If an markers serve as signals for hearer and the

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):10 - 16 12 RUTH IBBI I. The Role of Discourse Markers in the Acquisition of English as Second Language in Nigerian Schools. reader to understand what has been said or read, used in respectful language polite markers as or what is going to be read or said. Several polite speech-acts. They add that these classifications of discourse which proves to be markers have speech act function in typical and comprehensive markers are apologizing, thanking and regretting. And outlined. Such classifications are: they have as a matter of fact respective role in the interactive nature of speaker's 1. Response Forms conversation. Speech acts need to be used at Biber et al(1999) argue that these markers are the appropriate time for the right reason in brief and routinized responses to a previous all communications, hence English remark. They classify these markers into: communication well. i. Response to questions as yes – no and their variants. 4. Interjections ii. Response to directives as ok This discourse marker has been described in iii. Response to assertions as back channels yes, most grammar books as words or set of yah, I see, these types of markers are sounds used as a sudden remark to express referred to as “uptakers” that are used on the feelings. These markers convey feelings and part of the hearer to indicate the active emotions that should not be neglected in listening in communication. For the learner acquisition of English as second language. of English, the need to know when to use Svartvik and Leech, (152), offer a survey of such markers is central to a successful common English interjections which are communication. used to express emotions: “oh” expressing surprise. 2. Hesitators As given in this sentence Discourse markers such as Er, erm and uh “Oh what a fantastic gift.” are used to fill hesitation pauses in speech. “Ah 'expressing satisfaction, Such markers tend to be condemned by recognition. “Ah” that is just people who do not understand and lack of what I want “Aha these are the this understanding can affect second books that I was looking for”. language acquisition of English. Learners “Wow expressing great surprise” can easily be discouraged if they lack such “Wow – what a great surprise.” ability to use these markers or are not sure of “Wow – what a great goal” why they are used, but they are very “Yippee expressing excitement, important that they allow the addressee to delight” catch up with the conversation and they help “Yippee this is fun”! the speaker to plan what to say next “Ouch”- expressing pain (Knowles, 185). Stubbs, (70) supported “Ouch, my waist”! Knowles' statement that these markers are normal, non-fluency phenomenon occurs in 5. Greeting And Farewells Expressions unplanned discourse like repetition, false These markers occur in special discourse start and the like. situations and constitute conventionalized responses to situations, despite their phatic 3. Various Polite Speech-Act Formulae use. Schifrin adds that these markers can be Biber et al (3) refer to discourse markers like used as an instrument to maintain a link sorry, pardon, thank you and “please” that are among people (35).In general, greetings can

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vary in formality, for example “hi” and 8. Response Elicitors “hello” are used in informal situations. They Biber et al state that these markers are are less formal than “good” forms as given characterized as generalized question tags below: such as huh? Which means alright? and /or Good morning okay? These markers are called “appealers” Good afternoon that are used by the speaker to get or elicit And good evening agreement from the hearer. They serve Good bye important communicative functions (227).

6. Linking Adverbials 9. Expletives Levinson (87) observes that there are words These markers are phrases that do not and phrases in English and in most contribute any meaning to the text. Some of languages, are used to indicate the them are taboo expressions like swearwords relationship between an utterance and the or “semi-taboo expressions” that are used as prior discourse such as the initial position of exclamations especially in strong negative therefore, in conclusion, to the contrary, experience. Biber et al, differentiate these still, however, well, besides and after all. markers as: i. Taboo expletives: these markers are used 7. Stance Adverbials to express something bad and not in These markers are lexical items that behave polite use, for example, 'Blast!', semantically as operators upon the entire “Damn”, “oh hell”, “Bloody hell” sentence to express modality, illocutionary Moderated expletives: These markers are force and evaluation (Trask, 251).The socially acceptable in many situations, stance adverbials are called 'sentence examples are: “My goodness”, “my God” adverbials' by Leech and Svartvick (1994), “Goodheavens”, “Good God”( Biber et and 'disjuncts' by Quirk et al (1985). al,14). Similarly, Halliday (82) suggests four These classifications and examples should form categories for sentence – initial verbs: a whole in the acquisition of English; consequently some consideration for inclusion Probability; maybe, perhaps, certainly, in English curriculum design for Nigerian surely. schools is encouraged. The study opines that Presumption: of course, obviously, clearly, acquisition of discourse markers in English will evidently. also have better learning implications for Usuality: usually, typically, o c c a s i o n a l ly effective learning and teaching of English in D e s i r a b i l i t y : unfortunately, luckily, Nigerian schools. hopefully, regrettably. Stance adverbials; appear in different Conclusion and Recommendation grammatical structures, single adverb like Discourse markers are signals used in honestly or fortunately or prepositional communication whereby the hearer expects or phrase like of course or noun like the fact is, is conscious of the speaker's intention. They are adjective such as it is likely to or model verbs commonly used in conversation, and often have such as maybe and perhaps and the large initial position or responding functions such as number of these adverbials are comments adjacency pairs- greeting “hi”, farewell, “bye”, clauses like you know,you see response forms yes, no … etc. These markers do

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):10 - 16 14 RUTH IBBI I. The Role of Discourse Markers in the Acquisition of English as Second Language in Nigerian Schools. not form any part in a syntactic structure but in order to accomplish discourse related work. they are inserted freely in discourse. And they However, it is not just any machinery but are marked off by intonation, pauses, and machinery that might lend itself to the speaker functions. They typically serve multifunction in for work at the discourse level. There is also discourse, semantics and pragmatics. There is evidence that existing machinery from other no unified agreement in classifying these languages resulting from language contact can markers as various linguists offer many influence both the identity and location of classifications. discourse. In addition, the discourse markers also play As a result of these underlying functions of crucial role in achieving a successful discourse markers, this study proposes a communicative act in general conversations deliberate integration of English discourse and texts; they are key elements in the text markers into the instruction of English as production and perception. Although they are second language in Nigeria, consequently considered semantically and grammatically Nigerian schools. optional, they are pragmatically obligatory tools for discourse processing. In order to Works Cited p r o d u c e a c c e p t a b l e, n a t u r a l a n d Abraham, Werner. Discourse Particles in German: How communicatively effective discourse too, does their Illocutive force come about? Amsterdam: speakers of the language (in this case English John Benjamins, 1991. speakers) are required to use discourse markers Adegbite, Waje, and Akindele, Femi. Sociology and Politics of English in Nigeria: An Introduction. Ife, in certain ways that are expected and accepted Nigeria: Awolowo University Press, 2005. by their receivers/ hearers. Wrong use of these Adesida, Aina. 'Communicative Competence of items renders the conversation unnatural, Learners of English as Second Language in affects their acceptability and increases the Nigeria'. Journal of the Nigerian English Studies chances of communication breakdowns. Association. 14 (2), Pp 61-73, 2011. Therefore, studying and integrating the Akinmade, Timothy. 'Acquisition of the Inflectional function of discourse markers as elements that Morphemes by Nigerian Learners of English ensure communication acceptability, Language'. Nordic Journal of African Studies. Vol. naturalness, and effectiveness is indispensable 12 (3), Pp 310-326, 2003. for any second language acquisition. Aliu, Joseph. Improving Your Performance in English. Finally, it must be emphasized that the Zaria, Nigeria: Ahmed Bello University Press Ltd, 1976. actual form of discourse markers appear to be Anderson, Gisle. 'The Pragmatic Marker like from largely constrained by the existing grammatical Relevance – theoretic Perspective'. In Jucker, A. machinery (i.e grammar, grammartical and Ziv, Y. Discourse Markers: Descriptions and categories, lexical inventory, etc). In other Theory. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John words, if a language makes heavy use of affixes, Benjamins; 1998. then it should be no surprise that some Bamgbose, Ayo. 'The English Language in Nigeria'. discourse markers in those languages should (Ed). Spencer, J. The English Language in West occur as affixes. Conversely, in languages Africa. London: Longman, 1996. which are not richly inflected, we would not Banjo, Ayo and Joe, Bisong. Developmental English. expect to find many, if any, discourse markers Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.,1994. which occur as affixes. The ultimate point here Biber Douglas et al. Longman Grammar of Spoken and is that speakers of a language tend to use the Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 1999. existing machinery available in their language Blakemore, Diane. Semantic Constraints on Reference.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

The Nigerian Youth, Social Networking and the Use of Face Book

1MOVEN TAHNA'AN ROSEMARY & 2AUDU ALEX YIBEIKAS 1Department of Mass Communications, University of Jos E-mail:[email protected], tahnaansluv25 @yahoo.com 2School of Post Graduate Studies, Department of Sociology, University of Jos E-mail: ultimatepyrex @gmail.com, [email protected]

Abstract The Social Network in Nigeria has attracted millions of followers in recent times. This is because the social network provides the opportunity for citizens (especially youths) to air their views concerning happenings in the society. The growing wave of unemployment in Nigeria has pushed so many youths into retiring to social networking sites to pass the time, boredom, and vent their frustrations; while others use such social networking sites to market products and make a living. The Social Networking in Nigeria came into prominence after the 2011 General Elections and the 2012 anti-subsidy removal protests across Nigeria; it has since assumed center stage in the country. However, arguments characterize the use of Social Networking sites; particularly Facebook come on the hill of activities of fraud stars and mischief makers which has led to lose of lives, monies and property. However, many have converted the social network sites into a market for both goods and services, hence making up for their needs. Most youths use the social networking sites to engage in academic, political and social discuss. There is need to establish (where none exists) regulatory mechanisms and increase sanctions (where such already exists) to curb cyber crimes and pornography which are latent effects of the use of social networking sites; particularly in Nigeria. This paper seeks to analyze the impact of Social Networking sites (or Social Media), with emphasison Facebook on Nigerian Youths, reviewing existing literatures to support the arguments.

Keywords: Social Networking, Facebook, Nigerian Youths.

Introduction has assumed center stage in the affairs of the The explosion of social media in the 21st century country. has transformed the way information is created, Additionally, social media facilitates social disseminated and distributed. In an age where engagement, viral sharing of information and information is considered equal to power and trust. It is obvious then that integrating social wealth, collective diversity of opinions ensures media into different communication campaigns better creative problem-solving mechanisms and development activities will allow the and more equitable outcomes in society. The government, civil society and other growing wave of unemployment pushes so professionals to leverage social dynamics and many youths into retiring to social networking networks to encourage participation, sites to while away time in order to escape from conversation and community – all of which can boredom, and to vent their frustrations while help spread key messages and influence others use such social networking sites to informed and positive decision-making. Social market products and make a living. The impact Networking Sites are also referred to as the New of Social Networking in contemporary Nigeria Media or more commonly Social Media. became prominent during the 2011 General Governments all over the world are Elections and the 2012 anti-subsidy removal discovering and taking advantage of social protests across Nigeria. Since then the platform media in new and interesting ways (Nowlin,

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2013). Social media, with its widespread most popular social networking site in several adoption and network effect, are enabling real English-speaking countries, including Canada, time, two-way communications between the the United Kingdom, and the United States. government and the public. For the first time in Even in Africa, there were about 17 million history, a one-to-one relationship can be Facebook users at the start of 2011 and the established between people and their local, figure was expected to rise to 28 million by 2012 regional and national governments using (Ledgard, 2011). Thus, as at June 2011, innovative social media methods (Samaila & Facebook had reached one trillion page viewers, Hassan, 2015, pp. 176-178). making it the most visited website in the world. Social media has given everyone a voice and now governments around the world are Definition of Terms leveraging this new medium. In the beginning, Social networking sites are web-based services they were in a “listen-only” mode, that is, quietly that allow individuals to construct a public or sitting in front of computer monitors listening to semi-public profile within a bounded system, what people were saying about happenings in articulate a list of other users with whom they the world. Now, many have evolved from listen- share a connection with, and view and traverse only modes to actually engaging with the public their list of connections and those made by (Flanigin & Metzger, 2007). others within the system, (Boyd & Ellison, Facebook has been described as one of the 2007). important social media networks and websites Social networking sites are created to take (Paxson, 2010; Abubakar, 2011). It is one of the care of variety of human needs and could be new media networks which provide users with classified using that format. For instance, the mix of inter personal and mass Ellison, Steinfield, and Lampe (2007, p.143) communication capabilities that have not classified SNSs into: work-related contexts existed before, and which place emphasis on (LinkedIn.com), romantic relationship initiation interactivity and mobility (Paxson, 2010). Mark (Friendster.com), connecting those with shared Zuckerberg originally launched “the Facebook” interests such as music or politics on February 4, 2004 and it was located at “the (MySpace.com), or the college student facebook.com”. However, in 2005, it dropped population (Facebook). It should however be “the” from its name after purchasing the noted that the examples mentioned above were domain named facebook.com for $200,000. based on the original intentions of founders of Zuckerberg, a sophomore at Harvard the SNSs, though these intentions have been University, first created the site with 500 taken to another level by users. Augustan images with one image per page According to B & C (2010), social media is which he opened up to his classmates for note an online technology tool that allows people to sharing. However, Facebook was opened up for communicate easily utilizing the Internet to everyone of age 13 and above with a valid e-mail share and discuss information. In this capacity, address on September 26, 2006. Thus, by it allows users to create content, interact and September, 2012, Facebook has over one billion collaborate in a user-generated visual active users. The platform allows users to join community. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) common interest groups, organized by defined social media as a group of internet- workplace, school or College for social based applications that build on the ideological networking (Ibid). and technological foundations of web 2.0 and Facebook, according to Wikipedia, is the that allow the creation and exchange of user-

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):17 - 25 18 MOVEN TAHNA'AN R. & AUDU ALEX YIBEIKAS The Nigerian Youth, Social Networking and the Use of Face Book generated content. Other definitions see social of boosting participation because of its media as elements of the new media that have openness, conversation nature, connectedness, the highest activity on the Internet which use and textual and audio-visual characteristic web-based technologies that transform and appeal (Abubakar, 2011, p.447). broadcast media monologues into social Facebook is the most popular social dialogues, support the democratization of networking site in several English speaking knowledge and information while transforming countries, including Canada, the United people from content consumers to content Kingdom, and the United States. Even in producers. Social media are also perceived as Africa, there were about 17 million Facebook tools that help to reach people when, where and users at the start of 2011 and the figure was how they want to receive messages; it improves expected to rise to 28 million by 2012 (Ledgard, the availability of content and may influence 2011). satisfaction and trust in the messages delivered. According to UN (2000), youth refers to a Likewise, social media equally provide the person or group of persons between the ages of opportunity to tap into personal networks and 15 and 24 years. However each region or state present information in multiple formats, spaces, reserves the right to define youth. According the and sources which helps to make messages African Union (2006), a youth is defined as any more credible and effective. individual or groups of individuals, male or The new media are new communication female who falls between the age bracket of 15 technologies that combine computer and and 35 years. This is the convention adopted by telecommunication technologies which are the Federal Ministry of Youths and Sports, and used as channels of information dissemination recognized by the National Youth Council of to heterogeneous audiences without the Nigeria (NYCN). constraints of time, space or distance (Ikpe & Olise, 2010). According to Spurgeon (2008), Literature Review interactivity is a major criterion of comparison The new media (Social Media or Social between “old” mass media and “new” digitally Networking Sites), propelled and driven by the networked media. It is important to note that the Internet, provide platforms for social more interactive a communication system is, the interactions between and among users in such a more flexible the system is in terms of the types manner that no older platforms/media can of communication and exchange such a system boast of. The new media display such potential can support. that the only limitation to the dynamism is Paxson (2010) posits that the new media ignorance or illiteracy in terms of the ability to include internet websites such as MySpace, use the hardware and/or software for maximum Facebook, Twitter, Flicker, and other social effects in the realm of communication, networking or social media, and sharing sites, education, politics, economics, social or as well as blogs, video games, virtual worlds, technology (Tokunbo & Felix, 2013, p. 66). mobile telephones, text messaging devices and It is imperative to concede to the fact that Global Positioning System (GPS) devices. social media are “fast becoming the default Social media, which include blogs (political internet mode of interaction, communication Blog), networks (Facebook, Twitter, etc.), and collaboration” (Verster, 2010). According video sharing (YouTube), audio sharing to Abubakar (2011), “social media are both (Podcast), mobile sites (2go etc.), image or internet and mobile based apparatuses that picture sharing (flicker), etc. have the capacity allow people to easily share and discuss

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):17 - 25 19 MOVEN TAHNA'AN R. & AUDU ALEX YIBEIKAS The Nigerian Youth, Social Networking and the Use of Face Book information”. Thus, the role of the different (print, radio, television) to social media social media platforms in enhancing socio- technologies to get their information. People use cultural, economic, political and technological mobile devices all over the world to get news and development of any nation as well as its information. They are not tied to print, which citizenry can never be overemphasized. More can be days old, or radio and television that importantly, social media are being used to require them to be at the right place at the right promote scholarship by youths in institutions time. People can now use their phones to get the of higher learning across the globe. latest news on any topic, from any news source I n 2 0 0 8 , t h e B B C p r o g r a m m e worldwide. This means that not only one can get "Superpower", placed the Nigerian internet the latest information from the news sources in population at about twenty four million people his area, but one can access the same “stories” (ITU), positioning Nigeria as Africa's biggest from international media as well, enabling you internet market (audience), dwarfing South to be more informed by information from a Africa and Egypt. However, recent statics number of sources (Samaila & Hassan, 2015, (Internetwordstatics.com) show that as at Dec, pp. 176-180). 31 2011, Nigeria has 45, 039, 711 internet users S o c i a l n e t w o r k i n g s i t e s e n a b l e and 4,369,740 Facebook users. technologically mediated engagement to occur The most popular social networking site is in multiple ways. Participants can post to the Facebook, which has over 750 million users. larger group or utilize a mechanism of direct Social networking sites provide an immediate addressable, including the “@” symbol, to and personal way to deliver programme, single out another individual in their social products and information. The average user media communication. This singling out occurs creates 90 pieces of content every month, and in the public forum and is seen by everyone. In 50% of active users log on to the site on any addition to these formal direct addressable given day (Facebook, 2011). As stated earlier, mechanisms, individuals utilize more informal in Africa, there were about 17 million mechanisms like a user's name. Failure to use Facebook users at the start of 2011 and the the provided affordances for singling out figure was expected to rise to 28 million by another individual through technological 2012 (Ledgard, 2011). Thus, as at June 2011, means creates noise that the analyst of social Facebook had reached one trillion page media, whether focused on culture, viewers, making it the most visited website in communications, political science or other the world). In Nigeria, available data indicate domain of interest, must address. Messages that Facebook is the most popular network site. where individuals are singled out form a subset The implication is that it will offer tremendous of interactions within a particular social media opportunity for social mobilization (Vivian & group that, when analyzed together, form a Elizabeth, 2015, pp. 10-21). network of conversation. These networks of According to Motti, Oren and Eyal (2011), conversation are more explicitly identified than responding to a Tweet or a post on a variety of previous research on conversations within social media sites is considerably easier and less larger scale forums and allow for a much richer expensive. There is also an added benefit: by analysis of the networks of discourse that responding to one person in a public setting, one emerge (Fisher, Smith, & Welser, 2006; Samaila is now reaching a wider audience beyond the & Hassan, 2015). person asking the question. More and more, Samaila and Hassan (2015) found out that people are shifting from traditional media the social network site mostly patronized by the

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):17 - 25 20 MOVEN TAHNA'AN R. & AUDU ALEX YIBEIKAS The Nigerian Youth, Social Networking and the Use of Face Book respondents is Facebook that accounts for unregulated nature of the social media, it is 60.08% of respondents. This is possibly because certain that much of the information is not of its dynamism in providing various avenues of subject to scrutiny and may be conjured, information sharing such as posting, sharing, misrepresentation, or even misinformation commenting, etc. on issues of public (Adedeji, 2015, pp. 2-3). importance (p. 180). Majias (2005) observed that people use These findings by Samaila and Hassan social networking sites for analyzing and (2015) further drive home the importance of sharing information, reflection, establishing Facebook in contemporary discourse in our and maintaining spontaneous social contacts society. To elaborate more on this perception, and relationships and supporting informal Samaila and Hassan state further that in a learning practices. Social networking sites are democratic nation like Nigeria, certainly, issues considered to play an active role in younger that constitute public opinion ought to stem generation's daily lives (Lenhart, 2009), as most from sociopolitical concerns. By so doing, the of the active users are students of tertiary citizens would be able to air their views and institutions. No wonder Oblinger and Oblinger make informed decisions on issues affecting (2005, p.12) called them 'the most wired and them. A whooping percentage of the connected generation in human history', respondents 86.01% showed that social media 'Digital Natives', and 'the Net Generation'. have implications for public discourse in Against this backdrop, social networking sites Nigeria (pp. 180-181). have become excellent tools for education and According to Adedeji (2015), the social can be used socially and collaboratively between media have become the most accessible source learners and teachers as well as amongst of information, particularly in general elections. students. Before the day of the presidential election, the For instance, Asabere (2012, pp.462-470) social media disseminated many messages to noted that current ICT trends are providing the public that went viral. The social media accessibility to online services such as social communicated to the public a lot of information networks and these enable collaboration that could have caused unrest in some volatile amongst students and contribute a lot to social nations. For example, the social media gave learning activities. Students of tertiary other reasons for the postponement of the institutions in Nigeria are keying into the election from February 14, 2015 to March 28, limitless opportunities. The rapid growth of this 2015 aside from the unpreparedness of technology has improved and enabled Independent National Electoral Commission – collaborative and learning activities especially reasons that made the public believe that the because of its high level of interactivity, postponement was to the advantage of the accessibility and affordability. ruling party as it would provide the opportunity However, exposure and use of these for the ruling party to manipulate the election in networks tend to have both positive and negative such a way that the power of the electorate implications on the student. Oye, Helou and would amount to nothing. Rahim (2012, p.25) buttress this in their findings The social media pass information freely, that “as a result of more time being dedicated to because they are unregulated. The information the use of social networking sites for non- can come in the form of broadcast on social academic usage and less time to academic usage media application, like WhatsApp and BBM, by students, it tells considerably on what blogs; or even text messages. With the becomes their academic output”. In view of

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):17 - 25 21 MOVEN TAHNA'AN R. & AUDU ALEX YIBEIKAS The Nigerian Youth, Social Networking and the Use of Face Book this, the use of social networking sites has raised i. The audience is conceived as active. dust among researchers. Some see it as ii. Media choice and gratifications depend on distraction to learning for the student as it the audience member, that is, people use involves multitasking, while others attest to the the media to their advantage more often potential of Social Network Sites for learning. than the media use them. There are also those who argue that young adult iii. The media compete with other sources of learners view and use social networking sites as need satisfaction especially face-to-face a platform for socializing more than learning. communication. iv. Many of the goals media use can be derived THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK from data supplied by the individual Use and Gratifications Theory audience members themselves. This paper in premised on the Uses and v. It is the individual audience member that Gratifications theory developed by Elihu Katz, makes the decision to view the media based Jay Blumler and Michael Gurevitch in 1974 on the value placed on such media. (Anaeto, Onabanjo & Osifeso, 2008). The theory considers the audience as active, that is, The underlying presupposition is that, media they actively seek out specific media and content users selectively engage media that possess the to achieve certain results or gratifications that features or characteristics that can meet or satisfy their personal needs (Nayyar, 2007). Uses satisfy their needs at that point in time. Thus, it and Gratifications analysis shifts attention and is not the pervasiveness or popularity of the focus from media production and transmission medium or media that matters but the to media consumption. According to Folarin relevance and utility of the medium/media to (2002, p.72), the central issue becomes, “who the user. The theory stresses the consumption uses which content from which media under utility of media rather than the transmission which conditions and for what reasons”. The capability. theory seeks to explain the uses of media and the The arguments of the theory are applicable satisfactions derived from them in terms of the the Nigerian context. Most importantly, motives and self-perceived needs of audience Nigerian youths get certain gratification. The members (McQuail, 2005, p. 569). It Nigerian youths who constitute over 60% of the emphasises the fact that the audience are not total National population (Census, 2006), have passive receivers of media contents, but that, embraced the social media to meet certain “they actively influence the message” in that gratifications ranging from social interactions, they “selectively choose, attend to, perceive and marketing, information dissemination and retain the media message on the basis of their generation, political discuss and participation needs, beliefs, etc.” (Anaeto et al., 2008, p.71). etc. This justifies their mass subscription to Media audiences usually derive gratifications social media to air their opinions, frustration from three different sources, namely, media and grievances within the context of the content, media exposure and the social context prevailing structural deprivation in Nigeria and of exposure (Blumler & Katz, 1974). the mass unemployment problems faced by However, Nayyar (2007), while citing Katz, majority of Nigerian youths. In the long-run, Blumler and Gurevitch states that there are five however, both negative and positive impacts on basic assumptions guiding Uses and Nigerian youths begin to unveil. These impacts Gratifications theory. According to Nayyar, the are the concern of this paper, some of which theory assumes that: shall be identified.

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Impact of Social Networking Sites (Social Media or most. New Media on Nigerian Youths We have earlier established that students of As identified in the reviews, the BBC tertiary institutions in Nigeria are keying into programme "Superpower" in 2008, placed the the limitless opportunities. The rapid growth of Nigerian internet population at about twenty- this technology has improved and enabled four million people (ITU), positioning Nigeria collaborative and learning activities especially as Africa's biggest internet market (audience), because of its high level of interactivity, dwarfing South Africa and Egypt. However, accessibility and affordability. Facebook in recent statistics (Internetwordstatics.com) Nigeria has also been used for political shows that as at Dec, 31 2011, Nigeria has 45, discussions; examples abound in its use in 2011 039, 711 internet users and 4,369,740 Facebook general elections and during the 2012 anti- users. subsidy removal protest in all parts of the In Africa, there were about 17 million country. Facebook is also being used for social Facebook users at the start of 2011 and the purposes such as in expanding one's network of figure was expected to rise to 28 million by 2012 friend by adding and accepting new friends on (Ledgard, 2011). Thus, as at June 2011, Facebook, entering into romantic relationships; Facebook had reached one trillion page viewers, Facebook marriage inclusive which is on the making it the most visited website in the world. negative side considering its contravention of In Nigeria, available data indicate that cultural marriage conventions across Nigerian Facebook is the most popular network site. The ethnic groups. implication is that it will offer tremendous However, a lot of cybercrimes and scams opportunity for social mobilization (Vivian & have been perpetuated by Nigerian youths. Elizabeth, 2015, pp. 10-21). Discussing the genesis of cyber fraud in Nigeria, Findings by Tokunbo and Felix (2013) Devine (2011) argues that the now-worldwide reveal that Facebook is the most widely used Nigerian scam started off as a small, local fraud, platform by the Nigerian students. Over half of in which the con artist would mail letters the respondents use Facebook as their favourite informing the victim, or remark that a prince network platform for social interaction. Again, was planning to deposit a large amount of over two-thirds of the sample agreed to have money in the target's bank accounts, and would used Facebook platform to send or receive reward him for helping to get the money out of information. This shows that the network is the country. But mailing letters was expensive popular among Nigerian Youths. Those who and time-consuming, and didn't see the rapid use Facebook platform agreed that they influx of cash to make it anything more than a frequently use it. However, it is important to cottage industry. In giving account on why note that 67% of the respondents who use Nigeria's fraud profile assumes current Facebook use it for other things different from magnitude, Devine has this to say: 'what truly academic networking. As popular as Facebook made the Nigerian version of this age-old trick is, and with its potential for networking, only for such a huge industry was the advent of the 33% of the respondents who use Facebook use internet. Modern telecommunications the network for academic information technology and inexpensive internet harvesting exchange. As further confirmed by Uwen et al. software made the Nigerian fraud-mongers able (2013), their findings from the study carried out to inexpensively mass-email potential victims. in Uyo metropolis also indicated that 55.9% of Even if only a small percentage of these people their total respondents visited Facebook the took the bait, the amount of money made could

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):17 - 25 23 MOVEN TAHNA'AN R. & AUDU ALEX YIBEIKAS The Nigerian Youth, Social Networking and the Use of Face Book be staggering. And it was. In the past fifteen purposes. The negative impact includes years, the Nigerian scam went from being a exposure to nude and pornographic contents, small, local fraud scheme which was essentially and the use of social networking sites to a cottage industry, to being one of Nigeria's perpetrate cybercrime and obtaining under false biggest industries, copied all over the world pretense (popularly referred to as “419). The (Jegede, 2014, p. 11). push into these fraudulent activities (Cyber This disturbing trend can be attributed to Crimes and 419) is mostly facilitated by society's placement of a premium on wealth unemployment and social pressure. The whether through legal or illegal means. Thus, unregulated nature of the social media allows the “get-it-at-all-costs” syndrome is injected into the flooding of unverified, spontaneous, the psyche of emerging youths, who as a result misinterpreted and misinforming news. of such social pressure engage in such illegal activities including the social networking sites to Recommendations perpetrate cybercrime and obtaining things It is imperative to recommend and sensitize under false pretense, popularly known as “419”. Nigerian Youths to the benefits of using Much must be done to correct this structural Facebook to access, gather and distribute problem; all hands must be on deck; with academic articles, summaries, texts, journals, collaborations from both government and the research findings, etc., that can augment their citizenry to address this challenge squarely. knowledge level as well as currency in terms of Also, there seems to be a sudden flooding of new developments in the different disciplines. It social media sites with nude and pornographic is only through this that Nigerian Youths can contents which have constantly undermined the compete favorably with their counterparts in sociocultural values of the Nigerian Society. other parts of the world. Considering the active intervention of the Again, tertiary institutions should integrate Nigeria Censors Board in screening media into their curricula the use (potential and contents displayed on electronic media, benefits) of the new technology of information individuals and marketers have resorted to the communication especially, the more accessible use social networking sites to air uncensored communication tools and sites like cell phones contents freely, considering the fact that the Facebook, Twitter, etc. through which scholarly social networking sites are unregulated. The information can be shared among students: major propeller of the addictive use of social Furthermore, parents, guardians, tutors, media/network is largely attributed to religious leaders, etc. should monitor their unemployment. There is need for innovative, wards on how they use these sites and what they proactive and responsible governance across the use the sites for. They should also encourage country to counter this menace. them (youths) to engage the tools pro-actively and profitably. The youths should be Conclusion encouraged to use the websites more creatively It is obvious that the social networking sites have to their advantage and the benefit of the society. both negative and positive impact on Nigerian There is need for government to extend the youths. Millions of individuals participate on censor regulations of media contents to the social media in Nigeria, with most users of such Internet and social networking sites to ensure social networking sites subscribing to Facebook. that nude and pornographic contents are They use such social networking sites for controlled and social decadence restored. Academic, Political, Social and otherwise Chief of all efforts must be made in

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employment generation through public-private J o u r n a l o f C o m p u t e r M e d i a t e d partnership, and attraction of foreign Communication, 13, 210–230. investment into Nigeria to absorb the teeming Dunu, I. V., & Uzochukwu, C. E. (2015). Social and largely unemployed Nigerian youths. media: An effective tool for social mobilization However, the youths themselves must equip in Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 20(4), Ver. III, 10-21. themselves with the necessary job skills required www.iosrjournals.org. to take on such job tasks. This is because besides Jegede A. E. (2014). Cyber fraud, global trade and the problem of unemployment, there is the issue youth crime burden: Nigerian experience. Afro of unemployability of Nigerian youths. This Asian Journal of Social Sciences Volume V, (4). will go a long way in addressing the immediate Michael B. A., & Olanrewaju, O. P. A. (2015). The problems. impact of social media on citizens' mobilization There is need for a return to agriculture with and participation in Nigeria's 2011 General haste; this is because of the gradually dwindling Elections, 17 (2), 31-52.. oil revenue which in reality cannot shoulder the Nuhu, Y., & As'mau, S. M. (2015). The mass media responsibilities of funding the growing and the 2015 General Elections. Paper presented at economic demands of Nigeria. A look into the national conference organized by the Electoral Institute of the Independent National other sections of our extractive industry, besides Electoral Commission, Abuja, June 2015. oil, can give the desired economic lift. Okoro, N., & Kenneth, A. N. (2013). Social media and political participation in Nigeria during the References 2011 General Elections: The lapses and the Adedeji S. O. (2015). Social media participation and lessons. Global Journal of Arts Humanities and pollution of the 2015 General Elections in Social Sciences, 1(3), 29-46. www.ea-journals.org Nigeria. Omede A. J., & Emmanuel, A. A. (2015). Social Ajayi, A. I. & Adesote, S. A. (2015). The new social Media: A trend or threat to democracy? Jorind media and consolidation of democracy in 13(1). www.ajol.info/ journals/jorind. Nigeria: Uses, potentials and challenges. Journal Samaila, B., & Hassan, U. K. (2015). Impact of social of Good Governance and Sustainable Development in media on public discourse in Nigeria. Paper Africa (JGGSDA), 2(4), 47-58. http://www. presented at the International Conference on rcmss.com. Communication, Media, Technology and Ani, L. (2013). Cybercrime and national security: Design, 16 - 18 May 2015, Dubai – United Arab The role of the penal and procedural law. Law Emirates. and Security in Nigeria, 198- 232. Social Media and the 2011 General Elections (2012). Anjugu J. N. (2013). Impact of social media on students' Abuja: Policy and Legacy Advocacy Center academic performance; A study of students of (PLAC). University of Abuja- A research project submitted Temitayo I. O., & Oludare, O. M. (2015). to the Department of Mass Communication, Stakeholders, ICTs platforms and the 2015 Management and Social Sciences Caritas General Elections in Nigeria. University, Amorji–Nike, Enugu. Tokunbo A. A., Felix A. A. (2013). Nigerian youths Chika E. A, Emmanuel U. O, & Ibe B. O (2015). Use and social media: Harnessing the potentials for of social networking sites and academic academic excellence. Kuwait Chapter of Arabian performance among students of selected tertiary Journal of Business and Management Review, 2 (5). institutions in Kogi State. International Journal of Uwem, A. (2013). Uses and Gratifications of social African and Asian Studies, 6. www.iiste.org. Networking Websites among Youths in Uyo, Danah M. B., Nicole B. E. (2008). Social Network Nigeria. International Journal of Asian Social Sites: Definition, history, and scholarship. Science, 2013, 3(2), 353-369.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Influence of Advertisement on The Sale of Coca-Cola Soft Drinks in Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC)

BARNABAS GBAM, PhD NTA Television College Jos

Abstract The study is on influence of advertising on the sale of Coca-Cola soft drinks in Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC). The purpose is to examine how the use of advertisement as a marketing strategy could lead to higher sales of Coca Cola soft drinks. The study was necessitated by the high rate of competition among soft drinks producers in the study area. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. The sample is the 105 major Coca-Cola distributors in the study area. A self-designed questionnaire which was validated by an expert from the University of Jos with a reliability index of 0.70 was used for data collection. Personal contact method was used for data collection while data were analyzed using the mean. Results showed that the rationale for advertisement is to create awareness about a new product. Also advertisement promotes sales through creating and boosting customers' confidence about a product or company in addition to building trust about the quality of such products. Some of the challenges Coca- Cola industry face in using advertisement to boost sales of soft drinks include cost of advertisement, presence of competitors among others.

Keywords: Advertisement, Challenges, Marketing, Patronage, Sales and Strategy

Introduction of an old mode of sales does not help companies Coca-Cola (Nig.) Plc. is a public liability to promote sales in order to remain in business company operational in Nigeria and is one of (Thomas, 2012). In addition, consumers of soft the leading companies that provide refreshing drinks have a variety of brands to choose from; soft drinks in different brand names. Since hence, at present there is the challenge of choice inception till date, Coca-Cola has been known to due to availability of many brands. In order to lead in the sale of and production of soft drinks. keep up market forces, companies must devise a Despite the popularity of their drinks, the means to do that. One of such means is company has not ceased to constantly advertise advertisement (Nwazuigbo, 2004). their products to potential consumers. This Advertising is a marketing communication underscores the pride of place given to that employs an openly sponsored, non- advertisement in sales promotion. personal message to promote or sell a product, Advertisement is a business strategy that is service or idea. Sponsors of advertising are used by companies to create awareness about typically businesses wishing to promote their their product, get customers perception about products or services. Advertising is the product and ultimately promote sales differentiated from public relations in that an (Pahwa, 2019). This is necessary because advertiser pays for and has control over the business organizations are facing strict message. It differs from personal selling in that competitions from other companies producing the message is non-personal, i.e., not directed to similar brand of products (Ogah, 2015). a particular individual (Kenneth, 2017). Moreover, in the modern day society, the use Advertising is communicated through various

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):26 - 31 26 BARNABAS GBAM, Influence of Advertisement on The Sale of Coca-Cola Soft Drinks in Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC) mass media including traditional media such as competition with each other. Each company newspapers, magazines, television, radio, tries to win the confidence of customers to be outdoor advertising or direct mail; and new patronizing their products. In this regard, media such as search results, blogs, social companies are adopting strategies that will help media, websites or text messages (Reynolds, promote their sales. This is necessary due to 2011). poor sales and keen competition among Advertising is at the front of delivering the different companies of similar products. The proper message to customers and prospective reason behind advertisement is to improve on customers. The purpose of advertising is to the quantity of sales in order to make profits to inform the consumers about their product, remain in business. However, the big question is convince customers that a company's services or does advertisement help companies to make products are the best, enhance the image of the more sales? The problem of this study therefore company, point out and create a need for is to examine whether advertisement helps products or services, demonstrate new uses for promote the sales of Coca-Cola soft drinks in established products, announce new products AMAC. and programmes, reinforce the sales people's individual messages, draw customers to the PURPOSE OF THE STUDY business, and hold existing customers (Cohen, The study is designed to: 2018). 1. Examine the rationale behind advertise- Advertising plays a different role at different ment by Coca-Cola Nig. Plc. stages of the marketing process -- helping to 2. Identify the role of advertisement in raise awareness of a product or service, promoting the sale of Coca-Cola soft drinks generating leads for a sales force or selling in AMAC. directly. Advertising is a very cost-effective tool 3. Ascertain the challenges faced by Coca- for communicating with large audience. It is Cola companies in using advertisement as a used to create brand image and to encourage the marketing strategy to promote sales. customers to buy more products. Customers also get an advantage as they get information RESEARCH QUESTIONS and knowledge about new products and price. The study formulated the following research At present in AMAC, Abuja, there is strict questions: competition between the various soft drinks 1. What is the rationale behind the use of companies in Nigeria like Coca-Cola, Pepsi, advertisement as a marketing strategy by Guinness Plc. among others. Each of these Coca-Cola company? companies is doing everything possible to be 2. What are the roles of advertisement in afloat in marketing of their products. promoting sales of Coca-Cola soft drinks in Advertisement has been used by companies to AMAC? create favourable perception about their 3. What are the challenges faced by Coca-Cola products by customers (Grey, 2014). Company in using advertisement as a It is based on the premises above that the marketing strategy to promote sales of soft study seeks to examine whether advertisement drinks? influences the sales of Coca-Cola soft drinks in Abuja metropolis. METHODOLOGY STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The study is a descriptive study. The design is Soft drink companies in Nigeria are in ideal for the study because its interest is to

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):26 - 31 27 BARNABAS GBAM, Influence of Advertisement on The Sale of Coca-Cola Soft Drinks in Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC) describe the attitudes and opinions of the target RESULTS group using data selected from a representative Research Questions One: What is the rationale for part of the group (Anotunde & Ugoduluruwa, the use of advertisement as a marketing strategy by 2004). The population for the study is all the Coca-Cola Company? Coca-Cola soft drinks distributors in Abuja municipal area council (AMAC). The criterion Table 1: Rationale for Advertisement by Coco-Cola for choosing this category of respondents is Company because they are the ones dealing directly with consumers of Coca-Cola soft drinks. They sell S/No Statement Mean Remark both at wholesale and retail levels. There are 105 1 Customers need to know about the 3.80 Accepted Coca-Cola distributors within the study area, products hence the population is 105. The sample is also 2 It is used to remind the public about old 3.60 Accepted 105. Since the population is rather small, all the products members of the population were used. In 3 It is meant to win customers confidence 3.44 Accepted essence census sampling was used. This is in in the products agreement with Udele (2013) who notes that 4 Advertisement is meant to increase sales 3.75 Accepted census sampling is used when sampling is not 5 Old ways of sales cannot be used in this 3.40 Accepted feasible due to limited population in which case modern age. all elements in the population serve as sample. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire designed by the researcher to Table 1 shows that the main rationale why Coca- elicit relevant information regarding the study. Cola Company advertises her soft drinks is to The questionnaire is tagged “Advertisement and create awareness (3.80) and to increase sales sales promotion of Coca-Cola soft drinks” (3.75) in addition to announcing the arrival of (ASPCCSD). The ASPCCSD is self-designed new products (3.60). It is equally interesting to and was validated. point out that all the five factors have mean Cronbach-alpha reliability of the responses above the bench mark of 2.50. This instrument is 0.70. This reliability value is means that all the factors are valid. considered high enough because Ibanga (2002) is of the opinion that reliability values of Research question Two: What are the roles of between 0.50 and 1.00 is ideal for a research advertisement in promoting the sales of Coca-Cola instrument especially when the study is survey soft drinks in Abuja Municipal Area Council? in nature. Personal contact method was used for data collection while the mean was used to Table 2 shows that advertisement plays great analyze data obtained. The choice of mean is roles in promoting sales. Noticeable among the due to its inclusion and consideration of every roles include creating and boosting customers' member's opinion in a pool of data which trust in the company (3.76), presenting a serious makes for fairness (Ogbolu, 2017). The bench image of the company (3.72%), and ability to mark mean is 2.50. Hence any item with mean reach wider audience faster and better (3.68) of below 2.50 was discarded, though was among other roles. recognized.

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Table 2: Roles of advertisement in promoting sales of DISCUSSION Coca-Cola soft drinks The study is on influence of advertisement on the sales of Coca-Cola soft drink in Abuja Municipal area council (AMAC). The study S/No Statement Mean Remark was guided by three basic research questions. 1 Most people do not buy some products 3.02 Accepted The analysis of research question one which except such are advertized was on the rationale for advertisement showed 2 Advertisement using social media 3.68 Accepted that advertisement is a way of awareness platforms helps reach wider audience creation about a product. This is in consonance faster and better with Ajero (2013) who stated that the arrival of a 3 Companies that advertise their products 3.72 Accepted new product is made known to the public or are taken seriously and as such get expected consumers through advertisement. better patronage This means that it may be difficult to get the 4 Advertisement creates and boosts the 3.76 Accepted target group of a product to know that such trust customers have on such products exist when such products are not companies hence more sales advertised. The same goes for new products. 5 Advertisement is a sign of company's 3.59 Accepted Coca-Cola companies from time to time integrity hence attracts customers. produce soft drinks in different sizes, flavours and containers or with different labels. In each Research Question Three: What are the challenges of these cases, the only way customers are kept faced by Coca-Cola company in using advertise- abreast of the new products is through ment as a marketing strategy to promote the sale of advertisement. Bryne (2018) equally argued soft drinks? that, in cases of adulteration of a product, advertisement is used to correct the wrong Table 3: Challenges of Using Advertisement impressions and to show the distinguishing features of the genuine product from the adulterated brand. S/No Statement Mean Remark Research question two dealt with the roles 1 Presence of other soft-drink companies 3.77 Accepted of advertisement in promoting sales. It was and competitors discovered that advertisement creates and 2 There is the challenge of high cost of 3.82 Accepted boosts customers' trust about a company which advertisement against expected sales leads to more sales through patronage. Many 3 There is the problem of getting the 3.43 Accepted customers are very skeptical about the quality of attention of the busy audience. many products sold in the market today due to 4 Some coca-cola soft drinks are not ideal 3.68 Accepted the high level of corruption and adulteration of for some people age-wise and health- genuine brands occasioned by the desire to get wise rich quick. As a result, a lot of products (soft drinks inclusive) have been adulterated. Data in table 3 reveal that the greatest challenge However, many customers are motivated to of using advertisement as a tool for sales patronize a product when their confidence and promotion for Coca-cola soft drink is the cost of trust is built through advertisement. The reason advertisement (3.82) and that of the presence of is because according to Grey (2014) adulterated competitors (3.77). products can hardly be advertised in the mass or social media. It then follows that only

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):26 - 31 29 BARNABAS GBAM, Influence of Advertisement on The Sale of Coca-Cola Soft Drinks in Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC) companies who are sure of the quality and CONCLUSION authenticity of their products do advertise and The study is on the influence of advertisement such products naturally will attract buyers on the sale of Coca-Cola soft drinks in Abuja especially if their quality is ascertained. Municipal Area Council (AMAC). The study Using advertisement to promote sales has was designed to examine how the use of some challenges. One of them is that of the advertisement as a marketing strategy could presence of competitors. All companies have help increase the quantity of Coca-Cola soft competitors. This means that nobody has drinks sold in the study area. The study was a monopoly of customers or patronage. As Ogah descriptive survey. Results revealed that the (2015) states, competition is the soul of rationale for advertisement includes to create business. This means that any business venture awareness about a product, to beat the old mode that could survive competition will certainly be of sales and to win customers' confidence about afloat. It takes strategy to beat opposing the product being advertised. Some of the roles competitors. In the soft drink industry, there of advertisement include to reach large abound many competitors; as such each audience faster and better, to create and boost company will do everything possible including customers' trust in the company and as a sign of price reduction, promotion sales and localized integrity on the part of the company. retail outlet sales to boost sales. Each of these Some of the challenges of using strategies costs money. In the same vein, the cost advertisement to boost sales include cost of of advertisement is a great challenge. advertisement, presence of competitors among Sometimes, huge sums of money are paid for others. The study concludes therefore that advertisements especially for public liability advertisement is helpful in promoting sales of companies such as Coca-Cola. However, the Coca-Cola soft drinks in the AMAC. problem is, does the quantity of sales made equate or outweigh the cost? If there is deficit RECOMMENDATIONS accruing from high cost of advertisements Sequel to the findings from the study, the (without a corresponding increase in sales), the following recommendations are necessary: company may go bankrupt in the long run. 1. Advertisement is meant to create awareness of a product hence other producers of SUMMARY OF FINDINGS products should learn to advertise their 1. The rationale for advertisement is to be products to create awareness to customers. current in business, to create awareness and 2. Advertisement was found to promote sales to increase sales. in addition to reaching larger audience; 2. Advertisement helps in promoting sales by hence, it is necessary that every producer of reaching large audience faster and better, product should adopt advertisement to creating and boosting customers' trust and promote sales in order to remain afloat in confidence about the company among business. others. 3. Cost of advertisement is a major challenge 3. Some of the challenges Coca-Cola company of using advertisement; hence, it is faces in using advertisement to promote necessary that advertising companies sales include presence of other competitors, minimize the cost of placing advertisement cost of advertisement among others. to enable most producers to utilize the advantage of advertisement to boost their sales.

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References Nwaizugbo, I. C. (2004). Principles of marketing: Ajero, A. D. (2013). Advertisement and market Enugu: New Generation Books. forces. Journal of Marketing, 2(1), 43-49. Ogah, M. L. (2015). Customers' decisive power in Awotunde, P. O. & Ugodulunwa, C. A. (2004). product marketing. Lecture note series. ABU Research methods in education. Jos: Fab Anieh Zaria University, Zaria Kaduna State. Nig. Ltd. Ogbolu, I. (2017). Basic issues in social science research. Bryne, M. N. (2018). Using advertising strategies Jos: Wais Press. effectively. Retrieved from www.advertise.com Pahwa, A. (2019). Digital marketing. Retrieved from Cohen, A. C. (2018). Advertising morality: http://www.feedough.com/ Maintaining moral worth in a stigmatized Thomas, J. B. (2012). Introduction to mass media profession. Theory & Society, 47(2), 175-186. advertising. Retrieved from http://www.feed Grey, J.O. (2018). The place of advertisement in ough.com/ modern business transactions. Retrieved from Udele, M. (2013). Sampling strategies. In A. S. http://advertise.com Edoga (Ed.), Research methodology. Enugu: Ibanya, U. A. (2002). Statistics for social sciences. Jos: Kosicho Press. Center for Advancement. Reynolds, T. J. (2011). Understanding consumer Kenneth, C. E. (2017). Integrated advertising, decision making: Approaches to advertisement. promotion and marketing communication. Retrieved from http://wwwcopytesting.org. Psychology Press, 3(2), 111-115.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

The Role of Social Media in Farmers-Herdsmen Crisis in Nigeria: An Appraisal

NICHOLAS TACHIA Department of English and Literary Studies, Bayero University Kano Email [email protected]

Abstract The advent of the social media in the 21st century has brought about so many possibilities both positive and negative. It has made possible information sharing across parties within a short time irrespective of the distance. In Nigeria, it is observed that despite several advantages the social media can offer for meaningful development of the society, the medium is always being exploited for negative purposes. Farmers-herders crisis is found to have been exacerbated by the power of social media where users have instigated and incited crisis for targeted purposes rather than for national development, peace and harmony. The herdsmen whose popularity on social media is weak are always made to appear responsible for the crisis making it subjective. The security apparatus of Nigeria should always be directed in restive areas to monitor the social media activity in such areas in order to track down users that upload information capable of inciting crisis and the breach of law and order since censorship on the medium is not feasible.

Key Words: Social Media, Crisis, Farmers, Herdsmen and Information

Introduction inciting crisis among the people. In conflict With the mass adoption and reliance on mobile zones, social media platforms have been used devices, social media have become the most by militaries and militias on all sides of disputes critical channel for rapid real-time to recruit fighters and to both clarify and communication during a crisis. Many analysts exacerbate political and ethnic divisions. attributed President Muhammadu Buhari's Through these media platforms, opponents use victory in 2015 general elections to political information found to locate and attack propaganda on social media by his supporters. adversaries. Such uses tend to intensify conflict. Thus, from Boko Haram insurgency to the But social media also provide valuable Niger-Delta militancy and the farmers- information that can help noncombatants. herdsmen crises, social media remain culpable Many platforms track the activity of violent in inflaming passions across ethnic and religious groups and militaries. These can help civilians divides with expected violent consequences. to stay out of trouble or direct them to locations Given the ease of access and freedom of where they can access humanitarian aids. expression which social media provide to the This study is an appraisal of how social public, it means an incident on social media can media have transformed the violent conflict actually create crisis in the real world. This new between farmers and Fulani herdsmen in media, therefore, have the capacity and Nigeria. According to Singer and Brooking efficiency to foster witch-hunt, hate speech and (2018, p.36), social media are the new battlefield incitement of crisis. Social media, therefore, and information, the key currency. They state: are a two-way traffic. It is capable of uniting “power on this field is thus measured not by people within a short time globally for common physical strength or high-tech hardware but by good while it can also be used easily as a tool for the command of attention”. This study,

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):32 - 38 32 NICHOLAS TACHIA The Role of Social Media in Farmers-Herdsmen Crisis in Nigeria: An Appraisal therefore, analyses the role social media have definition is suited for defining “media” – played in the crisis involving farmers and Fulani generation of content, internet based set of herdsmen across Nigeria. technologies and that the “social” part of the definition is made only implicitly through The Concept of Social Media references to “Web 2.0” and “User-Generated Boyd and Ellison (2008, p.27) define social Content”. media as websites which allow profile creation Boyd and Ellison (2008, p. 211) take a less and visibility of relationships between users. technical approach and define social network According to Kietzmann et al. (2011, p.38) sites as “web-based services that allow social media are web-based applications which individuals to (1) construct a public or provide functionality for sharing, relationships, semipublic profile within a bounded system, (2) group conversation and profiles. They are, also, articulate a list of other users with whom they seen as a set of information technologies which share a connection and (3) view and traverse facilitate interactions and networking (Kapoor their list of connections and those made by et al., 2017, 24). However, despite the variety in others within the system”. the definitions, there appears to be a broad Kane et al. (2014, p.82) extend this agreement that Web2.0 technologies played a definition by adding that users should, also, be significant role in the development and able to create and access digital content. These adoption of social media. In this vein, Huang definitions enhance the technical definition of and Benyoucef (2013, p.246) refer to social Kaplan and Haenlein by adding the media as “Internet-based applications built on “connection” element (list of interconnected Web 2.0, while they define Web 2.0 as a concept users) and a “human” element (profiles). as well as a platform for harnessing collective However, Wolf et al. (2018, p.7) argue that the intelligence”. On the other hand, Kaplan and boundlessness of these systems: the ability of Haenlein (2010, p.75) define web 2.0 as the set users to integrate and combine applications and of technologies and ideologies that enable and features into a new unique system is explicitly drive media-rich content creation on the excluded in this definition and that the internet. Web 2.0 is rooted in the open source “interactive” nature of social media: the ability ideology, whereby users collaborate freely using of users to establish and maintain social contact free tools and sharing their work and is not made clear. information with each other. According to These definitions highlight the “social” DesAutels (2011, p.36) technological advances nature of social media and focus on in Web 2.0 and open ideology supported the interpersonal communication and information emergence of User Generated Content (UGC). exchange dependent on technological platforms The UGC enhances the creation and sharing of involved. Social media can therefore be content free of censorship and at low cost which regarded as the use of electronic means to contributed to the proliferation of social media. communicate and interact. Sokoya et al (2012, Kaplan and Haenlein (2010, p.76) develop a p.39) buttress the fact that it is popular because it more technocratic definition of social media as: allows people to connect in the online world to “a group of Internet-based applications that form a group, a forum and community where build on the ideological and technological ideas and information can be exchanged foundations of Web 2.0 and that allow the without geographic barrier. creation and exchange of User Generated Content”. Wolf et al. (2018, p.6) state that this

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A Brief on Farmers-Herdsmen Occurrences over 800 deaths by 2015 (GTI, 2015:44). The Since the advent of Nigeria's Fourth Republic in year 2016 saw further incidents in Agatu, Benue 1999, farmers-herders violence has killed more state and Nimbo, Enugu state. than 10,000 people and displaced hundreds of On the 16 December 2018, militants thousands more. It followed a trend in the believed to be Fulani herdsmen attacked a increase of farmers-herders conflicts village in Jema'a at a wedding ceremony killing throughout much of the western Sahel, due to 15 people and injuring at least 24 others (Daily an expansion of agrarian population and Trust, June 10, 2018). According to a member of cultivated land at the expense of pasturelands; Miyetti Allah in Plateau State Abubakar deteriorating environmental conditions, Gambo, commenting on the image of Fulani in desertification and soil degradation, population the crisis during one of the attacks, “not less growth, breakdown in traditional conflict than 500 cattle were rustled by the Berom and resolutions mechanisms of land and water from the ambushes and killings of our herdsmen disputes, and proliferation of small arms and in the bush…we are looking for almost 70 crime in rural areas (Iroka, 2016, p.15; IPI, people dead, all of them have been killed” 2015; Reliefweb, 2018). (VOA, July 2, 2018). Insecurity and violence have led many Nevertheless, chairman of the group South populations to create self-defense forces and East Zone, Gidado Siddiki in an interview with ethnic and tribal militias which have engaged in The Punch newspaper asserts that Fulani people further violence. The majority of farmer-herder are usually portrayed in both conventional and clashes in the past have occurred mostly social media as the only perpetrators of conflict between Muslim Fulani herdsmen and in the country which creates a subjective view of Christian farmers, exacerbating ethno-religious the crisis. Siddiki maintains that: hostilities. However, in recent times Muslim … social media [and] some media states of Zamfara and Katsina have witnessed houses speak against Fulani herdsmen almost the most deadly experience of this as if they are the only people causing hostility debunking such ethno-religious theory havoc in this country; as if they are the and dimension of the crisis. According to only people who are criminals, as if they Global Terrorism Index (2015, p.43), Fulani are the only people who don't want militants were the fourth deadliest terrorist peace in this country; and…it is not group in 2014, using machine guns and attacks true…our people are suffering from on villages to assault and intimidate farmers. kidnapping- they kidnap our people and After killing around 80 people in total from 2010 collect ransoms. They rob our people in to 2013, they killed 1,229 in 2014. According to the bush but nobody will hear about the the report, most deaths occurred in the Nigerian cases because they don't come out to Middle Belt region in particular, Benue, narrate their experiences. So people Nasarawa, Plateau, Taraba and Kaduna states don't know what they face. Our people which recorded 847 deaths. Zamfara state in the are killed in crises and tribal wars in this northern belt recorded 229 deaths. In addition country. Our people are suffering from to terrorist attacks, Fulani militants were also so many things and they are not spared involved in non-state armed conflicts with from all these problems but regrettably groups from Eggon, Jukun and Tiv farming all the time, they are the only people that communities in Nasarawa, Taraba and Benue are accused of being criminals (The states respectively. These conflicts resulted in Punch, August 17, 2019).

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This has led Tunji Ajibade in The Punch to na Allah ne, ba naku ba, ba na kafirai ba, na Allah accuse the media of promoting ethnic hatred by ne” (Translation: Everything belongs to Allah. often attributing killings to Fulani herdsmen Every piece of land belongs to Allah and not even when the police themselves have not you; it is not for you infidels but for Allah)”. confirmed so or any suspect has been arrested. They maintain that herdsmen use terror tactics He stressed that contrastingly, ethnicities of to conduct jihad, displacing local communities attackers targeting Muslim or Fulani from their land to make room for their herds, to communities are often unidentified by the occupy those lands and to spread Islam. media despite being arrested (The Punch, March However, political activities leading to the 15, 2019). 2019 general elections were heralded with deadly clashes between farmers and herders The Role of Social Media in Inciting Crisis in across the country ranging from Ekiti to Nigeria: The Farmers-Herdsmen Example PortHarcourt, Benue to Zamfara, Taraba to The advent of a plethora of social media tools Kaduna not to mention Plateau and Nasarawa has changed the landscape of crisis states, giving the crisis a different dimension as management considerably over recent years espoused by Adamu and Ben (2017). with possibilities for social and legislative According to Civelek et al. (2016, p.115) in a actions now becoming indispensable. The speed society, it is known that there are three factors and impact of the social media is capable of affecting how ideas spread among individuals. overwhelming authorities thereby abating crisis. First one of them is spreading a message easily Consequently, it has become the most effective in a simplified manner whereby Internet and communication means in the whole world in a social media play an important role in this short time because of its sharing networks' manner. The second factor is making the ability and power to keep masses posted, messages easy to understand. The third factor entertained and impressed. This interest in affecting how ideas spread among society is social media caused many digital agencies to be mentioning a message for a long time in a born in the meantime, attracting the attention of polyphonic way. Consequently, negative, the traditional media (Searson, Hancock, unreal, distorted and manipulative news and Soheil, & Shepherd, 2015, p.37). messages are always shared with Nigerian Time and place of communication through public in this way. Fischer and Reuber (2011, social media has therefore, become p.52) assert that the more people share an unimportant. Everybody, everywhere, information, message or rumour on social whenever he wants can send and receive media, the more accredited it becomes; and after messages (Civelek et al., 2016, p.115). a certain threshold, it is perceived as the truth. The spate of attacks and the timing of their Especially the re-tweet count and speed, effect occurrences have further strengthened the of twitters of a tweet on Twitter, are important suspicion of the political class. This is even as factors on how widespread a message gets. Also, many have cited anti-Fulani sentiments and the content of a message on Twitter affects the Islamisation of Nigeria by the Buhari-led spreading speed of a message. This feature also federal government for these conflicts. influence farmer-herders crisis in Nigeria. According to Adamu and Ben (2017, p.18), the Siddiki's (2019) assertion that even though ideology linked to the Hausa-Fulani Muslim Fulani herdsmen also suffer tribulation from invasion of Benue, for instance, is “based on the farming communities across the country, their understanding: ''Komai na Allah ne. Ko wane fili pathetic presence on the social media

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):32 - 38 35 NICHOLAS TACHIA The Role of Social Media in Farmers-Herdsmen Crisis in Nigeria: An Appraisal environment is usually being exploited to their this imbroglio as human lives are being traded disadvantage has become a compelling theory for power and authority. Until the Nigerian to neglect. It is apparent to notice that despite security extend their tentacles to monitor the technological advancement that activities of social media users through characterise the 21st century, the pastoral nature sophisticated servers, food and national security of Fulani herders has deprived them the will continue to be threatened in Nigeria by opportunity to utilise the internet, at least as farmers-herdsmen crisis. compared with other groups, since they are normally found in rural environments that lack Recommendations these facilities. Another factor that contributes From the foregoing appraisal of farmers to their weak presence on the social media is herdsmen crisis in Nigeria, the following their linguistic choice. Even the few that manage recommendations are made for possible policy to post things online are usually done either in implementation: Fulfude or Hausa making their audience 1. Government should establish cattle ranches community more or less homogenous. On the across the six geo-political zones of the contrary, the “anti-Fulani” posts on social country and support the proscription of media are usually done in English language that open grazing of cattle introduced by some attracts a wide range of patronage across the states. This must be done through due country and spread with the speed of light. By consultation, dialogue or appeal to some implication, pro-farmers posters enjoy a aggrieved regions of the country which may comparative advantage on the social media over oppose or resist the move. the Fulani who are made culpable in every 2. The National Orientation Agency should attack across the country. It is laudable to state do more to conscientise the people here that most of the Fulani communities in especially the youths on the need to use Southern states such as Ekiti, Rivers, Enugu and social media platforms for the progress and Ebonyi have been living among the people for development of the state than making several decades in tranquility which suffices to inciting comments that cause tension in the justify the political dimension of the crisis in country. This can be done by organising and recent time. This is even as insinuations are sponsoring youth programmes that are always rife that the Fulani guerrilla attackers are geared towards promoting peace and mercenaries and hired assassins from other tolerance among the people. neighbouring countries like Niger and Chad. 3. The Nigeria security architecture has to also upgrade their servers to monitor activities Conclusion of social media users to discourage The recurrent clashes between herdsmen and comments, pictures, videos and posts that farmers in Nigeria today have assumed a are capable of inciting crisis and hatred political dimension that worsened the situation among the people. This can be done by as compared to previous cases. This is always concentrating their attention on exacerbated by the anti-Fulani sentiment that is communities that are usually prone to crisis heightened by the presence of President to apprehend miscreants instigating Muhammadu Buhari as president. Social media security breach. are, thus, found as a favourable ground for the 4. The youths are also advocated to always propagation of such sentiments to sow seeds of engage in gainful ventures than allowing discord. The political elites are thus culpable in themselves to be used by politicians as

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agents of propaganda to propagate hate Iroka, F.O. (2016). The social media and conflict speeches and inciting posts that are targeted resolution. International Journal of Social Sciences at causing mayhem, hatred and security and Humanities, 11 (2), 11-19. breach. IPI Global Observatory (2015). Farmer-herder clashes amplify challenges for beleaguered Nigerian security. Accessed from https:// References theglobalobservatory.org/2015/07/farmerherd Adamu, A., & Ben, A. (2017). Nigeria: Benue State er-nigeria-buhari-abuja-fulani/. under the shadow of “Herdsmen Terrorism” (2014 – Kane, G. C., Alavi, M., Labianca, G., & Borgatti, S. 2016). Canada: World Watch Research. P. (2014). What's different about social media Birkbeck, M.W., Birkbeck, J. S., & Yang, H. (2018). networks? A framework and research agenda”. “Social media? What social media?” In MIS Quarterly, 38(1), 275-304. International Journal of Electronic Commerce, Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the 10(2), 31-55. world, unite! The challenges and opportunities Boyd, D. M., & Ellison, N. B. (2008). Social Network of social media. Business Horizons, 53(1), 59-68. Sites: Definition, history, and scholarship. Kapoor, K. K., Tamilmani, K., Rana, N. P., Patil, P., Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13, Dwivedi, Y. K., & Nerur, S. (2017). Advances in 210-230. Social Media Research: Past, Present and Civelek, M.E., Çemberci, M., & Eralp, N.E. (2016). Future. Information Systems Frontiers, 1-28. The role of social media in crisis communication Kietzmann, J. H., Hermkens, K., McCarthy, I. P., & and crisis management. International Journal of Silvestre, B. S. (2011). “Social media? Get Research in Business and Social Science, 5(3), 111- serious! Understanding the functional building 120. blocks of social media. Business Horizons, 54(3), DesAutels, P. (2011). UGIS: Understanding the 241-251. nature of user-generated information systems. Li, N. (2018). Nigeria's Fulani herdsmen-farmers Business Horizons, 54(3), 185-192. conflict and peace building. Global Journal of Didiugwu, I.F., Ezugwu, M.I. & Okwudiri, C.E. Agricultural Research, 6(5), 1-15. (2015). A discourse on the use of social media by Ndubuisi, C.I. (2018). A critical analysis of conflicts journalists in Nigeria. IISTE, 5, 18, 133-140. between herdsmen and farmers in Nigeria: Fischer, E., & Reuber, R. (2011). Social interaction Causes and socio-religious and political effects via new social media: (How) can interactions on on national development. HTS Teologiese Twitter affect effectual thinking and behavior? Studies/Theological Studies. Journal of Business Venturing, 26(1), 1-18. Nigeria's Fulani say they are being vilified for Global Terrorism Index (2015). Nigeria: violence. Accessed from https://www. Government failures fuel escalating conflict voanews.com/a/nigeria-s-fulani-say-they- between farmers and herders as death toll nears arebeing-vilified-for-violence/4463259.html. 4,000 (pp.43-44). New York: Institute for Oli, N.P., Ibekwe, C. C. & Nwankwo, I.U. (2018). Economics and Peace. Prevalence of herdsmen and farmers conflict in Herdsmen Kill 19 in Plateau midnight attack. Nigeria. International Journal of Innovative Studies Accessed from https//punchng.com/ in Sociology and Humanities, 3 (1), 30-39. herdsmen-kill-19-in-plateau-midnight-attack/ Rasmussen, J. & Ihlen, O. (2017). Risk, crisis, and Huang, Z., & Benyoucef, M. (2013). User-centered social media. A Systematic review of seven investigation of social commerce design. Paper years' research. In Nordicom Review, 38 (2), 1-17. presented at the International Conference on Reliefweb. (2018). Farmer-herder conflicts on the rise Online Communities and Social Computing, in Africa. Accessed from: https://reliefweb- Huysman. int/report/world/farmer-herder-conflict-rise- Idowu, A.O. (2017). Urban violence dimension in in-africa Nigeria: Farmers and herders onslaught. Searson, M., Hancock, M., Soheil, N., & Shepherd, AGATHOS International Review, 8(14), 187-206.

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G. (2015). Digital citizenship within global Establishing connections and networking: The contexts. Education and Information Technologies, role of social media in agricultural research in 20(4), 729-741. Nigeria. Accessed from: http://conference. Siddiki, G. (2019), “Fulani Herdsmen are also ifla.org/ifla78. Kidnapped, Robbed”. Accessed from: https:// Wolf, M. V., Sims, J., & Yang, H. (2017). Value punchng.com/fulani-herdsmen-arealso- creation through relationships building on private and kidnapped-robbed-miyetti-allah-southeast- public social media. Paper presented at the 11th chairman/ Multi Conference on Computer Science and Singer, P.W. & Brooking, E.T. (2018). Like War: The Information Systems (MCCSIS 2017), Lisbon Weaponisation of Social Media. New York: Portugal. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 15 Killed, 24 injured as gunmen attack Kaduna Sokoya, A. A., Onifade, F. N. & Alabi, A. O. (2012). village. Accessed from: www.dailytrust. com.ng.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Uses and Limitations of User-generated Content in the Broadcast Media: A Study of Selected Television News Stations in Nigeria

ADESOLA OLUFUNMI BELLO Department of Mass Communication OlabisiOnabanjo University Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State University website: www.oouagoiwoye.edu.ng e-mail [email protected]

Abstract This paper discussed the current journalism trend which allows the development of user-generated contents in the traditional news media. With the development of participatory journalism, the television stations tend to show increasing interest in the ways in which user-generated content could be integrated into the professional news making process. The focus of the study was to examine the rationale behind the usage of User-Generated Content(UGC) in the television station newsroom, the kind of policy that guides the usage of UGC and take a cursory look at the factors that could limit the adoption of UGC in the newsroom. Empirical evidence was sought through survey research by the administration of questionnaire to the newsroom staff of two independent television stations in Lagos using the purposive sampling technique. Findings revealed that time constraints, eye for breaking news and better connect are stronger reasons found for using UGC. The findings further revealed that there are operational but flexible procedures for incorporating UGC by the Television Stations and which allow for a discretionary gate-keeping of the contents. Nonetheless, there appears to be professional and organizational constraints to the use of UGC in the broadcast stations.

Keywords: User Generated Content, Traditional Media, Television Station, Public Sphere, Participatory Journalism

Background to the Study (Potter, 2007). Similarly, during the terrorist The Internet provides a forum for the free flow attacks on London's Underground in July 2005, of information and allows the everyday citizen citizen Journalists played a significant role in to use simple new media tools to become a fueling the content for the international source of information to an endless audience. breaking news story. Johnston (2008, p.42) observes that a unique Authors like Gillmor (2004) joined in the and powerful characteristic of the Internet is welcome of the trend of 'grassroots' or' citizen that it “provides tools to reach new audiences journalism' with great enthusiasm, while some and to quickly spread important information”. other media experts began to suggest somewhat According to Knight (2007, p.117), citizen optimistically that a new form of 'participatory journalists are “providing competition through journalism' was likely to emerge. Proponents of their often eye-witness reports”. Cooper (2007) participatory journalism call for a radical describes the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake change in professional journalism in order to that resulted in the deadly tsunami as a turning meet the principles of citizen-generated media. point for user-generated content. It was In this way, professional journalists will likewise revealed that if it hadn't been for a cell increasingly share their control over the news phone camera, the world may never have seen production process with their users, who are the video of Saddam Hussein's execution becoming more and more actively involved in

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):39 - 48 39 ADESOLA OLUFUNMI BELLO Uses and Limitations of User-generated Content in the Broadcast Media: A Study of Selected Television ... the creation of content. This could not only of Users generated contents in the broadcast result in an increased use of user-generated media? content by journalists, but it could also stimulate 2. What type of policies or evaluation collaboration between professional and procedures (if any) guides the use of user amateur journalists. In other words, journalism generated content in Television stations? will fundamentally shift from a top-down 3. What are the limitations to the adoption of lecture to an open conversation (Paulussen, User Generated Contents in television 2007). stations?

Statement of the Problem Theoretical Framework The new media environment is creating Democratic Participant Media Theory enabling platforms for participatory journalism This theory was propounded by Professor making individual citizens more accessible to McQuail. The theory supports the assumption the gathering, processing and distribution of that since Science and Technology is universal, information. But it is also apparent that this citizens now have the scientific, technological new journalism trend is making way for the and financial means to put the latest innovations increasingly high involvement of non- in inter-personal communication to practical journalists in news production. Is there any and regular use. In democratic participant standard procedure for the adoption of such theory, people can express their views freely, user created content? Are there factors exchange ideas without fear, and with absolute militating against the adoption of UGC in the freedom, making use of innovations in era of participatory journalism? This research t e c h n o l o g y. T h e t h e o r y c h a l l e n ge s aims therefore at investigating the rationale for commercialization and monopolization of soliciting and utilizing user-generated news privately-owned media; it reacts against the contents for television news; ascertaining any centralism and bureaucratization of media procedure that guides UGC usage and the institutions, as pointed out by McQuail. limitation to its adoption in the broadcast Underlying the theory under discussion is the media. assumption that mass communication need not be unifor m, centralized, high-cost, Objectives of the Study commercialized, professionalized, state The objectives of the study are controlled or privately controlled. In relation to 1. To find out the rationale behind the this study, the theory explains how citizens utilization of users generated content in the utilize technological innovations and benefits. television stations. The internet avails them the opportunity to 2. To ascertain the type of policies or access public information and allows them to evaluation procedures (if any) guiding the freely participate and contribute to issues that use of user generated content in television border on their existence. It gives them absolute stations. freedom to express their views, exchange ideas 3. To ascertain the limitations to the adoption and encourages citizen's participation in of User Generated Contents in television community affairs. stations. Technological Determinism Research Questions The term 'technological determinism' was 1. What is the rationale behind the utilization coined by Thorstein Veblen and this theory

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):39 - 48 40 ADESOLA OLUFUNMI BELLO Uses and Limitations of User-generated Content in the Broadcast Media: A Study of Selected Television ... revolves around the proposition that technology online media developments are challenging in any given society defines its nature. journalists' monopoly of the occupational Technological determinism is a reductionist practices and ethics that are at the heart of their theory that aims to provide a causative link professional identity and democratic role. between technology and a society's nature. It Citizen media is offering interesting tries to explain as to whom or what could have a 'bottom-up' alternatives to conventional 'top- controlling power in human affairs. The theory down' practices of news making. Citizen questions the degree to which human thought or journalism and UGC are helping to create a action is influenced by technological factors. more open community in which people feel safe The theory is based on two hypotheses which to express their opinions, whether it is in person are: (i) that the technology of a given society is a or on social media (Gillmor, 2004).These open fundamental influencer of the various ways in communities are called a public sphere, or any which a society exists; (ii) that changes in domain of social life in which public opinions technology are the primary and most important can be shared and even shaped (Habermas, source that leads to changes in the society. In 1989). Habermas's hope was that citizens would the context of the study, the theory helps to come together and act as one entity, one public reiterate the influence of technology on the when they are dealing with topics that are of development of the society. It shows that it is particular importance to them. One of the what comes from an existing technology that major premises of this approach is that it returns would influence the mode and pattern of citizens to the roots of democracy, where the development in a given society. New idea is that all citizens get a voice in government, technology brings to us new idea and innovation a place where their opinions are heard. that we adopt for our own development. This development is evident in the introduction of User-Generated Content and the Broadcast Media the internet which is impacting greatly on the User-generated content (UGC) generally means society in which we live in. The Internet content contributed by someone who doesn't becomes accessible to all citizens to upgrade work for the broadcaster and who may or may their level of knowledge in a society and by this, not be paid for his or her content. UGC was people are able to share knowledge, new ideas defined as photos, videos, audio, or ideas used to and make them universally available. generate story ideas that are sent to television news stations by an amateur viewer event, Literature Review allowing you to view the news from different Participatory Journalism angles and decide which is best for your Some online media observers have pointed out audience. A recent study showed that the that the question of whether blogging and other commonest type of story using some form of forms of citizen journalism are threatening UGC is from conflict, war, military professional journalism is losing relevance, as interventions coverage; researchers found that both forms of news production essentially the majority of these contents come from “complement each other, intersect with each Twitter, YouTube, and Facebook. other and play off one another” (Lasica, 2003). Television is an integral source of Rather than considering weblogs as a potential information for many citizens. Ibelema and substitute for journalism, scholars like Wilson Powell (2001) argue that television has a (2005) suggest that the major impact of blogging decisive advantage in terms of having high and citizen journalism lies in the fact that these credibility with viewers, which can be attributed

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):39 - 48 41 ADESOLA OLUFUNMI BELLO Uses and Limitations of User-generated Content in the Broadcast Media: A Study of Selected Television ... to television's visual realism and the notion that Further study identified organizational people are more likely to believe what they see. structures and work practices in the newsroom People have the ability to influence news as related to daily routines, working conditions agendas and, subsequently, public opinion. and labour division, management strategies and Several news organizations are rushing to break workplace organization, available resources, stories first, and people are quickly seeking time and work pressures, technical skills and information (Lim, 2011). Ordinary citizens multimedia competences and technical tools equipped with smartphones have found a niche that are sensitive to the reporters' needs in this market, as they are able to at least (Domingo, 2006, 2008). Other studies have partially influence how quickly television news shown that the dominant journalistic culture– stations cover these stories. Researchers like as articulated in journalists' attitudes, Miller (2008), Fernando (2008), and Mayer professional values and perceptions of their (2011) have agreed that citizen journalism is audience–plays an important role in the growing more rapidly than expected, and there journalists' use of new technologies (Singer, aren't many options other than to adapt. By 1997). incorporating UGC into their broadcasts, news On the issue of professionalism, traditional stations are embracing and sharing news they journalists are faced with identifiable challenges believe will be of value to their viewers. during the rise of UGC which is that, they feel ordinary citizens lack training, credibility, and User-Generated Content and its Limitations in the understanding of the field. According to Brown Broadcast Media (2005), these feelings are still standing in the way There is a scarce but growing research on of how traditional media outlets view UGC, participatory journalism which suggests that the and they could potentially play a significant role adoption of user generated content in the in how private outlets choose to incorporate this newsroom is being hindered by several type of content into their own broadcasts or contextual factors on different levels of the publications. Furthermore, motives for newsroom organization. It thus becomes a producing UGC could also be seen as suspicious concern how the newsroom structures, work because people could be seen as trying to routines and professional beliefs can hamper the promote their own agendas, therefore, news development of participatory journalism and organizations are still adjusting as to how to use the integration of User Generated Content in these pieces in their broadcasts (WahlJorgensen, the media organizations. Williams, & Wardle, 2010). In order to explore the organizational and professional factors influencing the adoption of Methodology user- generated content in professional Questionnaire served as the research instrument newsrooms. The study discussed the outcome of data collection. This was administered to of a recent study conducted by Hermida and 120 members of News room staff of selected Thurman (2007), which established a conflicts two independent television stations: Channels between the editors' professional gatekeeper Television – 60 staff members and Television roles and their perceptions of user participation Continental (TVC) – 60 staff members, both that make professional newsrooms appear to be based in Lagos, Nigeria to gather data for the rather reluctant and cautious to open up most of analysis. The choice of the two independent the news production process to the active television stations was purposive because of the involvement of citizens. involvement of the audience in news gathering

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by including segments in their major news Table one showed that 46% of the respondents bulletin where they report on audience feedback are below 30 years of age while 54% are above generated through the various social media 30 years. There is an equilibrium of percentage platforms they have created, especially the use (50%) in the respondents having acquired more of the i-witness report where it selected news- than 10 years work experience and 50% also worthy pictures, audio and video sent in by with less than 10 years work experience in the audience members in news broadcast. The media organization. survey consisted of Likert scale items, multiple choice, yes/no and basic experience-related Research Question 1: What is the rationale behind questions. The purposive sampling technique the utilization of users generated contents in the was employed for questionnaire administration Television Stations? based on the fact that the selected respondents are experienced news room staff hierarchically Table 2: Reasons for Using User-Generated Content from IT staff to staff holding managerial (UGC) by the Television Stations position in the broadcast organization.

Findings Reasons for Using UGC Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Simple percentages and cumulative frequency Agree % Count % Count Disagree counts were used in the statistical analysis. Out % Count % Count of the one hundred and twenty (120) copies of Time constraints 89(82%) 9(8%) 10(10%) - questionnaire administered in the two television Staff constraints - 96(89%) 12(11%) - stations, one hundred and eight (108) copies Budget Constraints 6(3%) 46(43%) 9(8%) 47(46%) were retrieved. Data analysis for the study was Eye for breaking News 90(83%) 11(10%) 7(7%) - hence based on the 108 copies of the Better connect /relationship 19(18%) 77(71%) 12(11%) questionnaire constituting 90% of the total with viewers questionnaire which is considered valid for the Focus on bigger Stories 15(14%) 11(11%) 74(68%) 8(7%) study. More Economical 16(15%) 18(17%) 56(51%) 18(17%) Quality of Broadcast - - 49(45%) 59(55%) Table 1: Respondents' age, work experience and position In table 2, the findings show that time and staff constraints were almost equal, with 90% indicating that they either agreed or strongly Respondents Respondents' age Respondents' Work agreed to the statements that UGC helps to tell Experience stories that the station cannot necessarily cover below30yrs above30yrs below10 yrs above 10yrs because of time constraints and 89% agreed that (Percent) (P ercent) (Percent) (Percent) UGC helps to tell stories that the station can't News managers - 07 - 07 necessarily cover because of staff constraints. Editorial staff 05 09 05 09 Although still on the positive side of agreement, Production staff 08 30 08 30 these categories also had noticeable numbers of Reporters 17 08 17 08 respondents expressing some form of IT staff 20 04 24 - disagreement, with 10% time constraints and Total 50(46%) 58(54%) 54(50%) 54(50%) 11% staff constraints. When asked about the Grand total 108 108 statement ''Our television news station uses UGC because of budget constraints,'' the rate of

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):39 - 48 43 ADESOLA OLUFUNMI BELLO Uses and Limitations of User-generated Content in the Broadcast Media: A Study of Selected Television ... agreement and disagreement to the statement Table 3 showed that none of the respondents was close with 46% agreed and strongly agreed ; encourage viewers to send in pieces of UGC at and another 54% disagreed and strongly the time of news broadcasts. On the other hand, disagreed, suggesting that budget constraints with 88% of the respondents, it shows that the was relatively a reason to use UGC for some stations give out their website where news story while to others it is not. Findings also indicate or event could be sent while 12% do not. with 89% agreement that some of the most Likewise 85% of TV stations' journalists use popular reasons for using UGC stem from their work Twitter and Facebook account to forming better relationships with viewers and encourage UGC while 16% do not and majority the communities that the television stations of the TV stations 69% do encourage reporters represent. By giving viewers an ''eye'' into to solicit UGC while on beat while 31% of the breaking news situations, with 93% strongest TV stations do not. agreement response, indicates that stronger relationships are formed between the reporter Table 4: Which existing policy guides the usage of and the station. There is a strong disagreement User-Generated Content in the Television Stations? with the statement about using UGC so professional staff can focus on bigger and more Variables Yes (%) No (%) important stories and using UGC because it is Content must be vetted by news 108(100%) - more economical than paying more reporters director/another professional journalist with 75% and 74% disagreement respectively. before broadcast Respondents showed total 100% disagreement Providers of content must give up their 90(83%) 18(17%) that UGC improves quality of broadcast. rights to content Content must be credited to the creator 11(10%) 97(90%) Research Question 2: What type of policies or All content must be evaluated before use 108(100%) - evaluation procedures (if any) guides the usage of All content must be sourced. Content 46(43%) 62(57%) user- generated content in the Television stations? should not be used until the source can be properly identified Table 3: How Do the Stations Encourage Viewers to Generally, if there is a question or 108(100%) - Submit UGC? concern, content will not be used

Variables Yes No We encourage our viewers to send in - 108(100%) We encourage our viewers to send in - 108 pieces of UGC during our news (100%) pieces of UGC during our news broadcasts. broadcasts. We have a designated place on our We have a designated place on our website 96(88%) 12(12%) website 96(88%) 12(12%) where we encourage where we encourage viewers to send us viewers to send us information regarding a story information regarding a story or event or to or event or to send photos, videos, or audio. We send photos, videos, or audio. regularly require our reporters to use 92(85%) We regularly require our reporters to use 92(85%) 16(15%) 16(15%) their work Twitter and Facebook their work Twitter and Facebook accounts accounts to encourage viewers to send in UGC. We encourage our reporters to ask for 74(69%) to encourage viewers to send in UGC. 34(31%) information and pieces of UGC while We encourage our reporters to ask for 74(69%) 34(31%) they are reporting in the field. information and pieces of UGC while they In the above table, all the respondents are reporting in the field.

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(100%) agreed to using the standard of stations limit the use of UGC because they evaluation that allow all content to be vetted or majorly rely on official news suppliers and that edited before it can be used. 90% of the the sourced contents are mostly used for respondents agreed that the content becomes background information with 70% agreement. the property of the station and the station has The table showed a relatively high number the right to evaluate, correct and edit the news as of respondents (60%) who are knowledgeable in appropriate before transmission. A majority of the management of UGC content while 40% are respondents (90%) disagreed with the fact that still not. Majority of the respondents (78%) all content must be credited to the creator. Only disagreed with the idea that UGC is not 43% of the respondents agreed to using content structurally supported inside the newsroom after proper identification of the source while while 22% of the respondents agreed that UGC 57% believed proper identification of the does not get structural support because it is not content source before use is not significant. part of journalist's daily routine. 58% of the Nonetheless, they all agreed (100%) that they respondents do not believe the UGC is limited will have to drop any story that raises any for use because it is culture, personal and controversy or question for concern. everyday life-oriented rather than news/ information content while 45% disbelieve. Research Question 3: What are the Limitations to Lastly, a majority of the respondents (75%) the adoption of UGC in television newsroom? agreed that there is lack of standards, objectivity and independence in UGC, which strongly Table 5: Limitations through organizational structure support the findings that UGC lacks credibility as official news with 98%.

Limitation measurements Yes No Table 6: Limitations through Professional culture There is operational technological 83(77%) 25(23.%) infrastructure to connect journalists' and Limitation measurements Yes No Citizen Journalists in the news room Lack of technical knowledge of content 43(40%) 65(60%) Content Management System (CMS) for 67(62%) 41(38%) management of UGC the UGC editorial process is efficient Making use of UGC in the news gathering 24(22%) 84(78%) Media make rather limited use of UGC 91(84%) 17(er16%) does not seem to be part of journalists' because they some what routinely and daily routines and therefore it is not passively rely on a number of official 'structurally supported' inside the suppliers of information. newsroom. The online sources are mostly used for 76(70%) 32(30%) Bulk of UGC are culture-oriented, 45(42%) 63(58%) background information, but it rarely personal/everyday life-oriented content serves as a primary source. rather than news/informational content There is lack of standards of objectivity, 77(75%) 31(25%) The above table revealed with 77% agreement independence and accountability in UGC that there is a reliable operational technological UGC lack credibility as official news 98(91%) 10(9%) infrastructure to connect journalists and citizen sources, journalists in the news room and that the Content Management System's efficiency is relatively high with 62% agreement. It was Discussion of Findings further revealed that majority (84%) of the The study was able to examine the rationale

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):39 - 48 45 ADESOLA OLUFUNMI BELLO Uses and Limitations of User-generated Content in the Broadcast Media: A Study of Selected Television ... behind the use of User Generated Contents in 91%. Also UGC is majorly solicited for today's television news broadcast. It was secondary reason since most times it serves as revealed in the study that the most popular source for background information with 70% reasons for incorporating UGC are as a result of agreement. Limitation through professional time constraints showing (87.5%), for giving culture was revealed with relatively high (40%) viewers an ''eye'' into breaking news situations level of lack of technical knowledge of the with (100%) and for establishing better respondents. With 75%, there is a perception of relationship and connection with the television lack of standard, objectivity, independence and stations' viewers with (87.5%).Findings also accountability in UGC which pose difficulty to showed that a majority (88%) of these television its usage in the stations while 91% of the stations actually encourage UGC by creating respondents believed that UGC lack credibility platforms or interfaces where UGC can be as official news source. collected for the station's use. More so, 85% and 69% of them encourage station reporters to use Conclusion and Recommendation their work Twitter and Facebook accounts to The study helps to advance our knowledge collect UGC and also to solicit for UGC while about newsroom management's views of UGC, on the field respectively. while providing insight about how television In addition, it was revealed that there exist news stations are handling decisions and few evaluation procedures that guide the use of discussions regarding this ever-growing type of UGC in the television stations. All the television content. The findings contribute to a better stations agreed (100%), that all contents must be examination and understanding of the rationale vetted and evaluated before it can be used. Most behind the utilization of UGC in the newsroom. content must be cleared by a news director, The outcome of the study establishes the drastic assistant news director, managing editor, or prominence of user generated content in the another person of authority if it deemed arena of news journalism. It was able to reveal controversial in nature. More so, a relatively that the television stations are finding the high number (57%) of the respondents noted audience sourced news useful not as a result of that even though not all the sources can be insufficient staff or being considered as less adequately verified, contents could still be used expensive to paying journalists' salaries but for if it is checked for relevance and accuracy and if the station to beat time in report firsthand not controversial. All the TV stations (100%), information, better connect and relationship noted that their policies are much in line with with viewers. This study also provided the ''common sense'' and that if there are any much-needed insight into television news questions or concerns, the content will not be stations' policies regarding the use of UGC, used, and it must be void of any profanity, specifically how they are handling, vetting, and vulgarity, and should not be offensive in any using this increasingly popular type of content way. in their news programmes. As to the limitations to the adoption of The findings presented in this paper further UGC in television newsroom, the study showed showed that the professional and organizational that there are two limitations factors which are context of the newsroom shapes the adoption of organization and professional structures. Tables innovations and new models of journalism. 5 and 6 showed that organizationally, UGC is T h e r e f o r e, i t i s ex p e c t e d t h a t t h e limited as a result of the dependence of stations implementation of user generated content on official news agency for supply of news with initiatives by mainstream media would be

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Influence of Social Media on Voting Patterns of Enugu State Youths in 2015 General Elections in Nigeria

UZOMA OLUCHUKWU NWABUNZE & ANTHONY CHUKWUEBUKA OKOYE* Department of Mass Communication Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, [email protected], Department of Mass Communication Kogi State University Anyigba, [email protected]

Abstract This study investigated the influence of social media on voting pattern of youths in Enugu State during the 2015 general elections in Nigeria. The study was anchored on the technological determinism theory. The survey research method was used. Findings demonstrated that the social media enhanced the conduct of the election as it offered the avenue for youths engagement in political mobilization, electoral campaigns, involvement in political discussion and participation, exposure to electoral manifestoes and candidates, interaction between politicians and the voters, monitoring of election results, which were believed to have contributed to the acceptance of the outcome of the process. It was however, observed that a number of traditional political culture and means of political socialization still exert great influence on the political behaviour of youths despite the popularity of the social media. The study recommended, among others, the shift culture of Nigerian politics as well as call on the Nigerian authorities to ensure that social media are put into positive social use among the youths of the country who are the leaders of tomorrow.

Keywords: Social media, voting pattern, democracy, election and youth

Introduction politically in the competition for political office Democracy has captured the political attainment among the parties and candidates imagination of the world population. Today involved in political contestations (Ajayi, 2005). democracy is a highly cherished value, such that The implications of these democratic criteria even societies that are clearly different in their are such that competing parties and candidates politics claim it (Nnoli, 2011). Besides, device various means and strategies through democracy has been perceived as the which they hope to capture the votes of the institutional arrangement for arriving at electorates. In line with this notion, Nigerian political decisions in which individuals acquire politicians and their respective parties have been the power to decide by means of a competitive adopting as well as applying different measures struggle for the people's vote (Schumpeters, in order to sway the peoples' vote to their favour. 1943). This is why it is assumed that in a The history of elections in Nigeria can best democratic political system, government be described as a history of violence, which derives legitimacy from the people. Indeed, often culminates in the termination of citizens of democratic states have equal political democratic experiments and authoritarian right to vote and be voted for (Jega, 2007). The reversals as were evidenced in the premature electorate therefore becomes a crucial factor in demise of Nigeria's 1st, 2nd and 3rd republic the selection or choice of political leaders and (Okoye, 2012). However, the 2015 general parliamentary representatives because of their elections, despite its high-tensioned pre-election votes. The vote empowers the electorate atmosphere, had been acknowledged by both

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):49 - 67 49 UZOMA NWABUNZE O. & CHUKWUEBUKA OKOYE A. Influence of Social Media on Voting Patterns of Enugu State Youths in 2015 .... the local and foreign observer missions as one of reported: the most credible elections in the country. Be that as it may, the election was significant for at Social media has globally become one least three reasons: (1) it marked the first an of the most important tools for incumbent President and his party lost election candidates during election campaigns in the country, (2) it marked the first time an — and Nigeria's race was no exception. incumbent not only accepted defeat but went Cynthia Mbamalu, programs manager ahead to concede to and congratulate his at Nigerian Youth Charity YIAGA, opponent even before the announcement of the said platforms like Twitter and final result, and (3) the 2015 General Elections Facebook helped the Buhari campaign in Nigeria shall go down in the country's annals to reach population pockets that they of electoral process as the most historic and could have otherwise missed. “Social revolutionary (Yaqub & Maikudi, 2015). media provided the opportunity to Besides, the application and use of social media connect with Nigerians, especially in the build-up to the elections – be it political young people,” she explains. “For the parties, politicians, the Independent Electoral first time in a long while there were Commission (INEC), Civil Society tweets targeted mainly at promoting the Organisations (CSOs) and private organizations person of General Buhari and the and individuals alike were quite unprecedented. party's vision for Nigeria (n.p.). Although, the 2015 general elections was not be the first time social media played a part in Besides, Dare, the chief of staff to the national Nigerian elections, the 2011 general elections leader of the All Progressives Congress while bear an imprint of the power of social media in fielding questions in an interview was quoted as Nigerian politics. Former President Goodluck saying “I think this election was decided, Jonathan was the first Nigerian President to join dominated and directed by social media. The Facebook when he declared his intention to run power of social media came out for this country. for the Presidency in 2011 on that same media. Social media played a central role as a watchdog This, according to Tolu Ogunlesi, led to the in keeping the integrity of the process. Within faddification of Facebook in Nigerian politics: minutes of votes being counted at a polling unit, the results were all over social media. Ordinary President Jonathan took the shine off people with Excel sheets were doing tallies. At the IBB [Ibrahim Babangida] the end of the day when it was announced presidential declaration in Abuja by officially, the results matched. So social media choosing that morning to announce his were central because of the immediacy, because own bid on Facebook. Ibrahim it was in the hands of so many citizens who were Babangida launched a YouTube involved, and were interested. In a way, social campaign video, and had an aide boast media seized the day from the legacy media. that he had become an avid Facebooker. You had almost everyone depending on social media for the breaking news. Social media came Again, one of the reasons attributed to the alive for us this time (Eddings, 2015). goodwill enjoyed by Muhammadu Buhari's The 2015 general elections had proved that rebranding and eventual victory in the 2015 political advertisements and jingles are no polls was propelled by his social media strategy. longer restricted to the television screens or CNN journalist Lauren Said-Moorhouse radio anymore as politicians have resorted to

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):49 - 67 50 UZOMA NWABUNZE O. & CHUKWUEBUKA OKOYE A. Influence of Social Media on Voting Patterns of Enugu State Youths in 2015 .... using the social media for their campaigns, longer conspiracies of a coterie but are trying to sway voters to their side. For several laid bare in the public eye, if not crowd months before the election, the social media and sourced to voters at large. Canvassing different websites were awash with ads and demand a party's interactive presence jingles. All the aspirants for different public on social platform like Twitter, offices intensified their campaigns by extending Facebook, YouTube, Google plus. And it to various social media platforms such as so for anyone wanting to read the Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram, et sentiment of the people, the notion of cetera (Ebhota, 2015). These are testament to the dipstick survey has been replaced by the fact that the impacts of the social media were a tweet stick survey. felt most in the 2015 general elections. It was felt in the electioneering processes-campaign, and The import of the above is that social media is eventually the polling procedures (Oyenuga, rapidly exerting great influence both directly 2015). and indirectly on the behavioural tendencies of Meanwhile, people use the social media human society. In the same vein, it is now such as the Facebook in order to receive, viewed as veritable point of political retrieve, and send information via the socially mobilization and awareness by politicians networked medium. By so doing, human beings especially among the youths who are the most get empowered as their views are heard, most active group on the platform. To this end, especially in a democratic society. Web 2.0 is Oyinlade (2015) notes: seen as that development of the internet to the extent that users not only consume content Amongst the several platforms for generated on the internet but also use it as new, engagement and discussions by youths, i n t e r a c t ive m e d i u m w h i c h e n a b l e s social media platforms have proved very collaboration and sharing as in the case of social effective. The effectiveness comes from media like Facebook, user-generated sites like the relative ease of access, the You Tube, and group sites such as wikis anonymity it can confer on participants, (Dominick, 2009). relative speed of dissemination and the On this note Biswas, Ingle and Roy (2014, general prevalence of feature phones. p.130) observe: Social media has also become a general Social media has changed the way assembly for young people where opinions are people think, write and react but shaped. It also creates enabling space for political pundits believe it has also debates with intent of mobilizing the recipient influenced the way people vote. Most of towards political participation. In addition, the the political parties are aware of the political actors also deployed agents for pulse and the impulse of the public on collecting opinions from the social media as social media timelines, which is why means for getting undiluted and useful more and more politicians are realising feedbacks from all strata of the society. The the importance of social media as an social media efficacy really served as a viable electoral tool. As a result, for the platform for getting reliable information helpful general elections, digital strategies have for decision taking in the electoral process become central to planning political (Oyinlade, 2015). Accordingly, youths in rallies and party manifesto are no Nigeria just as elsewhere react and respond

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):49 - 67 51 UZOMA NWABUNZE O. & CHUKWUEBUKA OKOYE A. Influence of Social Media on Voting Patterns of Enugu State Youths in 2015 .... easily to social changes much more than any mobilization of voters and public opinion. In other age bracket. Hence, the adoption of social essence, the compatibility of social media with media as instrument of political campaign by mobile internet dovetails neatly with the ever various actors operating within the confines of mobile lifestyle of the youth. It was in the Nigerian political system is expected to recognition of this fact, that all the actors and trigger a chain reaction among the youth. This interested stakeholders that participated in the study therefore investigates the influence of last general elections in the country embraced social media on the voting pattern of Enugu the platform as means of connecting to the State youths during the 2015 general election in people; especially the youths that constitute the Nigeria. most active group on the social media as well as a greater proportion of the country's Statement of the problem population. Around the world, rapidly expanding access to However, despite the popularity and wide the Internet, increased availability of internet- application of the social media in recent ready smart-phones and other communication elections in the county as in elsewhere around devices, as well as the evolution of web-based the globe; there appear to be an absence of a new media – personal websites, social systematic investigation on the influence of this networking sites, blogs, e-newsletters, have form of media on the political behaviour and redefined methods of political communication, political culture manifesting in the voting leading to a significant shift towards the use of patterns of youths in Enugu State during the social media in the electoral process. Previously, conduct of the said election. It is therefore, this network television and newspapers dominated (gap in knowledge), that this study sought to coverage of electioneering process and were the pursue. primary sites of election related information. But today, the social media have become major Objectives of the Study election information sharing platforms globally. The broad objective of this study is to examine Because of the ease of use, speed, and reach, the extent to which social media influenced the social media are revolutionizing the efficiency voting pattern of youths in Enugu State during of election administration, coverage and the 2015 general elections in Nigeria. While the reporting (PLAC, 2012, p.2). specific objectives to: Social media as had been acclaimed played 1. Ascertain the rate of use of social media formidable role in the conduct of the 2015 during the 2015 general elections by youths general elections by giving the process a sense of in Enugu State. transparency and credibility. For instance, the 2. Find out if adoption of social media outcome of the process was welcomed by both increased political consciousness thereby Nigerians and the entire world to have reflected affecting the voting patterns of the youths the true choice of the people. It was as a result of during the 2015 general election in Enugu this that the former President Jonathan State. religiously conceded defeat without putting up 3. Establish if challenges were encountered any iota of hesitance. Indeed, social media is with the use of social media which rapidly changing the political landscape of the interfered with the voting pattern of youths country. It has assumed a reliable channel of in Enugu State during the 2015 general political communication, campaigns as well as elections.

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Research Questions having to log on to any specific portal site or 1. What was the rate of use of social media portal destination”. Kaplan and Haenlein during the 2015 general elections by youths (2010) define social media as “a group of in Enugu State? internet-based applications that build on the 2. Did use of social media increase political ideological and technological foundations of consciousness thereby affecting the voting Web 2.0 and that allow the creation and patterns of the youths during the 2015 exchange of user-generated content”. It includes general election in Enugu State web-based and mobile based technologies that 3. Were there challenges with the use of social are used to turn communication into interactive media that interfered with voting patterns of dialogue among individuals, organizations, and youths in Enugu State during the 2015 communities. Typical examples of social media general elections platforms include websites such as Facebook, Twitter, Flickr, Youtube and the interactive Review of Related Literature options on these websites, such as the “re- Conceptual Clarifications Social Media tweeting” option on Twitter. These instruments Biswas, Ingle and Roy (2014) observe that social are referred to as media because they are tools media are new information networks and which can also be used for the storage and information technologies using a form of dissemination of information, however unlike communication utilizing interactive and user- the traditional media like Television and Radio, produced content, and interpersonal most of the social media tools allow their users relationships are created and maintained. to interact as “re–tweeting” on Twitter and Typical social media network services could be “comment” options on Facebook illustrate. content sharing, web communities, and Internet Sweetser and Lariscy (2008, p. 179) define forums. They further noted that there are at least social media as a “read-write Web, where the five major features of social media that can be online audience moves beyond passive viewing easily identified: (1) Social networking and of Web content to actually contributing to the social interaction (2) Participation (3) the use of content”. One thing that is common in most different providers (e.g. search engines, blog definitions of social media is the point that it is spaces, etc.) (4) Openness (5) Collaboration based on user-generated participation. The (between both users and user groups). opportunity to enjoy user-to-user interaction Okoro and Nwafor (2013, p.33) conceive distinguishes social media from the traditional social media as “those Internet-based tools and media which is characterized by top-down news services that allow users to engage with each dissemination arrangement (Clark & other, generate content, distribute, and search Aufderheide, 2009). for information online”. They further noted that The following can be regarded as the key social media are interactive web-based media characteristics of social media which has made platforms that offer citizens opportunity and it tick. place to connect, share opinions, experiences, 1. Interactivity: The interactive nature of views, contacts, knowledge expertise, as well as social media [that comes with Web 2.0 other things like job and career tips. Internet-based applications] is a key According to Narnia and Charl (2011, p.2) characteristic that distinguishes it from the “the term social media refers to web-based tools traditional mass media or web 1.0 internet. and services that allow users to create, share, and Anyone could post content online and get search for content and information without feedback or contributions from other

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members and vice versa. The interactive propagandist, opinion leader, policy-maker, nature of social media has basically policy-shaper, power centre, etc. He also notes “democratized” the Internet. that “it means, in its restricted sense, the study of 2. Accessibility: Social media is accessible to the behaviour of voters” (Okolie, 2004, p.24). virtually everyone with a cellphone and On his part, Igwe (2005, p.330) asserts that internet connection nowadays. They are not “in political behaviour attempts are made to bound by location or time as some of the answer such interrelated questions as: what are mass media are. the political orientations of, beliefs and goals of 3. Reach: The coverage of social media is quite the people, and why. Why are particular enormous and far wider than conventional political norms and values prevalent among a mass media as the internet is available on a people instead of others., what factors are at global scale. Information posted on the work determining what sorts of party and internet will travel further than it will do on candidate preferences are made during national TV or newspaper. elections., why do people choose and vote the 4. Adaptability: Social media platforms lend way they do, what influences may political themselves to great adaptability with many culture and political socialization exert upon of their inbuilt features e.g. the “Retweet” political behaviour, and what are the effects of function in Twitter, attachment of photos, b i o l o g i c a l , s o c i o l o g i c a l , e c o n o m i c, short videos to tweets and Facebook posts, geographical, cultural and other environmental links and “favouriting” of tweets. All those factors on political behaviour”. features aid the diffusion of information on In a process of typifying different levels of social media. voting behavior, Andreadis (2005) has 5. Affordability: Using the social media to intellectually categorized areas through which broadcast messages is far cheaper than voters can choose differently in an doing same via conventional mass media. electioneering process. For him, under Setting up an account is basically free on presidential and legislative elections, voters' social media and many users can afford to orientation is to select representatives on the buy data bundles which are getting cheaper basis of their political beliefs. In local elections due to competition among the internet voters select candidates that can serve them service providers. better and they are capable to do so. Under 6. Mobility: This is perhaps the most key referendum, voters vote for or against a characteristic of social media. Although particular policy, relying primarily on the social media is accessible from the web, efficacy of the policy. majority of users access it via mobile Scholars such as Healy, Malhota and internet mainly through their cellphones Hyunjung (2010) are of the view that, voters (Akinlade, 2016). may use 'affect' as a result of political sophistication and have political stimuli that Voting Behavior may result in an emotional political bias. Some Voting behaviour is generally conceived as of the mechanisms of 'affect' as it relates to political behaviour, because most political voting behaviour may include: surprise, anger, activities deal with voting. In this light Okolie anxiety, fear and pride (Gomez, Hansfor, & (2004) observes that political behaviour looks at Krauss, 2007). Researchers such as Miller the individual as political actor, voter, (2011), and Gomez, Hans, and Krauss (2007) revolutionar y, anarchist, par ty-man, have emphasized 'affect' as a determinant of

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):49 - 67 54 UZOMA NWABUNZE O. & CHUKWUEBUKA OKOYE A. Influence of Social Media on Voting Patterns of Enugu State Youths in 2015 .... voting behavior, believing that, anger may not conflicting results as regards effects of social allow people to vote for, especially the media. Cozma and Postelnicu (2008) study of government in power whose policies or actions "Political uses and perceived effects of could not make them happy and take them out campaigning on My Space" concluded that in of anger. Anxiety would determine voting general social network sites may not have much behavior in a manner making the voters vote for influence on political attitudes and behaviour. a candidate whose policy they “prefer” (Miller, Another study by Zhang, Johnson, Seltzer and 2011), while people with fear, may require in- Bichard (2010) titled "The influence of social depth analysis and explanations before they network sites on political attitudes and vote for a party or candidate (Ladd & Lenz, behaviours" also reached a similar conclusion as 2011; Gomez, Hans & Kraus 2007). The that of Cozma and Postelnicu's study. Another influence of affect as it relates to pride results in study "Social networking sites and our lives" a massive voters support. carried out by Hampton, Goulet, Rainie and Richey (2008) in his study "The Purcell (2011) for renowned research autoregressive influence of social network organization Pew Internet revealed that political knowledge on, voting behaviour" Facebook users are much more politically concluded that: social network have a large engaged than most people. influence on vote choice. In particular, According to survey conducted over the discussants' knowledge affects vote choice in a November 2010 U.S. Presidential election, it way similar to the autoregressive effect of revealed that "10% of Americans reported that political preference found by Huckfeldt, they had attended a political rally, 23% reported Johnson and Sprague. Citizens embedded in that they had tried to convince someone to vote networks seem to consider multiple opinions for a specific candidate, and 66% reported that when making vote choices. On his part, Igbinudi they had or intended to vote. Bowers, (2011) notes that the increasing penetration of Fernandez, Giurcanu and Neely's Study "The Internet and telephone technology has Writing on the wall: A Content Analysis of culminated in an embrace of social media College Students' Facebook Groups for the 2008 platforms by the Nigerian electorates, especially American Presidential Election" found that the youth who are increasingly becoming very political discussion dominated the discussion vibrant and technology savoir-faire. To connect between posters, as they used the Facebook with this target group, Nigeria politicians had no groups to transmit important information choice but to leverage on the media platform related to the candidates' campaigns, issues, and through which they could be reached easily. appearances rather than for social purposes. President Goodluck Jonathan of Nigeria joined The authors argued that the results bode well for Facebook about 10 months ago, and was able to the potential of social network sites to foster attract over 100, 000 fans in less than 20 days. At civic engagement among young voters. Also, a present, he has over 500, 000 fans on the social study by Hanson, Haridakis, Wagstaff, Sherma networking site. His current Facebook fan base and Ponder entitled "The 2008 American number places him second only to that of Presidential campaign: Political cynicism in the United States, President Obama among other Age of Facebook, MySpace and YouTube” world Presidents on Facebook. examines the relationship between political cynicism and use of social media. The study Social media and Politics reveals social media users tend to have lower Studies electoral politics have revealed political cynicism the more they utilize social

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):49 - 67 55 UZOMA NWABUNZE O. & CHUKWUEBUKA OKOYE A. Influence of Social Media on Voting Patterns of Enugu State Youths in 2015 .... media. The authors suggest the reason for this In Nigeria's recent general elections, could be the strong interpersonal nature of both major presidential candidates and social networking sites, as many people tend to their parties maintained active Twitter regard their friends/family's/contacts opinions and Facebook accounts and the more highly than those from politicians or Independent National Electoral media. Commission proactively engaged with citizens on social media to address The Social Media and 2015 Elections in Nigeria inquiries related to the electoral process. Since the introduction of the social media into Social media is widely credited with Nigerian political terrain in 2011 general playing a major role in promoting elections, the social media have become more transparency ahead of the vote that led potent tool and even a more lethal weapon in the to the first election of an opposition process of electioneering in the country as was candidate for president in Nigeria's evidenced during the 2015 general election. history. Indeed, Oyenuga (2015) accurately argued that the social media have become the most Nigerian youths on their part designed accessible source of information, particularly in initiatives to share best practices as well as the last two general elections. analyse the daunting challenges of popularizing In recognition of the power of youth on the layman-understanding of the electoral social media and to make electoral cycles an processes. For instance, the popular RSVP code inclusive process, the Independent National on events invitation cards was creatively Electoral Commission (INEC) went a step transformed by Enough Is Enough to “Register to further to establish the INEC Citizens Contact vote; Select credible candidate; Vote candidate of your Centre (ICCC), to further encourage interaction choice; Protect your vote”. CRALI did not to stop and participation of Nigerians in the electoral but also through its #KnowYourRightsNigeria process. The centre was established primarily to on social media and #KnowYourConstitution enable two-way communication between INEC initiative on UNILAG FM 103.1 it continued to and Nigerian citizens. It operates on a educate Nigerians on their civic rights, continuous basis during office hours to respond responsibilities and simplified the electoral law, to enquiries from the public, encourage voter and electoral processes to the understanding of registration and participation, provide official ordinary man on the street (Oyinlade, 2015). information on activities of the Commission, Moreover, through the instrumentality of and stimulate conversation with the public. the social media cases of underage voting was During elections, the Citizen Contact Centre discovered, the suspects were snapped with was escalated to operate around the clock as an p h o n e c a m e r a a n d t h e i r p i c t u r e s incident management centre and situation instantaneously went viral, which necessitated room. The centre utilised social media INEC quick intervention and investigation. The platforms (Twitter, @ inecnigeria; Facebook, efficacy of social media and mobile INEC Nigeria; and Instagram, INEC Nigeria) technological advancement also assisted in communicating with the public (Ogwuche, Nigerians in policing their votes till they were 2015). Commenting and commending the counted. The results were quickly posted on line application of social media in Nigeria's 2015 and circulated across the country; thus it made it general election Elchahabi and Gallagher difficult for anyone to doctor the results (2015, pp.2-3) observe that: (Oyinlade, 2015).

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Theoretical Framework development of technology follows a The study adopted the technological conventional and noticeable part. Secondly, determinism theory as its framework of technology has effects on the society. The above analysis. The theory was coined by Thorstein assertion is true of social media in our present Veblen (1857-1929), an American sociologist day; it has affected the lives of the people most and economist in the 20th century (Asemah, especially the youths. Information and ideas on Nwammuo & Nkwam-Uwaoma, 2017). It was the various sectors of the economy including further developed by Marshall McLuhan in political discussions are now shared freely on a 1964. Technological determinism explains how high speed. Again boundary or location is no innovation in modern technology helps to longer a setback especially in political engineer some forms of change in society or in campaigns. Use of social media in the forms of the ordering of things. The core message of the various social networking sites such as theory is on the effects technology has on the Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Whatsapp, SMS, lives of people given that technology has shaped etc. during elections is now a culture among the the way individuals in a society think, feel and youths. This provides sufficient avenue for act, and how the society operates as a whole. To political campaigns, engagements, orientations, this end, Baran and Davis (2012) averred that discussions and debates, events updates, etc. to the theory is actually a collection of lots of the extent of affecting voting choice, patterns or intriguing ideas bound together by some behaviour of the electorates. common assumptions. The most central of The advent of social media has altered the these assumptions is that changes in conventional practice in political campaigns communication technology inevitably produce which depended on organizing political rallies changes in both cultural and social order. And in open fields, etc. to present candidates and that technology inevitably causes specific their manifestoes to people of their changes in how people think, in how society is constituencies. Nowadays, politicians use their structured, and in the forms of culture that are social media handles to engage voters, defend created. For instance, the radio required us to their manifestoes for which they are adopted or only listen and develop our sense of hearing, rejected. In the same vein, unlike the regular television engages both our hearing and visual practice of being available on rally ground to senses. On the other hand, social media engages hear from politicians and not being allowed not just our hearing and visual senses. It enables access to question or express themselves, social us to participate in an ongoing process and media have availed electorates direct access to discussion that is taking place at a location that their candidates for quick clarification, reaction is different from that of the user. This suggests or exposure where warranted. Like the theory that social networking platforms have shaped submitted, the presence of these technologies and revolutionised the way society have created a noticeable impact and these communicates, by creating a new platform of technologies have also necessitated changes in communication, exclusive of face to face the political structure of the country to the interaction. The point to note is that as extent that they can affect the outcome of votes technology grows from writing and print, to the in an election. television, the computer and presently social media, society has changed alongside it. Research Methodology Technological determinism is applied to this The study made use of survey research design. study based on two major notions: first, This is because survey design enables the

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):49 - 67 57 UZOMA NWABUNZE O. & CHUKWUEBUKA OKOYE A. Influence of Social Media on Voting Patterns of Enugu State Youths in 2015 .... researcher to study peoples' opinions, thoughts Meanwhile, the questionnaire items were used and beliefs on a given issue of concern. Hence, as guide for our unstructured interview with the survey was the most appropriate method of data respondents. collection for this study. Data Presentation and Analysis Population of study Table 1: Sex Distribution of Respondents The population of this study are restricted to youth in Enugu State. This is because the youth Sex Frequency Percentage constitute the active users of social media platforms. Youth, according the Nigerian Youth Male 237 59.2 Policy (2009, p.6) refers to “all young male and Female 163 40.8 female aged 18 and 35 years, who are citizens of Total 400 100 the Federal Republic of Nigeria”. Hence, youth for this study are persons who fall within the Source: Field Survey, 2017 aforementioned age bracket that use different social media platforms in the three Senatorial The table above shows that 237 (59.2%) of the districts of Enugu State. respondents were male while 163 (40.8%) were female. The implication of this is that both male Sample size and female youths in the state were avid The study made use of the sample size of 400 members of the social media club. respondents that were drawn from the population Senatorial districts of Enugu State. Table 2: Age distribution of respondents. This was determined using the Taro Yamane formula. Age Frequency Percentage 18 - 23 137 32.8 Sampling technique 24 - 29 168 42 Since it is impossible to study all the youths that 30 - 35 101 25.2 made use of social media during the 2015 Total 400 100 general elections in Enugu State, the researcher adopted the stratified and simple random Source: Field Survey, 2017 sampling techniques. This is to ensure that all the three Senatorial districts in the state were The table above shows that 137 (32.8%) of the represented, while at the same providing respondents were aged 18 – 23; also 168 (42%) opportunity for every individual element within were aged 24 – 29; while 101 (25.2%) were each of the districts to have equal chance of within the age bracket of 30 – 35. This indicated being selected. that those within the ages of 24 – 29 were more in number. Instruments of data collection The educational qualifications of our The instruments used for data collection for this respondents as presented in the table above study were questionnaire and interview. The indicates that 32 (8%) have FSLC, 267 (66.8%) questionnaire was in two parts. Part A – was on SSC, 63(15.7%) HND/BSc, 35 (8.8%) the demographic information of the MA/MSc, while 3 (0.7%) were PhD holders. respondents while the part B - was on the respondents' exposition to the issue of study.

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Table 3: Educational qualification of respondents. Table 5: Distribution of respondents on knowledge of social media

Qualification Frequency Percentage Response Frequency Percentage FSLC 32 8 Yes 394 98.5 SSC 267 66.8 No 6 1.5 HND/B.Sc 63 15.7 Total 400 100 MA/M.Sc 35 8.8 Ph.D 3 0.7 Source: Field Survey, 2017 Total 400 100 Table 6: Distribution of respondents on whether they Source: Field Survey, 2017 use social media

Table 4: Occupational distribution of respondents Response Frequency Percentage Yes 383 95.7 Occupation Frequency Percentage No 17 4.3 Student 256 64 Total 400 100 Trader/business 28 7 Source: Field Survey, 2017 Civil servant 35 8.8 Unemployed 81 20.2 The table above indicates that 383 (95.7%) of Total 400 100 the respondents use or were registered in one social media or the other, while 17 (4.3%) said Source: Field Survey, 2017 they are not in any social media platform. The table above shows that 259 (64%) of the respondents were student, 28 (7%) traders/ Table 7: Distribution of respondents on most used business, 35(8.8) civil servants, while 81(20.2%) social networking site were unemployed. The implication of the data as presented was that students followed by Response Frequency Percentage unemployed in Enugu State were the highest Facebook 149 37.2 users of social media. This reasons for these as Whatsapp 135 33.7 gathered during our interview session were that Twitter 31 7.7 while students use social media platform to communicate among themselves in search of YouTube 15 3.7 materials for their assignments and other BBM 40 10 academic works; the unemployed youths on the Others 13 3.2 other hand use same to search for job None 17 4.3 opportunities, in addition to linking up with Total 400 100 friends. The table above shows that 394 (98.5%) had Source: Field Survey, 2017 good knowledge of social media, while 6 (1.5%) did not. This shows that a good number of The table above shows the various social media youths in Enugu State were aware of the platforms that youths in Enugu State use. It existence of social media platforms. reveals that 149(37.2%) use Facebook,

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135(33.7%) Whatsapp, 31(7.7%) Twitter, The table above shows that the choice 92(23%) 15(3.7%) YouTube, 40 (10%) BBM, 13(3.2%) of the respondents were determined by social Skype, while 17 (4.3%) use other kinds of social media campaign, 301(75.2%) said they were media. This indicated that Facebook was the not, while 43(10.7%) said they don't know most widely used. It was followed by Whatsapp, whether it did or not. BBM, Twitter, YouTube, and others. Table 10: Distribution of respondents on whether Table 8: Distribution of respondents on whether they social media increased the level of political used social media during 2015 general elections consciousness of youths during the 2015 general elections in Enugu State Response Frequency Percentage Yes 374 93.5 Response Frequency % No 26 6.5 It provided an avenue for the electorate 71 19.0 Total 400 100 to interact with the candidates

Source: Field Survey, 2017 It helped in shaping the youths opinions 41 11.0 on candidates The table above indicated that 374 (93.5%) of It exposed youth to political 58 15.5 the respondents agreed they used social media manifestoes during the 2015 general election, while It enhanced the perception of youths 50 13.4 26(6.5%) say they did not. This was about the Nigerian political system corroborated by the information gathered It created an avenue for political 45 12.0 during our interview session. It observed that youths turned to social media as a means of participation obtaining information on the various parties, It enabled youths to exchange 43 11.5 their manifesto, and candidates for the various information concerning the elections positions. Besides, some noted that they shared Used to post election results 57 15.2 ideas and engage group discussion about the Enhanced the ability of youths to 9 2.4 election via the social media. Again, some said monitor political leaders they used the platform to share and upload Total 374 100 pictures and campaign for the candidates and parties of their choice during the elections. Source: Field Survey, 2017

Table 9: Distribution of respondents on whether social The table above shows the extent to which social media determined their choice of party and candidates media aroused the political consciousness of during the 2015 general elections youths in Enugu State during the 2015 general elections. On this note 80(20%) of the Response Frequency Percentage respondents were of the view that social media Yes 92 23 provide avenue for electorates to interact with No 301 75.2 the candidates 41 (10.2%), said it helped in shaping the opinions of youths on candidates, I don't know 43 10.7 60 (15%) said exposed people to political Total 400 100 manifestoes, 62 (15.5%) said it enhanced the Source: Field Survey, 2017 perception of voters about Nigerian political

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):49 - 67 60 UZOMA NWABUNZE O. & CHUKWUEBUKA OKOYE A. Influence of Social Media on Voting Patterns of Enugu State Youths in 2015 .... system, 45(11.2%) said it created avenues for general election. Table 5 proved that the political participation, 50(12.5%) argued that it respondents had knowledge of social media; facilitated sharing of information concerning were registered with them as well as used social the election, 53(13.2%) said they used it to media in communication as indicated in Table upload the results of the electoral contest in 6. In demonstration of their knowledge of the their various polling units/voting points, while 9 meaning and usage of the social media (2.3%) believe it enhanced the ability of youths platforms, the respondents in Table 7, were able to monitor the activities of those in government. to mention some of the social media platform they were conversant with such as Facebook, Table 11: Distribution of respondents on challenges Whatsapp, Twitter, BBM, YouTube among they encountered with the use of social media which others. interfered with their voting pattern during the 2015 Table 8 indicated that the respondents used general elections social media during the 2015 general election. Here it was observed that youths explored the platforms in joining political debates, Response Frequency Percentage discussion, campaigns, as well as providing Lack of electricity 102 25.5 timely and accurate information pertaining to Poverty 57 14.3 the election process. The veracity of this claim is Lack of internet access 198 49.5 evidenced our Appendix 1, which presented a Others 43 10.7 comparative view of the result declared by the Total 400 100 Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) vis-à-vis the one gotten from social Source: Field Survey, 2017 media. There it was observed that the raw results from the social media is almost the same as the The table above shows the challenges that were INEC results except in few places like Anambra, encountered by the youths in Enugu State Ekiti and Lagos States respectively. during the said elections which affected their Besides Table 9 empirically demonstrated voting behaviour. A number of respondents, that while social media influenced the voting 102(25.5%) of them indicated that they suffered behaviour of some youths in Enugu State during lack of electricity, 57(14.3%) said poverty, the 2015 general elections; it however, did not 198(49.5%) reported lack of internet access, exert much influence on the voting behaviour of while 43(10.7%) noted that there were other majority of our respondents especially in factors such as religious injunctions, parental relation to the Presidential and governorship control, personal decisions, et cetera. elections. This is in line with the observations of Andreadis (2005) when he categorized areas Discussion through which voters can choose differently in The data generated in this study offer insight on an electioneering process. For him, under the influence of social media on the voting presidential and legislative elections, voters' pattern of youths in Enugu State during the orientation is to select representatives on the 2015 general elections. The study interrogated basis of their political beliefs. In local elections the demographic data of the respondents in voters select candidates that can serve them order to determine how the difference in sex, better and they are capable to do so. Moreover, age, educational qualifications and occupations Horowitz (1985) was of the view that social affect their use of social media during the 2015 identities determine voting choices for any given

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):49 - 67 61 UZOMA NWABUNZE O. & CHUKWUEBUKA OKOYE A. Influence of Social Media on Voting Patterns of Enugu State Youths in 2015 .... individual or social group. He argues that the NGOs, CSOs and other interest actors joined bond of ethnicity has a strong direct impact on the platform in order to engender and join electoral behaviour in ethnically-segmented discussions and debate not just as it concern the societies (such as Nigeria), generating a long- election but in addition to other social problems term psychological sense of party loyalty that beset the country. It equally proved that the anchoring citizens to parties, where casting a social media have broadened the political space vote becomes an expression of group identity for youth engagement and involvement in the (Norris and Mattes 2003). Ethnic ties have long country's politics. Besides, it has led to an been regarded as playing a critical role in party increase in the level of political consciousness politics and electoral democracies in sub- of youths in the country. Saharan Africa. This again is evidenced in the Interestingly, the study however, result of March 28th 2015 Presidential election demonstrated that social media have not that was posted by INEC in its website, which successfully replaced the other formal and indicated that the two major parties of APC and informal means of political socialization that PDP won massively in the ethnic region of their enculturate and determine the political Presidential flag bearers. behaviour of the country (youths) via ethnic To determine the impact of social media on ties, languages, religion, et cetera. Hence, despite the political consciousness of youths during the the fact that social media played important role 2015 general elections, Table 10 showed that in the 2015 general elections, it however, did not enabled youths to interact and questions entirely determine the voting behaviour as politicians, follow political campaigns, manifested in the voting pattern of youths in manifestoes, enhanced political participation, Enugu State as do elsewhere in the country. perception of candidates, posting of monitoring of election results online in order to prevent Recommendations rigging and malpractices. Also Table 11 while There is no denying the fact that social media providing answers to our third research question have played and will continue to play decisive indicated that lack of electricity, poverty, lack of role in the conduct of future elections in the internet access especially in the rural country. It is therefore on this note, especially on communities limit the ability of youths to fully the basis of the findings made in the study that utilize the opportunities provided by social we recommend that: media as tool of political mobilization and 1. Conscious efforts should be made at awareness creation. reorienting our national values especially as it concerns the youths who are deemed to be Conclusion leaders of tomorrow. The findings of the study have revealed that 2. The Nigerian state through the Nigerian social media is a potent and veritable tool for Communications Commission should political mobilization and communication. ensure that all parts of the country are Specifically, it demonstrated that the technology provided with internet facilities, in order to was more than adequately utilized in the various ensure that youths of country can at all phases and process that marked the 2015 times participation and contribute their general elections; starting from pre-election quota on burning national matters. campaigns, through election day activities to the 3. Even though youths are very active on the collation and announcement of the election social media, experience has shown that results. As politicians, political parties, INEC, they spent most of their time doing things

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that neither add to their capacity building communication, media in the Digital Age (10th ed.). nor national development. Hence, the youth London: McGraw-Hill. should reconsider their social media usage. Ebhota, E. (2015). How social media shaped 2015 4. There is equally the need to regulate the election campaigns. https://www.dailytrust. content of post and uploads that Nigerians com.ng/sunday/index.php/media-media/ 20046-how-social-media-shaped-2015- make online. This is to minimize the electioncampaigns damning and inciting messages that are Elchahabi, S. and Gallagher, A. (2015). The evolving daily being communicated and circulated role of media in elections http://www.ifes.org/ on the social media around the country. news/evolving-role-media-elections 5. Nigerians should as matter of exigency shift Fidelis, M. A. (2017). Youths and the use of social away from ethnic politics to issue based media in the peaceful conduct of the 2015 campaign and politics as it is obtainable in general elections in Nigeria. Research on other climes of the world. Humanities and Social Sciences, 7(2), 65-72 Folarin, B. (1998). Theories of mass communication: An References introductory text. Ibadan: Stirling Horden Ajayi, K. (2005). Security forces, electoral conduct Publishers. and the 2003 general elections in Nigeria. In G. Gomez, B.T., Hansford, T.G., & Kraus, G.A. (2007). Onu & Momoh, A. (Eds). Elections and The Republicans should pray for rain: Weather, democratic consolation in Nigeria. Lagos: Nigeria turnout, and voting in U.S. Presidential Political Science Association (NPSA). Elections, Journal of Politics, 69 (3), 649–663. Akinlade, A. O. (2016). The influence of social media on Healy, A., Malhota, N. & Hyunjung M. C. (2010). the voting behaviour of the youth in South East Irrelevant events affect voters' evaluations of Nigeria. MA dissertation, University of Nigeria, government performance. Proceedings of the Nsukka. National Academy of Sciences of the United States of Andreadis, I. & Chadjipadelis, T. (2005). Differences America, 107 (29), 12804–12809. in voting behavior. N.Y: Mileas Press. Horowitz, D. (1993). The challenge of ethnic Asemah, E. S., Nwammuo, A. N., & Nkwam conflict: democracy in divided societies. Journal Uwaoma, A. O. (2017). Theories and models of of Democracy, 4 (4), 18. communication. Jos: Jos University Press. Horowitz, D. (1985). Ethnic groups in conflict. Baran, J. S., & Davis, D. K. (2001). Mass Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. communication theory: Foundations, ferment and Igbinudi, C. (2011). Social media and the 2011 rd elections in Nigeria. www.socialmedia2011 future. (3 ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Igwe, O. (2005). Politics and globe dictionary (New Wadsworth. Edition). Aba: Eagle Publishers. Baran, J.S. (2002). Introduction to mass communication: Jega, A. (2007). Democracy, good governance and Media literacy and culture. Boston: McGraw- development in Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Hill Books. Limited. Bermudez, N. A. (2012). Effects of social media on Katz, E., Blumler, J.G., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). individual voting. MA Thesis, Faculty of Utilzation of mass communication by the Communication and Leadership Studies, individual. Blumler, J. G. & Katzeds, E. (Eds.), School of Professional Studies. The uses of communication: Current perspectives on Biswas, A. Ingle, N. & Roy, M. (2014). Influence of gratification research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. social media on voting behavior. Journal of Ladd, J. & Lenz, G. (2011). Does anxiety improve Power, Politics & Governance, 2(2), 127-155. voters' decision making? Political Psychology, 32 Burgeon, M., Hunsaker, F.G. & Dawson, E.J. (1994). rd (2), 347–361. Human Communication (3 ed.). London: Sage Melvin, J. Y. (1999). Uses and gratifications Publication. approach. Available at: http://www.utwente. Dominick, J. R. (2009).The dynamics of mass

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APPENDIX 2 Result of the 2015 Presidential Election for the two leading political parties

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

A Computer-Mediated Discourse Analysis of Selected Twitter threads and their replies on the 2019 South-African Xenophobic Attacks on Nigerians

UTAH, NDUKA DAVID, UCHECHUKWU DIVINE NKEMAKOLAM & OHUOBA,ADAEZE NGOZI Imo State University, Owerri [email protected] Department of Foreign Language and Translation Studies Abia State University, Uturu. Alliance Française, Owerri

Abstract The advents of new technologies tend to spring up new areas of research in every field. The field of discourse analysis is not left out; different means of communicating with others have evolved due to the influence of technology. One of these is the social media which provides means for computer-mediated communication, with participants creating discourses via online chats, audio-visuals and, even, memes. The interest of participants in online discourse increased and several forums have been created to meet the needs of this present society. Among other social media platforms such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Snapchat and Instagram, Twitter is a public online forum where different participants can create conversations on a particular issue. Comments linked together are termed “threads” on Twitter and the replies given to the thread make a conversation. This paper, therefore, examines people's comments on Twitter on the 2019 xenophobia issue by adopting conversational analysis expatiated by Harvey Sacks, Emmanuel A. Schegloff and Gail Jefferson (1974) as the theoretical framework. Conversational analysis is anchored in understanding how participants interact on the Internet, factors affecting interaction in an online conversation and how turn-takingrules are operated within an online conversation. The findings of this study, therefore, reveal that although online interaction is slightly different from live interactions, in that they do not have some of the features present in a face-to-face conversation, these online conversations also have embedded conversational features that create an organised structure of interaction.

Keywords: Computer-Mediated Communication, Discourse Analysis, Conversational Analysis, Xenophobia, Twitter-threads

Introduction has been observed. Therefore, in analysing Given the advent of online forums as vibrant discourse, one has to pay attention to the context means for communicating globally, this paper in which the conversation is made. Thus, explores language use through the electronic different contexts birth different kinds of media. The paper uses Computer-Mediated interactions, which produces different Discourse Analysis (CMDA) as a tool and approaches to analysing discourses. CMDA focuses on selected twitter-threads on the 2019 should account for structures of meaning, South-African xenophobic attacks on interaction, and social behavior from the Nigerians. Discourse Analysis is the analysis of smallest to the largest linguistic unit of analysis either spoken or written texts. According to of online discourse (Herring, 2004). McCarthy, Matthiessen, and Slade (2002), CMDA, one of the approaches of Discourse “Discourse Analysis is the analysis of language Analysis, can be defined as the empirical and in its social context”. Trappes-Lomax (2006) textual study of language use on the Internet or describes the role of a discourse analyst by t h e s t u d y o f C o m p u t e r - M e d i a t e d saying that the discourse analyst does a Communication (CMC). After its emergence, deliberate, interpreting and explaining of what the first analysis is of computer-mediated

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Communication (CMC) was by Dennis Murray reassuring the racial, ethnic or national self, in 1985 on the types of discourses found in identity and boundaries in times of crisis. It CMC. Since then, different researchers from could also stem from a feeling of superiority or a various fields have placed their focus on strong feeling of insecurity. One of the issues Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC). that trended on twitter was the xenophobic CMC is a string of interaction that is made attacks that occurred in South-Africa that led to possible through the aid of technology. CMDA the destruction of properties and the applies methods adapted from language focused termination of many lives as well. People disciplines such as linguistics, communication, therefore, came out on social media to voice and rhetoric to the analysis of computer- their opinion on this issue. This open expression mediated communication (Herring, 2001). is one of the advantages of social media. Twitter CMDA analyses logs of verbal interaction is one of these popular online forums where such as words, characters, utterances, people send tweets which are easily formed into exchanges, messages, archives and threads. It threads if picked up as topics for discussion. involves other fields such as conversation Twitter, the online platform where the data analysis, interactional sociolinguistics, for analysis in this study is gotten from, is a pragmatics, text analysis, semantics and critical micro-blogging service that enables people to discourse analysis. In carrying out a computer- share short textual messages which are referred mediated discourse analysis, one could base to as “tweets” with others on the forum. one's research on online word-formation “Threads” on Twitter are created when a processes, lexical choices, sentence structures, participant on Twitter sends more than one and language switching among bilingual tweet; these tweets can then draw the attention speakers. At the same time, a macro-level of other people on the platform. A person that is research can also be done on a macro-level interested in the subject that is presented, then, phenomenon such as coherence, community, gives opinion(s) concerning the topic. This potential and power, gender equity and identity, forms a thread and reply, and that in turn creates depending on what is expressed through that a discourse on Twitter. particular discourse. Also, within any conversation, turn-taking CMC has to do with interpersonal is central. Every form of interaction has communication on the Internet and can also intricacies or embodiments of turn-taking attract studies on features of interaction and practices. According to Olateju (2004), participation patterns which according to “Conversational Analysis is concerned mainly studies differ, depending on the synchronicity of with the structure of talk in terms of production the medium where the conversation is carried and reproduction of different patterns of social out. There are different online platforms that interaction”. In this light, scholars in their give room for interactions online. They include: research on the field of discourse analysis have Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, Snapchat carried out conversational analysis of various and Twitter. live interactions. However, few studies have Xenophobia is the fear of that which is been done on conversational analysis of online foreign and could be easily traced to different interactions especially on online conversational reasons. It could be as a result of a threat, threads. The focus of this study is to add to the perceived or real, to citizens' economic success; existing few works, using twitter conversational loss of social status and identity; poor threads on the 2019 issue of xenophobia as texts intercultural information; and suspicion of the for analysis. activities of others. To some others, it is a way of

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The objectives of this study are: to identify the Oliver (2007) say that in the extensive literature significant conversational elements embedded on asynchronous online discussions, within the in the texts; to discuss how these features are realm of computer-mediated communication, integrated to form an organised structure of there is widespread agreement that online interaction; and to analyse the identified discussion enables interaction which would elements relating them to live interactions. otherwise be difficult to achieve in face-to-face situations. Furthermore, CMC allows: learners Computer-Mediated Communication of a language to perfect their knowledge of that Computer-mediated communication (CMC) or language through constant practice; people to Computer-mediated discourse (CMD) is a form embark on collective projects irrespective of of interaction which occurs through different their location; and individuals from different types of networking technology and software. places to communicate with each other. In the Some scholars define CMC as all asynchronous. area of teaching, Ham and Davey (2005) claim However, such a definition is one-sided as it that benefits of the asynchronous and virtual does not fully explain the forms in which CMC worlds are opportunities for multiple can occur. Herring (2001:612) has defined connections, the easy storage and manipulation computer-mediated discourse (CMD) as “the of the text, the opportunity to interact more communication produced when human beings thoughtfully to more people more often in a way interact with one another by transmitting in which both teacher and student feel messages via networked computers”. comfortable. It is also an advantage to people Computer-mediated communication could be with speech disabilities and complexes as well. either synchronous or asynchronous. However, the disadvantage is the fact that Synchronous communication occurs in real computer-mediated communication in a way time; participants receive instant messages from excludes nonverbal cues in communication. each other because they are logged on at the Nonverbal cues help to convey a message better. same time. Examples of synchronous Examples of non-verbal cues are physical communication include: Video chats, instant gestures and tonal changes. chats on WhatsApp and Messenger and audio c a l l s o n Fa c e T i m e. A s y n c h r o n o u s Twitter as a medium for online interaction communication, on the other hand, refers to Twitter is a social media forum of Web 2.0 communication that does not require technologies where participants interact by participants to communicate in unison. Here, sending and receiving messages called “Tweets. the participants do not get immediate replies This social networking phenomenon was because they are not logged on at the same time. designed by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone Examples of asynchronous communication are and Evan Williams in March 2006 and was E-mails and text messages. Several scholars publicly introduced in July, that same year. have cited the usefulness of CMC. To some, Since then and till now, millions of people sign computer-mediated communication helps up and use Twitter daily. The rate at which participants to make a better form of Twitter gained popularity was so fast that as of communication. Ramirez and Zhang (2007) 2018, Twitter had more than 321 million active compares computer-mediated communication users. Twitter is a site for heated debates and to live or face-to-face interaction and states that current activities. Thus, a number of people CMC creates more closeness and attraction tend to actively follow-up these events. between two individuals. Also Conole and According to Boyd and Ellison (2007), such

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):68 - 79 70 UTAH, NDUKA D. et al A Computer-Mediated Discourse Analysis of Twitter threads and replies on the 2019 South-African ... social networking tools are pervasive in daily speaking and becomes the addressed. Liddicoat life. Also, Taylor and Keeters (2010) define (2007) in explaining Turn-taking says that Twitter as, “a tool that is considered popular speakers keep changing in a conversation: when with today's students who use technologies as A is finished, it is B's turn to talk. Consequently, part of their seamless social interactions”. when B has finished speaking, A takes a turn Twitter, Inc. has more than 25 offices around the again. Duncan in 1972, made the first important world but has its headquarters at San Francisco, approach to Turn-taking. Then in 1974, Sacks, California. Tweets are posts (text, links, photos Schegloff and Jefferson conducted a research on and videos) on this platform that are read by turn-taking. It was a very influential work that users who follow that person or use the same formed a basis for different studies on Twitter hashtag. “Retweeting” occurs when conversations. Turn-taking regulates and these posts are further distributed in its original controls people's interaction. It includes the format. These redistributed posts are called study of turn constructional components; “retweets”. In an educational context, tweets implicit and explicit markers; and turn can be constructed to express an idea, allocational components. paraphrase or critique a concept, and provide a Schegloff (2007) takes time to explain the level of discourse in a virtual space that supports concepts that revolve around conversations. He dialogue occurring face to face (Sweeney, 2012). explains that the organisation of turn-taking is the most fundamental organisation of practice Xenophobia for talk-in-interaction. Schegloff (2007) further Mogekwu (2005) defines xenophobia as “the defines Turn-taking “as a type of sequential fear or hatred of foreigners or strangers; it is organisation because it concerns the relative embodied in discriminatory attitudes and ordering of speakers, of turn-constructional behaviour, and it often culminates in violence, units, and of different types of utterances”. abuses of all types, and exhibitions of hatred”. Turn-taking rules are set to explicitly define who The term is typically used to describe a fear or should take the next turn at the next transition dislike of foreigners or of people significantly relevant place. Transition-relevant place (TRP), different from oneself, usually in the context of therefore, is a place where speaker change visibly differentiated minorities (Shinsana, occurs and takes place at the completion of an 2008). Xenophobia is traced to poverty, utterance by a speaker. deprivation of employment opportunities and national benefits, superiority complex, and Conversational Analysis Theory feeling of exceptionalism. The term Conversational Analysis (CA) was coined by Harold Garfinkel and Erving The Concept of Turn-taking Goffman in the late 1960's in the course of an A turn is the basic unit of speech in an investigation into the way jury members made individual's contribution (Olateju, Oyebode, & their deliberations. However, the pioneers of Ademilokun, 2014). Schegloff (2007) says that researches on Conversational Analysis are the building blocks out of which turns are Harvey Sacks, Emmanuel Schegloff and Gail Jefferson (1974). Conversational Analysis (CA) fashioned are turn constructional units or is a basis of research in the areas of linguistics, TCUs. In every interaction, there is always a sociology, anthropology, psychology and transition between the speaker and the listener. communication. However, the connection This role change which is called turn-taking between CA and linguistics started in the 1970's. occurs as soon as the initial speaker stops Since then and till now, CA is used as an

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):68 - 79 71 UTAH, NDUKA D. et al A Computer-Mediated Discourse Analysis of Twitter threads and replies on the 2019 South-African ... analytical tool for research in different The data were selected and collected from the language-related disciplines. Conversational leading hashtag with more comments on the Analysis seeks to answer questions on the topic of the South-African xenophobic attack structure and organisation of conversations. on Nigerians- #Xenophobic Attacks, using Thus, the major concerns of conversational purposive random sampling (PRS) method. At analysis are: the mechanisms of turn-taking; the end of the sampling, there were two (2) openings and closings; adjacency pairs; topic Twitter threads selected that are linked to two management and topic shift; conversational (2) different twitter handles (@mabinacusty, repairs; showing agreement and disagreement; @DrJoeAbah). In analysing the data, the tweets managing conflict resolution (Olateju, Oyebode are numbered by order of appearance. The & Ademilokun, 2014).There are some questions selection process was guided by the discretion of that fuel researches under this framework. the data that best aligns with the aim and According to Hutchby and Wooffitt (2008), objectives of the research as they reflect “how is a normal conversation organised, how significant conversational elements which can do people arrange their conversation in daily be related to live interactions. social interactions, and what is the role of conversation in between each participants”? DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS Conversational analysis has to do with the Text 1 structure or the order of organisation in a conversation. Schegloff (2007) terms this “the generic order of organisation”. He further explains that the generic order of organisation means the various organisations of practice that deal with the various generic organisational contingencies of talk-in-interaction without which it cannot proceed in an orderly way and that they include: the “turn-taking” problem, “ a c t i o n - f o r m a t i o n ” p r o b l e m “sequenceorganizational” problem, the “trouble” problem, word-selection problem and the overall structural organisation problem. These problems and more are what conversation alanalysts seek to find answers to, while conducting their research. This paper answers some questions on conversational analysis using selected twitter threads and their replies on the 2019 South-African xenophobic attacks on Nigerians.

METHODOLOGY Sources of Data The main source of information and the primary data used for this study are threads and their replies. Basically, the threads used were sourced from a public networking and microblogging online service, Twitter, precisely. a)

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b) c)

d) e)

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f) g)

Text 1: Seven screenshots of linking parts of a screenshots of these “absurd” opinions to the Twitter thread and the replies that followed. tweets that were sent in tweets 1, 2 and 3. Analysis: Another turn construction unit is formed in Text 1 is a total of 16 tweets. It starts with a tweet 3 which is a sarcasm that elicits several thread of 3 tweets by a twitter user and is turns by different users. Subsequent turn followed up by replies from other twitter users. construction units in the discourse serve as a Using Schegloff's sequence organisation, the resource for the construction of turns. The opening of the conversation is a call for consequent interactions or turn-taking in this clarification on the conflicting opinions of online discourse occur via self-selection as Nigerians concerning the xenophobic attack by there was no beckoning by the initiator to @mabinacusty in tweet 1. To the initiator of the specifically select the owner of the next turn. conversation, the rate of violence should be Tweet 4 reinforces the opinion of the initiator enough reason to welcome affected Nigerians with an action, designed in a fashion to mock back home, to seek succour in their fatherland. the reactions of Nigerians concerning the However, clashing opinions show that there are xenophobic attack. S/he does this with the aid more thoughts as to the effect of their returning of the laughing emoticon, which appears twice; on the economy rather than thoughts on the at the beginning and at the end of the tweet to continual increase of the endangerment of their indicate that the sender was laughing lives, if they continue to stay in South Africa. throughout the production of that particular The initiator backs up this question by adding turn. Such usages of emoticons in a

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):68 - 79 74 UTAH, NDUKA D. et al A Computer-Mediated Discourse Analysis of Twitter threads and replies on the 2019 South-African ... computermediated communication are like However, the major topic shift occurs in tweet 7 actions in a live interaction which buttresses the where the topic of discussion shifts from”the emotion or feeling of a participant in a absurdity of certain opinions of Nigerians” to discourse. Thus, the action in tweet 4, which “a place of unity for all Africans” in tweet 11 appears as a laughing emoticon, suggests where the topic of discussion becomes “the surprise and noticing. A back-channel also morality of African leaders”. This same pattern occurs in tweet 4 just as in live interactions to of topic shift occurs in live interactions as show that the participant understood the initial participants in a face-to-face discourse shift message. There is an answer to the initial from one topic to another either intentionally or question asked by the initiator of the unintentionally. The closing of the conversation conversation in tweet 11. The topical coherence which is an attempt by a South-African to further in the successive turns in this online discourse buttress their point of not needing foreigners indicates a form of organisation in the structure shows dispreference and includes a reason for of interaction. Another is the appearance of this. adjacency pairs. Analysis of the adjacency pairs that occur between tweets 7 and 8; tweets 11 and Text 2 12; and tweets 12 and 13, show a flowing connection of utterances. Still on adjacency pairs, postexpansion occurs in tweet 14 which is after the second pair part of the adjacency pair between tweets 12 and 13. There is also the presence of a converging pair in tweets 13 and 14, which further posits a form of organisation in the structure of the online discourse. The converging pair shows affirmation, as the participant that sends tweet 14 agrees with tweet 13 by reproducing the latter's tweet using similar adjectives. S/he places more emphasis on this opinion by using the sad face emoticon as well. Due to the nature of the discourse, there is no interruption or overlapping. Thus, the interaction goes on smoothly as opposed to live interactions where interruptions occur due to the verbal nature of the discourse. Also, there is no repair sequence evident in the discourse. The nature of interactions and the features of technology embedded in an online discourse, such as spell-checkers/ auto-correct and the usage of characters and emoticons in making sentences have given room to skip initiating repairs even when errors are evident. Thus, in live interactions, more repair sequences occur than in computer-mediated communication. Furthermore, there is an occurrence of topic shift in the conversation. Though there is an a) attempt to elicit another topic for talk in tweet 6.

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b) c)

d) e)

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f) g)

h) i)

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Text 2: Nine screenshots of linking parts of a Twitter dispreferred response in tweet 9 shows that the thread and the replies that followed individual that sends that particular tweet took Analysis: offence at the self-selection that occurred in Text 2 consists of 18 tweets. The conversation is tweet 9. These occurrences of preferred and a thread of 6 tweets by a twitter user that is dispreferred responses are just like in live followed up by replies from other twitter users. interactions where people show approval or Following Schegloff's sequence organisation, disapproval of comments made by others in the the opening of the conversation is an flow of a conversation. Tweets 9 and 10 reflect affirmation of the opinions of some Nigerian as an adjacency pair as the latter is a reply to the celebrities concerning the xenophobic attack by former's comment. There is also the presence of @DrJoeAbah in tweet 1. The initiator the other-initiated repair in tweet 17 where the expresses pride at the level of maturity participant gives information in respect to demonstrated by these celebrities. According to correcting a mistake made in tweet 16. Actions tweet 1, they called for brotherhood and urged are also expressed to enhance meaning and Nigerians not to resort to looting and violence. reflect the emotions of the participants in tweets The initiator further expresses in tweet 3 that 15 and 18. There is a good performance of topic people who ought to know better, rather called management in this online discourse as the for nationalisation and, thus, creates a topic participants keep on interacting on the main shift from “disagreement to looting and topic of discussion despite the attempt to create violence” in tweet 1 to “effects of other topics for talk in the conversation in tweet nationalisation of foreign assets” in tweet 3. 13. The closing of the conversation is a further Tweet 7 is a preferred response to the remark of approval that signals preference. statements of the initiator of the conversation. The participant in tweet 7 also feels that political Findings office holders of South-Africa should know In this data, it is discovered that analysing the better than to side with the violence and, thus, turns of the participants in this conversation equally expresses dissatisfaction as the initiator shows us the different elements embedded in in tweet 3. Tweet 14 is a preferred response to this online discourse thereby describing the show appreciation and acceptance; tweets 12, sequential organisation of utterances in 16 and 18 are preferred responses to tweet 3 as computer-mediated communication. well. The sequence of the turns that follow the Therefore, the location of the exchange does initial comments shows that the discourse is not totally exclude the features of conversation structured. The conversation progresses found in live interactions although some of smoothly without overlaps and there are these features could not exist in the conversation different occurrences of turn-taking of the due to the online nature of the discourse. replies that follow the thread given by the initiator at different transition relevant places Conclusion that appear in the conversation. Tweet 8 is a Computer-mediated communication has post-completion of the first turn initiated by the embedded elements of sequential organisation first user in tweet 1 by adding names of other that creates the flow in an online discourse. The celebrities that should go with the list that the selected twitter threads and their replies initiator provided. However, tweet 9 is a concerning the South-African Xenophobic dispreferred response to the comments in tweet attacks on Nigerians that were used in this paper 8. Tweet 9 therefore indicates disagreement and have revealed the combination of multiple rejection of the opinion offered in the previous features of conversational analysis that are turn. A subsequent reply in tweet 10 to the r e f l e c t e d i n c o m p u t e r - m e d i a t e d

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communication. These features are similar to Discourse analysis for language teachers. the ones found in live interactions though there Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. are some which do not occur due to the Mogekwu, M. (2005). African Union: Xenophobia influence of technology on this medium of as poor intercultural information. Ecquid Novi, discourse. 26(1), 5-20. Olateju, M.A. (2004). Discourse analysis: Analysing discourse in the ESL classroom. Ile-Ife: Obafemi References Awolowo University Press. Boyd, D., & Ellison, N. (2007). Social Network Sites: Olateju, M.A., Oyebode, O., & Ademilokun, M. Definition, history, and scholarship. Journal of (2014). Doing multimodal discourse analysis: A Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(1), article practical approach to multimodal analysis. College 11. Press and Publishers Limited. Conole, G., & Oliver, M. (Eds.). (2007). Contemporary Ramirez, A., & Zhang, S. (2007). When online meets perspectives in e-learning research: Themes, methods offline: The effect of modality switching on and impact on practice. Abingdon: Routledge. relational communication. Communication Ham, V., & Davey, R. (2005). Our first time: two Monograghs, 74, 287-310. higher education tutors reflect on becoming a Sweeney, T. (2012). The ACCE 2012 study tour: “virtual teacher”. Innovations in education and Reflections and reoccurring themes. Australian teaching international, 42(3), 257-62. Educational Computing, 7(1), 7–11. Herring, S. (2001). Computer-Meditated Discourse. Schegloff, E. A. (2007). Sequence organization in In D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen, & H. Hamilton interaction: A primer in conversation analysis. (Eds.), The handbook of discourse analysis (pp. 612- Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University 634). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Press. Herring, S. (2004). Computer-Mediated Discourse Shisana, H. (2008). We need to address Xenophobia Analysis: An approach to researching online [ebook]. http/www.xenophobia.com/south communities. In S. Barab, R. Kling, & J. Gray africa/php (Eds.), Designing for Virtual Communities in the Taylor, P., & Keeters, S. (2010). Students: A portrait of Service of Learning (pp. 338-376). Cambridge: a generation. Washington, DC: Pew Research CUP. Centre. Hutchby, I., & Woofitt, R. (2008). Conversation Trappes-Lomax, H. (2006). Language in language analysis. 2nd Edition. Cambridge: Polity. teacher education: A discourse perspective. In Liddicoat, A. (2007). An introduction to conversation H. Trappes-Lomax, & G. Ferguson (Eds.), analysis (2nd Ed.). London: Continuum. Language in language teacher education (pp. 1-21). McCarthy, M., Matthiessen, C., & Slade, D. (2002). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Communication Technologies and its Impact on Language Learning

KING NAANKANG DAPOET & BLESSING ARSUN DAPOET Department of English Language, Plateau State University, Bokkos. [email protected] Department of Mass Communication, University of Jos. [email protected]

Abstract This contribution aims to highlight the roles of modern communication technology on language learning particularly among students in Nigeria. It discusses different approaches and techniques that can assist learners to improve their learning skills with the help of technology, particularly electronically. Among these techniques are online language learning websites, programmes, electronic dictionaries, video clips, etc. A case study was conducted to appreciate the responses of typical students for using technology in the learning process. in this practical study.This attempt diagnoses problems and limitations of current conventional communication trends and concludes with some suggestions and recommendations.

Introduction technologies has become huge in the teaching Life presently is highly affected by the era of and learning of the language in addition to the information technology, which plays an instructor's role, which can lead to advanced important role in human societal development. learning results. Based on this fact, it becomes imperative to take Communication technologies and the advantage of the modern technological facilities English language are related to each other to aid the task of communication and English (Singhal, 1997). During the seventies and language education. Students trying to learn eighties, of the last century, English language English as a second language need further laboratories were used in various educational support; they need to practice in hearing, institutions. The traditional language laboratory reading, writing and speaking in order to consisted of a number of small cabinets, develop their experiences (Ybarra & Green, provided with a cassette deck, a microphone 2003). In carrying out these tasks, they are in and a head phone for each learner. The teacher need of using various tools which can help them uses a central control panel to monitor their learn the language easily and effectively. The student's interactions. The main advantage of term new technologies include communication that type of technology was that verbal behavior techniques for language teaching in which the of students would help them quickly learn the computer plays a central role (Davies & Hewer, language. Although the language laboratory 2012). There are, however, other technological was a positive step in linking technology and tools that can be utilised in one of the four language education, this technique was actually language parts i.e. listening, speaking, writing tedious and boring for learners (Singhal, 1997). and reading. However, in order to use these Also, there was a minimal interaction between techniques successfully, the student should be the teacher and his students. familiar with the use of computers and the Computer-assisted learning software has Internet, and be capable of interacting with provided another teaching tool for language these techniques. The effect of such education. Currently there are numerous

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):80 - 83 80 NAANKANG DAPOET & ARSUN DAPOET Communication Technologies and its Impact on Language Learning software application programmes available, Use of CD-Players such as spelling checker, electronic workbooks, The use of CD-Player devices is another pronunciation programs and different learning modern tool for listening comprehension. They packages to assist instruction in creating tutorial are electronic instruments used specifically to exercises to enhance the teaching of English run audio CD-ROMs. Lectures and listening language courses. examinations can be saved on these audio CDs for later use by the student. English language skills This refers to the development of the main parts Use of Tape-Recorders or elements of the language which have been Tape-recorders are one of the oldest technical listed earlier. Each language subject has listening tools, and their use is rapidly different educational tools that are likely suited decreasing nowadays. However, they are still for it. For English, the skills needed are classified utilised in certain cases and are attached with into input skills and output skills exemplified some English language learning textbooks. below: Reading Listening Reading is the process of understanding a Listening is defined as the process of identifying written text by the learner. It is an important and understanding the speech of a speaker. It input skill which depends on the vocabulary and involves understanding the speaker's accent or background knowledge of the learner in the pronunciations, his grammar and vocabulary, second language (Constantinescu, 2007). and comprehension of meaning (Saricoban, During the reading process, the English 1999). The listener should be able to do these language learner can improve his vocabulary four things at the same time, considering that and terms, acquire new information and ideas, listening is a principal language skill. Through and enhance his real world knowledge. listening a learner can acquire a large portion of his education, information and understanding Browsing the Internet of the world. There are several ways of The internet is certainly a modern technological improving the listening capability of the way for persons who hope to develop their student, some of which are summarized below: English language skills. There are many internet websites prepared solely to enhance the reading The use of computers abilities of English language learners. There are The use of computers in listening problems also a huge number of resources available in the provides students with visual and voice inputs form of newspapers, magazines, journals, which can enhance their information and ideas, electronic libraries, dictionaries, encyclopedias and develop their listening skills (Hoven, 1999). (Kenworthy, 2004). Browsing these resources Computer-based listening tests are very and sites will obviously enhance the learner's important in reinforcing the understanding vocabulary and reading ability. skills of the listener. CD-ROM-based learning films can also provide significant advantages Use of Electronic Dictionaries over the traditional methods. Finally, internet Another modern way for improving the voice chatting using the second language may vocabulary of the learner focuses on the also aid the communication capabilities of utilisation of electronic dictionaries designed students. specifically for English language learners. These

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):80 - 83 81 NAANKANG DAPOET & ARSUN DAPOET Communication Technologies and its Impact on Language Learning dictionaries have several built-in functions and English language. tools that are not provided in book dictionaries. They are also easy to use and represent quick ANALYSIS OF RESULTS tools for vocabulary acquisition. The results of the case study showed that most students prefer the use of technology, especially Speaking the computer, in developing their language Human communication can only take place skills. However, the technical capability of the between the speaker and the listener if only they University and the College is poor and there is understand each other. Both speaker and weak tendency for encouraging students to use listener have a positive function to perform in the computer laboratories. Some of the simple terms. The speaker has to convert his drawbacks of using the classical teaching message into spoken language, while the listener methods are. has to understand the language of the speaker. 1. The conventional methods are ultimately based on theory. Writing 2. The conventional methods are unexciting The writing process can be very difficult for and miss the motivation factor. learners of English language as they must do 3. The conventional teaching methods are tasks like generating ideas, organization, and teacher-centered, while modern technical perfect use of grammar and vocabulary. Some methods give students significant role in the of the technical ways for improving the writing learning process. skills are use of computers, writing E-mails, use of text messaging and chatting. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Using technology in communication has CASE STUDY become a real necessity. This paper has reviewed In order to assess how typical English language briefly how technology can be utilised in students can benefit from technology to learn developing, particularly, language skills. English, a questionnaire was given to an Different methods for using technology in arbitrary sample of students of the Plateau State improving the four language skills were University, Bokkos and College of Arts, Science discussed. A case study was carried out to and Technology Kurgwi. estimate the disposition of students towards the 60% of students use some form of utilisation of technology to enhance their technology daily. language and learning skills. The following 98% believe the computer can improve their concluding remarks and recommendation are vocabulary. recorded: 96% believe that using the language lab and 1. As technology has developed, the the e-library increases interaction. incorporation of this medium becomes 33% agree that their institution has a good necessary. source of communication technology for 2. The computer is more of an integral part of learning. the learning activity. 83% also believe the use of computer will 3. Theory and practice can be matched by the improve their writing skills. use of technology. 90% believe using technology can improve 4. Modern technical ways should be followed their speaking skills. for effective teaching and learning. 66% prefer using technology to learn 5. The citizens and students should be

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encouraged to use technology in developing 13(2). education: benefits and challenges. The language skills. Internet 6. Educational institutions should modernize Sharma, P. (2009). Controversies in using technology in their technical instruction capabilities by language teaching. http://www.teaching english. using new equipment and laboratories for org.uk/articles/controversies-using-technology language-teaching http://iteslj.org/Articles/ supporting the teaching process. Constantinescuvocabulary.html Hoven, D. (1999). A model for listening and viewing References comprehension in multimedia environments. Constantnescu, A. I. (2007). Using technology to Language Learning & Technology, 3 (1), 88-103. foreign language via the internet. The internet http:/llt.msu.edu/vol3num1/hoven/index.ht TESL Journal, 10(10). http://iteslj.org/ ml Techniques/Kenworth-Writting Skills. html. Kenworthy R. C. (2004). Developing writing skills in Saricoban. A. (1999). The teaching of listening. The a TESL Journal, 3(6). http://iteslj.org/Articles/ internet TESL Journal, 5(12). http://iteslj.org/ Singhal-internet.html Articles/Saricoban-Listening.html assist in Ybarra, R., & Green T. (2003). Using technology to vocabulary acquisition and reading Singhal,M. help ESL/EFL students develop language skills. (1997). The internet and foreign language The internet TESL Journal, 9(3). http:// comprehension. The Internet TESL Journal, iteslj.org/Articles/Ybarra-Technology.html

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Career, Marriage and Family Life: Engaging the Theme of Culture Change in “Best of both World”

LAYEFA, GOODLUCK, & EZENAGU, NGOZI Department of Media and Communication Studies Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, [email protected], Department of Tourism and Events Management Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, [email protected]

Abstract Every society experiences culture change. Film as a mass medium of communication has often been employed to promote and preserve cultural heritage.. However, the narrative of “Best of Both World”appears counter- productive.The study examined cultural change in career, marriage and family life and the practicability in the Nigerian society. It employed ethnography as a research design and focus group discussion as data collection instrument. It was anchored on modernization theory. Most participants disaffirmed the reality of overlooking wife's infidelity in Nigeria. Very few contended that some men in Nigerian society for fear of God may overlook such. A few Participants held that in the matter of choice between career and family, the family is paramount while few affirmed that both are paramount. Participants held that the film, in general, mirrored the Nigerian society while few others did not. It recommended among others that film producers should avoid presenting a complete break from cultural practices that are not evil in themselves.

Keyword: Cultural change, career, marriage, family, film

Introduction structure are not without their attendant The family as an institution has witnessed consequences. While some of the consequences visible changes in contemporary societies. of these cultural changes are relatively These changes are not unrelated with the impact benefiting, some are no doubt not only tension of modernization and globalization on creating but also perhaps destructive of the traditional cultural values of nation states. In family system, especially the marriage union. African societies, and in particular, the Nigerian Ekane (2013) states that socioeconomic society, cultural changes are noticeable in many circumstances in the sub-continent are facets of individual lives and community as a encountering alterations that have to a whole. One facet of the African family life that considerable extent triggered changes in the has been impacted upon is occupational pursuit fundamental cultural values most especially in of the major players of the home, the father and the domain of the family. Perhaps, the the mother. Georgas (2003)notes that in a consciousness of these cultural changes (for changing world in which small societies have culture is dynamic) may probably have been exposed to television and CD's, computers, i n f o r m e d t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n s a n d economic changes, technology, tourism, the representations through film as mass medium structure and function of the family has been of communication. changing, just as these societies have also been Layefa and Ezenagu (2019) write that the changing. film medium of communication has been a The cultural changes as observed in African helpful means of reaching large mass of people. societies in relation to the family life and It has often been employed as a medium for the

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):84 - 94 84 LAYEFA, et al Career, Marriage and Family Life: Engaging the Theme of Culture Change in “Best of both World” promotion and preservation of cultural Mike who at that moment has got married to heritage. Through the dramatization of the someone else. The film starred: Robert Scott, cultural lives of people, especially in a family Bolaji Ogunmola, Dan Ugoji, and Stella setting, certain cherished virtues are rewarded Charles. and promoted while vices are punished and deemphasized. However, a situation where Statement of the Problem established cherished value of keeping marital Societies have been impacted by the forces of vows is seemingly deemphasized and, or colonialism, modernity and globalization. The tolerated may probably not augur well for resultant consequences are quite noticeable in societal peace, order and stability. The film titled cultural changes. While some of these cultural Best of Both World appears to trivialize the changes are beneficial, some are altogether sacredness of the matrimonial bed and play relatively destructive to established cherished down established value of the sanctity of values. Film as a mass medium of marriage union. communication has often been employed to promote and preserve cultural heritage. Studies Synopsis of the Film Best of Both World have been carried out on culture change in The film titled Best of Both World featured a relation to career, marriage and family life. For couple and a would-be couple. The former instance, Georgas (2003) did a study on family: Williams and Tope were married with two kids. variations and changes across cultures. Everything was alright when Tope was a full Similarly, Pat and Ozioma (2015) worked on time house wife. The problem started when she socio-cultural issues facing contemporary decided to start working. The husband began families in Nigeria: An appraisal of women complaining and the wife eventually yielded to holding administrative positions. Owens Ibie the pressure of the husband to resign from work and Ifedalapo (2017) also did a study on to take care of the home. Unfortunately, the Nigerian Ethnic peculiarities in “Phone Swap”. husband because of work pressure was unable to Most of these studies have been exploratory in meet the wife's sexual need. The wife got a form and content. Although the last study gigolo to satisfy her sexual need. Meanwhile, examined Nigerian Ethnic peculiarities in the expected promotion in the place of work did relation to the film titled “Phone Swap”, its not work out. The husband decided to quit the concern was on ethnic groups (especially the job to start his own business. At this junction, Yoruba and the Igbo) and their portrayal. No Tope saw through the hypocrisy of her husband, present studies appear to have been carried out and having also been ridden with the guilt of on career, marriage and family life in relation to unfaithfulness decided to divorce the husband. a movie. The present study attempts to engage In a twist of the moment, the husband made her this theme of culture change on career, marriage realize that he was aware of her sexual escapade, and family life in relation to a movie with a view but that he not bothered about it. They to ascertaining its verisimilitude, acceptability eventually reconciled with the family being ever and adaptability in the Nigerian society. happy afterward. In the other scene with the Consequently, the following research questions second would-be couple, Mike and Jessica were guided the study: in a relationship. Mike twice proposed to Jessica The following research questions guided the but she turned it down with the excuse that she study: was at the peak of her choice career. Jessica i. What is the content reality of the film – Best eventually realized her folly and came seeking of Both World– to the Nigerian society?

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):84 - 94 85 LAYEFA, et al Career, Marriage and Family Life: Engaging the Theme of Culture Change in “Best of both World” ii. What is the probable reaction of husbands than two people can be involved (consider towards wife's infidelity as showcased in the polygamy). Other variations on the definition of film - Best of Both World? marriage might include whether spouses are of iii. What should a career wife do if her husband opposite sexes or the same sex, and how one of insists that she should either choose between the traditional expectations of marriage (to her career or family as featured in the film - produce children) is understood today. William Best of Both World? and Ron's submission perhaps is an obvious iv. Should a career lady stay away from admittance of the changes in society in relation marriage and family life? to the concept of marriage in contemporary times. The aspect of legality and acceptance in Literature Review the society may suggest an actual inclusiveness Career can simply be regarded as a vocational of marriage as a construct. Peter (1995) observes pursuit that one engages in for livelihood or as a that Marriage in these years was the rite of past-time. Career options in all fields of human passage which signified independence from the endeavours are open to all and sundry. parent generation. Thus young people saw early Individuals often build up themselves in their marriage as their path to autonomy from chosen career. Hornby (2010) defines career as parents. At the same time, it met their needs for the series of job that a person has in a particular sexual intimacy in the only way that was then area of work, usually involving more socially acceptable. responsibility as time passes. The concept of Murdock (1949) cited in Haralambos and career when in the domain of the family is Holborn (2008, p.460)) define the family as a perhaps more concerned with womenfolk. group characterized by common residence, Hence, there is the career woman, a woman who economic cooperation and reproduction. It is given or married to her work/job and is not includes adults of both sexes, at least two of concerned about marriage and rearing up whom maintain a socially approved sexual children. Some women folk in our relationship, and one or more children, own or contemporary society see marriage and family adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults. The life as a burden and would prefer a life solely structure of the family varies from society to given to their work/job and other pleasures, thus society. The smallest family unit is known as the free from the responsibility usually assigned to nuclear family and consists of the husband and marriage and family life. wife and their immature offspring. Units larger Marriage is perhaps the legal foundation for than the nuclear family are usually known as the family. Although, there may be families in extended family (Haralambos & Holborn, society that never had any form of society 2008). legitimacy or acceptance, they nevertheless had Perspectives varied on the family. There is features of the family. William and Ron (n. d.) the Functionalist, Marxist, Feminist, Marxist define marriage as a legally recognized social feminist and Radical feminist perspectives. contract between two people, traditionally based Functionalist perspective sees the family as on a sexual relationship and implying a performing four basic functions in all societies, permanence of the union. They note that in which he termed the sexual, reproductive, creating an inclusive definition, variations economic and educational. They are essential should be considered, such as whether a legal for social life since without the sexual union is required (think of “common- law” reproduction functions there would be no marriage and its equivalents), or whether more members of society, without the economic

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):84 - 94 86 LAYEFA, et al Career, Marriage and Family Life: Engaging the Theme of Culture Change in “Best of both World” function (for example the provision and Colonialism implies imposition of foreign preparation of food) life would cease, and reign over a sovereign nation. Usually when without education (a term he uses for foreign power overpowers a sovereign nation by socialization) there would be no culture. force of arm and stratagem, the imperial powers Marxist perspective on the family took an bear their culture on the overpowered nation. evolutionary view of the family, attempting to Such overpowered nation becomes a victim of trace its origin and evolution through time. He two cultures. In the main, while some changes combined an evolutionary approach with may occur, some culture may still remain, and, Marxist theory, arguing that, as the mode of or adapted to fit into prevailing times. Adewale production changed, so did the family. Feminist noted that, in the Nigerian society, there have perspective emphasizes the harmful effects of been significant changes in all aspects of our family life on women. culture, from the West or the East – if there had Marxist Feminist perspective on the family been no contact whatever, some aspects of our does not attribute women's exploitation entirely environment would have changed anyway to men. They see capitalism rather than because they required new cultural adaptations. patriarchy as being the principal source of Perhaps these cultural adaptations may have women's oppression, and capitalists as the main been influenced by modernization and beneficiaries. Radical Feminist perspective on globalization. the family sees the oppression of women as the most fundamental and universal form of Film as a cultural Product domination. The society is seen as patriarchal, Film as a concept is a coated strip for taking or male-dominated, rather than capitalism and pictures: a thin translucent strip or sheet of women are held to have different interests from cellulose coated with a light-sensitive emulsion, those of men. Arguably, these perspectives are used in a camera to take still or moving pictures. not unrelated to the cultural changes informed It can also be seen as motion pictures by colonialisation, modernization and collectively, considered as a medium for globalization. recording events, a form of entertainment, or an Culture is seen as a way of life of a people in art form (Microsoft® Encarta® 2009). Film as a a given society. Adewale (1995) sees culture as medium of communication fulfills the role of the distinctive way of life of a group of people, information, education, entertainment and the their complete design for living. Varied promotion and preservation of cultural definitions have maintained same unique heritage. Film depicts cultural heritage and also features of culture as all that enable man to furthers cultural identity in the area of: function maximally in a given society. propaganda, relaying and reinforcing Experiences of people change across time and information meant to promote a certain reality settings. Hence, in the course of interactions (Arulogu, 1979; Owens-Ibie, 1998; Owen-Ibie, with others, there has always been alteration, & Ifedolapo, 2017). The film medium presents a modification and even total abandonment of a wide spectrum of ideas to appeal and please the particular way of life. In Africa, some particular eye and other senses - a feature which makes it way of life have been abandoned and replaced effective for fostering cultural unity in by seeming better ways of living. This perhaps is multicultural societies (Owen-Ibie, &Ifedolapo, the dynamism of culture change. Suffice to say 2017). that colonialism has perhaps been so impacting Perhaps the richness of film as a mass on African societies. medium that can indeed be the quintessence of

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):84 - 94 87 LAYEFA, et al Career, Marriage and Family Life: Engaging the Theme of Culture Change in “Best of both World” cultural promotion and preservation of our and quantitative approaches. It found out that identity as a people with distinct cultural the cultural depictions or representation was uniqueness, though alive to cultural diffusion skewed in favour of one tribe over the other. and innovations. As a people, Africans have no Although, the last study examined Nigerian doubt had their cultural uniqueness diffused; Ethnic peculiarities in relation to the film titled nevertheless, the distinctiveness is still visible. “Phone Swap”, its concern was on ethnic There are studies carried out to explore groups (especially the Yoruba and the Igbo) and how societies, especially Africa, have been their portrayal. No study at present appears to impacted by the forces of colonialism, have been carried out on career, marriage and modernization and globalization. Some of family life in relation to a movie. With the ever these studies carried out are on culture changes dynamism of culture and the film as a medium in relation to career, marriage and family life. for the preservation of culture there is the need Sam M., and Ibekwe, P. (2017) worked on to conduct a study that will address the 'Contemporary Family Choice: Areas of verisimilitude and acceptability of the images Nigerian Families' Change Lag.' The study and impressions showcased in the film, and as found out that Nigerian families of today have viewed in society. made drastic changes perhaps in the direction of family improvement but are still trailing Theoretical Framework behind an array of changes in the families in the The study is anchored on modernization theory. developed world. It employed exploratory The theory is a holistic theory of general social approach. The study by Georgas, (2003)on evolution. It studies the process of social family: variations and changes across cultures, evolution and the development of societies. addressed changes on families brought about Modernization as a process of three distinct by ecological features, means of subsistence, phases was remarkable in that it was rooted political and legal system, education and primarily in micro-social processes yet religion; changes in family in different cultures; attempted to explain societal evolution as a the influence of modernization and single macro-social process that transformed globalization. It adopted exploratory traditional societies into modern ones. It began approach. Pat and Ozioma (2015) also worked with urbanization that led to a growing need for on socio-cultural issues facing contemporary education and technology, which in turn families in Nigeria: An appraisal of women created the demand for mass communication holding administrative positions. They found and a more efficacious media sector (Lerner, out that women holding administrative 1 9 5 8 ) . G e o r g a s ( 2 0 0 3 ) s t a t e s t h a t positions are faced with so many socio cultural modernization, a theory developed by issues and challenges and recommended that sociology and political science, hypothesizes there should be policy on the improving of the that increasing economic level and social well-being of families especially women industrialization in a society results in the on executive positions who are bread winners. rejection of traditional values and culture, and The study employed the survey research inevitable convergence toward a system of design. " m o d e r n " v a l u e s a n d i n c r e a s i n g The study by Owens-Ibie and Ifedalapo individualization. The relevance of the theory (2017, p.422) was on Nigerian Ethnic to the study is to be seen as providing support to peculiarities in “Phone Swap”. It adopted the the cultural change as showcased in the film. content analysis research design – qualitative Traditional Nigerian society cannot be said to

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):84 - 94 88 LAYEFA, et al Career, Marriage and Family Life: Engaging the Theme of Culture Change in “Best of both World” be same as at present. Cultural changes no doubt women these days seem to be more have occurred in the family setting. career oriented and aren't interested in catering to domestic snacks. Methodology On the other hand, it doesn't mirror The study adopted ethnography research the Nigerian society. Like the instance designs. This research designs were employed when the husband caught his wife because they provided platform for cheating on him with a gigolo and understanding people, their knowledge, beliefs, instead of confronting her, he chose to attitude and opinions and related events. The talk it out with the man and then, instrumentation was guided discussion and the forgive his wife. Men don't usually do data collection instrument was focus group this. discussion session (FGDs). The film, Best of The film mirrors society in the sense Both World was given to a group of twelve 400 that there are some working class lady level undergraduate students, to view for a that do not take marriage seriously in period of a week and a day was fixed for the the society. They believe that marriage discussion. The discussion session spanned 30 is not a priority and they take their work minutes. The researcher was the facilitator. to be the first priority, while the film does not mirror the society in the sense Analysis of responses from participants that no husband will forgive his wife for Four research questions guided the study: (i) Do cheating. the scenes of the film – Best of Both World– reflect Yes and No the Nigerian society? (ii) How will Nigerian Yes because some men actually tell their husbands probably react towards wife's wives to stop working to take care of the infidelity as showcased in the film - Best of Both family; also stories of women not World? (iii)What should a career wife do if her getting married till they have reached a husband insists that she either chooses her particular level in their career is rare but career or family as featured in the film - Best of not unheard of. Both World? (iv). Should a career lady stay away No, because most African men from marriage and family life? would not forgive their wives for Responses of participants on the first cheating and how many men would research question slightly varied. Some of the propose more than once not to talk of participants affirmed that the film Best of Both twice. World does mirror society on the one hand and does not on the other hand. They admitted that On the second research question, participants' some of the scenes to some extent reflect the responses were unanimous. Participants Nigerian society while some scenes do not. strongly affirmed that the reaction of Nigerian Others contended that the film mirrors the husbands toward wife's infidelity will be Nigerian society. Only a participant held that the acrimonious. This was contrary to what was film does not mirror society. Observe some of showcased in the film. Observe some of the the mixed responses: responses:

The film mirrors the current Nigerian It is almost impossible for a Nigerian society in some instances. Because of man to overlook his wife caught in the influence of the Western world, adultery, even though it happens in very

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rare cases. A typical Nigerian will leave explain to her husband and be able to his wife after he has caught her in the act talk to him if the work is really of adultery. important for her to do, and if he insists Nigerian men will not because then she should choose her children adultery is seen as a big abomination in because children are everything and Nigeria. the husband will provide for the family. He will send her packing. Her family. Most men would send her packing. She should choose the family for He will send her packing out of the sure, because if she gets sacked house and maybe later they can tomorrow. Family would be the only reconcile but for the meantime she'll source to console her and get her back to leave. her feet with loads of encouragement No, I don't think any Nigerian husband in today's society will Observably, some of the participants held they overlook his wife's infidelity. A typical will choose both career and the family. Observe Nigerian man would beat up whoever some of the responses on this wise: the wife is and send the woman parking immediately. She should choose both. She can create No, it can never happen. In this a balance between the two of them and Nigeria, the man will send her packing do both. first of all and also bad mouth and also Both. I believe the woman should call family meeting for her. choose both her family and career just A regular Nigerian man would without her husband as part of the definitely send her packing out family if he doesn't come around. immediately. No, she should not, what she can do Unlike how the issue was is to see a balance between both. The addressed in the film, husbands will not wife and the husband can sit down and usually just overlook an adulterous discuss a better way to approach the wife. A Nigerian husband, no matter issue rather than telling her to choose. how forgiving, will not just overlook his No, she shouldn't, reason being that she wife cheating on him without at least, a can have a successful job and also have a bit of retribution served. successful marriage.

Participants' responses to the third research On the fourth research question, participants' questions were slightly varied. Some of the responses were slightly varied. Most participants affirmed that they will choose the participants strongly affirmed that a career lady family if the husband insists on the choice of needed not stay away from marriage and family career or the family while others held that they life. Only a participant held that the wife may would choose both. Observe some responses stay away if she feels she may not be able to that favour the choice of the family: cope. Observe some of the responses in support of blending career with marriage and family life: She has to choose her family definitely, later she can work out the career part. No, a career lady shouldn't stay away First I think the wife should try to from marriage. While watching the

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movie I could identify because I once become a problem between the thought marriage was a liability where husband and the wife and why start you just give and sacrifice everything something you can't maintain. But if for everyone else forgetting who you are she can balance the two she should and what you want for yourself. But marry. with time and maturity I began to understand that it's who you marry that Discussion matters. Someone that lifts you up not Discourse on film as a medium of mass subdues you. I then realized that yes a communication has placed premium on the woman can have it all with the right capacity of film to create an unreal world while partner. at the same time presenting and representing Career is not enough reason for one peoples' attitude, perception, culture, traditions to stay away from marriage. Marriage across time and settings. In the film Best of the is NOT a distraction. Both World, the participants identified with the She should not. After having so scenes as representing cultural norms in the much money there will be nobody to Nigeria society. They did not, however, identify spend it on. Career and marriage work with some other scenes because they obviously together and none should pause for the did not see a similitude of their representation other. of the Nigerian society. Arguably, this mixed No, she shouldn't, reason being observation of the participants could be that she can have a successful job and regarded as cultural sensitivity. The participants also have a successful marriage. appear to be very alert to cultural intrusion that No, because she can handle both may distort reality. This line of thought is in though it might be difficult for some consonance with the perspective of Owen-Ibie ladies but you don't have to focus on (2013): your career in life; you should think about marriage too and it will later end When a film feeds stereotypes or well if you are patient with it. distorts cultural reality, it becomes a No she shouldn't. Because career part of the progressive built up to the and family are never the same. As ultimate erosion or supplanting cultural stated earlier, family is everything. values internally, which weakens They are with you during the rainy and cultures already compromised by sunny days, so it's only a foolish lady globalisation's overarching onslaught that would choose her career over (cited in Owens-Ibie & Ifedolapo, 2017, family. p.439).

One of the participants held that if a career lady It is instructive to note that the fact that some of feels she cannot cope with the demands of the scenes do not mirror the Nigerian society marriage and family life she should not could perhaps be taken as element of culture contemplate marrying. Observe her line of change. Culture it is said is dynamic and not thought: static. The earlier, this is understood, the less pain will result in the case of eventuality. She shouldn't if she can't balance it or Besides, the constant changes experienced cope. Because sooner or later it would globally may consciously compel one to be

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):84 - 94 91 LAYEFA, et al Career, Marriage and Family Life: Engaging the Theme of Culture Change in “Best of both World” cautious about customs that may not necessary p.14) states that modernization, a theory engender progress, forgiveness and fellowship. developed by sociology and political science, That participants saw some of the scenes not hypothesizes that increasing economic level and mirroring the Nigerian society in a way supports industrialization in a society results in the Sam and Ibekwe's findings that despite drastic rejection of traditional values and culture, and changes perhaps in the direction of family inevitable convergence toward a system of " improvement by Nigerian families, they are still m o d e r n " v a l u e s a n d i n c r e a s i n g trailing behind an array of changes. The case of individualization. In line with cultural practice infidelity on the part of the wife and the in the Nigerian society, the husband is expected, husband's forgiveness appears an anathema to in agreement with his family, to send the wife participants. Participants strongly affirmed that caught in adultery packing. Doing otherwise the reaction of Nigerian husband toward wife's cannot be separated from the influence of infidelity would be acrimonious; contrary to modern values and increasing individualism what was showcased in the film. Most societies which is very pronounced with the Western do not condone extra marital affairs. However, it world. Interestingly, such modern values like does seem that African societies, and in forgiveness do engender peace and togetherness particular, the Nigerian society strongly which is of great gain especially when children condemned infidelity, especially when found are still in their formative years. Thus, the with wives. The position may probably be culture of forgiveness even in cases of adultery informed by the religious beliefs of an average is perhaps welcome if only for peace and Nigerian. The Christian and Islamic faiths that stability of the family. Since the Christian Bible are dominant in Nigeria strongly condemned and Moslem Koran preach forgiveness, it is not adultery; so is the traditional religion that some unlikely that such act of infidelity, even with few still practice. However, it is worthy of note wives would be tolerated. One of the that same condemnation is not on the husband. participants does seem to echo this line of Admittedly, such a posture is gender thought: A typical Nigerian will leave his wife discriminatory. Perhaps, this discriminatory after he has caught her in the act of adultery. posture should be an area of concern that Except if he chooses to forgive her out of the feminists should engage. In a sense, participants' fear of God; … (emphasis added). responses support radical feminists' perspective Arguably, the Nigerian society is very on the family. Radical feminists see the family as religious; cases of infidelity, though painful, are a major system for the oppression of never a one-off quit. Family meetings are called womenfolk. The society is seen as patriarchal, to resolve the issue. However, repeated act of or male-dominated (Haralambos & Holborn, infidelity on the part of the wife may eventually 2008). end the marriage union regardless of any However, the action of forgiveness by the consideration(s). husband for the wife's infidelity, on the one The responses of participants on the matter hand, does not support radical feminists' of choice between the family and career/work perspective that the family is the system for the seemingly present a front for the relevance of the oppression of womenfolk. They see society as family in societies on the one hand, and need for patriarchal, or male-dominated (Haralambos & relative blend of career/work especially with the Holborn, 2008). On the other hand, this act of womenfolk in contemporary times on the other forgiveness is in consonance with the hand. The responses foreground the centrality perspective on modernization. Georgas (2003, of the family, and the place of the husband as

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):84 - 94 92 LAYEFA, et al Career, Marriage and Family Life: Engaging the Theme of Culture Change in “Best of both World” core and the wife's supportive role for the family life and job challenges. These responses altogether peace and stability of the home, and go a long way (in the sense of coming from by extension the society. The affirmation of the young females and males of marriageable age) choice of both – family and career/work – by to showcase that the Nigerian society still holds some of the participants could be taken as an the marriage institution in high esteem. It is attestation to the economic realities and the instructive to note the response of a participant: need for women actualization of their potential I then realized that yes a woman can have it all as members of the society, not just with duties with the right partner, an understanding man towards the family alone but also to the society. (emphasis added). The woman can indeed fare The husband's insistence on the wife better with an understanding man who not only making a choice between her family and career/ provides food, shelter and clothing but cherishes work, perhaps, draws upon the traditional and nourishes the wife as a partner and help assigned role of the man as the breadwinner and mate in the family institution. the woman a help mate in domestic chores. The wife's response that she is choosing both (family Conclusion and Recommendations and career) which is illustrative of present Societies have undergone cultural changes economic realities is in consonance with extant across time and place. Career, marriage and the literature. Dibia (2014, p.204) notes that: family have been affected by the changes with attendant consequences. As a cultural product, … during earlier times, the husband/ the film medium has been employed to present father is considered as the breadwinner and represent these cultural changes. In the and sole authority in the home but now narrative of film – Best of Both World – cultural due to economic challenges and changes were strongly showcased. While some equality of gender in a sense, both participants disaffirmed the reality of father-husband and wife-mother have overlooking wife's infidelity in the Nigerian to work to provide for the family which society, others contended that some men in implies also that major and basic Nigerian society for fear of God may overlook financial/economic planning in and of such. A few participants held that in the matter the family has to be jointly discussed, of choice between the career and family, the deliberated and agreed upon before the family is paramount while few affirmed that execution of such projects. both are paramount. Most of the participants held that the film, in general, mirrored the Contemporary Nigeria society has witnessed an Nigerian society while few others did not. avalanche of females pursuing careers and Based on the responses of participants the excelling in them. This has, however, caused a following recommendations are given: shift in family structure as both partners now i. Film producers should avoid presenting a engage in secular work, which has its attendant complete break from cultural practices. It is consequences; weakening the foundation of the a practice in the Nigerian society that a case family. This supports modernization theory. of infidelity is not handled by individual Interestingly, there are career women who seem couple alone, families of both are involved. married to their secular jobs, and do not really If only the situational practice is featured care about marriage and family life. The and the husband forgives for peace to reign responses of participants seem to echo the as against family wish, the whole scenario necessity of keeping the family system despite will still be successful.

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ii. As a corollary to the above, film producers 0919.1061. should endeavour to tie story line to reflect Haralambos, M., & Holborn, M. (2008). Sociology: seeming realities across settings. Perhaps, it Themes and perspectives (7th ed.). Harper Collins: may be rather difficult to find a husband Hammersmith. whose wife cheated on to be on talking Hornby, A.S. (2010). Oxford advanced learner's dictionary of current English (8th ed.). New York: terms with the man his wife cheated him Oxford University Press. with, not to talk of asking counsel from him. Owens-Ibie, &Ifedalapo. (2017). Side by side: iii. Film producers should endeavour to Engaging Nigerian ethnic pecularities in “Phone interplay scenes to capture intended Swap”. In Umaru P., & Lai, O. (Eds). message. Multiculturalism, diversity and reporting conflict in Nigeria (p. 422). Ibadan: Evans Brothers. The scenes do not seem to capture the title in the Pat, E. M., & Ozioma, A. (2015).Socio- cultural sense of actual interplay of the work/career and issues facing contemporary families in Nigeria: family life scenario but a mere acclamation. An appraisal of women holding administrative positions. Merit Research Journal of Education and Review, 3(1),1-5 http://www.merit research References journals.org/er/index.htm. Adewale, O. (2006). An introduction to social Peter, M. (1995).Australian families: Values and anthropology (2nd ed.). Ibadan: Agbo Areo. behavior. In Robyn, & Unwin (eds.), Families and Dibia, E. (2014). The changing nature of the family cultural diversity in Australia (p. 33). and its duty as foundation for morals and Sam, M., & Ibekwe, P. (2017).Contemporary family sustenance of core societal value. Journal of choice: Areas of Nigerian families' change lag. Sociology and Social Work, 2(1), 204. European Journal of Research and Reflection in Ekane (2013). Introduction to traditional African Educational Sciences, 5(1), 70. family patterns. https//www.divaportal.org/ William, L., & Ron, M. (n. d.). Marriage and family. smash. Introduction to Sociology. https://opentextbc. Georgas, J. (2003). Family: variations and changes ca/introductiontosociology/chapter/chapter14 across cultures. Online Readings in Psychology and -marriage-and-family/ Culture, 6(3), 2. https://doi.org/10.9707/ 2307-

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Beyond The Lyrics: Perception of Lipton Tea Television Advertisement among English Premier League Fans in Nsugbe, Anambra State

NNAEMEKA, OBIDIKE FRANCIS, Ph.D., & CHIKE, PATIENCE CHINWEOKWU Department of Mass Communication Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University Igbariam Campus [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract This study investigated the use of lyrics in Lipton Tea TV advertisement with English Premier League fans in Nsugbe as respondents. The main objective of the study was to assess audience perception of the use of lyrics in advertising. Among other objectives of the study was to ascertain whether the use of lyrics in the Lipton Tea TV advert stimulates respondents' interest in the product. Related literature was reviewed in the study with the Attitude Change Theory used as the theoretical framework of analysis. The study employed the survey research method in examining 399 samples selected from the population of English Premier League fans in Nsugbe using the Taro Yamani's sample size determination formula. The purposive sampling technique was adopted. The questionnaire was used as data gathering instrument. Data collected through the questionnaire were expressed in statistical tables using frequency and percentages. Findings from the study reveal among others that the respondents had a high frequency of exposure to the Lipton Tea TV advert and that the use of lyrics in the advert stimulated interest in the product. The study concluded that the use of lyrics in advertisement is a communication strategy capable of appealing to audience emotions and captivating their attention towards the advertised product or service. The study recommends among others that advertisers and advertising agencies should be tactical in crafting persuasive messages and in the choice of lyrics in adverts.

Keywords: Lyrics, Television Advertisement, Premier League, Lipton Tea

Introduction people's interest in products. With this in mind, The trend of using advertisement to appeal to television advertising today has tremendous people's taste through the instrumentality of the influence on consumer purchase and attraction media has no doubt been an age long practice all to service as a marketing tool (Nwabueze, 2006). over the world. Today, however advertisers have Television commercials have become a gone a step further and are currently engaging in phenomenon that can alter life style by setting tactical crafting and packaging of persuasive the norms for social expectations. Values are messages cum activities that will engrave lasting often subconsciously based on what is seen on images in the minds of the audience, television. Thus, advertising as a planned heightening their taste and inducing them to communication is both an act and art of action (Ezebuenyi & Ejezieh, 2012). The communication. Individuals, organizations and persuasive nature of television advertisement governments endeavor to communicate the has continuously been a topic of expert interest. existence and availability of their goods, Along with these curiosities came the sustained products, service, etc. as the case maybe to the criticism against advertising and advertising audience (Asemah, 2011). industry. Over the years, television as a medium Generally, advertising is crucial to the of showcasing commercials can heighten modern day business ranging from the hawkers

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):95 - 105 95 NNAEMEKA, O. F. & CHIKE, P. C. Beyond The Lyrics: Perception of Lipton Tea Television Advertisement among English Premier League ... of tomatoes, to the multi-national companies the new line of canned soups; for example, an that engage in the production of goods and attractive man surrounded by beautiful models services. Advertising is a veritable tool with can suggest the sex appeal of a new cologne as which to have and keep buyers. To succeed in well (www. wisegeek.com/what-is-tde). this ultimate goal of keeping customers' loyalty In Nigeria, one good way to capture a lot of to their goods and services, the advertisers people watching at a particular time is to run an employ a lot of mouth-watering, attractive and advert during the 9 pm network news on all entertaining displays, messages and promises national and local stations that deliver the (Edegoh, Ezebuenyi, & Asemah, 2013). message to everyone watching the news at that With billions of faithful viewers scattered time. Another prime time advert is during a across every continent, the medium of sports fiesta such as World Cup, Olympic television is considered by many marketing Games, English Premier League (EPL), experts to be the ultimate platform for targeted European Champions League, among others. advertising. A single 30 or 60 seconds television Presently, many people seem to prefer commercial broadcast during an event such as television adverts with music in them. Music has world cups or Olympic Games can easily reach apparently become the new darling of the the eyes and ears of billions of potential advertising industry. Not only have advertisers c u s t o m e r s ( w w w. e n t r e p r e n e u r. c o m / cottoned on the fact that the art form is having a encvclopediait). global moment, but they are discovering that Television advertising may be more lyrics, that is soft tunes, have their own expertise expensive to produce and broadcast than other at combing the subliminal emotional message forms of advertising but it also has the power to with the instantly striking image (www.the connect with the broadcast audience guardian.com>culture>stage> dance blog with simultaneously (MobilewiseGEEK.Com, Judith Mackrell; Baileys Christmas Nutcracker, tvadvertising.Com2011). Television advertising 2013). Music is used in advertising because it like radio advertising relays a specific sales pitch communicates verbally cultural information in a limited amount of time. Most television and in turn may connect this information to adverts are either 30 or 60 seconds in duration, consumption (Sklar, 2001). Research has found long enough to give the viewers pertinent that music is incidental to the advertising information or create a specific opinion of the message and its effects on consumer behaviour product or service but not long enough to lose (Scott, 1994; McQuarrie & Mick, 1999; Joy & the viewer's attention (www.tvadvertising.net/). Sherry, 2003). Television commercials are generally placed There are two main levels of awareness for at strategic breaks during the main consumers. The conscious and sub conscious programming and the few minutes until the top (Joy &Sherry, 2003). Consumers perceive lyrics of the next hour. Visual as well as audio interest as a sensory verbal experience that occurs on is very important in television advertising both levels of consciousness as well as on the www.alladvertisingagencies.Com/ corporeal level. In trying to isolate the reso). Instead of employing a single voice- neurological effects of music on the audience, over actor to read the advertising copy over a one studies that in watching an artiste sing a musical bed, actors can create a visual image song, a consumer may have his or her memory, which further enhances the appeal of the extero-, intero- and proprietor's systems commercial. Images of a happy family gathered activated (Calvo-Merino et al., 2005). around a dinner table can enhance the appeal of At the same time, the excitement of dance

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):95 - 105 96 NNAEMEKA, O. F. & CHIKE, P. C. Beyond The Lyrics: Perception of Lipton Tea Television Advertisement among English Premier League ... sends communication directly to the global moment, does it apply to the Lipton Tea neuromuscular system. In this way, lyrics on TV advert in being very interesting, attractive television can have extremely powerful effects and alluring to the audience especially on those who watch it (Smyth, 1984, p.22). considering the use of lyrics in it? This is the However, the effect of the communication relies problem that this study seeks to unravel. upon a feedback system of shared cultural knowledge that is stored in memory (Hanna, Objectives of the Study 1987). The Lipton Tea lyrical television The main objective of the study is to examine advertisement is not only exciting but it also how the viewing audience perceive Lipton Tea tends to ingrain in the memories of the viewers TV advert. The specific objectives are: the shared cultural knowledge of performance 1. To find out audience' frequency of exposure that creates a longing for delicious and well to the Lipton Tea TV advert. served stimulant capable of arousing a feeling of 2. To find out if the audience appreciate the intimacy or emotional excitement. The lyrics Lipton Tea TV advert. are to the best scintillating and stimulating. But 3. To find out whether the lyrics used in the beyond the lyrics comes the primary goal of the advert stimulates interest in the product. advertiser- creating awareness about the product 4. To determine whether the audience prefer and luring the audience to try it out based on the lyrics in advert to ordinary words. message it has created, which are taste and satisfaction. Research Questions 1. What is audience frequency of exposure to Statement of Research Problem the Lipton Tea TV advert? Television advertising arguably has a real 2. Do the audience appreciate the Lipton Tea influence in the advertising world. However TV advert? commercials during favorite TV shows are 3. Is it the lyrics that stimulate interest in the often called "a necessary evil". Too much product? commercials interrupt narratives that the 4. Do the audience prefer lyrics in adverts to audiences are emotionally and materially ordinary words? (time) interested in. Commercials are necessary but irritating. There has to be a better Theoretical Framework way to show adverts without such boring The theory used in this work is Attitude Change interruptions. Theory which explains how the media Over the years, studies have shown that influence people's behaviour towards a television adverts with lyrics seem to have a particular thing that affects their living or scintillating long lasting effect on the viewers. existence. The theory was propounded in 1960 According to Baileys Christmas Nutcracker by Daniel Katz, Iwing Sarnoff and Charles (2013), Music has become the darling of the Mclinck. It is a persuasion theory. Attitude is an advertising industry and advertisers now use acquired and learned behaviour that has lyrical tunes in an art form to draw television accumulated overtime. Attitudes are beliefs or viewers' attention to a particular product. feelings that may predispose our respects to Research has found that music is incidental to objects, people and events. The key word here is the advertising message and its effects on predisposition which is our earlier exposure to a consumer behaviour (Joy & Sherry, 2003). If person, idea or situation and which shapes to a lyrics (soft tunes) used in advertising is having a great extent our opinion about such a person,

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):95 - 105 97 NNAEMEKA, O. F. & CHIKE, P. C. Beyond The Lyrics: Perception of Lipton Tea Television Advertisement among English Premier League ... idea or situation. target audience must have interest on the Psychologists agree that situation or message. conditions under which attitude can change However if the rewards or incentives for the vary according to nature of attitude to be new attitude positively outweighs those changed. Nzegbulam in Nwodu (2007 p, 270) associated with the old attitude, there is every offers explanation on the following words. chance that the audience will change (Franzo Some stabilized or crystallized attitude to 2001, p. 189).In this theory, people can alter region, politics or economics may not be their attitudes in two ways, first they can be changed very casually unless such a change is motivated to listen and think about the message, necessary to reverse personality and several thus leading to an attitude shift or they might be defects. influenced by characteristics of the speaker Even under extreme condition in which a leading to a shift in attitude. person is at the mercy of another in the case of The theory is apt to the present study. This is "brainwashing" and temporary, other attitudes because it deals with how the audience can be that are weak can be easily changed through changed from their predisposition through advertisement, potential speeches and watching or viewing television airing a campaigns and many other means of attitude particular message, information, and shaping message barrages. Again, media experience, among others. messages are persuasive in nature; therefore, some of those messages are capable of Literature Review persuading an individual. They can as well Television: A Medium of Advertising change the person's behaviour. Scholars have Television is an audio visual medium of identified and succulently presented at least disseminating information or message to the three dimension of persuasion. They also audience. Its greatest asset is that it can be seen explained how it works in an individual who is and heard (Asemah, 2010, p.69). Television is addicted to a particular habit. The three stages one of the most persuasive media of our time. It are: change in one's attitude, behavior, and combines sight and sound to broadcast the persistence over time. Sparks (2002, p. 195) highest degree of realism to the homes of a very maintain that these stages occur in the life of an large number of people. individual who has adopted and internalized According to Sandman et al. cited in media message and who has opted to change. Okunna and Omenugha (2012, p. 113), this Sparks also added that when you are persuaded, attribute of television (combination of audio there is a change in your attitude. and video signals) makes it "one of the most This theory says that the media change, powerful communicative forces in the history of shape, form and generally influence people's civilization. Television leaves a lasting behaviour (Nwabueze, 2014, p. 43). Attitude impression in the minds of the audience change is when an audience receives new especially in this "seeing-is-believing" era information from other people (media through (Orhewere & Kur, 2003, p.58). According to direct experience with the attitude object that Cross cited in Agbanu (2013, p.77), "Our work, forces them to behave in a way different than our play, our sleep, our lovemaking…all are they use to).Therefore to effect attitude change, regulated by television ...TV messages have one needs to under take persuasive become so familiar to us that they appear to be communication. According to the theory a the simple truth. In fact, we do not see the world series of stages must be followed. First, the as it is; we see it as television presents it to us".

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Television is used in advertising a company's Impact of TV Advertising on the Audience product because of the numerous features and Audience is described as heterogeneous and benefits. These features include: anonymous; they are comprised of people of different demographic characteristics (age, sex, Believability: race, ethnics group, economic status, People easily believe what they see. For the fact e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d , e t c. ) a n d that television makes it possible for people to psychographic characteristics, likes, dislikes, "eye witness an event or phenomenon," it is emotions, attitudes, interest, self-esteem and rated as the number one medium of believability perception, ego, values, and opinion and credibility. Television leaves a lasting (Nwabueze, 2014, p. 59). In relation to the above impression in the minds of the audience because definition, the audiences in this study are the of its visual impacts. EPL fans in Nsugbe, who have watched Lipton Tea television advertisement. Accessibility: Television no doubt is the most popular Television reaches a large and diverse people mass media amongst its audience. It is an simultaneously and within a short time. Its invention that presents models to its audience, immediacy factor is an advantage enjoyed by the influence their opinion from their attitude, and advertiser. Television provides opportunity for mould their minds towards a particular thing. demonstration of a message. When it is done Television has a potential effectiveness by with people from the background of the target communicating to its audience important audience it makes a persuasive impact. concept that can assist to develop them. Enusike and Maduewesi (1997, p.26) have noted in this Flexibility: direction that television provides unplanned Television enjoys the element of flexibility learning experience through films, plays, (Nwabueze, 2006, p.69). Messages could be dramatic stories, public enlightenment reviewed or upgraded as the case may be. programmes, commercials and news items. Flexibility here also refers to the fact that Television's impact on its audience virtually, all promotional messages can be sometimes may be direct or indirect. Direct adopted to television. For the marketing impact here is the approach to which messages communication, virtually all the personal through television stands as stimuli that would promotional strategies could be effectively lead to a predictable attitude or behaviour facilitated through the television channel response with which nothing intervenes adverts, and public relations messages including between the sender and the audience while the a wide range of sales promotional activities indirect impact is the impact the message has on could be relayed to the audience through the individuals. This shows that audience television. According to Okunna (1999, p.75), members perceive and interpret message "Television remains the greatest advertising selectively according to individual differences. medium of the century. The colour, the motion, Hence, audience perceptions are selective; the the depth, the emotion, the glamour, the magic, responses to message vary as well. For example, these and more are the canon that makes the a person who is preparing to buy a car and a television a premium medium anytime, any person who just bought one will react differently day”. to automobile commercials. Television can also have other impact in its audience like cognitive, attitudinal, behavioural and psychological

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):95 - 105 99 NNAEMEKA, O. F. & CHIKE, P. C. Beyond The Lyrics: Perception of Lipton Tea Television Advertisement among English Premier League ... impact. Cognitive Impact stands as a short term Though all dance does not provoke learning of information. It can be as significant responses in every viewer, this means that dance as remembering the lyrics to a popular song or is both a visual and kinesthetic communication the beaming that takes place here depends vehicle such that there is a special sense for largely on how motivated the person consuming which dance can provide aesthetic satisfaction or watching the television is. According to Ralf (Smyth, 1984). Dance and its influence on (2005, p. 21) visual message in a television consumers and their behaviours would be contains powerful suggestion beyond what is situated in the symbolic, experimental and actually said about the product. Television embodied aspect of the consumption cycle advertisement tries to present what is called informing the consumer identity. It therefore "straight information" about a product so an becomes important to evaluate the emotional, advertisement may appeal to the needs of the affective, aesthetic and hedonic dimensions of audience. dance relative to television advertising in a consumer culture theory frame (Arnold Use of Music (Lyrics) and Dance in Advertising &Thompson, 2005). Music is viewed as an important background Dance provides a basis for the culture of feature in advertising because of its wide use origin to be socially reconstructed as something and ability to enhance viewers' arousals and consumable though interpretative dance feelings. Previous researches exploring the strategies reflected in or portrayed in effects of music on emotional responses and advertising. Attitude can be formed through behaviour has had mixed results (Morris & paring of a conditioned stimulus (for example a Boone, 1998). The right song or musical brand in a commercial) and an unconditioned soundtrack to an advertisement can increase stimulus such as a visual aspect of the attention, enhance emotional response, commercial or emotionally charged music. influence intention to buy and demonstrably Dunbar (1990) points out that use of music increase sales. Coca-Cola pioneered the use of in television commercial was more random than original music in television and cinema planned. Dance may provide consumers with advertising, with the 1971 emotional story of predominantly positive thought and self- connectedness “I'd like to teach the world to validation which in turn may increase positive sing” by the New Seekers (Ubiquity Opinion, attitude formations. Dance is biological in that it 2014). has positive physiological results associated In recent years consumer researchers are with pleasure, happiness and a sense of relief beginning to embrace dance theory and giving (Large, 1976). It is also a means of attention to dance in advertising and the effects communication which cannot be interchanged on consumers. Nowadays, it is considered a with verbal description. Having dance in human universal (Brown, 2004) in that, people advertisement reduces boredom and makes the of every culture anywhere in the globe dance commercial more interesting to watch. and have danced since the beginning of time. Dance is situated in a high versus low aesthetic Empirical Review synchronic poststructuralist dichotomy Okemili (2012) carried out a study on the role of (Charters, 2006) where dance that was music and dance in advertising "mama do good" performed in non-folk or popular contexts were Indomie noodles in which he sought to find out considered consumable and worthy of aesthetic whether music and dance play any role in articulation analysis (Cohen-stratyner, 2001). television advertisement, whether music and

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):95 - 105 100 NNAEMEKA, O. F. & CHIKE, P. C. Beyond The Lyrics: Perception of Lipton Tea Television Advertisement among English Premier League ... dance influence the consumers in buying a research method which focuses on Indomie Noodles, whether respondents' taste representative sample, derived from the entire for the indomie is heightened by the use of population of study (Wimmer & Dominick, music and dance in advertising, whether there is 2011; Owuamalam, 2012; Nwodu, 2017). a relationship between the use of music and Nsugbe has a projected population of dance in Indomie Noodles advertisement and 35,321 according to the UNDP annual respondent consumption of Indomie Noodles. population increase rate of 2.28% extrapolated The study was anchored on attitude change from 2006 national population census (NPC, theory. The survey research method was used to 2006). The sample size for this study is 399. This obtain data from a sample of 390 respondents was determined using the Taro Yamani's, (1973) drawn from a population of 189,654 persons in sample size formula stated as follows: Awka South Local Government Area of n = N Anambra State Nigeria. The Taro Yamani's 1 + N (e)2 formula was used to determine the sample size. Where: The purposive sampling technique was used to n = Sample size determine the exact number of respondents to N = Population be studied. 1 = Constant The study found out among others that: e = Error margin Music and dance play prominent role in television advertising; music and dance The purposive sampling technique was used to influence the respondent in buying Indomie select the sample. The main goal for using noodles; respondent taste for Indomie noodles purposive sampling technique is to ensure that is heightened by the use of music and dance in the researcher focuses on particular advertising; and there is a relationship between characteristics of a population that are of the use of music and dance in advertising interest, which will best generate answers to Indomie noodles and respondent consumption research questions. For this study, the of the product. The study thereby recommends characteristics of interest to the researcher are among others that: advertising agencies should those samples, who were EPL fans residing in make a product adverts all reactive by using Nsugbe. music and dance, and that to use dance the wording introducing the product should be Instrument of Data Collection audible and straight to the point; the producers The instrument used in collecting data for this of Indomie noodles should try to match the study is the questionnaire. It contained multiple product with the promises it is meant to deliver. choice questions. The questionnaire was structured into two sections – A and B. Section Methodology A elicited data on demographic characteristics The survey research method was used in of the respondents. Section B contained items conducting this study. Generally, survey which generated data on thematic questions, research method not only enables the researcher thus the section elicited data from English to make generalization about the characteristics Premier League (EPL) fans in Nsugbe on their of or predictions, but also the behavior of a body perception of the use of lyrics in the Lipton Tea of people requiring measurement along a broad TV advert. The questionnaire was administered system of opinions, attitudes, feelings, beliefs, on face to face basis. This ensured that the idea, information, and understanding. Survey is respondents have clear understanding of the

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):95 - 105 101 NNAEMEKA, O. F. & CHIKE, P. C. Beyond The Lyrics: Perception of Lipton Tea Television Advertisement among English Premier League ... questions from the researcher. Also, the Data Presentation and Analysis researcher's presence ensured that the A total of 399 copies of the questionnaire were respondents fill the questionnaire without distributed to English Premier League fans in mistakes and return same to him on the spot. Nsugbe in Anambra State. This was to evaluate their perception of the use of lyrics in the Lipton Validity and Reliability of the Instrument tea TV advert. The filled copies of the Validity refers to the authentic nature of the questionnaire were collected and checked for measuring instrument in being capable of usability. Out of the 399 copies distributed, 394 eliciting the necessary information applicable to copies were returned and found usable, giving a the study (Owuamalam, 2012). To determine response rate of 98.7 percent and mortality rate validity of any instrument, the pre-testing of 1.3 percent. approach is very necessary. After producing the questionnaire as the Research Question One: measuring instrument for this study, the What is respondents' frequency of exposure to researcher gave out 20 copies to a group of the Lipton Tea TV advert? selected persons in Ogidi. The exercise was To answer research question two, item 9 in the repeated the second time after an interval of questionnaire was used. three weeks using the same number of measuring tool to the same number of Table 1: Assessment of respondents' frequency of respondents in the same location. This is exposure to Lipton Tea TV advert referred to as the post-testing approach. If it is found that results of the first and second (pre Responses Frequency percentage and post-testing) are similar; it implies that the measuring instrument is valid. Very often 150 38.1 Often 100 25.4 Reliability of Instrument: Sometimes 44 11.1 When a valid measuring instrument is used, it Rarely 28 7.1 makes for reliability and capable of producing Can't say 72 18.3 the required result from the study. Owuamalam Total 394 100 (2012, p. 129) holds that reliability assures the researcher of the competence of the measuring Analysis of data in Table 1 shows that 150 or instrument in any replicative study, similar to 38.1% of the respondents answered 'very often' the one for which the instrument was designed. when asked to indicate their frequency of exposure to the Lipton Tea TV advert. 100 or Method of Data Presentation and Analysis 25.4 percent answered 'often'. 44 or 11.1 percent Data collected through the questionnaire were answered 'sometimes', 28 or 7.1 percent presented in tables while simple percentages answered 'rarely' while 72 or 18.3 percent had were used in the analysis. Data were analyzed to no opinion on the question. This means that a exclusively answer research questions, test the majority of the respondents had had a good hypothesis and present the results of the study in exposure to the Lipton Tea TV advert. an understandable and convincing form (Okeke, 2005).

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Research Question Two: Analysis of data presented in Table 3 shows that Do respondents appreciate the Lipton Tea TV 289 or 73.4 percent of the respondents answered advert? yes when asked whether it is the lyrics in the To answer research question two item 10 in the Lipton Tea TV advert that stimulates questionnaire was used. respondents' interests in the product. 43 or 10.9 percent answered no while 62 or 15. 7 percent Table 2: Assessment on whether respondents to have had no opinion on the question. This means that developed interest in Lipton tea as a appreciate the more than two-thirds of the respondents accede Lipton Tea TV advert result of the lyrics used in the advert. Research Question Four Do the respondents prefer lyrics in adverts to Responses Frequency Percentage ordinary words? Yes 263 66.7 Table 4: Assessment on whether respondents prefer No 31 7.9 lyrics in advertisement Can't say 100 25.4 Total 394 100% Response Frequency Percentage Yes 279 70.8 Analysis of data presented in Table 2 indicates that 263 or 66.7 percent of the respondents No 53 13.5 indicated 'yes' when asked whether they Can't say 62 15.7 appreciate the Lipton Tea TV advert. 31 or 7.9 Total 394 100% percent indicated 'no' while 100 or 25.4 percent had no opinion on the question. This shows that Analysis of data presented in Table 4 shows that more than two-thirds of the respondents 279 or 70.8 percent of the respondents appreciate the Lipton Tea TV advert. answered yes when asked whether the respondents prefer lyrics in advertisements; 53 Research Question Three: or 13.5 percent answered no while 62 or 15.7 Is it the lyrics that stimulate interest in the percent had no opinion on the question. This product? means that more than two-thirds of the To answer research question four, item 13 in the respondents favour the use of lyrics questionnaire was used. advertisements.

Table 3: Assessment on whether it is the lyrics in the Discussion of Findings Lipton Tea TV advert that stimulates respondents' From the data presented and analysed, the interest in the product following findings were established. First, the study found that more than two-thirds majority of the respondents had a high frequency of Response Frequency Percentage exposure to the Lipton Tea TV advert. This Yes 289 73.4 finding is supported by an earlier observation No 43 10.9 made by Nwabueze (2006) where he remarked Can't say 62 15.7 that television advertising today has tremendous Total 394 100% influence on consumers' purchases and attraction to services as a marketing tool.

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The study also found that a majority of the frequency of exposure to the Lipton Tea TV respondents appreciated the Lipton Tea TV advert as attested by more than two-thirds advert, with an overwhelming majority of the majority of the respondents. Secondly, the respondents numbering 263 representing 66.7 Lipton Tea TV advert was appreciated by percent agreeing to have appreciated the advert. majority of the respondents. Thirdly, the use of Again, this finding finds support in a previous lyrics in the Lipton Tea TV advert stimulates finding by Edegoh, Ezebuenyi and Asemah respondents' interests in the product. Finally, (2013) where they submit that advertising is a the use lyrics in adverts were preferred to the use veritable tool with which to have and keep of ordinary words. These conclusions are buyers. According to them, to succeed in this empirically arrived at. It goes without saying ultimate goal of keeping customers to their that the objectives of the study have been goods and services, the advertisers employ a lot thoroughly investigated and the results highly of mouth-watering, attractive and entertaining significant. displays, messages and promises. Another finding from the study shows that a Recommendations majority of the respondents indicated that the The following recommendations were made: use of lyrics in the advert stimulates their 1. Advertisers and advertising agencies should interests in the product. This is also in tandem be more creative in crafting advert copies with an earlier finding by Ezebuenyi and with the aim of holding the interests of the Ejezieh (2012) in which they state that audience especially in television advertising. advertisers today have gone a step further and 2. Advertisers should use lyrics in producing are currently engaging in tactical crafting and advert copies of most products. packaging of persuasive messages cum activities 3. Because lyrics is highly emotional and as a that will engrave lasting images in the minds of means of communication, it becomes the audience, heightening their taste and necessary to be tactical in the choice of inducing them to action. words to complement it. Finally, finding from the study shows that a majority of the respondents preferred the use of References lyrics in advertisement to ordinary words. This Agbanu, V.N. (2013). Mass communication: finding is supported by an earlier observation Introduction techniques, issues. Enugu: Rhyce made by Bailey's Christmas Nutcracker cited in Kerex Publishers. Mackrell (2013) where it was observed that Asemah, E.S. (2010). Perspectives in advertising and lyrics and dance have apparently become the public relations. Jos: Lisbon Press. darling of the advertising industry; not only Asemah, E.S. (2011). Perspectives in advertising and public relations. Jos: Lizbon Press have advertisers cottoned on the fact that the art Calvo-Merino, B., Glaser, D.E., Passingha, form is having a global moment but they are R.E.,&Haggard, P. (2005). Action observation discovering that lyrics and dance have their own and acquired motor skills. Cerebral Cortex, 15, expertise at combining the subliminal 1243- 1249. emotional messages with the instantly striking Ebiquity Opinion (2014). The role and impact of images. music in advertising. Blog.ebiquity.com/…/ the Edego, L.O., Ezebuenyi, E.E. &Asemah, E.S. Conclusion (2013). Television as a medium of political Based on the findings of the study, the following advertising during elections in Anambra State, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Social Sciences a n d conclusion was made: First, there was a high

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Aesthetics of Moving TV Images; The Effects of Slow and Accelerated Motion

ALBERT AWUAUZA'ATSA & AONDOFAAKORGA Department of Television Production, NTA TV College, Jos, Nigeria, [email protected], Department of Research and General Studies, NTA TV College, Jos, Nigeria, [email protected],

Abstract Judging aesthetic qualities in any image is subjective. Making this judgement on a moving image, particularly on the TV screen, is highly subjective. Visual motion perception involves much more than just seeing movement. It involves a series of elaborate computational stages that not only detect image movement but also analyze image velocity patterns to extract complex and useful information about the image. This paper sought amongst others to discover whether TV viewers pay attention to a moving image more than a still image and whether the changing speed of a moving image affects their perception. The significance of the study is to present theoretical evidence to TV producers and directors to help decide on the most effective and efficient means of visual and aural presentations that convey the right perceptual experience to the television viewer in a medium that is motion picture based. The study hinged on the Gestalt theory of perception and the synchrony phenomenon to arrive at its findings. The study found that TV viewers pay attention most to high motion on screen and so to find out how they perceive motion, we must be able to manipulate motion to affect viewers' perception of both objective and subjective time. It concluded that since motion is created by motion vectors, the knowledge of motion vector fields and their interactions is a helpful and necessary tool for TV directors to convey the right aesthetics meaning in moving images on the screen.

Key words: Perception, Motion, Attention, Image, Synchrony

Introduction Gibson (1950,pp. 164-6) theorizes that there are With the growing dependence on television as a distinct differences in perception of objects that disseminator of information, television exist in the "visual world" compared with those programme producers need to decide on the that appear within the "visual field". According most effective and efficient means of visual and to him, aural presentations that convey the right The visual world ……. differs from the perceptual experience to the television viewer. visual field in a number of ways. First, it has This is more so that challenges exist in depth or distance, and it includes the experience translating information from event space to of solid objects which lie behind one another. screen space. Second, it is Euclidean in the sense that neither Objects and subjects which appear on the the objects nor the space between them appear to screen space are not the same as when they change their dimensions in perception when the appear on the event space. When these objects observer moves about. This is a general way of and subjects are made to appear on the screen saying that they tend to remain constant. Third, space, they do not only loose dimensionality and it is stable and upright; things as seen have take a new perspective, but more importantly constant directions - from - here when the they take a new meaning. Gibson (1950, p. 164) observer tilts his head. Fourth, it is unbounded; and Zettl (2011, p. 140) identify event space as a our experience of the world does not have any "visual world" and screen space as a "visual visible margins or limits such as a visual field of field". a picture has. Finally, it has a characteristic to

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):106 - 115 106 ALBERT AWUAUZA'ATSA & AONDOFAAKORGA Aesthetics of Moving TV Images; The Effects of Slow and Accelerated Motion which we have scarcely referred but which, in a does so with considerable force". A rocket going way, is the most important of all; it is composed up the sky and a footballer racing towards a goal of phenomenal things which have meaning (pp. are good examples. Motion on the television 27- 43). screen is therefore created by the presence of Within this fixed and clearly defined space motion vectors. How this is done is important in of the TV screen, there operate specific field describing the types of motion and how to judge forces that are quite different from those of an the aesthetic qualities in a moving image. undefined space, such as our actual three dimensional environment(Zettl, 2011, pp.103- Concept of Media Aesthetics 5). On this space, there are numerous vectors There are three ways in which the concept of which interact to compose the moving image on applied media aesthetics differs from the the TV screen. No wonder Zettl (2008, p. traditional concept of aesthetics. Zettl (2011, 121)aptly calls the TV screen a "vectors" field. p.4) identifies the ways as; (a) we no longer limit The strongest force operating within the aesthetics to the traditional philosophical screen which is indispensable to the structure of concept that deals primarily with the moving images is the force caused by directional understanding and the appreciation of beauty lines that lead viewers' eyes from one point to and our ability to judge it with some consistency. another. Such directional lines are called (b)our media - video and film are no longer vectors. In film and television where actual considered neutral means of simple message motion of images within the screen becomes the distribution but essential elements in the "main business", the concept of 'vectors'should aesthetic communication system. (c) whereas probably be seen as the single most important traditional aesthetics is basically restricted to the aesthetic factor in TV programme design. analysis of existing works of art, applied media There are three types of vectors present on aesthetics serves not only the analysis of the any TV screen space. Depending on their ability various forms of media productions but their to direct the viewer's eye from one point to synthesis too. another, Zettl (2008, p. 140) identifies them as: The meaning of media aesthetics is based on (a) graphic vectors - created by buildings, poles, the original meaning of the Greek verb etc. which lead the eye to particular direction, aisthanomai ("I perceive") and the noun (b) index vectors - created by objects that point aisthetike ("sense perception") (Zettl 2011, p. 4). unquestionably towards a specific direction According to Zettl, applied media aesthetics is such as an arrow, a sign pointing to a direction, not an abstract concept but a process in which etc. (c) motion vectors- created by someone or we examine a number of media elements, such something actually moving in a particular as lighting and sound, how they interact, and direction such as a car moving, a person our perceptual reactions to them. walking, etc. A thorough understanding of media Distinguishing the vectors' strength, Zettl aesthetic principles therefore will help us to (2008, pp. 142-5) posits that the motion vectors adapt relatively easily to the new and changing are the strongest, followed by the index vectors production requirements of the medium - film and the graphic vectors respectively. According and television. This knowledge also lets us to Zettl, "a vector with very high magnitude like evaluate the communication effectiveness of the the motion vector exerts a strong directional aesthetic production factors like motion, time, force; it leads our eyes unquestionably into a light, space and sound step - by- step while our specific direction giving us the feeling that it production is still in progress.

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Statement of Problem exercise! Time perception refers to the ability to estimate the duration and timing of events. This ability is The Moving TV Image crucial for the fulfillment of various activities Ordinarily, we perceive motion only when (Buhusi & Meck, 2005) and for coping with a something changes its position more or less dynamic environment. To judge the aesthetic continuously relative to a more stable qualities of a moving TV image, we must find a environment (Zettl, 2011, p. 253). We notice a way to understand how time is perceived of a tricycle moving when it gets closer to us or moving image. The key areas of study would farther away. This holds true when we see the therefore be perception, motion and action. same scene on a movie or video screen. What is relevant here are theories or models that However, in a strict sense, what we see as deal with perception-for-action and the motion on the screen is illusory. What then do dualprocess approach that distinguish between we see when we look at a moving image? This is processes and systems involved in perception a fundamental question most film theories have for-recognition and those involved in tried to address. To answer this question, we will perception-for-action. have to understand the activity of seeing itself. The study of psychology, psychophysics, According to Allen (2001, pp. 106-14),the neurophysiology and computational modeling philosophical understanding of what seeing is has enabled us to understand the basics of has been dominated by the causal theory of motion perception perhaps better than that of perception. any other of human behaviour. However, this The concept of a causal connection is understanding also serves to highlight our areas central to understanding the natural world and it of ignorance and the many avenues that are yet serves to characterize the physical connection to be explored. For instance, there is convincing between our sensory organs and what it is that evidence that attention plays an important role we perceive(Allen, 2001, pp. 106-14).Lots of in determining which aspects of the questions exist about motion. For example, do environment are consciously perceived. In the we "see" motion? If we do, when do we see past it was assumed that the function of visual motion? Is motion picture perception a genuine perception was object identification. Gibson's case of seeing? The answers to these questions (1950) radical idea was that perceptual might seem obvious to some people but they are information is used primarily in the actually complicated. This is because motion organisation of action, facilitating interactions itself is a paradox and so it is only illusionary. between the individual and his/her For instance, a dog walks across the road but environment. According to Gibson, perception why do we see it in motion and the road at rest influences our actions with minimal rather than seeing the entire landscape, involvement of conscious awareness. including ourselves, displaced in the opposite However, little evidence exists on how direction, with the dog alone remaining at the attention is used to determine what aspects of a same spot? moving TV image are consciously perceived. Many film scholars have tried to address Producers and directors need to be presented what are, arguably, the four main kinds of theses with the evidence of the influence of attention to that have been offered to explain what it is we see motion visual perception and how they can when we look at a moving image. According to direct attention to moving images to effectively Allen (2001), these include illusion theories, the communicate to TV viewers. This is no mean transparency theory, the thesis of imagined

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):106 - 115 108 ALBERT AWUAUZA'ATSA & AONDOFAAKORGA Aesthetics of Moving TV Images; The Effects of Slow and Accelerated Motion seeing, and the recognition thesis. Many of functions are to follow action, to reveal action, these theories seem to agree that we see what is to reveal landscape, to relate events, and to depicted in a moving image. Wittgenstein (1997) induce action. Tertiary motion on the other cited by Allen (2001, pp. 106-14)points out that hand is sequence motion. This type of motion is the verb 'to see' has many uses, but only one of achieved primarily through editing. Through a which is captured in reports about the change of shots, we perceive a progression, a deployment of things in space, and we speak of visual development. The important aspect of seeing what is depicted in paintings, tertiary motion is not so much the vector field of photographs and films because we react to these the individual shot but the moment of change things in the same spontaneous way that we the relationship of vector fields from shot to react to the things themselves. shot. Their basic and common purpose is to When we look at a moving image therefore, provide the necessary link from shot to shot, the natural answer to the question "What do we contribute to the rhythm of the sequences and see when we look at a moving image"? Is a the overall pace of the show, guide viewer's description of the depicted scene, and not a attention and feelings and supply structural description of the disposition of pigments in the unity. moving image? We can see what is depicted; but All types of moving images on the TV screen it may be very difficult indeed to see how the are created by motion vectors. A motion vector pigments are disposed in the moving image. is therefore only available when an object is in motion. According to Zettl (2011, p. 264), Types of Moving TV Images motion vectors possess some spatial In video and film, we are confronted with many characteristics such as (a) Magnitude: a car different movements. The performers move coming towards the camera definitely has a about, the camera dollies and trucks along with higher magnitude than the low magnitude of the the action, and the viewpoints shift through first uncertain steps of a child toddling toward cutting. Zettl (2011, pp. 263-6) groups these the camera. (b) Graphic mass: the larger the movements into three principal motions: graphic mass that is in motion, the higher its primary motion, secondary motion, and tertiary vector magnitude. (c) Direction: because its motion; and provides their spatial functions. directionality is more certain, its vector Primary motion is event motion which always magnitude is high.(d) Speed: the faster the speed occurs in front of the camera and includes of an object, the higher its vector magnitude. everything that moves in front of the camera Zettl (2011) asserts that, like all elements in such as the movements of performers, cars, etc. applied media aesthetics, vectors are context It functions to establish or simulate motion, dependent (p. 253). For example, if you see a establish main direction and magnitude of train moving across the screen in an extreme motion vectors; it indicates a spatial change long shot, its magnitude is definitely lower than between two or more points, serves as a motion the relatively slow motion of a police officer cue for other objects and directs the flow of who walks along the street in a medium shot, actions. unaware of the villain who lurks in the shadows. This means its function is always judged from the camera's point of view. Secondary Aesthetics in a Moving Image motion is the motion of the camera and the Motion is the strongest visual appeal to motion simulated by camera zooms. It is attention. A dog may be resting peacefully, medium-dependent. Secondary motion's unconcerned by all the lights and other things

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):106 - 115 109 ALBERT AWUAUZA'ATSA & AONDOFAAKORGA Aesthetics of Moving TV Images; The Effects of Slow and Accelerated Motion that surround it; but as soon as anything stirs, its parts of a painting on the wall, he would find eyes will turn to the spot and follow the course that each time the person changes the fixation of of the motion. Human beings are similarly his glance, the entire picture moves on the attracted by movement; we only need to see the retinas in the opposite direction. This means effectiveness of mobile advertising, as compared what the person is seeing optically is not to immobile photography, painting, sculpture, reflected in his perceptual movement. or architecture to appreciate what motion does Kinesthetic movement perception factors to the perception of an individual. Motion compensate for the misleading inputs of the eye. generally implies a change in the conditions of Any movement by eyes, head, or body is the environment, and change may require reported to the sensory motor center of the reaction. It may mean the approach of danger, brain, and in fact the mere impulse to move is a the appearance of a friend or of an enemy. And brain event. The feedback from these motor since the sense of vision was developed as an processes influences visual perception. In a film, instrument of survival, it is keyed to its task of however, the setting photographed by the survival instincts (Arnheim, 1997, p. 385). travelling camera is seen as moving across the The phenomenon called "motion" is not screen, mostly because the viewer receives the explained simply by learning or knowledge kinesthetic information that his body is at rest. It because, against our better knowledge, we is only in extreme cases, e.g., when enough of cannot explain why we see the sun move across the entire environment is seen as moving, will the sky and the moon move through the clouds. the visual input overrule the kinesthetic. These However, as complicated as the phenomenon of factors: physical movement, optical movement, "motion" is, we can at least explain a few perceptual movement and kinesthetic elements of this complicated situation. Scholars movement often always form the bases upon have suggested that the visual experience of which we judge the aesthetic qualities of any movement can be clarified by studying the basic motion. factors of movement which are: physical When we are presented with any moving TV movement, optical movement, and perceptual image, there are specific factors at work within movement. Arnheim (1997, pp. 372-400), our perceptual field that determine how the however, adds the kinesthetic movement, which sense of sight handles the motor complications can produce the sensation of motion all by itself or ambiguities. These factors include under certain conditions, e.g., by vertigo. dependence, direction, Stroboscope and speed. When we see the caterpillar in motion (a) Dependence: According Duncker (1929) because it is actually crawling, it is motion cited by Arnheim (1997, pp. 372-400), in the perception based on physical movement. But, as visual field, objects are seen in a hierarchical shown in our example, physical movement relation of dependence. The dancer for instance alone does not necessarily correspond to what is a part of the stage setting, not the stage setting happens in perception. We speak of optical to the dancer. In other words, quite apart from movement when objects are projected or the motion, the spontaneous organization of the entire visual field is displaced on the retina. This visual field assigns to certain objects the role of may happen when such optical displacement framework, on which others seem to depend. occurs when the observer's eyes do not follow According to Duncker (1929) as cited by the movements of the perceived objects. If Arnheim (1997, pp. 372-400), there are factors someone could observe what goes on in a that affect the dependence of objects on others. person's eyes while he examines the various These are enclosure, variability, intensity and

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):106 - 115 110 ALBERT AWUAUZA'ATSA & AONDOFAAKORGA Aesthetics of Moving TV Images; The Effects of Slow and Accelerated Motion frame of reference. (a) Enclosure explains why It is one of the more specific aspects of the "figure" tends to move and the "ground" to movement, and is also perceived according to stand still. (b) Variability explains that if one the conditions prevailing in the visual field. object changes in shape and size and the other Under certain conditions the objective direction remains constant-for example, a line "growing of motion is reversed in perception. For out of" asquare-the variable object- the line- example, when both a car and a bus are assumes the motion. The observer sees the line temporarily stationary and then the bus begins stretching away from the square, rather than the to inch forward, the car's driver may think that square withdrawing from an immobile line. (c) the car is rolling backward (Zettl, 2011, p. Intensity also plays a role. Since the dim object is 256).The relation of perceived direction to the seen as dependent on the bright object, the dim context in which the movement occurs has also object moves when displacement occurs and the been demonstrated in studies on the rotation of bright object remains still.(d) Frame of reference wheels. The hub of a wheel will of course move is another factor. It explains why, when an along a path parallel to that of the whole wheel. observer stands on a bridge and looks at the Any other point of the wheel will be subjected to moving water, his perception will be "correct"; two motions: the trajectory path and the but when he fixates the bridge, he and the bridge rotation around the hub. may be seen as moving along the river. Zettl (2011, p. 253) says, in video and film, (c) Speed: Changes in the speed of a moving the edges of the screen are the most basic frames image does not only serve to adapt visual of reference. For example, if you see a man movement to the range of human perception, walking from screen-right to screen-left against a but also changes the expressive qualities of an plain and perfectly smooth background, you action. For instance, the high speed of an object perceive the man's movement by where he is may be perceived as being caused by its great relative to the screen borders. Duncker motor power, weak resistance of the medium, or (1929)cited by Arnheim (1997, pp. 372-400) also both while slowness may be seen as weakness of explains this phenomenon by pointing out that effort on the part of the object, great resistance of the medium, or both. Visual speed is also the object fixated assumes the character of the dependent on the size of the object. Large "figure," whereas the non-fixated part of the objects seem to move more slowly than small field tends to become ground. Since as a rule the ones. A smaller surrounding field makes for "figure" does the moving, fixation makes for faster motion. In an experiment conducted by motion. Brown(1928)and reported by Arnheim (1997, In any particular instance, the interaction of pp. 385- 397)wherein he had rows of figures the various actors will determine the final move through rectangular frames, when the size perceptual effect. An experiment by Metelli of the frame as well as that of the figures was (1965) and reported by Arnheim (1997, pp. 372- doubled, velocity seemed reduced by one half. 400) showed that the rotating section of the disk In order to appear equal, velocities had to be in is not seen to be moving because optically there exact proportion to the size dimensions. This is a successive uncovering of segments but no leads us to expect that on a narrow stage, displacement of the disk as a whole. Under such dancers will seem to move faster, and that the conditions perception reports immobility. larger the human figures or other objects on the movie screen, the slower their movement will (b) Direction: This is another factor that seem, if their images move across the observer's determine show motor ambiguities are handled. retina at an objectively identical speed.

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(d) Stroboscopic Movement: All motion and several principles that fall under the heading perception is basically stroboscopic. When a figure and ground. The Gestalt theory is the bird flies through one's field of vision, its work of Gestalt psychologists - notably Max physical displacement is continuous. What one Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang Khler sees of the flight, however, derives from a (1887-1967) and Kurt Koffka (1886-1941). sequence of recordings by the individual These perceptual theories take into account the receptors or "receptive fields," in the retina. As meaning we attach to what we see. The Gestalt the bird arrives from the left, the receptors on the theory proposes that we see by forming light and retinas' right side will be activated first, the ones dark objects, edges and contours into a whole to the left, last. The nervous system creates the image without thinking about it. The statement, sensation of continuous movement by the whole is different from the sum of its parts, integrating the sequence of these momentary sums up the way we recognize figures and whole stimulations, none of which records anything forms instead of just a collection of simple lines, but a static change (Arnheim, 1997, pp. 372- curves and shapes. The theory attempts to 400).The most obvious example is the motion explain how the brain separates figures from the picture. With exposure to a minimum of about background, a critical survival skill for the twenty frames per second, we can see prehistoric man, who had to decide quickly if continuous motion. The pioneering something far off was a threat and what action experiments on stroboscopic movement, done to take and how to take it. Theorists believe by Wertheimer (1925) and reported by Arnheim several factors figure into how we perceive figure (1997, pp. 372-400),investigated the perceptual and ground: Arnheim (1997, pp. 175- 256) effects induced by the successive flashing of two identify some of the factors as: Size, colour, luminous objects, e.g. two lines, in the dark-a movement, light, etc. Of all the factors, phenomenon familiar to us from the signal movement attracts more attention or is noticed lights of airplanes and from traffic lights. When faster. According to Mital et al. (2011),viewers the two stimuli are close together in space or attend to areas of high motion and faces of flash at a very short time interval, they look people engaged in conversation. Smith and simultaneous. When the space or time distances Henderson (2008)assert that they also attend to are large, one sees two separate objects objects relevant to the viewing task. These appearing one after the other. This presupposes submissions are confirmed by the phenomenon that the two stimuli produced an integrated called attentional synchrony (Smith,2006).In an process of sweeping displacement somewhere experiment conducted, Mital et al. (2011) in the brain. Wertheimer (1925) concluded that discovered that this synchrony is manifest as the in such cases the two stimulations, occurring spontaneous clustering of the gaze positions close together in time and space, cause kind of across multiple viewers when free viewing physiological short circuit, which makes the dynamic naturalistic scenes or edited sequences. excitation flow from the first spot to the second. This shows that the same attention is paid to He associated the psychological counterpart of certain scenes of motion, people engaged in this hypothetical brain process to perceived conversation and relevant objects in a motion movement. picture(Mital et al., 2011).

Theoretical Framework Aesthetics of Slow and Accelerated Motion This study is hinged on the Gestalt's theory of Motion, like any other kind of change, is perception. This is the fifth principle of Gestalt perceivable only within a limited range of speed.

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The sun and the moon travel so slowly that they perceive the event as moving faster than a seem to stand still; a flash of lightning on the comparable low-energy event. other hand, travels so fast that its entire course appears simultaneously as a line. The common Slow and Accelerated Motion means to judge any aesthetics quality in a Slow and accelerated motion are effective moving image is to evaluate how the image is devices for structuring objective and subjective manipulated to affect our experience of it. time. When we structure or manipulate Specifically, the image is often manipulated objective and subjective time, we affect the to affect our experience of event density, event visual perception of TV viewers. Slow motion is intensity, and our experience intensity a manipulation that reduces or "closes up" (Zettl,2011, pp. 281-4). viewers' perception of time," thereby prolonging The relative number of event details that duration. Accelerated motion on the other hand occur within a brief clock time period can rush us through time and speed up the constitutes event density. Thus a high-energy present. Slow and accelerated motions are not event is one in which many things occur within a simply perceptual manipulations of actual relatively short time. A movie or video sequence movement through various lenses and camera with many brief shots and shifts of point of positions but media-enhanced velocities. They view, location, or angles is considered a high are created in the film or video camera, in the density event. We tend to interpret these rapid video playback phase, or entirely synthetically assaults on our senses as event density and are through computer animation. therefore more likely to be stimulated by such a fast presentation than by a less dense shot Aesthetic effects of slow motion sequence. The most obvious perceptual effect of slow The condition of experience intensity refers motion is that it allows us to see better. One of to the number of relevant experiences we go the most compelling aesthetic effects of slow through either simultaneously or in rapid motion is that it seems to free an object from the succession and the relative depth or impact such force of gravity. When this happens, like events have on us. When watching a football astronauts in outer space, slow-motion objects match, our experience is intensified. We either appear weightless, and their direction seems want the match ended quickly or time extended unpredictable. This absence of gravity can also depending on how our "team" is performing. imply superpowers in people or machines. According to Zettl (2011, pp. 281-4),the When seen in slow motion, the hero's jump from relative energy and significance we perceive the roof of a tall building to the ground is not too about an event is a measure of event intensity. A surprising (Zettl, 2011, pp.265-270). group of twenty-four players in a football game Depending on the event context, you may running across a football field has more energy perceive slow motion in various and sometimes than a group of two players doing the same contradictory ways. Most often slow motion is thing. We usually, respond to a high-energy used to intensify the agony of getting event more readily than to a low-energy event, somewhere. For example, if you try to intensify especially if the event is of no specific the last seconds of two people running toward significance to us. Thus a high-energy event each other for a long-awaited embrace, slow more likely involves us than a low-energy event motion can prolong their actual meeting and and, consequently, increases the magnitude of intensify their anticipation. But you can also use our subjective time vector. As a result, we slow motion to signal increased speed. For

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):106 - 115 113 ALBERT AWUAUZA'ATSA & AONDOFAAKORGA Aesthetics of Moving TV Images; The Effects of Slow and Accelerated Motion instance, switching to slow motion during a will affect the characteristics of the moving downhill ski race does not indicate that the image. champion skier has slowed down but rather ii. The phenomena called "motion" is exhibits her skill and intensifies her speed (Zettl, complicated and so the visual experience of 2011, pp.265-270). movement can only be clarified by studying certain factors of movement such as: Aesthetic effects of accelerated motion physical movement, optical movement, We can use accelerated motion not only for perceptual movement and kinesthetic comic but also for dramatic effects. We can do movement (Arnheim, 1997, pp. 372-400). this by intensifying low-density events. iii. According to (Mital et al., 2011) and (Smith According to Zettl (2011, pp. 266-9), one of the & Henderson, 2008), viewers attend to areas most striking examples of the dramatic use of of high motion, faces of people engaged in low-density accelerated motion appears in conversation and relevant objects to the Sergei Eisenstein's "Odessa Step Sequence" viewing task. from his film Battleship Potemkin. He iv. Motion generally implies a change in the intensifies the death of a woman shot by soldiers conditions of the environment, and change by eliminating all nonessential frames from her may require reaction. It may mean the fall, causing the woman not only an external but approach of danger, the appearance of a also an internal collapse. When the woman jerks friend or of an enemy. The sense of vision to the ground in this low-density atmosphere, we keys to its task of survival instincts when have no doubt that she has met her death. motion is experienced (Arnheim, 1997, p. Changing velocity is also an effective 385). intensification device. For example, you can v. The common means to judge any aesthetics emphasize the power and the agility of a high quality in a moving image is to evaluate how performance sports car by showing it first the image is manipulated to affect our traveling at normal speed, then having it experience of time. Specifically, the moving suddenly lurch forward, then braking for a slow image is often manipulated to affect our motion effect, then lurching forward again and experience of event density, event intensity, skidding to a stop. Such extreme velocity and our experience intensity (Zettl, 2011, changes intensify the raw power of the car more pp. 281-4). dramatically than if it were simply accelerating vi. Slow and accelerated motion are effective steadily during its travel. Accelerated motion is devices for structuring objective and also used as a timesaving device in subjective time. When we structure or documentaries to bridge less pivotal events, such manipulate objective and subjective time, we as people moving into a courtroom, by simply affect the visual perception of TV viewers speeding up the action. (Zettl, 2011, pp. 281-4).

Conclusion It can be concluded therefore that a moving This study is able to establish amongst others, image is an aesthetic factor in a motion picture the many qualities of motion, a few of which are business like television. Every viewer of TV that: pays attention to a moving image. We judge the i. All types of moving images on the TV screen aesthetic qualities of a moving TV image by how are created by motion vectors(Zettl, 2011, p. it affects our experience of event density, event 264). Whatever affects the motion vectors intensity and experience intensity. We can also

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):106 - 115 114 ALBERT AWUAUZA'ATSA & AONDOFAAKORGA Aesthetics of Moving TV Images; The Effects of Slow and Accelerated Motion manipulate the moving image to affect our Ehrenstein, W. H. (2003). Basics of seeing motion. viewers' responses. This can be done by Leibniz Research Center for Working changing the speed, velocity, direction, Environment and Human Factors, University of magnitude, graphic mass, etc. of its motion Dortmund, Germany. vectors. This knowledge is helpful and a Gibson, J. J. (1950). The perception of the visual world. Massachusetts, U.S.A: The Riverside necessary tool for TV producers. We have to Press Cambridge. understand the aesthetics of the moving image Mital et al., (2011). Clustering of gaze during as directors, TV designers, and producers to dynamic scene viewing is predicted by motion. enable us to produce the right responses in TV Cognitive Computation, 3(1), 5-24. viewers to the visual stories we produce. Smith, T. J.& Henderson, I. M. (2008). Edit blindness; the relationship between attention References and global change dynamic scenes. Journal of Allen, R. (1995). Projecting illusion: Film eye Movement Research, 2 (2), 1-17. spectatorship and the impression of reality. New Spillmann, L. & Ehrenstein, W. H. (2002). Gestalt York: Cambridge University Press. factors in the visual neurosciences. In Chalupa, ___. Looking at Motion pictures (Revised). L., Werner, J. S. (Eds.), The visual _FilmPhilosophy, 5(25), August 2001. neurosciences. Cambridge: MIT Press.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

The Media and Intercultural Communication as Tools for Ensuring Nigeria's National Security: A Prescriptive Approach

DR. CHRISTIAN T. DIRI, & EKIYOKERE EKIYE, Head, Department of English and Communication Studies, Federal University Otuoke, Bayelsa State, E - mail: [email protected], Department of English and Communication Studies, Federal University Otuoke, Bayelsa State, E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract In today's globalised world where mobility from one cultural settlement to another and communication between individuals with unfamiliar languages have become increasingly commonplace, effective intercultural communication and effective use of Mass Media channels are strategic tools for achieving national security. This is because cultural awareness, skills, and knowledge, which are advanced and developed at the core of the field of intercultural communication, are a reasonable platform for promoting national security and for preparing the stage for both negotiation and dialogue in national misunderstandings and conflicts. Although the 21st century Nigeria is encumbered with numerous security threats, it would be ignorant to assume that a mere understanding and awareness of intercultural communication will end inter-ethnic and religious crisis. But the continued occurrence of security issues buttresses the need for Nigerians as well as characters involved in politics, security, international relations, etc. to become conversant with cross-cultural interactions including deploying the strategic tools that engender peacebuilding in our fragile society. The paper further advances the strategic option of playing downstereotypes, prejudices, and ethnicity as cross-cultural communications issues that trigger national insecurity.

Keywords: Mass Media, Intercultural Communication, Conflicts, Security, National Security

Introduction will end inter-ethnic and religious crisis. But the In today's globalised world where mobility from continued occurrence of security issues one cultural settlement to another and buttresses the need for Nigerians as well as the communication between individuals with individuals involved in politics, security, unfamiliar languages have become increasingly international relations, etc. to become commonplace, effective intercultural conversant with cross-cultural interactions and communication is a strategic tool for national t h e n e e d t o d eve l o p i n t e r c u l t u r a l security. This is because cultural awareness, communicative skills so as to minimise skills, and knowledge, which are advanced and conflicts by improving the quality of such developed at the core of the field of intercultural communications. communication, are a reasonable platform for The paper explains the intercultural promoting national security and for communication, where both culture and constructing the stage for both negotiation and communication are looked at distinctly before dialogue in national misunderstandings and connecting them under intercultural conflicts. communication, explains the role of the Mass The 21st century Nigeria is encumbered Media in advancing the course of national with numerous security threats, and it would be security, and further dilates ways that the media ignorant to assume that a mere understanding and intercultural communication can be a and awareness of intercultural communication veritable tool for ensuring long lasting national

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):116 - 127 116 DIRI, C. T. & EKIYOKERE EKIYE, The Media and Intercultural Communication as Tools for Ensuring Nigeria's National Security: ... security. includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits Intercultural Communication acquired by man as a member of society”. In order to fully grasp the concept of Benedict (1959, p.16) explains that “what binds intercultural communication, it is necessary to men together is their culture-the ideas and understand the meanings of culture and standards they have in common”. Unlike Tylor's communication. Since it is through the lens of definition which seems to focus on an individual culture that interlocutors interpret the values instead of group, Benedict looks at culture as a and patterns that define when, why and how commonly shared entity that defines the they interact, it is pertinent to look closely into individuals in a given society. However, the way culture affects communication. Benedict's standpoint appears to be lacking as it Talking about intercultural communication, focuses on an aspect of culture- the binding one will not help but talk about culture. Culture power of culture. Beyond culture's binding is not an abstract concept; rather, it is a living set ability, it possesses elements of individuality, of distinctive lifestyle that is, psychological, differences and in fact conflict; especially if emotional and spiritual characteristics of intercultural misunderstandings and conflicts society that define the value system of a group which currently occurs on distinct levels are of people, the way they live together and how taken into consideration. they perceive the world. It is culture that makes Writing in 1973, Geertz emphasizes that people both rational and ethical beings, that culture is “a historically transmitted pattern of enables them to act and communicate a meaning embodied in symbols, a system of common way to their members, but inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic differentiates them from others. However, the forms by means of which men communicate, explanations of culture should not be restricted perpetuate and develop their knowledge about to just the lifestyle of individuals on a day-to-day and attitudes towards life” (p. 89). Geertz basis because the domain of culture has buttresses the fact that we tend to dissect our expanded and it is now associated with areas experiences of the world via the lenses, that's, like psychology, marketing, public relations and the sets of standards or rules laid out by our healthcare. Even in popular media today, the distinct cultures. In line with Geertz (1973), this term 'culture' has taken on various names like paper defines culture as the set rules that govern multiculturalism, cross-culture, cultural the way or manner the individuals in a society diversity and so on. For instance, it is not novel live and function. anymore to hear cases of security personnel like the military or police operating in milieus where The Media and National Security they lacked the understanding and necessary Section 22 of the Constitution of the Federal knowledge of the territorial culture. This in Republic of Nigeria, 1999 (as amended), itself is evidence that culture has migrated from Chapter II on Fundamental objectives and being solely about a people's way of life to the directive principles of state policy explains the area of security. obligation of the mass media thus: “The press, As such, ascribing a particular reference to radio, television and other agencies of the mass what culture is or does becomes difficult. media shall at all times be free to uphold the Culture has been defined from several fundamental objectives contained in this standpoints. According to Tylor (1920, p.83), Chapter and uphold the responsibility and culture refers to a “complex whole which accountability of the Government to the

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):116 - 127 117 DIRI, C. T. & EKIYOKERE EKIYE, The Media and Intercultural Communication as Tools for Ensuring Nigeria's National Security: ... people”. (Constitution of the Federal Republic from clearly stated objectives; of Nigeria 1999). v. To assist in setting an agenda of priorities in the social, cultural, political and economic The fundamental objectives are: development of the nation; 1. Fundamental obligations of the vi. To function as an agent of modernization; Government; and 2. The Government and the People; vii To provide informed criticisms on viable 3. Political objectives; alternatives, among a host of others. 4. Economic objectives; 5. Social objectives; The mass media are saddled with the 6. Educational objectives; responsibility of informing, educating and 7. Foreign policy objectives; entertaining the public. In fact, the government 8. Environmental objectives; and the governed seem to recognize this role 9. Directive on Nigeria Cultures; when they refer to the media as the Fourth 10 Obligation of the mass media; Estate of the Realm. The mass media aid in the 11 National Ethics; overall socio-politico–economic development 12 Duties of the citizen; e.tc of the society, the mobilization of resources for economic progress, and the enlightenment of Have the mass media been able to uphold the the citizenry about issues and happenings responsibility and accountability of the outside their immediate environment. Apart Government to the people? What are the ethics from being disseminators of news by means of of the mass media practitioners? What are the printed words, illustrations, cartoons, problems and challenges faced by the mass caricatures or other visual symbolizations, mass media and Journalists? Are there peculiar media are the most potent tools by means of issues on media and security? What about the which the masses of the people ventilate their m e d i a , s e c u r i t y a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l feelings and views on any issue of the day. And environment? Are there non-statutory security by this, the mass media are inseparably institutions and aspects of regionalization and identified with the masses. globalization of insecurity that the mass media According to Momoh (1983), the Mass have to address? This paper attempts some Media are channels of communication which answers. the exigencies of living brought into existence, In a democratic society, the mass media are especially in the following terms: - neighbours expected to play the following roles: of the lonely; - informers of the curious; i. To convey information to the people with a - entertainers of the bored; view to letting them know how the mandate - teachers of the willing; they gave their representatives is being - victims of the unaccommodating; discharged; - friends in times of bliss and enemies in times ii. To provide a forum through which the of adversity; governed could react to government policies - champions of freedom and barometers of and activities; freedom's ups and downs; iii. To assist in the articulation and pursuit of - foot mats of the successful; national interest; - bad boys of the thief and fraudulent; iv. To monitor the performance of government - naked gun powders in the hands of despots; with a view to preventing their deviation - encyclopedia of joy and sorrow, success and

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failure, honesty and half- truths, banter and powers to use that power judiciously and in blackmail. public interest. Media professionals have the options to use the power of media instruments The media is a principal player in the arena of in their hands either to serve the nation or national security. National security has been indulge in self-propelled interest. The media greatly threatened since independence. When ought to be objective as it carries out its Nigeria attained independence in 1960, the functions. mass media orientation shifted towards reinforcing tribal and sectional loyalties in The Idea of Intercultural Communication preference to national unity, identity and Intercultural communication is the exchange integration. The media became parochial in between participants from distinct cultural and their content. They dedicate themselves to the language backgrounds. Intercultural articulation of particular ethnic interest communication is usually made possible (Udoudo & Asak, 2008, p.4). Press reports because of increased contact situation, where during this period greatly heightened tension, people congregate at a specific geographical which created suspicion among the citizenry location for different reasons, to communicate and almost led to the disintegration of the with one another. According to Wiseman (2002, corporate existence of the country. p.208), intercultural communication is the As a result of the threat to Nigeria's internal gathering of “knowledge, motivation and skills security nominal strength of the Nigerian Police to interact effectively and appropriately with Force (NPF) has continued to increase from members of different cultures.” 13,500 in 1961 to 84,955 in 1978 and to 200,000 T h e k n ow l e d ge o f I n t e r c u l t u r a l in 1980 (Ugbegili, 2008,p.13). Security is part of Communicative Competence (ICC) is a public interest and a mass media professional significant tool for minimising conflicts that must have a genuine interest in people. The result from cross-cultural misunderstandings primary focus of a mass media is on issues that today. Since globalisation has made benefit the general public and uphold fairness, intercountry as well as intra-country justice, national unity and international movements common, it becomes necessary for cooperation (Gambo in Akinfeleye, 2003,p.12). individuals to develop the skills needed to The function of the press in any given society become effective cross-cultural communicators includes surveillance of the environment, for peaceful coexistence. More importantly, correlation of the component of society in attention must be drawn to the point that ICC is responding to the environment and an asset today because a conscious development transmission of the social heritage (Wali, of communication skills will ease cross-cultural 2003,p.17). interactions between distinct groups and even The media functions as watchdog capable boost religious tolerance in extreme cases, like of blowing the whistle to call attention to serious what is seen in Nigeria. As such, the role of national issues. This implies a clear recognition intercultural communication cannot be of the fact that the media plays an important role underestimated. on issues of national security. The power of the When applied appropriately, ICC helps media to decide what the people should read, individuals to become aware of cultural see or hear has never been in doubt. What has d i f f e r e n c e s, t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t h e been in the centre of controversy is the capacity misinterpretations that result in conflicts and of those in whose hands reside such enormous ensures both coordinated and meaningful

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):116 - 127 119 DIRI, C. T. & EKIYOKERE EKIYE, The Media and Intercultural Communication as Tools for Ensuring Nigeria's National Security: ... relations. This statement finds support in powers to boost unity, upholding efficient Merkin et al. (2013, p.15) when they state that military forces; implementing paramilitary like the knowledge of communication patterns is the civil defence and impromptu precautionary pivotal for developing and maintaining relations tactics as the anti-terrorism legislation, across lingua-cultural boundaries. employing intelligence agencies to search out and conquer as well as prevent conflict and spy National Security activities and to safely guard information National security is the “ability of a nation to regarded as top secret; and engaging the services protect its internal values from external threat” of counterintelligence units to shield the nation (Braithwaite, 1988, p.9). Lippmann (1943) adds from threats within seem to be the most that “a nation has security when it does not have common with security experts. But Hyde-Price to sacrifice its legitimate interest to avoid war, (2001, p.38) points out that securitizing a and is able, if challenged, to maintain them by problem means expelling it from the normal war”. National security is a concept that evolved political discourse and “signal[ling] a need for it from the United States of America after World to be addressed urgently and with exceptional War II. At first, the concept was only associated means.” with military power, but today, the spectrum of national security has extended to other areas Present Challenges to National Security in Nigeria that focus on the non-military and economic The traditional outlook of “security” has security of a country and the principles advanced in the 21st century and birthed new supported collectively in its society. A nation or aspects of national security. Among such country is said to have national security if such advancements are the geneses of security threats security is holistic, that is, it encompasses both (that's threats from groups plagued by extreme the economic, environmental, energy, etc. ethnic loyalty over the interest of national peace, aspects of society. from cultist groups, from militant groups, from Previously, a nation's security was poor governance, from gross economic threatened by conventional enemies (distinct misappropriation, etc.), society (societal nation states) but, in recent times, insecurity security), the individuals or citizens affected by springs from non-conventional contenders such the threats (individual security), the physical as the violent drug dealers, cultists, and socio-economic livelihood of the individual nongovernmental organisations and even is threatened, the survival of distinct ethnic natural disasters and environmental activities groups in the regions are threatened, and the like oil exploration that results in environmental survival of the Nigerian society as a unified degradation that birth violent, aggrieved entity is threatened. In fact, the survival of groups. This will be explained by the current Nigeria as we are conversant with is on the verge challenges to security in Nigeria and the of collapse in the long-run. Considering the evolution of the threats to her national security. urgency of the situation, it becomes very And even in situations where certain measures necessary that urgent awareness be raised to to combat security threats are put in place, struggle for the sustainability of the country. intercultural communication has not been Another evidence of the modified applied as one of the tools to tackle insecurity. perspective of security that focuses on the Rather, such measures as the application of function of intercultural communication as the diplomacy to increase supports and reduce extended definition of security are the threats, building alliances with economic suggestions for a broader spectrum of security

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):116 - 127 120 DIRI, C. T. & EKIYOKERE EKIYE, The Media and Intercultural Communication as Tools for Ensuring Nigeria's National Security: ... domains by the United Nations Office for the are established. Intercultural communication Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs can be applied to boost national security on (OCHA): several levels. They are individual, regional and Economic: employment creation and poverty national levels. reduction measures; The individual or personal level: this is Food: hunger eradication measures and the possible when distinct interlocutors consciously prevention of famine; develop intercultural communication skills so as Health: disease control measures from to become aware and more knowledgeable unsafe food, measures to tackle about the importance of cultural differences in malnutrition and a lack of access to basic communication. This will help individuals to health care; become more tolerant toward each other, Environmental: putting measures to prevent modify thinking patterns, drop toxic habits and environmental degradation, resource behaviours capable of fuelling conflict, thereby depletion, natural disasters and pollution; resulting in effective and competent Personal: policies against physical violence, communication across linguacultural crime, terrorism, domestic violence and boundaries. child labour; The regional level: this is achievable through Community: measures against inter-ethnic, the implementation of policies (for instance, the religious and other identity tensions and policies that concentrate on ethnic minorities Political: measures against political and regional migration) by regional policy repression and human rights abuses. makers that encourage and promote intercultural communication, intercultural Going by OCHA's extension of security bridge regional programmes (that is, domains, it is evident that human security appropriately planned sports, music, culture components have developed into a new and and other entertainment activities that create even broader scope, as they move beyond room for interaction between individuals from military defence to include threats to human distinct interethnic or inter-regional worth or dignity. Hence, it is pertinent that backgrounds are effective for developing an individuals in the distinct states within Nigeria understanding of communication differences make deliberate efforts at building connections and boosting cooperation in order to reduce with Nigerians in other states and to also conflict), the inclusion of educational consciously take on national security initiatives. programmes from the formative years of formal And this is achievable only through productive education so that ICC can be developed from an dialogue or negotiation and cooperation early age. depending on effective intercultural The national level: national policy makers communication. can create and implement policies that boost and encourage intercultural communication The Nexus Between Intercultural Communication (like investing financially in programmes that and National Security practice intercultural communication), by To begin, one must highlight the point that employing the services of ICC trained Intercultural Communication Skills or personnel whose actions (like negotiation and Competences (ICC) provides the significant conflict resolution techniques) are hinged on platform upon which national security enabling building intercultural communication activities like conflict resolution and dialogue competences and discouraging identity,

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):116 - 127 121 DIRI, C. T. & EKIYOKERE EKIYE, The Media and Intercultural Communication as Tools for Ensuring Nigeria's National Security: ... religious and other interethnic clashes. communication almost exclusively and said Intercultural communication skills, from the very clearly that the U.S. would attack if Iraq did presentation above, are applicable to all levels not move out of Kuwait. The Iraqis, however, irrespective of the different languages at play or paid less attention to what Baker said and most the area of communication. These basic skills attention to how he said it. Hussein's halfbrother empower individuals, at all levels, with the reported to Baghdad that the Americans will not ability to become effective intercultural attack. They are weak. They are calm. They are communicators either in their mother tongue not angry. They are only talking. Six days later,

(L1) or in a second language (L2) situation. the United States unleashed Operation Desert The military, who serve in culturally diverse Storm …and Iraq lost close to 175,000 citizens. environments, is a highly organised force that According to Triandis, if the Iraqis had carries out the responsibility of defending perceived any sign (non-verbal communication) national security in Nigeria; and this is one field of anger from Baker, they would have been able where the knowledge of intercultural to interpret his message accurately and even communication should be advanced, taken measures that would have prevented particularly in recent times when these security conflict and secure the 175,000 lives lost. personnel, ranging from colonels to lieutenants, Intercultural communication research is in fact depend on their fighting skills, which most times interested in scenarios as this because it probes are war threats, for negotiation. Threats, interaction patterns in order to understand or however, only aggravates situations and end in pinpoint areas of misunderstanding. This conflict. But if intercultural communication illustration can also be applied to the Nigerian skills are understood and promoted in the situation where the successful national security military in Nigeria, these skills will open the activities are based on micro-relations needed pathway for meaningful negotiation and irrespective of their occurrence on the war front interethnic or inter-regional relationships, or at the negotiating table. Usually, these kinds thereby boosting environmental, individual and of interpersonal communication that impact a national security and the completion of nation greatly define if negotiations or alliance successful operations. ICC can also be formation can commence in the first place; and employed by the leaders of Nigeria to avoid for micro-level national security, interpersonal situations that foster insecurity. An instance of conversations are pivotal to kick-start the this was given by Triandis's (1994, p.9) process. explanation of how the GULF WAR would To buttress this point, let us take for instance have been prevented if the persons involved in the battle of the Nigerian Military against the the negotiation process were knowledgeable Niger Delta militants, where the commanding about the patterns of non-verbal interaction; general from Northern Nigeria and an officer On January 9, 1991, the foreign minister of from the Southern Nigeria get separated from Iraq, Tariq Aziz, and the United States their unit. While shooting sporadically at the Secretary of State, James Baker, met in Geneva militants in the bid to re-join their unit, a to attempt a last-minute compromise that would conversation between both parties ensues. The avoid a war. Seated next to Aziz was the general, frustrated and pressured, says to the halfbrother of Iraq's President, Saddam officer: “These poverty-ridden, foolish Niger Hussein. The half-brother kept calling Baghdad Delta people are the cause of our predicament. I to provide Hussein with his evaluation of what won't be here if not for their lawlessness.” The was going on. Baker used the verbal channel of officer, scared and timid, replies saying: “If I

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):116 - 127 122 DIRI, C. T. & EKIYOKERE EKIYE, The Media and Intercultural Communication as Tools for Ensuring Nigeria's National Security: ... may speak freely and with all due respect sir, I Stereotypes, Prejudices, and Racism as am also from the Niger Delta.” Without any CrossCultural Communications Issues That reservation, the general responds: “Yes, you are Trigger National Insecurity from here. However, I have personal about you.” A stereotype is a fixed, over-generalized belief This scenario exemplifies how interpersonal about a particular group of people or a co- relations can transform the guidelines of the culture. No matter how accurate or inaccurate a game and re-evaluate intercultural clashes and stereotype is, it is mostly based on some reality, cooperation. some truth, albeit just a kernel of truth or In fact, it is at this level (micro) of national halftruth, something that actually happened. security interaction that the critical The moment we realize that we come into policymaking moments take place. And in contact with others, we will start seeking times like this, words said without cultural similarities to connect. sensitivity destroy alliances formed by careful Universally, it is a very natural inclination negotiations. Intercultural communication that we seek to be near people with whom we research comes in to ameliorate the situation by share common outlooks, habits, or languages. improving the quality and end result of such The more points we can connect, the more interactions. This function of intercultural comfortable we feel and the quicker we can communication differentiates it from linguistic establish a new relationship. It can be somewhat studies in that, linguistic competence focuses unfair when certain groups of people are on the speaker's ability to speak language while criticized: “They don't mingle! They always communicative competence hinges on the stick together!” There is nothing wrong with ability to effectively employ language within seeking ethnic similarities since it is only natural the appropriate context. for all of us to do so. What really matters is when Thus, educating the military in Nigeria to we fail to find common backgrounds, will we become competent speakers of a second have the courage to overcome anxiety and move language for special operations in particular ahead, or will we withdraw all together from regions in the country is only one aspect. The interaction with the unknown? other and even most significant aspect is the Regardless of our choice when confronted development of Intercultural Communication with uncertainty, stereotypes are certain to be Competences (ICC) that will help them formed as the result of this confrontation. We understand communication patterns, unique tend to think about stereotypes as a bad thing, needs and cultural differences to become that only racists and bigots engage in effective intercultural communicators with the pigeonholing others. Yet all of us are guilty of natives of any state they are deployed to. putting others in a box, despite the fact that our Developing ICC skills will enable them to knowledge about them is just a grain of truth or adapt, build productive interpersonal half-truth. relationships, avoid and or minimise conflicts from cultural misunderstandings and even The Expressions of Stereotypes strengthen already existing relations that will Looking from the cognitive function of help them achieve maximal results in their stereotyping, there is nothing wrong with the act operations. This will in turn ensure national of categorizing. Our mind has evolved to security in Nigeria as the security of one out of conduct this vital process so we as humans can thirty-two states is the security for all in the effectively manage our life, develop our skills, country. and conquer the world that is otherwise too big,

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):116 - 127 123 DIRI, C. T. & EKIYOKERE EKIYE, The Media and Intercultural Communication as Tools for Ensuring Nigeria's National Security: ... too complicated, and impossible to know in all as how a catwalk model or a Barbie doll looks. its details. We all create stereotypes as it is a The incredible network of media such as universal process at both the collective and television channels, movies, newspapers, radios, individual level. However, the major problem social sites, books, comics, etc. is partly with this seemingly natural process is that while responsible for creating a distorted image of our brains can be quite adept at categorizing many cultures and co-cultures, either inanimate objects, we run into problems when pigeonholing people extensively or focusing on categorizing people, because people are much irregular traits and turning them into typical more complicated than objects. trademarks. When exceptions become the Everyone is pigeonholed in a category. The norms, stereotypes that stem from this first and foremost problem with stereotyping is categorization can be destructive since it is the tendency to put every single person into a incongruent with reality, and yet, is still fixed and known category. On the Inverted considered to be the standard. Pyramid model, we should clearly see that this process of pigeonholing actually measures the Prejudice wrong level of analysis. Starting at the collective If stereotypes can be both positive and negative, level, we know that certain groups have certain prejudices are often deeply held negative typical outward expressions and values. We feelings associated with a particular group. Built then jump to the individual level and assume into the notion of prejudice is a sense of hostility that every single person at this level also shares and judgment. While stereotypes may be free exactly those same expressions and values: you from value and evaluation (e.g. People from are a man, so you should be tough; you are a Latin America are Catholics), prejudices are nurse, then very likely you are a woman in a loaded with feelings about what is good and white outfit with a little cap; you are Irish, well, what is bad, what is moral and immoral (e.g. for sure you drink like a fish, etc. “My religion is the only true one, and my God is The impact of media. The danger of making the only true God.”). Consequently, people with all-inclusive categories has been worsened by prejudices are very likely to end up with hostile media and social networks. Many stereotypes encounters where each side believes that their promoted by mass media are exaggerated and view is right. When this negative feeling of based on half-truths. What should be a prejudice is translated into an ability to act, we nontypical and exceptional incident can create have discrimination. the illusion that it is the actual norm. A good In relation to the fear factor in prejudice, our example of this phenomenon is the connection brain, there is an almond-shape structure called between air travel and fear of a plane crash. the amygdala. This is our danger detector or Although flying is the safest of all transportation warning system, strongly connected with fear. modes, each time a plane is down, the whole For the purpose of survival, the amygdala filters world is shaken with constant and excessive all the sensory input, looking for anything that amounts of news and reports, creating an can be threatening, and then puts our system on impression that it is dangerous to fly. high alert by igniting our sense of fear so we can Similarly, the abundance of media attention stay away from them. Neuroscience studies tell on a certain topic can trick many of us into us that when being shown faces of outgroup casual assumptions; for example, people from people, the amygdala often activates. This helps the Gulf are oil millionaires, or the standard to explain why people are less empathic toward beauty of a modern woman is exactly the same outgroup members because our amygdale

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):116 - 127 124 DIRI, C. T. & EKIYOKERE EKIYE, The Media and Intercultural Communication as Tools for Ensuring Nigeria's National Security: ... identifies outgroup faces as potential threats. mostly women and minorities. Although rooted The problem is that because our culture is in evolution, stereotypes, prejudice and racism filled with racial stereotypes and prejudices, our are not hardwired into the human brain. We are amygdala can wrongly adapt to prejudicial capable of taking life instruction from the social information about those who look different and environment (and not from DNA) and to consequently puts us on false alarm. The consciously evaluate and control our thoughts amygdala operates extremely fast, long before and behaviour. our conscious thoughts have time to react. Six fundamental patterns of cultural differences and how they tend to affect our Racism communication and recurring causes of Racism is the idea that inherent superiority of a crosscultural communication difficulties: particular race will define success and failure of 1. Different communication styles; The way a group. While the negative feeling towards people communicate varies widely between, other groups is justified by diverse factors and even within, cultures. One aspect of (resources, economic setbacks, failure, ego, communication style is language usage. etc.), with racism, this negative feeling is Across cultures, some words and phrases are replaced by a belief, and the justification for this used in different ways. Another aspect of belief, based purely on genetic endowment. communication style is the degree of Although human beings belong to the same importance given to nonverbal c o m m u n i biological species, racism remains a world-wide c a t i o n . N o n - v e r b a l communication problem. Dominant groups continue to assume includes not only facial expressions and that their superiority in biological endowment gestures; it also involves sitting allows them to mistreat others on the basis of arrangements, personal distance, and sense race. Nowadays, the concept of race has moved of time. In addition, different norms on to imply a culture, at the same time focusing regarding the appropriate degree of on simplistic and visual signals of race and assertiveness in communicating can add to culture such as skin colour, attire, body features, cultural misunderstandings. national origin, ancestry, religion, and sexual 2. Different attitudes toward conflict; Some preference. This allows racism to be ignited cultures view conflict as a positive thing, easily even through very superficial contact. while others view it as something to be It therefore can be summited that avoided. In the U.S. for instance, conflict is Stereotypes have cognitive roots in how the not usually desirable; but people often are human brain has evolved to categorize in order encouraged to deal directly with conflicts to save thinking time. Prejudices stem from that do arise. In fact, face-to-face meetings affective roots in how humans favour their own customarily are recommended as the way to in group, hence develop apathy towards work through whatever problems exist. In outgroup people. Both stereotypes and contrast, in many Eastern countries, open prejudice can lead to discrimination, which is a conflict is experienced as embarrassing or behaviour that can turn inaccurate and negative demeaning; as a rule, differences are best feeling into unfair and unjust action against worked out quietly. A written exchange certain individuals or groups. Racism is a belief. might be favoured means to address the Stereotypes, prejudice, and racism have conflict. been used as tools to the economic or social 3. Different approaches to completing tasks; advantages of a certain group against others, From culture to culture, there are different

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ways that people move toward completing seem intrusive to others. The variation tasks. Some reasons include different access among cultures in attitudes toward to resources, different judgements of disclosure is also something to consider therewards associated with task completion, before you conclude that you have an different notions of time, and varied ideas accurate reading of the views, experiences, about how relationship-building and task and goals of the people with whom you are oriented work should go together. When it working. comes to working together effectively on a 6. Different approaches to knowing; Notable task, cultures differ with respect to the differences occur among cultural groups importance placed on establishing when it comes to epistemologies – that is, relationships early on in the collaboration. the ways people come to know things. This does not mean that people from any of European cultures tend to consider these cultural backgrounds are more or less information acquired through cognitive committed to accomplishing the task, or means, such as counting and measuring, value relationships more or less; it means more valid than other ways of coming to they may pursue them differently. know things. Compare that to African 4. Different decision-making styles; The roles cultures' preference for affective ways of individuals play in decision-making vary knowing, including symbolic imagery and widely from culture to culture. For example, rhythm. in the U.S., decisions are frequently delegated – that is, an official assigns Conclusion responsibility for a particular matter to a From the discussions above, it can be seen that subordinate. In many Southern European the media and intercultural communication are and Latin American countries, there is a capable of creating a meeting point for actors on strong value placed on holding decision- the issues of national security and cohesion. makingresponsibilities oneself. When The place of the media in the affairs of national decisions are made by groups of people, security was abundantly made in the opening majority rule is a common approach in the where the Nigeria's 1999 national constitution U.S.; in Japan consensus is the preferred clearly spells out what roles the media should mode. Be aware that individuals' perform including safeguarding of our national expectations about their own roles in security and national interests. But the extent to shaping a decision may be influenced by which media players, civil society their cultural frame of reference. organizations, and other key state actors have 5. Different attitudes toward disclosure; In some been able to harness the potential that cross cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank cultural communication possibilities afford. about emotions, about the reasons behind a Furthermore, the continued occurrence of conflict or a misunderstanding, or about security issues in Nigeria buttresses the need for personal information. When you are Nigerians as well as the individuals involved in dealing with a conflict, be mindful that politics, security, international relations, etc. to people may differ in what they feel become conversant with cross-cultural comfortable revealing. Questions that may interactions including deploying the strategic seem natural to you – What was the conflict tools that engender peacebuilding in our fragile about? What was your role in the conflict? society. To achieve the above seamlessly What was the sequence of events, – may therefore, this paper advances the strategic

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Exploring The Use of Appropriate Media Mix in Addressing Security Challenges of Herdsmen attacks on Farming Communities

EZEBUENYI, EPHRAIM E. Ph.D, GINIKACHUKWU ALPHA & OSAFILE CELESTINA OGOCHUKWU Department of Mass Communication Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam Campus, [email protected], [email protected] Department of Mass Communication Delta State Polytechnic Ogwuashi-Uku, Delta State, [email protected]

Abstract The brazen manner Fulani herdsmen unleash attacks on farming communities in recent times has unequivocally triggered lots of security challenges in Nigeria. In contemporary society, the media have always been instrumental to responding to crises situation by adequately disseminating information on conflicts and attacks, and in doing so, reducing the propensity of security challenges. The main objective of this paper is to explore the integration of appropriate media mix (fusion of various media platforms and/or communication systems) as a strategy in checking security challenges of herdsmen attacks on farming communities in Nigeria as well as building peaceful co- existence among diverse ethnic nationalities and people from all walks of life. Integration of media mix could be seen as a strategy that describes the synergistic application of (for example) both traditional and modern media in an effort to achieve communication objectives irrespective of location and environment. Recognising the concerted efforts of various security agencies in maintaining peace and curbing conflicts in the country, the paper laments the lacuna occasioned by non-use of the appropriate media mix by governments at all levels, religious, traditional and community leaders in not only discouraging conflicts and security breaches, but also creating the right atmosphere for peaceful resolution of the contending issues between herdsmen and farming communities. The paper adopted the qualitative analytical approach in asserting that appropriate media mix offer great opportunity for common grounds and compromises that could initiate peaceful resolution of any contention in the society. The foregoing underscores this paper's position for advocating the adoption of appropriate media mix as a strategy in curbing security challenges of herdsmen attacks on farming communities in Nigeria.

Keywords: Exploring, Appropriate media mix, Security challenges, Herdsmen attacks, Farming communities.

Introduction Coser (2000) cited in Ofem and Inyang (2014) is The attacks by Fulani herdsmen on farming a very serious factor for struggles over the value communities are on the increase since the for land and its resources, with the claim for inception of the present administration of ownership and the claim for its position as a President Mohammadu Buhari in 29th May, common resource. It is important to also note 2015. Prior to the coming of this administration, that the complex land use system that has there had been skirmishes between herdsmen changed markedly overtime has culminated in and farmers in Nigeria resulting from the need to the present-day tension and conflicts between preserve and protect one's economic mainstay. Fulani herdsmen and farming communities. Overtime, pastures, woody vegetation, water The major cause of the conflict as observed resources and land are taken as common by Haro and Dayo (2005) is that most times the property resource (Adisa & Adekunle, 2010). Fulani herdsmen wander into the fields during However, the inevitability of conflict in the growing season while their herds eat or trample claim for scarce resources which as noted by on the crops due to the herdsmen's lack of

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):128 - 139 128 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Exploring The Use of Appropriate Media Mix in Addressing Security Challenges of Herdsmen attacks .... attention or the cattle's stray movement. This Again, does the Federal Government situation obviously creates tension and understand that there are civil options that could subsequently conflicts, which stem from the suffice as solutions to the herdsmen/farmers need to preserve and protect individuals' consistent conflicts other than brute force belongings. While the herdsmen strategize on (military options) or grazing reserves, which did the protection and reservation of their livestock, not receive the blessings of majority of states the farming communities relish their farmlands and the National Assembly. Media approaches (Ofem & Inyang, 2014). as a civil option can be a worthwhile solution in Many see the conflict as simply a farming, times of crises. The media, given their grazing land and water dispute, whereby the convergent features and present ICT revolution, herdsmen clash with farmers who accuse them can be utilized in a manner to focus on creating of damaging their crops – their economic ideal messages in people's languages to dissuade mainstay – and failure to control their cattle. On them from aggression and strike common the other hand, the Fulanis under the Cattle grounds for peace initiatives (Ezebuenyi, 2014). Breeders Association (CBA) claim that they are The success of any peace initiative in any being attacked by gangs from farming society presupposes a proper conceptualization communities who try to steal their cattle and of ideas in form of messages and an effective that they are just defending themselves. But why vehicle for driving the messages to the target do these attacks extend to mass killings and audience (Ezebuenyi & Ezeaka, 2015). butchery in this present administration of In most rural communities in Nigeria, President Mahammadu Buhari? The foregoing researches have shown that effective, impactful is one of the primary focus of this study. and well-diffused message delivery mechanism According to Eyekpimi (2016), to fully has thrived in the atmosphere of well selected understand the fundamental purpose of what media mix (Nwabueze & Ugwunno, 2010). this militant group demands, the cost of their Thus, the critical role of using appropriate action on the Nigeria government and state and media mix in the diffusion of peace initiatives seeking a proper way forward to curb their such as discouraging and addressing security attacks is an inevitable task. challenges of herdsmen attacks and other Indeed, the seeming boldness of the Fulani insurgencies in Nigeria and indeed other herdsmen (some wielding sophisticated nations of the world cannot be over- weapons such as AK 47, Pump-action revolver emphasized. riffles, among others) and the mystery The idea of media mix refers to the fusion of surrounding their real agenda continue to various media platforms that could be agitate and frighten our imagination. The integrated in enhancing easy, fast, wide Federal Government was recently quoted to diffusion and, in most cases, feedback. A typical have ordered an inquiry, military crackdown on example of appropriate media mix is the fusion the group and affirmed its plans to establish of traditional and modern communication cattle ranches as a solution to the frequent systems in an effort to achieve communication clashes between herdsmen and farmers in objectives (Ashong, 2005 cited in Nduka, 2006). Nigeria (Guardian, 2017 June 7). What is not It is an interface between two broad media very clear is whether the Federal Government classes where the traditional media are applied and indeed other stakeholders are sincere in in modern media environment or vice versa. It looking for solutions at addressing the security provides a multi-media approach to the challenges. implementation of communication-based

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):128 - 139 129 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Exploring The Use of Appropriate Media Mix in Addressing Security Challenges of Herdsmen attacks .... objectives (Nnaemeka & Ezebuenyi, 2016). Appropriate media mix are very effective in Today however, the emergence of sensitization, education, and mobilization of a Information and Communication Technologies diverse, large and wide-spread audience. (ICTs) has further widened the reach, and Certain considerations that enhance easy facilitated the fusion and use of media mix in the diffusion of media mix programmes include world. For instance, interactivity as embedded language. in some radio broadcast programmes today can When the people are spoken to in their be a common ground to bringing together language, it tends to create warmth, closeness, hitherto enemies and initiate peace moves easy comprehension and in fact prompt (Igboeli, Ezebuenyi & Onuigbo, 2015). It feedback (Obiekwe, 2010). Media mix becomes imperative to note therefore that programmes can be interactive in nature. interactive broadcast programme can offer an Interactive programmes, which involve or opportunity whereby community leaders, encourage a twoway communication between a religious leaders, traditional rulers, youth broadcast station and its listener, can be utilized leaders among others can talk to their people to initiate dialogue and peaceful resolution in using the people's language about anti-social terms of crisis. This communication can be face- behaviours, attacks, evils of insurgency and war. to-face; it can be via phone, text messages or The Fulani herdsmen are human beings from a letters; or it can be via Facebook, Twitter and known tribe, who speak a language. They have other online platforms (Igboeli, Ezebuenyi & religious, community and traditional leaders Onuigbo, 2015). The two way communication and affiliations. They can be targeted with can be between a listener and a radio/ appropriate media mix to make them realise the broadcaster, a listener and an extension agent, a need for peaceful co-existence with the farming listener and an NGO representative, or between communities. two or more listeners. Interactive programmes Before this approach, however, there is need can be recorded in the studio or in the field and to understand from the Buhari government involve conversations between two persons or whether there is a hidden agenda the Federal many people. government is executing using the Fulani herdsmen. This becomes imperative given the Theoretical Framework fact that under the leadership of Buhari (a The Functional theory of communication could Fulani man) the Fulani herdsmen have be very useful for any attempt to construct a new fearlessly destroyed farm crops, raped, maimed, framework for analysis of media and conflict and massacred farm communities all over the resolution. Functional theory is a classic nation using sophisticated weapons. How and communication theory anchored in sociological where do they get the weapons, who train them system theory, which views the media as on the use and why were they allowed to move performing roles designed to meet the needs of about with such dangerous weapons unchecked individuals and societies (Merton, 1957). by security agencies especially during this In communication studies, functional present administration? According to Fani theories paved the way for several approaches Kayode (2016), the Fulani herdsmen used to be and techniques in modern communication small boys with sticks and sometimes machetes. research, including media effects, uses and How then do they now carry sophisticated gratifications, agenda-setting, framing, weapons unchecked, which indeed amounts to cultivation theory, and the spiral of silence criminal complicity by the security agencies? theory (Littlejohn, 1999). Scholars have even

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):128 - 139 130 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Exploring The Use of Appropriate Media Mix in Addressing Security Challenges of Herdsmen attacks .... described functional theory as a paradigm – a out a research between 2013 and 2016 on the master theory in control of most research in causes and effects of the perennial clashes mass communication (McQuail, 2000). between herdsmen and farmers in Nigeria. Application of functional theory to mass The study also pointed out that ongoing communication developed over time through conflict is thwarting the country's economic several stages. Harold D. Lasswell first development to an enormous extent and if suggested three media functions: (1) conflicts were resolved the average household surveillance of the environment (news affected today could see income increase by at coverage); (2) correlation of the parts of society least 64 percent, and potentially 210 percent or (interpretation on news and information, higher. And also, states affected by Herdsmen- commentary, and editorial opinion); and (3) Farmers conflicts lost an average of 47% of transmission of culture (history values, religion, taxes (Internally Generated Revenue) during language, etc.) (Lasswell, 1948). Charles R. these attacks (Vanguard, 2016 June 7). Other Wright added a fourth function– entertainment economic impacts include: impeding trade distinguished between functions and practices, reduction in crop yield, destruction of dysfunctions, and constructed a framework for livestock, displacement of farmers, maiming of functional analysis (Wright, 1960). Denis human beings, loss of lives and properties, loss McQuail added a fifth function– mobilization, of products in storage and destruction of public described as campaign for societal objectives in and private buildings. the sphere of politics, war, economic Similarly, Tonah (2006) opines that the development, work and sometimes religion factors that account for the increasing farmer- (McQuail, 1987). herder conflicts include the southward Wright's distinction between function and movement of pastoral herds into the humid and dysfunction is pertinent to this present study as it sub-humid zones, promoted by the successful seeks to make the adoption of multi-media control of the menace posed by disease, the approaches imperative for checking the security widespread availability of veterinary medicine challenges of herdsmen attacks on farming and expansion of farming activities into areas communities. Adopting the functional media that hitherto serve as pasture land. theory ensures that proper information Though Tonah's account of the herdsmen dissemination channels and mechanism are pastures may not be exhaustive, the need for a deployed in resolving herdsmen-farmers political and socio–economic trans-breathing conflicts with its spiral effect of dousing security among the herdsmen also makes a reason for challenges. their movement. Economically too, viable land has been a major cause of conflict between LITERATURE REVIEW communities in Nigeria and especially between Socio-Political, Economic and Environmental herders and crop farmers. Ifatimehin (2008) Challenges of Herdsmen Attacks in Nigeria points out that the pursuit of access to a variety The incessant attacks of the herdsmen on of limited resources which includes grasslands, farming communities have a drastic effect on water spots for animals, rival claims to land, and food security and have caused a loss of $14 gover nment polices by individuals, billion in three years. A global humanitarian differentiated by different categories in defined organization, funded by the British Department socio-physical environments give rise to for International Development (BFID), carried conflicts.

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Fulani Herdsmen: Who are they and where do they cabinet at Eke Community in Udi Local come from? Government Area of Enugu State. The According to the Global Terrorism Index deceased, aged 85, was shot in his house in the (2015), these Fulani militants are the fourth early hours over an undisclosed issue with the deadliest militant group in the world with a herdsmen. The town of Nkpologu Community record killing of 1,229 people in 2014 alone. in Uzo-Uwani Local Government Area of However, the Federal Government has stated Enugu State was, in January 2015, thrown into that inquiries have established that most of these mourning following news of the death of a herdsmen who were involved in these clashes in young woman on New Year's Eve, during a Nigerian communities are not Nigerian citizens Fulani herdsmen's robbery attack on a and due to the ECOWAS Transhumance commuter bus (Vanguard, 2015). Protocol, which has given the right of free However, the attacks by herdsmen became movement to citizens of member countries, it unprecedentedly gruesome in recent years when cannot stop non-citizens of Nigeria from a Fulani man became the president of Nigeria. grazing their cattle across the country. Since January 2016, about 10 Agatu The Fula people, also known as Fulani in communities in Benue State have suffered Hausa language, are a mass population widely unprecedented hardship in the hands of men dispersed and culturally diverse in all of Africa, suspected to be Fulani herdsmen. About 500 but mostly predominate in West Africa. The Agatu villagers have reportedly lost their lives to Fulanis generally speak the Fula language. A the herdsmen. In Abia State communities of significant number of them are nomadic in Uzuakoli in Bende Local Government Area, nature, herding cattle, goats and sheep across Ebem and Akanu in Ohafia and Umuchieze in the vast dry grass lands of their environment, Umunneochi, there have been cases of deadly keeping isolated from the local farming clashes between rural farmers and the cattle communities, making them the world's largest breeders. The invasion of farmlands in Ebem pastoral nomadic group. They are massively and Akanu communities nearly resulted in spread over many countries, and are found bloodbaths but the wisdom of the leaders in the mainly in West Africa and northern parts of community who timely reported to the Central Africa, but also in Sudan and Egypt. authorities saved bloody clashes. Some of the The main Fulani sub-groups in Nigeria are: cases were so serious that Abia State Fulbe Adamawa, Fulbe Mbororo, Fulbe Government had to intervene, preventing the Sokoto, Fulbe Gombe, and the Fulbe Borgu. youths of the communities from retaliating. It set up a peace committee that quelled the then News Media Reports of Herdsmen Attacks imminent doom (Daily Sun, 2016, Jan 21). in Nigeria The case is not different in Enugu State. Of There were indeed skirmishes between the 482 communities in the state, one cannot herdsmen and farmers in Nigeria resulting from point to one community that has not had its fair mindless destruction of farm lands. Back in the share of Fulani herdsmen's barbaric activities, 1980's, 1990's, 2000's and before the present leaving in their wake perennial tears of sorrow dispensation, conflicts between the herdsmen as incidents of killing, robbery, rape, maiming and farmers had always been reported in the and kidnapping by the cattle herdsmen have news media. Thus, in March 2014, suspected inflicted pains on most farmers, leaving them in Fulani herdsmen allegedly killed Tamgbo fear. Ogueji, a member of the traditional rulers' In April 2016, suspected Fulani herdsmen

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):128 - 139 132 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Exploring The Use of Appropriate Media Mix in Addressing Security Challenges of Herdsmen attacks .... invaded Ukpabi Nimbo community in Uzo to create grazing zones across the country, Uwani Local Government Area of Enugu State arguing that the decision is ill-advised, against killing scores. The herdsmen, numbering more the land use act and overriding public interest than 100, reportedly stormed the sleepy (Punch, 2017). community in the early hours of the Monday morning carrying guns, bows, arrows, machetes Timeline of Herdsmen and Farmers Clashes and swords to execute their mission (Daily Sun, in Nigeria 2016 April 12). Here are some of the attacks by Fulani The attack by hordes of AK-47-wielding Herdsmen compiled from various news Fulani herdsmen and militants on some farms headlines: September 30, 2012: A Fulani in Enugu State remains the worst criminal herdsman had been accused of murdering one feature of disdain to the Igbos (Agbodo, 2016). Benjamin Chegue on his farm, the Director of In order to protect their lives, their families, their Personal Management in the Isoko North Local property, their livestock and their crops from the Government Council In Delta State. April 5th, murderous vandals and marauders, the Igbo 2014: Assailants opened fire on community farmers organised themselves and fought back leaders and residents that were meeting in gallantly. Consequently, there were casualties Galadima village. At least 200 people were on both sides. Instead of the police to come in to killed and an unknown number were injured in apprehend the Fulani aggressors and raiders, the attack. Sources attributed the attack to seize their weapons and bring them to justice, Fulani assailants. they arrested 76 Igbo farmers. Not one Fulani February 18th, 2016: Five persons were militant or herdsman was questioned over this killed by Fulani herdsmen at Okokolo village in incident let alone disarmed, cautioned or Agatu Local Government Area of Benue State. arrested. March 5th 2016: About 500 persons were killed The attack of Fulani herdsmen have not by the rampaging herdsmen following a siege on only been witnessed in North-Central and Agatu Local Government Area of Benue State. South-East alone, Farmers in Lagun, Iyana These communities include: Aila, Akwu, Offa, Offa, Atagba, Lapata and their Adagbo, Okokolo, Ugboju, Odugbeho, surrounding communities in Lagelu Local Ogbaulu, Egba and Obagaji. April 12th, 2016: Council Area of Ibadan, Oyo State, alleged that Fulani herdsmen attacked two villages in a group of Fulani armed men attacked their Gashaka Local Government Area of Taraba communities, carting away valuables State and killed 15 people. April 19th, 2016: (Ifatimehin, 2008). Twenty-five local government areas in Delta State grounded activities on the Benin-Asaba Government Responses to the Attacks Expressway. They reported that the herdsmen In a bid to curb these violent clashes, a bill, allegedly killed over 23 persons. Interestingly, sponsored by Senator Zainab Kure, was the police recovered 20 AK-47 rifles, 70 dane proposed. The bill titled “National Grazing guns, 30 double-barrel guns and over 1,000 live Reserve (Establishment) Bill 2016” will provide ammunition, mostly from Fulani herdsmen for the establishment of the National Grazing during this period. Reserve Commission which shall have powers April 21st, 2016: Farmers in Lagun, Iyana to, among other things, establish at least one Offa, Offa, Atagba, Lapata and their Cattle Reserve in each state of the federation. surrounding communities in Lagelu Local But many have kicked against the proposed bill Council Area of Ibadan, Oyo State, alleged that

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):128 - 139 133 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Exploring The Use of Appropriate Media Mix in Addressing Security Challenges of Herdsmen attacks .... a group of Fulani armed men attacked their agricultural land-related conflicts, with communities at night, injured a guard and respondents recalling conflicts that were as far carted away valuables. back as 1965 and as recent as 2005. April 25th, 2016: Fulani herdsmen attack Also, in a study carried out by (Fiki & Lee, seven villages in Nimbo in Uzo-Uwani Local 2004) in the guinea Savannah area of Kwara Government Area of Enugu State. About 40 State, the study reported that out of about 150 persons were reportedly killed. June 16th, 2016: households interviewed, 22 reported losses of A 45-year-old renowned farmer was shot by livestock while eight household from both sides gunmen suspected to be Fulani herdsmen in reported loss of human lives. Other studies as Ossissa community in Ndokwa East Local observed by (Negedu, 2005) have also indicated Government Area of Delta State. June 20th, that stores, barns, residences and household 2016: At Least 59 Deaths have been recorded items were destroyed in many of the violent following recent attacks on Benue communities clashes. such as Ugondo, Turan, Gabo Nenzev – in the Further studies by Ofuku and Isife (2009) Logo Local Government Area – by suspected also revealed that at the south- south region of herdsmen. Nigeria, especially in Delta and Edo states, Cases of farmers'- herders' conflicts are more than 40 million worth of crops are usually widespread in recent times. For instance, in lost annually due to invasion of cattle. This has Densina Local Government of Adamawa State, not only created an impediment on the survival 28 people were feared killed, about 2,500 of the host communities, but has for instance led farmers were displaced and rendered homeless to crop-farmers abandoning farming for lesser in the hostility between cattle rearers and occupations like Okada riding and other artisan farmers in host community in 2005. Nweze vocations. In order to bring about co-existence (2005) cited in Ofem and Inyang (2014) also between crop farmers and Fulani herdsmen, stated that many farmers and herders have lost several measures have always been put in place. their lives and herds while others have As observed by Olabode and Ajibade (2010), experienced dwindling productivity in their most times Fulani herdsmen are asked to pay herds. This was supported by Ajuwo (2004) who compensation or in case of excessive damages cited Ofem and Inyang (2014) in their the state or local government comes to aid of the observation that in Imo State for instance crop farmers who are mostly affected. between 1996 and 2005, 19 people died and 42 were injured in farmers-herders' conflicts. Using Appropriate Media Mix in Communication for In Yakurr area of Cross River State Nigeria, Peace Building in the Society series of squabbles between Fulani herdsmen Communication is central to many aspects of and youth of the area have been reported to the work in conflict and post-conflict settings. The Police in the area. In the same way, a newspaper use of traditional or mass media (radio, TV, study of conflicts/crises in Nigeria between print journalism and social media) have long 1991 and 2005, by Fasona and Omojola (2005) been acknowledged as playing a crucial part in found that farmer herdsmen conflicts accounted providing information and messages that can for 35% of the major clashes reported by shape popular views. As we know, these tools of selected Nigerian newspaper. Another study of communication have been used to both incite 27 communities in central Nigerian by Fiki and violence as well as carry messages that help Lee (2004) showed that over 40% of the prevent violent conflict, and promote peace and household surveyed had experienced reconciliation. The ability of communication to

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):128 - 139 134 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Exploring The Use of Appropriate Media Mix in Addressing Security Challenges of Herdsmen attacks .... successfully influence and sustain peace individuals, opinion leaders, and religious, building depends to a large extent on the traditional, youth leaders in the society can adequacy of mechanisms for integration and champion this course by being involved in any coordination of information and action. of the media mix strategy in calling for peace. Technological innovations have further created Harping on how media mix programme can n ew o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d o u t l e t s f o r facilitate peace and reconciliation, Oryema, a communication (Coyle & Meier 2009). former Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) of Today, we can successfully adopt a media Uganda child soldier, who later returned home, mix which unequivocally is an offshoot of new explains how Mega FM broadcast helped him communication technology using cell phones, realize the gravity of his misdeeds: Internet, online social media platforms, among others to voice and be part of a programme and I did not feel anything bad about killing. receive instantaneous feedback. This can be a Not until I started listening to Radio huge aid in the effort to build lasting peace by Mega… I actually heard over the radio helping people communicate, view information, how…we burnt homes…And I started make decisions and understand each other to think; Are we really fighting a normal better (Cole, 2007). In recent years, the use of war? That is when I started realizing these new technologies have changed the nature that maybe there is something better of communication flows that contribute to than being here in the bush crises and disaster response, conflict (www.peacecoprs.gov/openings) cited monitoring, and community peace building in (Ezebuenyi & Ezeaka, 2015). activities. The publication “Peace-building in the In the same manner, Mr. Boniface Ojok of the information age: sifting hype from reality” (ICT non-profit project: Justice and Reconciliation for Peace Foundation, Jan. 2011) suggests that located in Gulu, North Uganda said Mega FM's we are moving from a rigid top-down programme “Dwogcen Paco' (Come back hierarchical approach to an increasing reliance home) succeeded in encouraging rebels to come on mobile, inclusive, interactive tools, building out of the bush.” The Programme brought on wealth of information gathered from locals former soldiers like Oryema on the air to talk and those outside of traditional development, about their experience and calling on others to humanitarian and peace-building communities. quit the war. This transformative switch to a more bottom-up In Eastern Democratic Republic of the approach, focusing on the individuals and Congo (DRC), where thousands were killed communities in crises and conflict areas, creates during the country's war, another project, called opportunities for improved real-time the Interactive Radio for Justice (IRFJ), seeks to communication with a range of agencies, but raise public awareness of human rights and the also creates opportunities for greater self- options for dealing with crimes during and after sufficiency in times of crises and conflict. In the war. Set up in June 2005 with funding from essence, these new tools have changed what the US philanthropic Mac Arthur Foundation, information can be gathered and accessed, who the IRFJ produces programmes in which can participate in the communication process, members of the public pose questions and get and also, who can be a peacebuilder (Kalathil, answers from local and international officials. Langlois & Kaplan, 2008). The goal is not just to inform the public, says Well known, respectful and altruistic producer Wanda Hall. “The project allows us to

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):128 - 139 135 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Exploring The Use of Appropriate Media Mix in Addressing Security Challenges of Herdsmen attacks .... push authorities to do their job and our job is to and broadcast them via public access channels get them say these things on radio so that the throughout the countries of the former population know what their rights are (Peace Yugoslavia, allowing those who lost contact in revolution.net/docs/en/peace-r…) cited in the wars to reconnect. As with all technologies, (Igboeli, Ezebuenyi & Onuigbo, 2015). these tools are just a means to an end. The Peace Education Interactive Personal communication devices can Programme developed and endorsed by dramatically increase the flow in information, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNICEF and INEE even in places where few other ICTs are teaches the skills and values associated with available. For instance, in the KwaZulu natal peaceful behaviours. The programme is province of South Africa the Umnyango Project designed to enable and encourage people to is using SMS technology to allow those with cell think constructively about issues, both physical phones to access information and report and social attitude towards living together and violence against women and children as well as solving problems that arise in their communities violations of women's right to own land. through peaceful means. The interaction with Email lists and website forums can connect the audience in a give and take manner ensures communities and encourage ongoing the viability of the programme. It is essential conversations, even among citizens, directly that peace interactive programme is not a involved in a conflict and those in the diaspora. “oneoff ” initiative but rather a well-structured In many communities, radio is the only link to and sustained programme that engages the the outside world, for instance, Search for opinion of all stake holders. (www.unesco.org/ Common Ground has launched Radio for news/ en/bureauof-str...) cited in (Nnaemeka & Peacebuilding Africa, which aims to develop, Ezebuenyi, 2016). spread and encourage the use of radio broadcasting techniques and content for Using Interactivity Tools for Peacebuilding and peacebuilding. Easy communication Development technologies like mobile phones can greatly Interactive tools that help people communicate, increase the efficiency of markets, especially in understand data, and learn such as computers, the developing world. For example, a fisherman the internet, mobile phones and more can be a can use a cell phone to find the market with the tremendous help in facilitating peace building highest prices and reduce the amount of wasted (Crawford, 2007). She listed the following as catch. According to a recent article in the examples: In the Philippines, large scale Economist, fishermen's profit rose by 8% on demonstrations organized via cell phones and average and consumer prices fell by 4% on SMS were a major factor in forcing President average through better communication (www. Joseph Estrada to resign, thus bringing about usaid.gov/../office.food) cited in (Nnaemeka & change without large-scale violence. During the Ezebuenyi, 2016). fighting in Burundi, online discussion groups One big question is whether interactive hosted by Burundinet and the Burundi Youth programmes actually achieve anything beyond Council allowed Burundi of different increasing public debate? Do they actually get backgrounds to discuss the situation, debate things accomplished? In many cases they do. root causes and figure out ways to move For example, in September 2010, a text message forward, after it became difficult to physical sent to the morning show on Joy FM in Accra, meet. The service video letter net captures video Ghana raised the issue of black fly infestation at messages from former neighbours and friends a drinking water source in a rural community.

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):128 - 139 136 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Exploring The Use of Appropriate Media Mix in Addressing Security Challenges of Herdsmen attacks ....

The local Assemblyman had already tried Communication which is not only central to without success to draw the attention of health every peace-building campaign but also the authorities to the problem. Public discussions livewire of any successful effort in reaching the and careful follow-up by Joy FM eventually led people for any meaningful change or to the problem being addressed by offering development can be deployed in curtailing these screening and medication to those affected, and conflicts. The quest to curb any disturbing trend provision of drinking water to the community. such as militancy, conflicts, attacks or other One of the keys to this success is the fact that Joy social miasma in contemporary society requires FM had built and earned the trust of its listeners, viable communication strategies for sensitizing and had cultivated relationships with civil the masses for a better response. This calls for a officials over a long period of time through multi-media, multi-channel approach in interactivity. The stations persistence and providing the live-wire that would effectively integrity over a long period of time resulted in link change agents and policy makers with the the overwhelming results (Nnaemeka & public. Appropriate media mix boasts of a blend Ezebuenyi, 2016). of the reach, credibility, accessibility and such If interactive broadcast programmes were other characteristics to provide a strong force for used in the above development and achieving peace-building campaigns, peacebuilding efforts in Ghana and other reconciliations and other objectives in the societies around the world as stated above, it is society. the contention of this paper that they can Messages are better packaged in the people's equally be meaningfully deployed in Nigeria to language. Traditional media are vital in relaying achieve socio-political and economic change messages to people in the hinterlands. It developments as well as foster peace and is therefore very important to ensure that social harmonious coexistence in the country. The change programmes/campaigns such as challenges posed by herdsmen attack in Nigeria creating peace initiatives are packaged and can equally be addressed using interactive tools. transmitted using multi-media approach. Any social change programme meant for the people Conclusion/Recommendations in the society needs a conscious integration of Herdsmen/ farmers conflict has cost Africa's appropriate media mix. This approach largest economy more than $14bn (£10bn) in the underscores proper knowledge and under- three years to 2015, according to the UK-based standing of the people vis-a-vis the kind of humanitarian organisation, Mercy Corps. It has media that best informs them. "impeded market development and economic The use of an appropriate media mix is a growth by destroying productive assets, double-barrel attack in reaching people in the preventing trade, deterring investment, and society. The people should be reached or spoken eroding trust between markets actors," it added to in the language they understand. The in a 2018 July report. The recent upsurge also leadership of various interest groups which no represents a fresh security challenge for a doubt is considered as indigenous country already stretched by the seven-year communication channels, religious leaders, Boko Haram insurgency in its north-eastern traditional rulers, opinion leaders in a region. Unlike that crisis which is concentrated community should be used to speak to the on a fraction of the country, this conflict is people in their language on radio or television. occurring in almost every part of Africa's most In this way, appropriate media mix is expressed populous nation. and people are better informed.

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It is important to re-conceptualise multi- media information and social networks. Washington channels as viable strategy with an aim to D.C. and London U.K.: UN Foundation and making them more effective, all-embracing and Vodophone partnership. ensure they are integrated in any social change, Eyekpimi, O. (2016, June 21). History of Fulani peace-building campaign and reconciliation herdsmen and farmers clashes in Nigeria. Vanguard Newspaper, p.3. being packaged for the society. In this way, it Ezebuenyi, E. E. (2014). The use of Facebook in should be seen as an essential ingredient, very enhancing electoral participation in Nigeria's critical for diffusion of social change campaigns 2011 presidential election. M.Sc dissertation, in the society. Having said that, it becomes Anambra State University, Uli. imperative to advise governments at all levels, Ezebuenyi, E.E. &Ezeaka, N. (2015). Diffusion of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), social change campaigns in rural communities: change agents and development agents to take The critical role of trado-modern media advantage of the potentialities inherent in the approach. Mass Media Review: An International adoption of appropriate media mix in reaching Journal of Communication, 2 (1), 69-81. the people especially in times of crisis to initiate Ezebuenyi, E.E. (2016). Newspaper framing of Jonathan's congratulatory message to Buhari and its a common ground for negotiation, dialogue and influence on readers' perception of the message. Ph.D. peaceful resolution. seminar presented to the Department of Mass Media managers should be proactive in Communication, Faculty of Social Sciences, designing social change programmes with a Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University view to integrating the right media mix as a (COOU), Igbariam Campus, 16th August, 2016. strategy for wide spread diffusion of social Fani-Kayode, F. (2016). Bemoans the condition of change messages especially in condemning Igbos since emergence of Buhari. http://www. militancy, conflicts, attacks and initiating vanguardngr.com/news peace-building and reconciliation in any Fasona, M.J. & Omojola, A.S. (2005). Climate change, society. human security and communal clashes in Nigeria. Paper at International Workshop in Human Security and Climate Change. Holmen Fjord References Hotel, Oslo Oct. 21-23, 2005, pp. 3-13. Adisa, S. R. & Adekunle, O.A. (2010). Farmer- Fayose, A. (2016). Fayose lambast Buhari. http:// herdsmen conflicts: A factor analysis of socio- www.vanguardngr.com/news economic conflict variables among arable crop Fiki, C. & Lee, B. (2004). Conflict generation, farmers in North Central Nigeria. Journal of conflict management and self organising Human Ecology, 30 (1), 1-9. capabilities in drought-prone rural communities Agbodo, J.A. (2015, June 14). Uwazuruike alleges in North Easter Nigeria; A case study of social plans by APC government to Islamise Nigeria. development in Africa. Journal of Social http://www.Vanguardngr.com/news. Development in Africa, 19 (2), 25-48. Bennett, W.L., Lawrence, R.G., & Livingston, S. Haro, G.O. & Doyo, G.J. (2005). Linkages between (2007). When the press fails: Political power and community, environmental, and conflict the news media from Iraq to Katrina. In Kellner, management: Experiences from Northern D. (Ed.), War correspondents, the military, and Kenya. J. World Dev., 33 (2), 285-299. Hutcheson, J. propaganda: Some critical reflections. (2004). US. National identity, political elite and International Journal of Communication, 297, 307- a patriotic press. Following September 11 312. attacks. Political Communication, 21, 27-50. Cole Crawford LinkedIn (2007) Cole Crawford ICT for Peace Foundation, (2011). Peace-building in overview www.linkedIn.com/../5b2 the information age: Shifting hype from reality. Coyle, D. & Meier, P. (2009). New technologies in ICT for Peace-building. emergencies and conflicts: The role of

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Music as Tool for Political Propaganda in 2019 Nigeria's General Elections

UWAOMA UCHE, PhD, JOHNSON IZUNDU ANENE, PhD & OJIAKU, EVELYN NGOZI Rhema University, Aba Email: [email protected], Hezekiah University, Umudi Email: [email protected], Temple Gate Polytechnic, Aba Email: [email protected]

Abstract The study explores the role of musicals as political propaganda tools in the 2019 General Elections in Nigeria. The inquiry employed the survey methodology research making use of the questionnaire and personal interviews as research instruments. Agenda setting and the Passive-Audience Theoretical Framework were engaged. The study focused primarily on 600 randomly selected Youths and Women population who make up 70% of the politically active voting population. It also gave attention to political musical jingles played on vehicles, the Internet and the broadcast media. The study discovered that music as popular culture served as a persuasive and integrative political propaganda which perorates the grassroots cutting across race, culture, class, age and ideology while playing communication roles on political issues. It concludes that the parties made use of the mass media at their disposal to encourage political participation. It recommends that music remains indispensable in the political campaign arithmetic for mobilization and propaganda.

Keywords: Music, Propaganda, 2019 General Elections, Political Participation.

Introduction campaign issues, values, goals and manifestos The responsibility of the mass media in the using campaign tools which include musical electoral process such as campaigns is that of jingles. fostering public enlightenment and The study recommends a fuller engagement accountability by giving the public critical of music as propaganda tool in political analysis of political parties' events, policies and audience engineering. It recommends further promotional tools such as announcements, research in music as the popular political jingles, etc. The aim is to promote effective language and advocacy in political theatrics. popular participation in the electoral process and keep the electorates informed and involved. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM According to Ochonogor (2012, p.334) The Nigerian political development has been experts in media studies believe that modern grappling with political problems such as politics is largely impossible without adequate riggings, thuggery and politically motivated media coverage of political parties' tools for killings. It has been characterized with the campaign. This is what Luke Anorue (2012, absence of dialogue and effective media p.24) refers to as political communication. This engagement. It is widely believed that elections concept of political communication engages are concluded in Nigeria before the campaigns the mass media in the political image and real elections ever take place. This has often laundering of candidates running for political given room to electorates' apathy in the electoral offices, defines social reality and social norms, process. Campaign tools, public engagement educates, informs, enlightens and entertains and voting are alleged not to amount to the electorates as well as presents and clarifies choosing of political candidates in the Nigerian

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):140 - 147 140 UWAOMA UCHE, et al Music as Tool for Political Propaganda in 2019 Nigeria's General Elections political clime. It is believed that the electoral research course in this regard. choices are made by political barons outside the orbit of electoral norms, campaigns, media OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY propaganda, rules and procedures. The objectives of the study are as follows; In the 2019 general elections in Nigeria, the 1. To identify the possible impact of campaign mass media role in political mobilization musicals as propaganda tool on the electoral despite the increasing number of radio and choice of the Nigerian electorate. television stations can still not be confirmed to 2. To identify the various channels of this have successfully exposed the bulk of the media impact absorption and the dynamics population to the ingredients of political of its integration in political education and campaigns, candidates and programmes. mobilization. However, the unlimited exposure of the 3. To build on the exposure on the content and electorates to musical political jingles as aired materials relating to this subject and bridge on the Radio, television and vehicular media the understanding gap in the impact of made significant impact on the voter's choice of musical campaign as political propaganda candidates in the election. It therefore becomes tool on the Nigerian electorates. pertinent to explore in detail the possible media 4. To identify possible positive aspects of the impact of the use of musicals as propaganda impact or otherwise for further study. tools by political parties in the 2019 Nigeria general elections. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. Are the Nigerian electorate familiar with SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY musicals used by parties as propaganda The study is significant as it will expose the level tools in the 2019 General elections? of impact of the campaign musicals on the 2. What are the different modes, channels and electorates particularly the youths and women integration with the musicals used in the population who form the regular political propaganda that appealed to them? audience in the dynamics of the Nigerian 3. What kind and level of impact do the political process. campaign propaganda musicals have on This will be of relevance to students, their political decision? scholars and policy moulders in political 4. Are these impacts considered as a positive or communication including the political negative development in Nigeria's 2019 formations to consider music as a veritable tool general election? for campaigns. It will also open up a new vintage for DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY political discourse using the instrument of This study is delimited to youth and women musicals as propaganda tool to ventilate audience in Lagos to obtain in-depth political ideas and appropriately use it to information and to assess the impact of convince the electorate instead of the endless musicals as tools of political propaganda in the thuggery and killing associated with the 2019 Nigeria General Elections. Nigerian politics. In view of paucity of studies This is based on the cosmopolitan and on this subject, this study will also help to build integrative nature of Lagos as mini Nigeria. body of knowledge and serve as a reliable Lagos is a political and commercial hub of compendium on this subject of political Nigeria with all shades, tribes, classes, structures campaign and propaganda, as it helps chart and ideologies domiciled there. It will also study

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):140 - 147 141 UWAOMA UCHE, et al Music as Tool for Political Propaganda in 2019 Nigeria's General Elections a sample population of 100 persons in clusters consider the mass media as a reference and a of two: the Lagos mainland and the Lagos reliable companion in their effort to define their Island. role in society” (Durham, 1999, p.23). The study is also narrowed to youths and According to Killen (2000, p.96), the women of voting age. This is based on the pervasive media messages have a strong verifiable indices of youths and women as the influence on the youth in their search for social indispensable politically participation acceptance and self-identity. population who make up 70% of the active Clearly, the entertainment industry of voters in Nigeria. musicals, films, television, radios and serials have a telling impact on the behavior of LITERATURE REVIEW especially youths in the society. Media Effects on People The mass media has become a pervasive and Political Communication in Nigeria ever present entity in the lives of many people. It Political communication according to Graber is a strong influence in constructing meaning in and Smith (2005, p.479) are messages that are our everyday lives. Social Comparison Theory politically oriented. They posit that “the key believes that people will (at some point in their element is that the message has a significant lives) compare themselves and significant others political effect on the thinking beliefs and to people, signals, symbols, lyrics and images behaviors of individuals, groups, institutions which they perceive to represent realistic goals and whole societies and the environments in to attain (Botta, 1999). which they exist.” The mass media helps to define, explain, The definition implies that political persuade and shape the world around us. communication is a body of message targeted at Without always knowing it, people make political matters for the aim of achieving decision, choices, and automatic comparisons political effect which in other parlance can be on ourselves, those close to us and situations in known as political propaganda. In this case, our lives from media-induced information both the senders and the receivers are political which includes musicals. As a result, the effect entities with political interests. of the media content motivates people to strive According to Ochongor (2012, p.334), the for, and achieve new found goals and mass media has revolutionized political expectations as presented by the media campaign in Nigeria because they enable propaganda. candidates to reach voters more quickly and Youths, adolescents and women, because of more directly using various propaganda their dynamic nature, are more vulnerable to messages. The political parties depend heavily media images and content. According to on the mass media to transmit their remarks to Hargreaves and Tiggemann (2003, p.118) they the public as it is impossible for them to are more likely to take at face value all images personally contact every voter in their district. and scenarios portrayed in the media as they The political landscape of Nigeria has over tend to see almost everything as realistic and the period between 1999 to 2019 general attainable. Youths are more likely to be elections witnessed the massive use of political influenced by the media messages. They will communication. According to Udeajah (2004, attempt to model themselves, both physically p.205) “during the 1999 politics, the role of the and through their actions after the images and public service broadcasting became evident in media content viewed or listened to. “They reporting and interpreting political events,

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):140 - 147 142 UWAOMA UCHE, et al Music as Tool for Political Propaganda in 2019 Nigeria's General Elections defining trends in the electoral process and in range of issues of concern. This political educating the population politically through information in form of political propaganda is news, current affairs programmes.” what helps to ensure the electorates make the Obayi (2012, p.35) continues in that trend of right choice in the political clime. position as he confirms that under Yaradua/ Political activities in Nigeria are at the heart Jonathan-led administration, the media still of national development. With the increase in performed the same function in their political the political consciousness of the people as c o m mu n i c a t i o n . H oweve r, i n 2 0 1 9 mostly expressed during political campaign, the electioneering campaign, a lot of politicians use of appropriate propaganda tools becomes were able to use the mass media including the most imperative. The need for effective political new media of communication via the Internet. communication, therefore, cannot be Facebook, YouTube, blogs and the mass media overemphasized. were agog with musical propaganda and Uche (2018), in a lecture for the messages by the political parties to convince the correspondents, chapel of the Nigeria Union of Nigerian electorates. Journalist in Umuahia, emphasised the need to Idiong (2004, p.23) opines that political effectively engage the mass media in political communication involves the flow of propaganda and political communication. He information through political processes. It is stressed the need to adopt the new media of therefore the use of different systems, channels communication in achieving the political and forms of communication to facilitate the communication need of the people. This is achievement of predetermined ends. premised on the fact that the more political Political communication has been variously awareness they have, the more developed they christened by different scholars; some call it will be and able to make the right political political advertising while others call it choices. marketing politics. The fundamentals is that it is Since positive political campaigns can premised on the inalienable right to inform and influence positive political developments, the to be informed. The political actors and the media-induced political propaganda should be syndicates as well as the media have the right to engaged. communicate their different messages and propaganda to the people. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Agba (2007, p.74) believes that political The theoretical framework underpinning this propaganda tools using the mass media have a study is the Passive-Audience Theory. This is duty to clarify issues during political campaigns, also called magic bullet theory or hypodermic the essence being to bring aspirants close to the needle theory. This theory contends that the electorates, teach the difference between one media has great influence on the audiences. party's ideology and another, and establish the The Passive Audience Theory particularly difference between party and candidate to asserts that the audience receiver's mind is a enable the electorates make a wise choice. He table-rascal and that media messages influence contends that “it is still possible to vote different his thoughts and actions. The Passive Audience candidates from different parties for different Theory, which is a modelling theory, asserts that posts”. This situation is achievable through the the mass media especially the electronic media use of propaganda. in music, film, radio, television, create powerful The mass media serves the function of images that model the thinking, choices and providing information to the society on a wide behavior of their audience. This is the working

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):140 - 147 143 UWAOMA UCHE, et al Music as Tool for Political Propaganda in 2019 Nigeria's General Elections theoretical framework upon which this study is specifically Youths and Women, are familiar conceived and carried out. with musicals used by the parties as propaganda tool in the 2019 general election. METHODOLOGY The research design adopted for this study is the Research Question 2 survey method. This is characterized by the use What are the different modes, channels and of the questionnaire to generate primary data. integration which the musicals used in the Dike(2000, p.16) defined research design as the propaganda that appealed to them? means by which the researcher decides on 71% of the respondents listened to the where, who and what to collect information musical jingles through the broadcast media. In from, as well as describe to readers and users of the same affirmation, the channel of the the research report on how the selected research internet, facebook, youtube were mostly modes instrument was actually put into operation to and channels that appealed to them. As clearly generate the needed information. . reflected 51% and additional 30% strongly The study therefore surveyed the use of agreed and agreed respectively that these musicals as propaganda tools in the 2019 channels appealed to them. Nigerian General Elections. The study focused Furthermore, 52% and 32% strongly agreed on Lagos cosmopolitan as a miniature Nigeria. and agreed respectively that the lyrics and the A sample of 100 youths and women were drawn artistes who voiced the musical jingles are their to represent the electorate, and administered the musical heroes or heroine as the case may be. questionnaire. For satisfactory coverage, Lagos In consolidating the response to the mode of was divided into two: Lagos Island and Lagos appeal, 72% considered the language factor as a Mainland. very strong appeal because the musicals used language that they can understand. ANALYSIS OF DATA It is essential to analyse the data obtained from Research Question 3 the field survey which answer the research What kind and level of impact did the campaign questions. propaganda musicals have on the political decision? Research Question 1 62% of the respondents indicate that the Are the Nigerian electorate familiar with musicals of the political jingle influenced their musicals used by the parties as propaganda tools support for the party to vote at election. This in the 2019 General Election? 52% which shows that the media impact was enormous. constituted the highest number in question 8 The impact was also reflected in the content of strongly agreed to the fact that they understand the musicals which made true claims as posited that music is a strong political tool in elections. by the political parties. That is the reason why To further confirm the claim in question 9, a 48% and 25% strongly agreed and agreed higher component of the population comprising respectively to the level of impact to the claims. 61% strongly agreed that they are familiar with Again, 72% of the respondents strongly the propaganda music as it was effectively agreed that the musical had effect and impacts utilized by the various political parties in the on their choice of candidate to vote at the political campaign of 2019general elections. election because it was aired in a language they The findings thus answer research question could understand. Here the audience 1, having revealed that the Nigerian electorate, determination of levels of impact was based on

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):140 - 147 144 UWAOMA UCHE, et al Music as Tool for Political Propaganda in 2019 Nigeria's General Elections their understanding or evaluation involving reachability is also determined by listening or viewing activity. Only such levels of availability of light and the necessary attention to broadcast content can affect the communication gadgets. consciousness and attitude of the audience in 4. That the study revealed the effective use of desired direction. the musical propaganda in the 2019 general election which was a true to type of their Research Question 4 campaign involvement and achievements. It Are these impacts considered as a positive or commends the non-use of offensive negative development in Nigeria's 2019 General materials, words or contents in the delivery Elections? of the musical propaganda messages. 42% of the population were positive as they 5. That the use of the social media has proven strongly agreed that the musicals of the political very effective as the findings of the research propaganda jingle were not offensive. show that a greater number of the research Buttressing the positive impact of the musical p o p u l a t i o n g o t i nvo l ve d i n t h e propaganda, 80% of the population recommend communication encounter on the musical the use of music as political propaganda in propaganda via the internet and its social future elections in Nigeria. media subsidiaries. It therefore shows that the impact was 6. That the musical of the political propaganda considered positive in the political development was an indispensable indices in the political of Nigeria's 2019 elections. choice decision of the electoral class in the 2019 general election. A greater percentage FINDINGS affirmed to its impact and influence on their The findings of the research work are as follows: political decision regarding the candidates 1. That the youths and female population or party they choose to vote for during the make up a very significant sector of the elections. voting audience that needs prompt attention 7. That there is a great appeal of this tool of to cultivate, develop, assuage and engineer political propaganda to be adopted and in any given election as they were recommended as a veritable propaganda particularly effective in the 2019 Nigeria's tool at subsequent elections in Nigeria. General Elections. 2. That the need to make musical audience CONCLUSION engineering a viable tool of propaganda in Musicals and other mass media contents have a elections is strongly needed as it appealed to great flexibility in changing and modeling the Youth and women who were involved in audience orientation. Therefore, the concern of the 2019 Nigerian General Election. the persons involved in the use of musicals as The content of such musicals should tools of propaganda at elections should be to also be made available in a theme, language, present the kind of musical content that will lyric that should share commonness and bring the electoral audience into an integration of the viewing or listening engagement. electoral audience. They should study the communication 3. That accessibility to broadcast media components either the traditional, conventional content such as musicals can only be or the new media form and eliminate the penetrating and grassroots-oriented if they extraneous to fashion out the form that, are made reachable to the electorates. The considering all variables, will appeal to and

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):140 - 147 145 UWAOMA UCHE, et al Music as Tool for Political Propaganda in 2019 Nigeria's General Elections impact the target audience in order to elicit the and its components of facebook, twitters, expected responses. yo u t u b e. T h e i r u s e i n p r o p a g a n d a This is more because the youth and women dissemination via the new media will be most audience particularly the broadcast audience effective to reach the Youths in Nigeria who are are infotainment hungry. Akpan (1987, p.86) well exposed to this new media form. believes that one of the good things one can say The internet has made the world a global about the Nigerian broadcast audience is that village and information on the net spreads like they have a high viewing and listening taste. Wildfire and can be effective in campaigns. The The media audience tend to be unimpressed utilization of this network by politicians and by any media content that does not entail their political parties who own blogs can be veritable participation and engagement. They tend to propaganda. proffer solution, engage in the media discourse However some level of control should be and mould their views and opinions in line with applied to censor the content to avoid negative the message and join in the democratic contents, falsehood and cantankerous materials experience. that may go viral and jeopardize the electoral In conclusion, political campaigns should and democratic process. be more on content delivery via propaganda There is the need to carry out further studies tools rather than violence and thuggery that had on the musical propaganda as a tool for been the bane of Nigeria's political situation. In audience engineering not only during campaign view of the dynamics of the political culture or elections but in other developmental activities new media, societal growth, renewal and of national prominence. This is premised on the globalization, the earlier the musical findings of this research study that music has a propaganda is adopted in future elections in special appeal and impact on youths and Nigeria the better for our polity and women. development. Since musicals and entertainment appeal more to the youths and the women, the musical RECOMMENDATIONS propaganda should be adapted to suit this target There should be an advocacy and awareness audience. It involves the determination of the seminar to be carried out as part of political language, characterization, lyric and education to educate the political parties on the presentation approach. The strategy is a use of musicals as propaganda tools in challenge to broadcast content producers. subsequent elections. Audience analysis is vital for the formulation of This can be achieved through seminars, any appropriate strategy. symposia, workshop, conferences among others to enlighten them on the packaging and use of References the musical propaganda. This will include its Agba, P.C (2007).Electronic reporting: Heart of the new packaging within the ambits of the canons of communication age. Nsukka: University of the extant laws of Nigeria. Nigeria Press Ltd. Emphasis should be laid on positive musical Akpan, E. (1987).Communication and media arts: A new approach to the basics. Uyo: Modern Business propaganda devoid of abuse, factual and Press. verifiable contents without heating up the Anorue, L. (2012). Political communication, ICTs political environment. and development in Nigeria. Journal of Media and There is the need to explore the potential of Aesthetics. Uyo: BSM Graphics. the new media that makes use of the internet Batta, C. (1999).Politics in the world's southern regions

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and communication of the solutions. Lagos: Miral Obayi, M. (2012).Politics and national development. Books. Enugu: New Generation Books. Dike, C. (2000).Research methodology in social sciences. Ochonogor, C. (2012). The mass media and the Enugu: SNAAPP Press Ltd. challenges of election crises in Nigeria. A Durham, C. (1999).The politics of melodrama. roadmap to the 2015 General Election in London: Sage. Nigeria. In Mbuk Mboho, & Herbert, B. (Eds.), Graber, D.A. & Smith, J.M. (2005). Political the companion to communication and communication faces the 21st century. Journal of Development Issues. Uyo: BSM Resources Communication. Issues. Idiong, N. (2004). Dynamics of political Tiggermann, B. (2003).The role of media in society. communication in contemporary society: A Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers critical appraisal. In V. Agbanu, & C. Nwabueze Inc. (Eds.), Reading of mass communication. Owerri: Uche, U. (2018). Basic media writing. Aba: Top Shelves Publishers. Renaissance Press. Killen, P. (2000).The media and Political Process. Udeajah, R.A. (2004). Broadcasting and politics in London: Sage Publications. Nigeria. Enugu: SNAAP Press Ltd.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Fundamental Issues in Conceptualizing Intra-Personal Communication

THOMAS A. ALEMOH, PhD Dept of Theatre & Media Arts, Federal University of Lafia, Nasarawa State. [email protected]; [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract Communication is a social activity that humans continuously engage in as they interact with one another. It is through communication, which could be in the form of verbal, non-verbal, or esoteric mode, that relationships are established and maintained. The use of communication among humans is a sure phenomenon but the process that communication takes as a human activity seems to be misunderstood at some level of conceptualization. One of such levels is the intrapersonal form of communication which is popularly taken to be the basis of all other forms of communication. This article argues that what is meant to be intrapersonal communication does not satisfy the parameters of human communication even though it has a semblance of the latter. The article, therefore, advocates realignment in the classification of forms of communication because it is erroneous to equate a neurological function of the human body, as presumed in intra-personal communication, with a premeditated social action of humans which defines communication functionally. The paper analyzes what a human communicative act entails and concludes that intrapersonal communication is at best a biological model for illustrating the process of communication but not a social action in itself which people intentionally engage in.

Introduction in a distorted perception of what it really entails. The pervasiveness of communication in our Again, the fact that an error has lingered on for daily activities as individuals, groups and ages does not detract from the fact that it is organizations makes us conscious of how misleading and should be corrected as new facts important this social act of humans is in the emerge in the area of study. Yoder (1996) in nexus of factors that make up our existence. The Wilson (2005) has this to say: statement is credited to Markus Tullius Cicero, a famous Roman orator that “if a wise man were Communication – ever ybody's granted a life of abundance of everything discussing it, studying it, practising it. material so that he had leisure to contemplate Ye t , d e s p i t e o u r i m p r o v e d everything worth-knowing, still if he could not communication skills, we may feel like communicate with another human being, he the author who wrote: 'I know that you would abandon life”. This is just a concise way believe you understand what you think of summarizing the overriding importance of I said, but I am not sure you realize that communication in human life through which what you heard is not what I meant'…. people are able to tap into the vast pleasures of living in a social group. Bittner (1991) in Alemoh (2011, p. 54) gives this However, in spite of the fact that our poser about defining communication, “How everyday life revolves around the pivot of would you describe the process of communication, it is not gainsaid that communication? If at first it seems difficult, do communication is one phenomenon that has not be too disappointed. People who spend their been easily misconstrued by scholars resulting lives researching the subject continue to argue

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):148 - 154 148 THOMAS A. ALEMOH Fundamental Issues in Conceptualizing Intra-Personal Communication about the process”. And the argument continues wants to know is if his listeners or audience, as as this article indicates! In this paper, our focus is the case may be, understood what he has said. on intra-personal communication which, as But can an individual truly communicate all stated earlier, is communication that is believed alone? This is one of the big puzzles we will to occur within an individual. The questions attempt to unravel in this paper. that this paper seeks to answer are: The issue we are raising here is that our i. Does communication actually occur within unbiased questioner in the above scenario an individual? a p p e a r s t o h ave p e r s o n a l i z e d t h e ii. In what form does it occur? communication act, which ordinarily is an iii. Who are the parties to the communication experience to be shared between two or more act? parties, and successfully narrowed it down to a iv. Under what social context does such mono-track directional flow. Tosanwumi (1994) communication occur? in Alemoh (2011, p. 55) sheds more light on this, “A look into the etymology of the word The paper hinges its argument on the communication reveals that it was derived from information flow theory by picking on the the Latin word communicare, which means to elements of communication usually used to make common. This explains why a number of describe the communication process. These communication scholars have defined elements include source, message, channel, communication in relation to the concept of medium, receiver, feedback and noise. For sharing or making common”. communication to take place, some, if not all, of The fact remains that if one is the above elements come into play. The overall communicating as our hypothetical questioner objective of the paper is to determine if claims to be doing, then he is certainly intrapersonal communication could be communicating with another. The question classified as human communication or it is asked, therefore, could be rephrased as follows: simply a biological phenomenon for illustrating are we communicating? This obviously would a process which has been unduly glorified. elicit a response (feedback) either affirmative or negative from the target audience confirming Communication defined whether an interaction is actually going on By way of definition, communication could be between the two parties or not. In this way, the seen as the action or process of communicating speaker could ascertain if communication has (Hornby, 1998) in Alemoh (2011, p. 54). When been effected, effective or ineffective. According 'communicating' as a concept is further to Moemeka (2016), communication could be operationalized, it means to exchange effected when a communicative act is initiated information, news, ideas, etc. with somebody. between two or more parties but it is not a Simple as the above definition may sound, it guarantee that what needed to be gives an idea of a vital parameter of what communicated was actually understood. In the constitutes a communication act and that is: same vein, communication could be effective communication is not unidirectional, linear or a when what was to be communicated was one-way traffic unlike what most people actually transferred and understood with a erroneously assume it to mean. For instance, it is corresponding feedback. On the other hand, not uncommon to hear a public speaker, teacher communication is ineffective when what was or discussant asking the audience: am I communicated was transferred but not communicating? All that the questioner sincerely understood thereby generating the unexpected

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):148 - 154 149 THOMAS A. ALEMOH Fundamental Issues in Conceptualizing Intra-Personal Communication feedback. The significance of this is that the attention is actually fixed on the other person. parties to the communication act can choose the Equally, when someone walks into an office mode of adjustment they wish to make and meets the occupant seated with a hand on especially when communication is effected the cheek, the visitor does not need to be told without necessarily being effective or when it is that all is not well with the person he is seeing in ineffective due to some constraints. that office. Obviously, a message has been Another perspective to the distorted passed across unconsciously that the latter is in a meaning of communication is that some people depressed mood even when no word had been view the concept from the angle of what is uttered. Unarguably, this is communication written, symbolized or spoken only thereby although not necessarily a purposeful one. We limiting communication to verbal and cannot gloss over the fact that such acts as nonverbal forms. However, this error is not described above could be misinterpreted easily much profound in the scholarly arena. The fact by the other party. Nevertheless, suffice it to say is that communication could transcend the that some vital elements in the communication ordinary level to the supernormal level. This is process could be identified in such an encounter. why in between the two basic modes of Essentially, there was a message from a source communication identified earlier in this article and there was a corresponding feedback elicited l i e s t h e ex t r a mu n d a n e o r e s o t e r i c from a receiver. communication involving paranormal Non-verbal communication finds mechanisms of information transfer, especially expression extensively in the African in African traditional communication systems indigenous communication systems where (Wilson & Unoh, 1991; Ibagere, (1994) in symbolography in the form of objectifics and Alemoh (2011, p. 55). In this regard, iconographics are useful codes (Wilson, 1991 in communication could be carried out through Alemoh, 2011, p.56). For example, a collection dream, vision, and telepathy (where a message of cowries shells stuck to the base of an orange is registered in the sub-consciousness of the tree (iconographics) is enough warning signal to receiver and it is later confirmed through any passer-by that picking fruits from that tree is practical experience). Any of these forms could done at the risk of the individual involved. take the verbal or non-verbal channel. Again, Similarly, the use of fresh leaves (objectifics) for many, particularly laymen in communication advertising products in northern Nigeria studies, would not understand that nearly constitutes another powerful tool of everything about them –dressing, dancing, communication even till the present day. A good posture, physiognomy, to mention but a few– example is Wukari, a semi-urban town in passes across unintended messages to an Taraba State where a pack of fresh leaves stuck observer. That is why in a social setting, in a basin in front of a house symbolizes that a someone would protest that he has not said popular local drink called Brukutu is available. anything, for example, yet he is alleged to have T h e s a m e l o c a l l i q u o r, s o m e t i m e s said much although inadvertently through facial complemented with dog meat, is advertised in contortion, winking or even dignified silence! most communities in the middle belt of Nigeria By way of illustration, someone who looks using a red flag hung on a pole in the compound at another fixatedly has passed an unintended where the delicacy is available. message across indicating that there is Communication occurs at different levels in something interesting in the other person that is society. The starting point in the scale, as often stared at. We assume here that the beholder's claimed by some scholars, is intra-personal

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):148 - 154 150 THOMAS A. ALEMOH Fundamental Issues in Conceptualizing Intra-Personal Communication communication which is thought to occur Alemoh, (2011, p. 57). within an individual. There is also interpersonal Hasan (2014, p.12), in agreement with communication between two or more parties Bittner as cited above, has described intra- just as group communication occurs within a personal communication as “the most basic of defined social group such as a class of students, the communication contexts or levels. It occurs political party, board meetings, etc. where the when an individual sends and receives messages members are bound together by common internally” (my emphasis). The primacy of the objectives in a close setting. There is yet mass individual as a factor in intra-personal communication which involves the use of the communication is significant as we shall show mass media in information dissemination. shortly in this paper. A fundamental issue that However, other dimensions of communication emanates from this postulate is: could the same include cultural, organizational, public and individual send and receive messages internally global communication depending on the within him? In other words, is it the individual context in which each takes place. that is actually sending and receiving the messages in this context? Hasan (2014, p.12) Intra-personal communication explored goes on to say that “…our thought process is As indicated earlier, intra-personal nothing but intra-personal communication communication is taken, albeit questionably, to where one person is sending messages and the be the starting point of all other levels of same person receives them”. In doing this, the communication. For instance, it is claimed that author avers that, “Here we use the central before someone engages in inter-personal nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous communication, there is intra-personal system (PNS) for generation, transmission, and communication going on within the individual. recovering of messages”. Hasan further says Bittner (1991) in Alemoh (2011, p. 56) posits that “In addition to our thoughts process, many that “…intrapersonal communication, times we also talk aloud with ourselves” and communication within ourselves, is the concludes that “Intrapersonal communication f o u n d a t i o n o f a l l o t h e r t y p e s o f is not just a level of communication, it is in fact communication”. What this means in brief is the very basis of all communication”. that if someone passing by says good morning Commenting on ambiguity in the process of to another, the target recipient of the greeting intra-personal communication, Hasan (2014, will first think within himself what to reply to p.14) observes that “A sudden sound disturbing the greeting. Some scholars take this form of our thought process is interference. Another thinking to be intra-personal communication form of interference occurs when we process which now forms the basis for a subsequent some information at a wrong level. For inter-personal communication exchange. To example, we are supposed to process bad news those in this school of thought, this is the rationally i.e. through cognitive processing. But ideation stage of communication in which the we often react to such news through emotions”. individual engages himself in a sort of selection Suffice it to say that the issues raised here by process in terms of coding, structuring and Hasan (2014) have even complicated the sending the message to the target receiver. This, controversy surrounding the validity of the certainly, involves brainwork in which “our claim that intrapersonal communication is a senses, our nervous system, and our brain are human activity. the main physiological components of the Stretching the argument further, Bittner communication process” (Bittner, 1991, in (1989) in Alemoh (2011, p.57) defines

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):148 - 154 151 THOMAS A. ALEMOH Fundamental Issues in Conceptualizing Intra-Personal Communication intrapersonal communication as “the communication act with a view to situating the electrochemical action of the body” and calls it phenomenon within the context of human the basis for all other forms of human social behaviour. communication. In his view, intra-personal communication makes it possible for an The indices of a human communication act individual to make decisions based on Much as the above analysis seems germane to an information received through the senses. He explanation of intra-personal communication, contends that “using that intrapersonal there are some grey areas in it that need to be processing to communicate interpersonally is carefully examined. First, the phenomenon one of the most important functions of our described above sounds more of a biological internal processing systems” (Bittner, 1991 in process than a human social activity, and Alemoh, 2011, p.57). Bittner graphically communication is a social activity of man. It explains this using the action of someone would amount to trivializing issues if we equate watching a television in which case the eyes and actual human action with mere neurological ears send messages in the form of impulses to function of the body system. In plain language, the brain through the nervous system. The eyes the eye, ear and brain cannot take the place of and ears stand as the message source; the humans in a real communication encounter. nervous system becomes the medium for The interaction of the body organs cannot be transmitting the message while the brain is the taken as human communication just as receiver of the information. The brain responds machine-machine interaction through a in the form of feedback by interpreting the computer network cannot in itself be said to be information sent that what the person is human communication outside the fact that it is watching is a pleasant programme or otherwise. one human being that uses the medium to Based on this interpretation, the individual communicate with another. This is why such would continue watching the programme, interaction is better termed machine-assisted switch to another channel or switch off the communication (Dominick 2002, p.8) even television set completely if the programme though it could be used as a model to illustrate does not appeal to his taste. Bittner, like Hasan the communication process. Rightly so, Bittner cited earlier, locates the position of noise in the (1991) in Alemoh (2011, p.57) calls scenario described above in the sense that while intrapersonal communication electro-chemical the individual involved is watching the action unlike human social actions that are television, there could be a distraction when the premeditated and highly coordinated. telephone rings or a knock on the door. It must be noted that the body organs are Looking at the above description, one may be only reacting to stimuli as they are naturally tempted to agree with both scholars that there is designed to function and not that they on their intrapersonal communication that goes on own 'initiate' actions in the real sense of the within an individual virtually every moment of word. Moreover, the crucial issue of intention the day because the eye and the ear (not an on the part of the message source cannot be individual) are always sending impulses to the adequately addressed using human biological brain (not an individual also) which continually system as an explanation. At best, intra- interprets and responds. However, before we personal communication could be taken as a draw a conclusion, let us examine the concept prototype of what human communication looks of intrapersonal communication against the like. We must not lose sight of the fact that in the backdrop of what constitutes a human social sciences, of which mass communication

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):148 - 154 152 THOMAS A. ALEMOH Fundamental Issues in Conceptualizing Intra-Personal Communication is a part, the functionality of the human system he termed Machine assisted interpersonal has been used to illustrate the systems theory as communication like when one speaks on it applies to society from a functionalist- telephone with another person. No doubt, this structuralist perspective. The human body is still interpersonal communication but one system does not, therefore, represent the society that is effected through a mechanical device. but it offers a way of explaining what goes on in Equally, Bryant and Thompson (2002, p.4) society. write that “Communication may take several Not only that, the counter argument different forms. It may be interpersonal in presented by Kunczik (1984) in Alemoh (2011, nature, it may involve the use of a personal p.58) is instructive to this discussion. Kunczik communication medium, or it may be argues that “intra-personal 'communication' described as mass communication.” In this such as talking with oneself, or meditation, does case, the authors clearly excluded intrapersonal not represent communication, for here there is communication from the list. no social activity”. Stretching the line of The question of social context in human thought, Kunczik adds that for communication communication cannot be located within the to take place, “at least one individual must seek to framework of interaction among neurological communicate with another individual” (emphasis organs because these organs in themselves are mine). Essentially, this brings about an not capable of originating a social action. It is a interaction. known fact that all human communication It is also important to note that the issue of occurs within a defined social context whether intention is highlighted in the argument of at inter-personal, group, organizational or even Kunczik. At least, one of the parties to the mass communication level. The social context communication act must seek to communicate the communicators find themselves indicates with another. In other words, the issue of the nexus of factors in the form of external purpose now creeps in. This could mean the variables that come into play in the desire on the part of the originator of the communication process some of which are message to engage in an interaction. Could we beyond the control of the individual engaged in apply this to mere biological organs of the the communication act. It is important to know human body in their natural functions in the that these factors contribute to how the body system? This accounts for why their individual encodes, decodes, receives and operations are simply described as responds to any communication signal. A useful electrochemical. On his part, Dominick (2002, illustration of this is given by Bittner (1989) in p.8) did not even include intra-personal A l e m o h ( 2 0 1 1 , p. 5 8 ) . T h e r e f o r e, c o m m u n i c a t i o n , l i k e s o m e o t h e r communication does not occur in a vacuum. communication scholars, in his book on the The social context also helps to assign meanings subject matter as one of the situations under to the symbols used in communication in what which human communication takes place. He Wilbur Schramm aptly calls 'shared field of rather submits that “the first and perhaps the experience'. It is only when there is an overlap in most common situation is interpersonal the communicators' field of experience that communication, in which one person (or group) communication would take place because both is interacting with another person (or group) parties would have isomorphic (identical) without the aid of a mechanical device”. meanings of the codes employed in the He distinguishes between interpersonal communication act. Relating this to communication as described above and what intrapersonal communication as Bittner (1991)

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):148 - 154 153 THOMAS A. ALEMOH Fundamental Issues in Conceptualizing Intra-Personal Communication in Alemoh (2011, p.57) argues, it becomes communication as neurological processes difficult to see how the body organs fit into this facilitated through an interaction of body social context. organs which could serve as a useful illustration, model or prototype of what human Conclusion communication entails. Convincingly, one What we have tried to do in this paper is to could say that intra-personal communication is ascertain if intra-personal communication as it more of an assumed social phenomenon than a is widely believed could be justified as a form of real human activity. human communication. The argument stems f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t i n t r a - p e r s o n a l References communication is adjudged by some scholars as A l e m o h , T. A . ( 2 0 1 1 ) . I n t r a - p e r s o n a l communication that occurs within an communication: some conceptual issues. Journal of Arts and Contemporary Society, 3.www. individual and therefore the starting point of all cenresin.org. other forms of human communication. Bittner, J. R. (1989). Mass communication: An We have argued on the contrary that such a introduction. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. line of reasoning could be misleading when Bittner, J. R. (1991). Broadcasting and telecommunica- subjected to a critical analysis using accepted tion: An introduction (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, parameters that define a communication act. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. From our discussion, we have been able to point Bryant, J. & Thompson, S. (2002). Fundamentals of out that what goes on within an individual does media effects. Boston: McGraw-Hill. not satisfy the necessary conditions for it to be Dominick, J. R. (2002). The Dynamics of Mass taken as communication. It is rather more of a Communication: Media in the Digital Age (7th ed.). biological process involving the interaction of Boston: McGraw-Hill. Hassan, S. (2014). Mass communication principles and body organs than a real human social activity. nd To the proponents of the concept, concepts (2 ed.). New Delhi: CBS Publishers & Distributors. intrapersonal communication takes place when Hornby, A.S. (1998). Oxford Advanced Learner's one is thinking within oneself which forms a th Dictionary of Current English (5 ed.). Oxford: basis for outward communication with others. Oxford University Press. We have also demonstrated that such an Ibagere, E. (1994). Taxonomy of African traditional argument falls short of the indices that make up communication systems, In Tosanwunmi, J.O., a communication act. The point raised here is & Ekwuazi, H. (Eds.), Mass communication: A that an individual cannot communicate with basic text. Warri: Caltop Publishers. himself all alone because by its nature, Kunczick, M. (1988).Communication and social communication is a shared activity between two change. Bonn: Friedrich-Hiebert Foundation. or more parties. Tosanwumi, J. O. (1994). Basic principles of The question may be asked by an unbiased communication. In Tosanwumi, J.O. & observer: what then could the controversial Ekwuazi, H. (Eds.), Mass communication: A basic intra-personal communication be called? We text. Ibadan: Caltop Publications (Nig) Limited. will not argue that what is taken as intrapersonal Wilson, D. (1991). Traditional media in modern African communication has no part in the real human development. Nairobi: ACCE. communication act such as in interpersonal Wilson D. (2005). New perspectives in applied communication but it depends on the angle communication. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden from which it is viewed. We will hasten to Publishers (Nig.) Ltd. describe the process of intra-personal

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Mutation of Piracy and its Effect on Nollywood

JOE ODEDINA, PhD. Department of Film and Film Production, School of Visual and Performing Arts Kwara State University – Malete [email protected]

Abstract The menace of piracy has been a recurring decimal in the Nigerian entertainment industry for a very long time. Although the illegal business of piracy is an encompassing thriving criminal enterprise that includes books, journals, movies, music and software, all of which have been examined in the past, the focus of this study is mainly the effect of mutation of piracy on Nollywood movies. This study examined the cause of piracy and its effects on Nollywood movies. The study adopted a historical analysis method to interrogate this work, as well as interviews of some industry personalities. Before the new millennia, piracy involved coming in physical contact with the work to be pirated. However, in this twenty-first century period, the development of new technology has made the theft of intellectual property a ubiquitous and safe enterprise. Consequently, the requirement of obtaining a copy before engaging in the illicit business has also been completely eliminated thereby making piracy more difficult to detect, let alone prevent. The findings are that the main cause of piracy is profiteering. Other unintended consequence is the economic loss to the original inventor and producer, which has a deteriorating effect on further production of such work. The study concludes that the law in the books that protect copyright owners should be reinforced and strictly enforced to discourage piracy violators and give confidence to film producers who want to commit their resources into legitimate production.

Keywords: Illicit, Mutation, Piracy, Technology and Ubiquitous.

Introduction suggested more research needs to be conducted In the summer of 2015 and 2016, this researcher on the subject of piracy due to the industry's set out to conduct a research project on the concern and hoped the introduction of new dramaturgy of Yoruba films. In the process, technology would help to reduce the problem to several contacts were made with some the barest minimum. Looking back now, it is Nollywood filmmakers. Although the time- safe to say the hope in new technology by and of framed assignment was focused on the itself was misplaced at the time, as evident in the indigenous extraction of Nollywood films, one present widespread of the problem through new recurring factor from several of the interviewees technology. at different points was the fear of piracy. The menace of piracy has been a recurring By the end of that particular assignment it decimal in the Nigerian entertainment space for was realised that piracy has caused a chilling a very long time. Piracy is the duplication of effect on the industry, whereby producers see copyright intellectual property such as movies, film production as a risky endeavour to be music, software and books among others, with undertaken as a last resort by the very brave. The the sole intent of making a profit without the researcher found that this problem is the number legal consent of the rightful owner of such one concern of all the artistes and producers material. The end result of piracy is simple; the interviewed in the course of that particular legal owner becomes the loser, while the thief research. Since that project was not on piracy, it becomes the winner.

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The fact that piracy is the scourge of the enforcing the laws scrambling to catch-up with entertainment business is an undeniable reality the criminals involved. in today's society. Whether it is films produced This paper examined mutation of piracy, in Hollywood, Bollywood or Nollywood, with a view to finding the cause and effects on artists' intellectual properties are being Nollywood movies. Specifically, the study tried adulterated and stolen, leading to billions of to find how the trade of illicit copies of Dollars in ill-gotten profits to the unscrupulous unauthorised works has evolved and changed cartels involved in the nefarious activities and a since the days of celluloid film productions in corresponding loss to the rightful owners. It is Nigeria due to technological development. The even more pronounced in Nollywood film study also tried to evaluate what the Nigerian industry, where it is generally believed that a authorities are doing to curtail the menace and high percentage of the total video distributed is suggest ways to minimise piracy. In this process, pirated. the study adopted a historical analysis method Up until the mid-1980s and early 1990s, one to interrogate the work, as well as interviews of needs to obtain a copy of the intellectual some industry personalities who have direct property to be pirated through a legitimate knowledge of piracy and its debilitating effects. means or have some kind of physical access to it Literature Review before embarking on the profiteering illegality. Towards the end of 2018, an article titled “Baba Stories abound in the newspapers around that Sala forgave those who pirated Orun Mooru period about the unfortunate incident of Moses before he died – Emmanuel, son” caught this Olaiya Adejumo's film Orun Mooru (1980), researcher's eye in The Punch newspaper. Having which got pirated. Although piracy has been grown on Baba Sala's comedy sketches as a ongoing even before this, the case of Orun Mooru young man, a copy was obtained and reviewed ignited the nation's awareness to the seriousness through the interview conducted by Makinde of piracy and the severity of its effect on with Baba Sala's son. Until that time, this legitimate artist/investor of the original work. researcher was unaware of his demise and was This case would be discussed more in the course sad about the loss of a comedy icon of a time of this study. gone by. His real name was Moses Olaiya Since that time however, series of websites Adejumo, alias Lamidi Baba Sala of the such as Piratebay.com, Bittorent.com, Youtube Alawada Group that ruled the comedy stage .com, Naijaloaded.com, Nollyland.com, and television stations in the late 1970s and 80s. Apkpure.com, Ibakatv.com and several other Although Baba Sala was already popular by legal businesses have been established with 1980s, his collision with the profiteers through some of them purposely to aid the ease of piracy the piracy of his comedy film Orun Mooru (1980) by removing the need to invest in the initial copy set his popularity outside of his Yoruba or have physical contact with the original work language comedy audience for all the wrong to be pirated. All you need now is a small device reasons by making him a postal boy for piracy such as handset, tablet or laptop with which to victim. Within weeks of his celluloid work being access thousands of copyright works online. pirated, we started to see VHS video copies of The illegal business of piracy has, therefore, Orun Mooru outside of Cash 'n' Carry stores evolved and is evolving daily, to match the opposite Kingsway Supermarket in Lagos. Cash development of technology and sophisticated 'n' Carry was the pre-eminent number one Apps that are created to make our lives better, electronics store in Lagos at the time owned by leaving our security agents charged with Lebanese business interest. In the Punch

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):155 - 161 156 JOE ODEDINA, Mutation of Piracy and its Effect on Nollywood interview, when Makinde inquires where the with the attendant problem of systems son was at the time Orun Mooru was pirated, conversion between celluloid (negative print) Emmanuel states: and video (magnetic tape). Adeleke (2003, p.50) confirms the popularity of celluloid filmmaking I was so young when Orun Mooru was of the period when he states that: “There pirated. I was in Form 1 in secondary emerges a paradoxical situation in performing school then. What happened was that art in Yorùbá society. Fortunately, the the troupe had a show at a cinema in emergence of Àjàní Ògún feature film marked Lagos. The owner of the cinema cajoled the beginning ofthe Yorùbá film industry, and the operator into allowing him to show sadly enough, marked the demise of the stage the film to his wives at home because play.” Cinema became the new stage and all the they were in purdah and forbidden from major performing artists from Ogunde to going to cinemas to see movies. He Afolayan and Baba Sala joined in droves. promised to bring the film back in the Unknown to the citizens at that time morning and gave them N500 for that. however, there was an economic undercurrent The operator's salary at the time was going on in Nigeria, which manifested a few N40 (Makinde, 2018, p.2). years later in the form of structural adjustment programme (SAP).Later Ekwuazi (1991, p.73) That little cajoling became the beginning of a states that because of SAP, "the entertainment long arduous journey for Baba Sala through the budget for the average individual has severely law and enforcement officers who were shrunken; and with the Naira unable to hold its supposed to apprehend and prosecute the own at the international market place, cost of perpetrators. According to the son, Baba Sala production has astronomically risen." SAP was was paying to feed two of his accused staff the last straw that brought about the death of members (a driver and projector operator) celluloid production in Nigeria. locked up in police cell who had colluded with In seeking for an alternative, Nigerian the cinema house owner. It also sets him up for filmmakers turned to the new emerging financial ruin due to his over-stretched technology of video production. Video is a investment in the film, which he made with a cheap substitute for celluloid film stock cost, loan from a bank. Asked about the loan, Baba with in-house postproduction conducted locally Sala's son replies that “the loan was not up to as against overseas post of the celluloid N1m, but ...; probably N250, 000. He took the negatives. Onuzulike summed up the trajectory loan from the then National Bank. He used two from film to video thus; "For film producers in of his houses as collateral for the loan and Nigeria, the shift to video resulted from a somebody put up two other houses, which he mixture of factors, significant among which is also used as part of the collateral for the loan” the economics of films" (2010, p.15). This study (Makinde, 2018, p.2). agrees with Onuzulike on the economic factor The use of celluloid film was the general for the move from celluloid to video production. practise for filmmaking around the time of the Unlike Adeleke who saw celluloid unfortunate incident that happened to Baba introduction to Nigerian drama as the cause of Sala, which physically and technically made it theatre's demise, Ukadike (2003, p.127) states more difficult for piracy to thrive. This is that: “Video's triumph does not necessarily because as earlier stated one needs to have some imply the displacement of the celluloid film kind of physical access to the work to be pirated medium, but rather the transcendence of

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):155 - 161 157 JOE ODEDINA, Mutation of Piracy and its Effect on Nollywood limitations imposed by the conventions of stars and producers not only in Nigeria, but celluloid filmmaking”. Interestingly, time has outside of the country too. Rice (2012, p.1) proved Adeleke right because digital states that: “Twenty years after bursting from filmmaking which emanates from video has, the grungy street markets of Lagos, the $500 indeed, displaced celluloid production. Frazer million Nigerian movie business churns out (2014, p.1) announces celluloid demise when he more than a thousand titles a year on average, states that: “Film Lab New York, opened in and trails only Hollywood and Bollywood in 2011, will shut down on December 19. It's the terms of revenues.” This becomes a magnet for last motion-picture film processing and printing profiteers, who want some slices of the facility in New York City.” If there is no economic pie that Nollywood bakes. celluloid processing facility in New York City Unfortunately, the video production that after 14th of December 2014, it becomes obvious democratised filmmaking is also the bane of that celluloid filmmaking is dead. Adeleke ubiquitous piracy for Nollywood films. Rice (2003, p.52) also confirms this by stating that the confirms this when he states that to “visit Alaba “end of celluloid culture in Nigeria ushers in the is to catch a glimpse of entertainment in its video film culture. Some television producers Hobbesian state, where few laws restrain and cameramen who have either retired or profiteers, piracy is rampant and all creative opted out of television stations considered calculations yield to the lowest denominator” video film culture a fertile ground; hence they (2012, p.2). The very video duplicating plunged into video film industry.” machines that are used to mass produce video The choice of the video medium has also films are directed against the producers by created a democratic level playing field for pirates who are causing sleepless nights for the Nollywood producers, as against the previous producers. Revealing how troubled Nollywood celluloid which only catered to producers with producers are about piracy, Odedina (2017, deep financial pockets who has the means for p.180) states that: “In our discussions with celluloid's very expensive production process. In many stakeholders in the industry, one unifying addition to reduction of production cost, Allen concern is the problem of piracy. That problem (2011, p.66) states that “digital distribution, is a global predicament, but many producers whether in DVD format or in cinemas with and actors state that there is a level of impunity digital projection, enables easy and cheap among the offenders in Nigeria.” distribution exhibition, getting the film out Video production, therefore, not only quickly to local audiences for maximum democratised filmmaking in Nollywood, but impact.” The resultant effect is the drastic also enhanced the capacity of pirates by making reduction in production cost which attracts an unauthorised copying of original work easier influx of all categories of producers, where the and differentiating the fake from original more best content videos are rewarded by the difficult. In addition, the ease of piracy through audience through patronage. Before the video technology with very remote chances of being revolution, the participation of the audience is caught or prosecuted has enlarged the scope of mainly restricted to the cinema house at certain offenders to include supposedly responsible times. The popularity and affordability of video people who would never contemplate crime. films has enlarged viewing venues from cinema If the task of de-masking a fake from the houses to individual homes and offices. original was difficult because of video With the growth of the Nollywood audience duplication that makes an almost identical copy base, comes name recognition of the biggest of film, it has become almost impossible in

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):155 - 161 158 JOE ODEDINA, Mutation of Piracy and its Effect on Nollywood today's digital filmmaking where CDs and to play the tape and, after he did, was paid. At DVDs are exact replica of the originals. Unlike that point, he brought another blank cassette video copying that may lose slight definition to tape out and slotted both in another kind of tape each new generated copy from the original, recorder with dual tape slots. Within a minute digital duplication leaves no footprint that could the fast-forward recorder machine came to a be easily identified by the owners of the original stop and he gave the researcher one. The production. To stem this tide, PM News states researcher in his naiveté was more fascinated that: “Nigeria Police Force (NPF) has trained with the quick process than concerned about officers of the National Film and Video Censors being a facilitator of piracy, even if innocently Board (NFVCB) as Supernumerary (SPY) so. Police to enhance its fight against unclassified, The above is an example of how one pirated films and video works.” This new unwittingly gets initiated into the business of attempt is to train members of the board who are piracy in the past. At the very least, one needs to experts at identifying pirated works in policing make an initial investment like the researcher duties. Piracy, therefore, continues to evolve and did, as did the seller and both came in direct mutate, thereby making it an elusive and evasive contact with one version of the tape being criminal enterprise that costs Nollywood copied. In addition, the pirate that sold the copy billions of Naira every year and requires the also invested in the criminal work by purchasing combine efforts of the Nigerian police and a cassette duplicating machine. Even Baba industry experts. Sala's nemesis that stole his film to copy was in direct contact with the work if only through Piracy: Past, Present and Trends deceit and guile. In the past, media piracy used to be straight Therefore, physical access is a key forward. The first time this researcher came in ingredient to the piracy of the old. In a 2015 contact directly with piracy was during his interview with Baba Wande where we were secondary education in the late 1970s. Going to invited to the launching of his latest film at the Lagos where his parents domiciled on a summer time Agba Bi Aka (2015), the researcher asked if vacation from school, this researcher was the film would be officially released at the same rewarded with a cassette player/recorder for time and he replies: “Not yet to be released to doing well in school. Cassette tapes, at the time, the market because there is a problem. If I give it only recently joined the waxed vinyl musical to them, they may sell it without giving me record for entertainment. Having listened to money. That is my problem with them.” The Bob Marley's “No woman no cry” on the bus people he was referring to are the marketers, radio going to Lagos, the tape became the first Nigeria's chronic version of a distribution list of music album to buy during the holiday. network many of whom are as opaque and From Broad Street in Lagos, through dubious as the pirates. Indeed, some of them set Tinubu square and Nnamdi Azikwe towards up as marketers in order to freely duplicate video Idumota Market, nobody had stock of the tapes illegally. cassette tape. Eventually, at Idumagbo junction, Carefully viewed, again the link between the one small record shop owner said he had it. researcher's 1970s initiation into being a victim When he brought the cassette out, it had no of piracy, to Baba Sala's 1980s victimisation of picture or postal of the band, which is usually his own work and the recent concern of Baba evident on the case if it is an original copy. Wande in 2015 is based on physical contact of Seeing the researcher's hesitation, he offered some sort to the work being pirated.

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Presently however, the establishment of multi- engage the issues of intellectual billion Dollar legitimate businesses such as property and there has to be a lot of YouTube and others that directly or indirectly education about what constitutes enable the illicit enterprise of piracy has created violation of intellectual property or not. a conundrum for the entertainment business. Some of the students, they don't even While some of these legitimate businesses have know they are doing anything wrong. argued that their objectives are not in tandem with piracy, the fact that their operations The above shows how pervasive the problem is facilitate theft of intellectual copyright materials in Nigeria, because if university students don't cannot be denied. This is because a high know wrong from right as regards piracy, what percentage of their frequent users share not only should we expect from them after college? The their private files, but also copyright materials of likelihood is for them to continue to do the other legitimate producers, thereby denying same, which makes it more difficult to quench them legitimate income. the flames of piracy. Depending on how popular such shared file Secondly, Mr. Kelani's remark shows a new becomes, the illegitimate person who posted the twist to the piracy problem, as he also observed file online is often rewarded with cash based on the difference between physical piracy and the number of “hits” and or “likes” from the technology piracy, which he termed as “soft general public. Ironically, YouTube could piracy.” Unlike before where piracy usually monitor the number of viewers to know the involves somebody having physical contact with popularity of the post in order to determine the product being pirated, Internet availability reward, but not the legitimacy of ownership of and mobility has erased that criterion. The effect the content. If nobody complains, the payment is that somebody, who is a total stranger to continues for the illegitimate profiteer, while the Nigeria, could pirate copies of Nollywood films rightful owner who toiled for the content is online from Beijin to Bangkok. deprived of his income. The new dimension of Internet piracy is Responding to this researcher's question looking like the coming trend, whereby pirates about how Nollywood industry is affected by take shelter in their own home-shore to copy and piracy through technology in an interview, distribute copyright materials world-wide and Kelani (2015, p.12) states that: the proceeds of the crime comes to the offender in his safe haven. It has become a borderless The challenge in this new era, you know crime, where the jurisdiction to prosecute and digital era, Internet and all that, the convict is hazy and obscured. This is a issue of intellectual property is that the frightening new dimension as the offender could problem is such a big problem because walk about in the light of day without the fear of some of the soft pirating that we witness local prosecution and his freedom is secured as which is common among students, long as he stays home. university students, is that your film is shared. They are not really selling the Conclusion and Recommendation film, just sharing it as if everybody has a This paper has chronicled the evolution of right. First of all, government and piracy of Nollywood's intellectual property and Nigeria corporate bodies have to deal its mutation into the digital age where most of with the physical piracy, DVD piracy. the crimes involved are committed in the virtual Beyond that, we have to continuously world but with debilitating consequences on the

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):155 - 161 160 JOE ODEDINA, Mutation of Piracy and its Effect on Nollywood owners of work in the real world. The findings present condition and strictly enforce the law are that from the celluloid work of Baba Sala to already in the books. The recent collaboration Internet's unauthorised duplication and between the Nigerian Police Force (NPF) and distribution, piracy has now evolved to a crime the National Film and Video Censors Board committed with criminals of no known address (NFVCB) is an idea in the right direction of except with minor footprints in the cyber space. minimising the problem of piracy. As a result, the crime has become more difficult to detect, let alone prosecute and convict. This References has made even normal people to take occasional Adeleke, D. A. (2003). Culture, art and film in an risk in the crime on account of its minimal African society: an evaluation. Nordic Journal of chance of being caught. African Studies, 12. Adepoju, K. (2015). Interview conducted with him on The paper also finds that piracy is now th pervasive and has become a borderless offence April 14 , 2015. Oshogbo: Home Office Premises. that gives sanctuary to offenders whose crimes Allen, M. (2011). Digital cinema: virtual screens. In cut across the global village through the Creeber, G. & Martin, R. (Eds.), Digital cultures: Internet. Unfortunately, it is not a crime without understanding new media. England: Open victims. The resultant effect is that as the University Press. criminals get richer, content producers' financial Ekwuazi, H. (1991). Film in Nigeria (2nd ed.). Ibadan: wellbeing is eroded and the production of their Abiprint & Pak Ltd. new work is degraded for paucity of funds. The Frazer, B. (2014). NYC's last film lab is closing. law in the books are also inadequate. StudioDaily.com. The study, therefore, concludes that since Kelani, T. (2015). Interview conducted with him on st the law in our books does not cover all aspects of September 1 , 2015. Lagos: Mainframe Office today's piracy, the paper suggests some steps for Premises. content producers to minimise their exposure to Makinde, F. (2018). Baba Sala forgave those who pirated Orun Mooru before he died – Emmanuel, piracy. Firstly, producers should deploy son. punchng.com 13 October, 2018. antipiracy software to protect works and be Odedina, J. O. (2017). A study of the dramaturgy of careful where these movies are screened. This is selected Yoruba video films. PhD Thesis, University the personal responsibility of a content of Ilorin. producer. A case in point is Hubert Ogunde's Onuzulike, U. (2010). Nollywood video films: Nigerian films that have never been pirated over twenty movies as indigenous voice. Berlin: VDM Muller years after his death because the films are never Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG. screened without his immediate family Rice, A. (2012).A Scorsese in Lagos: The making of members who are the primary beneficiaries of Nigeria's film industry. nytimes.com 12 June, the movies. Once done, the movies are secured 2019. by them. Ukadike, F. N. (2003). Video booms and the manifestations of “first” cinema in Anglophone Secondly, producers should invest in Africa. In Guneratne A. & Dissanayake W. aesthetics of production to allow legitimate (Eds.), Rethinking third cinema. New York: distributors as partners. This would enable a Routledge. coordinated effort to pursue legal relief if War against piracy: Police train video censors board. infringed upon. Our government also needs to Retrieved on 4th August, 2019 from www.pm bring the copyright law up to date to reflect the newsnigeria.com

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Integrated Marketing Communication and Political Marketing in Nigeria: Appraisal of Models and Tools

ATE, ASAN ANDREW, (PHD) & MR. OYEDEJI, KAZEEM ALADE Department of Mass Communication, Edo University, Iyamho, Edo State. [email protected] /[email protected] Federal Polytechnic, Ede, Osun [email protected]

Abstract With over two decades of democratic experiment in the country, Nigeria, the giant of Africa, has been going through a tidal wave of diverse political activities aimed at marketing political candidates and political ideologies. This paper appraises the issue at stake based on expert views. The study found that there are levels of convergence between marketing and politics. It appraises some models and tools of political marketing in the Nigeria environment. The study recommends the involvement of Marketing communication experts in the initiation and execution of political policies in Nigeria and that, members of the academia, Nigeria Institute of Public Relations (NIPR), and Advertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria (APCON) should ensure that political parties and politicians use appropriate integrated marketing communication tools in their political endeavours, among other things.

Keywords: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC), Political Marketing, Models, Tools, Nigeria

Introduction Communication (IMC). Marketing as a concept is defined by the ØThe levels of convergence and divergence American Marketing Association (AMA) as between Marketing and Politics. “the process of planning and executing the ØModels and tools of political marketing. conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services to create exchange The Evolution of IMC that satisfy individual and organizational Integrated Marketing Communication task objectives” ( Belch & Belch, 2004, p.7). force from American Association of The above definition places a high premium Advertising Agencies X-rayed the concept of on exchange as a central concept in marketing. IMC as: However, for any exchange to occur, Belch and Belch (2002, p.7) pontificate that: “there must be A concept of marketing communica two or more parties with something of value to tions planning that recognizes the one another, a desire and ability to give up that added value of a comprehensive plan something to the other party and a way to that evaluates the strategic roles of a communicate with each other”. Marketing is variety of communication disciplines desirable and inevitable in virtually all facets of for example, general advertising, direct human endeavor –education, economy, politics, response, sales promotion and public to mention a few. relations – and combines to provide clarity, consistency and maximum Objectives communication impact. This paper is concerned with examining: ØThe tools for Integrated Marketing Belch and Belch (2004, p.9) who captured the

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):162 - 172 162 ATE, ASAN A. & OYEDEJI, K. A. Integrated Marketing Communication and Political Marketing in Nigeria: Appraisal of Models and Tools above definition described it as “one of the first The IMC story which started like a mustard seed definitions of Integrated Marketing became blossomed during the 1980s, according Communications”. IMC is a dynamic process to Belch and Belch (2004, p.9) as “Many through the use of multi-dimensional Companies came to see the need for more of a communication tools with a view to winning the strategic integration of their promotional affections of the audience. tools”. Those firms, as they observed, began Research on IMC as reasoned by Samaila moving towards the process of IMC which (2008, p.2) has a long and rich history. involves coordination with various promotional According to him, “it has its roots in early elements and other marketing activities that research on verbal learning in psychology communicated with a firm's customers. (Ebbingjhaus, 1885)”. The first systematic As the full-blown IMC came on board, treatment of the influence of IMC according to Belch and Belch (2004, p.9) capture the splendid Samaila (2008, p.2) was “published by adoption of the concept by marketers: psychologist Walter Dill Scott (1908)”. Thereafter, the work of Social Psychologist such As the marketers embraced the concept as McGuire (1969), Hovland et al. (1953), of integrated marketing communica- Lewin (1948), Merton (1946), Katz and tions, they began, asking their ad Lazasfeld (1955), and Klaper (1960), among agencies to coordinate the use of variety others, played an important role in the of promotional tools rather than relying development of both empirical research and primarily on media advertising. A theory focused on mass communication in number of companies also began to general and marketing communications more look beyond traditional advertising specifically (Samaila, 2008, p.2). agencies and the use of other types of Another important era in the evolution of promotional specialists to develop and IMC was in the 1950s where a tradition implement various components of their ofresearch and theory development of the promotional plan. subject matter emerged. The researchers on Today, IMC is fully recognized by IMC have a psychological underpin. Samaila all and sundry. This recognition has led (2008, p.33) justifies this assertion when he to its adoption in different spheres of observes: marketing for profound results.

Contemporary theories of Marketing Theoretical Framework Communication rest on such This study is built on the RICEE model of psychological foundations as the Public Relations. This model has its roots from functional theory of attitudes (Fazio, the RICEE model propounded by Ikechukwu 1990; Katz,1960), the theory of Nwosu, (Nwosu, 1996).The RICEE model is reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, explained below: 1975), the elaboration likelihood model R stands for Research, I for Information, C (Petty & Cacioppo,1981), social for Communication, E for Education while E recognition (Bandura, 1994; Flske & stands for Evaluation. Taylor, 1992) and theories of goal derived categorization (Barsaloy, The promotional model is relevant in this work 1991). because Research, Information, Communica- tion, Education and Evaluation are crucial

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):162 - 172 163 ATE, ASAN A. & OYEDEJI, K. A. Integrated Marketing Communication and Political Marketing in Nigeria: Appraisal of Models and Tools issues in political marketing. Besides, Uffoh advertising focused approaches, which (2002) attested to the applicability of the model emphasizes mass media such as network in various contexts. Nwosu and Uffoh (2005, pp. television and national magazines to solve 161-163) applied the model in environmental c o m mu n i c a t i o n p r o b l e m s. M a n y management situations. companies are turning to lower cost, more targeted communication tools such as Growing Importance and Impact of IMC marketing and sponsorships direct mail, The successful penetration of IMC in the sales and promotion and the internet to marketing portfolio of companies and agencies develop their marketing communication is a soothing balm for consumers. As Belch and strategies. Belch (2004) described this move as one of the 3. A shift in marketing place power form most significant marketing developments that manufacturers to retailers: due to occurred during the 1990s. They identified some consolidation in the retail industry, small reasons for the adoption of IMC by marketers. local retailers are being replaced by regional, These are: national and international chains. These 1. They understand value of strategically large retailers are using their clout to integrating the various communication demand larger promotional fees and functions rather than having them operate allowances from manufacturers, a practice autonomously. that often siphons money away from 2. By coordinating their marketing advertising…, this is leading marketers to communication efforts, companies can shift their focus to promotional tools that avoid duplication, take advantage of can produce short term results, such as sales synergy among other promotional tools and promotion. develop more efficient marketing 4. The rapid growth and development of data communication programmes. based marketing: many companies are 3. To maximize return on investment in building data databases containing marketing and promotion. customer names; geographic, demographic 4. Reflects an adaptation by marketers toa and psycho-graphic profiles, purchase changing environment, particularly with patterns, media preferences, credit ratings respect to consumers, technology and and other characteristics. Marketers are media. using this information to target consumers 5. Changes the way companies market their through variety of direct marketing products and services. methods such as sale marketing, direct mail and direct response, advertising, rather than Belch and Belch (2004) proceed to highlight the relying on mass media. major characteristics of the marketing 5. Demands for greater advertising agencies revolution propelled by IMC to include: and changes in the way agencies are 1. A shifting of marketing dollars from media compensated: many companies are moving advertising to other forms of promotion towards incentive based systems whereby particularly consumer and trade oriented compensation of their ad agencies is based, sales promotions: many marketers feel that at least in part, on objective measures such traditional advertising has become too as sales market, profitability. Demands for expensive and is not cost effective. accountability are motivating many 2. A movement away from relying on agencies to consider variety of

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communication tools and less expensive Advertising: Sambe (2008, p.214) defines alternatives to mass media advertising. advertising as “any paid form of non-personal 6. The rapid growth of the internet which is presentation of ideas, goods and services by an charging the very nature of low companies identified sponsor”. However, taking a look at of their business and the ways they the concept with marketing lenses, Nwosu c o m mu n i c a t e a n d i n t e r a c t w i t h (2006, p.50) sees advertising as: consumers…. The internet is an interactive medium that is becoming an integral part of Mass and marketing form or practice communication strategy and even business whose aim is to create awareness for strategy for many companies. products, services, ideas, projects, institutions or individuals (e.g. IMC has a resounding impact in today's politicians in political advertising) and marketing environment. The major impact is persuade the right target audience or that marketing communication conveys well consumers to purchase, accept, adopt, designed messages to one or more of the firm's vote or engage in other behaviors various constituencies. The constituencies desired by the sponsor of the according to Samaila (2008, p.35) include advertisement. “present and future competitors' employees, distributors, retailers, regulators, government Direct marketing: direct marketing is more officials and the public at large. than direct mail and mail order catalogs. It involves a variety of activities, including Tools for IMC database management, direct selling, Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) telemarketing and direct response to has some basic elements or tools. The tools are advertisements through direct mail, internet enveloped with the promotional mix concepts. and various broadcast and print (Belch & Belch, Traditionally, promotional mix has four 2004, p.20).One of the major tools of direct elements: advertising, sales promotion, marketing according to them is direct response publicity and public relations. However, experts advertising, whereby the product is promoted added direct marketing and interactive media as through the manufacturer. major elements of promotional mix. Belch and Belch (2004, p.16). Interactive/internet marketing: interactive Let us appreciate the graphic illustration of media as observed by Belch and Belch (2004, the elements of the promotional mix before p.20) allow for “a back and forth information taking a brief look at each of them. The whereby users can participate in and modify the promotional mix: form and content of the information they receive in real time”. The new media, they Advertising --- Direct --- Interactive/-- argued, allow users to perform a variety of Sales Promotion --- Publicity/---Personal functions such as receive and alter information Selling Marketing/Internet Public and images, make enquires, respond to Relations questions and, of course, make purchases. Apart from the internet, other forms of Source: Belch & Belch (2004:16). Advertising and promotion. interactive media captured by Belch and Belch An Integrated Marketing Communications Perspective. (2004, p.20) include CD ROMS, Kiosk and Interactive Television.

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Sale Promotion: this represents an eclectic “Social process by which individuals and collection of various promotional incentives groups obtain what they need and want through designed to stimulate or speed of purchase creating, offering and free exchange of products (Blattberg & Nelsin, 1990, p.21). and services of value with others”. The American Marketing Association cited Publicity/public relations: publicity refers to in Dictionary of Marketing Terms (1995, p.2) non-personal communications regarding an defines marketing as “the process of planning organization, product, service or idea not and executing conception, pricing, promotion directly paid for or run under identified and distribution of ideas, goods and services to sponsorship. It usually comes in form of news create exchange that satisfy individual and story, editorial, or announcement about an organizational goals”. organization and/or it products and services. A common trend runs through the above Public relations has been described by Sambe definitions of marketing. A product or services (2008, p.240) as planned and organized effort of is exchanged between the buyer and seller; a company or institution to establish mutually exchange is triggered by the customer's needs beneficiary relationships with its various and wants. publics. Iyokyaa (1995, p.8) defines public Politics is about power and influence. It is relations as the management of communication systematic machinery put in place by political between an organization and the people it deals gladiators to control power. That is why Nnoli with. (1986, p.7) sees politics as those activities which In view of the above, public relations could are directly or indirectly associated with the be regarded as the management function which seizure of state power, the consolidation of state assesses public attitudes, identifies the policies power, and the use of the state. and procedures of an individual or organization Political Marketing according to Orsaah without losing sight of the public interest, and (1992) cited by Oriavwote (2003, p.2) is the executes a programme of action to earn public “performance of marketing functions and the understanding and acceptance. use of marketing systems, methods, or strategies for attainment of political goals”. He stresses Personal selling: this is a form of person-to- further that it involves the use of marketing person communication in which a seller techniques in politics to influence the voting attempts to assist and/or persuade prospective (buying) decision of the electorate (consumers). buyers to purchase the company's product or Samaila (2003, p.196) views political marketing services or to act on an idea. Unlike advertising, from general and specific perspectives: In personal selling involves direct contact between general terms, political marketing can be buyer and seller either face-to-face or through defined as the performance of marketing some form of telecommunications such as functions, and use of marketing system, telephone, etc. methods or strategies for the attainment of political goals. Specifically, it is the use of Political Marketing marketing techniques in politics to influence the For our discussion to stand erect in the sea of voting (buying) decision of the electorate intellectual reasoning, there is need to define the (customer). He outlines different levels under concepts of marketing and politics for proper which political marketing takes place. understanding of the term political marketing. These are: Government level, corporate Kotler (2000, p.7) sees marketing as a level, Organizational level, Individual level.

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From the above definitions of political hinged on the dogma that production is marketing so far examined, it is crucial to stress incomplete until it gets to the final consumer. that they all have marketing under currents that This is reflected in political process of taking are geared towards influencing or winning the party manifesto and politicians seeking election affection of the electorate with a view to to the doorsteps of the electorate through the controlling the state power. instrumentality of mass media and campaign tours. Levels of Convergence and Divergence between Marketing and Politics Marketing Communications: this appears to Marketing and Politics are similar in some be the most obvious area of interface between factors and poles apart from others. Nkamnebe marketing and politics. Apart from the array of (2003, pp. 185-189) identifies both the meeting communication tools that are available to the and parting points of marketing and politics. He political process, such as advertising, hitherto contends that the two concepts are similar under neglected tools as sales promotion are also the following themes: playing significant roles in party electioneering.

Marketing problems: marketing managers in Differences between marketing and politics commercial organizations are continually Nkamnebe (2003, p.187) collapses the confronted with the task of attracting and differences between marketing and politics retaining customer loyalty. In the same way, under three factors: Market Structure, Market political party managers/campaigners face the Periodicity and Organizational Objective. problem of attracting and retaining the loyalty of party members, electorate and the general Market Structure: Political markets are more public. oligopolistic than most conventional commercial markets. While commercial Public Development: product in this context markets (consumer) and industrial markets refers to anything that can be exchanged, which comprises relatively large number of has the capacity to create satisfaction. The competitors that compete among themselves, process of production and development the same cannot be said of political market. involves a systematic process through which ideas that are capable of solving human needs Market Periodicity: conventional markets are conceptualized and developed into need operate on a regular basis, thus permitting satisfying product and service under the consumers to make the decisions as and when perspective of political marketing, the same desired. However, political market is periodic process of product (idea) development akin to (mainly during the elections) which makes it tangible development has been recognized. highly seasonal sometimes spanning from a period of three, four to five years or even more. Purchasing: there is no popular supposition in literature that politics and political parties are Organizational Objective: this has to do with indeed purchasable just like tangible products. taking into cognizance the overall objectives of the organization. Both political and Distribution: distribution is a crucial task in conventional markets operate on objectives that marketing as it creates time and place utility. It is are opposed in context.

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Political Marketing Related Models Kotler's political map has key elements like the A model according to Oriavwote (2003, p.127) environment, sellers, product strategy, is “a representation of the actual environment communication channel and market. This or system that is being studied. Apostel (1961, model according to Oriavwote (2003, p.14) p.28) harped on the function of a model. serves as “guide of political terrain to political According to him, models “form a bridge parties and their candidates, campaign between the observational and theoretical levels managers and consultants”. Lornem (1995, and are concerned with simplification, p.224) gives a resume of the crucial five issues reduction, concretization, action, experimenta- and elements in Kotler's political map. These tion, extension, theory formulation and are: explanation”. 1. The environment which defines the salient We can see that a model is a graphically issues and opportunities. simplified piece of reality in an attempt to 2. Sellers in the political marketing explain a phenomenon. A model is a map to environment made up of the candidates, show the way to a destination. In this discourse, their parties, the interest group allies, and we shall consider Kotler's political marketing opposition parties and opponents. map and a comprehensive political marketing 3. Product strategy developments by model. respective candidates who adopt a marketing position believed to be merchandisable to the voters. The product Kotler's Political Marketing Map Environment 2. Sellers 3. Product Strategy 4. Communication channel 5. Market

Political Interest group Mass and philosophy Voters allies Sele ctive ?Segment 1 Party me dia ?Segment 2 Candidate ?Segment Choice of

…. Environment Issues and ?Segment n positions Personal

app earance Interest group Personal allies Style Opposition Volunteers Party(s) and party Background worke rs and qualification Opponent(s)

Source: Kotler, F. (1975:369). Marketing in Non-profit organizations (New Jersey: Eaglewood Cliffs), p.369.

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concept is often built on a mixture of its major drawback. The importance of research political philosophy, stands on particular in political marketing cannot be under issues, personal style and background and estimated. Iyorkyaa (1995, p.12) underscores qualifications. the relevance of political marketing research 4. Communications are distribution channels, thus: especially the mass and selective media, personal appearance, volunteer and party In commercial advertising, you need workers through which each candidates research to position a product. You seems to reach voters. need research to determine the vacuum 5. The political market is made up of different that is still left within the product class voter segments for which the environment, so that your product does not go the sellers, product concept strategy and same way as the other one. You need, it communication distribution channels are to establish your products, significant adjusted and the resultant outcomes are differential in the same way, research is continuously reviewed for further campaign needed for political advertising. modifications. Political candidates will have to know their constituencies, wants or needs Thomas (1976) cited by Oriavwote (2003, p.42) from their leaders. There is hardly any and Lornem (1995, p.226) identified lack of way this could be determined other than marketing research in Kotler's Political model as opinion research

A COMPREHENSIVE POLITICAL MARKETING MODEL 1. Enviro. 2. Sellers 3. Research 4. Prod. Strategy 5. Media Research 6. Comm. Channel 7. Market 8. Evaluation

Interest Group Public attitu Allies Party de Candidate Political Mass Philosop Public Media and hy Selective Opinion Availa ble media Media Interest Enviro Options Voters Election groups Public Interest Result groups allies ? Opinion union Sgt issue polls tribes 1 Readership Opinion Viewership ? Sgt polls Opponents and Personal Issue Listenership And party 2 party(s) Need workers ?Sgt

Media n Need Media Opposition costs Volunteers studies (party(s) And party workers

Source: Iornem, D. (1995, p.227). Techniques of Communication, Advertising and Marketing

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An omission of marketing research in Kotler's for the political party. For political marketing to political map is certainly a disservice to the be effective, communication tools must be used model. Also, grossly missing by omission or by the politicians or political parties to put commission from Kotler's model is evaluation across the message to the electorate, such tools which is another important ingredient in must ensure a robust feedback mechanism marketing. system. This is where integrated marketing A comprehensive political marketing model communications comes in. Both public is developed by Iornem (1995); it is an relations and advertising tools can be harnessed improvement from Kotler's political model of and husbanded for political marketing (1975). Iornem added research and evaluation purposes. Nwosu (1990, p.25) made a case in elements to Kotler's political marketing map respect of public relations when he asserts at with the notion that the dynamic nature of that “public relations is at the heart of every political marketing environment calls for management and that communication is an constant research. indispensable tool of modern public relations”. Oriavwote (2003, p.144) captures the Besides modern public relations, communica- resounding strengths of Iornem comprehensive tion is also an indispensable tool in modern political marketing model: advertising. In political marketing, it is the same communication that connects the political One characteristics feature of this product to the customer. comprehensive political marketing The question now is, what kind of model aside from the provision for communication tools can be deployed for research in public attitudes, public political purposes? Oviavwote (2003, p.208) opinion, issues and media research is identifies twelve communications tools which the incorporation of evaluation according to him “occur in the composite model following voter segmentation and of communication tools”. These are: actual voting. Election results (post Image Commercials: the radio remains very voting), opinion polls, and media reliable and cheap medium for political studies have to be evaluated for there to communication in rural areas in Nigeria, much be positive feedback from voters cheaper than television. (market to sellers). This improved Issue Commercials: these are advertisements or model has a fantastic feedback system. advertorials on issues bordering on the immediate and future needs of the constituents, It is important to stress here that Iornem's or debates on topical issues, not just publicity. comprehensive political model is well Candidate Appearance: Aside from seeing the formulated to guide politicians before, during candidate on television or bill boards or posters and after election. or listening to him on radio, most voters would want to meet him, the candidate must appear Tools for political marketing smart, attractive and well-dressed beaming with In political marketing, it is stating the obvious smiles at all times. that political organizations offer intangible Candidate Speeches: Speeches are meant to services inform of ideologies, issues and influence behavior towards desirable direction. promises to the electorate of different levels of Speech making constitutes on integral part of a marketing. Also in political marketing system, candidate overall campaign programme. the voters become the prospects and customers Speeches are made at rallies, political meetings,

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):162 - 172 170 ATE, ASAN A. & OYEDEJI, K. A. Integrated Marketing Communication and Political Marketing in Nigeria: Appraisal of Models and Tools community meetings and other gathering. to notice. Just as face caps, Vests and Stickers are Posters Displayed during Campaigns: these used to stimulate sales so also they are employed are very important attention arresting devices. to push political candidate towards the voters. Promises made by Candidates: Candidates Statement made to local press by candidate: should maintain their creditable integrity; Press statements including press release are statement made during presentation of their critical tools in campaign management. manifestoes, during rallies, political meetings Candidate could make statements to the local should be those that they can vouch for and press through conferences, interviews, and press implement when elected. It is of no use making releases to boost his candidature towards an fake promises or telling lies. election. Event Sponsorship: Sponsorship of sporting Media Selection: The media selection for activities such as football competition, table political depends on availability of funds, tennis, etc. is a phenomenon in the sporting strategy of the campaign, the message, the world. This has been found to be a good tool for communicator and targeted audience. image building for political candidates. For Appeal to personality: This strategy calls instance, MKO Abiola of blessed memory was attention to the personality of the candidate, in noted for using sports sponsorship to endear most cases, a very charismatic leader. It tells the himself to different groups of people in Nigeria. electorate that such a candidate cannot be a That largely helped in the annulled 1993 general failure anywhere. If 100% success cannot be elections he won. recorded for the candidate, the electorate would Donation made by candidates at some events: not be proud to identify him anywhere. The During the campaign period money becomes Indria Ghandi leadership in India is a good very scarce for candidates and thus candidates example. become more miserly in making donations because there are several other campaign Conclusion and Recommendations expenses. However, just before the campaigns Based on the findings of this study, it has been are flagged off candidates increase their discovered that Integrated Marketing visibility by attending social functions such as Communications has occupied a front seat in wedding ceremonies, civic reception, today's competitive marketing environment presentation of books and a host of others. which is driven by technology. Its impact can be These activities often help in creating awareness felt in virtually all forms of marketing: and publicity about the political candidate. Consumer, social and political marketing. Activities of Opinion Leaders: Opinion For us to have a responsible political leaders belong to influential groups employed environment in Nigeria where men of to endorse candidates for political office impeccable credentials will ordain the political sought. This leader is always a beautiful bride destiny of their generation, the following courted by the political candidate to exercise recommendations will suffice: his influence over his subjects or subordinate 1. That policy maker in the country should and/or community. always involve marketing communications Face caps, Vests, Stickers: Face caps, vests, experts in the initiation and execution of stickers and so on constitute display media any political policy in order to have their alongside posters and billboards. Those input. materials carry symbol of the party and party 2. That violence free polity is achievable if the name inscribed at a conscious place for people stakeholders, in Nigeria politics-politicians,

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political parties, electorates are exposed to terms. Chicago: American Marketing good education on political models that Association. would guarantee attitudinal change from Blattberg, R.C. & Neslin, S.A. (1990). Sales our inimical political practices. promotion: Concepts, methods and strategies. New 3. That the future lies squarely in the ability of Jersy: Prentice-Hall. Iornem, D. (1995). Techniques of communication, Nigerians to use/integrated marketing advertising and marketing. Kaduna: JVC Press. communications tools in all levels of our Iyorkyaa, T. (1995). Public relations research. political endeavour. This is because the Unpublished material. tools, well used, can separate the wheat Kotler, F. (1975). Marketing management. New Delhi: from the chaff for the good of the polity. Prentice-Hall. 4. That members of the academia, the Nkamnebe, A.D. (2003). The nature and Nigerian Institute of Public Relations characteristics of political: An analysis of the (NIPR) Advertising Practitioners council of marketing – politics interface. In Nwosu, I. E. Nigeria (APCON) and others should sell (Ed.), Polimedia: Media and politics in Nigeria. the comprehensive and undiluted IMC Enugu: ACCE. initiative to political parties and politicians. Nnoli, O. (1986). Introduction to politics. London: Longman. 5. That the nation's electoral body INEC Nwosu, I.E. (1990). Vital communication and public should put in place committee drawn from relations principles and techniques for the IMC experts in the country with a view to modern managers/administrators. In Nwosu, setting a new order in the use of IMC tools I.E. (Ed.), Mass communication and national and techniques in politics development. Aba: Frontier Publishers. 6. That the federal Government should Nwosu, I.E. (1996). Public relation management: provide the needed infrastructure in the Principles, issues and applications. Lagos: rural areas especially dependable power Dominician Publishers. supply and internet facilities so as to boost Nwosu, I. E. & Uffoh, V.O. (2005). Public relations the profile of our political marketing. management: Principles, strategies, issues and cases. 7. That if IMC is holistically embraced in the Enugu: Institute for Development Studies. Samaila, M. (2008). The adoption of IMC in advertising country, stone-aged demonic political and public relations agencies in Lagos. Phd Thesis, practices like juju men and Babalawos will Igbinedion University, Okada. become a thing of the past. The time to act, Samaila, M. (2003). Political Marketing in Nigeria. we believe, is now. In Nwosu, I. E. (Ed.), Polimedia: Media and politics in Nigeria. Enugu: ACCE. References Sambe, J.A. (2008). Introduction to mass Apostel, L (1961). Towards the formal study of communication practice in Nigeria. Ibadan: models in the non-formal science. In Spectrum Books Ltd. Frendelthai, H. (Ed.). The concept and role of the Onah, J.O. & Thomas, M.J. (1993). Marketing model in Mathematics and Social Sciences. management. Obosi: Pacific Publishers. Dordrecht: Reidel Publishing Company. Oriavwote, P. E. (2003). Marketing local & congressional Ate, A.A. (2007). Editorial writing: An Academic and candidates: Communication models that work. professional Approach. Akure: Pamma Press. Enugu: Prince Press and Communication. Belch, G.E. & Belch, M.A. (2004). Advertising and Uffoh, V. O. (2002). An evaluation of public relations p r o m o t i o n , A n i n t e g r a t e d M a r k e t i n g RICEE model as a strategy towards combating the Communications Perspective (6th ed.). Boston: menace of environmental degradation in Enugu McGraw Hill. Metropolis. Masters' Thesis, University of Bennet, P.D. (Ed.) (1995). Dictionary of marketing Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu Campus.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Re-Branding the Nigerianness of Nigeria through Re-humanizing the Moral Fabric of the Personhood: Role of the Traditional Mass Media

SOLOMON CHINEDU EKEOPARA (BA, MA, MPA, PhD.) Department of Peace Studies & Conflict Resolution National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) Awka Study Centre Email:[email protected].

Abstract This paper observes that most narratives about the concept of Nigerianness have derogatory connotations and that Nigerians thrive much in negation, in aberration and in corruption of all systems of governance. The paper highlights a few instances about them. In relation to branding and rebranding, the paper likens Nigeria/Nigerians to a product which is offered to the market for sale and which the producer intends to rebrand in order to make it acceptable to the users/consumers. In view of this understanding, the idea of rebranding the Nigerianness of Nigeria which this paper aims to achieve is not to design an image laundry strategy for Nigeria. Rather, the paper confronts the human character and other existential situations that give Nigeria bad image at home and abroad. In the light of this fact, the paper proposes the idea of re-fixing Nigeria through re-humanizing the moral fabric of the personhood of Nigerians via psychic/ attitudinal re-orientation and creation of other enabling developmental environments for the country to thrive. The paper also highlights the role the mass media will have to play in the process of rebuilding the right character of the citizens required to achieve the rebranding of the nation's image. The paper claims that it is by these approaches that Nigeria (and Nigerians) can be remade into a good product that sells itself in the market. The methodology of this paper is essentially conceptual and analytical.

Key words: Re-branding, Nigerianness, Re-humanizing, personhood and mass media

Introduction conflict and unprofessionalism. The legal There is nothing wrong with Nigeria as a name. system connotes injustices, corruption, There is only something wrong with Nigeria as a manipulation and undue influences, denial and people. Much discourse about the concept of delay in dispensing justice. The Nigerian media Nigerianness has negative connotation. There depict selective, sensational and bias news are glaring attestations to this fact. In the public reporting. The educational system showcases a watch, both domestic and international, the missing link which turns out half-baked Nigerian social system connotes corruption and graduates. These are a few instances among aberration. Nigerian politics and governance myriads of anomalies. Therefore, the connote election malpractices, violence, Nigerianness of Nigeria, at best, connotes inordinate ambition and abuse of power, negation and Nigerians thrive much in negation. nepotism, marginalization and so on. Religious The aim of this paper is not to fashion an image practices in Nigeria depict hypocrisy, laundry strategy for Nigeria. Rather, it intends extremism, fundamentalism, bigotry and to confront those existential situations that give intolerance. The Nigeria business environment Nigeria bad image at home and abroad, and to replicates sharp practices and untoward re-fix Nigeria. This, it intends to achieve through unethical conducts. The Nigerian security recommendation of positive socio-economic services connote compromise, brutality, bribery, development, through re-humanizing the moral lack of collaboration and synergy, indiscipline, fabric of the personhood to psychic/attitudinal

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):173 - 183 173 SOLOMON CHINEDU EKEOPARA Re-Branding the Nigerianness of Nigeria through Re-humanizing the Moral Fabric of the Personhood:.... re-orientation. It stresses the role the mass Rebranding: media are expected to play in remolding the Rebranding is a concept mostly used in moral character needed for attitudinal change. marketing for the purposes of renaming a While likening Nigeria (and Nigerians) as product and creating good image for a product products offered for sale in a competitive in a competitive market environment, especially market, it subscribes that it is by rebranding as when a product is losing the taste, satisfaction conceived in this paper, that Nigeria (and and patronage of consumers. Rebranding also Nigerians) may be remade into a good product changes the corporate image. It is a vital part of that would sell itself in the world market. attempts to change the company's culture. According to Cambridge Advanced Learners' CONCEPTUALIZATION Dictionary, if a company rebrands itself, or a Branding: product or service it provides, it creates a new Branding is an image creation as well as an name or image for it, often to try to change the expectation message. Good image is a good way that people conceive/perceive it. This is to will. In business, goodwill is an invaluable asset say in other words that rebranding is conceived and one of the resources of a going concern. as a means to change the way that an Branding, as an image maker, may convey either organization, company or product is perceived positive or negative message in the in the public eyes. Furthermore, it is important judgement/perception of the prospective to note that re-branding is conducted with an customers/publics. It is a marketing strategy existing brand. In the view of Blindell (2016), re- adopted in advertising to give meaning to a branding involves changing the brand name, product or service and to make it appealing to logo, visuals, packaging, marketing, materials the prospective publics. Suleman (2016) gives and/or any other defining aspect of a brand's credence to this point while explaining the consumer connectivity. Blind ell outlines meaning and idea behind branding. For him, seeming reasons for re- branding to include: to people or business organizations that engage in change perceptions, to change negative cultural branding seek to develop or align the connotations, to create social awareness, to expectations behind the branding experience. meet the customers need change, a shift in focus, They create the impression that a brand past progression, up-marketing, bankruptcy, associated with a product or service has certain competitive difficulties, a product line change or qualities that make it special or unique and when the logo looks outdated. Re-branding may therefore demonstrates what the brand owner is also be understood as a development process. able to offer in the market place. It is important Similarly, Nasiru (2016) conceives re-branding to recognize the primary place of branding a as the process by which a product or service product when it is understood in relation to developed with one brand, company or product naming an individual. As the name given to an line affiliation, is marketed or distributed with a individual depicts the experience or expectation different identity involving radical changes to of the parents, the individual, his personality brand logo, brand name, image, marketing and his character, so also branding reflects the strategy and advertising themes and aiming not meaning and intention of what the product is set at repositioning of the brand/company, usually to be. Thus, caution and carefulness is exhibited in an attempt to distance itself from certain in the choice of a brand name for a product or negative connotations of the previous branding service. or to move the brand up market. In this conception, it seems implicit that rebranding in

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):173 - 183 174 SOLOMON CHINEDU EKEOPARA Re-Branding the Nigerianness of Nigeria through Re-humanizing the Moral Fabric of the Personhood:.... marketing may be seen from the stand point of experiential aspect of Nigeria culminates into deception as it does not aim to improve quality psychological issue to the nation which is a but rather to disguise a product or rebottle an old symbolic construct created within the minds of wine. In this case re-branding tends to deceive people and consists of all the information and the users and is thus a cheat image laundry. expectations associated with the Nigerian This is not the way the paper conceives people. To the citizens and non-citizens, Nigeria rebranding the Nigerianess of Nigeria. For this is all but a minus and such negation is paper, the concept of rebranding Nigeria is to destructive because it has affected the corporate bring attitudinal change or improve the moral image of Nigeria. People who have transactions value and quality of the nation, her citizens and with Nigerians end up wagging their heads in her services in the eyes of her people and the despair, regrets and in disappointment as result global community. Therefore, in the view of this of moral decadence that has permeated all her paper, rebranding is conceived in terms of institutions. Sharing similar view, Idumanage qualitative change in character and attitude of (2009) says that Nigeria's corporate culture and the citizens of Nigeria in all spheres of business values are inverse and in-amenable to norms of and social relationships. In this way rebranding civility. Corruption, crimes and other social tends to change the personality of the corporate vices witnessed in all areas of human endeavour and communicate it through marketing strategy. and social relationship are the direct The strategy should promote the brand's consequences of loss of moral values. It is benefits and corporate character rather than the absurd to note further that the social system and product or service. It is the brand’s identity. state policies not only celebrate evil men but also protect and treat them as sacred cows (among Nigerianess of Nigeria: catalogue of corrupt individuals). These In the understanding of this paper, the concept portend great consequences to Nigeria and her of Nigerianness implies the Nigeria we know, people. Greed and official corruption by those the Nigerian system or the Nigerians way of life. in authorities have made Nigeria unsalable to The central concern of rebranding for this paper the international community. The nation's is the Nigerian people and the Nigerian nation. education system is brain drained to develop Whenever reference is made about Nigeria, it other lands. The negative image of Nigeria has supposes Nigeria as a people (Nigerians) and as denigrated her notable influence in the global a nation. Nigerians are product/service that world and her reputation has collapsed in the needs to be patronized or purchased by people. perception of comity of nations. Many But people who have had contact with Nigeria appellations have been associated with Nigeria. in this regard have expressed dissatisfaction and For instance, Nigeria is notoriously a nation of have attached negative connotation to her. In scammers; swindlers; fraudsters; a nation that other words, Nigeria has lost her saltiness and so kills her citizens in preference to cattle; has become unsavoury to be thrown away and meaningless and malingering youths; cybercafé matched under the feet of men. Describing the crimes, and bankrupt of moral values in a bid to degree of dissatisfaction and negative make a living. Furthermore, Nigeria is credited connotation attached to Nigeria as a product, for high unemployment rate; imposition of Suleiman (2016) has observed that the country leadership; deliberate narrowing of the political has been in a mess over the years as a result of space and legitimacy crisis confronting the the experience most publics of Nigeria have got polity; election malpractices; protests; violence; after having contact with the Nigerians. The and rebellion against the state. Social media are

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):173 - 183 175 SOLOMON CHINEDU EKEOPARA Re-Branding the Nigerianness of Nigeria through Re-humanizing the Moral Fabric of the Personhood:.... inundated with negative reports about Nigeria person; and to rebuild the eroded moral value and her citizens almost on daily basis. It is not system. A flashback at Dora Akunyili's view complimentary to read that many Nigerian about the concept of rebranding would show youths are scattered all over the world even in that it was conceived as an attempt by a people underground gulags in Libya. Recently, in to take conscious steps at redefining the nation, Malaysia, Singapore and China, Nigerians re-examining the values and character and suffer for sundry offences ranging from drug rededicating the citizens to the ideals of the trafficking, trafficking in human persons, 419, founding fathers. In her eulogy of Nigeria, forgery, to armed robbery. Nigerians who Akunyili's aphorism of re-branding Nigeria was commit drug-related offences in Saudi Arabia anchored in the slogan “Good People, Great are promptly hanged. In the current xenophobia Nation”. But in critical assessment, the real state issue in South Africa, Nigerians rank almost the of affairs is that the Nigerian people we know highest in population. It is in connection to this are not all good people. The Nigeria we know is disgust that Idumanage (2009) says that not all that great given the globally accepted Nigerians seem to have become a 'gargantuan criterion of greatness. What an image liability' to the African continent, the black race laundering paradox for Akunyili and Nigeria! A and the entire human race. The paper is of the plethora of questions may be raised further. If view that Nigerian image has been significantly the Nigerian people are hungry, angry, corrupt, dented and damaged to the point that complete unemployed, under siege of insecurity, what is overhauls in the form of re-defining/rebranding the good about them? If the government is her is the next option. insensitive to the plights of the citizens, and there is no good leadership; if the Nigerian Rebranding Nigeria: system is malfunctioned and her people are Nigeria is confronted with the challenge of unsafe; where then is the greatness about her? It recovering her lost image. Dora Akunyili (cited is common knowledge that the people are as in Ojo & Aghedo, 2013) considered rebranding good or as bad as the leadership they get. For if to aim to correct misgivings and misconceptions there is no good leadership and good about Nigerian state/citizens as well as to show governance, probably the goodness of the case her contributions and achievements on a people either diminishes or is doubtful. Thus, global scale. In contrast, the view of this paper is the implication of bad or good leadership for the that rebranding should not aim to shed/launder people cannot be ignored. To reiterate, the the negative image of Nigeria as seemed to be primary idea that is being advocated by this advocated by Akunyili (Ojo & Aghedo, 2013). It paper is premised on the adage that “Good should rather aim to restore lost reputation that product sells itself ”. Branding or re-branding is can be attested in the attitudinal change of the secondary. people. There is therefore the need to delineate the boundary of image laundering and image Some Efforts of the Federal Government to rebranding. Whilst image laundering aims at ReBranding Nigeria: projecting the good and the desirable and The federal government of Nigeria has at one shielding the bad and the undesirable aspect of time or another designed some economic and Nigeria, rebranding aims to transform the socio-political programmes aimed to re-brand, attitudinal patterns of citizens; to repair the repackage or launder and redeem the image of paradoxes and contradictions that have Nigeria. For instance, immediately after the civil dehumanized the moral fabric of the human war, there came declaration of “no victor no

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):173 - 183 176 SOLOMON CHINEDU EKEOPARA Re-Branding the Nigerianness of Nigeria through Re-humanizing the Moral Fabric of the Personhood:.... vanquished”. This was backed up by the regime especially that the project was externally driven of the 3-Rs – Reconciliation, Rehabilitation and and was run expensively. These and some other Reconstruction conceived as programmes to flaws were what Akunyili's Re-branding Nigeria heal the aftermaths of the war. These were Project claimed to address as well as paint designed to repackage Nigeria and present her Nigeria good to the outside world. as a united country in the global perspective. The theme message of Akunyili's However, the internal contradictions that Rebranding project was encapsulated in the caused the war and the effects of the war have logo and slogan “Nigeria, Good People, Great not diminished as the fervor of separatist Nation”. Accordingly for Akunyili, the movement, marginalization, political rebranding project as a campaign was exclusion, nepotism, hegemony and insecurity necessitated by the need to redeem the to mention but few have continued to aggravate debilitating image of Nigeria and Nigerians in recent times and thus indicate that the from the unfair way they had been perceived and wounds have not been healed. Following, treated both locally and internationally. successive governments initiated other projects, Akunyili conceived rebranding to be more such as: Ethical Orientation, Operation Feed critical than any physical structure because it the Nation, Green Revolution, War Against addressed a fundamental issue of how Indiscipline, War Against Indiscipline and Nigerians are perceived as a people and this for Corruption, Mass Mobilization for Economic her is fundamental to national development. Recovery, Self-Reliance, and Social Justice Thus, Akunyili's rebranding aimed to make (MAMSER), Directorate for Food, Roads and Nigeria and Nigerians good products to sell and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), Structural to correct the perception error about Nigeria. Adjustment Programme (SAP), Better Life for Critics however faulted Akunyili's project on Rural Women, Family Economic Advancement grounds of perception of the Nigerian situation. Programme (FEAP), Economic and Financial For instance, Uchem, (2009) and Edemhanria Crime Commission (EFCC), Independent (2010) argue that the damage done to the image Corr upt Practices Related Offences of Nigeria by successive and bad government Commission (ICPC), National Economic through greed is much worse than individual Empowerment Strategy, Heart of African actions of Nigerians. They recommend Project (HoAP) and the Re-branding Nigeria developmental approach to the issue instead of Project (RBNP). Amidst these programmes, the rebranding. Thus for them, creation of job Heart of African Project and the Re-branding opportunities for teeming unemployed youths; Nigeria Project are core issues to the discussion tackling ailing education sector as a result of in this section of the paper. For the memory, incessant strike actions; development of critical Heart of Africa Project was launched in 2004 by infrastructures; addressing appalling health Emeka Chikelu, former Minister of institution; alleviating abject poverty; Information and Communication, to polish the containing insecurity situations, separatist image of Nigeria. It aimed to project Nigeria as agitations and Niger Delta demands; a strong nation, a reliable nation, a country of rebranding leadership through selfless service, excellent people and a modern nation with a transparency, accountability and access to skilled workforce. Uchem (2009) and information by citizens; and sincere fight Edemhanri (2010) referred Dora Akunyili to against corruption are better image laundering have alleged that Heart of Africa was dumped projects than rebranding. That is to say that by the federal government for some reasons, attempts should be made to tackle these issues if

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):173 - 183 177 SOLOMON CHINEDU EKEOPARA Re-Branding the Nigerianness of Nigeria through Re-humanizing the Moral Fabric of the Personhood:.... the country truly wants to rebrand. This implies should be given to character-building for that it is lack and pursuit of these economic driven Nigerians to rebranding her economically. An needs that are the cause of bad image and negative illustration can be drawn to stress this point from connotation attached to Nigeria and that the story told about China during childhood days. confronting them is better than rebranding the It was told from elementary history class that when image of Nigeria. This seems to suggest that China wanted to live securely and peacefully, the Nigeria does not need image laundering. What country erected the Great Wall of China. The Nigeria needs is tackling these live situation Chinese misconstrued that no enemy would be experiences that give Nigeria bad image. able to climb over the walls to enter the city due to In other words, handling the Nigerianness of its height. The story continued that about ten Nigeria is a better option than rebranding Nigeria decades of its existence, China continued to be through mere slogan of image laundering. These invaded several times, and that at each time of the points notwithstanding, this paper sees that the invasion, the hordes of enemy infantry had no need root cause of Nigerianness cannot be addressed of penetrating or climbing over the wall, because economically only. Unethical behavior is capable each time the guards compromised and the enemy of defying any economic program that may be put gained unhindered access through the gate. The in place. Over the years, little attention has been problem was that the Chinese built the wall, but given to the development of the moral fabric of ignored to build the character aspect of the guards. human person which is considered by this paper as The lesson is that although the Great Wall had over fundamental to any developmental project. the decades become a stronghold of the country's Experiences over the years have shown that enduring strength and spirit, it had actually been a Nigeria is more interested in branding and pointer to the Chinese that the development of rebranding without doing the needful: that is, human character was superior to building other without doing a qualitative transformation of the physical structures. The story said that the Chinese existing system which anchors in rebuilding the realized much later that the best defence against character of leaders and the citizens through re- the enemy was not a fortified wall, but a fortified orientation of ethical/moral values. character. Thus, the building of human character It is evident that the Nigerian polity is precedes building the economy and anything else. encumbered with a cabal of self-serving leaders. It Relating this to the universe of discourse, it is is also evident that the quality of Nigeria has been discernable that rebuilding the character or the devalued mostly by leadership pathology, endemic moral fabric of the Nigerian citizens would corruption, weak governance and unstable generate better image safer than rebranding politics. All other crimes are plagues of weak Nigeria in the context of the Akunyili's Rebranding character. Political leaders thrive in the weak and Project. Having said this, it is apposite to turn to inefficient governance. They are the people that discuss rebuilding the moral fabric of the work against Nigerian aspiration for greatness. personhood within the concept of rehumanization. They are the first people whose character should be remolded. There is nothing wrong with Nigeria Re-humanizing the Moral Fabric of the Personhood: as a name or nation. But there is something wrong Now that the moral values of the Nigerian with Nigeria as a people. That wrong thing is in the person and society have been destroyed or attitude of the people reenforced by bad dehumanized, there is the need to rebuild it. governance and bad system that has not allowed Rebuilding/repositioning the ruined moral good leaders and good people to emerge. Thus, the character aspect of the personhood is the idea of area of human character must be handled if the re-humanizing or re-humanization. wrongs and bad image of Nigeria must be righted. Rehumanizing the personhood in the context of It is the view of this paper that preference

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):173 - 183 178 SOLOMON CHINEDU EKEOPARA Re-Branding the Nigerianness of Nigeria through Re-humanizing the Moral Fabric of the Personhood:.... rebranding implies restoring the moral integrity person. of the citizenry. It entails restoring the dignity of Re-humanizing the fabric of the human the individual through right/proper enlighten- person will intend to rebuild the broken ment and taking recourse to his innate foundation of moral values in our characteristics of reason and morality. It contemporary times. It is understandable that portends re-aligning the human mind/ morality and reason are intertwined in the fabric consciousness to the dictates of morality and of the human person and societal existence. reason. Thus it involves a concerted attempt to Now, the issue is that moral values that can build rehabilitate the mindset about issues and its a sustainable development have deteriorated in attendant consequence on behaviour. Nigeria. Given the multi-dimensional problems Wikipedia conceives re-humanization to mean such as leadership pathology, security the process by which one reverses the damage compromise, corruption of the citadel of justice, done by de-humanization. The Garnegie rotten and collapsed body politic, systemic and Council for Ethics in International Affairs endemic corruption, moral decadence and (2014) expands the meaning of rehumanization economic backwardness plaguing the African further to mean the restoration of human states, the importance of good moral value dignity and the re-assertion of the priority of foundation cannot be undervalued. It is humans above the systems originally intended pertinent to state that in the attempt to rebrand to serve humanity. In this case, it is conceived as Nigeria, there is need to recommend good a transformation with the principle of universal foundation of moral values as measure for a regard and respect intended to conquer greater Nigeria and to highlight the ways to depravity by emphasizing the cultivation of rebuild the broken foundation of moral values moral etiquette, decency and so on. It is for the human person. conceived that in dehumanization, economic factors are given primacy over ethical Measures to Re-humanize the Moral Fabric of the considerations in human behavior, in decision Personhood: making of government and in almost all social The first attempt in re-humanizing is to admit interactions. The implication of this is that the fact that there has been a progressively humans lose their dignity and morality in degrading of the personhood of the citizenry pursuit of material acquisition. In such a and that development of moral character and situation, economic or material factors are left ethical agencies have been affected by the unchecked by ethics, and humans are demands and pursuits of making a living in the dehumanized in the process of this invasion. contemporary materialistic and market- Inordinate pursuit for material acquisition and oriented economy. Other attempts will be to consideration of economic entities seem to gain reverse the dehumanization. This purports that autonomy while humans lose their autonomy. to re-humanize the moral fabric of the human Ethics gives way to materialism. Education, person, there must be a demonstration of an religion, politics, health, security and unflinching commitment to the enthronement administration are now designed to equip of value orientation, moral rectitude and moral citizens for gainful material acquisition rather renaissance in the personhood of the citizenry. than for moral virtues such as integrity, To this end, there should be a reform and a credibility, honesty, discipline, sense of duty and redefinition of the political, social and selfless service to humanity. The outcome economic foundations of society as well as the therefore is the dehumanization of the human re-orientation of the mindset of the citizens in

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):173 - 183 179 SOLOMON CHINEDU EKEOPARA Re-Branding the Nigerianness of Nigeria through Re-humanizing the Moral Fabric of the Personhood:.... order to achieve re-humanization. This is through dissemination of messages that because they are the basic structures and admonish right moral values, character- institutions that have de-humanized the building and social reengineering. The media personhood. It follows that there is need for have not only assumed a very strong and reorientation and re-ordering of social values. It influential constituency but have also assumed a also follows that there is need to establish and dreadful checking/watchdog role to other inculcate a set of values and ideals anchored in fabrics of the society. The fear of the media is principle-based lifestyle, audacity, endurance now the tact of actions. The caution to apply is factor, strong cultural values, sense of decent to check the negative sides of the media, living, patriotism, education incentives, and so particularly with reporting/spreading false on. (junk) information and immoral messages. Body of literature holds the view that the The Role of the Traditional Mass Media: negative sides of media (especially the social Despite the recent eroding influence and media) seem to be outweighing their benefits. negative developments of the social media on Most of the immoral, foreign and strange values the behaviour of the citizenry, on the one hand, that are repugnant to African cultural values and the unprofessional disposition and spread unhindered like wide fire through the socioeconomic influences and political social media tools. Emmanuel Ifesinachi (2019, interferences on the activities of the media p.2) has observed in this respect that the social agencies on the other hand, the media agencies media have “assumed a destructive dimension remain universally the major institutions and threatening the very humanity it came to entrusted with the responsibility to disseminate improve.” He further decries the implication of information and values. It is the belief in Nigeria the negative sides of the social media on the part that dissemination of core moral values can be of youths, stating that youths are usually done on the platform of the media agencies, recruited, equipped with internet devices to churches, mosques, National Orientation syndicate trolls and fake news on social media, Agencies and compulsory inclusion of these while professional bodies are usually sponsored values into the curriculum of education to engage in ominous political activities. The institutions from nursery to the tertiary levels. traditional media should relay/post what is However, amongst all the many institutions of morally justifiable and what they will take socialization and dissemination of acceptable responsibility of, for what they showcase go moral values of the contemporary society, this viral like the speed of light. They should not paper places much more premium on the media pollute the growing minds nor subvert the moral agencies. truth value of African cultural existence at the This paper conceives the primary role of the altar of advertisement for monetary media agencies to include inter alia: to considerations. enlighten/educate; to inculcate right social To this effect, the media should assist to values/moral principles; disseminate protect the young minds from the hazards of information; to check and counter the spread of what they see, hear and read. The rights of the false information from their platform, most child are enshrined in the local and importantly the recent advent of the other social inter national laws as well as other media; and to project the image of the country administrative provisions. Such rights do not to the global community. So the media agencies only mean the right to proper education, have vital role to play in rebranding Nigeria adequate feeding, medical care and other

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):173 - 183 180 SOLOMON CHINEDU EKEOPARA Re-Branding the Nigerianness of Nigeria through Re-humanizing the Moral Fabric of the Personhood:.... material existential living, but also include the thus an emphasis on the ethical/moral rights to be protected from anything that may development of citizens, particularly for the contaminate or pollute their minds or prevent growing ones. Furthermore, Albert Schweitzer them from developing right moral/mental placed high premium on moral development of character. Thus they have the right to good the child and other citizens when he likens a moral upbringing and right to acquire proper society whose younger ones/citizens are ethical knowledge. In a well-ordered society, the growing materially without correspondently state is expected to design laws to protect the growing morally to a truck that is accelerating in minds of the young and the growing ones from high speed in a stiff sloppy hill and with every corrupting influence that arise from their defective brake that heads to catastrophe (cited material, physical and spiritual environment. in Joseph Omoregbe, 1990). And responsible and sensitive media are The corrupting materials Plato bluntly expected to disseminate them and also to ensure banned have their nearest equivalent in our that derailing practisoners are sanctioned present-day social media, door-to-door and appropriately. It is in an attempt to protect the street-to-street medicine vendors, film actors young minds from corrupting influences of and sellers and adverts on the media that plague literature, arts and visuals and to transmit and to our environment. These packaged illicit preserve a body of right moral/ethical behavior messages that emanate from the media foster and cherished values that prompted Plato's evil habits, arouse sexual urges and vices in Republic to propose the censorship of certain children. The advertisers seem to have lost sight literature, music, films stage performance, of the ethics and ethos of advertising. These visuals and other works that may be judged to advertisement messages which the media use in have the tendencies of corrupting the minds of order to sell their products and make money are the young ones and misrepresenting the not fit for the ears of boys or girls. They are cherished societal values. His proposal was impious and therefore harmful for anyone to motivated by his profound understanding of the hear. Such stories, shows, posts and talks many subtle ways in which the ethos of a society corrupt the young by filling their minds with forms the souls who grow up in it. Plato's view is dangerously wrong ideas and impressions about that for the sake of the young, the entire culture matters of great moment. It is dismaying to say must be purged. Plainly, the stories, talks or acts that instead of prohibiting the transmission of which must not be told to very young children messages that will not represent ideal morality, by parents and nurses should not be heard the traditional media and the authorities have by anywhere in the city or should be restricted to action or inaction allowed these lusty, vicious, certain category and place if they must cruel, cunning and sensual materials to loom on necessarily be told (Lee, 1974). Thus, Plato saw the environment. These materials and adverts the young ones as not only the building block of do not cultivate good habits among the attentive society but also as the bedrock of posterity and and curious children. Rather, the messages they the future state of affairs of the society. transmit promote western culture, unethical Similarly, the social contract theorists after behaviour, undesirable passions and emotions. Plato also saw good moral upbringing of the The messages nourish baser impulses of boys child as the way of raising good citizens and and girls. Whether these materials are supposed gentlemen. And so they made it one of the to have allegorical meaning or not, the fact responsibilities of the state to ensure the remains that they do not have educative value. inculcation of good moral into citizens. There is They are, to say the least, breeders of falsehood,

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):173 - 183 181 SOLOMON CHINEDU EKEOPARA Re-Branding the Nigerianness of Nigeria through Re-humanizing the Moral Fabric of the Personhood:.... unconventional moral norms, corruption and They should begin to debunk the junk mothers of vices that plague Nigeria. They information and immoral practices passed to produce in their best, the wrong sort of the citizens via social media and substitute them knowledge for youngsters. Even adults are not by authentic news reports and ethical practices. immune. They should embark on investigative What is needed instead for young and journalism and show their professionalism growing ones are materials and messages that which the social media lack. They should inspire virtue, teach morality and provide attempt to restore and win the lost confidence aesthetic delight; materials and adverts that the masses repose in them by disseminating true communicate good experience and express right and non-teleguided reports. They should also emotion. The society needs film shows, media design programmes that will revisit and posts and adverts that will engender and not disseminate the unique African culture and endanger the faculty of reason and virtue. moral values and educate and re-orientate the Evidently, the moral environment for the young minds. By doing these, the traditional upbringing of our young and growing ones is media would rebuild the foundation of under serious threat of complete collapse morality. because of what they see, hear and read. The point at issue now is how the traditional Conclusion mass media should assist to correct and control There is nothing wrong with Nigeria as a name the influences that shape the moral environment of a nation. But there is something wrong with in which the young grow up so that they will not Nigeria as a people. That wrong thing is the engage in acts that will further damage the character/attitude of the people of Nigeria reputation of the country. It is a challenge to the reinforced by bad governance and bad system traditional media to ensure that the ethos of that has impeded the emergence of good leaders society is disseminated as ideally as possible and and good people. So the campaign slogan: to check the ways all the immoral messages are “Nigeria, Good People, Great Nation”, transmitted to the young by social media and packaged to rebrand Nigeria is a mere illusion. other outlets. Although the society, the Experience should make Nigeria realize that immediate communities, the government slogans, no matter how attractively coined and authorities, the security agencies, the ministries packaged, cannot sell a nation positively to the of Health and Education, the religious outside world. Only positive developments and institutions, parents, all concerned individuals, professional/ethical mass media are expected to and the moral entrepreneurs have a lot of assist to do that. Rebranding efforts in Nigeria responsibilities to discharge in this respect, this should therefore aim to make Nigeria a good paper looks much more onto the traditional product that can sell itself by placing emphasis media to play the major role. They should rise to on positive development on the sides of take their prominent role as the universally socioeconomic approaches and the moral acclaimed media agencies instead of being development of the society and the human overwhelmed by the pressure and relegation of person. the social media. Therefore, they should rise from the slumber of late to confront this References situation vehemently and save our moral Blindel, S. (2016). What is branding? B.R.A.N.D. environment from total annihilation. They Accelerator Login January, 28. should take decisive measures in this respect. Edemhanri, I. (2010). Re- Branding Nigeria: A waste

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of people's resources. African Network for Ojo, G. & Aghedo, I. (2013). Image re-branding in a Environment and Economic Justice, ANEEJ. fragile state: The case of Nigeria. The Korean Desmond, L. (1974). (Trans). PLATO: The Republic. Journal of Policy Studies, 28 (2), 81-107. England: Penguin Books. Omeregbe, J. (1990). Knowing philosophy: A general From dehumanization to rehumanization. Garnegie introduction. Lagos: Joja Educational Research Council for Ethics in International Affairs. and Publishers Ltd. February 14, 2014. Online N.P. Osewa, O. (2005). Yar'adua unveils re-branding Ifesinachi, E. (2019). A key note address presented at Nigeria logo, slogan tomorrow. Niaraland N.P. a media event on the Role of Citizen Journalism Rehumanization. Wikipedia: the free encyclopedia. in Improving Neighbourhood Safety held on https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehumanizatio Thursday 25th July at Marble Arch Hotel Awka n. Nov.2014. Anambra State. Re-branding. Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary Idumange, J. (2009). Re-Branding: Prof. Dora and Thesaurus. Cambridge: University Press. Akunyili. Sahara Reporters, December, 28. Uchem, R. (2009). Re-Branding the Nigerian Madison, F. (2011). Re-branding: The key to projects in a period of global economic crushing your opinion. Online March, 20. recession: Challenges and prospects. Nasiru, S. (n. d.). Re-branding Nigeria: Another International Journal of Creativity and Technical [email protected] Development, 1(1-3), 78-91.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Relationship between Patronage of Traditional Medicine and Socio-Demographic Characteristics in Kaduna State, Nigeria

DR. SILAS JOSHUA Department of Geography, Federal University Lokoja, Kogi State, [email protected]

Abstract For centuries trado-medical services have dominated the healthcare delivery system in Nigeria and more than 70 percent of the population patronizes traditional medicine before visiting orthodox medical practitioners. The aim of the study is to assess the relationship between patronage of traditional medicine and socio-demographic characteristics in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Data from the study was derived from the administration of a structured questionnaire and data from herbal medicine clinic. The questionnaire surveys a sample of 400 respondents in the study area. Descriptive statistics, the ANOVA, Pearson's correlation and regression analysis were the techniques used to summarize the data and test the hypotheses. The results show that traditional birth attendant is mostly patronized by the people of Kaduna State and also that age group is an important factor in the patronage of traditional medicine. Age group 50-54 was found to patronize traditional medicine the most followed by age group 45-49.This implies that traditional medicine is highly patronized by middle aged group who are likely to be less conservative and perhaps have greater awareness of the permanent nature of change in the perception of traditional medicine. Furthermore, the findings show that female respondents tend to patronize traditional medicine facilities the most compared to their male counterparts. The study concludes that education, marital status, and age remain fundamental factors that determine the patronage of traditional medicine. It therefore recommends among others that these factors should be targeted as major socio-demographic instruments for the integration and improvement of TMP patronagein Kaduna State and Nigeria at large.

Key words: Relationship, Patronage, Traditional Medicine, social, Demographic, Economic and Population

Introduction Traditionally, rural communities in Kaduna For centuries trado-medical services have State have relied upon the spiritual and practical dominated the healthcare delivery system in skills of traditional medicinal practitioners Nigeria and more than 70% of the population (TMPs), whose botanical knowledge of plant patronizes traditional medicine before visiting species and their ecology and scarcity are orthodox medical practitioners. Nevertheless, invaluable (Mamman & Laah, 2006). traditional medical practitioners' methods of Throughout Nigeria, the gathering of practice are in doubt and are seen as occultism, medicinal plants was traditionally restricted to barbaric, as well as ancient, having been clouded TMPs or their trainees. It is estimated that the with a lot misconception and insufficient number of traditional practitioners in Kaduna confidence by most of the patrons. Traditional State is 10,000-20,000 in comparison with 100 medicine (TM) consists of medical knowledge medical doctors (Joshua, 2010). For this reason, system that developed over centuries within there is a need to involve TMPs in state various societies before the era of modern healthcare systems through training and medicine. Traditional medicine can also be evaluation of effective remedies, as they are a considered as amalgamation of dynamic large and influential group in primary medical know-how and ancestral healing healthcare. practice and experience (Joshua, 2010).

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It is difficult to characterize a 'typical' healer, MATERIALS AND METHODS because there are many different kinds, and the Types of Data cultural diversity and complexity of their The types of data include socio-economic data, practices are unique, when considered in detail. place or layout of resident data, and Most healers have in common, however, that demographic data; cultural data and perceived they describe and explain illness in terms of distance such as distance from the health care social interaction and that they act on the belief service provision are used. that religion permeates every aspect of human existence. Their concepts of health and illness Sources of Data are more comprehensive than those of orthodox The data used for this study were obtained from doctors and 'health' as we know it cannot be both primary and secondary sources. The adequately translated in many Nigerian primary source involves the use of structured languages (Mamman & Laah, 2006). questionnaires while the secondary source Other prominent features of traditional involves the use of textbooks, magazines, healers are a deep personal involvement in the journals, articles, gazettes and other relevant healing process, the protection of therapeutic materials were used for the review of related knowledge by keeping it secret and the fact that literature. they are rewarded for their services. The social The actual respondents include traditional context of the therapeutic process requires medical practitioners, patrons of traditional reciprocity and thus payment contributes to the medicine, community leaders, NGO's, effectiveness of the treatment. Over the years, Institutions and Agencies in Kaduna State. The the types and methods of payment for respondents were selected at the point of traditional healing have changed, especially in administering traditional medicine. The urban settings; practitioners are increasingly research assistants were at the healing point to demanding monetary payments (Joshua, 2010). administer the questionnaires to willing clients/ There is now a growing patronage of patients on a daily basis until the required traditional medicine in Kaduna State and in sample size was obtained. Nigeria in general, leading to a clash of interest As part of the secondary data, existing between modern and traditional medicine official and unofficial statistics from both which may be due to professional and cultural national and international publications, pride. The overall picture that emerges today is including articles, journals, books, conference that people in our society directly or indirectly papers, theses and dissertations were used. use the services of the traditional doctors Some of the publications from WHO/UNICEF irrespective of social class (Joshua, 2010). were used as guides. Data from Federal and Wagun (1979) states that traditional medical State Ministries of Health/Planning and the practitioners are more competent in the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) were treatment of health problems native to Africa, required for background information on such as malaria and yellow fever than those distribution of healthcare facilities. Data were which are foreign, for example tuberculosis, also obtained from the National Population measles and chicken pox (Laah, 2002). This Commission (NPC) publications, analytical paper is aimed at assessing the relationship reports and other commissioned papers. between patronage of traditional medicine and In addition, records and documents from socio-demographic characteristics in Kaduna Kaduna State health and revenue departments, State, Nigeria. general hospitals, NAFDAC centers,

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):184 - 190 185 DR. SILAS JOSHUA Relationship between Patronage of Traditional Medicine and Socio-Demographic Characteristics ... dispensaries and clinics were used. = 1,156,734 Downloaded online articles and reports of 2892.835 conferences of national and international = 400 agencies from several web sites were used and some of these pieces of information provided Therefore, the copies of questionnaire answers to several questions in this research. administered were 400 distributed as revealed in Table 1 Sampling Design and Sample Size Kaduna State has a population of 6,113,503 Table 1: Distribution of Questionnaire in the Selected (FGN, 2007). It comprises of twenty-three (23) LGA's Local Government Areas, grouped into three senatorial districts. Three Local Government Selected LGA Population No. of questionnaires Areas were selected for the study. The selection administered per LGA. of these three LGAs was based on certain Zaria 406,990 141 criteria. Igabi 430,753 149 One Local Government Area was chosen Zangon-Kataf 318,991 110 from each of the three senatorial districts. The LGA chosen was the one with the highest Total 1,156,734 400 population in each of the senatorial districts in Source: National Population Commission, 2009 / Field Survey, Kaduna State. Therefore, the LGAs chosen are 2014 Zaria, Igabi and Zangon Kataf. The systematic random sampling was The purposive sampling technique was used to employed to select the wards from each LGA, administer the questionnaire at the healing for the administration of questionnaire. All the points to willing clients on daily basis until the wards in the selected Local Government Areas required sample size was obtained. Kerlinger were arranged alphabetically and every other (1999) describes purposive sampling as being third ward was selected as samples for characterized by the use of personal judgment questionnaire administration. and a deliberate attempt to obtain representative Yamane's (1961) sample size of a given samples by including presumable typical areas population determination formulae is used to or groups in the sample. calculate the number of questionnaire to be administered. The formula is as follows: Method of Data Analysis Both descriptive and inferential statistics were

Finite population (n2) = N used in the analysis. The descriptive statistical 2 1+ N (ei) analysis was adopted for summarization of Where: data, tables and graphs. n= Sample size

e= Level of precision or Earlier constant i RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS (0.05 degree of freedom) Patronage of Traditional Medicine and Demographic Characteristics of Respondents N= Population Size = 1,156,734 Patronage of traditional medicine varies along demographic and socio-economic (n2) = 1,156,734 1+ 1,156,734(0.05)2 characteristics of respondent's as shown by the cross-tabulation in the tables below:

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Traditional Medicine Facilities Patronized and Age Table 2 presents data on traditional medicine facilities patronized by age. The results of age less than 15 years shows that 75.0% patronize tooth pullers and 25.0% patronize herbalists.

Table 2: Distribution of Respondent's According to Traditional Medicine Facilities Patronize and Age

Age Traditional Tooth puller Bonesetter Spiritualist Herbalist Others Total (Year) Birth Attendant Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % <15 0 0.0 3 75.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 4 100.0 15-19 5 29.4 4 23.5 2 11.8 2 11.8 4 23.5 0 0.0 17 100.0 25-29 5 16.7 10 33.3 9 30.0 2 6.7 4 13.3 0 0.0 30 100.0 30-34 12 36.4 8 24.2 9 27.3 0 0.0 4 12.1 0 0.0 33 100.0 35-39 21 38.9 10 18.5 17 31.5 2 3.7 4 7.4 0 0.0 54 100.0 40-44 11 30.6 7 19.4 9 25.0 2 5.6 7 19.4 0 0.0 36 100.0 45-49 21 30.0 10 14.3 23 32.9 6 8.6 8 11.4 2 2.9 70 100.0 50-54 36 47.4 11 14.5 19 25.0 2 2.6 8 10.5 0 0.0 76 100.0 55-59 11 27.5 7 17.5 11 27.5 2 5.0 9 22.5 0 0.0 40 100.0 >59s 13 32.5 2 5.0 14 35.0 4 10.0 7 17.5 0 0.0 40 100.0 Total 135 33.8 72 18.0 113 28.2 22 5.5 56 14.0 2 0.5 400 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2014

Also, the age group of 15-19 shows that 29.4% of the respondents patronize traditional birth attendants, 23.5% patronize tooth pullers, 11.8% patronize both bonesetters and spiritualists while 23.5% patronize herbalists. This indicates that traditional birth attendants are mostly patronized by the people of Kaduna State. In addition, the age group 35-39 shows that 38.9% patronize traditional birth attendants, 18.5% patronize tooth pullers, 31.5% patronize bonesetters and 7.4% visit herbalists. Indeed, the age group 50-54 patronize traditional birth attendants with about 47.4% respondents, 14.5% patronize modern medicine, 25.0% patronize bonesetters, 2.6% patronize spiritualists while 10.5% patronize herbalists. This is an indication that age group 50-54 patronizes traditional medicine the most followed by age group 45-49.This shows that traditional medicine is highly patronized by middle aged group that are likely to be less conservative and perhaps have greater awareness of the permanent nature of change in the perception of traditional medicine. Better still, many of the respondents were educated beyond primary school. It also reveals that patronage of traditional medicine by the different age group plays an important role in determining the type of traditional medicine to patronize.

Traditional Medicine Facilities Patronized and Sex Table 3 presents information on traditional medicine facilities patronized according to the sex of the respondents. The table shows that 30.9% of female respondents visit traditional birth attendants, 15.2% visit tooth pullers, 33.2% pay visit to bonesetters, 6.7% visit spiritualists while 13.9% patronize herbalists for their healthcare needs.

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Table 3: Distribution of Respondent's According to Traditional Medicine Facilities Patronized and Sex

Sex Traditional Tooth puller Bonesetter Spiritualist Herbalist Others Total Birth Attendant Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Female 69 30.9 34 15.2 74 33.2 15 6.7 31 13.9 0 0.0 223 100.0 Male 66 37.3 38 21.5 39 22.0 7 4.0 25 14.1 2 1.1 177 100.0 Total 135 33.8 72 18.0 113 28.2 22 5.5 56 14.0 2 0.5 400 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2014

Furthermore, among the male respondents 37.3% patronize traditional birth attendants, 21.5% visit tooth pullers, 22.0% visits bonesetters, 4.0% visit spiritualists and 14.1% patronize herbalists. In all female respondents tend to patronize traditional medicine facilities the most compared to their male counterparts.

Traditional Medicine Facilities Patronized and Ethnic Group Table 4presentsthe results of the analysis of traditional medicine facilities patronized according to ethnic group. Among the Hausa respondents 33.1% visit traditional birth attendants, 17.1% visit tooth pullers, 33.1% visit bonesetters, 4.6% visit spiritualists and 10.9% herbalists while others account for 1.1% of the respondents.

Table 4: Distribution of Respondent's According to Traditional Medicine Facilities Patronized and Ethnic Group

Ethnic Traditional Tooth puller Bonesetter Spiritualist Herbalist Others Total Group Birth Attendant Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Hausa 58 33.1 30 17.1 58 33.1 8 4.6 19 10.9 2 1.1 175 100.0 Igbo 3 16.7 5 27.8 5 27.8 0 0.0 5 27.8 0 0.0 18 100.0 Yoruba 7 41.2 4 23.5 4 23.5 2 11.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 17 100.0 Northern 61 34.5 32 18.1 45 25.4 12 6.8 27 15.3 0 0.0 177 100.0 Minority Others 6 46.2 1 7.7 1 7.7 0 0.0 5 38.5 0 0.0 13 100.0 Total 135 33.8 72 18.0 113 28.2 22 5.5 56 14.0 2 0.5 400 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2014

The northern minority seems to be the most patrons of traditional medicine in Kaduna State with 34.5% respondents who visit traditional birth attendants, 18.1% visit tooth pullers, 25.4% visit bonesetters, 6.8% visit spiritualists while herbalists account for 15.3% respondents. On the whole, Yoruba, Igbo and others equally patronize traditional medicine healers for one health problem or the other.

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Table 5: Distribution of Respondent's according to Traditional Medicine Facilities Patronized and Level of Education

Level of Traditional Tooth puller Bonesetter Spiritualist Herbalist Others Total Education Birth Attendant Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % None 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 50.0 2 50.0 19 10.9 0 0.0 4 100.0 Quranic 26 37.7 11 15.9 19 27.5 4 5.8 9 13.0 0 0.0 69 100.0 Primary 9 22.0 3 7.3 11 26.8 6 14.6 12 29.3 0 0.0 41 100.0 Secondary 70 41.4 23 13.6 48 28.4 7 4.1 19 11.2 2 1.2 169 100.0 Tertiary 30 25.6 35 29.9 35 29.9 3 2.6 14 12.0 0 0.0 117 100.0 Total 135 33.8 72 18.0 113 28.2 22 5.5 56 14.0 2 0.5 400 100.0

Source: Field Survey, 2014

Traditional Medicine Facilities Patronized education mostly patronize traditional and Level of Education medicine compared to other level of education Table 5 present data on traditional medicine in the study area. facilities patronized by level of education. On the whole, 50.0% of the respondents with no Conclusion and Recommendation education patronize both bonesetters and The study was undertaken to explore the extent spiritualists, only 10.9% patronize herbalists for and effectiveness of trado-medical healing and their healthcare needs. Those with Quranic how accessible it can be to the people of Kaduna education have about 37.7% who patronize State and Nigeria at large. The challenges and traditional birth attendants, 15.9% patronize truth about accessibility to traditional medicine tooth pullers, 27.5% patronize bonesetters, 5.8% were unraveled and the effectiveness of assess. patronize spiritualists while 13.0% patronize The findings are from a relatively small sample herbalists. of trado-medical practitioners, and patrons of A cursory look at those with primary traditional medicine; however, it is hoped that education, 22.0% patronize traditional birth the findings may create an insight into the attendants, 7.3% patronize tooth pullers, 26.8% practice of traditional medicine and how patronize bonesetters, 14.6% patronize accessible it could be to the users and patrons in spiritualists while 29.3% patronize herbalists. general. The analysis and findings must be seen Among those with secondary education, 41.1% in context of the nature and scope of the study. It patronize traditional birth attendants, 13.6% is believed that the findings will aid towards patronize tooth pullers, 28.4% patronize improving the relevant draft policy and adding bonesetters, 4.1% spiritualists, 11.2% patronize quality towards the policy. In order to make our herbalists while 1.2% patronize others not trado-medicines more accessible to the people indicated. However, a look at tertiary level of of Kaduna State, it is pertinent that the education indicates that 25.6% patronize following should be observed. traditional birth attendants, 29.9% patronize i. Education and marital status should be tooth pullers and bonesetters, 2.6% spiritualists targeted as a major socio-demographic and 12.0% patronize herbalists. This shows that instrument for the integration and those with secondary and tertiary level of improvement of TMP patronage.

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):184 - 190 189 DR. SILAS JOSHUA Relationship between Patronage of Traditional Medicine and Socio-Demographic Characteristics ...

Education remains a fundamental Joshua, S. (2010). An assessment of the role of traditional instrument for enforcing improved TMP in medicine in health care delivery of Sabon Gari Local Kaduna State and Nigeria at large. Government. M.Sc. Thesis, Department of ii. More government regulated trado-medical Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, outfits should be established in most of the Nigeria. Kerlinger, K. (1999). Purposive sampling. In R. Stock healing Centre's. This will enable the (1981), Healthcare behaviour in rural Nigerian interested patrons in need of their services setting. PhD Dissertation, University of to easily access such services. Liverpool. iii. Trado-medicines should have clearer Laah, J.G. (2002). The growing patronage of unorthodox method of administering their drugs or medical practices in Nigeria. A Paper presented at treatment with objective dosages to be the Post Graduate Seminar of the Department taken by clients. of Geography, ABU, Zaria. iv. Traditional healthcare providers must Mamman, M. & Laah J.G. (2006). An assessment of realize that their service or method of traditional and faith based health delivery in Kaduna th healing is holistic-inclined and must be State, Nigeria. Paper presented at the 48 Annual addressed as such. Conference of the Association of Nigerian Geographers (ANG), held at the Federal v. Traditional healthcare providers must be th University of Technology, Yola, from 30 July- trained under experienced healers and be 2nd August, 2006. documented on paper, so as to improve the National Population Commission. (2009). Federal confidence reposed in them. Republic of Nigeria Official Gazette–Legal Notice on vi. A written record of the traditional Publication of 2006 Census Final Result. Abuja: healthcare location of practice and Federal Government Printer. specialty must also be documented. Udo, R.K. (1970). Geographical regions of Nigeria. California: University of California Press. References Vision 2020 Kaduna State (2010). Report of the Federal Government of Nigeria, (2007).Federal Vision 2020 Technical Working Group on Republic of Nigeria, Official Gazette, 94(24). Lagos: Urban and Rural Development, Kaduna State, Government Printer. Nigeria. Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN). (April, 2010). Wagun, Z.A. (1979). An African therapeutic system, Federal Republic of Nigeria 2006 Population and Waltham. African Journal of Education, 5(2), 60- Housing Census. Priority Table Vol. III. Abuja: 68. National Population Commission. Yamane, T. (1961). Statistics: An introductory analysis (2nd ed.). New York: Harper and Row.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Stylistic Analysis of Anambra State 2017 Gubernatorial Election Campaign Posters

CHINEDU C. EZEBUBE, CHIOMA J. IKECHUKWU-IBE & ARINZE E. UDUJI Department of Linguistics, Igbo & Other Nigerian Languages, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract Election campaign posters abound in the nooks and crannies of the Nigerian society during any election period. Aside being used for election and electioneering, posters are stylistically presented in order to catch the attention of the electorates. Using election campaign posters of the 2017 Anambra State gubernatorial election, the study conducts a stylistic analysis of the posters to identify and examine stylistic features inherent in the posters. Two posters each of three prominent political parties that contested in the election – People's Democratic Party (PDP), All Progressive Party (APC) and All Progressive Grand Alliance (APGA) are purposively selected. The data collected are qualitatively analysed. From the findings, it is observed that the posters are presented in beautiful colourations and artistic graphics. Phrases and slogans are also identified. The slogans are geared towards highlighting and making known the visions and missions of the prospective candidates if elected. Indigenous language (Igbo) is adopted as a strategy to get to the grassroots. The study finds out that posters are vital tools for communication during elections.

Keywords: Election, Stylistics, Posters, Campaign, Anambra

Introduction political parties and candidates provide the Election is an integral part of a democratic electorates with adequate information on party process that enables electorates to decide fairly policies, clear cut vision as well as their political and freely, who should lead them at every level agendas to enable electorates actively choose of government periodically and take decisions their candidates based on full information. To that shape their socio-economic and political achieve this, political parties use the media, destinies. It determines the rightful way of rallies and conference talks in campaigns. For ensuring that responsible leaders take over the an election to be considered free and fair, mantle of power (Iyayi, 2005). Therefore, electorates must have adequate knowledge of democratic elections are participatory, the candidates' political parties and election competitive and perceived as the legitimate policies. An election campaign is the time when route to power. political actors try to inform the electorates Election bestows on the electorates, the about their positions on certain issues and freedom to exercise their legal right by casting persuade them to go to the polls and vote for their votes to the candidate of their choice. them. Regardless of their duration, election During election, all the candidates strive to win. campaigns are distinct type of information They do this through political propaganda, campaign designed to influence voters' adverts and rallies. Kwagha (2012) defines preferences and, on the other hand, a good election as institutionalised procedures for the opportunity for voters to gather politically choosing of office holders by some or all the relevant information in order to make a decision recognised members of a society. For any (Popkin, 1994). democratic system to thrive, it is vital that

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The use of election campaign posters has campaigning for. The poster plays its role in become increasingly popular and is very terms of attempting to persuade and influence important to the electoral process and voting the people's opinion. These posters are b e h av i o u r b e c a u s e i t b r i d g e s t h e descriptive and emotive in that the candidates' communication gap between political parties, aims and objectives are written on it in order to political candidates and electorates. Politicians convince the electorates to vote for them. They all over the world embark on different actions are selected carefully to work on the emotions of that they think will help to influence the the target audience in order to convince them to opinions of the electorates. One of the most decamp to the side of the candidate in question. popular tools they use is campaign posters These posters carry feelings, attitudes and which are specially designed to familiarise modes of the candidates but can hardly be candidates and their ideologies to the interpreted objectively by the electorates. electorates. Accompanying posters are slogans The 2017 gubernatorial election in designed to give extra effects to the photographs Anambra State, Nigeria witnessed political of the candidates to achieve political objectives. parties and candidates flooding various forms The ultimate goal of the politicians' use of of media with advertising campaigns, all posters and slogans is to make the electorates struggling to win electorates' votes. After the accept their ideologies. Political campaign election, the incumbent Governor, Chief Dr. posters and slogans are like a double-edged Willie Obiano of All Progressive Grand sword that politicians use to work on the Alliance (APGA), emerged the winner. For this emotions of the electorates. They make sure study, two posters each are purposively selected that the candidate's photograph is attractive and of three prominent parties that contested in the the words are appealing and emotive during Anambra State 2017 gubernatorial election – election periods. During campaign, posters of People's Democratic Party (PDP), All different sizes and shapes are seen in strategic Progressive Party (APC) and All Progressive locations in cities, towns and villages. Grand Alliance (APGA). Therefore, this study Posters are very important form of visual conducts a stylistic analysis of election communication. Crystal and Davy (1969) campaign posters of selected political parties define poster as a type of written monologue with a view of exploring the linguistic features like (spoken or written) anecdote, proclamation that form the styles of the posters. Specifically, and testimonial which exemplify the modality the objectives are to: distinction. Furthermore, it is a graphic element i. identify and examine the stylistic features of with inscription which is visually designed with Anambra State 2017 gubernatorial election different colours, symbols, pictures and campaign posters; and illustrations. These elements are directed for the ii. ascertain the semantic implications of the illiterates as well as the literate people. Posters linguistic features inherent in election using such pictures and illustrations are termed campaign posters of Anambra State 2017 pictorial posters (Seidman, 2008). It presents gubernatorial election. pictures with underlying meanings. Images are combined with words to persuade the REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE electorates to accept a candidate's ideology. In Style is the description and analysis of the addition to the beautifully designed posters of variability of forms of linguistic items in actual the candidates, there are inscriptions such as the language use (Lucas, 1955). It cannot be isolated candidates' name and the positions they are from language itself because it is a distinctive

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):191 - 200 192 CHINEDU C. EZEBUBE, et al Stylistic Analysis of Anambra State 2017 Gubernatorial Election Campaign Posters aspect of language. Leech and Short (1981) see craft of writing, but also places great emphasis it as the way language is used in literary text with on the function of the language of a text. It is the aim of relating it to its artistic functions. In evident from the above views that stylistics deals this sense, analysing style means looking with expressive and functional styles of systematically at the formal features of a text language use. As a discipline, stylistics studies and determining their functional significance the interpretation of texts with regard to their for the interpretation of the text in question linguistic features and style. (Wales, 1989, p.438). The connection between Scholars like Alabi (2008), Wales (2011) and stylistics and linguistics is that stylistics uses Khan and Jabeen (2015) have all shared the view models of language to facilitate the study of that there are levels of stylistic analysis which style in its widest sense. can be used in analysing a text whether spoken The concepts of style and stylistic variations or written. However, this research focuses on in language rest on the general assumption that written form. Analyses in stylistics therefore within the language system, a particular content involve a range of general language qualities, can be encoded in more than one linguistic which include sentence patterns, structures and form. Stylisticians analyse both the style of varieties, paragraph structure, imagery, specific text and stylistic variations across texts. repetition, emphasis, arrangement of ideas and These texts can be literary or non-literary in other cohesive devices. The levels of stylistic nature. Style can be applied to both spoken and analysis according to Khan and Jabeen (2015) written words, both literary and everyday are basically graphological, phonological, varieties of language, but it is particularly morphological and grammatical. associated with written texts. In other words, Graphology is concerned with the styles fully decorate language with all the figures organisation of letters and figures in print. and tropes to bring about changes in the feelings Writers organise graphic symbols in certain and opinions of the audience. ways particularly to catch the eye. Graphology According to Simpson (2004), to do can be referred to as a level of linguistic analysis stylistics is to explore language more specially which focuses on the layout of texts, the size or and to explore creativity in language use. Doing shape of words and any other feature that is stylistics thereby enriches one's way of thinking graphical or orthographical (Yeibo & Akerele, about language and exploring language offers 2014). Khan & Jabeen (2015) see this as the substantial insights into how one understands study of a language writing system and texts. It is, on its own, a systematic way of formalised rules of spellings. The importance of exploring a text, especially the language of a text graphology in a poster is to capture the eye of and trying to explain how language creates the reader or the public. Phonological level is meaning, style and certain effects. The study of concerned with the study of the sound system of stylistics is considered as one of the significant a given language which is the formal rules of tools to analyse a text from the point of view of pronunciation. Phonological devices include language. alliteration, assonance and rhyme. Morphology Stylistics as a branch of linguistics, looks at the shape or forms of words and their therefore, shows how speakers and writers meaning. Through morphology, elements that create text as well as how effect is made or make up the structure of words are explored. achieved. It does not only attempt to understand The grammatical level of stylistic analysis the linguistic foundations of the style in texts in involves both syntax and morphology. For Khan terms of manner of expression or technique or and Jabeen (2015), the aim is to analyse the

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):191 - 200 193 CHINEDU C. EZEBUBE, et al Stylistic Analysis of Anambra State 2017 Gubernatorial Election Campaign Posters internal structure of sentences in a language and within the political posters have shown how the way they function in sequences, clauses, specifically each element contributes to the phrases, words, nouns, verbs, etc. overall campaign agenda. Also, Lirola (2016) Furthermore, empirical researches have carries out a study on political posters and been carried out on related researches and it is slogans in Romania. In his study, he notes that needful such researches are reviewed with a when a political slogan is hard or meaningless, view to highlighting the gap that necessitates the aversion towards a negation which appears in present research. Van Leeuwen (2008) examines the poster with a contradictory message can political posters in Ireland using four posters of withdraw the masses' votes for a candidate. He different candidates from each party in the notes that the most salient feature of political elections that took place between 1997, 2002, posters is the photographs of the politicians 2007 and 2011 with the intention to analyse the running for a particular position as the poster's political posters made for the campaigns of aim is to construct a positive social image for the Ireland political parties and observe how the politician so as to obtain a high number of votes. candidates are represented in their various The study finds out that political posters were posters. The study reveals that these candidates determined to be heterogonous constructs are graphologically represented in a positive comprising of text, colours, images, symbols, way with image and formal appearance so that postures and other objects which send mixed people are persuaded to vote for the party they messages to the viewers. The works reviewed represent because they trust them as political dwell on elections as it relates to countries for leaders. The different visual and linguistic presidential positions. This forms a gap that the characteristics found in the posters show that present study tends to fill as it examines the posters are examples of multimodal texts stylistic features of election campaign posters framed inside political genres and, as such, they used for Anambra State 2017 gubernatorial are powerful tools used in election campaigns in election. order to point out the political power that a party may have. Van Leeuwen's (2008) study shows DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS that the political message presented in the The Anambra State 2017 gubernatorial election posters are explicit because the slogans are very campaign posters are presented and catchy and clearly chosen to persuade the descriptively analysed with a view to audience to vote for a party instead of another. highlighting their graphological, lexical, Mehidyera (2016) examines political syntactic and semantic features. The posters are images used during 2016 USA presidential analysed based on the three prominent political election. The purpose of the study is to visually parties that contested the position. analyse political campaign posters used in 2016 This political poster shows that there is a USA presidential election using Barack Obama significant way candidates are advertised both in and Ronald Reagan as a case study. The study colour and format. At the middle of the poster shows that politics need media to gain wider are Oseloka Obaze and his deputy, Lady Chidi influence while media needs politics for the Alexandra Onyemelukwe. Obaze and his agenda setting purposes. The study finds out running mate are putting on native attires, that the use of advertisement during election is which account for their Igbo root. Smiles, which an attempt to persuade the target audience to could be seen on the faces of the candidates, vote for or against a candidate. He also observes indicate their friendly nature and readiness to that the analysis of visual elements incorporated serve the state. The background of the poster has

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):191 - 200 194 CHINEDU C. EZEBUBE, et al Stylistic Analysis of Anambra State 2017 Gubernatorial Election Campaign Posters two colours which are white; representing should look upon for good leadership, directives fairness, brightness and credibility, and green, and guidance. As an exemplary leader, Dr. Alex suggesting healthiness and liveliness. Ekwueme serves as a forerunner to Obaze and could enable the masses vote for him. On the Election campaign posters of People's Democratic right hand, Mr. Peter Obi, the former Governor Party (PDP) of Anambra State, can be seen. At the down part Poster 1 of the poster is Prof. Nwosu, the chairman of PDP. Their appearances suggest that they support Obaze. The phrase 'Because ANAMbRA Deserves Better' adds a stylish colouration to the poster. The first letters of 'Because', 'Deserves' and 'Better' appear as capital letters while others are small letters. The word 'ANAMbRA' all appears in uppercases except for letter 'b' that is in lowercase. The colouration and style of writing add to the aesthetic features of the poster. The expression 'Anambra deserves better' shows that Oseloka Obaze wants to do more for Anambra State if elected. It can also be deduced from the expression that Anambra deserves a better leadership than what she has; and to get a better leadership, Oseloka Obaze is the candidate.

Poster 2

The umbrella in the poster is the party's logo. It informs the electorates that PDP which stands for People's Democratic Party is a national party that can accommodate everyone, irrespective of colour, race and language. In the above poster, the candidate does not appear alone but is accompanied by four other political elites of which one is the running mate. This is a way of emphasising team work. Above the candidate is Dr. Alex Ekwueme, a former Vice President of Nigeria. His appearance in the poster is to stimulate the electorates' interests to vote for PDP owing to the fact that he is a national figure and one who has represented the Igbo people at the federal level. Dr. Alex Ekwueme's appearance also showcases him as the candidate's god father, who Oseloka Obaze In the above poster, Oseloka Obaze and his

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):191 - 200 195 CHINEDU C. EZEBUBE, et al Stylistic Analysis of Anambra State 2017 Gubernatorial Election Campaign Posters deputy are presented looking colourful. The has held some official offices both at the federal photograph is well designed. It is the most and state levels. The poster adopts a green, white salient element of the composition, especially as and blue background. A broom is found in it relates to the size of the images. Oseloka between these three colours. The broom is the Obaze's image is bigger and bolder than that of party's logo. This implies that the party adopts his deputy. This is to educate and notify the justice, peace and unity as its motto. There is a electorates that Oseloka Obaze is the main slogan in the poster 'why not Tony?' The slogan figure and also the right man for the position. is presented as a question to the electorates. The Also, his name appears in bolder print to attract slogan informs that Dr. Tony is capable of the attention of the electorates. As regards the changing Anambra State into a better state and written text 'EDUCATION: Let's Get Back to the so needs the masses to vote him into power. Top', it appears on green and red backgrounds and is written with white signifying one of the Poster 3 colours of the party's logo (umbrella). 'EDUCATION' is capitalised to draw the attention of the masses. Obaze and Lady Chidi know that education is a trending issue in the human society and so use it to appeal to the masses, especially the youths. They realise that 60 percent of voters are youths and so, with this expression, they can gain their trust. From the poster, it can be deduced that the educational system of Anambra State needs reformation and rehabilitation. It also informs that the candidate wants to build an educational system where there will be no corruption and inequality both at the internal and external levels. A system of education where there is no bribery and inadequacies; a system of education where both the poor and rich have equal opportunities. On the other hand, the expression suggests that the working strategy of the present educational system of Anambra state needs a new phase, shape, innovation and restructure. Hence, the expression informs the masses to vote for Obaze Also, the slogan can be interpreted to mean that in order to build a trusted and incorruptible Dr. Tony can achieve a whole lot than any other educational system. candidate. The slogan also catches one's attention at a glance. Symbolically, the broom is Election campaign posters of All Progressive a powerful and effective emblem of the party. In Congress (APC) reality, a broom is used to sweep away dirt. As regards the information value of the poster, Broom in the context of the poster Dr. Tony was chosen as the APC aspirant for the metaphorically means that Dr. Tony will keep 2017 Anambra State gubernatorial election. Dr. the state neat and rid of corruption if elected Tony Nwoye is a prominent political figure who

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Poster 4 uses the image of a cock as its logo. The cock appears on a white background. Below it is a hand pointing at where one can place his/her thumb to vote for APGA. Looking at the poster, the candidate does not appear alone but is accompanied by his deputy Dr. Nkem Okeke. Chief Obiano and Dr. Nkem are in the party's uniform. On that of Chief Obiano, the pictures of himself and Chukwuemeka Odimegwu Ojukwu can be seen. The picture of Chukwuemeka Odimegwu Ojukwu is clearly shown to control the minds of the electorates. The role he played for the establishment of the Independent People of Biafra cannot be forgotten.

Poster 5

The above campaign poster is different from the previous one as the candidate does not appear alone but is accompanied by his running mate. This tends to emphasise the idea of teamwork instead of sole leadership. From the poster, it can be seen that Dr. Tony is situated at the left hand side, above his running mate. The smile on his face serves as a point of attraction to the masses. On the other hand, his running mate is also situated at the right hand side of the poster putting on a red cap which is a symbol of an Igbo titled man. From the images, that of Dozie Ikedife appears below. This shows an act of support and submission. The slogan used to persuade the masses to vote for Dr. Tony is written at the top of the poster which reads 'Anambra 2017 the future is now….' The slogan makes it clear that Dr. Tony is objectively determined to make the dreams and expectations of the people of Anambra come true if elected as the governor. As such, he remains a prominent figure to the Election campaign posters of All Progressive Grand Igbo nation, and this earned him respect and Alliance (APGA) prestige among the Igbos. Ojukwu's picture is The All Progressive Grand Alliance is known to The All Progressive Grand Alliance is known to be an indigenous Igbo political party. The party used in the poster to attract the electorates, be an

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):191 - 200 197 CHINEDU C. EZEBUBE, et al Stylistic Analysis of Anambra State 2017 Gubernatorial Election Campaign Posters indigenous Igbo political party. The party several works done by Chief Obiano in his first especially, ardent agitators for the Independent tenure. Chief Obiano can be seen at the very top People of Biafra (IPOB). The poster also shows of the poster waving his hand to the people and Chief Obiano with a staff in his hand, which also smiling to them. On the poster, the written serves as a symbol of authority while Dr. text and other graphics are linked to the Nkem's cloth has images of the cock drawn on candidate and what he has done. With regard to it, which signifies APGA. As a foremost APGA the written text, the slogan of the campaign leader, Ojukwu's presence suggests that Chief 'UZO DI NMA, A GA YA UGBOLO ABUO' is Obiano should be looked upon for good written in the Igbo language to attract, mainly, leadership. Chief Obiano and Dr. Nkem can be the electorates who find it difficult to use the seen smiling as they appeal to the masses for English language. Furthermore, the slogan their votes and confidence in them. In the poster, suggests that Chief Obiano is soliciting for the Chief Obiano can be seen on top while his people's votes as he looks forward to making deputy is below him, which shows that his Anambra a better state in all facets. The graphics deputy's support is indisputable. on the poster suggest that Chief Obiano proves beyond reasonable doubt that he is a replica of Poster 6 what a true governor ought to be during his first tenure and so chose to use it as a tool to campaign in order to reclaim the position the second time. The poster shows good roads, estates, police vehicles, which suggest effective and efficient security, industries, and agriculture. The exploits of Chief Obiano during his first tenure are used as a strategy to convince the electorates to vote for him the second time. The slogan which reads 'HE NEEDS ME, HE NEEDS YOU, HE NEEDS US, VOTE OBIANO' suggests the need for Obiano to be re- elected as the governor, hence to finish the work he started. The Igbo expression 'onye aghala nwanne ya' (Be your brother's keeper) implies that Chief Obiano believes in the government of the people, by the people and for the people. He regards himself as a brother to the electorates and one who has their interest at heart.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION This study examines Anambra State 2017 gubernatorial election campaign posters with a The above campaign poster shows that there is a view of x-raying their graphological, lexical, significant change in the way Chief Obiano is semantic and syntactic features. Three advertised. The composition of the poster shows candidates from three prominent parties– that it is divided into many parts, showing Oseloka H. Obaze for People's Democratic

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Party (PDP), Dr. Tony Nwoye for All Posters have become increasingly popular and Progressive Congress (APC), and Chief Willie are very important to the electoral process and Obiano for All Progressive Grand Alliance voting behaviour because they bridge the (APGA)were purposively selected. communication gap between political At the graphological level, it is observed that candidates, political parties and the electorates. the posters are colourfully decorated to attract Thus, accompanying posters are slogans the attention of the electorates. This also designed to give extra effects to the photographs includes the attires of the candidates and their of the candidates to achieve political objectives. facial expressions, which seem cheerful and However, posters present pictures with welcoming. Some of the colours used for the underlying meanings. Election on the other posters are from the parties' logos. It is also hand gives the electorates the freedom to noted in the posters that the parties' logos stand exercise their legal rights. Therefore, the out for easy identification by the electorates. importance of election campaign posters The letters on the posters are artistically crafted cannot be overemphasised. This is the reason to appeal to the emotions of the masses. In some political candidates strive as much as they can to of the posters, prominence is given to certain present their posters in an attractive form to words to draw the attention of the masses. This stimulate the electorates. They achieve this prominence is achieved by rendering the words through artistically coloured posters and in capitals (posters 2, 3, 4, 5, 6). There is also an graphics. The political slogans are also arranged instance of a letter being rendered in lowercase in descriptive and emotive forms. This implies while the remaining letters of the word are that, of a truth, election campaign posters are rendered in uppercase (poster 1). The party essential means of communication during logos are also metaphorical. PDP uses elections. umbrella, which signifies acceptability and accommodation; APC uses broom to show total REFERENCES sanitation; APGA uses cock to signify hard- Alabi, V. (2008). Lexical syntactic, phonology and work and consciousness. graphological patterns, choice and devices in Most of the political slogans in the studied discourse. In O. Obafemi, G.A. Ajadi & V.A. posters are in phrasal forms – Because Anambra Alabi (Eds.), Critical perspectives on English language and literature (pp.162-175). Ilorin: deserves better (Poster 1), Why not Tony? (Poster University Press. 3), The future is now … (Poster 4). Some of the Crystal, D. & Davy, D. (1969). Investigating English words, phrases and sentences are presented in style. London: Longman. the indigenous language (Igbo) –Uzo di nma, a ga Iyayi, F. (2005). Elections and electoral practices in ya ugbolo abuo' one good term deserves another' Nigeria: Dynamics and implications of the (Poster 6), onye aghala nwanne ya' be your constitution. Journal of Human Social Science, brother's keeper' (Poster 6), and Akpokue Dike 5(2), 5-6. 'when you call on the great' (Poster 6). The Khan, A. & Jabeen, T. (2015). Stylistic analysis of the candidates use the slogans to showcase their poem. International Journal of Academic Research qualities, visions and missions if elected into and Reflection, 3(1), 127-137. Kwagha, B. (2012). Good governance and credible power. Also, Poster 5 has a direction for elections in Nigeria. Journal of Social Science and electorates, especially the illiterate ones who Public Policy, 4, 65-72. may not have proper knowledge of where to Leech, G. N. & Short, M. H. (1981). Style in fiction: A place their thumbs. All these are in a bid to scout linguistic introduction to English fictional prose. for electorates' votes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Lirola, M. (2016). Multimodal studies. Exploring issues Simpson, P. (2004). Stylistics: A resource book for and domain. London: Routledge. students. London: Routledge. Lucas, F. L. (1955). Style. London: Cassell and Coy. Van Leeuwen, T. (2008). Multimodal analysis of a Mehidyera, M. (2016). Visual analysis of political sample of political posters in Ireland during and after campaign posters in US 2016 presidential Celtic Tiger. Oxford: Oxford University Press. elections. PhD thesis, State University of New Wales, K. (1989). A dictionary of stylistics. London: York. Longman. Popkin, S. (1994). The reasoning voter: Communication Wales, K. (2011). A dictionary of stylistics (3rd and persuasion in presidential campaigns. Chicago: edition). England: Pearson Education. University of Chicago Press. Yeibo, E. &Akerele, C. (2014). Graphological Seidman, A. (2008). Posters, propaganda and persuasive foregrounding in Chimamanda Adichie's Purple in election campaigns around the world and through Hibiscus. International Journal of Language and history. New York: Peter Lang. Linguistics, 1(2), 9-17.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Organisational Communication and Employee Commitment in University of Uyo

SAMSON ANIEBO, PhD Department of Communication Arts University of UYO E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Communication has come to be reckoned with as the major shaping force in life. Against this backdrop, it became necessary to ascertain the relationship (if at all) between organisational communication and employee commitment in the University of Uyo (UNIUYO). The questionnaire and structured interview wereused. The population for this study was 3743 employees and Taro Yamane's (1967) formula was used to establish the sample at 374(representing about 10% of the total population) at? 5% and 0.05% margin of error. Copies of the questionnaire were distributed to 374 respondents but 366 of the copies were found useable. Findings revealed that: (a) workshops, informal meetings with superiors, inaugural lectures, seminars as well as productivity walk are some of the communication activities geared towards employee commitment; (b) the management of UNIUYO makes efforts to transmit information for commitment, and the employees' levels of commitment seemed to be influenced accordingly as expected by the management; and (c)based on the organizational communication practices in the University, they were encouraged to forego personal alternatives because of the opportunities to contribute to the success of the university. Therefore, the following recommendations were made: communication audit should be carried out periodically in UNIUYO to evaluate the current communication activities of the management and their influences on the affective commitment of the employees; and regular information on the beliefs and values of the university should be disseminated to the employees by the management of UNIUYO, facilitated via Information and Communication Technologies(ICTs).

Key words: Information Dissemination, Communication, Organisational Communication, Employee, and Commitment.

Introduction used; then people, their attitude, feelings, There is no gainsaying that sound human relationships and skills are critical to its success. relations and effective communication are Through the process of communication, the essential and must continue throughout the members of the organisation exchange process of interaction among the members. For messages, using a common system of symbols these relationships to be established regularly that results, at least to some degree, in shared with one another, the nature of the systems of meanings. Worthy of note is the fact that the communication created between the parties nature of the organisation and the personalities involved, the forms the systems have taken and therein influence the way communication the measure of effectiveness they have attained occurs. largely determine the chances of bringing The importance and uses of communica- members together as one and the prospects of tion in organisations cannot be overemphasised. reducing tensions and managing conflicts They include: (a) decision-making and whenever and wherever they arise. implementation of organisational goals (b) Communication in organisations is collection and analysis of facts in the concerned with the flow of message – (upward, organisations (c) training, motivating and downward, horizontally, in and out of the evaluating employees' communication. organisation) - the purpose, direction and media This could be carried out using the

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):201 - 209 201 SAMSON ANIEBO Organisational Communication and Employee Commitment in University of Uyo following settings: formal channels/network. organisation and its members consider to be That is following the organisational chart/ “normal patterns of behaviour and thoughts” design; informal channel. This is the grapevine (Jablin, 2001 in Eisenberg & Goodal, 2001, p. and alternate channels. These include-- the 194). This learning is transmitted via 'wheel', the 'chain', the 'Y', the 'circle' and/or the communication by various means and methods, 'star' or all channels. and the employers expect that the employees Organisations such as the University of should receive as well as understand the Uyo (UNIUYO) must have employees who message(s) that are intended to express the share in its vision and mission, which manifests vision and mission of the organisation, and get in their commitment to work as they share committed accordingly. But the question is: to (ideas, things, feelings, opinions, aspirations, what extent has the University of Uyo utilised ambitions, challenges, and even grievances) in a communication activities and practices to bid to receive meaning. All these are about promote as well as ensure employee human communication. Therefore, taken in its commitment? simplest form, communication is the sharing of meaning (Akpan, 1987, in Ndada, 2000, p. 25). OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Thus, this paper was geared towards identifying The study generally is aimed at finding out what the extent to which staff of the University of influence communication has on organisational Uyo share in the meanings attached to shared culture and how both interface to ensure talking, shared things, shared doings and shared employee commitment in the University of emotions in their various organisations and the Uyo. Therefore, the objectives of the study are role these activities (communication) played in to: facilitating employee commitment. 1. Ascertain the communication activities which promote employee commitment in STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM the University of Uyo. Every organisation is set up with a specific 2. Find out whether the prevailing purpose in the minds of those who do that. It is organizational Communication in the also glaring that human beings (employees) are University of Uyo promotes employee needed to run the affairs of such organisations, commitment. no matter how virtual they are or may intend to 3. Find out how the management of the become. These human beings (employees) have University of Uyo utilises communication their individual goals, needs, aspirations, to promote employee commitment in the expectations as well as challenges, which follow university. them into the workplace. This, in a way, determines how the employees make sense of RESEARCH QUESTIONS the organisation's goals and values as they learn The following research questions guided the to adjust to (a) the guiding rules and principles study: on what to think, do, or say, values, ethics, 1. What are the communication activities in norms, culture, and expectations of the the University of Uyo that promote organisation, while trying to get committed for employee commitment? obvious reasons. Through this, new employees 2. How does the prevailing organisational are made to learn about and make sense of the culture in the select university influence organisation's culture; that is, learning the employee commitment? requirements of his role and what the 3. How does the management of the

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University of Uyo utilise communication in different approach and while he chooses the job promoting employee commitment? satisfaction of business owners as his subject, he reveals that communication of business owners REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE with the employees is a significant factor in Organisational Communication and Employee determining organisational performance. The Commitment literature reveals that organisational Organisation interaction becomes broader and communication has an effect on work in a very larger during the communication process, and it similar way. For example, Carrier and Bourque spreads over among the members of the (2009) in Guney et al. (2012) state that organisation. Because of that, communication satisfaction from organisational communica- can be seen as the major source of life for the tion is an intermediate variable in influencing organisation. This ensures that many people work commitment. Chen, Silverthorne and come together with a particular aim, work Hung (2006) find that in organisations where effectively and in unity for the mutual goals and communication is more continuous and open, targets of the organisation, and they show work commitment is higher. Leiter and Maslach necessary cooperation and problem solving (1988) in Guney et al. (2012), who consider skills in formal and informal ways (Akinci organisational communication in the form of Vural, 1998 in Yenen, Ozturk & Kaya, 2014). communication networks, find that Organisations do not only work for the subordinates who show a similar degree of work inorganisation cooperation but also they commitment tend to establish communication connect with the outer world in order to keep up networks among themselves and that negative with the competitive and dynamic superior-subordinate relationship reduces work environmental conditions. To make sure that commitment seriously. There are, however, this success is in their hands, they should have some studies that cannot find a relationship an effective and working way of organisational between organisational communication and forms of communication (Gürüz & Gürel, commitment. An example is the one that 2006). In the chain model, the parties are belongs to Trombetta and Rogers (1988) (in arranged side by side, like the rings of a chain Guney et al., 2012), revealing that and the farthermost positions can communicate organisational communication affects job direction, while the parties inside can make a satisfaction but has no influence on work two-way communication directly. The more commitment. advanced and more democratic type of There are, however, many other ways in communication is open communication. Open which people attempt to describe and communication denotes a flow of information understand what constitutes organisational and news in a free and healthy way from the culture, and different areas of attention for uppermost level to the lowermost level and, if analyzing the elements of culture. Wilson necessary, in the opposite direction through (2006) suggests that culture is a characteristic of more than one channel (Dutton, 1998; the organisation, not of individuals and Sarikamus, 2006 in Guney, Diker, Ayranci, & involvement in the particular organisation. Solmaz, 2012). Greenberg and Baron (2003, p. 160) agree by The existing literature posits that organisational stating that employee commitment is not only communication, in the form of open concerned with the extent to which an employee communication, is beneficial for work identifies with their organisation, but also commitment. Ayranci (2011) responds with a whether the employee is or is not willing to leave

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):201 - 209 203 SAMSON ANIEBO Organisational Communication and Employee Commitment in University of Uyo their organisations. Meyer, Allen, and Smith through interpersonal communication. This, (1993, p.539) in Meijen (2007) conceptualised they say, follows a process of three stages: entry; commitment under three themes: affective personal; and exit. The three stages of relational commitment, continuance commitment and development proposed by this theory is normative commitment. expected to be seen in organisations such as Following this, it is evident that UNIUYO, where information about one commitment represents something beyond another is shared between the management and simply passive loyalty to the organization. It the new employees (entry stage). Then, also involves a relationship with the information about attitudes, beliefs and values is organisation, where individual employees are also shared with the focus on what is expected willing to give extra effort in order to contribute of the employees of the university (people), why to the organisation's wellbeing. Lahiry (1994) in the expectation(s) and how they are likely to be Meijen (2007) shows that employee evaluated based on their behaviour (personal commitment has an effect on how well the stage). Furthermore, it is expected that organisation performs and delivers its services discussions on ways and means of actualising and that employee commitment can be the organisation goals (exit stage), in a bid to strengthened by changing the organisation's determine the growth of the university should culture. be ongoing as an attempt to lead employees to Although some literature on employee experience increased commitment. commitment suggest a relationship between it and organisational culture, little empirical RESEARCH METHODOLOGY investigation to substantiate this relationship The purpose of this study is to ascertain the exists (Meijen, 2007; Deal & Kennedy; Lok, relationship (if at all) between organizational Westwood & Crawford, 2005; Silverthorne, communication and employee commitment in 2004). O'Reilly (1989) and Chen (2004) in the University of Uyo (UNIUYO). In order to Meijen (2007, p.66) believe that organisational determine whether communication has a culture is vital in developing and sustaining statistically significant influence on employee employee commitment and intensity levels that commitment in the University, the qualitative as often characterize successful organisations. well as the quantitative methods were used, with From a study they carried out by Bourantas and the assumption that they would provide a better Papalexandris (in Meijen, 2007), it was found understanding of the research Therefore, the that the culture gap negatively affects the descriptive survey design (questionnaire) and commitments of the employee towards their structured interview (the Director of organisation. Information and PRO, UNIUYO) were used in trying to establish the influence of organisa- THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK tional communication in the University of Uyo Uncertainty Reduction Theory on its employees' commitment to the university. This paper is hinged on Uncertainty Reduction The population for this study comprised Theory propounded by Berger and Calabrese teaching staff (including those who are also (1975) (cited in Griffin, 2000), based on Fritz, involved in administration), senior nonteaching Narashim and Rhee's work of 1998. The and junior non-teaching staff of the university. assumption of the theory is that people find To determine the sample size, Yamane's (1967) uncertainty in interpersonal relationships formula was used. This established the sample unpleasant and are motivated to reduce it at 374 (representing about 10% of the total

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):201 - 209 204 SAMSON ANIEBO Organisational Communication and Employee Commitment in University of Uyo population) at? 5% and 0.05% margin of error. The table above shows that workshops, informal Respondents were selected from each stratum meetings with superiors, inaugural lectures, with the use of the nominal roll which was seminars as well as productivity walk are some considered a useful and credible sampling frame of the communication activities geared towards for the selection of the staff. The selection was employee commitment. Concerning the use of done at a skip interval of 10 and the size of 374 communication for the promotion of employee was arrived at. Also, copies of the questionnaire commitment, the Director of Information and were distributed to 374 respondents but 366 of PRE in UNIUYO claimed that some the copies were found useable. Responses so information are transmitted mainly via the collected were presented in simple percentages, written mode with the aim of communicating while responses from the interview were the university's culture to staff and hoping that analysed using explanation building method. activities such as seminars, casual meetings with superiors, inaugural lectures and others together DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS with the practice of storytelling, consistency in This study was aimed at ascertaining the the publication and circulation of information influence of communication on the employee materials, orientation exercises as well as commitment in the University of Uyo. The trainings and re-trainings of the employees will quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis predispose them to commitment. Though that were used. was the intention of the management and the employees actually show commitment to the Table 1: Respondents' Perception of management's university, the interviewee could not say communication activities geared towards employee categorically if the communication efforts of commitment in UNIUYO the management had any influence on that. Based on these findings, it can be deduced that the relationship between the superiors and Communication activities A D N Total subordinates is qualitative enough to influence Regular informal meetings 318 37 19 374 employee commitment. Meyer and Allen in with superiors (85%) (10%) (5%) (100%) Meijen (2007) believe that it is the relationship Annual get together 94 273 7 374 of the employee with the organisation that (25%) (73%) (2%) (100%) determines how committed the employee can be Brainstorming sessions with 235 60 79 374 to the organisation. It is evident here that superiors (63%) (16%) (21%) (100%) affective commitment is significantly affected Seminars 295 60 19 374 by the quality of superior-subordinate (79%) (16%) (5%) (100%) relationships. This buttresses the fact that Inaugural lectures 299 67 11 374 organisational communication denotes the (80%) (17%) (3%) (100%) communication occurring in organisation Workshops 374 0 0 374 environment with the main aims of (100%) (0%) (0%) (100%) communicating organisation's policies, Productivity walk 318 52 4 374 establishing a continuous coordination among (85%) (14%) (1%) (100%) organisation members, solving the organisation Key: A=Agree; D=Disagree; and N =Neutral or can't tell problems and sharing information (Karakütük, 2011) which help the employees to function optimally with commitment.

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Table 2: Respondents' perception of the influence of which aid positive employee commitment. This prevalent organisational communication on the buttresses the fact that organisational commitment of employees in the University of Uyo communication denotes the communication occurring in organisation environment with the main aims of communicating organisation's Organisational Communication A D N Total policies, establishing a continuous coordination Indices among organisation members, solving the Stories aimed at guiding my 213 127 34 374 organisation problems and sharing information perception and behaviour actually (57%) (34%) (9%) (100%) (Karakütük, 2011) which help the employees to influence my commitment to the function optimally with commitment. On the university other hand, the Director of Information and The communication activities in 127 86 161 374 PRE in UNIUYO claimed that communication the university contribute to my (34%) (23%) (43%) (100%) activities such as seminars, casual meetings with commitment to the university superiors, inaugural lectures and others, The consistency of interaction 75 142 157 374 together with the practice of storytelling, between management and (20%) (38%) (42%) (100%) consistency in the publication and circulation of employees influence my information materials, orientation exercises as commitment to the university well as trainings and re-trainings of the I am encouraged to forego 292 52 30 374 employees are done regularly with the intention personal alternative because of (78%) (14%) (8%) (100%) that such activities will predispose them to opportunities to contribute to the commitment. Though that was the intention of success of the university the management and the employees actually The flexible resumption and 94 138 142 374 show commitment to the university, the closing times influence my (25%) (37%) (38%) (100%) interviewee could not say categorically if the commitment to the university. communication efforts of the management had Key: A = Agree, D = Disagree, N = Neutral i.e. can't tell any influence on employee commitment. Responses of respondents from UNIUYO Table 2 is a summary of the influence of the as presented in Table 3 show management's prevalent organisational communication, in efforts at communicating in order to promote UNIUYO, on employee commitment. A employee commitment. Seventy-two percent majority (78%) of the respondents agreed that (72%) of the respondents in UNIUYO agreed based on the communication practices in the that management's inconsistency in giving University, they are encouraged to forego information (both in language and behavior) personal alternatives because of the encouraged their desire to leave the University. opportunities to contribute to the success of the Fifty-seven percent (57%) of the respondents university. This shows that being made to know agreed that the management utilised regular the things UNIUYO employees should rely on publication and dissemination of information to guide their perceptions and behaviour had materials to promote commitment among positive influence on their commitment to the employees. university. This confirms the study by Elstak From the summary of the table below, it is (2007) which supports the integrative approach evident that the management of UNIUYO to organisation identity process and calls for makes efforts to transmit information for adequate information dissemination and commitment, and the employees' levels of participative decision-making involvement commitment seemed to be influenced

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):201 - 209 206 SAMSON ANIEBO Organisational Communication and Employee Commitment in University of Uyo accordingly as expected by the management. downward vertical, upward vertical and When there is proper communication system horizontal flows of organisational communica- within the organisation, employees have high tion have no impact on the level of affective level morale and motivation. commitment of the employees. This supports the submission of Dutton (1998) and Sarikamus Table 3: Respondents' perception of management's (2006) (in Guney et al., 2012) that open utilisation of communication for promotion of communication denotes a flow of information employee commitment in the University of Uyo and news in a free and healthy way from the (UNIUYO) uppermost level to the lowermost level and, if necessary, in the opposite direction through more than one channel, though the issue of Communication strategy utilised A D N Total influence on employee commitment was not a by management consideration. The regular publication and 116 213 45 374 circulation of information (31%) (57%) (12%) (100%) CONCLUSION materials encourages me to stay The overall purpose of this study was to on in university examine the role of communication in the Persuasive communication from 127 217 30 374 promotion of employee commitment in management motivates me to be (34%) (58%) (8%) (100%) UNIUYO. The values of the university, as an involved in the university organisation, must be preceded by adequate What the university believes and 239 86 49 374 information to the employees by the values are adequately made (64%) (23%) (13%) (100%) management. Goldhaber (1993) in Ndada known in the day to day (2000) documents the value of communication transmission of information for in organisation, showing the correlation commitment. between an effective communication system Communication activities in the 269 60 45 374 and employee commitment. The findings of this university contribute to my (72%) (16%) (12%) (100%) empirical study show a positive relationship willingness to give my best to the between the provision of adequate and timely university information and the commitment of the Management's inconsistency in 269 94 11 374 employees towards their organisation. giving information (both in (72%) (25%) (3%) (100%) language and behaviour) RECOMMENDATIONS encourages my desire to leave Following the findings made and conclusions the university reached herein, the following recommendations were made: Key: A = Agree, D = Disagree, N = Neutral i.e. can't tell 1. Communication audit should be carried out periodically in UNIUYO to evaluate the This leads to high-quality production as they are current communication activities of the properly and correctly informed, resulting in management and their influences on the decrease in the number of mistakes (Misirli, affective commitment of the employees. 2011 in Yenen et al., 2014). On the other hand, 2. As a direct outcome of communication the finding is similar to the result of a previous audit, purposeful efforts should be made by study conducted by Trajikova, Andonov and the management of UNIUYO in the Mihajloski (2014). The result shows that the provision of electronic media as well as the

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

An Assessment of The Impact of Recent Sculptural Installations in Public Spaces in Lagos State Nigeria

UFUOMA ONOBRAKPEYA, Department of Fine Art, School of Art, Design and Printing, Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Lagos. Email: [email protected]

Abstract An Important element that finds expression in the township and intersections in gardens and squares in urban landscapes are sculptural installations. Of great significance is the historical information they disseminate, the impressions they convey and most importantly the aesthetic value they add to the quality of the city. Sculptures have been used tremendously for embellishment of public spaces in Nigeria. This paper focuses on the impact of the recent sculptural pieces commissioned by the former Governor of Lagos State Mr. Akinwunmi Ambode to beautify the Lagos metropolis. This paper examines the artist that produced the sculptural installations, the location, the materials used and the message the sculptural pieces convey. This paper also discusses the early sculptures in Lagos and Nigeria. These sculptural pieces increase public appreciation and make Nigerian cities unique and vibrant.

Keywords: Public Spaces, Installations, Sculpture, Lagos State

Introduction disseminate, the visual data they convey and the This paper explores and documents art aesthetic value they add to the quality of the area Installations and Sculptural pieces in Public they occupy. places that surround the Lagos Metropolis for From the 1960's the uses of sculpture, art posterity purposes. The artworks under scrutiny and installation in public places have increased are documented and compiled for future tremendously in Nigeria. Therefore, an generations to benefit from. Several Nigerian investigation into the socio-psychological and foreign artists have produced numerous art development and impact of such art pieces on installations and sculptural pieces for display in the urban environment is deemed worthy. The public spaces, either based on commission or article further examines installations in public based on their personal contributions to the places and areas of great significance. The beautification of their immediate environment. author's interests lay on an analysis of the In this article, an investigation of the techniques historical information the artworks disseminate, the selected artists used to create the sculptures the visual impression they convey, the aesthetic or installations, the brief history of the artworks value they add to the quality of the city, and the and the artists' motivation towards the possible dimensions and the impact their production/creation of the artwork are all existence may have on the generality of the considered. For example, if the artwork is public sphere. The themes of the selected politically motivated or if the artist's creation is a artworks under study revolve around form of social commentary. The great representations of heroes with individual significance of such art and installations in artistic techniques dominating the art which all public places is the historical information they show a significant influence of post modernism.

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This author goes further to probe the newly reigns of Oba Uwaifiokun and Oba Ewuare the installed sculptural pieces and artworks that Great (Omoregie, 1972). Amongst other statues were commissioned by the former Governor of in the category of early colonial scupltures Lagos State Mr. Akinwunmi Ambode to include Mary Slessor located in Calabar. This beautify the Lagos Metropolis. These sculptural statue was erected in sacred memory of Mary pieces and artworks were erected in the twelve Slessor for her role in spreading Christianity and geo-geopolitical zones in Lagos State. Artworks stopping the practice of abolishing twins. Other and installations have been utilized to decorate examples of such public monuments include the and embellish important buildings and tourist Obelisk-shaped pillar erected at Lokoja in 1900. locations in Lagos metropolis such as the These sculptures were all produced by foreign National Arts Theatre Iganmu, Lagos that was sculptors. built to commemorate the FESTAC '77 (Festival Another important early sculpture is the of Arts and Culture) in 1977 and the Murtala work representing Madam Efunroye Tinubu in Mohammed International Airport in Ikeja 1810. It is an Important sculpture in Tinubu where Nigerian artists were commissioned to Square Central Lagos Metropolis that depicts embellish the Interior and exterior of the the realistic figure of Madam Efunroye Tinubu, buildings. National Theatre was consigned to a civic sculpture of this renowned female Chief Anthony Enahoro who was the then aristocrat that is located in the commercial Federal Commissioner for Arts and Culture at district of Western Lagos Nigeria popularly that time. Erhabor Emokpae the Nigerian known as Tinubu Square. It is a life size Sculptor commissioned other artists to decorate monument erected in honor of a repentant slave the exterior and the interior of the National Arts trader who helped in abolishing the trade. The Theatre. Murtala Mohammed International sculpture is a blend of Yoruba cultural tradition. airport was built by a Dutch company who The artist that produced this sculpture is Kenny sourced different artists to embellish the Adamson. The statue was recently renovated by International Airport. The artworks of Yusuf the Lagos State Government with a fountain. Grillo, Bruce Onobrakpeya, Demas Nwoko, Another early sculpture of importance in Lagos Agbo Folarin, Isiaka Osunde are amongst the Nigeria is the Eyo Idumota produced by sculptures commissioned to embellish the Professor Yusuf Grillo which is a statue Murtala Mohammed International Airport. displayed on a designed platform with Yoruba traditional motifs particularly that of Lagos. Early Sculptures in Lagos and Nigeria The Eyo festival is held in honour of a Chief or Sculpture as a means of high expression is of elder statesman. The sculpture has played an great significance to traditional and modern important role in the historical evolution of Nigeria. Sculpture was introduced to the Lagos culture and was produced in 1976.The Nigerian public places as a result of contact with work is built with fibre glass and was the Europeans. Amongst the early sculptures commissioned by the Local Government. displayed in public spaces in Nigeria include Professor Yusuf Grillo produced another Emotan, a female bronze statue erected at the important sculpture in Marina in 1984 Oba Market in Benin and was sculpted by John commissioned by First Bank. The sculpture has Danford of the British Council. The statue was five sections representing agriculture which they erected in Memory of Emotan, a trade chieftain support; the second section represents who is believed to have traded at the Oba's commerce and industry with people jubilating market in Ancient Benin Kingdom during the with talking drums and other instruments. The

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):210 - 217 211 UFUOMA ONOBRAKPEYA An Assessment of The Impact of Recent Sculptural Installations in Public Spaces in Lagos State Nigeria logo of the bank which is the elephant is publicly accessible buildings, monuments, integrated into the design especially at capital memorials and civic statuary. These are perhaps head of the pillar. the oldest and most obvious forms of officially The Statue of three Lagos white cap chiefs is sanctioned public art. It could also be said that one of the most famous monuments in Lagos architectural sculptures and even sculptures and was commissioned by the then Governor of themselves fulfill the definition of public art. Lagos State Raji Rasaki. The artist that Independent artworks created and installed that produced the artwork is Biodun Sodeinde. The are not officially sanctioned are ubiquitous in statue represents three Idejo Chiefs in a nearly every city. traditional greeting mode. The statue is 12 feet Permanent works are sometimes integrated tall. The statue welcomes travelers into the city with architecture and landscaping in the of Lagos. The figures are depicted stretching creation or renovation of buildings and sites, an their fists forward in gesture of welcome to all especially important example being the categories of people from far and near to try programme developed in the new city of Milton their luck in the business of Lagos. The artwork Keynes, England. Public art is not confined to was made in fibre glass. Sokotiati Omolaja (the physical objects. Dance, theatre, and poetry Blacksmith and Trader) was actually have proponents with public art. Artists such as commissioned to celebrate one hundred years Richard Long's three week walk entitled the of Lagos State Council for Commerce and Path is a case in point. In a similar example Industry at the Trade and Commerce House in sculptor Gar Waterman created a giant arch Victoria Island Lagos. straddling a city street in New Haven, USA. Ben Enwonwu, the first formally trained Sokari Douglas Camp is an acclaimed Nigerian Nigerian Sculptor who was trained abroad, set Female sculptor based in the United Kingdom. the pace for the modern sculpture practice in She creates large semi-abstract figurative works Nigeria. He produced several significant that are inspired by her African culture. sculptures that include Anyanwu now hoisted at the National Museum premises in Lagos and Power of Public Sculpture Sango the Yoruba god of thunder in front of the From the pyramids and temples of ancient now Power Holding Company of Nigeria in Egypt to the streets and piazzas of Florence, Lagos. Enwonwu also produced the corporate Sculptures in Public places have been icon of the Nigerian Telecommunications phenomenal and informing about a society for Company, NITEL. millennia. Anish Kapoor's Cloud Gate (2006) is a large sculpture that dominates the plaza in Public Art Chicago which is affectionately nicknamed the Public Art is art in any media that has been Bean; its highly polished surface reflects planned with the intention of being staged in distorted images of the Cityscape around it and physical or public domain usually in an open that of the people who can walk under and and accessible space. Public art is significant around the large sculpture. Another important within the art world amongst curators, artwork by Joan Miro Oiseau Lunaire (1966) commissioned bodies and practitioners of stands in a public space in Paris Montparnasse public art to whom it signifies a working practice neighbourhood. Miro's sculpture designed as a of site specificity, community involvement and site specific work is intended to be a memorial to collaboration. Public art may include any art the artists who promoted avant-garde forms and which is exhibited in a public space including theories and influenced the work of generations

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):210 - 217 212 UFUOMA ONOBRAKPEYA An Assessment of The Impact of Recent Sculptural Installations in Public Spaces in Lagos State Nigeria of artists to come. Lynn Chadwick's work titled consideration for the accurate anatomical Couple on Seat (1986) at the Canary Wharf is the representation of the fishes. The artist takes care home to London's tallest, shiniest building. The to depict the details of the fishes as seen in the Sculpture is with its back to a large fountain. It is fins and gills of the aquatic animals. The a powerful sculpture taking inspiration from creativity of the sculpture is in its composition Henty Moore. style – where the viewer is presented with at least ¾ views of the entire composition irrespective Recently Commissioned Sculptures in Lagos of the position he/she is standing. As part of its efforts to enhance the beautification and by extension the tourism potential of Lagos State, The Lagos State Government embarked on the commissioning of several sculptures to be publicly displayed at strategic areas of the state considered to hold significance to the state and its inhabitants. One of such sculptures is “Bonga Fish” erected at the Lekki- Epe T-junction in Epe Local Government Area of Lagos State Nigeria. The then Governor, Akinwunmi Ambode, who unveiled 'The Fish' Statue at its completion, said it was symbolic of and celebrates Epe's centuries old identity as a community of fishermen. Ambode, an Epe son, said the erection of the monument and many others across the state was one of the many steps of his administration to boost tourism and socioeconomic activities. The governor according to Rilwan (2017), a Figure I. Title: Bonga Fish, Artist: Hamza Atta, reporter with the Nation News, said this Location: Epe, Lagos-Nigeria, Medium: Polystyrene, “informed the creation of aesthetic works of art Date: 2017, Source: data:image/jpeg;base64,/ and its deployment at strategic locations across the state which is designed to add value to our Figure I shows a larger than life size environment.” composition of two fish. Both realistically The work was created to honour Epe town's rendered and placed on a concrete platform of founding fathers' tradition of fishing and marine varying sizes. The central podium is circular trade practices which were passed on to their while the larger lower base is in cube form with descendants, who have in turn kept it alive the bold white letters spelling “EPE” on its side. especially because of Epe's proximity to the The central circular podium is decorated with lagoon. He said, “The Fish' statue is a incised, simplistic fish motifs interjected with celebration of the communal economic diagonal lines of the same length and thickness. activities which revolve around the vast The two fish are painted in gold with a smooth potential available in the coastal area including finish. The brilliant shade of gold pigment fishing, marine transportation and job catches the reflection of the sun thus making it opportunities.” The Epe community were look ethereal in nature. There is a careful enjoined to protect the monument and other

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):210 - 217 213 UFUOMA ONOBRAKPEYA An Assessment of The Impact of Recent Sculptural Installations in Public Spaces in Lagos State Nigeria infrastructure provided by the government to Fela-Liberation is a colourful larger than life size enhance the socio-economic opportunities sculpture in honour of Fela Anikulapo Kuti. available in the area. The composition of the The sculpture bears the features of elongation, a sculpture draws from the description of Epe as form of exaggeration often practiced in the “fish basket of the state.” sculpture in a bid to emphasise features either as The Sculptor, Hamza Attah, described the a form of aesthetics or as symbolic case of monument as depicting modern Epe as the stating the significance of the represented collecting point for the export of fish in Lagos. subject matter. This may be the case in this “The sculptural work associates the community sculpture; an emphasis of the position occupied with the fish that put Epe on the global Map” by Fela in the struggle for freedom from oppression of bad and corrupt governance as well as a music icon who still influences contemporary sound worldwide. The sculpture extends high up towards the sky. The headless piece depicts the human form of Fela in his signature attire of African print shirt and slim pants, peppered with an array of motifs both organic and liner in nature. The bright shade of orange with sparkles of yellow, white and maroon all serve to make it an unmissable sight. The sculpture is surrounded by shields with detailed paintings of Lagos State's landmarks/landscape. Perhaps an attempt by the artist to present in one area all the sights a tourist should see within the state. The central position of the Fela figure maybe an allusion to his importance to the overall fabric of development in Lagos. The sculpture's outstretched hands speaks to Fela's continuous fight for freedom of the masses both on a psychological and physical level. The work embodies the subject's belief that “Freedom is never given or offered, it is always won through hard, grueling work. When that Freedom is won, some like to term it independence, but we in Lagos choose to term it Liberation”. This striking pose of the iconic Fela Anikulapo-Kuti who once walked the very Figure II, Title: Fela–Liberation, Artist: Abolore streets of Lagos is a physical representation of Sobayo, Location: Allen Roundabout Ikeja, Medium: the true essence of a legend who led a struggle Fiber Glass, Date: 2017, for the emancipation of his people. The artist chose to leave the statue headless Source:https://www.terrakulture.com/home/wpcontent/u in order that people can appreciate freedom ploads/2017/09/liberation.jpg through the essence of Fela while thinking

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):210 - 217 214 UFUOMA ONOBRAKPEYA An Assessment of The Impact of Recent Sculptural Installations in Public Spaces in Lagos State Nigeria about the positivity in the message of Fela's Music is an integral part of life to the millions of music. This statue is a testament of unique and Yoruba's in West Africa. There is rarely an progressive nature of Lagos State. The work occasion without a music accompaniment. The attests to a Lagos that recognises the struggle of sculptural piece DRUMMER can be said to be a its citizens, hence its central location at the heart representative of the Yoruba musical culture. of the capital of Lagos. It is a salute to every The drummer is a depiction of a middle aged Lagosian who has, at one time or the other, man wearing an Agbada traditional dress cloth fought for liberation. of the Yoruba male) with a cap, holding securely under his left armpit two talking drums of different sizes locally called DUNDUN which is legendary in Yoruba culture. Though the sculpture is stylised in appearance, the artist appears to stick as close to reality as possible. Restricting the stylisations to areas such as the face and the fingers and feet which are represented in an elongated yet elegant manner. Though made of concrete, there is finesse to the overall finishing of the sculpture. The drapes of the agbada and sokoto (usually loose pants that accompany the agbada) are captured realistically. The sculpture is a definite ode to the Yoruba's long standing tradition and culture of celebrating every instance in their life. The work personifies the Yoruba people's deep appreciation and long rich culture of music as an integral part of their daily lives. Thus the drummer is a historian, an eclectic, a royalty connected to spirits of the ancestors. He gives life to African music. The former Lagos State Governor, Mr. Akinwunmi Ambode, in his quest to boost Arts, culture and tourism in order to protect cultural heritage and the history of the people of Lagos State has mounted different iconic statues at various strategic locations in the state. In his keynote address on Friday May 5, 2017 at the Ikorodu Ferry terminal Ebute-Ipakodo during the commissioning and unveiling of 'The Figure III, Title: The Drummer, Drummer', which is larger than life, sized iconic Artist: Chinedu Ogakwu, Location: Ipakodo, Ikorodu, sculpture mounted in front of the terminal, Lagos, Medium: Fiber Glass, Date: 2017, Ambode recalled the importance of the drum and drummer in Yoruba culture. He said no Source: https://www.terrakulture.com/home/wp-content/ happy occasion would be complete without uploads/2017/09/liberation.jpg music and drumming. According to him, they

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):210 - 217 215 UFUOMA ONOBRAKPEYA An Assessment of The Impact of Recent Sculptural Installations in Public Spaces in Lagos State Nigeria combine to give life to every celebration. In his FROM EBUTE: LOCATION-MOBOLAJI BANK words, “The Drummer is an embodiment of the ANTHONY WAY IKEJA, LAGOS. Yoruba musical culture, which is an integral The artist is Ade Odunfa. This is a 30 feet tall part of life to millions of Yorubas in West installation of our indigenous life size wooden Africa”. canoes made in fibre glass depicting Lagos The sculpture seeks to educate everyone water ways, the culture, the coastline traditions. including tourists that the Yoruba culture Lagos is an open canvas for creative people. The recognizes and celebrates music all year round. canoe would always be there to keep bringing in The Drummer was designed to perform a vital creative ones. The core occupation of the first educational role of conveying knowledge about settlers of Lagos was fishing and this is why the culture, music and heritage, which also reveals canoes are used to represent each local the grandeur of indigenous culture in the past government in Lagos State. and present. 'The Drummer' sculpture is paramount to Yoruba cultural heritage and COMMUNITY: ILE ZIK AGEGE, LAGOS. history. Chinedu Ogakwu, the Artist that The Sculptor is Abolore Sobayo. The world is a erected the statue, said it took him three months global village. Coming together is a beginning to put it together. He said that the work was quite but a community working together is the success challenging due to the size of the statue. and Lagos is the pacesetter state for communal Chinedu described it as historical and quite success. attractive. Conclusion and Recommendation YOUTH EMPOWERMENT: LOCATION -SABO, YABA, The nature of sculpture and art in public spaces LAGOS brings awareness to people through the Youth empowerment is a process where locations they are usually displayed in. Art in children and young people are encouraged to public places is a powerful medium for take charge of their lives. They do this by representing limitless realities about human addressing their situation and improving their access to resources and transforming their kind, and its many facets. These include all beliefs, value and attitudes. Youth empower- forms of culture, tradition, religion, mode of ment aims to improve quality of life. Youth dress, iconic personalities and even ideologies as empowerment is achieved through participation evidenced by works such as “community”, in youth empowerment programmes. The “waka”, “youth empowerment” and many sculptural piece is composed of sculpted books others.. It is noteworthy to mention that creating arranged in a pyramid with figures sitting or installations and sculptures for public places is a standing on them at various points. The idea is necessary interpose in the understanding of to create awareness to the public about the human society and its development. It lends a benefits of education to our youth and how voice and creates significant impact on certain education would eradicate social vices from our events such as lifestyle, religion, celebrations society. The artist is Bede Umeh. and also on the overall development of human resources. Sculptural installation has further WAKA - THE BIG FOOT: LOCATION: OJODU, BERGER. beautified Lagos making the city attractive and The artist who made this is Hamza Atta. The inviting to tourists, who would in turn relish the message of this sculpture is one for our youth to sights and be inspired by the artworks when they put their best foot forward to allow them know visit Lagos. that every journey begins with a step.

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RECOMMENDATIONS Oladugbagbe, F.E.A. (2012).Stylistic and thematic It is recommended that the government of development of garden sculpture in Nigerian art Lagos State and Nigeria should further institutions (1970-2000). PhD Thesis, Department encourage art and artists by commissioning of Fine Arts, Ladoke Akintola University Ogbomosho, Nigeria. more sculpture around Nigeria especially in the Odibo, F. (1987).Sculpture in Lagos Metropolis: Trends important cities within the country. and tastes in patronage. M.A. Dissertation, Institute of African Studies, University of References Ibadan Nigeria. Grillo, Y. (2006). Master of masters: Yusuf Grillo: His Omoregie, S. B. (1972). Emotan and the Kings of Benin. life and works. National Gallery of Art, Nigeria. Ibadan: Longman Group Limited. Http: www//google/publcart Http: www//google/ Oriwusun (2017). Ambode unveils Drummers wikipedia/public art Statue at Ebute-Ipakod. In Oriwusun Newspaper Onobrakpeya, U. (1995).The life and art of Prof. Yusuf Ltd. www.oriwusun.com Adebayo Grillo. M.A. Dissertation, University of The Nation (2017). Lagos unveils iconic Fish Statue in Benin, Benin-City, Edo-State. Epe. The Nation Newspaper. www.thenation Onobrakpeya, B. (2014). Mask of the flaming arrows. online.ng.net Lagos: Ford Foundation Publication, Ovuomaroro Studio and Gallery.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Varieties of English: Which variety should we teach in Nigeria?

DAJANG, INNOCENT NASUK & MANDONG, MATHAIS AYUBA Department of English University of Jos [email protected], Department of General Studies, Plateau State Polytechnic, Barkin-Ladi [email protected]

Abstract English language plays a prominent role in virtually all facets of business in Nigeria especially because it is the lingua franca of Nigeria. It is a language of education and wider communication in Nigeria and studied as a second language in institutions in the country. Nigeria based its learning and use of English on the British system of English, the variety known as the Received Pronunciation (RP) or Queen's English. However, due to current trends in the development of English in Nigeria, especially the strong influence of American English and the now strong presence of the variety of English known as the Nigerian English or Popular Nigerian English, there is a serious challenge to the learning and use of the British English in Nigeria. This study thus appraises the situation and submits that other varieties could still be taught in Nigeria's institutions of learning but with a caveat on British English as the recommended variety upon which our educational system is built.

Key words: American English, British English, Nigerian English, variety, teaching.

Introduction mother tongue, as is the case in countries such as The English language is a global language Australia, Canada, and Ireland. The varieties of spoken in quite a number of countries around English spoken in these countries are also the world. Barber (1993) attributes the global referred to as Inner Circle Englishes. Second, status of English to its wide diffusion outside the there are the countries where English is British Isles, to all parts of the world, by trade, considered as a foreign language (EFL), as found colonisation and conquest. Jowitt (2009) states in countries such as Poland, China, and Brazil. that English was first spoken in England about The English varieties spoken in these countries 1,500years ago, but it was in existence before are also referred to as Expanded Circle Englishes. then. These are countries where people do not speak In Nigeria, the English language is a second English as a native language, and even where language used as a lingua franca. Nigeria is a they speak it, they only employ it to speak to multi-lingual nation with over 520 indigenous foreigners. Lastly, we have the countries where languages, a situation that poses a challenge to English is spoken as a second language (ESL). In adopting a national language for the country. ESL or Outer Circle countries such as India, English thus presents itself as a ready tool, at Pakistan, Nigeria, Kenya, and Singapore, least for now, to put to rest the national language English is not usually used as a mother-tongue question. Trudgill and Hannah (2008) identify but it has been assigned some kind of three types of countries in the world based on governmental role or official status and is used their relationship with the English language. in the country as a tool for wider First, we have the nation-states, where English is communication within the country, especially a native language and people have English as their among the educated classes; it is also used in

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):218 - 224 218 DAJANG, I. N.& MANDONG, M. S. A. Varieties of English: Which variety should we teach in Nigeria? education and the media. As described above, English in their various publications. The issue Nigeria has been described amongst the here is, Nigerian English does exist, and is English-speaking countries as belonging to the considered a variety of English, as evident even Outer Circle or ESL. One striking thing here is this from the description of the classification of that Nigeria is a cultural and multilingual nation Englishes in the beginning of this introduction. and adopts English as a second language. Apart from these two levels of English in Therefore, it is expected that there will be a contact in Nigeria, there is the strong influence great difference between the English spoken in of the American English found in the speeches Nigeria and the standard variety spoken in and writings of Nigerian users of English. Since countries where English is spoken as a native this is the case, between the Standard English language. This is so because the cultural (RP), the American English and the Nigerian environment of Nigeria affects the vocabulary English, which variety should we teach? That is development of users of English and their use of the focus of this paper. The paper does not the language in Nigeria, since it is the reflection intend to look at the levels of the varieties of of the reality of what transpires between English used in Nigeria. speakers of English in Nigeria based on the communication needs of the people and English as Second Language in Nigeria affected by the mother-tongues of the various A second language, according to Adegbite and Nigerian speakers of English. It is expected that Akindele (1992), is a language which is Nigeria, having adopted English as the official sequentially the second language of a bilingual language for governmental and educational person. According to them, it is the variety in affairs, should clearly teach in its institutions the which a bilingual person conducts his everyday Standard English (SE), which in this sense is the activities but shares this role with another Received Pronunciation (RP), but there are language in which the speaker has the greater challenges in meeting this expectation as we all linguistic facility or knowledge. This is the strive to attain a near–native speaker proficiency speaker's L1, or Mother Tongue. Kachru (1983), which in itself is a herculean task because of the quoted in Adegbite and Akindele (1992), refers obvious influence of our Nigerian environment to English as a Second Language (ESL) as an and myriad other-than-English mother- institutionalised variety which has the following tongues. It therefore marks out Nigerian usage features: It undergoes the process of of English as far apart from the Standard nativisation of the registers; Its styles have taken English because of its peculiar features. place in both formal and in contextual terms. It With this picture of the use of English in is marked by localised features. Nigeria affected by the environment, it English as a second language in Nigeria portends, therefore, that a majority of the refers to the use of English by Nigerian speakers Nigerian learners of English reflect English that who already have their mother tongues. The is in a manner uniquely different from the number of users of English as second language Standard English as evident in the writings and far outnumbers that of those who use English as speeches of most Nigerians, even the educated a mother tongue. The use of English as a second class. In fact, it is owing to the fact that there is a language in Nigeria, as in many other ESL remarkable difference between the English countries, has gained considerable attention and spoken in Nigeria and what is the Standard is being taught in universities across the country. English that scholars such as Jowitt (1991) and The teaching and learning of English as Second Banjo (1996) have made a case for Nigerian Language is not without its challenges. Aduwa

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Ogiegbaen and Iyamu (2006) explain that a noticeable because of the influence of our majority of students who are admitted into indigenous mother-tongues on English. This is a Nigerian universities have no opportunity to major reason for the discussion on varieties of study the English Language again except those the English language in Nigeria. who have been admitted to study English or The English language plays a vital role in English-related courses such as Linguistics and Nigeria. With its status as a lingua franca, it has Literature in English. They explain further that come to feature in virtually all business dealings although all students are encouraged to take a in Nigeria: English serves as a language of few courses in the use of English, the content of e d u c a t i o n , t r a d e a n d c o m m e r c e , these courses is grossly inadequate for the administration, politics, governance, unity, students to acquire skills in the effective use of international relations and diplomacy, creative the language for communication and other writing, religion, entertainment, etc. With the social experiences. There is also the problem of various roles which English plays in Nigeria, it the students frequently alternating between the becomes incontestable that the language three main varieties discussed in this paper – occupies a prestigious position because of its American English, British English and Nigerian numerous roles. It is this utilitarian factor that English. essentially makes English a second language in Nigeria. In comparison to indigenous Nigerian The Status of the English Language in Nigeria languages, it is easy to see that English occupies The English language is a very important a very prominent position; it enjoys language in Nigeria. Apart from the indigenous prominence, or what is technically termed languages, it is the most common language "dominance configuration". spoken in the country. English is used as a second language in Nigeria because it is not the Varieties of the English Language mother-tongue, or first language, of Nigerians. Varieties of a language occur because we exist in It came into Nigeria through commerce and different environments and have different trade, missionary activities and colonial masters linguistic backgrounds. Languages change to and was adopted as a vehicle for communica- reflect the situation of the environment where tion between Nigerians and their western they are used, and that gives each language its guests. With the contact through trade and peculiar features. Syal and Jindal (2007) state religious issues, especially, the language spread that: into different parts of Nigeria. With the adoption of English as the language of Language seems to be in a state of government, the language became the official continual transition because of its language of the country. It became the language cultural transmission from one that united Nigeria across different linguistic generation to the next. Each new boundaries. generation has to find a way of using or However, as a result of the linguistic learning the language of the previous background of the individual speakers, some generation. In this continuous process, differences are noticeable in the use of the each new language user has to 'recreate' language by Nigerians, and this is because our for himself or herself the language of indigenous languages have some features which the community. are not the same as those of English, and when we put English into use, the differences are Against this backdrop, different parts of the

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English-speaking world adopt and use a certain "interference" varieties because of the influence variety of the English language with peculiar of the mother tongues of the speakers, though features reflecting the culture and identity of the they can be seen as varieties in their own right. speakers. Schneider (2007) explains the case of There are other classifications by other notable the emergence and existence of varieties in scholars such as Gregory (1967), Halliday terms of what he describes as "post-colonial (1978) and Kachru (1982), all having varying Englishes" which transformed through degrees of criticisms. migration. These varieties of English emerged in language-contact situations. Schneider Varieties of English: between British English, (2007), citing Mufwene (2005b), explains the American English and Nigerian English issue of varieties succinctly as an issue of the A number of questions have been raised decision of the speaker: regarding the use of so many varieties of English around the world. Questions have been …the emergence of contact-induced asked on the appropriate English to use in varieties can be regarded as speakers Nigeria because of the obvious influence of the making selections from a pool of mother tongue on the use of "Standard English" linguistic variants available to them in and, of course, the environment and culture of contact setting. This “feature pool” speakers of English in Nigeria. These factors, consist of the sum total of the among others, create a difference between what individual forms and variants that each the majority, if not all, speakers of English in of the speakers involved, with different Nigeria speak and write and what the Standard language backgrounds and varying English presents before us. The style of the linguistic experiences, brings to the English used by Nigerians contains certain contact situation. peculiar features of pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary, semantics, grammar, etc. different Thus, varieties emerge as a result of the needs of from those of the standard variety. This brings in the speakers as they make contact and that is the argument for the existence of the type of further influenced by the environment and English spoken in Nigeria as a recognised culture of the language users. variety of English in the world. Jowitt (1991) As stated earlier, there are quite a number of explains that: varieties of English in the world. Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, and Svartvik (1972), cited a variety of language can be thought of in Adegbite, Udofot, and Ayoola (2014) as one of many general and complete describe the English language as “a common language-systems, each used by a core or nucleus” realised in the form of the substantial number of people and each different varieties in existence around the world. possessing characteristics that They identify six types of varieties of English distinguish it from other systems based on region, education, social status, without requiring it to be classified as a medium, attitude and interference. They claim different language. That is the sense in further that the core varieties are the English as which Nigerian English, British Native Language/English as Mother Tongue English, Australian English, etc. have (ENL/EMT) dialect, while the English as been referred to as varieties. Second Language (ESL) and English as Foreign Language (EFL) are considered as dependent Since the type of English in Nigeria meets the

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):218 - 224 221 DAJANG, I. N.& MANDONG, M. S. A. Varieties of English: Which variety should we teach in Nigeria? description given by Jowitt (1991), it becomes English, as well, is popular among Nigerian clear that Nigerian English qualifies to be tagged speakers, and British English is the accepted a variety of English. variety because it is the model of English The situation in Nigeria, as it affects the officially recognised in the country as the use of English, is an interesting one. There are language of education. In fact, as Trudgill and three strong varieties of English in close Hannah (2008) assert, British English is contact and frequently observed in the speech traditionally used as a model for ESL teaching and writings of most Nigerians, especially in schools and universities in Europe and among the youths. It is quite common to listen many parts of the world. But it is safe to say to students in the universities speaking and that British English is being threatened by the recognise the result as obviously a mixture of other two varieties, in Nigeria. the Nigerian English, British English, and On the influence of American English, American English. The use of the American Kpregogi (2012) states that: and Nigerian English is mostly projected by the entertainment industries such as American English is now actually Hollywood and Nollywood, which have a very international English, which is wide viewership in the country when unrelentingly diluting even British compared to the British entertainment English at an alarming rate. He industry. Nigerian English is based on British explains that today, British English has English, but recently, due to the influence of become so thoroughly Americanized American English, some words and that one has to be really careful when expressions have made their way into Nigerian differentiating these two varieties of English. English. Perhaps we can rephrase It is clear that on paper the Standard George Bernard Shaw and say America British English is the recommended variety for and England have now become two education and other purposes in the country, countries that increasingly being united but in practice we are faced with a rather by a common language. That is why it different situation. It is even more worrying no longer makes sense to learn British that sometimes when students use the spelling English these days since the British are system of a particular variety – American – no themselves relentlessly Americanizing questions are asked. Similarly, it is very their English. common to read in Nigerian newspapers expressions that are purely Nigerian and so The situation painted above further paints a millions of readers in Nigeria and around the rather disturbing picture for Nigerian learners world are exposed to the distinctive features of of English who are confronted with the task of the Nigerian English usage. frequently alternating between these two With the situation painted above, where varieties of English and the Nigerian English Nigerian learners of English, and even the that is increasingly gaining ground among elites, reflect evidences of British English, Nigerians across culture and education. For American English and Nigerian English, it example, the following words are spelt in leaves one with the question of resolving the American English with the dropping of the issue of which variety is to be adopted and letter 'U' but not so in British English: American taught in Nigerian institutions. American – color, honor, labor. British – colour, honour, English is strongly felt among users, Nigerian labour. Although Nigerian English has the same

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):218 - 224 222 DAJANG, I. N.& MANDONG, M. S. A. Varieties of English: Which variety should we teach in Nigeria? spelling as the British English, you still find variety of English should we teach? More evidence of the use of the American spelling in attention currently is being devoted to Nigerian the writings of some Nigerian users of English. English such that in some universities in the Similarly, these expressions are very country, Nigerian English Usage is taught as a common in Nigerian English but not in course. What is the implication of such a move? American or British English but are prominent Is it to help develop and standardise the variety in the speeches of some users of English in and launch it fully into the world map of Nigeria as they mix these up with the two other varieties of English? varieties: 'I fell down from a tree', 'That my tribal girl', 'We are going to branch John's house', etc. Conclusion It is a common feature of Nigerian English to English is a "world language" which, since its find a whole lot of vocabulary items not found coming into Nigeria, has assumed the status of a in American or British English, or sometimes lingua franca, serving as the language of the words exist but with difference in meaning education, among numerous other roles it plays and usage. For example, Nigerian English: 'we in the country. The language has spread into “offer” a course' but the two other varieties many countries of the world where it is either would rather give that as 'we “take” a course.' used as a foreign language or as a second 'Local' in Nigerian English means inferior, language. In Nigeria, it is used as a second uncivilized, crude, backward, substandard, etc., language. English has many varieties and but in the two other varieties, this would mean Nigerian English is yet another upcoming 'belonging to a nearby place.' 'Machine' in variety of the language. Users of English in Nigerian English could mean a 'motorcycle' but Nigeria are exposed to three varieties of the that in no way implies a motorcycle in the other English language – American English, British varieties. We have so many other instances of English and Nigerian English. This has made it Nigerian vocabulary items such as detribalized, difficult to focus attention on the teaching and flashing, flasher, naming ceremony, sufferness, etc. learning of the recommended British English that either do not exist in American or British variety. English, or have different connotations. There This paper has focused attention on the are of course other forms of differences such as three key varieties of English in Nigeria. It is in the syntactic and phonological differences as the education policy of Nigeria that the examined for instance in Jowitt (1991). standard English for teaching is the British Nigerian users of English are frequently English, but as the situation is, there is a threat to observed crossing the bounds and alternating the learning and use of British English among between these three varieties. learners and users of English in the country. With the exposure of learners to these three This threat is coming from the influence of the varieties, and with the fact that the resources to two other varieties of English – American adequately teach the recommended British English and Nigerian English. Frequently, it is English are severely inadequate, as well as the observed that students in higher institutions and obvious challenges of learning English as a users of English in Nigeria reflect a mixture of second language, would it then be sufficient to these three varieties in their daily conversations. simply teach the Nigerian variety which, of the It is practically difficult, if not impossible, to use three varieties, seems to be what Nigerian or speak the language like a native speaker learners of English appear to be (consciously or because of the culture, environment and unconsciously) more comfortable with? Which influence of our mother tongue on the learning

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of the language. What we are aiming at is to Adegbite W., Udofot, I., & Ayoola, K. (2014). A attain a near-native speaker proficiency in the dictionary of Nigerian English usage. Ife: OAU use of English. Press. With the users of English in Nigeria Aduwa-Ogiegbaen, S.E. & Iyamu, E.S.O. (2006). constantly exposed to these three varieties and Problems of teaching English as a second language in Nigeria. College Student Journal, 40 using them interchangeably, it becomes (3). Alabama: Project Innovation increasingly difficult to teach effectively the Banjo, A. (1996). Making a virtue of necessity: an British variety of English. The English language overview of the English language in Nigeria. Ibadan: is itself being threatened by American English Ibadan University Press. and its presence is now strongly felt among users Barber, C. (1993). The English language. A historical of users of English in Nigeria. Since we are introduction. UK: CUP. faced with this challenge of mixing varieties, Jowitt, D. (1991). Nigerian English usage. An which variety should we then teach? It may Introduction. Lagos: Learn Africa. appear plausible at this moment to suggest a ------. (2009). English language and literature in comparative method of teaching, which would historical context. Ibadan: Spectrum Books require all three varieties to be considered Limited. Kperogi, A. Farooq (2012, Dec., 24). Influence of during teaching sessions, but with a caveat on American English on Nigerian English. Daily British English as the officially recommended Trust Newspaper. www.dailytrust.com.ng/... 8206- variety upon which our education and influenc... administration are modeled, or based. If National Open University of Nigeria: Eng 151 Nigerian learners and users of English “know” Introduction to English as a second language. all three varieties, as well as their peculiarities, Scneider, E. W. (2007). Postcolonial English. Varieties and also know when to use which variety, it is around the world. UK: CUP better, since the problem of mixing up varieties Syal, P., & Jindal, D.V. (2007). An introduction to will then be solved. linguistics. Language, grammar and semantics (2nd Edition). New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India. References Trudgill, P., & Hannah, J. (2008). International Adegbite W., & Akindele, F. (1992). The sociology and English. A guide to the varieties of standard English. th politics of English in Nigeria: An introduction. Ile- 5 Edition. UK: Hodder Education. Ife: Debiyi-Iwa Publishers.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Re-evaluating the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis; The case of 'MMM' crash in Nigeria

EZEBUENYI, EPHRAIM E., PhD, NTOMCHUKWU, FESTUS CHIGOZIE & OKIKA, EMMANUEL Department of Mass Communication, Faculty of Social Sciences Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University [email protected], [email protected] Department of Mass Communication Federal Polytechnic, Oko

Abstract The relief offered to Nigerian 'MMM' participants in the peak of economic recession in the country was yet fully appreciated before the announcement of freezing of participants' accounts on 13th December 2016 and unfreezing on 13th January, 2017. The media blitz turned the attention of the nation to reports on the incident. There were reports of suicide attempts, heartbreaks and disappointments occasioned by the MMM action. Participants were engrossed in counting their losses. This study – a content analysis of selected Nigerian newspapers – provides empirical insight on the nature of media coverage of the MMM Nigeria crash in the light of the vulture reporting hypothesis. The newspapers studied are The Guardian, The Nation and Daily Sun. The period of the study covers 13th December, 2016 to 13th February, 2017. Results from the study revealed among others that there were more stories on the MMM Nigeria crash during the freezing and the unfreezing periods than afterwards. The findings validate the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis which held that the media feast on an issue or newsworthy incident while it is hot and abandons it after it has cooled down. It also recommends that follow-up reports on such issues should be published by the media to keep the public abreast of the turn of events. More importantly, more studies need to be carried out on the vulture reporting hypothesis to make universally accepted recommendations with a view to transforming the hypothesis into a theory.

Keywords: Re-evaluating, Vulture reporting hypothesis, Newspaper coverage, 'MMM' crash, Nigeria

Introduction at the news of accounts frozen by 'MMM' The news of the freezing and unfreezing of organizers. Adakole, a groom-to-be reportedly 'MMM' Nigeria participants' accounts on 13th drank insecticide in Otukpo, Benue State after December 2016 and 13th January 2017 received he heard about the crash of the Ponzi scheme wide attention from both the conventional and Mavrodi Mondial Moneybox, popularly known social media platforms. Researches have as 'MMM'. His friend said he had invested continued in the trending news on 'MMM' due N300, 000 with an expectation of receiving his to the message update that was sent by 'MMM' 30 per cent before his wedding on Wednesday, administrator to over 3 million Nigerians who December 28. (Vanguard, 2016, December 15). participate in the 'MMM' doubling scheme, The report also held that there has been tension informing them that there will be a one-month in Nigeria after participants of the scheme woke freezing of confirmed Mavro accounts because up to a message from the organizers that their they are working on upgrading the website. accounts have been frozen. The 'MMM' Several bloggers and national newspapers have organizers said all accounts will be frozen for a written and published articles and news that period of one month to allow it prevent its crash 'MMM' has crashed. A Vanguard newspaper as anticipated by many. account of one of the stories reported that a man The Nigeria media were no doubt awash simply identified as Adakole attempted suicide with stories of the incident and this contributed

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):225 - 237 225 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Re-evaluating the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis; The case of 'MMM' crash in Nigeria to the fact that it dominated discussions across Uganda-Tanzania wars) by foreign media the nation at that time. This development is in reflects the behaviour of a vulture which feasts tandem with the agenda-setting theory of the on a dead body and abandons its carcass when it media which posits that by frequent coverage of feels okay (Nwosu, 1996). an issue, the media can determine what It is therefore worth reflecting how the dominates public discussions at any given time 'MMM' Nigeria crash might fit (or not fit) into (Nwabueze, 2004). The media blitz on 'MMM' this schema. The 'MMM' Nigeria crash has the Nigeria operation/crash however took a vulture tendency of reflecting the vulture reporting reporting mentality according to Downs (1972) mentality similar to the above expositions who hypothesized a public interest cycle that enunciated by Downs (1972) and Nwosu many major issues go through in modern (1996). This is so, given that the coverage of the sociopolitical and economic life. As Downs puts 'MMM' Nigeria crash by the Nigerian press has it: been barely significantly reported. The major observations of both Downs American public attention rarely (1972) and Nwosu (1996) studies seemed to be remains sharply focused upon any one the lot of Nigerian media. Reinforcing the above domestic issue for very long-even if it position, Nwabueze (2004), Ukonu, Akpan and involves a continuing problem of Anorue (2012) and Nwala (2014) have crucial importance to society. Instead, a expressed strong biases against Nigerian press' systematic 'issue-attention cycle' seems coverage of some issues. They observed that the strongly to influence public attitudes Nigerian media do not give significant coverage and behaviour concerning most key and interpretation to various issues of domestic problems. Each of these monumental national importance. Much as the problems suddenly leaps into media dispense their agenda-setting function, prominence, remains there for a short care must be taken to avoid performing such time, and then-though still largely functions to the detriment of the society. Media unresolved - gradually fades from the coverage should also be done from the center of public attention. perspective of truth, objectivity and ethical principles, which are basic tenets of media In support of the above position, Nwosu (1996, practice. This, according to Mboho (2004), will p. 103) states that the manner of media coverage likely stem the tendencies of causing confusion of events in Nigeria reflects the “Vulture and/or discontentment. Reporting Hypothesis.” According to him, The coverage of the 'MMM' Nigeria Vulture Reporting Hypothesis simply states that operation/crash looks very much like an issue the media feast on an issue or newsworthy that has been through Vulture Reporting incident while it is hot and abandons it after it experience. Prior to the announcement of has cooled down. The Vulture Reporting freezing of 'MMM' Nigeria participants Hypothesis was postulated by a renowned accounts, the little that was heard of the ponzi communication scholar, Professor Ikechukwu scheme in Nigeria newspapers was the warning E. Nwosu who put forward the hypothesis after from the Nigeria Senate, the Economic and he carried out a study of selected foreign media Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) among and coverage of African wars. It was discovered others to the participants to trade with caution. that the pattern of coverage of the wars under However, the 'MMM' founder, Sergey Mavrodi study (Nigeria Biafra, Angola, Zaire and wrote an open letter to Nigerian Authorities,

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):225 - 237 226 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Re-evaluating the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis; The case of 'MMM' crash in Nigeria criticising the latter's constant attacks on the message on its website stating that it has frozen ponzi scheme. Barely 24 hours after, an online all confirmed Mavros, otherwise known as platform, Breeze Reporters reported that money due for withdrawal for one month. Soon ' M M M ' N i g e r i a h a s c r a s h e d . T h e after the news that the platform had frozen all administrators of the scheme, early Tuesday, accounts from Tuesday, December 13, 2016, 13th December, 2016 announced freezing of many Nigerians took to Twitter to express their participants' monies for one month. In a letter feelings about the phenomenon, the reactions of posted on the scheme's website, 'MMM' said; others, the economic recession and so much “As usual, in the New Year season, the System is more. The announcement of 'MMM' Nigeria experiencing heavy workload”. Confirming the crash no doubt, heightened the media blitz on severity of constant attacks on the controversial the issue (Financial Watch 2016b). scheme, the statement said, “Moreover, it has to The media have the responsibility of setting deal with the constant frenzy provoked by the agenda and shaping the way the public authorities in the mass media. Hence, on the understand certain issues like those of 'MMM' basis of the above mentioned, from now on all activities, the politics of it, its impact and the confirmed Mavro will be frozen for a month” need for action. According to Kumar (2012) and (www.vanguardngr.com/.../mmm-nigeria-...; Owuamalam (2015) the centrality of the mass BreezeReporters.com). media to the knowledge of goings-on in the Mavro is the general name used to describe society is at the heart of their influence on the participants' money in the system. “The reason public's knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. To for this measure is evident. We need to prevent catch a glimpse of the happenings in the society any problem during the New Year season and or meet a psychic need, some read newspapers then, when everything calms down, this or magazine or both, while some others watch measure will be cancelled (Which we will and listen to television and radio respectively definitely do)”. Urging participants not to panic, (Nwabueze, Nnaemeka, Umeorah & Okika, 'MMM' said that “the things are still going well; 2014). In setting the agenda on avoiding the risk the participants feel calm; everyone gets paid; of participating in MMM, the media can play a there haven't been any payment delays or other crucial role in disseminating useful information problems yet, but it is better to avoid taking risk” to effectively guide public debate and (Financial Watch, 2016a). understanding about the phenomenon. By implication, over three million Nigerian However, studies have continued to prove participants as claimed by the founder, that Nigeria press coverage of issues in the Mavrodi, who were planning to withdraw their society assume vulture reporting mentality money ahead of the yuletide season, will have to (Ukonu, 2012). Ukonu et al. (2012) held that wait for one month. Breezreporters.com recalls public attention often drawn to issues by the that similar scenario had played out in media wanes in a short period of time. Issues Zimbabwe and South Africa, where participants raised by the Nigerian media rarely get money were frozen for certain period, pausing thoroughly investigated or followed-up the system, only to return with new adjustment especially by the conventional media. This in its terms (www.financialwatchngr.com/…/ manner of reportage seems to be associated with Nigerians…). print news media especially newspapers which Many Nigerians were thrown into panic as have been accused of 'vulture reporting' in the popular pyramid scheme, Mavrodi Mundial relation to socio-political, and economic issues Moneybox (MMM) shared the confusing like the 'MMM' Nigeria crash showing interest

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):225 - 237 227 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Re-evaluating the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis; The case of 'MMM' crash in Nigeria mostly when they are still newsy (Nwala, 2014). Objectives of the Study This study therefore seeks to examine how This study seeks to assess the pattern of coverage Nigeria newspapers cover the recent 'MMM' which the Nigerian newspapers gave to the crash in Nigeria. This is with an aim to ascertain 'MMM' activities/crash in Nigeria. Specifically, whether the coverage assumed the vulture the objectives of the study are to: reporting mentality the Nigeria media have been 1. ascertain the volume of coverage given to accused of. the 'MMM' crash within the period of study. 2. assess the dominant form of coverage of the Statement of Problem 'MMM' Nigeria crash by Nigeria The announcement by the administrators of the newspapers. 'MMM' scheme, early Tuesday, 13th December 3. ascertain whether the 'MMM' crash 2016, freezing the participants' monies for one received prominence in the newspapers. month was widely reported by the Nigerian 4. investigate the direction of coverage of media (Daily Sun, 2016, December 14; The 'MMM' Nigeria crash stories. Guardian, 2016, December 14; The Nation, December14). This announcement resulted in Research Questions rumours of loss of lives, attempted suicide, 1. What is the volume of coverage given to the disappointments and as well, stampeded 'MMM' crash within the period of study? socioeconomic activities in the nation 2. What is the dominant form of coverage of (Omobolanle, 2016; The Nation, December 14; the 'MMM' Nigeria crash by Nigerian The Guardian, 2016, December 14). This, newspapers? therefore, became a challenge to the 3. Did the 'MMM' crash receive prominence in government, the public and even the media the newspapers? organizations in Nigeria. After the one- month 4. What is the direction of coverage of 'MMM' period of freezing of participants' accounts, crash? there was another announcement unfreezing the accounts and the Nigeria media again rose to Theoretical Framework the occasion (The Nation, 2017, January 14; The This study is anchored in the Vulture Reporting Guardian, 2017, January 14; Daily Sun, 2017, Hypothesis - a postulation by a renowned January 14). scholar, Professor Ikechukwu E. Nwosu, who However, what happened vis-à-vis Nigeria stated that the media feast on an issue or newspapers' follow-up on the 'MMM' crash, its newsworthy event while it is hot and abandons it impact on the participants and the nation at after it has cooled down (Nwosu, 1996). Prior large becomes the contention of this study to the postulation of Vulture Reporting especially with Nwabueze (2004) citing Nwosu Hypothesis, an American scholar, Anthony (1996), Ukonu et al. (2012) citing Downs (1972) Downs in a study titled: “Up and down with and Nwala (2014) accusing the media of vulture ecology – the issue-attention cycle” observed reporting in relation to socio-political and that American public attention rarely remains economic activities in the country. Based on the sharply focused upon any one domestic issue for foregoing therefore, this researcher is interested very long – even if it involves a continuing in providing empirical evidence that will problem of crucial importance to the society establish the true trend of coverage of the (Downs, 1972). 'MMM' activities/crash by Nigerian press. To critically dissect the above observation, it is important to note that the mass media, which

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):225 - 237 228 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Re-evaluating the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis; The case of 'MMM' crash in Nigeria have the sole responsibility of reflecting issues Reappraising the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis: A of public interest either compromised their study of mass media coverage of the “Okija Shrine” function of agenda-setting as well as being crisis in Anambra State, Nwabueze (2004) socially responsible to the society or could not validates the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis apply themselves to the professional tenets of accusing the Nigeria mass media of mere journalism among others, to ensure that follow- feasting on the Okija shrine imbroglio without up on issues of public interests are published to corresponding follow-up to keep the public keep the public abreast with how such issues abreast with how the incident was brought to a were brought to a logical conclusion. Downs's logical conclusion. According to him, feasting submission therefore draws attention to the fact on a crisis situation when it is still “hot” and that the mass media highlight newsy events abandoning it when it is seemingly cold does not without corresponding follow-ups to sharply portray the media as being socially responsible focus public attention on the issue. to the society. Postulating the Vulture Reporting In the same manner, Ukonu, Akpan and Hypothesis, Professor Ikechukwu E. Nwosu, Anorue (2012), in their study titled: Nigeria after carrying out a study of selected foreign newspaper coverage of climate change 2009-2010, media and their coverage of African wars noted that Nigerian press did not give significant discovered that the pattern of coverage of the coverage and interpretation to the various issues said wars (including Nigeria-Biafra, Angola, arising from climate change and then accused Zaire and Uganda wars) by foreign media was the press of vulture reporting, showing interest akin to the behaviour of a vulture which feast on mostly when there is a newsy event. According a dead animal and abandons its carcass when it to them, the press gave climate change undue is done (Nwosu, 1996). Nwosu's submission on publicity and manipulated its reports which in the “theory” is based on a widely accepted and turn tend to bring more confusion than research-supported observation that the mass mitigation. media did not report much of the limited wars Reinforcing Ukonu et al.' s position, Nwala until the shooting wars start, when the media (2014) in a study titled: Press coverage of 2012 flood would then descend on the affected areas, in Nigeria: A study of The Guardian, The Nation country or war theatre en mass and tear it to and The Punch, did not spare the media either shreds like a pack of vultures would do to a dead from being culpable of vulture reporting. animal (Nwabueze, 2004). According to him, the press merely highlighted Though, the two observations were made the 2012 devastating unprecedented flood after a study of foreign media coverage of disaster in a way that contradicts public events, the same hypothesis applies in Nigeria's perception, introducing divisionary debates media coverage of events as this present study without further efforts to follow-up the debates seeks to validate. How the Nigeria newspapers to avoid negatively affecting people's covered the 'MMM' Nigeria crash could be understanding and government's readiness to likened to the behaviour of the vulture. The mitigate flood disasters and its vulnerabilities. thrust of this re-evaluation therefore is to further It is very important to note that in relation to reinforce the ideals of the Vulture Reporting the present study, the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis and to show that it should not be Hypothesis is quite apt. Being that the basic restricted to foreign media coverage of events tenet of the hypothesis emphasizes the but also to local media coverage of issues. behaviour of the media to feast on newsy events Drawing an inference on his study titled: and abandon it after a while, the coverage of the

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'MMM' Nigeria crash has shown tendencies of where ordinary people help each other." 2.4 an issue that has gone through vulture reporting million people had signed up by late 2016, with experience and therefore should be anchored in the country's unemployed as primary targets the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis. (Kazeem, 2016). Nigeria's Economic and Financial Crimes Commission has confirmed REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE that they are monitoring the scheme (Azubuike, The Origin and Historical Background of MMM and 2016). On the 13th of December, 2015, 'MMM' its Operation in Nigeria announced the freezing of all members' 'MMM' was established in 1989 in Russia by accounts due to systems overload and the Sergei Mavrodi, (Bigg, 2012), his brother negative attention brought on by the Vyacheslav Mavrodi, and a woman Olga Government and mass media (Daily Sun, 2016, Melnikova. The name of the company was December 14), leading to wide spread panic in taken from the first letters of the three founders' the nation and even attempted suicides surnames. It was a Russian company that (Guardian, 2016 December 14). On the 14th of perpetrated one of the world's largest Ponzi December, LASEMA (Lagos State Emergency schemes of all time, in the 1990s (Bigg, 2012). Management Agency) of Lagos State pleaded By different estimates from 5 to 40 million with Lagosians to dial their emergency number people lost up to $10 billion. The exact figures if they spot anyone trying to commit suicide. are not known even to the founders. In 2011, LASEMA took this action due to the number of 'MMM' re-opened as "MMM Global" with up to suicides 'MMM' caused in Russia (The Nation, 110 subsidiaries per country, it became widely 2016 December 14). 'MMM' Nigeria reopened popular in various African countries like South on 13 January, 2017 but has been plagued by Africa, Nigeria, Zimbabwe and Kenya (MMM persistent grievances from participants Global, 2016). In 2017, the Redeemed Christian concerning delayed or unfulfilled payments Church of God in Nigeria warned all members (The Nation, 2017, January 21). against participating in 'MMM' (Vanguard ‘MMM' Nigeria has reportedly made some 2017, January 24). It was said that some RCGC charity and humanitarian donations to the church pastors were promoters of the scheme Nigeria Society like donations to internally from the beginning more than one year ago displaced people's camps and hospitalized when 'MMM' made its entry (Financial Watch, patients, (Guardian, 2016 November 19), but 2016). By January 2017, hundreds of other critics held that it was a ploy to regain credibility similar Ponzi schemes jumped into the growing after disappointing existing investors whose Ponzi industry in Nigeria, amid reports that money got stuck in the scheme. This strategy of 'MMM' had crashed in December 2016. Some image-cleaning seeks to hoodwink and attract of these schemes include ABCD, Twinkas, new unsuspecting recruits and use their money Ultimate Cycler (NAN, 2017; Abimboye, 2017). to pay off the stranded existing investors. But Many of these imitators offer wildly extravagant this only "kicks the can down the street", rates going far beyond what 'MMM' Nigeria was because the new investors could end up offering. becoming the new victims like the ones they In November 2015, 'MMM' launched a have just bailed out (if they ever get bailed out at website targeting the Nigerian audience and also all). claiming a "30% per month" return including, Ponzi schemes rely on new investors to pay other acquirable bonuses (Kazeem, 2016). The existing investors which make them ultimately entity was self-described as a "mutual aid fund unreliable since it cannot continue attracting

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):225 - 237 230 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Re-evaluating the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis; The case of 'MMM' crash in Nigeria new investors forever in the required numbers This method helped the researcher to answer the and rates (numbers which actually escalate at four questions raised in this study. The manifest exponential rates with every new level of content of the selected newspapers (news recruitment) Even if the whole population gets stories, articles, editorials, cartoons, recruited (impossible as some are unwilling and illustrations) were carefully examined, coded some will even actively resist it and convince and analyzed with a view to establishing how others not to join, just as its impossible for the various issues arising from the 'MMM' crash everyone to join a political party and there is in Nigeria were presented and interpreted. always an opposition),this shows there is a limit Hence, the method helped in making justifiable beyond which no further recruitment is possible inference on the manner of coverage given to the or recruitment begins to slow down sharply recent 'MMM' Nigeria operations/crash by enough to cripple the scheme's paying ability. Nigerian press. Therefore the scheme is ultimately doomed to fail and it is only a matter of when, not if. Population of the Study The population of this study is all the registered Response from 'MMM' Nigeria after the Crash national newspapers in Nigeria. The target Announcement population consists of all the issues/editions Promoters of 'MMM' Nigeria, known as (including weekends, based on the fact that the Guiders urged Nigerians to remain calm as the 'MMM' operation were also carried out during one month freezing of all accounts of the the weekends) of the selected newspapers. The scheme is a measure adopted to ensure researcher purposively selected 3 national sustainability and stability of the scheme. The dailies (The Guardian, The Nation and Daily system which entails the Providing Help (PH) Sun). The choice of the selected newspapers was and the Getting Help (GH) also assured that based on their accessibility, circulation, there is nothing to worry about since the 'frozen availability and was predicated on the belief that account' period is even the best time to provide data generated from them will give fair and help. They also said that the accounts will accurate answers to the research questions continue to grow with a 50% more benefit on the posed in this work. amount staked or provided (PH). The guiders The periods under study are: 14th – 31st took to the 'MMM' Nigeria website to douse December, 2016 and1st January - 13th January, tension and provide explanations on the one 2017 (as the freezing period) and 14th January – month account freezing (Omobolanle, 2016). 13th February, 2017 (as the unfreezing period). This gives us a period of 60 days. METHODOLOGY Content analysis research design was used to Sample Size and Sampling Technique generate data for this study. The rationale for The sample size for this study was the 180 content analysis is that this research technique is editions of the three selected national dailies found relevant when handling research topics sampled within 60 days (60 days x 3 newspapers on press coverage of various issues. Newspaper = 180 editions). The first 30 days were described contents are systematically accumulated and as the period when 'MMM' Nigeria announced information, which have no original control the freezing of participants' accounts to the with respect to how they were collected, are period of unfreezing of the accounts. The classified (Asekun & Oluwa, 2010; second 30 days cover the period from the day of Owuamalam, 2012). the unfreezing of the participants' accounts. The

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):225 - 237 231 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Re-evaluating the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis; The case of 'MMM' crash in Nigeria period selected as the freezing and unfreezing actual observation called the content categories. period is 14th December to 31st December 2016 This process involved itemizing the attributes of and 1st January – 13th January, 2017, which is 30 the unit or variable to be analyzed. In this study, consecutive days while the period after the the variables are categorized into: unfreezing of participants' accounts starts from 1. Volume of coverage 14th January, to 13th February, 2017 which is 2. Placement/position of stories another 30 consecutive days. Reports on the 3. Form of coverage/story types 'MMM' freezing period and unfreezing periods 4. Direction/slant of coverage carried by the selected newspapers for these 30 days were 90 editions (30 days x 3 newspapers = 1. Volume: The researcher looks at the amount 90 editions). The unfreezing period which refers of space allotted to the stories or illustrations on to the period after one month of the freezing of the 'MMM' Nigeria operation/crash. This is participants' accounts by 'MMM' Nigeria was done in three categories namely: also 30 days (30 days x 3 newspapers = 90 a. Full page editions). Therefore, 90 editions from the b. Half page freezing and unfreezing periods and another 90 c. Quarter page editions from after the unfreezing period give a total number of 180 editions which were all 2. Placement/position: This refers to the studied using the census sampling technique. position or placement of news stories on the pages of the newspapers. Hence we have: Instrument for Data Collection a. Front page The instrument used in collecting the data is the b. Inside page coding sheet. The sheet is used in systematic c. Back page. data collection for content analytical research. The coding sheet which consists of columns and 3. Forms of coverage/story types: These rows is designed to facilitate coding of the include; straight news stories, features, contents of newspapers studied and their editorials, letter to editor and illustrations. frequency. The justification for the use of this instrument in Content Analysis of this nature 4. Direction: This is determined in three was that, it is easy and effective in the collection categories: of manifest content of communication in line a. Favourable with the demand of this study. In addition to b. Unfavourable this, the coding sheet is very ideal and suitable in c. Neutral taking care of variables that appear in this study (Wimmer & Dominick, 2011, p. 160). Units of analysis The units of analysis for this study include the Content Categories following: volume (number of stories on The category system is the heart of any content 'MMM' Nigeria crash, including analysis on it analysis used to classify media content. The carried by the selected newspapers); story precise make up of this system of course varies placement (front page, back page and inside with the topic under study (Wimmer & pages); the slant of coverage as it relates to Dominick, 2011, p. 165). In categorizing the 'MMM' Nigeria participants (whether the units of analysis, every unit was narrowed down stories being studied portray them as in a to mutually exclusive and exhaustive bases of positive or negative light such as being foolish,

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):225 - 237 232 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Re-evaluating the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis; The case of 'MMM' crash in Nigeria greedy, insensitive, unintelligent, etc., or being Analysis of data in Table 1 shows that all the smart, sensitive, intelligent and taking newspapers published a total of 17 reports on advantage of the opportunity, etc.) or whether the 'MMM' Nigeria crash. The Guardian the story was simply neutral or silent on the newspaper published 5 or (29.5%) reports, The participants; story type (straight news stories, Nation newspaper published 3 or (17.6%) features, editorials, letter to editor, etc.). reports, while Daily Sun newspaper published 9 or (52.9%) reports. Inter-coder Reliability Contents were classified under the following Research Question One units of analysis: news, editorials, features, What is the volume of coverage given to the cartoons, letters/opinion articles. To ensure 'MMM' Nigeria crash? objectivity, an assistance of a check coder was enlisted. The coding by the researcher and the Table 2: Assessment of the volume of coverage given check order to test the reliability of the coding to the 'MMM' Nigeria crash by selected Nigerian technique. Inter-coder reliability is the level of newspaper agreement among independent coders to code the same contents using the same code Newspapers Full page Half page Quarter page instrument (Wimmer & Donminck, 2011). The Guardian 1 1 3 The Nation 0 1 2 Method of Data Presentation and Analysis To analyze the data, the coded information Daily Sun 0 4 5 generated from the manifest content of Total 1 6 10 communication was presented in raw figures, Analysis of data in Table 2 shows that The frequency table and simple percentages. The Guardian newspaper published 1 full page story, analysis and interpretation was related to the 1 half page story and 3 quarter page stories. The research questions, deductions were made and conclusion reached. Nation published 0 full page story, 1 half page story and 2 quarter page stories. Daily Sun published 0 full page story, 4 half page stories Data Presentation Data collected using the coding sheet were and 5 quarter page stories. This means that the presented and analyzed. Tables were used to three selected national dailies published a total interpret the data collected. The choice of tables of 1 full page story on the 'MMM' Nigeria crash, was to ensure clarity. 6 half page stories and 10 quarter page stories. This is a strong indication that the volume of coverage given to the 'MMM' Nigeria crash was Table 1: Number of newspapers sampled/number of low given the impact of the crash on the stories on 'MMM' Nigeria crash found participants and the nation in general. Newspapers MMM Nigeria MMM Nigeria Total Number Accts Freezing After Accts of stories Research Question Two freezing Period unfreezing Period found What is the dominant form of coverage given to The Guardian 30 (33.3%) 30 (33.3%) 5 (29.5%) the 'MMM' Nigeria crash by Nigerian The Nation 30 (33.3%) 30 (33.3%) 3 (17.6%) newspapers? Daily Sun 30 (33.3%) 30 (33.3%) 9 (52.9%) Total 90 (100%) 90 (100%) 17 (100%)

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Table 3: Assessment of the dominant form coverage of the 'MMM' Nigeria crash

Newspaper Straight Feature Editorial Opinion Letter Cartoon Advert Any Total Titles news stories articles /Picture other Guardian 4 - - 1 - - - - 5 Nation 3 ------3 Daily Sun 6 - - 3 - - - - 9 Total 13 - - 4 - - - - 17 (76.5%) (23.5%) (100%)

Analysis of data in Table 3 shows that 13 carried in the inside page after the Unfreezing (76.5%) of stories found were straight news period. There was no back page story. This is an stories while 4 (23.5%) were opinion articles. indication that the Nigerian newspapers gave This shows that straight news was the dominant more prominence to the 'MMM' Nigeria crash form of coverage of the 'MMM' Nigeria crash by during the Freezing/Unfreezing period than Nigeria newspapers. afterwards.

Research Question Three Research Question Four Did the 'MMM' crash received prominence in What is the direction/slant of coverage given to the newspapers? the 'MMM' Nigeria crash?

Table Four: Placement of stories on the 'MMM' Nigeria Table Five: Assessment of the direction/slant of during the Freezing and Unfreezing periods by the coverage given to 'MMM' Nigerian crash selected Nigerian newspapers Direction/slant The Guardian The Nation Daily Sun Total Story Freezing/Unfreezing After Total Favourable 1 - 3 4 Placement Periods Unfreezing Unfavourable - - - - period Neutral 4 3 6 13 Front Page 1(5.9%) 1(5.9%) 2 Total 5 3 9 17 Inside Page 13(76.4%) 2(11.8%) 15 Back Page - - 0 Analysis of data in Table five shows that The Total 14 3 17 Guardian which published a total number of 5 stories on the 'MMM' Nigeria crash, carried 1 Analysis of data on Table four shows that a total favourable stories and 2 neutral stories. The of 1 story on the 'MMM' Nigeria crash were Nation newspaper, which published a total of 3 carried on the front page during the Freezing/ stories had all the three as neutral stories. Daily Unfreezing period by all the newspapers studied Sun newspapers which published a total number while only 1 story was carried on the front page of 9 stories carried 3 favourable stories and 6 after the Unfreezing period. 13 stories were neutral stories. This shows that the three carried in the inside pages during the selected newspapers published a total of 4 Freezing/Unfreezing period while only 2 were favourable stories and 13 neutral stories. No

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):225 - 237 234 EZEBUENYI, E. E. et al Re-evaluating the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis; The case of 'MMM' crash in Nigeria unfavourable story was found. Finally, result from the study showed that out of the total number of 17 stories published by the DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS three selected newspapers 4 were favourable On the bases of data presented and analyzed, stories compared to 13 neutral stories. This results show that Nigerian newspapers were means that just a few of the stories carried by the guilty as charged. This is sequel to the findings three selected newspapers were used in calling that the pattern of coverage of the 'MMM' for caution and warning the 'MMM' Nigeria Nigeria crash by the Nigerian newspapers gave participants, who were mostly young adults not credence to the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis. to fall victim of the ponzi scheme (Vanguard, Results from the analyzed data in Table one 2017, January 24). The finding also showed a showed that the volume of coverage of the contrary report to an earlier observation by 'MMM' Nigeria crash was low. The presented Ndolo (2011), who maintained that the data showed clearly that the three selected information provided by the media can come newspapers only published 1 full - page story on inform of warning the people of impending the 'MMM' Nigeria crash. This is considered danger or disaster. low given the impact the 'MMM' Nigeria crash has on the participants and the nation at large. Conclusion The finding reinforces the observation by Based on the findings from the study, it can be Ukonu et al. (2012) that Nigerian press do not concluded that the volume of coverage of the give significant coverage and interpretation to 'MMM' Nigeria crash was very low and below the various issues in the society. expectation. A situation where the three Findings from the study also show that the selected newspapers published only 1 full page dominant form of coverage of the 'MMM' story on the 'MMM' Nigeria crash within the Nigeria crash was the straight news. The period under study is not good enough presented data showed that there was no feature especially given the impact of the crash on the story. When there was no featurized story, participants and the nation in general. It can also which would have given depth and more be concluded that the dominant form of behind-the-scenes explanations and under- coverage of the 'MMM' Nigeria crash is the standing of the 'MMM' Nigeria crash, it means straight news. This means that there were less that the coverage was quite inadequate. This featurized stories that would have given depth finding clearly evinced an earlier observation by and more behind-the-scenes explanations and Nwabueze (2004) which states that featurized understanding of the 'MMM' Nigeria crash. reports give more behind-the-scenes under- Another conclusion from the study is that more standing of issues while absence of it may not. prominence was given to the issue during the Another finding from the study showed that Freezing/Unfreezing period than after the more prominence was given to the issue during Unfreezing period. This means that there were the Freezing/Unfreezing period than after the no corresponding follow-up of the 'MMM' Unfreezing period. Very importantly also, this crash. Finally, it can be concluded that there finding validates the Vulture Reporting were more neutral stories carried on the 'MMM' Hypothesis as adduced by Downs (1972) cited Nigeria crash. in Ukonu et al. (2012) and Nwosu (1996) cited in Against this backdrop, abandoning an issue Nwabueze (2004) which accused the press of after what could be described as 'newsy period' is showing interest mostly when a report is still against the tenets of journalism and newsy. professionalism. It is the responsibility of the

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media to follow an issue to its logical conclusion watchngr.com. and keep the public abreast of developments on Financial Watch (2016, August 24). Government warns the issue. Mere feasting on newsy event when it public about websites running Ponzi scheme. http:// is still 'hot' and abandoning it when it is www.m.english.caixin.com. Financial Watch (2016, September 6). MMM reacts seemingly cold does not portray the media as to public scrutiny, reopens accounts, existing being socially responsible to the society. members lose 80% of their money. Financial Thorough and sequential investigative Watch. journalism gives an issue different perspectives Financial Watch (2016). RBZ issues stern warning and enhances the publics' right to know. against participating in Ponzi/Pyramid schemes, points finger at MMM Global Recommendations Zimbabwe for misleading the public. Financial The Nigerian press should avoid compromising Watch. the social responsibility role of the media. Kazeem, Y. (2017, January 25). After suspending Providing accurate, in-depth and conclusive operations in Nigeria, a controversial Ponzi scheme has set up in Ghana. Quartz Africa. information on issues of human interest should Kazeem, Y. (2016). Millions of Nigerians are falling be emphasized at all times. Follow-up reports on for a 27-year old Russian Ponzi scheme. Daily issues of national importance should be Post. published by the media to keep the public Kumar, D. (2012). Media, war, propaganda: abreast with how such issues were brought to a Strategies of information management during logical conclusion. the 2003 Iraqi war. Communication and There is need to carry out more research critical/cultural studies, 3 (1), 48-69. work on the Vulture Reporting Hypothesis with Mboho, M. (2004). A reappraisal of the implications an aim to further validate the hypothesis. of the agenda-setting theory and Dearing' s Ascertaining the universality of the hypothesis model of differential agenda-setting for the role of the mass media in conflict management in is very important. Therefore, let other issues be Nigeria. Journal of Communication, 1 (4), 64-71. studied with a view to making recommenda- NAN (2017, January 25). Twinkas, another ponzi tions that could be useful in transforming the scheme emerges. NAN. hypothesis to theory. Nwala, B. A. (2014). Press coverage of 2012 flood in Nigeria (A study of The Guardian, The Nation and References Punch newspapers). M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Abimboye, M. (2017). Forget MMM, these 5 Ponzi Mass Communication, Faculty of Arts, schemes are the new deal. Naij.com-Nigeria news. University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Asekun, W.A. (2010, November 24). Fundamentals of Nwabueze, C. (2004). Re-appraising the vulture research. Lagos: Olas Ventures. reporting hypothesis: A study of mass media Azubuike, V. (2016). MMM under surveillance – coverage of Okija shrine crises in Anambra EFCC. Daily Post. State. The Nigerian Journal of Communication, 4 (1 Daily Sun (2016, December 14). Nigerians groan as & 2), 173-181. MMM suspends further payment to subscribers. Nwabueze, C., Nnaemeka, F., Umeora, D., & Okika, Daily Sun. E. (2014). Nigerian newspapers' coverage of Downs, A. (1972). Issue–attention cycle and the climate change issues European Scientific Journal, environment. Up and down with ecology. Public 11(17). Nwosu, I.E. (1996). Mass media and Interest, 28, p.38. African wars: Media images of crisis in Africa. Financial Watch (2016, October 31). Outrage as Enugu: Stars Publishing Co. RCCG induce church members to register f o r Omobolanle, J. (2016, December 6). MMM Nigeria MMM Nigeria. http://www.financial has not, will not crash. www.vanguardngr.

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com/.../mmm-nigeria-... The Nation (2017, January 14). MMM Nigeria Owuamalam, E.O. (2012). Data analysis and research reopens 24 hours before promised date. The project writing. Owerri: Top Class Agencies Ltd. Nation. Owuamalam, E. O. (2015). Voter perception of Ukonu, M. (2012). Nigeria newspaper reportage of unique selling proposition in Nigeria's climate change and its influence on public knowledge presidential political advertisement. International of climate change, 2009-2010. Ph.D. Thesis, Journal of International Relations, Media and Mass Department of Mass Communication, Communication Studies, 1 (1), 1-6. University of Nigeria Nsukka. SG.Limited (2001). http://www.sec.gov. Ukonu, M. O., Akpan, C. S., & Anorue, L. I. (2012). The Guardian (2016, December 14). Man drinks Nigeria newspaper coverage of climate change, insecticide as MMM 'crashes' two weeks to 2009-2010. New media and mass communication, 5 wedding. The Guardian. (2), 21-32. The Guardian (2016, November 19). MMM Nigeria Vanguard (2016, October 31). RCCG warns pastors, goes into charitable activities, donates relief members against participating in MMM, other materials to IDPs. The Guardian. ponzi schemes. Vanguard, October 31, 2016. The Nation (2016, December 16). LASEMA sends Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2011). Mass out emergency number as suicide fears increase. communication research: An introduction (9th ed.). The Nation. Canada: Micheal Rosenberg.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Appraisal of Language as a Cost-Saving Advertising Option: The Case of Comical Advertising Content in Nigeria's Recurring Fuel Scarcity Story

KELVIN FRANCIS OLISAEMEKA OBITUBE, CHINELO EDITH UDE-AKPEH & CHIBUZOR IFEOMA CHUKWUNONSO

University of Nigeria, Nsukka [email protected], Department of Television Journalism NTA Television College Jos, Nigeria [email protected] & University of Nigeria, Nsukka chibuzor. [email protected]

Abstract In the effort to blossom creativity, certain advertising content creators are tilting towards the production of advertisements that have no language/speech. This paper appraises the cost-effectiveness of language in advertising by studying the efficacy of information elicited by advert images bearing linguistic expressions and those lacking them. By adopting Grice's conversational implicature, the paper observes that comical adverts bearing linguistic information provide better quality, clarity and relevance of information. Also, advert images bearing linguistic expressions provide definite and specific interpretations while more cost/fund, risks and effort are put into creating advert images lacking linguistic expressions to convey desired information to the audience. It equally observes that advert images bearing linguistic expressions provide remote or background information preceding the images with the aid of the language embedded in them while advert images lacking linguistic expressions are not able to do so.

Introduction this is mainly seen in adverts engineered by Language is an important tool on the lips and in dumb individuals. the hands of human beings. It is deemed more In recent times, with the aid of technology, powerful on the lips and in the hands of those advertisement of products, services and ideas who can use it effectively. Humans interact with reach a wide ranger and variety of audience one another through the medium of language. within limited periods of time. Some of these With it, they can communicate their feelings, adverts are observed to have been done or wishes, needs, opinions, etc., to one another. In carried out without the use of language. The fact, the sole essence of language use between spoken language is observed to be absent in human beings is to inform one another. Thus, some video advertisements while the written the use of language encompasses all aspects of language is equally observed to be absent in human life. some print advertisements. This paper, The use of language in advertising is an age therefore, is focused on the print advertisements long activity. Advertising, itself, is an activity in the form of images with a view to assessing which began many centuries ago. People used it the level/quality of coherence or understanding to sell or make known their various and elicited from print/mobile images bearing respective goods, services, intentions and ideas linguistic expressions and those not bearing any. to individuals and groups of individuals. Before The objectives of the study are: this contemporary time, advertising was a. To assess the quality of information/ basically done with the use of language. There meaning elicited from print/mobile advert are, however, a few instances where images lacking linguistic expressions. advertisements are done without language, but b. To assess the quality of information/

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meaning elicited from print/mobile advert the behaviour of consumers at the point of images bearing linguistic expressions. purchase. Promoting this stance, Akinbode c. To compare the quality of information (2012, p.26) states that “Advertising… is the which the advert images bearing linguistic means by which the consumer accesses the expressions and those lacking linguistic product, which is, in recent times, largely staged expressions elicit. in the media-the print or electronic.” He believes that advertising can make or mar a product in The study provides answers to the following the market, depending on the effectiveness of research questions: the advertiser's message and the atmosphere a. What quality of information/meaning does surrounding it. He further states that advertising print/mobile advert images lacking cannot turn a poor product or services into a linguistic expressions elicit? good one but can create awareness about both b. What quality of information/meaning does old and new products and services and show print/mobile advert images bearing how various needs and wants can be satisfied. linguistic expressions elicit? Interestingly, advertising provides some c. How do the advert images bearing linguistic advanced information about products and expressions and those lacking linguistic services to consumers before they reach the expressions differ in the quality of place of purchase. information/meaning they elicit? Olateju (2007) affirms the view that adver tisements provide people with 1. LITERATURE REVIEW information on the availability of particular Several writers and researchers have conducted products, the place of purchase, the nature of studies related to this very one. Some of them the products, etc. This is in line with the have equally put forward various theories which submission of Jefkins (1999) that advertising aid researchers in conducting studies of this presents the most persuasive possible selling nature. In this section, therefore, the views, message to the right prospects for the products opinions and ideas of these scholars are or services at its lowest possible cost. These reviewed to help throw more light on the ideas presented by these authors focused on the research in hand. advertisement of goods and services. As According to Akinbode (2012), advertising informative as these views are, they do not is a form of communication and it is one of the present a holistic definition or idea of what oldest professions in the world, being advertisement is. This is because there are other considered as old as humanity. This statement kinds of commodities, both tangible (possessing gives credence to the earlier statement made in the quality of touch) and intangible ones this paper that advertising is an age-long activity (lacking the quality of touch) that can be which started several centuries ago. He further advertised other than goods and services. For acknowledges that language is a very powerful instance, ideas, information, views, or opinions tool in advertising; he notes that advertising can be advertised as well. language is unique in terms of usage and that the Furthermore, there are theories proposed by mass media are the agencies of diffusing several writers the review of which will help advertisement messages. shed more light on the topic in hand. According According to Sandage, Fryburger and to Grice (1975), when we talk, we try to be Rotzol (1997), advertising is the market cooperative. He elevated this notion into what instrument which advertisers use to influence he referred to as the 'cooperative principle'

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(Grice 1975, 1989a). about the basic tenet of the uttering a sentence with sense and more or less Cooperative Principle is that in a conversation, definite reference. He sees perlocutionary acts one should make c a contribution such as is as acts attributed to the effect of uttering a required, at the stage at which it is required, for sentence while illocutionary acts have a force the accepted purpose, or in direction of the talk which assumes the performance of action as exchange in which one is engaged. To buttress well. Indeed, the aim of language is to achieve a his point, Grice puts forward four (4) maxims desired communicative effect. Language shows, which he labelled the 'cooperative maxims', through the ideas of the speech act theory, that it which, when fulfilled, tells about the accuracy is a crucial element for conveying astute of a given statement or speech. These four messages in advertising, if one intends to reap a maxims are: The maxims of quantity, quality, fruitful action out of a planned and executed relation, and manner (Mey, 72). These four speech. maxims yield other sub-maxims which Several researchers have equally conducted generally prescribe that a contribution ought to several studies which dwell on the role of be truthful, informative, relevant and clear language in advertising. Emodi (2011) before it is considered successful. With these conducted a semantic analysis of the language ideas expressed by Grice, it is obvious that features of the English used in advertising. In language has vital roles to play in advertising, order to conduct a data-driven study, the writer especially with regard to the quality of built a cor pus of over 20 English information, quantity of information, advertisements. The researcher made use of relevance, as well as the clarity of information. connotative meaning put forward by the Another theory is the speech-act theory. semantic theory to analyse her data. Thus, she According to Saeed (2003, p.219), 'We need to observes that emotional connotative meanings learn how to ask questions, make suggestions, which are mostly used by advertisers are greet and thank other speakers. The propagators connected with pleasantries, and that adjectives, of the speech-act theory see these activities coined word, and non-existing words are all which are performed using language as linked with the images and features of the equivalent to the performance of actions. Bach products. Observed, also, is that misspelling is and Harnish (1979) have it that the speech act for visual effect and attraction and that the use theory was developed from the philosophical of concrete words makes for easy theories of Wittgenstein. They note that understanding, just as repetition and metaphor Wittgenstein believes that meaning derives from are for emphasis and effectiveness. Also pragmatic tradition, thus, demonstrating the punning is linked with remembrance, importance of how language is used to memorability, interest and impression. She also accomplish objectives within specific situations. observes that multiple meanings of ambiguous Austin (1962), in his proposal of speech-act statements inspire reader's associations and theory, introduces the concept of illocutionary imagination to attract their interests. acts, and carefully distinguishes them from In a different research conducted by locutionary acts and perlocutionary acts. For him, Samaru-Charles (2001), the researcher locutionary acts include phonetic acts, phatic acts, investigated the extent to which rules or and rhetic acts which are acts of pronouncing conventions of a language are broken in print sounds, acts of uttering words or sentences in advertising, noting that a lot of the texts that are accordance with the phonological and syntactic used in advertising do not adhere to some norms rules of the language, and rhetic acts are acts of that are conventionally adhered to in natural

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):238 - 246 240 OLISAEMEKA K. F. et al Appraisal of Language as a Cost-Saving Advertising Option: The Case of Comical Advertising Content ... language. Thus, he examined a range of theory analyses whether a data (speech) is advertisements in French and English, from truthful or false, or lacking in evidence. different genres of magazines. The researcher Maxim of quantity: By this maxim, the observes that advert makers do not disregard theory analyses whether a data (speech) is agreement between subjects and verbs, or informative as is required or not. between a noun and its determiner (concord Maxim of relation: By this maxim, the rule), so as not to sound extremely theory analyses whether a data (speech) is ungrammatical, unprofessional and lacking in relevant in its context or not. finesse. In another instance, the researcher Maxim of manner – By this maxim, the observes that some advertisements disregard theory analyses whether a data (speech) is clear rules and conventions that end up affecting or not, obscure or not, orderly or not, brief or mainly the reference to the product, which not, and whether it is ambiguous or not. would draw readers' attention to have them reconstruct them and insert a referent, and in These theoretical constructs will aid in assessing doing so create an advantageous strategy in or analysing the quality of each advertising advertising. material which constitutes the data of this study. These studies share commendable focus on the language of advertisement with the use of RESEARCH METHODOLOGY the English, as well as the French language. This is a qualitative research which adopts an However, they studied the language of analytic design. The area of study for this work advertising with the aim of finding out the is sociolinguistics which studies language in linguistic features employed therein. The relation to the society, and in this case, Nigeria. current study adopts three aims of assessing the The work takes to the Internet to obtain series of quality of information/meaning elicited by mobile images produced, designed and posted print/mobile advert images lacking linguistic online. The data obtained for this research work expressions, assessing the quality of is analysed based on the principles laid down by information/meaning elicited by print/mobile Grice's cooperative principles in order to advert images bearing linguistic expressions, ascertain the efficacy of information passed by and comparing the quality of information both the non-language bearing mobile comic which the comic advert images on Nigerian fuel images on Nigerian fuel scarcity and the scarcity bearing linguistic expressions and those language-bearing mobile comic images on the lacking linguistic expressions elicit. same issue/topic.

2. Theoretical framework DATA ANALYSIS This work adopts the theoretical framework of For an effective analysis and for the purpose of conversational implicature proposed by Grice ensuring that the reader understands the (1975). By this theory, Grice postulates that any analysis done here, the presentation and successful linguistic act must fulfil certain analysis of data is simultaneously done. The conditions of being informative as required, be analysis is divided into 3 sections, in line with truthful, relevant to its context, clear, the objectives of study and the research unobscured, orderly, brief and unambiguous. It questions already highlighted. thus, follows the following guidelines in Assessing the quality of information/ analysing its data: meaning elicited by print/mobile advert images Maxim of quality: By this maxim, the lacking linguistic expressions:

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This image is inadequate and does not give a rational interpretation. Perhaps, language elements could have been able to tell the audience whether the constructor is praying for a miracle or whether he is being highly frustrated by power outage to the extent of trying-out an unconventional solution to his problem. So, this image lacking linguistic expression fails to fulfil Grice's cooperative maxims

Fig 1.

This image leaves its interpretation of meaning to the audience; thus, this can produce different interpretations. So, it may be interpreted that they are praying for the water to turn into petrol for the powering of the generator. Another interpretation, generated from places where water is scarce and as treasured as petrol, may argue about the content of the bucket. Another interpretation will argue the vagueness of the image, given that petrol is not stored in a bucket Fig 3. to prevent evaporation. So, since this image is lacking linguistic elements to help it fulfil the maxims of quantity, quality, relation and manner, it is communicatively deficient.

Fig 2. Fig 4.

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language element is omitted. Thus, the inscription fulfils the quantity maxim by being as informative as is required. It equally fulfils the maxim of relation by being relevant in the context of fuel scarcity experienced as at the time of its creation and usage in advertisement (Nigeria, February-May, 2016). In being clear, unobscured, brief and unambiguous, the image fulfils Grice's cooperative maxims

Fig 5.

The images above show attempts to pour other liquids such as beer (Fig. 3) and red oil (Fig. 4) into fuel tanks of cars. Fig. 3 shows, with the help of linguistic element, that an individual is pouring a bottle of 'Star lager beer' into the fuel tank of a car; Fig. 4 shows one attempting to pour-in red oil, while figure 5 shows the fuel tank Fig 6. of a car well padlocked. The attempts to create these images are not cost-effective, as fig. 5 damages the beauty of the car and the perceived rationality of its owner, while the liquids in figures 3 and 4 provide grave risks to the proper operation of the vehicles if they, in any way, enter these fuel tanks. Again, by lacking linguistic expressions, they fail to fulfil Grice's cooperative maxims.

Assessing the quality of information/meaning elicited by print/mobile advert images bearing linguistic expressions This image shows a comic picture of a person looking into the fuel tank of a car, with the inscription- 'Stolen car found, fuel missing'. Observation shows that the image will produce little or no meaning or interpretation if the Fig 7.

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Fig. 7 shows a man, with a cellphone to his ear, The image above shows a mobile image which surrounded by two other men in a Pentecostal provides a specific and 'straight to the point' church setting. The man, as revealed by the information for the consumption of the language inscribed within, though under audience, as it reads- 'Finally it Happened…. anointing from the pastor(s), still maintains a Beer &Petrol are same price!!!!! Now You have keen interest and focus on his queue for fuel in a Two Choices!!! Drink & Walk or DON'T petrol filling station. Fig. 8 shows a man DRINK & DRIVE. Observation shows that weeping, with both hands to his chest. A keen though there is an image of a bottle of beer and a observation of these images shows that they man holding a fuel/petrol dispenser, the image were carried on from the fuel scarcity of 2015, alone still does not provide the information into 2016 because of their relevance and the advertised by the linguistic inscription. Thus, quality of information which they provide to the written language, here, has enabled simple audience. Thus, they fulfil the maxims of pictures to communicate better. In doing so, the quantity and relevance. They also fulfil the maxims of quantity (being as informative as is maxim of manner as the languages inscribed are required), relevance (information provided is clear, unambiguous, brief and unobscured. relevant to the context of Nigerian fuel scarcity and price increase being experienced at the time), quality (the truthfulness of information provided in the advert is undebatable) and manner (information provided by the image is clear, brief, orderly, unobscured and unambiguous).

Fig 8.

Fig 10.

This image shows that a simple picture of an individual is aided by a linguistic inscription requesting a man proposing to marry a woman's Fig 9. daughter to show his affluence by brandishing

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):238 - 246 244 OLISAEMEKA K. F. et al Appraisal of Language as a Cost-Saving Advertising Option: The Case of Comical Advertising Content ... the richness or paucity of his car's fuel (petrol) seeking for any other thing, thus prioritising the content. This shows cost-effectiveness in safety of his fuel above any other variable. Figs. advertising and the image, aided by the 7,8 and 10 simply show individuals in them linguistic inscription, fulfils the maxims of while the linguistic inscriptions effectively tell quantity, relation and manner by being as the rest of the story. Fig. 9. simply shows a bottle informative as is required, relevant to the of beer and a man holding a fuel dispenser while context, clear, brief, unobscured and the information to be relayed is laid bare by the unambiguous. aid of language. Another important point observed is that Comparison of the quality of information which the advert images bearing linguistic expressions advert images bearing linguistic expressions and provide remote or background information those lacking linguistic expressions elicit preceding the images with the aid of the From the mobile images provided and discussed language embedded in them which advert in this paper so far, we observe that different images lacking linguistic expressions are not types of information are provided by the able to do. For advert images lacking linguistic adverts. The advert images lacking linguistic expressions, more images will need to be expressions, which are shown in figure 1-5, do provided in order to provide the information on not produce definite or specific interpretations the background of events preceding any actual while the advert images bearing linguistic image. For instance, Fig. 6 informs the audience expressions provide definite and specific effectively that the car in the image had been interpretations. stolen and is now found. Fig. 7 informs one that Another observation is that more risks and the man with a phone to his ear had been on a effort are put into creating advert images lacking fuel queue and is still there by proxy. Fig. 8 linguistic expressions and these variables cost informs one that the man pictured had earlier more fund to actualise. For instance, providing a filled his generator with costly obtained fuel visible electricity generating set, buckets of before it was stolen, while Fig. 9 informs one water, etc. in Fig. 1, pouring beer or oil into the that the prices of a bottle of beer and a litre of fuel tanks of cars which can hinder its petrol had not been so before the time. Finally, performance and cost money to fix- in Figs. 3 figure 10 informs one that a man had come to and 4, attaching a staple to the fuel tank of a car marry the daughter of the pictured woman. and padlocking it which damage the body or Thus, the advert images bearing linguistic fineness of the car-body- in fig. 4, and sticking a expressions provide better information than the phone charger to candle wax and connecting advert images lacking linguistic expressions in same to a phone in- fig 5, lack a rational them. dissemination of information. In contrast, advert images bearing linguistic SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION expressions, which appear on figures 6-10 are The findings made in this paper reveal that simple and cost-effective in creating. The risk of advert images bearing linguistic expressions creating them is, equally, very minimal, where fulfil Grice's cooperative maxims of quantity, there is any. Fig 6 shows a simple comic image relation and manner and only few can be of a man prying into the fuel tank of a car. The analysed on the basis of the maxim of quality, linguistic info embedded within tells the rest of while advert images lacking linguistic the story that he is prying into the fuel tank to expressions cannot be said to fulfil these discover that the fuel is missing, instead of maxims. Advert images bearing linguistic

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expressions provide definite and specific advertising language in selected Nigerian mass interpretations, unlike the advert images lacking media commercials. Research on Humanities and linguistic expressions, which do not produce Social Sciences, 2(8), 26-32. definite or specific interpretations. Again, more Bach, K., & Harnish, R. M. (1979). Linguistic cost/fund, risks and effort are put into creating communication and speech acts. Cambridge: IT Press. advert images lacking linguistic expressions to Emodi, L. N. (2011). A semantic analysis of the actualise desired information for the audience in language of advertising. African Research Review, contrast to less of same variables in the advert 5 (4), 316-326. images bearing linguistic expressions. Also, Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. advert images bearing linguistic expressions Cole &J. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and semantics, 3: provide remote or background information Speech acts. New York: Academic Press. preceding the images with the aid of the Grice, H. P. (1989a). Logic and conversation. In language embedded in them while advert studies in the way of words. In P. Cole and J. images lacking linguistic expressions are not Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and semantics (pp. 41-58). able to do so. New York: Academic Press. Osundare (1996) states that one of the https://www.google.com.ng/search?q=comic+im ages+on+fuel+scarcity+in+nigeria&newwind strategies of advertising is not only to pack ow=1&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa= maximum information into the fewest possible X&ved=0ahUKEwjkuIf6h4XNAhXjDZoKH words, but also to evoke the maximum possible VqOAzYQsAQITw&biw=1525&bih=628&d response with the few words. This view pr=0.9. Accessed on 13/09/2018. coincides with the observation of Wright et al. Jefkins, F. (1999). Introduction to marketing advertising (1999) that a primary problem in advertising is and public relations. London: Macmillan. translating information about the product from Kannan, R., & Tyagi, S. (2013). Use of language in the language of the advertiser into the language advertisements. English for Specific Purposes of the consumer. The information provided in World, 13, 1-10. nd this paper shows that advert images bearing Mey, J. L. (2001). Pragmatics: An introduction (2 ed.). linguistic expressions provide better Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Olateju, M. A. (2007). The structure of Yoruba local information and tend to elicit better response drug advertisement. In D. Adeyanju (Ed.), from the audience. The findings in this paper, Sociolinguistics in the Nigeria context (pp. 120143). therefore, pay credence to the words of Kannan Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University Press Ltd. and Tyagi (2013), who state that language is a Osundare, N. (1996). Strategies of advertising. A public powerful tool for human beings to communicate lecture delivered to the Nigeria Association of and that the use of the right and effective Marketers at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. language, both spoken and written, brings Samaru-Charles, L. (2001). Rule-breaking in the success and unquestionable or undiluted language of advertising. http://www.Swarh success. more.edu. Sandage, C. H., Fryburger, V., & Rotzol, K. (1997). Advertising theory and practice. George Town: REFERENCES Akinbode, O. (2012). Sociolinguistic analysis of Longman Group

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

A Detailed Study of African Communication Systems in Achebe's Things Fall Apart: Implication for The Modern Igbo Society

RAPHAEL ABUMCHUKWU EKWUNIFE Department of Mass Communication Evangel University Akaeze Ebonyi State [email protected]

Abstract This is a detailed study on the use of African Communication Systems (ACS) in Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart (TFA). Using mainly the descriptive literary analysis method, the study discovered that the novel TFA is replete with African communication systems in the Igbo setting. The democratic participant media theory and uses and gratification media theory were found relevant to this study. Findings showed that authors' classification of ACS such as iconographics, instrumentals, demonstrative channels, symbolography, aerophones among others are prominently featured in TFA. The use of these modes of communication was also powerful modes of cultural transmission and value inculcation. Names were found to be highly communicative of social, religious and cultural traits of the Igbos in Things Fall Apart. However, the use of ACS was seen to be on the decline, mainly in urban areas in Igbo land, particularly in the face of Christianity and urbanization. The study, among other things, recommended a reinvigoration of Igbo language as a core subject in primary and secondary schools in the south-East of Nigeria. The modern media such as radio and television can also serve for sensitization and conscientization.

Key words: African Communication Systems, Things Fall Apart, implication, modern Igbo society, media

Introduction communication modes that have become Background of the Study standard practices for society. African In Africa, as in other parts of the word, Communication Systems (ACS) cut across all communication is a means of interaction. It aspects of rural African life. It is necessary to enables persons to share ideas, feelings, beliefs, point out that these are the media through which cultures, etc. For any communication to be the rural people communicate in Africa. In the considered effective, the content must establish a writing of Mede (1998), ACS is dynamic and common ground between the communicator Ekwunife (2017) observes that ACS is culture- and the communicatee (Okunna, 1998, p.6). It is specific; hence, the communicative functions of this 'commonness' derived from the Latin word these channels differ in various African settings. 'communis' that makes communication interactive. Hence, we communicate with, and Objectives of the Study not to. The general objective of this study is to do a To communicate effectively in African detailed study of African communication traditional setting therefore, the communication systems in Achebe's Things Fall Apart. The systems are indigenous and reflect a significant specific objectives include: aspect of the life of the people. In the view of 1. To identify the ACS in TFA. Olulade (1998), African communication 2. To find out the communicative functions of systems are embodiments of social conventions these ACS in TFA. and practices that have become established to 3. To discover the implications of the use or the point of translating into veritable non-use of ACS in the modern Igbo society.

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4. To ascertain the extent to which these ACS effectiveness of ACS because it is not strange to are utilized in modern Igbo society. the people. It relates to African cultures, norms and ethos. It is an embodiment of the cultures of Research Questions the people. Little wonder why scholars and The following research questions have been findings have maintained that ACS is a means formulated to guide the study: of cultural transmission and preservation 1. What are the ACS in TFA? (Olulade, 1988; Wilson, 1982; Wilson, 1987). 2. What are the communicative functions of ACS is called indigenous communication; it the ACS in TFA? is thus localized and ensures the effectiveness of 3. What are the implications of the use/non- information dissemination and internalization. use of ACS in the modern Igbo Society? In African cosmology, it is evident that ACS is 4. To what extent are the ACS utilized in the respected by the people and some of them have modern Igbo Society? spiritual undertones (Achebe, 1958). According to Wilson (1982), a communication system that Statement of the Problem does not recognize the traditional, social and Though ACS may not have universal cultural dynamics of society will achieve much application since its utilization is culture- of alienation than integration. It is imperative to specific, the relevance of it to the social, spiritual point out that the completeness of African and political life of the people is significant. Communication System is made vivid, Researchers have broadly examined the considering the fact that modern modes of communicative functions of the African modes c o m m u n i c a t i o n d o n o t m e e t t h e of communication in different cultures in communication needs of Africa unless Nigeria but there is a dearth of detailed interwoven with the ACS. Even in the present literature on the communicative and technological development and advancement in sociological functions of ACS as contained in the media industry, such as the mainstream Achebe's TFA. Besides, the implication of ACS media, the use of ACS still holds sway. in TFA to the present and future Igbo society is One thing that is striking about ACS is the an area that has not gained wide attention credibility it commands; the significance among Researchers. These implications attached to it even in the face of modern media primarily refer to the effect of the erosion of technology is undeniable. Opubor (1975) these modes of communication on values and reinforces this thought when he asserts that ACS norms in the present as well as future Igbo represents the most effective mechanism for Society. communication among the various peoples of Africa, regardless of its flaws. Of course, REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE traditional African communication has its NOUN (2019) notes that ACS is unique. This peculiar challenges, which in some cases are uniqueness is understood considering the fact complemented by the new media. Ebeze (1996) that though it is not universally absolute, it is highlights that ACS has its own hitches, as well understood within the community of its as the new media, in meeting the docility. There is an inter-relatedness and communication needs of Africa. Thus, a interconnectedness between these African merging of the old and new media-tradomodern communicative systems and the cultures of the media of communication is the way to effective people, evidenced in language, myth, legend communication among African rural dwellers. and customs. All these promote the Perhaps, the peculiarity of ACS is

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):247 - 258 248 RAPHAEL A. EKWUNIFE A Detailed Study of African Communication Systems in Achebe's Things Fall Apart: Implication .... evidenced by the fact that it has value in African communication in different parts of Igbo land. setting. It has reachability. Reachability here is different from the reachability in mass Empirical Review communication which has the ability to reach a Ngwu (2017) studied “The Traditional Media: wide and diversified audience simultaneously. Forms, Contents and Roles”. Using the Though ACS does not have this capacity, it is narrative technique, the study discovered that effective in reaching the community of its there are different types/forms of the traditional docility. In cases where the modern media media which include the town crier, the village cannot achieve credibility among the people, square, and the market place, among others. The ACS does. These traditional modes of findings showed that these media perform series communication are controlled by the people, of functions such as information, unity, unlike the new media which are exogenous in enlightenment, collective expression and nature. For effective grassroots mobilization grassroots mobilization. The researcher and development, the indigenous media are concluded the study by noting that traditional more reliable. This is supported by Cornwall communication, otherwise called folk media or and Welbourn (2000) that while the new media oramedia is rich in enhancing interpersonal are characterized with the power to transfer communication, also pointing out that it is a knowledge, the indigenous media go beyond veritable tool for grassroots mobilization. this to development enhancement. In the Using a discussion and analytical approach, diffusion of innovation, a marriage of the Odunlami (2017) examined “…the application indigenous and the exogenous media is ideal and relevance of Des Wilson's taxonomy of for effectiveness in communication. traditional media systems in Chinua Achebe's Writing on the traditional media of Things Fall Apart”. The study grouped these communication, Ngwu (2019) classifies them media as idiophones, aerophones, membrano- as ethnic communication system. It is phones, symbolography, objectifics, signals, ethnicity-oriented and Ugboajah seeking to colour scheme, symbolic displays, music and drive this home in the Igbo parlance calls it extra mundane. He observed that Des Wilson Oramedia. These media are multi-faceted, does take into consideration the significance of multi-functional and multifarious. In view of names in TFA as names constitute a veritable this, it is pertinent to point out that ACS has medium of communication in Africa. The study some shortcomings. Researchers have concluded that the issue of taxonomy is strange discovered that the major problems with these to indigenous communication. The researcher media border mainly on culture-specificity and recommended research that formulates codes of the difficulty of defining issues and illustration traditional African communication. in modern language. This is to say that African “Proverb as the Language of Social Communication Systems lack the appropriate Communication in a Traditional Society” was terminologies to explain and define issues studied by Enighe (2017). The research findings (NOUN, 2017; Ibagere, 1994; & Hatchen, showed that proverbs are sayings of wisdom 1971). Perhaps, the absence of universality in whose meanings could be culture-specific. It the application of ACS is an observation that was also discovered that the use of proverbs in has gained prominence in the study of African social communication is on the decline due to Communication Systems. the pervasiveness in communication. The Achebe (1958) vividly x-rays this while values of proverbs were outlined to include the narrating the use of traditional media of teaching of ideals in a society. Citing several

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):247 - 258 249 RAPHAEL A. EKWUNIFE A Detailed Study of African Communication Systems in Achebe's Things Fall Apart: Implication .... examples of proverbs, the study concluded that For a Clearer Picture, this study presents the social communication using the language of classification of ACS according to Wilson (1998, proverbs has been shown to be the instrument p.27) that helps shape thoughts, experience and world view. S/N Classes Hardware Channels/Instrument Ngwoke (2017) carried out a study on the 1 Instrumental Idiophone Wooden drum, Woodblock, “Secret and Emergency Communication Ritual Rattle, Bell, Metal Gong among Africans”. He noted that many items, Membranophones Skin Drum symbols, signs and animals have different Aerophones Whistle, Deer Horn, Ivory meanings among different communities. He Tusk, etc. specifically pointed out the use of dogs in secret Symbolography Decorated Bamboo Rine, communication by the use of signs. Trumpets Tattoo and whistles, among others were outlined as 2 Demonstrative Music Songs, Choral and media used in emergency communication in Entertainment Africa. The research concluded by observing Signal Cannon Shots, Gun Shots, that Africans had somewhat an organized Whistle Call, Camp fire system of communication before the arrival of 3 Iconographic Objectified Charcoal, White dove, Kolanut, western communication system. Cowtail, White clay, Egg, Feather Classification of ACS: An Overview Floral Young Unopened Palm frond NOUN (2017, p.20) writes “traditional 4 Extra-mundane Incantory Ritual, Libation, Vision channels of communication are numerous as Graphic Obituary, etc. 5 Visual Colour White Cloth, Red Cloth, Black some of them tend to be more specified for Cloth, secret purposes and others serve the interest of Appearance Dressing, Hairstyle all in general… traditional media are more 6 Institutional Social Marriage, Chieftaincy visual than audio”. The classification of African Spiritual Shrine, Masquerade media of communication is vast. It is verbal and non-verbal, oral or written, formal or informal, Source: Wilson, D. (1998). “A Taxonomy of Traditional deliberate or unintentional. For the fact that the Media in Africa” in Ansu- Kyeremeh Kwasi traditional communication process and elements vary from one society to another, a With a view to synthesizing the classification of classification of the indigenous media in Africa African traditional media of communication is a Significant One. Omu (1978) classifies ACS according to several authors, Akpabio (2003) into the informal transparence media and the outlines ten classes: Instrumental Communica- formal transparence Media. The informal tion, Demonstrative Communication, transparence media make use of informal Iconographic Communication, Extra- contacts between individuals and persons and it M u n d a n e C o m m u n i c a t i o n , V i s u a l revolves around rumors and unofficial Communication, Institutional Communica- information. The formal transference media are tion, Venue-oriented Communication, structure more systematized in information dissemina- and features, Myths and Legends, Names as tion. It is more of information flow between the Communication, Folktales and Proverbs. government and the people. Oreh (1980) categorizes these media as interpersonal, Theoretical Framework involving face-to-face communication. The main thrust of democratic participant

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):247 - 258 250 RAPHAEL A. EKWUNIFE A Detailed Study of African Communication Systems in Achebe's Things Fall Apart: Implication .... theory holds that the media audience should be gratification theory is audience-centered. It is allowed access to the media through interaction concerned with why people go to the media, and exchange of media messages. In this case, it that is, the uses and functions of the media for allows for media democratization (Ogbuoshi, individuals, groups and the society. Hence, 2011). The democratic participant theory takes people go to the media for needs gratifications interest in the needs, interests and aspiration of such as sur veillance, entertainment, the active receiver of the information. It gives information, guidance, among others. attention to micro-societies, interest groups and In Achebe's TFA which is highly depictive sub-cultures and rejects a uniformed, highly of the Igbo society, the uses and gratification professionalized and state controlled media. derived from the traditional modes of Okunna (2012) observes that the democratic communication are evident in their participant theory is relevant in explaining the communicative and sociological functions. The nature of communication in developing traditional Igbo society presented there has a countries like Nigeria and other countries of clear and responsive understanding of these sub-Sahara Africa because it encourages the media due to their functions. Whether verbal as audience to participate in media use as well as in proverbs, visual as in arts/masquerades, signs enhancing a two-way communication flow. It is as in gesticulations and signals, etc. the people good for ensuring horizontal communication do not play with any of these as their that benefits all at all levels. communication and sociological functions are In view of the topic under study, the not in doubt. These make the people active democratic participant theory explains the need participants in media use. The theory explains for a mode of communication that meets the the significance of ACS to the people. Hence, needs and aspirations of Africans. In Things Fall Soyinka (1976) observes that arts in Africa Apart, the theory brings to the limelight the perform functions far beyond entertainment. involvement of all in the communication The chief among these functions, according to system: the understanding, the uniqueness in the treatise is religious. These are evident in serving a small group of people (culture TFA. specific), the ownership and how it projects the culture of the people. In Umuofia, and by METHODOLGY extension the Igbo society, the people actively The research method adopted for this study is participate in media use. The understanding is the descriptive literary analytical method. This there. Nobody is exempted and the functions of enabled the researcher to examine the novel these channels are specific to them. Things Fall Apart in some detail, with careful The second media theory found very attention to the Igbo traditional modes of relevant for this study is the uses and communication and their sociological gratification media theory. Propounded by functions. This method is most apt for this study Elihu Katz and Jay Blumler in 1974, the theory as it helps the researcher to delve deeper into a supposes that media audiences are active, rather work of literature with a view to gaining a better than passive users of the media. Pierce (2007) insight into the intended message of the author explains the theory, noting that the people do (Amara & Amaechi, 2005). Based on this, not receive information but attempt to make conclusion was reached and recommendations sense of the message in their own context. In made. examining patterns of media use, the use and

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DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF TFA mindedness. Achebe' Things Fall Apart (TFA): A Synopsis of Okonkwo, who is Unoka's son as well as the Culture Conflict protagonist of the novel, is the opposite of his In the novel, Things Fall Apart written in pre- father. He has virtually all attributes of a independence, 1958 to be precise, Achebe successful man as a result of his industry, barns captures the issue of culture conflict. Within the of yam, several titles, many wives, many village of Umuofia which is the setting of the children, strong-heartedness, strong-will, narrative. Some sharp culture conflicts could be discipline and principles. He is in charge. He seen between Umuofia and other neighboring also rules his household with an iron hand. communities such as Abame and Mbanta. Culture disparity in Things Fall Apart is a These culture differences cut across several metaphor that runs all through the scenes in the practices such as modes or channels of novel. Nothing in Things Fall Apart stands for Communication. In Umuofia for example, the nothing. The use of instr umentals, Ozo title is so much revered. It communicates a symbolography, iconographics, aerophones, significant order; hence, an Ozo titled man does demonstrative of channels of communication, not climb a palm tree, among many other don'ts is dominant. Thus, the use of plants, wooden while in Abame, it is a different ball game. On gong, ikolo, iron gong, masquerades, songs, the other part, while there are some cultural incantations, witchcraft, meetings, moonlight dichotomies internally among the people in the games, village square, going to the stream, text, there are much sharper culture conflicts appearance of the locust, festivals, drinking of between the people as a whole and the western palm wine, use of goatskin, visits, farms, broom culture which invaded the communities through sticks, among several cultures, is very significant the advent of Christianity. Thus, the natives and in the novel. These shall be attended to in the foreigners refuse to have a meeting point – subsequent sections of this paper. Things Fall Apart! Using the central character, In summary, the over-riding theme of Okonkwo, Achebe presents a man who rises culture conflict in Things Fall Apart is evident in from nobody to somebody. the arrival of the white man's religion which At the age of 18, he achieves a feat by displaced the African traditional religion (in the throwing Amalinze the cat in a wrestling match. novel). This in particular displeases many, and This has a communicative function among the Okonkwo in particular who at this stage is people. Okonkwo's father Unoka is lazy, considered a warrior. Refusing to accept the frivolous and poor. He cannot boast of a barn of white man's culture and religion, he kills the yam or titles which are communicative of white man by stabbing and commits suicide, achievement for a man in Umuofia. Hence, he is rather than live to be handled by his enemy – the referred to as an Agbala – a man who has taken white man. Okonkwo, as a result of suicide, has no title. He finds solace and satisfaction in his no grave and is not buried among his people. His aerophonic mode of communication- the flute. death by hanging is abominable. Achebe (1958, Before death, he develops a swollen stomach; p. 147) speaks through a character - Obierika, hence, he is banished to the evil forest to show he while expounding the communication function is guilty of an abomination. As Unoka is of suicide to the white man. Thus: banished to the evil forest, he takes with him his flute. He owes many persons in the community It is against our custom….it is an and does not pay back his debts. Even the gods abomination for a man to take his own scold him for his laziness, lousiness and fickle life. It is an offence against the Earth,

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and a man who commits it will not be intimacy he had with the flute to the detriment buried by his clansmen. His body is evil, of manly achievements in life brought him so and only strangers may touch it. That is low before the community. While palm wine why we ask your people to bring him served many serious purposes in TFA, it was a down, because you are strangers… we symbol of merry-making to Unoka. Palm wine cannot bury him. Only stranger can. We communicates more than drinking but shall pay your men to do it … we shall sacrifice/ritual as in the case when Ikemefuna make sacrifices to cleanse the was led to the groove as a sacrificial lamb. desecrated land … that man was one of The presence of Egwugwu (masquerade) in the greatest men in Umuofia. You drove TFA is something that is sacred, solemn and him to kill himself; and now he will be sacrosanct. The Egwugwu represents the spirit buried like a dog…. of the dead. During a ceremony in chapter 10, though the women saw an “egwugwu with the ACS in Things Fall Apart: a Detailed Discourse springy walk” (as was characteristic of The use of certain words, ideas and objects in Okonkwo), nobody dared say it. That would be Things Fall Apart goes far beyond the periphery. an abomination to identify an egwugwu as man. It is more than mere literal presentations of The egwugwu comes in many forms and names, thoughts. Thus, the white Commissioner in and each is symbolic. While some egwugwu are TFA (p.146) observes, “one of the most for entertainment, the Ajoofia (Evil forest) is infuriating habits of these people was their love described as terrible. Its appearance is on issues of superfluous words”. Achebe writing on this of high importance (p.14). The sociological in the novel clarifies, “Among the Ibo, the art of functions of the egwugwu could be seen as it conversation is regarded highly and proverbs are mediated between man and the supernatural, the palm oil with which words are eaten” (p.4). and also between man and man. It helped to From Umuofia to Mbaino, Amalinze was reconcile warring parties. The strife between called the cat because for seven years, he was Uzowulu and his wife was brought to rest by the unbeaten in wrestling matches. While a cat is an egwugwu because Uzowulu would not listen to animal, in this context and tradition, it is any human intervention (pp. 64-66). representing a wrestler or fighter who has not Meanwhile, it is necessary to observe that trivial been defeated, noting that the back of a cat never matters were not brought before the egwugwu touches the ground. Aside such allegorical or for settlement. In TFA, the sight of certain symbolical usage, in TFA, the use of creatures signals seasons. membranophones and aerophones played Every man in Umuofia seems to have his significant communicative functions among the goat skin under his arm. It was a sitting material people. Drums were used at festivals and for men, not for women. Certain objects and ceremonies. The flute was used as an materials identify gender and class. Objectified aerophonic channel to cheer individuals and such as kolanut, alligator pepper and a lump of boost their morale in events such as festivals, white chalk are significant. Okoye on page 5 dances and ritual performances. A clear case of used the kola to welcome Unoka, his guest. Kola the use of flute is seen in the life of Unoka, stands for life. A host gives a lump of white Okonkwo's father. To him, the flute performed chalk to his guest. The guest receives it and uses significant entertaining function. But beyond it to draw four vertical lines (showing the four this, the object was a companion to him. He had market days in Igbo land) on the floor and a measure of intimacy with the flute. Yet, this delivers it back to the host. This signifies peace

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):247 - 258 253 RAPHAEL A. EKWUNIFE A Detailed Study of African Communication Systems in Achebe's Things Fall Apart: Implication .... and harmony. Kola was used to pray for life and the kind of honour accorded one, even at death. health. Mention must also be made of the Ogbuefi Ezeudu was to be buried after dark with painting of the big toe by the receiver of the only a glowing brand to light the sacred while chalk given by a host. This is a sign of ceremony (p. 86). peace and goodwill. Again, in TFA, the use of extra mundane The ekwe, udu and the ogene are instrumental communication was very relevant. This had communication channels extensively shown in both social and religious significance. The dead TFA. Majorly, they served for music, is considered alive somewhere - an ancestor. announcing or passing information (p.7). The Hence on page 86, the one handed spirit Ekwe also has classes. While the ekwe on page 5 carrying a basket filled with water at Ezeudu's serves for music, the bigger Ekwe, otherwise funeral retorts: referred to as the ikolo, served more significant functions such as announcing the death of men Ezeudu, … if you had been poor in your of honour, prestige and worth in the clans. In past life, I would have asked you to be Things Fall Apart, the Ikolo was used to announce rich when you come again. But you the death of the oldest man in the community were rich. If you had been a coward, I –Ogbuefi Ezeudu. The sound is distinct. would have asked you to bring courage. While there are several titles in Achebe's But you were a fearless warrior… if TFA, the Idemili title is the third highest title in your death was the death of nature, go the land. It communicates high status and in peace. But if a man caused it, do not position, and shows a level of affluence on the allow him a moment's rest. part of the celebrant. Okoye on page 5 is on the verge of taking this title. He also has a barn full The 'Obi' is a shelter shown in TFA which every of yams and has three wives. Certainly, this full-fledged man has. It is the heart of the communicates manliness and achievement compound and the man of the house, in some within the setting. The ozo title is no mean cases, is buried inside it at death. It is respected. project. It communicates honesty, integrity and It is where the soul of the man is. He attends to uprightness (p. 48). An ozo titled man does not his visitors there and discusses issues of climb a tree. Obierika laments his taking the ozo importance. In TFA, every man keeps a piece of title, “Sometimes I wish I had not taken the ozo chalk in his Obi with which his guests draw lines title. It wounds my heart to see these young men on the floor before they eat kolanuts. Drawing killing palm trees in the name of tapping”. One of lines can also be relative in TFA. While four who has taken the ozo title does not do menial vertical lines can show peace, Unoka used short jobs such as pounding foo-foo for his wife. It is perpendicular lines to represent debts which he also significant that during sex, the man on top owed people. Each stroke is one hundred position shows the headship of man. In the sex cowries (p.6). act therefore, the woman on top position is Whistling at night evokes evil spirits. Hence, against the norm, shows disrespect or a sense of children were warned not to whistle at night. A being domineering within the context. All these snake was called 'a string' at night because it are communicated in the conversation by the would hear if called by its real name. These elders on page 51. The death of Ezeudu was no ideas were communicated to the children as mean death. He was a man of fame, having values during moonlight. Gathering at taken three titles which is a rare achievement. moonlight is another avenue where didactic Note that title taking determines significantly stories are told, values inculcated and plays

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2): 247 - 258 254 RAPHAEL A. EKWUNIFE A Detailed Study of African Communication Systems in Achebe's Things Fall Apart: Implication .... made. Moonlight enhances communal living season (p. 10).On page 4, the arrival of kites and promotes the social life of the people. communicates the inception of dry season to Achebe thus notes that while the moon shines, the people. In that case, the arrival of kites after a every man can see it from his house but people long period of time has some sociological still leave their houses for the communal functions to the people. moonlight game. The moonlight performs The council of Ndichie was respected and significant social and communicative function highly revered. They are decision makers and in Igboland. It promotes brotherhood. the highest body that takes counsel on an issue. Going to war and bringing back a human They played key role in taking decision on the head is a feat. Okonkwo in his prime has fate of Ikemefuna when he arrived Umuofia. brought home five heads and often drinks his Page 12 Line 1 points out that Okonkwo did not palm wine from his first human head. It is thus a inherit a barn from his father. This sign of bravery, fearlessness and complete communicates a poor start in life, showing his absence of cowardice. In Umuofia, there are father as a symbol of failure. In Umuofia, expressions to catch attention in public sacrifices were necessary parts of the people, gathering no matter the size of the audience. Unoka made a sacrifice to Ani for a bountiful During the meeting at the market place, Ogbuefi harvest. There were also sacrifices made at Ezeugo bellowed, “Umuofia kwenu!” The community level, e.g., the sacrifice of multitude yelled 'yaa!', and there was calm. As Ikemefuna, the Ajo-ofia which represents the pointed out earlier, the use of symbolism is spirit of the clan. Ifejioku is the god of yams who prominent in TFA. The most potent war also receives cock as sacrifice. medicine which made Umuofia's neighbours to Worthy of mention is the swelling of the fear them was symbolized by an old woman stomach and the limbs. A man who develops called 'agadi nwanyi'. 'And if anybody was so these or any of them was deemed evil. Such was foolhardy as to pass by the shrine after dusk, he carried to the evil forest and allowed to die there. was sure to see the old woman hopping about (p. It is evil to bury such a person. Hence, TFA (p. 9). Apart from the 'agadi nwanyi' as a symbol of 13) explains the communicative functions of potent medicine, the restriction to go through both the first and second burials. A man who has her shrine at night communicated values of a swollen stomach or limb is denied these caution in movement to the people. The charm burials. It is a bad name for the family as a that made the Umuike market to grow in fame, whole. In Umuofia, the sickness which one swallowing other neighbouring markets was suffers and the manner of death one dies also represented with the image of an old communicate a lot. As a result, Okonkwo was woman. possessed by the fear of his father's despicable In Igbo land, an “agbala” is a young married and ignominious death. Besides, it is these woman. In TFA, another meaning of this is a unburied men that wander about as evil spirits man who has taken no title, hence, a derogatory (p. 23). name to ridicule such a man. A good example is 'Nnaayi' was a respectful way of addressing Unoka. In this setting, cock-crow shows early elderly men. This conveys the value of respect to morning (i.e. helps in keeping time) while the society. During the serving of drinks, it was chickens going to roost signifies end of day served to the most elderly down to the least. when people return to their homes. The crow of Respect is a value marked by ACS. In serving cocks was significant in keeping time. Okonkwo wives drinks, the first wife must be served first. used them to keep time during the planting The first wife assumes a strong position in the

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):247 - 258 255 RAPHAEL A. EKWUNIFE A Detailed Study of African Communication Systems in Achebe's Things Fall Apart: Implication .... family. She is the only one authorized to wear ancestors of the clan. The symbol of Ani made the anklet (symbol of authority) of her husband. the people to be conscious of their being and The woman does not stand erect to receive drink essence. from her husband. She kneels down on one knee Camwood was for aesthetic purpose. as a mark of respect. It is interesting to note the Ladies, women and young girls used it for way drinks are served and used in TFA. At a decoration. It denotes beauty. The twitching of drinking scene on page 15, Igwelo was given the the eyelid communicates that something is dredge of the wine. This shows that he was coming- either favour or ill-luck depending on newly married and needed that part of wine to which eye twitches - the right or the left eye (p. boost his libido and sexual performance. For a 29). The ilo or village square was a significant man to lend yam to another for planting signifies place of meeting for information dissemination trust. In Umuofia, crops show gender. While among other issues and events. crops like yam are for men, others like Thrusting a palm frond before intending cocoyams, beans and cassava are women's fighters was suing for peace (p. 35). The crops. presence of locust in Umuofia was remarkable. Kindred meetings were useful modes of A symbol of abundance! It signifies good communication in TFA. Issues were resolved fortune from the gods. It is once in a long while there. The sociological functions of kindred booty. In many occasions, drinking spots served meetings are multifarious. The nine villages of as discussion centers, in TFA. On page 50, the Umuofia had peaceful ways of settling disputes. use of broomstick to negotiate bride price was A case in point is the giving of Ikemefuna and a noticed and the use of 'white skin' was a polite virgin to Umuofia to atone for the murder of name for leprosy. Subtlety was communicative Udo's wife. Cleverness in ACS was defined by of the art of word that marked the race. As the ability to have a mastery of the arts of the observed earlier in this study, the first wife people. Hence, Ikemefuna was deemed lively reserves some rights. Hence, only Ekwefi could and clever in Okonkwo's household because of bang on Okonkwo's door and go free. When his skill and dexterity in story-telling, fashioning there was such a bang on Okonkwo's door in the of flutes from bamboo stems, knowing the early hours of the morning, Okonkwo knew it names of birds and setting traps for little bush was no other person than Ekwefi. rodents. As depicted by Achebe in TFA, an only The Peace Week was sacred. No man beats child was the centre of her mother's world. This his wife during that week when the peace festival was shown by the relationship between Ezinma was marked and no work was done too. Though and Ekwefi, her mother. Children were not to be Okonkwo had a polygamous home, the children given eggs, meat and such delicacies. Such foods ate together. This shows values of peace, tempt them to steal. This gesture is meant to togetherness and communalism. Ezeani, the communicate the value of self-control and the priest of Ani had a short staff, a symbol of absence of gluttony among the people. In priestly authority and the feast of the new yam Igboland, names are not given for nothing. which he represents symbolized thanksgiving, Names communicate a lot. Hence, page 54 and honour to Ani, the god of fertility. Ani was a shows Ekwefi as a woman who has several goddess who played a major role in the life of the births with several deaths, except one. One can people more than any other god or deity. She then appreciate why Ekwefi's late children had was the ultimate judge of morality and conduct such names as Onwumbiko (death, I implore), (p. 26) and was in close communion with the Ozoemena (may it not happen again), Onwuma

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(death may please himself). 'Ogbanje' as the character of his first son Nwoye, noted that name implies is a child who has a repeated Ezinma should have been a boy. She knew coming and going, i.e., the same child being values. born repeatedly and he dies and returns into the It is not out of place to examine the mother's womb. This upholds the idea of communicative functions of rituals in TFA. reincarnation which is held supreme in Africa. During the Uri ceremony of Obierika's A person dying on the very market day he was daughter, the men (elders) “cut the goats' throats born is also significant, as in the case of and collected the blood in a bowl; they held Onwumbiko on page 55. them over an open fire to burn off the hairs, and Canon shots were used to show signals of the smell of burning hair blended with the smell death in TFA. The funeral of a warrior was of cooking (p.79). Other instances of rituals marked by ancient drum beats, guns and canons, abound - at self, family and community levels. cutting down of trees in frenzy, jumping over Rituals in TFA were done to either appease the walls and dancing on the roof e.g. Ezedu's gods, avert future mishaps or as an act of funeral. There were four titles in the land, and worship. In Umuofia, a nursing mother would Ezeudu has taken three. A rare feat! As a rite of not come out within the first twenty-eight days honour, “Ezeudu was to be buried after dark of child delivery. It is a rite. Any environment with a glowing brand to light the sacred she stepped into was deemed defiled. She would ceremony”. remain indoors and be fed sumptuously by her On page 57, Okonkwo mistakenly killed a husband. This gesture and culture also fellow clansman. This, also, is abominable. This communicated the husband's care and is “female ochu” (abominable crime) and was manliness to the wife. A husband who does this punishable with 7years in exile plus boasts with it. accompanying sacrifices. In this geographical and periodic setting, the birth of twins also CONCLUSION communicated a serious evil. No wonder In the light of the above discussion and analysis, Akueni – Uchendu's daughter has had series of this study has observed that there is still the use twin births, all thrown away into the evil forest. of ACS in the Igbo setting, but predominantly in Even Uchendu, Okonkwo's uncle, the rural areas. Some notable traditional modes “remembered his wife's twin children whom he of communication discovered are proverbs, the had decreed that they were an offence on the metal gong, the Ekwe, Masquerades, Ikolo, etc. land and must be destroyed”. Communicatively, Some are audio in nature while some are visual. giving birth to twins was an abomination against A lot of artistic displays were seen to perform the earth goddess, and casting the twins into the both communicative and sociological functions evil forest was the only rite of appeasement. in TFA. Some communicative situations are: to Folk stories were used to unify the family die of swelling, to die without a burial- either the and communicate societal values to the children first or the second burials, the delivery of twins, in particular. In Okonkwo's household as in a man without a title or barn of yams, among others, 'each woman and her children told folk others. Names borne by individuals in stories' (p. 67) to relax in the pitch darkness of traditional Igbo society were also seen to be the evening. Ezinma thus grew under the communicative of events surrounding bearers didactic influence of folk stories and this or the community at large. inculcated much of cultural values in her. In modern Igbo society however, the use of Okonkwo, regretting and lamenting over the ACS is on the decline, particularly in the face of

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Christianity and urbanization. African Enugu. Ryhyce Kerex Publishers. cherished values such as respect and honesty Hatchen, W. (1971). Muttled drums, the news media in have been thrown to the winds as a result of Africa. Iowa: IOWA State University Press. cultural erosion in the use of African Ibagere, E. (1994). Taxonomy of African traditional communication systems. The utilization of modes of communication. In Tosanwumi, J. & Ekwuazi, H. (Eds.), Mass communication: A basic these communication channels is also low in the text. Ibadan: Caltop. modern Igbo society. Ngwoke, R. (2017). Secret and emergency communication among Africans. In Nwosu, I. & RECOMMENDATIONS Nsude, I. (Eds.), Trado-modern communication In view of the foregoing, the recommendations systems: Interfaces and dimensions. Enugu. Ryhyce for this study are thus made: Kerex Publishers. The study of Igbo language should be Ngwu. C.C. (2017). The Traditional Media: Forms, reinvigorated and made compulsory in schools Contents and Roles. In Nwosu, I. & Nsude, I. in the South-East. Through a process of (Eds.), Trado-modern communication systems: internalization, pupils shall understand these interfaces and dimensions. Enugu. Ryhyce Kerex Publishers. ACS during the primary and secondary Odunlami, D. (2017). An examination of the education. The modern media have a role to application and relevance of Des Wilson's play. These new media should be used to taxonomy of traditional media systems in sensitize the people on the need and relevance of Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart. In Nwosu, I. ACS in Igbo setting. The family is the bedrock & Nsude, I. (Eds.), Trado-modern communication of socialization. At family level, parents should systems-interfaces and dimensions. Enugu. Ryhyce inculcate these values into their children. In Kerex Publishers. primary and secondary schools, subjects such as Omu, F. (1978). Press and politics in Nigeria, 1880-1937. cultural and creative Arts should be given London: Longman. attention and researchers should be encouraged Olulade, R. (1988). Culture and communication in to delve into this area. In general, the culture Nigeria. Interpreter Magazine. Nov-Dec. Lagos. Opubor, A. E. (1975). An ideological perspective for institution should be strengthened by African communication research. A paper presented individuals, groups and the society at large. at the West African Regional Conference on Mass Communication. References Oreh, O. (1980). Reading in African Humanities: African Achebe, C. (1958). Things Fall Apart. Ibadan. Cultural Development. Fourth Dimension. Heinemann. Pierce, K. (2007). Uses and Gratification Theory. Akpabio, E. (2003). African communication system: An Encyclopedia of children, adolescents, and the media, introductory text. Lagos: B Print Publication. 2, 841-843. Sage. Amara, T. C. & Amaechi, A. E. (2005). Manual of Soyinka, W. (1976). Myth, literature and the African research methodology and thesis writing. Aba: world. Britain: Cambridge University Press. Kerexpert Ltd. Wilson, D. (1982). Tradition mass communication: Ekwunife, R. (2017). African Communication Towards a redefinition of concept. A paper Systems. Lecture Note. Mass Communication presented at the Inaugural conference of Nigeria Department. Evangel University Akaeze. mass communication Association in Lagos. Enighe, J. (2017). Proverb as the language of social April. Communication. In Tosanwumi, J. & communication in a traditional society. In Ekwuazu, H (Eds.), (1994) Mass communication: Nwosu, I. & Nsude, I (Eds.), Trado-modern A basic text. Ibadan: Caltop. communication systems: Interfaces and dimensions.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Public Perception of the Media's Watchdog Role of Ensuring Accountability in Governance in Nigeria

THEODORA DAMULAK, & ISAAC EJIGA Plateau State Ministry of Information, Plateau State, [email protected]. Department of Mass Communication, Faculty of Arts, University of Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria,[email protected]

Abstract This study investigated public perception of the media's watchdog role of ensuring accountability in governance in Nigeria. The study is guided by three research questions and hinged on Development Media Theory. The methodology adopted was the survey and questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection. The population of the study was 842, 274 and the sample size was 400, statistically determined using the Taro Yamane's formula. Non-probability and purposive sampling techniques were used to get the respondents for the study. Findings from the research revealed that there is a high knowledge among the sample population on the constitutional role of the mass media to hold the government accountable at all levels. Other results showed that the majority of the respondents have confidence on the media's watchdog responsibility on government and their officialdom despite the intimidation/harassment of journalists. It further showed that a majority opted for improvement on investigative journalism as a means to effectively perform their watchdog role in the society. The study recommended that the media should engage more in watchdog journalism as a way to demand accountability from governments and ensure good governance. It also recommended the enactment of law to protect journalists when carrying out their constitutional function as watchdog and that journalists on their part should engage more in investigative journalism using the FoIA, despite its loopholes, and also desire editorial independence from their media owners as part of efforts to fulfill their media watchdog role, thus ensuring accountability in governance in Nigeria

Keywords: Media Watchdog, Public Perception, Good Governance, Democracy, Accountability.

Introduction powers to hold government at all levels The media is one of the most powerful accountable from Chapter 2, Section 22 of the institutions in the society – a social force that is 1999 Constitution (as amended) which states: capable of quizzing, scrutinizing, exposing, “The press, radio, television and other agencies demanding and holding government and their of the mass media shall at all times be free to officialdom accountable to the people. They uphold the fundamental objectives contained in also serve as important agent in the society, this chapter and uphold the responsibility and providing the public with credible information accountability of the government to the on all aspects of an issue or on various issues of people.” This section of the constitution, national and international relevance as well as according to Katsibi (n.d., para. 6), “implies that offering in-depth analysis which enables them the press shall be a watchdog over the excesses (the public) to make rational judgment. of government, and shall ensure that The media's powers arose from their ability government delivers it promises to the people.” to withhold or disseminate information With the constitutional backing, Jibo (2003, p. (McQuail, 2010) and from the constitution of 182) asserts that “the media has been given the the nation. In Nigeria, the media derives their role to ensure that government, at all levels, is

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):259 - 269 259 DAMULAK, T. & ISAAC EJIGA Public Perception of the Media's Watchdog Role of Ensuring Accountability in Governance in Nigeria accountable to the citizenry.” Hence, holding including holding the government and government and those in authorities both in government officials accountable, they (the public and private sectors accountable for their public) are in a better position to assess the activities is a constitutional requirement of the media's watchdog role of ensuring Nigerian media. accountability in governance in Nigeria. The media's surveillance function Therefore, this paper seeks to investigate the particularly on government activities and their public perception of the media's watchdog role officials has earned them the appellation 'fourth of ensuring accountability in governance in estate of the realm' – a term that “symbolize the Nigeria and to determine whether they are media or press as a segment of society that has effectively discharging their watchdog role as an indirect but key role in influencing the enshrined in the Nigerian 1999 Constitution (as political system” (Cooke, 2018, para. 5). In amended). influencing political system, the media acts as a balance and a systematically opposite force that STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM reports, verifies and questions matters of With the backing of the Nigerian 1999 governance, matters of public concerns as well Constitution (as amended), the media is as commercial ones, conducted by the empowered to keep the government and their governments and their officialdom on the officialdom under surveillance and to trigger an public's behalf (Ubuntu FM, 2017). This alarm when their policies, programmes, actions important function of the media underscores and inactions are at variance with the the importance and significance the public aspirations and expectations of the public in attributes to them. whose trust they hold the offices they occupy. As important as the media's watchdog The media's watchdog function is essential in a function of holding the government and those in democratic society where people must know official authorities accountable to the people, what their governments, corporate bodies and critics, however, accused them (media) of other institutions in society are doing, without performing below expectation and serving which they could rarely bark (Ashraf, 2004; narrow interests. Abercrombie and Longhurst Becker, Gallup, Vlad, & Han, 2013). While (2007) as cited in Onyemaobi (2018, p. 1) studies on the media's watchdog role in observe that “there are anxieties that the media deepening democracy in Nigeria are common watchdogs do not bark very loudly.” Becker, (Amodu, Yartey, Ekanem, Oresanya, & Gallup, Vlad and Han (2013) on the other hand Afolabi, 2016; Dauda, Ahmad, Keling, & state that more often, the media is either 1) lap Ameen, 2018; Dunu, 2013; Onyemaobi, 2018), dogs, licking the hands of those in power; 2) there is, however, a dearth of empirical works on guard dogs, barking to protect some institutions the public assessment of the media's watchdog but not others, or 3) attack dogs, used by their role in Nigeria. This situation, therefore, political or industrial owners to launch warrants an empirical investigation into public campaign against rivals. Considering, however perception of the media's watchdog role of the fact that public perceptions and judgments ensuring accountability in governance in on certain matters are influenced by what they Nigeria. (people) see, hear or read in the media (Bratic & Schirch, 2007), and taking into account too that RESEARCH QUESTIONS the media serve as the public representatives on 1. How knowledgeable are the Nigerian public issues that directly and indirectly affect them on the media's watchdog role of ensuring

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accountability in governance in Nigeria? formed. 2. What is the perception of the Nigerian The idea of vigilant media monitoring public on the media's watchdog role in government and exposing its excesses has ensuring accountability in governance in gained new traction in many parts of the world Nigeria? and media as a watchdog is one of the oldest 3. What is the public perception of the beliefs in the practice of journalism. Coronel drawbacks undermining the media's (2008) asserts that globalization, the fall of watchdog role in ensuring accountability in authoritarian and socialist regimes, and the governance in Nigeria? deregulation of the media worldwide have fueled a renewed interest in - as well as a surge in REVIEW OF LITERATURE/EMPIRICAL STUDIES efforts by various groups to support – To investigate media's watchdog role of “watchdogging” by the media. He posits that ensuring accountability in governance in the watchdog duty of the media has high hopes Nigeria from the stand-point of the public, it is for what it is capable of, especially by exposing important to clarify the term 'public perception'. wrongdoing and holding government and Public perception is often formed by government officials accountable to the people. individual's past experience and this perception As watchdog, the media defends society and plays very important role in making some issues stands up against those who threaten basic important and some unimportant, based on human rights and “Like a literal guard dog that these individualistic experiences that are barks when it notices an intruder, a watchdog affected by lots of other things. According to role involves alerting others when an anomaly is Severin (2001) as cited in Sadaf (2011), different detected” (Ships & Ports, 2016, para. 4). Dennis psychological factors influence perceptions and and Merrill (2006, p. 26) corroborate the above they include past experience, cultural when they opine that; expectations, motivations, moods, needs and attitudes. He further suggests that different In a sense the media function for society people react to the same message in a very the way an accountant and auditor different way, and this is all related to the process function for a business. They check the of decoding – that is how people process specific books looking for accurate balances, but information. Generally speaking, what if they find discrepancies they report perception does is sorting out, interpretation, them with dispatch. A system of analysis and integration of stimuli involving our auditing and accepted accounting sense organs and brain (Feldman, 1999 as cited procedures keeps the unscrupulous Sadaf, 2011). Sadaf (2011) asserts that public businessperson from cooking the books. exposure to selective content on media plays a The same is true of government. Where very significant role in forming their perceptions there is no scrutiny by the media and no towards certain issues including their potential for active, adversarial conflict, knowledge about them. Turner and West (2007) there is no guarantee that democracy is as cited in Sadaf (2011, p. 228) says that selective working. In other words, the exposure “is a method for reducing dissonance democratic state is not audited. by seeking information that is consonant with current beliefs and actions”. From the media For the media to effectively carry out their contents that are selectively exposed to the watchdog function in the Nigerian society there public, their perceptions on an issue or issues are is need for them to be independent and free from

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):259 - 269 261 DAMULAK, T. & ISAAC EJIGA Public Perception of the Media's Watchdog Role of Ensuring Accountability in Governance in Nigeria interference in any sort either by political and report which embarrassed the government or a non-political actors. An independent and free public officer and; the State Security (Detention media is almost universally regarded as essential of Persons) Degree No. 2 of 1984 which gave to democracy without which media watchdog the military government the power to detain cannot fulfil their mandate of holding anybody without trial for as long as it wished government and their officials accountable (Akinnola, 2018). (Spiess, 2011). Buttressing the importance of Over 20 years after the country's return to independent and free media to 'watchdogging' democracy with the media playing pivotal role, in the society, Lasswell (1978) as cited in they (the media) are still struggling to free Amodu, et al. (2016, p. 452) asserts that, “media themselves from the government interference, freedom enhances the watchdog role which the intimidation, harassment, arrest, detention and media play in checking and overseeing the other forms of brutality. According to Premium performance of the government and its Times (2019), between January and July, 2019 officials.” As important as the above are, an at least 36 Nigerian journalists were attacked, independent media, free from government with 30 of them attacked during the general interference and clam-down in Nigeria, remain election. Also, 59 years after the nation attained a distant dream even in a democratic era. The independence, the democratically elected media's powers and rights have been tampered governments are still arresting journalists for with severally by successive governments in the carrying out their constitutional mandate or country – from the colonial era to civilian – by right. The detention of the publisher of Sahara the military regime that punctuated our Reporters and a presidential aspirant of the democracy intermittently and persistent twenty African Action Congress (AAC) during the years after the return to democracy on May 29, 2019 election, Omoyele Sowore, without trial 1999. for over 50 days is a point of reference. When he According to Akinnola (2018), attack on the was eventually charged to court for treason and Nigerian media started off with The Newspaper granted bail on September 24, 2019, the Act of 1917 and the worst came under the government and her security agency continue to military regimes where media houses were hold him in custody with utter disregard to court proscribed, journalists intimidated, arrested, order (Pulse, 2019). Notable among Nigeria's tortured and detained for as long as they (the press attacks was that of Dele Giwa, one of the military government) wished. The military used front-runners of investigative journalism in the Decrees and Edicts to silence the media from country who was killed in October 1986 by a exposing the ills in government. Some of those parcel bomb (Premium Times, 2019). From that draconian laws that targeted the media include incident till date, “several murders, unlawful the promulgation of Newspapers (Prohibition arrests, and harassment have been meted out of Circulation) Decree No. 17 of 1967 which against journalists across the country” (para. empowered the Head of the federal military 12). government to prohibit the circulation of any While the government and their officials newspaper which he considered detrimental to want the media to support and cheer-lead their any part of the county; Public Officer policies, programmes and activities; they get (Protection Against False Accusation) Degree easily irritated and detest being quizzed, No. 4 of 1984 which made it an offence to scrutinized, and exposed when held accuse a public officer or the government of any accountable for their failures in governance. To wrong doing, even it was true or publish any frustrate the media from carrying out their

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):259 - 269 262 DAMULAK, T. & ISAAC EJIGA Public Perception of the Media's Watchdog Role of Ensuring Accountability in Governance in Nigeria constitutional obligation of holding the professionalism and is best practised in media government and their officialdom accountable institutions which strongly adhere to principles to the people, they try to perpetuate themselves of editorial independence, rather than in by managing and manipulating information government, corporate or politically owned (Dennis & Merrill, 2006). The existence of entities where constraints are often placed on bottlenecks in accessing public information journalists and where other agenda come into particularly with reference to Freedom of play (Lister, 2015). When covering government Information Act (FoIA) and the unyielding activities, they (media) must do so fairly and government has continued to undermine the ethically and when faced with resistance, they media's watchdog role in the Nigerian society. should engage proactively in investigative Spiess (2011) asserts that the existing hostile journalism by identifying the issue, either climate that media are operating are hidden or overt, and offering opinion on increasingly frustrating their watchdog function necessary action including equipping the and this manifests through explicit or implicit populace into taking direct steps to change the censorship, blocking access to public agents or factors controlling the situation or information, instrumentalisation through issue (Eisenman, 1996). advertising pressures, repressive legal frameworks, violation of liberal laws or, where THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Press offences are discriminated and This study is hinged on the Development Media intimidation all poses as obstacle to muckraking Theory of the press which is applicable to and one to which journalists (the media) have developing countries one of which is Nigeria. been subjected including the Nigerian media. The theory seeks the less advanced countries to He added that hostile government has also taken use the media to carry out positive development the intimidation approach which poses as tasks in line with nationally established policy obstacle to muckraking. (Bassey-Duke, Brown, & Talabi, 2017). The In spite of the above, the fourth pillar of theory, according to Ojobor (2002, 9-14) as cited government has continued to perform their in Ijwo and Omula (2014, pp. 27-28) surveillance function, using investigative “emphasizes the acceptance of economic approach like an under-cover agent digging development and national building as deep to uncover hidden crimes or agenda. overriding objectives and so expects that certain Through investigative journalism, the media freedom of the media would be subordinated to unearth scams, scandals, anti-social activities, those goals.” They added that “social, economic policies and programmes that funds were and political development should be the focal earmarked for but not implemented (Ojo & point of the media” (p. 27). Adebayo, 2013). Although investigative The Development Media Theory of the journalism has been regarded as one of the press was propounded by McQuail (2010) in the most challenging aspect of the profession, it 1980s. The underlying fact behind the theory nonetheless contributes positively to free was that there can be no development without speech, personal improvement, an open and credible information and there can be no accountable society that guarantees good accountability, a prerequisite for good governance and democracy (Dictor, 2010). governance, except the media is free from It is worth stating here that media as interference and are allowed to carry out their watchdog encompasses the highest standards constitutional mandate (watchdog) of holding of accuracy and fairness, ethics and those in government and their officialdom

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):259 - 269 263 DAMULAK, T. & ISAAC EJIGA Public Perception of the Media's Watchdog Role of Ensuring Accountability in Governance in Nigeria accountable for their policies, programmes, 10,000. The formula is used thus; actions and inactions including being Formula n = N accountable to the people. Through the 1 + N (e2) information the media brings to the public fore, the public debates they stimulate and the Where: n = sample size surveillance functions they perform particularly N = total population on those in authority or in official capacity, they e = margin of error which the researcher helping the populace to make informed is ready to allow (0.052) decisions and demands accountability from their representatives thus ensuring good This study employed the non-probability governance which is capable of also translating sampling method to pick the sample of the study to national development. The theory is relevant and respondents were purposively sampled in to the study in that it is applicable to Nigeria, a order to get in-depth data. Under this sampling nation with low level of economic development method, the researcher decided what needed to and highlights the importance of using the be known and sought out people who could and media to achieve economic prosperity by are willing to provide the information by virtue carrying out their constitutional mandate of of knowledge or experience (Bernard, 2002). watchdog which has bestowed on them the This method ensured that the sample picked are responsibility of holding the government and knowledgeable and provide useful information their officialdom accountable to the people thus, relevant to the study. Copies of the ensuring good governance in Nigeria. questionnaire were administered using the face- to-face method; thus, the 400 copies were METHODOLOGY returned valid and analysed. The data are The study adopted descriptive survey research presented below. design. This type of research design allows for the collection of data or information via RESULTS interview or questionnaire from the sampled Research Question One: How knowledgeable are population. The design is used for the study the Nigerian public on the media's watchdog because of the need to measure opinion as role of ensuring accountability in governance in opposed to the manifest content of media Nigeria? messages (Amodu, Yartey, Ekanem, Oresanya, & Afolabi, 2016). Also, it is used because it is an Table 1: Respondents' knowledge of the media's effective technique through which the watchdog role in informing the populace and holding researcher could get the views of the the government and government officials accountable respondents. For the study, however, questionnaire was used as the instrument for Response No. of responses % data collection. A sample size of 400 was drawn Yes 384 96 from the population of Jos North Local No 16 4 Government Area of Plateau State which was Total 400 100 put at 842,274 according to Population City (2019). The sample size was statistically Source: Field Survey, 2019. determined using the Taro Yamane's formula. Aroaya (2004) notes that the formula can be From Table 1, it shows that the majority, 384 used when the population size is greater than (96%) of the respondents, are knowledgeable on

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):259 - 269 264 DAMULAK, T. & ISAAC EJIGA Public Perception of the Media's Watchdog Role of Ensuring Accountability in Governance in Nigeria the mass media's watchdog role in informing the From Table 3, it shows that the majority, 344 public on societal happenings and in holding the (86%) of the respondents, have an government and their officials accountable. overwhelming perception that the media are With significant number of respondents having capable of holding the government and their knowledge about the media's watchdog role, it officialdom accountable. This implies that a therefore implies that they will provide relevant significant majority of the populace have faith in responses for the subsequent questions for data the media's role in holding the government and analysis. their officialdom accountable showing that the media are therefore capable of ensuring Table 2: Knowledge of how the media hold the accountability in governance in Nigeria. government and government officials accountable Table 3: Respondents' perception on the media's Response No. of responses % capability to monitor the government and government TV/Radio interview shows with 224 35 officials in a bid to ensuring accountability in government officials governance in Nigeria Investigative Journalism 168 26 Budget tracking 88 14 Response No. of responses % Call-in shows where the audience 160 25 Yes 344 86 react to government policies No 56 14 Total 640 100 Total 400 100

Source: Field Survey, 2019. Source: Field Survey, 2019.

From Table 2 which has multiple responses, it Table 4, which has multiple responses, shows shows that the majority, 224 (35%) of the that 112 (43%) of the respondents identified the respondents, opted for TV/Radio Interview suspension of the Chief Justice of Nigeria Shows with government officials as the most (CJN), Walter Onnoghen, as the major news used medium they perceived as holding the report in the media that has taken an arm of government and government officials government (judiciary) to task in terms of accountable. This implies that TV/Radio accountability. This implies that the public interview programmes are perceived by the perceived the media attention and scrutiny populace as the most effective medium to accorded the suspension of the CJN, Walter holding those in official capacity accountable. Onnoghen, as a way of ensuring accountability in governance in Nigeria. Research Question Two: What is the perception of the Nigerian public on the media's watchdog role in ensuring accountability in governance in Nigeria?

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Table 4: Respondents' identification of any recent Table 5: Respondents' view on the challenges undermining major news report that has taken any arm of the tier the effectiveness of the media' watchdog role in holding of government to task in terms of accountability government and government officials accountable as ways of ensuring accountability in governance

Major Media Reports No. of Responses % Response No. of responses % Former CJN, Justice Onnoghen Saga 112 43 Government non-compliance with the 176 22 The Jos Main Market Demolition 32 12 FOI Act Budget Government Official Secrets Act 120 15 Plateau State budget 32 12 Intimidation/Harassment of journalists 240 30 breakdown/presentation Media Ownership Influence 152 19 Peter Azi's Impeachment (Former 24 9 Media Commercialization 104 13 Plateau State House of Assembly Total 792 100 Member) Postponement of the 2019 General 8 3 Source: Field Survey, 2019. Election Maina National Pension Board Scandal 8 3 From Table 5, it reveals that the intimidation/ Kemi Adeosun NYSC Certificate 8 3 harassment of journalists is the number one scandal (Former minister of finance) bane undermining the effectiveness of the Banditry in the country (Zamfara 8 3 media' watchdog role in holding government killings) and government officials accountable as ways Report on Life Pension for Ex- 8 3 of ensuring accountability in governance as Governor and Speaker in Akwa-Ibom supported by 240 multiple responses amounting State. to 30%. This implies that journalists are unable Channels TV interview of Presidential 8 3 to perform their constitution duty of Spokesman to President Muhammadu watchdogging in the Nigerian society largely Buhari, Garba Shehu, on whether the due to government intimidation/harassment. President visit to the UK in the month From Table 6, it shows that the majority, 240 of April 2019 was private or not (36%) of the respondents, opted for the mass Minimum Wage Implementation 8 3 media to use and improve on investigative Kogi Statement Government non- 8 3 journalism as a means to effectively perform payment of 38 months' salaries their watchdog role in ensuring accountability Total 264 100 in governance in Nigeria and as solutions to the challenges highlighted in Table 5. This implies Source: Field Survey, 2019. that investigative reporting is perceived by the respondents as the most effective way of Research Question Three: What is the public addressing the drawbacks undermining the perception of the drawbacks undermining the media from performing their watchdog duty in media's watchdog role in ensuring the society, thus ensuring accountability in accountability in governance in Nigeria? governance in Nigeria.

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Table 6: Respondents' view on how the media can be to intimidation/harassment of journalists. This effective in their watchdog role in ensuring accountability in finding is in agreement with Spiess (2011) who governance in Nigeria asserts that hostile government using intimidation, among others, poses an obstacle Response No. of responses % to muckraking and one to which journalists Improve on investigative 240 36 have been subjected. journalism Another finding of this study reveals the Use the FoI Act more 144 21 need for improvement on investigative Editorial independence by Media House 136 20 journalism as a means to holding the Owners government and their officials accountable to Encourage Whistle blowing Citizen 72 11 the people. This finding agrees with Eisenman Journalist (1996) who recommends in his study that More TV/Radio accountability 80 12 toeffectively carry out their constitutional role, shows the mass media must engage proactively in investigative journalism. Through investigative Total 672 100 journalism, journalists and their media outfits Source: Field Survey, 2019. unearth scams, scandals, anti-social activities, policies and programmes that funds were DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS earmarked for but not implemented (Ojo & This section discusses the major findings of the Adebayo, 2013). study. The data obtained and analysed reveal a number of perceptions held by the public CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS concerning the media's watchdog of ensuring The study established that the constitutional accountability in governance in Nigeria. role of the mass media as watchdog of the The first finding of the study indicated that society, as stated in Chapter 2, Section 22 of the the populace have a good knowledge on the 1999 Nigerian Constitution (as Amended) is media's watchdog's role in the society and this widely known and highly acknowledged by the finding is in agreement with Sadaf (2011) who public. Despite this feat, the populace holds the attributed the forming of public perception and view that the mass media has encountered knowledge on an issue to selective exposure of challenges undermining their constitutional content on media. The second finding of the role, but the study makes practical study is that the public have an overwhelming recommendations that a qualitative perception that the media are capable of holding methodological approach and a mixed-method the government and their officialdom methodology be added to the present accountable to the people. This finding supports knowledge provided by this study. The study the assertion of Coronel (2008) who posits that also recommends that the media should engage the watchdog duty of the media has high hopes more in watchdog journalism as a way to for what it is capable of, especially by exposing demand accountability and improve good wrongdoing and holding government and governance as well as close the knowledge gap government officials accountable for their of those in the society who have no idea of the actions and inactions. The third finding of the media's constitutional mandate. Furthermore, study reveals that the public perceived broadcast media (radio and television) challenges that undermine media's effectiveness programmes should be used more in holding in carrying out its watchdog roles as majorly due government and government officials

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Watchdogs or captured Media? An overview of Media Role in Nigerian Democratic Consolidation

MICHAEL NWALI EZE Department of Mass Communication Bowen University Iwo, Osun State E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The importance of media in democracy cannot be over emphasized. Nigeria got her independence in 1960 through the instrumentality of media. Similarly, media also facilitated the enthronement of democracy in the country in 1999. Since then, Nigerian democracy has been facing some challenges that had continued to threaten the hard earned democracy. To consolidate this nascent and fledgling democracy, Nigerian Constitution assigned watchdog roles to the media to hold government accountable to the people. Anchored on Social Responsibility and Agenda Setting Theories of the mass media, this paper looked at how the media has fared in its constitutionally assigned responsibility of watchdog roles on democratic consolidation in Nigeria. The study revealed that the media has failed in this role. Instead of being watchdogs, the media have been captured by those it supposed to watch in the society. To identify where the safety valve of the media have snagged in its assigned constitutional watchdog roles, the paper considered: some conceptual clarifications, relationship between media and democracy, classification of media capture as well as media capture and democratic consolidation in Nigeria. It also looked at media role in Nigerian democratic consolidation and concludes that except the chains that tied the media are cut and the media freed from the hands of its captors, it cannot consolidate Nigerian democracy.

Keywords: Democracy, Democratic consolidation, watchdog roles, captured media, government

Introduction historical antecedents in Nigerian political The wave of democratization is moving landscape, it could be observed that the media throughout the world and Nigeria is not an had remained the wheel that drives governance e x c e p t i o n . C o l o n i a l i m p e r i a l i s m , of a nation whether military or democratic rule. authoritarianism and military dictatorship are The media played these roles by serving as fast fading away and are being replaced with watchdog to both the government and the independence and democratic governance all governed. Corroborating this assertion, over the world. The media played a pivotal role Nwabueze (2017) says that the media plays the in this universally embraced phenomenon in intermediary role between the masses who are governance. For example, Nigeria got her the governed and the government who are the independence in 1960 using the instrumentality governor. Similarly, Dauda, Zaki, Foisol and of the mass media. During these periods, Ameen (2018) state that mass media in Nigeria Nigeria media were patriotically used as has been a sensitive medium of communication veritable tools to champion the course of her between the governed and the governors. independence. The mass media also facilitated Buttressing the watchdog roles of the media the enthronement of democracy in the country further, Idumange (2013) asserts that the mass in 1999. Nigerian media played significant roles media are expected to monitor happenings in these two remarkable landmark achievements especially activities of the government, and of governance in the country. From these report same to the entire society. He emphasized

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):270 - 280 270 MICHAEL NWALI EZE Watchdogs or captured Media? An overview of Media Role in Nigerian Democratic Consolidation further stated that the media is expected to individuals in the society will become “wolves” uphold the responsibility and accountability of - authoritarian, law breakers, violators of the government to the society. In Nigerian human rights, election riggers, impunity and political situation, watchdog roles of the media corruption becomes the order of the day. But are imperative because the three arms of where the media is alive to their assigned government - the executive, legislature and constitutional responsibility of watchdog roles, judiciary seem to have performed below the clandestine excesses of government, expectations in their oversight functions. Their politicians and highly placed individuals in the negative excesses in terms of rule of law, society are discovered and reported to the c o r r u p t i o n , e l e c t o r a l m a l p r a c t i c e s, general public. Aligning with the view of sociopolitical and economic inequalities, Jefferson on the excesses of the government human right violation, and insecurity among functionaries in the society, Pulitzer, cited in others are not only enormous and injurious to Oloyede (2011) says: the society but are threats to the country's fledgling democracy. This is not peculiar to … there is not a crime, there is not a Nigeria alone but also in other countries of the dodge, there is not a trick, there is not a world. It is in line with this observation that swindle, and there is not a vice which Thomas Jefferson (1950) cited in Dauda et al. does not live in secrecy. Get all these (2018) while recognizing and appreciating the things out in the open, describe them, importance of the media in democratic ridicule them in the press and sooner or consolidation and sustainability states that: later, public opinion will sweep them away. Were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without This great commission by Pulitzer to the media newspapers, or newspapers without a to be alive to their responsibility of watchdog government, I should not hesitate a roles can only be effective if the media are bold moment to prefer the latter, because enough to get the crimes, tricks, swindles as well once they (the people) become as the vices of government, politicians and other inattentive to the public affairs, you and highly placed individuals in the society which I, and Congress, and Assemblies, undoubtedly live in secrecy out in the open, judges and governors shall all become describing and ridiculing them in the press so wolves. that public opinion will sweep them away. It is against this backdrop that this paper seeks to The above quotation from Thomas find out how the media has fared in its Jefferson epitomized a government where the constitutionally assigned watchdog roles in media is not available to play its watchdog roles. Nigerian democratic consolidation with a view It established further that the importance of the to determining whether the media are alive to media in democratic consolidation cannot be their responsibility or it has been captured by over emphasized. This is why the media is those it supposed to watch. globally acknowledged as the fourth estate of the realm. Media is the pillar that holds Conceptual Clarifications democratic institution. Where the media fails in Three important concepts are considered their watchdog roles, the people perish because germane for proper understanding and government, politicians and the highly placed explanation of this paper. These concepts are:

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):270 - 280 271 MICHAEL NWALI EZE Watchdogs or captured Media? An overview of Media Role in Nigerian Democratic Consolidation mass media, democracy and democratic Obasanjo and Mabogunje (1992), cited in Ogah consolidation. and Ogeyni (2014), view the concept of democracy as the philosophy of governance Mass media: Media is conceptualized as the which sets a high premium on the basic freedom means through which messages, information, or fundamental human rights of citizens, rule of ideas, knowledge and culture are transmitted law, the right to property, the free flow of from a source to heterogeneous scattered information and the right of choice between audience. The concept of the media in this alternative political positions. To Tsegyu and context is that media should serve as the vehicle Dogara (2016), the concept of democracy is that that drives democracy and democratic it should be a system of politics in which consolidation. Aligning with this view, Tsegyu sovereignty should be vested on the people and Dogora (2016) describe the mass media as rather than in a small clique or an oligarchy, the major means of communicating where the rule of law prevails, majority rule and simultaneously and sometime instantaneously constitutionalism serves as basic guiding with a large scattered heterogeneous and principles of governance. Common to all these anonymous audience. This shows that the conceptual descriptions is that democracy media is the source of news and information to should be of the people for the people and by the the general public. Public dependence on the people. media for news and information dissemination makes it possible for them to set political and Democratic consolidation: The concept of democratic agenda for socio-political and democratic consolidation implies that a nation economic debate. Justifying this claim, Mile should have the ability and capability to nurture (2009), cited in Tsegyu and Dogara (2016), and sustain her democratic values with little or states that through the media, citizens are no threat of aborting it. The concept of educated on their rights and privileges so as to democratic consolidation can be viewed in two participate meaningfully in the democratic different perspectives: process. The media is expected to use the i) avoidance of breakdown of democracy; and instrumentality of radio, newspapers, ii) revival or transformation of broken television, magazine, internet etc. to democracy. disseminate information to the general public. To avoid breakdown of democracy is to put all Democracy: Conceptually democracy is machineries needed to nurture democracy into confronted with the problem of definitional proper perspective while revival or pluralism. Ojo (2003) in Imoh (2013) confirms transformation of broken democracy refers to this postulation when he stated that as a what should be done to correct or bring back the concept, democracy has the problem of value of a democracy that has broken. The homogeneity in that it is used in an ambiguous concept of democratic consolidation is and inconsistent ways such that it means associated with building, securing and different things to different people in different extending the life expectancy of any nascent contexts. Corroborating this postulation, and fledgling democracy. Aligning with this Erunke (2012) states that as a concept submission, Ademola (2011) sees the concept of democracy has received many definitions by democratic consolidation as an identifiable scholars either in the classical political studies or phase in the process of transition from in the contemporary world of scholarship. authoritarian to democratic system that are

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):270 - 280 272 MICHAEL NWALI EZE Watchdogs or captured Media? An overview of Media Role in Nigerian Democratic Consolidation critical to the establishment of a stable, therefore is that the media should operate freely institutional and lasting democracy. Similarly, without interference in the discharge of their Huntington (1991) cited in Adeosun (2013) watchdog roles in order to ensure democratic corroborates this assertion when he posited that consolidation. The theory is useful to this study democracy becomes consolidated when an because it supports the exposition of hidden entrenched regime delivers free, fair and excesses of government and the highly placed competitive election by the party that wins individuals in the society which has continued power at the initial election during the transition to threaten democratic consolidation in Nigeria. phase loses subsequent election and hands over power to the winning party and when the Agenda-Setting theory winning party also in turn hands over power This theory predetermines what issues are peacefully to another party at subsequent regarded as important at a given time in a given election. It is when all these are put in place that environment to a given people. Through it, one can say that democracy is being media do raise issues they considered good consolidated. enough and draw the attention of the general public to it. The media achieves this through the Theoretical Framework frequency of reportage and prominence given to Two theories underpin this study: Social such information or news both in print and Responsibility and Agenda-Setting theories of electronic. The media use it to monitor events the mass media. and report same to the general public. This theory is germane to this study because it helps Social Responsibility Theory the media to draw attention of people to salient This theory which originated from Hutchins issues and events that happened in the society Commission of 1947 has the primary purpose which the media considered vital and bring such of combating the pressure that constantly issues to the platform for public discourse. threaten freedom of the press as its focus. The However, agenda setting theory plays an commission among other things recommended ambivalent role between the government and that the media should serve the public and in the society. While it serves as a watchdog of order to do so the media should be free from government and the highly placed individuals in government interference. This means that the the society, it also enables media practitioners to media is responsible to the society. In the use space and time to divert attention of the Nigerian context, this theory is in tandem with general public on contentious issues for the the constitutional responsibility assigned to the benefit of government and the privileged few in media by 1999 constitution as amended the society. directing the media to serve as watchdog to both Social Responsibility and Agenda-Setting the government and the governed. This theories are useful for this study because the two empowered the media to reveal any hidden are professionally linked with democratic information that may have adverse effect on the consolidation and democratic destruction. society and which government does not want to While Social Responsibility theory supports the be made known to the public. This process gave watchdog roles of the media which aids the press right to hold government accountable democratic consolidation, agenda-setting for the people. The theory, however asserts that theory by virtue of its ambivalent nature can be such reportage must be truthful, fair and easily used to capture the media thereby aiding objective. The basic assumption of this theory the destruction of democracy. But if allowed to

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):270 - 280 273 MICHAEL NWALI EZE Watchdogs or captured Media? An overview of Media Role in Nigerian Democratic Consolidation operate freely and independently it can be used to promote democratic consolidation. Classification of Media Capture Media are said to be captured when they are Relationship between Mass Media and Democracy unable to perform their constitutionally Mass media and democracy work hand in hand. assigned societal function of watchdog roles. It They are inextricably related. Justifying this is imperative that we understand some of these claim, Media for Democracy Monitor (MDM, myriads and subtle ways through which the 2007), cited in Tsegyu and Dogara (2016), media are constantly compromised by these affirms that modern democracy and the mass actors whom they supposed to monitor and media are vital and indispensably linked report to the society. Some of the ways through between those who govern and those who are which the media can be captured include but not governed. Similarly, Umaru and Abdulahi limited to: State or government capture, (2012) also confirm the relativity of the mass political capture, captured by clientelism, media and democratic process when they stated ownership capture, captured by ethnicity and that the two are very important and centrally religious divide, among others. located in lives of the people. They established further that because of this centrality, the media Media capture by State or Government: These are justifiably focus their attention and accord high the kind of measures state or government use to priority to government programmes. Describing control and manage the media by making them the relationship between the mass media and become subservient to the government in power democracy further, Ojo (2015) states that the through the creation of an environment that will media and political system are involved in an be difficult if not completely impossible for the intricate nexus of relationship, cooperation and media to operate freely and independently. complimentary activities, all geared at Examples of such measures are policies, promoting individual and collective interest of regulatory bodies and censorship etc. Public the society. From these postulations, it is policies are government policies which obvious that the relationship between mass describes government actions. Policies are media and democracy is not in doubt. They created in order to respond to issues brought complement each other in building before decision makers. Government policies environment conducive for promoting free usually come in form of laws. In some cases, choice of leadership, respect for the rule of law government use regulatory bodies and as expected from the rulers and ruled. It could censorship to capture the media and prevent be deduced also from their explanations that the them from performing their societal function of mass media and democracy enjoy a kind of watchdog roles through proscription, sweetheart relationship in Nigerian political withdrawal, non-and/or conditional issuance description. Though democracy is the preferred of operating license, closure of media houses, kind of government globally, the mass media is arrest, brutalization and detention of the pillar that holds it. Corroborating this view, journalists, confiscation of media news and Udoinyang (2015) asserts that the mass media equipment, suspension or prohibition of are important pillars of the democratic structure publication of news and information that of every society. This assertion shows that the criticizes government as was the case of AIT mass media and democracy exert considerable shut down by NBC in 6th June, 2019. influence on each other to ensure good governance and democratic consolidation. Political capture: This type of media capture

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):270 - 280 274 MICHAEL NWALI EZE Watchdogs or captured Media? An overview of Media Role in Nigerian Democratic Consolidation refers to a capture that manifests as a result of of the rationales. The media make their profit membership of a political party, party through advertisement. Aligning with this view, affiliation, loyalty and political appointment Marqquez-Ramirez and Guerrero (2017) etc. These kinds of media capture are prevalent submit that in Latin America, clientelism and in Nigerian political system. Some journalists media capture remain an intrinsic part of the and media owners are clandestine political political landscape. According to them, partisan and as such remain loyal to one government used advertising to buy support political party or the other, particularly the party during the dark years of dictatorship in the in power. This blind loyalty to the political party 1970s and 1980s. Similarly, while explaining affects the objectivity of their reportage. Some their popular five filters, Herman and Chomsky journalists and media owners are given contract (1988) also mention profit orientation of the or appointment by government in power which mass media as one of the filters. In their words, evidently beclouds their sense of professional “the mass media are interested in attracting judgment. They easily become what Yiling Pan audiences with buying power and not audience (2017) describes as the “throat and tongue” of per se”. They emphasized that it is the affluent party and government in power”. Ojo (2013) audiences that spark advertiser interest. The aligns with this description when he stated that audiences with buying power in this context are “if the group in power has control of the media, the politicians, government, organizations and it would usually bend that instrument to its the highly placed individuals in the society purposes rather than the public interest”. Where while the audiences per se are those who merely these are allowed to operate, the media is said to buy and read newspapers and listen to radio and be captured and as such cannot perform their television news, whose patronage cannot constitutionally assigned watchdog roles. sustain the media. They described the later as the “patrons” who provide the media subsidy. Media capture by clientelism: Media Clientele Evan (1989), cited in Marquez-Ramirez and refer to the customers of the media. They are Guerrero (2017) called these patrons those who patronize the media by buying time “normative reference organizations”, whose and space for advertisement and publicity. They requirements and demands the media must i n c l u d e : g ove r n m e n t , i n s t i t u t i o n s, accommodate if they are to succeed. organizations, associations, politicians, as well These illustrations reveal that advertisement as highly placed individuals in the society. These is the source of media sustenance and as a result, categories of people and organizations have advertisers control, manage and direct the beliefs, ideologies, principles and practices that media on what to publish which usually are they are advancing and they use the media to antithetical to the society because it obliterates sale their intention to the general public. the watchdog roles of the media. Because they Buttressing this view, Stiglitz (2001) posits that are special clientele whom the media must not the wealthy individuals and corporations that lose their patronage they usually concede to buy media did not do so just for business their illicit, parochial and self-motivated proposition but also to advance their political demands. By so doing, the media is captured philosophies. The media is sustained by the through the instrumentality of clientelism. funds they realize from advertisement and publicity. This is why Nielsen (2017) in Ownership capture: All over the world, mass identifying the three basic rationales for owning media are dominated by the wealthy and and operating a media mentioned profit as one powerful people in the society. They buy media

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):270 - 280 275 MICHAEL NWALI EZE Watchdogs or captured Media? An overview of Media Role in Nigerian Democratic Consolidation outlet not for business purpose alone but Media capture by ethnicity and religious divide: majorly to use it to advance their philosophies, The multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and multi- ideologies, influence thinking, perception of religious nature of Nigerian society has given events as well as their socio-political and rise to parochial interests, ethnic and sectional economic interests. Because they owe and jingoism which has continued to polarize the control the media through merger, outright buy country and threaten her nascent and fledgling out, ownership of the highest share, acquisition, democracy. Confirming this submission, etc. they directly or indirectly sway the media in Tsegyu and Dogara (2016) affirm that ethnicity order to work against the interest of the general is one of the challenges that Nigerian media is public. The media are under obligation to obey grappling with at the moment. Mass media in their dictates in terms of news gathering and Nigeria are daily confronted with the problem dissemination as “he who pays the piper, of ethnicity and religious bias. This ugly dictates the tune”. As a result, news and scenario has existed since the advent of media in information are distorted; issues that matter to Nigeria. Aligning with this claim, Obasanjo the society are replaced with parochial interest and Mabogunje (1992), cited in Imoh (2003), and sectional jingoism by these categories of show that ethnic and religious divide of the privileged few in the society. mass media started right from the first republic. Supporting this view, Hinchey (2006) cited According to them, Nigeria Tribune represents in Baran (2009) states that: Yoruba (Western) interests, the New Nigerian represents Hausa (Northern) interests while the Changes in media ownership have been West African Pilot represents the Igbos swift and staggering. Over the past two (Eastern) interests. The reportage of these decades the number of major media media was driven by sentimentalism, ethnicity companies fell by more than one half; and religion bias. Similarly, Galadima and most of the survivors are controlled by Enigbe (2001) cited in Tsegyu and Dogara few media conglomerates. As media (2016) corroborate this view when they stated outlets continue to be gobbled up by that “the media in Nigeria were tribally and these giants, the market place of ideas regionally biased in their coverage of national shrinks. News and independent voices events”. Commenting in the same vein, Okpeh are stifled. And the companies that (2005) describes it as “Axis question” of the remain are under little obligation to “North/South dichotomy that put ethnic provide reliable quality journalism. consideration over and above national interest. Stories that matter deeply to the Expectedly, the resultant effect of this scenariois country's well-being have been replaced usually the polarization of media ideology and by sensationalized murders and subsequent division of the press into different celebrity gossip. (2006, p. 15). geographical, ethnic and religious dispersion. Laying credence to this claim, Ogbu (2013) Above quotation shows that ownership of buttresses media sentimentalism and ethnic media outlet does not allow the media to be biasness when he referred to the annulment of objective in their reportage and therefore cannot June 12 presidential election imbroglios won by play their societal function of watchdog roles. Chief MKO Abiola, acclaimed to be free, fair When media is denied their watchdog roles it and credible. According to him, while the South means that they have been captured by those – South, South – East and South-Western media they supposed to watch. were against the annulment of the election, their

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):270 - 280 276 MICHAEL NWALI EZE Watchdogs or captured Media? An overview of Media Role in Nigerian Democratic Consolidation counterparts in the North were in support of the “castrated toothless bulldog that can only bark annulment. There is no way the media can play but not bite”. When the media is thus captured, their watchdog roles in an atmosphere of ethnic they no longer hold government accountable to and religious divide. These phenomenon have the people, rather they become what Olaoluwa thus captured the media and prevent them from (2016) describes as “mouthpiece of the political playing their societal function of watchdog party they aligned with”. roles. Media Role in Nigerian Democratic Consolidation Media Capture and Democratic Consolidation The role of the media in Nigerian democratic in Nigeria consolidation cannot be over emphasized. Media is said to be captured when they allowed Nigerian democracy is planted, nurtured and themselves to be compromised by those they sustained through the instrumentality of the supposed to watch. It refers to when the media media and it can be uprooted, strangulated and are controlled by powerful interests in the aborted also through the instrumentality of the society. While analyzing media capture, Stiglitz media. Nigeria got her independence in 1960 (2017) describes it as when one or more of the using the instrumentality of the mass media. parties that the media supposed to be The media also facilitated the enthronement of monitoring on behalf of the society captures or democracy in the country in 1999. Nigerian takes hostage of them so that they fail to democratic rule since 1999 had continued to perform their societal functions of watchdog face some challenges which have remained a roles. From this description it could be inferred constant threat to the nation's democracy. In that the media serve and propagandize on order to ensure the consolidation of the fledging behalf of the few privileged powerful people in and nascent democracy, Section 22 of 1999 the society that control and finance them. constitution as amended assigned watchdog These few power blocks in the society usually roles to the press to hold government have important agenda, principles and accountable to the citizenry. Thus the ideologies they want to advance, using the constitution states as follows: media as instrument. Similarly, Media capture The press, radio, television and other according to Mungiu-Pippidi, (2013) is a agencies of the mass media shall at all times be situation in which the media have not succeeded free to uphold the fundamental objectives in becoming autonomous in manifesting a will contained in this Chapter and uphold the of their own, nor able to exercise their main responsibility and accountability of the function, notably in informing people. He Government to the people. stressed further that instead, they have persisted It could be seen from the above quotation in an intermediate state, with vested interests that the watchdog roles of the media are and not just government using them for other constitutional duty which the Nigerian purposes. The submission of Mungiuy-Pippidi constitution provided for the media to ensure established that the threat to journalistic that Nigeria government is not only responsible independence otherwise known as media but is hold accountable to the people they capture is not from the government alone but govern. This provision has placed critical roles also from private sectors and individuals or a on the media to ensure that accountability and combination of both. The continued responsibility is instilled in governance in order interference of these categories of people in the to advance the wellbeing of the society. societal functions of the media has rendered it a Supporting this submission, Idumange (2013)

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):270 - 280 277 MICHAEL NWALI EZE Watchdogs or captured Media? An overview of Media Role in Nigerian Democratic Consolidation asserts that the mass media are expected to The question is how effective are the media in monitor happenings especially activities of the performing these watchdog roles? Are media government and report same to the entire activities consolidating democracy in Nigeria or society. It further stated that they are expected it is destroying it? Evidences abound that the to uphold the responsibility and accountability media has deviated from their watchdog roles of the government to the society. Describing the and become subservient to government, role of the media in democratic consolidation politicians and highly placed individuals in the further, Graber (1993), cited in Agbo and society. Media in Nigeria have allowed Chukwuma (2016), avers that: corruption, tribalism, sensationalism, sentimentalism as well as sectional and ethnic One role of the media in a democracy is jingoism to becloud their sense of professional that of watchdog over government. conduct. Investigative journalism that used to The idea is that the press should dig up be a vital instrument for the discharge of the facts and warn the public when officials watchdog roles of the media have been replaced are doing something wrong. Citizens with public relations and propaganda jobs for can hold officials accountable for government, politicians and wealthy private setting things right only if they know individuals in the society. Kadiri, Muhammed, about errors and wrongdoing. Raji and Suleiman (2015) in confirming this postulation state that the media as a watchdog The submission of Graber indicates that a are noted for barking for the wrong things. In strong, virile, fearless as well as effective their words “the media hunt for scandals in the watchdog roles of the media is a crucial private lives of politicians and their families but instrument for the consolidation of a fledging ignore much more serious consequences of their and nascent democracy such as that operative in policies. This view is supported by the claim of Nigeria. This becomes imperative because the Kellner (2004), cited in Kadiri et al. (2015), that existing democratic rule in the country is weak, commercial mass media controlled by a few pummeled by socio-political, ethnic and multinational conglomerates have become religious pressure. This fragile democracy in antidemocratic forces supporting elements of Nigeria needs consolidation to prevent it from capitalism to further pauperize the masses. The being aborted. It is obvious that this hard earned media has reduced itself to such a professional democracy in Nigeria is being constantly poor state that made Akinfeleye (2003) to threatened by those actors the media supposed enquire if Nigerian press is still the fourth estate to monitor in the society and report their actions of the realm or it has become the fourth estate of and inactions to the general public. In the “wreck”. supporting this opinion, Udoinyang (2015) However, some factors are inhibiting the affirms that the media being described as a professional conduct of Nigerian journalist watchdog is in recognition of its watchful and such as: critical role against the bad practices of the · No regular salaries; government and private individuals. · Lack of up-to-date equipment; Corroborating this assertion, Schiffrin (2017), · Inadequate training of journalists; describes the role of the media in the society to · No import waiver for media owners to buy include preventing a broad range of abuse by materials and equipment; and 5) Security of government and the corporate sector. life; among others.

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Conclusion and Recommendations the new media on the watchdog role of the press Nigerian Media have done creditably well for in Nigeria. European Scientific Journal, 13(2). t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d s u b s e q u e n t Akinfeleye, R.A. (2003). Fourth estate of the realm enthronement of democracy in the country. or fourth estate of the wreck: Imperative of social responsibility of the press. An Inaugural Regrettably however, excesses of government, lecture delivered at the University of Lagos. politicians and wealthy private individuals have Baran, S. J. (2009). Introduction to mass communication: continued to threaten not only the fledging and Media literacy and culture (5th ed.). McGraw Hill nascent democracy but also the corporate co- Companies, Inc. existence of the country. The constitution Dauda, M. et al. (2018). Watchdog journalism in assigned watchdog roles to the media in order to Nigeria: Democracy and accountability. Asian curtail the excesses of these categories of people People, 1(2). in society. The media has compromised their Ende, T.S. (2013). Media convergence of the 2011 constitutionally assigned watchdog roles. They elections in Nigeria. In V. Egwemi (Ed), Issues in have been captured by the actors they supposed the 2011 general election in Nigeria. Ibadan. Sam- to watch. Alex Printers. Erunke, C.E. (2011). Reconsolidating democratic governance in Nigeria. Analysis and Recommendations suggestions. African Journal of Sciences, 2(2). For the media to aid democratic consolidation Galadima, J. D. & Enigbe, J. M. (2001). The press in in Nigeria government, politicians and the Nigerian politics: A historical analysis of issues media should behave responsibly. While and pattern of news coverage. The Nigerian government should endeavor to create enabling Journal of Communication, 1(1). environment for media practitioners to enjoy Herman, E.S. & Chomsky, N. (1988). Manufacturing good pay, quality training, better working tools, consent. The political economy of the mass media. security of life etc., journalists in turn should New York: Pantheon Books. reciprocate the gesture by abstaining from all Imoh, G.O. (2013). Mass media and democratic forms of unethical standard which make them consolidation in Africa: Problems, challenges and prospects. New media and communication, 16. become a tool in the hands of government, Kadiri, K.K., et al. (2015). Mass media for politicians, as well as the media owners. The sustainable democracy and development in Nigerian Press Council should take decisive Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development in action against any journalist that refused to play Africa, 17(2). by the rules of the game. Government should Mungiu-Pippidi, A. (2013). Freedom without also grant waiver to the media owners so that impartiality: The vicious circle of media they will be able to import equipment and capture. In Schiffrin, A. (Ed), In the service of materials they use at lower price. power: Media capture and the threat to democracy. The Centre for International Media Assistance, References Columbia University's School of International Ademola, A. (2011). Endangering good governance and Public Affairs, Washington, D.C. for sustainable democracy: The continuing in Nielsen, R.K. (2017). Media capture in the digital Nigeria. Journal of Research on Peace, Gender and age. In Schiffrin, A. (Ed.), In the service of power: Development, 307-314. Media capture and the threat to democracy. The Adeosun, A.B. (2014). Democracy and democratic Centre for International Media Assistance, consolidation in Nigeria fourth Republic: Issues Columbia University's School of International and challenges. Journal of Humanities and Social and Public Affairs, Washington, D.C. Sciences (JHSS), 19 (10). Nwabueze, C. (2017). Mass media and community Agbo, B.O. & Chukwuma, O. (2016). Influence of mobilization for development. International

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Newspaper Reportage of Nigeria's Economic Recession: An Appraisal

AMANNAH PEACE IREJU, Ph.D & OKOH, FAITH MARK Department of Mass Communication Rivers State University Nkpolu-oroworukwo, Port Harcourt, Nigeria [email protected] and Department of Mass Communication Rivers State University Nkpolu- oroworukwo, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

Abstract This study undertook a review of newspaper reportage of the economic recession that rocked Nigeria between August 2016 and September 2017. The study adopted content analysis design. The population of the study included all the newspapers in Nigeria out of which The Nation, The Punch and The Guardian were selected based on their national outlook and disposition. The study utilized a constructed calendar from which 14 days were selected giving a sample of 42 issues in all. From this number, only eight publications bordered on recession within the study period and this formed the basis for the analysis. The study found that the reports on recession (which started in 2016) by the newspapers under study were fraught with textual flaws such as agent/patient obfuscation, act of saying nothing, and inter-textual referencing which were hastily reported as news stories. Also, it was found that the editorial focus of the reports was on blame shifting as directly accused by the political class without deeper questioning of the political comments and reactions. Based on these findings, it was recommended that reporters should write in language that explains meanings in contexts that are comprehensible. It is further recommended that jargons and industrial terms should be watered down with a view to localizing and contextualizing meaning. This it is believed will focus attention on solution creation while according a reportorial pattern to the factors that engendered the 2016/2017 recession.

INTRODUCTION into economic recession (p.12). A few months It is a common view the world over that the later, The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) strength of print media such as newspapers and reported in August 31, 2016 that Nigeria was magazines have largely been shaped by its officially in recession. Data released by the NBS historical experience, association with the showed that Nigeria's Gross Domestic Product freedom struggle and movements for social (GDP) declined by 2.06 per cent in the second emancipation, reform, and amelioration quarter of that year. The oil- and import- (Thakur, 1999).In discussing recession, Landry dependent economy also declined by 0.36 per (2000) describes it as a significant decline in cent in the first quarter. activity across the economy, lasting longer than According to Utomi (2017), much of what a few months. It is visible in industrial the Nigerian media reported concerning the production, employment, real income and recession pointed fingers at low petroleum wholesale-retail trade. The technical indicator prices, attacks on oil installations and foreign of a recession is two consecutive quarters of currency shortages as causes of the negative negative economic growthas measured by a economic indices. Utomi asserts that it is the country's Gross Domestic Product. media's role to deeply dwell on possible ways of Announcing Nigeria's recession, Egufe reducing the effects of the negative indices on (2016) states that as at March 2016, Nigeria's the lives of the ordinary citizens and how to economy has already recorded negative finally return the negative economic drift to a economic indices that suggested it had drifted positive direction.

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Farayibi (2017) asserts that, objectively, mandate by engaging stakeholders, deploying newspapers should endeavour to understand the the right media language, and proffering popular feelings of the society and the people, solution to the economic downturn is a problem give expression to such feelings, arouse desirable that this study seeks to tackle. sentiments and expose popular defects within the society without any form of fear. He holds Research Questions that economic actors need accurate and timely The following research questions were raised to information in order to allocate resources guide this study: efficiently. i) What are the characteristics of reportage on Generally, newspapers offer an amples lot Nigeria's economic recession by the for a variety of communication products such as newspapers? news, features, editorials and analysis which can ii) To what extent did the newspapers give be deployed towards providing solutions to prominence to reports on the economic national economic challenges. Also of great recession? importance in the delivery of this responsibility iii) What is the editorial focus of the is the language of dissemination and level of newspapers in the reportage of the reportorial activism exuded in the face of economic recession? economic challenges. In the face of Nigeria's iv) What is the tone of content delivery in news, economic recession experience, this study seeks features and editorials concerning the to explore how three selected newspapers recession? reported the economic recession that hit the country between August 2016 and September Theoretical Framework 2017with a view to inferring patterns. Meaning Construction Theory Walter Lippmann in his classical work, ``Public Statement of the Problem Opinion'' published in 1922, held that the factual With the economic recession that befell the features of the world often have little country as reported by the National Bureau of relationship to the beliefs that people entertain Statistics (NBS) in August 2016, Nigeria's Gross about that world. He held that the media's Domestic Product (GDP) declined in the first interpretation of events in the social world can and second quarters, leading to loss of jobs, radically alter the peoples' interpretations of inflation, high cost of living and low reality and their consequent pattern of action. productivity. Nigeria's media were therefore The meaning construction theory holds that the confronted with the challenge of proving their depictions of the press can be spurious and mettle by playing leading roles in the reportage misleading, creating distorted or even of the economic crisis and effectively completely false pictures of things to the world undertaking their constitutional roles of holding outside. government officials accountable and ensuring The theory maintains that even for the socio-economic development. government to give attention to societies' socio- The emergence of an economic recession in economic challenges, it must depend on the Nigeria presented the newspaper organizations knowledge and meanings it is able to make from in Nigeria with a challenge to exude reportorial media depictions and representations about activism focused on enthroning a positive such challenge. It holds that the media is a change. How these three select newspaper cornerstone institution for policy formulations organisations faired in fulfilling this social and societal challenge tackling. responsibility and development journalism It is clear that the theory has direct bearing

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):281 - 294 282 AMANNAH PEACE IREJU, & OKOH, FAITH MARK Newspaper Reportage of Nigeria's Economic Recession: An Appraisal on how the media and their responsibilities, have the tendency of reducing the economic meanings, depictions and portrayals about fortunes of the country and lead to low quality society assist in triggering social change., of living for the citizenry. Like other scholars, Therefore, the Meaning Construction Theory is they hold that the language deployed by the most appropriate for this study because the media in the reportage of national economic major undertaking of the researcher is to challenges goes a long way to showcase the appraise texts and meanings depicted by the seriousness or otherwise of such challenge. chosen print media in their reportage of the Preston (1996) asserts that it may be correct economic recession. The study is more to say that the media must show depth in interested in implied meanings of media reporting economic challenges.Of concern also reportage than in the manifest content. is the language used to express what has been dug out from investigation. He holds that Conceptual Review language quality and tilt hold a strong place in Media Language, Economic Reportorial Activism media message meaning and impact on the and Social Change society. The mass media remain a cornerstone Amadi and Obinna (2017) assert that institution for the socio-economic development language is impregnated with nuances and of every nation. The strategic place of societal connotations to a degree that justifies the transformation and the enthronement of countless postulations that have been about economic stability and viability cannot in language. These scholars insist that language anyway be over emphasized. The media use a use in the journalists' reportorial duties can plethora of techniques to portray messages in either change a situation or exacerbate it. such a way that desired societal changes are According to them, many journalists are already affected to the advantage of the people. These engrossed in language usage that privilege the technicalities are deliberately deployed to ideas and usages of the dominant class.Such ensure that humans enjoy a better quality of preferred usages and their meanings were the living within their social environment result of past power struggles and the triumph or (Simpson, 1993). defeat of one over another. Journalists' writing style and the language Utomi (2015) writes that social change can used in media text delivery remain major factors be triggered through editorial activism by the that contribute to the impact communication media. He charges journalists to be well messages can have within a social system. informed about the workings and trends in the Journalists are expected to show depth, focus various sectors of the economy, and establish and deliberate move to proffer solutions in their and cultivate contacts with experts and reportorial responsibilities. It is generally stakeholders who are knowledgeable enough to believed that journalists as society's watchdogs avail them of sound inputs into their contents. should hold government accountable. Delivering on this responsibility requires Methodology reportorial activism in several forms ranging Textual analysis methodology was adopted as a from the use of language, focus, commitment design in carrying out this study. The target and doggedness (Toynbee, 2002). population comprised all publications of the According to Cowen and Shenton (1999), newspapers under study within the review the society will be doomed if the media fail to period (between August 2016 when Nigeria's rise to the challenge of unveiling wrongdoings economy was announced to have officially gone within public institutions, especially those that into recession and September 2017 when the

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National Bureau of Statistics reported that the economy has returned to positive growth, which is a total of 14 months). By disaggregation, the newspapers have 426 publications each within the period under study. The Punch, The Guardian and The Nation for a period of fourteen months were used. Following the constructed calendar for the study, one issue each was chosen monthly from the three selected newspapers making a total of three issues per month. Hence, the sample size was 42 issues between 2016 and 2017.The data was reduced to themes, codified into meaning units and interpretatively situated within existing body of knowledge bearing in mind that media contents are intended to portray meanings that should resolve societal challenges.

Data Presentation News Reportage characteristics as contained in Newspapers

Table 4.1.1A: The Nation Newspapers Feature Report Titled ``These Recession Times'' – GbengaOmotoso

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar One Analytical interpretation The Nation 24 Nov. 2016 front page This is no time for politics. It is This segment of the article merely time for our leaders to exhibit calls the attention of the government the talents that they often claim- to its duty to protect the economy. It and they are acclaimed-to did not mention any way out. We possess, pull the country out of must remember that such duty to recession, and deliver the good protect the economy is already times they promised known to be that of the government.

Source: The Nation newspaper Thursday, November 24, 2016

Table 4.1.1B: The Nation Newspapers Feature Report Titled ``These Recession Times'' – GbengaOmotoso

Newspaper Date/Page Number Exemplar two Analytical interpretation The Nation Nov . 24 2016 (Front Page) Apparently worried that it has tried all This exemplar appears a deliberate ploy the tricks in the book, but there seems to paint the government as doing nothing to be little results and believing that it clinically serious to tackle the economic is being sabotaged, the government recession that befell the nation. This has resorted to some unorthodox newspaper portrayed the government as means to drive home its desire, such indulging in `Unorthodox' methods such as going after currency venture in as physically attacking currency what seems a desperate battle to vendors and criminalizing their activities. crack the forex conundrum. They This part of this story again was merely were beaten black and blue and pedestrian and unable to face the real dumped into detention. issue of seeking for solutions.

Source: The Nation newspaper Thursday, November 24, 2016

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Table 4.1.1C: The Nation Newspapers Feature Report Titled ``These Recession Times'' – GbengaOmotoso

Newspaper Date/Page number Exemplar Three Analytical interpretation The Nation November 24, 2016 Where has all the money gone? This This article obfuscates the segment of Nigerians is the question many Nigerians have that have been asking such rhetorical questions been asking, like an unrepentant as posed in the exemplar. This omission ignores gambler after a night of losses at the the claims by some Nigerians who believe that casino. The signs were there in politicians and their financial recklessness are bold, unmistakable letters that we responsible for the state of the nation's economy. had been hit by a financial crisis, Some Nigerians including myself believe that what was not clear was the weight Nigerian's vast resources are within the of the calamity. possession of a few Nigerians.

Source: The Nation, November 24 2016.

Table 4.1.1D: The Nation Newspapers Feature Report Titled ``These Recession Times'' – GbengaOmotoso

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar Four Analytical interpretation The Nation November 24, 2016 Secretary to the Government of the From the exemplar, the writer of this piece; Federation, Babachir David Lawal's portrayed the secretary to the federal lamentation when a group of government, a critical stakeholder in the Buhari- lawmakers visited him at work was led administration as merely displaying levity and dreadful…Our former presidents lack of commitment to providing lasting solution and heads of state had not been to the economic recession. The mere mention of paid their allowances for 10 loan acquisition to celebrate independence months…the last independence anniversary and non-payment of allowances to Anniversary was celebrated with a former heads of states and presidents are N33million loan. obvious representations of the government as docile and clueless. Although sometimes these significations patterns are innocent, they end up sending vilifying meaning to the message consumers.

Source: The Nation, November, 24 2016.

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Table 4.1.2A: The Nation Newspaper Report Titled `` APC: Recession Consequence of PDP Misrule” - Tony Akowe

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar One Analytical interpretation The Nation 6 Sept. 2016 p. 8 The All Progressives Congress (APC) This excerpt is guilty of the flaw of imposition yesterday said that prevailing economic of assumptions where the APC failed to hardship is as direct consequence of explain how the PDP led Nigeria into mismanagement of the nation's recession. This exemplar deserved to economy and looting by the past engage wider media treatment based on the administration. …the party said attempt parties involved and the strong assumptions by the main opposition, the Peoples made "that prevailing economic hardship is Democratic Party (PDP) to turn the truth as direct consequence of…looting by the on its head was fraudulent, insensitive past administration." Furthermore, what the and an insult to Nigerians …the PDP speaker termed 'the truth' was not specified must own up to its transgressions, and knowing that the meaning of the word 'truth' apologise to Nigerians. is relative.

Source: The Nation September6 6 2016

Table 4.1.2B: The Nation Newspaper Report Titled `` APC: Recession Consequence of PDP Misrule” - Tony Akowe

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar Two Analytical interpretation The Nation 6 Sept. 2016 pp. 8 The task before the President Buhari- In this piece, the national secretary of the All led APC administration is to restore progressives Congress (APC) was quoted as the country's battered economy back describing the nation's economy as `Battered' to health and all legitimate and Coming from the party's chief administrator, innovative means are being the signal sent to the public is that the ruling employed to achieve this…the party agrees with its opponents that the country will reach its potential under economy is really in bad shape and needs our leadership repair. The other leg of this exemplar says the government was doing everything legitimate and innovative to end the recession. This usage on its own does not depict seriousness. It did not show any spelt-out policy framework to tackle the economic challenge.

Source: The Nation September6 6 2016

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Table 4.1.2C: The Nation Newspaper Report Titled `` APC: Recession Consequence of PDP Misrule” - Tony Akowe

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar Three Analytical interpretation The Nation 6 Sept. 2016 pp. 8 The statement reads: "in reacting to Here, we have good advice when read on its the orchestrated and insensitive literal merit, but it again shows lack of advisory comments by the PDP on the content. Being focused did not mean anything economy, the APC urges the other than being mindful of the recession, the president Buhari-led administration report portrayed the party as lacking in the to remain focused in its bid to required content to advise the government restore economic growth correctly to produce ideas capable of triggering positive changes in the face of the economic challenge that faced the country.

Source: The Nation September6 6 2016

Language Tonality in Newspaper Reportage

Table 4.1.3A: The Nation Newspaper Report Titled `` Obasanjo attacks Buhari, senator, reps and judges” - Yusuf Alli

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar One Analytical interpretation The Nation November 24, 2016 Front Former President, Chief Olusegun Looking at Obasanjo's antecedents in page Obasanjo spoke yesterday on the state dealing with his successors, this of the economy. He urged President newspaper's approach to handling the Muhammadu Buhari to urgently fix interview is tilted towards portraying things "because Nigerian's are President MuhammaduBuhari as suffering" … He hoped Buhari would incompetent. Saying that he, Obasanjo, have the courage to deal with the hoped that Buhari will have the `courage' corruption in the legislature as he is to deal with corruption already gave the probing the judiciary…"a drastic president out as either weak, incapable problem deserves a drastic solution, or playing lip service to the anti- not minding the method". corruption war.

Source: The Nation Thursday November 24, 2016

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Table 4.1.3B: The Nation Newspaper Report Titled “Obasanjo attacks Buhari, senator, reps and judges” - Yusuf Alli

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar Two Analytical interpretation The Nation November 24, 2016 " National assembly is a den of Describing the national assembly as a Front page unarmed robbers cesspool of corruption without further " Fix the economy questioning implicates the reporter in the The former president denounced the crime of 'name calling' which the former national assembly as a cesspool of president is guilty of. This outright corruption and some lawmakers as condemnation of members of the national "unarmed robbers" who are assembly as "den of unarmed robbers" defrauding the nation through without mention of specific reason has constituency projects and bogus helped former President Olusegun Obasanjo allowances and failing to subject to push forth what can be termed 'hate themselves to institutional control. speech'.

Source: The Nation Thursday November 24, 2016

Table 4.1.4A: The Guardian Newspaper Report Titled “How Nigeria Slipped into Economic Recession” - Roselineokere

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar One Analytical interpretation The Guardian September 6,2016 Running an oil-dependent This segment of this report boldly itemized the pp.27 economy, lack of sustainable causes of the recession. It however failed to development of Nigeria's mention the people or administration responsible petroleum revenues have for this menace knowing fully that the past been identified as some of the administration and the present one have been reasons the country slipped playing the blame game. Such declarative stance into recession. by the reporter would have given an insight on her line of thought as regards the recession.

Source: The Guardian, September 6, 2016.

Table 4.1.4B: The Guardian Newspaper Report Titled “How Nigeria Slipped into Economic Recession” – Roseline Okere

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar Two Analytical interpretation The Guardian September 6,2016 "…I want to say that we did not This excerpt is contradictory as the speaker pp.27 have economy before. Nigeria seems to be countering his own statement by economy focused on oil saying "…we did not have economy…" and later resources and lacked productive states that the economy was a 'rental economy'. base. Any economy that lacks This statement aimed at crediting the present productive base is a rental administration however failed to state what the economy. administration has done differently to turn the economy around.

Source: The Guardian, September 6, 2016.

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Table 4.1.4C: The Guardian Newspaper Report Titled “How Nigeria Slipped into Economic Recession” – Roseline Okere

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar Three Analytical interpretation The Guardian September 6,2016 "…I am not totally against borrowing This piece, which was written from an interview pp.27 to manage the economy. But when with Dr Duriji Metumara of the Covenant such money is borrowed it should be University, saw the government as incapable of directed towards building the investing in the economy. He was referring to the economy and should not be stolen. government's move to borrow from foreign agencies. His advice that such money must be used to build the economy either portrays the government borrowing for other purposes or capable of diverting funds from their original reasons for perhaps other reason not for the economic gains of the generality of the citizenry.

Source: The Guardian, September 6, 2016.

Table 4.1.5A: The Guardian Newspaper Report Titled “Promotion of Made-in-Nigeria Products, Way Out of Recession” - Benjamin Alade

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar One Analytical interpretation The Guardian December 2, 2016 The present administration, if it can This exemplar is an act of saying nothing pp.19 vigorously pursue its diversification slogan as the article failed to establish a straight could turn the pains into gains. The noise is line of thought by being explicit with what growing louder that the present economic the country needs to produce specifically downturn would be reversed if Nigeria and where to sell it in order to buy its way produce, patronize, sell and consume out of the recession as previous locally made goods. It is high time administration has claimed to have Nigerians embrace buying of made-in- invested billions into other sectors of the Nigeria produce and service with a national economy such as agriculture and pride that "this is our own". manufacturing.

Source: The Guardian Friday December 2, 2016.

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Table 4.1.5B: The Guardian Newspaper Report Titled `` Promotion of Made-in-Nigeria Products, Way Out of Recession” - Benjamin Alade

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar Two Analytical interpretation The Guardian December 2, 2016 The CBN said it has pumped about This piece did not mince words in its frontal pp.19 N1.36 trillion into the real sector. The attack on the federal government, It openly facility, he said, would support large described the government as one that enterprises for start-ups and expansion indulges in rhetoric, slogans and is incapable of the financing needs of N500 million up of real actions to change situations. The piece to a maximum of N10 billion…Well, the already formed the opinion that the CNN policy question is: how many have had access of injecting more money into the economy to this and many funds. Your guess is as was a failure before its implementation. The good as mine. Government should move newspaper was of the view that the ordinary beyond mere rhetoric and slogans into businessman in Nigeria who should benefit real action. from the real sector buffer will never get it.

Source: The Guardian Friday December 2, 2016.

Editorial Focus of Reportage

Table 4.1.6: The Guardian Newspaper Report Titled `` Recession Confirmed, Now What?” –Nonso Obikill

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar Analytical interpretation The Guardian 6 Sept. 2016 pp. 19 As the economy hits the rocks policy This exemplar exaggerates the economic makers need to ask themselves: recession as a total death of the economy. what should we stop doing? The Some agents in the exemplar were hidden federal government needs to stop its as the supposed policy makers were not hostility to markets and the private mentioned. Also the writer failed to explain sector in general what he meant by 'hostility to markets'

Source: The Guardian, September 6.

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Table 4.1.7: Punch Newspaper Report Titled ``Fiscal Measures in Times of Recession” – Odilim Enwegbara, Apo

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar Analytical interpretation Punch 1 Aug. 2016 "At a time of recession, what This exemplar has a number of textualized flaws Keynesian expansionary fiscal such as inter-textual referencing where the author stimulus policy has …government is referring to a 'Keynesian' policy that is should spend its way out of the completely strange to the Nigerian audience. Also recession. That has been what the writer mentioned what is obtainable in developed economies have been developed countries as a possible application in doing…, but using quantitative Nigeria without exploring other factors that can easing to print new money and inject make it work. This is also guilty of what Amadi it into the economy." (2016) terms 'rhetorical vision' where the writer views the recession from a developed world perspective.

Source: Punch 1ST August 2016 (Online)

Table 4.1.8: The Punch Newspaper Report Titled “Recession: Nigeria can export its way out” - Michael Onuoha

Newspaper Date/ Page number Exemplar Analytical interpretation The Punch December 2, 2016 In recent weeks, Nigeria was enmeshed in a debate This excerpt is guilty of the flaws of pp. 23 as to whether or not she should sell some of her agent/patient obfuscation and assets to earn foreign exchange that can help the sexist language. The article failed country come out of its current economic to mention those alleged recession. The assets touted for sale included the 'Nigerians' who were enmeshed in Nigeria national liquidated natural gas company, the debate and who ordinate the some refineries as well as government stakes in debate. Also, the use of 'her' while joint venture operations and the Africa finance referring to Nigerian assets corporation amongst others portrays Nigeria as a lady.

Source: The Punch Friday December 2, 2016.

Discussion of Findings The exemplars from these newspapers provided an insight into how the economic recession was reported. Exemplar 3A highlights the comment made by former President Obasanjo advising President Buhari to urgently fix things. As much as it can be said that all former presidents as well as other citizens have the right to contribute to the growth of the economy, such contributions should be done on moral grounds such that those who are offering such advice should be considered morally upright from their record. What the reporter should have done is to inquire from the former president what he meant by 'drastic solution' and compare such with his (President Obasanjo) previous methods to give the excerpt a bit of credibility. Also, hidden underneath this statement is the fact that the rule of law can be sidelined just to deal with 'corruption' making the need for the law useless in the first place. This was evident in the statement that “a drastic problem deserves a drastic solution, not

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):281 - 294 291 AMANNAH PEACE IREJU, & OKOH, FAITH MARK Newspaper Reportage of Nigeria's Economic Recession: An Appraisal minding the method.” This “drastic” method should have enabled the audience to understand could subtly include witch-hunting of perceived more about the recession, the actual role the political opponents and this will be termed government is playing and their own individual dictatorial or high handedness. The failure of roles towards eliminating or reducing the effect the reporter to inquire further from the former of the recession on the masses. president leaves an unfilled vacuum on the The stories on recession as published by the audience who deserves to be properly newspapers within the study period were represented by the media in situations like this. basically on awareness creation with political Corroborating this position, Rosen (1999) posits parties and their actors pushing blames to each that the media being a chronicler of democracy other without discussing the core issues that led are to serve the general welfare of the public. to the recession and how such issues will be This welfare includes querying every political prevented from further occurrence. This finding statement with the aim of clarifying some is contrary to that of Derick (2013) who found hidden truths within the texts. that proactive and permeating nature of Radio The three newspapers studied reported a Botswana and Hydara Radio made it possible majority of the recession articles as news stories for even Botswana's dwellers in the interior areas giving it the episodic attention usually accorded to understand the threat faced by the economy news stories by the Nigerian media. This and the need for a concerted effort to effect episodic reporting style fails to go into details by positive change. This means that the media can linking specific causes to an effect and following use their reportage to effect positive change on up on promises made by the government until it any topical issue through detailed and elaborate is logically concluded. Such thematic reporting reporting. style would have made the government more Amongst the three selected newspapers accountable making them talk less and do more. studied by the researcher, The Guardian The articles were mostly written as reported newspaper gave the recession story more speech where quotes from politicians and other prominence by reporting it seven (7) times on experts were directly stated with little or no the front page within the study period, while The further questioning for clarification and Nation newspaper reported the recession story confirmation of what is being said. This pattern six (6) times on its front page. The Punch of reporting basically does the job of 'Agenda newspaper had no front page publication on Sending' rather than 'Agenda Setting' which is recession within the study period. Cumulatively, what is required of the media, where media all three newspapers gave little prominence to agenda is supposed to be projected in the interest the recession story between August 2016 and of the public (from public agenda). By agenda September 2017. The importance of a story is sending in this context means the transfer of the determined by its placement on a newspaper. ideas of the political class by the media directly Major stories are given front page attention to the audience without proper scrutiny. while other equally important stories are placed The reviewed reports on Nigeria's economic either on the back page or the center spread. recession by the three selected newspapers were These three underlisted newspapers gave only written using some economic jargons like 13 front page attention to the reports on Keynesian expansionary, fiscal policy, quantitative recession out of a total of 185 issues reported by easing, and financial crisis among others. These the papers within the study period. Out of these jargons were however used without proper figures, The Nation newspaper reported the story elaboration stating the direction of its meaning twice on its back page. The remaining issues from the reporter's perspective. This elaboration were reported on other pages outside front page,

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):281 - 294 292 AMANNAH PEACE IREJU, & OKOH, FAITH MARK Newspaper Reportage of Nigeria's Economic Recession: An Appraisal center spread and back page. The Punch reported failing to place the majority of the story on the the recession story seventy-six (76) times front page. Rather, most of the reports were anchoring it in the possible causal factors that placed on other pages of the newspapers. led to the recession with some suggested The continuous episodic nature of the solutions. recession reports by these newspapers is not However, all the reports failed to look at fashionable because they just show up with one critical aspects of the Nigerian economy, whose recession story and allow the story die down failures led the country into recession. Focusing without any less on thought or learnt. People the editorial in this regard would have raised tend to give seasonal attention to stories and as critical issues within the public sphere thereby time passes, it is as though the stories never leaving the government and other organizations happened. The consequence of this then or individuals exposed to public scrutiny. That becomes a repetition of the mistakes of the past. way they will be exposing those responsible for Continuous emphasis on the reasons why the recession to the general public. The theme of certain events happen will go a long way in the reports was blame shifting with the present teaching the people how to avoid such negativity and past administration blaming each other as associated with such happening. the cause of the recession. Such themes include “APC: Recession consequences of PDP Recommendations misrule” (The Nation September 6, 2016, p.8). Based on the findings of the study, the following Obasanjo attacks Buhari, Senators, Reps and recommendations are made: Judges”- (The Nation, November 24, 2016, front 1. Reporters should write in language that page). explains meanings in contexts that are The tone of some of the newspaper reports comprehensible. are derogatory with phrases such as “cesspool 2. Jargons and industrial terms should be of corr uption”, “unarmed robbers”, watered down with a view to localizing and unrepentant gambler” used on people without contextualizing meaning. giving reasons for such name-calling. This 3. Reports should focus on solution creation situation is capable of representing the speaker instead of being tailored to work as as being better than those who they (the destructively critiquing the system. speakers) are referring to. 4. Reportorial text tonality should be patterned to expose causes of economic Conclusion crisis while thematic format or reporting This study, having undertaken an appraisal of should be imbibed by newspapers to enable three print media organizations in Nigeria, reporters to follow up topical issues till their found out that the way these papers covered the logical conclusion. economic recession showed that The Punch, The Guardian and The Nation did not pay their REFERENCES constitutional debt which they owe the society. Amadi, F. A. &Obinna, C. J. K (2017). A critical Their reports did not help the society a great deal discourse analysis of reportorial contexts in in managing the economic crisis; rather, the budgets. Review of Communication and media Studies, 1(2), 44-50. reporters indulged in name calling, blame game Boyte, N. (2005). Botswana's economic struggles and the use of language that does not explain before Festus Mogae presidency. The Expert 3(2), meanings that are comprehensible. These 234-239. myriads of reports however failed to give the Farayibi, A. O. (2017). Perspectives on Nigeria's desired prominence to the recession reports by economic recession. Allied Research Journal, 2

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(6), 43-45. personality Argus, 7(2), 45-47. Landry, C. (2000). The creative city: A toolkit for urban Thakur, K. (1999). Newspaper trends in India. innovators. London: Earth scan Publications Ltd. Maharashtra: Pune University Press. Okonjo-Iweala N. (2009). The global financial crisis: Toynbee, J. (2006). The politics of representation. In Impact and implications for Nigeria. A lecture M. Gilepsie& J. Toynbee (Eds.), Analysing media delivered at the African University of Science texts (pp. 160-184). England: Open University and Technology, Abuja. The Economic Press. Confidential Magazine. Usman, A.U. (2005). Role of money in Nigerian Ruker, G. H. (2016). Recession: When businesses politics. A paper presented at a Two-Day pilot witness downturn and cease to expand. Journal training organized by IFES in collaboration with Des Ivorian Rivera, 2(4), 67-68. IREX, at Ni'imah Hotel, Kano. Ryan, R. (2014). Controlling and avoiding Utomi, P. (2015, 17 August). Who saves journalism, depression using government powers. The civic culture in Nigeria? Guardian, p. 20.

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O R I G I NA L A RT I C L E

Appraisal of Tiv Folklore and Cultural Education in Hagher's Swem Karagbe and Gbilekaa's Prized Chickens Are Not Tasty

ANDREW AONDOFA NYIKYAA Department of English Federal College of Education, Kano E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract This study examined the use of Tiv folkloric forms in Iyorwuese Hagher's Swem Karagbe, and Saint Gbilekaa's Prized Chickens are not Tasty written from Tiv cultural background, and the extent to which the plays communicate cultural education. The paper deployed textual analyses as methodology in examining Hagher's dramatisation of the trip to Swem Karagbe (ancestral land), by would-be political leaders amidst the “world” of Adzov (spirits), and the fatality suffered by most of them, with only one returning to the community to assume leadership and, Gbilekaa's dramatization of the menace of Tsav institution perpetuated by Jor-Gbaikyom on Shacia even against the wish of his fellow cult members and elders. This paper concluded that the use of Tiv folkloric forms in these plays such as religious myths of Swem (ancestral land), Adzov (non human spirits), Tsav (witchcraft) and dance festivals through folktale narrative is considered as deliberately significant, capable of achieving cultural education. The study recommended, among others, that playwrights should do more research in their cultural milieu in order to portray the actual ideas of their cultural society, and that cultural institutions should commission or sponsor talented playwrights to research adequately into our epic traditions with a view to documenting them in order to preserve and promote cultural education.

Keywords: Appraisal, Tiv Folklore, Cultural Education and Swem Karagbe.

Introduction Africans hold tenaciously to as their way of life. Folklore as a body of cultural materials is rooted In the words of Usman, (2014) folkloric in the socio-cultural milieu of the society. It tradition is a very rich and fertile legacy that exists chiefly to address the basic social, cultural Africa bequeathed to many parts of the world and individual needs of the people in the society. especially North America, South America, and Such needs according to Gbilekaa (2013) the West Indies. This was apparently made include entertainment, recreation, education, possible through belligerent folkloric activities and cultural perpetuation. Folklore is integral in such as storytelling, rituals, hunting expeditions, defining the histories and cultural heritages of artefacts, as well as symbols that were kept and the people in the society be it in Africa, America, cherished for posterity. Europe or other parts of the world. Thus, we According to Darah (2014 p.34), the term have deliberate ascription of folklore to given “folklore” was first used by the English societies (be it regions or nations) such as antiquarian, Williams Thoms in a letter English folklore, American folklore, Chinese published in the London journal; The Athenaeum folklore, Hausa folklore, Yoruba folklore, Igbo in 1846. Abrams (1999 p.100) defines folklore as folklore, Tiv folklore, Igala folklore, Ibibio “the collective name applied to sayings, verbal folklore and so on. compositions, and social rituals that have been In African societies, folklore serves as the handed down solely, or at least primarily, by symbolic representation of the people's words of mouth and by example rather than in philosophy or worldview, a phenomenon that written forms”. By this he refers to amongst

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):295 - 306 295 ANDREW AONDOFA NYIKYAA Appraisal of Tiv Folklore and Cultural Education in Hagher's Swem Karagbe and Gbilekaa's Prized ... other things; folktales, proverbs, riddles, songs, the raconteur amidst songs, music, dance, myths, legends, and superstitions. riddles (Ukikyaa) and other renditions. This It is therefore a traditional system that paper dwells predominantly on religious myths belongs to a given people within a geographical and institutions of human interaction like dance area and, is exhibited through oral history; via festivals, which are the preoccupation of the the instrumentality of folktales and other selected plays. renditions. The focus of this paper therefore, is The storytelling art as a form of Tiv folklore to appraise the use of folklore peculiar to Tiv serves as an expressive medium by which the people, and how the usage propels cultural other folkloric forms are imparted for the education in two selected plays: Hagher's Swem purpose of induction of younger ones, cultural Karagbe and Gbilekaa's Prized Chickens are not preservation and entertainment. It manifests in Tasty. two broad forms; fairytale or folktale known as Kwagh-alom/Kwagh-hir based on Alom (Hare) as The Nature of Tiv Folkloric Tradition the protagonist along with other characters The crux of Tiv folklore indicates a large including the human and spirits. The other reservoir of cultural or traditional materials folktale form is based on Tiv myths; stories woven in oral tradition and carefully knitted about the cosmological worldview of the Tiv together for orientation, education and social people, and other cultural or traditional interactions as well as harmony in the society. symbols, artifacts, monuments, superstitions, Tiv word for culture is Gbaaondo, which rituals and festivals. translates as God's creation, and simply means The storytelling art referred to by Gbilekaa the origin of things since the time of God's (2013 p.219) as “folktale theatre” is not only the creation (Gbor, 2006). What constitutes Tiv common phenomenon in traditional Tiv society folklore therefore, is substantially an integral but also a very significant form of Tiv folklore. part of Tiv culture and tradition. Significant This is because the folktales define the entire aspects of the people's culture and tradition are folkloric tradition of the people. In folktales, a artistically organised, preserved, and are usually gestalt of stories (of varying genres) are told and transmitted through the oral traditional modes performed in the village squares, usually at night in the society. Forms of Tiv folklore which we and, in effect provoke other forms of oral shall discuss further tie neatly into Tiv renditions like songs, chants and riddles. The philosophy; religion, social interaction, art, phenomenon Finnegan (1987 p.54) describes as occupation, politics and so on. “significant indigenous performance mode Although, there exist a large reservoir of Tiv throughout Africa”. folkloric forms, some of which include religious Accordingly, Tiv folklore revolves round the myths of Swem (ancestral land), Tsav human and the spirits as well as how the two (Witchcraft), Adzov/Mbaterev (Non-human worlds interact and co-habit the same spirits), Ikyarem (proverbial green snake), cosmological habitat. The spirit world is Wankwase hungwa Idyeregh (descended naked comprised of the Adzov/Mbakuv or Mbatarev woman from the east). Symbolic folk materials (cosmological spirits) and Mbatsav (witches and like Idyer (wooden ritual gong), Anger (weaved wizards) and they operate within the same traditional dress), Imborivungu (ritual totem), environment as humans, even though they and folktales involving animals and human cannot be seen with ordinary human eyes. characters like Alom (Hare, the trickster) and Tor Notably, both the human and the spirits in the (the human king) in relation to Aondo (supreme light of this folkloric tradition are subject to being) which are told and performed through Aondo, (the Supreme Being). According to

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Hagher (2003 p.27), “Aondo (God) is the only location, people take adventurous trips to the deity the Tiv people acknowledge. They land at the Kwande/Cameroon Mountains (a however, believe in the efficacy of Mbatsav mile away from the Cameroun border) to (witches and wizards) and Adzov or Mbataregh acquire magical powers or take the oath of (spirits) and honour for the earth as food grows allegiance regarding any contentious issue. there and, for the fact that the dead are also According to Makar (1994 p.4): buried in the earth”. Central to Tiv folkloric tradition is the myth The Swem Mountain, towering three surrounding the origin and ancestry, which have thousand feet above sea level is easily been told and preserved through the storytelling identifiable. It has three ridges and one tradition. The ancestry story indicates the of its pinnacles is composed of a large migration saga of the Tiv people from the Bantu prominent rock resting on three huge tribes in the present day Democratic Republic of stone pillars, which from afar gives the Congo, in South Eastern Africa. It is believed semblance of a round hut. that they left their Bantu neighbours when dispute arose and crossed the River Congo by This ancestral homeland shrouded in myths was the help of Ikyarem, (the green snake) which later known as Swem Karagbe, (ancestral offered itself as bridge across the river. Many Tiv mountains where Karagbe lived) ascribing it to people believe that, it was the spirit of one of the one Tiv ancestral descendant, Karagbe (from ancestors that appeared as the green snake to Nongov lineage) who desecrated the Ilyum rescue his descendants from danger by the (Sacred) altar and was beheaded after refusal to Congo River. The Tiv people as a result do not be arrested to stand trial before the people for his kill a green snake. It is regarded as sacred, being crime (Makar, 1994). a permanent friend of all Tiv descendants. The Tsav (Witchcraft) is another mythic people then came to settle at Swem, (ancestral tradition that is an integral part of Tiv folklore. land) after the historic cross of the Congo River. The notion of tsav can be conceptualised under Swem is a place believed to be situated on the the purview of Tiv religion, which centres on border between the present day Kwande Local three fundamental (beliefs) things; Aondo (the Government of Benue State and the Cameroon Supreme Being), Tsav (witchcraft), Adzov or Mountains. As Ikyarem (the green snake) is Mbataregh (spirits). The concept of Tsav is considered sacred, Swem is not only sacred but viewed generally as an internalised potency in reputed to be of both legendary and of religious man as part of his personality. However, Tsav importance to the Tiv people up till today. exists at different levels, as Hagher (2003 p.27) Akiga, cited by Makar (1994) who visited the argues, “Tsav has two kinds; constitutional and location called Swem in 1934 describes it as a hill unconstitutional ones”. The unconstitutional in the land of the Ukwese and Udir, the Bush Tsav, according to him, destroys the land, and is Tribes through which the Tiv passed on their offset by the constitutional Tsav which is the one way down from the hills. This presupposes that held by the Mbatsav elders to produce fertility, Swem is a physical location in the Nigeria good health, and abundance in the land. It Cameroun Mountains. However, Swem is also should be noted that this destructive or believed to be a symbol of justice and truth. The unconstitutional Tsav practice though not in Tiv pay allegiance to Swem as a religious symbol conformity with the Tiv ideal traditional and usually represented in a clay, native pot religious life, escalates to a malevolent containing green Ayande leaves and ashes from a proportion and usually invoke the use of high particular shrine, (Ushima, 2002). As ancestral level Akombo (magic powers) which have

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):295 - 306 297 ANDREW AONDOFA NYIKYAA Appraisal of Tiv Folklore and Cultural Education in Hagher's Swem Karagbe and Gbilekaa's Prized ... destructive consequences like premature deaths, back to this original home and come into crops failure, barrenness, misfortunes, the presence of our god-head. Every year, nightmares, amongst others. on their return, they bring with them Notably, it is the myths of swem, Adzov and, fortune and misfortune, sickness and Tsav as well as dance festivals that have been health. For the past few years the land has harnessed by Iyorwuese Hagher and Saint been without such breed of strong men. Gbilekaa in Swem Karagbe and Prized Chickens are That is why we have had a strong not Tasty respectively. continuous current of misfortune. My people, if anybody should desire Forms of Tiv Folklore in Swem Karagbe and Prized leadership, he must go to Swem Karagbe, Chickens are not Tasty our original home (p. 502). The forms of folklore used in the two plays are All: Point! Point! rooted in the Tiv cultural worldview. This Chief Nyamazenga: And bring back fortune. manifests in three broad dimensions. That is the And bring us wealth. use of Tiv religious myth such as Swem Karagbe Scribe: Elders of the land, the king has spoken. (ancestral land) vis-a-vis the spirits' world You may now depart. (Adzov/Mbatarev), the institution of witchcraft (Tsav), in relation to the Supreme Being (Aondo). This resolution set the pace for the rest of the The other dimension is dance festivals meant for action in the play, where a group of (politicians) celebration of fame and accomplishment. There people who desire leadership decide to undergo is also the dimension of complementary the rigour of travelling to and from the ancestral folkloric elements such as, proverbial land. Accordingly, the trip to Swem Karagbe by a verbalisation, folk occupations, and allegorical group of politicians to bring back fortune for characterisation. These folkloric forms their community is the preoccupation of the harnessed in these plays constitute the story. But the all-important journey turns out to theatricality of the play texts in that they form be more heartrending than expected as their the basis of dramatisation in the texts. In other dialogue reveals: words, the folkloric forms conform to what Ukala in his theory of Folkism refers to as the Gbabo: So what is all this trekking in aid of? We “folkist” elements in dramatic texts when we are have been on our feet for six days now. thorough-going in reflecting our cultural Yatwen: My God, the things we do to show our sensibilities (Ukala, 1999). leadership qualities! In the play, Swem Karagbe, Chief Gbabo: I hope this blasted Swem Karagbe Nyamazenge, the king of Awuna community in Mountain is at hand. a quest to proffer solution to leadership Yatwen: It passes my understanding why a man challenge summons his elders and opinion of my caliber should be tossed about by a leaders for deliberation. In the end they resolve senile chief. I could have gone in my that those seeking to lead them must henceforth helicopter. take a trip to Swem and come back to prove their Fuusu: This is a competition, not a goddamn worth. exhibition of chauvinism.

Chief Nyamazenga: My father spoke of a place The three politicians lament here on their way to he claimed was our original home, where Swem Karagbe Mountains at the time their slave our god dwelt, and still dwells. Every year, guide is not with them. Upon his return, the since we left it, a few chosen men travel journey continues as he urges.

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Ankpan: Heh! You there. Be off. This is no place which the narrator captures thus: to rest (p.505). Narrator: At last, they arrive on the peak of Swem Karagbe. Everywhere was pitch The other dimension of Tiv religious worldview darkness on the mountain. But their eyes is dramtised here when the characters come face were opened, and they saw a beautiful city to face with the spirit “world” of adzov. of solid gold, and their god addressed them. Ankpan: This is no place to rest. It is a dwelling Narrator (as god): My sons, welcome to the place of the man-eating Ajikokos who hunt land of your great ancestors am very in the day and sleep at night. As it is happy indeed that your chief has, at last, getting almost night, they should be back hit the best way of leadership. I will today any minute. (A little while later, the grant you anything you asked for politicians run panting unto stage. Ankpan is yourselves, and for your tribe. Remember, the Last to arrive. They mime the action of for any good thing asked, you must also pushing against a powerful wind or an invisible ask for a bad one (p.511). force. As the others begin to cry out, Ankpan Yatwen: (steps forward) Aondo, God hear me. I bursts into incantations). want to own all the biggest shops in the Aondoooooo God land. Oh Almighty God Narrator: For your people? God, sleep peacefully, don't stir. Yatwen: Let there be famine. I want to have in God, be still. Don't God, be thus violent. my bed the most beautiful women of the (The politicians feel relieved). land. He is soon going to be here. Gbabo:(takes his place) I want to be the governor Gbabo: God himself? and also the chairman of all the boards Ankpan: No, not God. This is the land of Adzov. and corporations in the land. Those spirits people that occupy the earth Narrator: For the people? with us and take part in all human Gbabo:Let development escape them. I want activities. my name to be seen every morning in Yatwen: I can't believe it. (An invisible partner pages of newspapers, and heard on radio, slaps him on the mouth. He reacts sharply and and my face on deletion every hour. cries out.) I believe! I believe! I am feeling Ankpan: (in kneeling position) I ask that I may thirsty. continue to be the eye of the people; to Fuusu & Gbabo: We are feeling thirsty and serve with courage, humility and patience. hungry too. [A huge grotesquely masked Narrator: And the land? creature appears with various delicacies. He set Ankpan: Let the people multiply and be healthy. them in front of the travelers] (p 506). Let prosperity reign and poverty and ignorance be banished in the land (pp. 511 It is here that Fuusu gets lured and enticed with & 512). Nyumugh's (one of Adzov spirits) food, despite warning by Akpan, their slave guide. The three politicians, who are now reduced to They spend months on the way but two (with Fuusu consumed on the way) with eventually get to their destination and the their slave guide upon their return to the politicians present their requests before the God community, take a different route. They now at Swem, including Ankpan, the slave guide who encounter female contractors with their queen is also asked by the god to make his request mother who is poised to capture the men.

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Mammywata: Who are you strangers, and what To these two, it is a test too inviting for them to do you seek in my queendom? resist and they are consumed by the Queen and Ankpan: Great queen, we are your humble her cohosts, except for Ankpan, their slave guide servants from the land of men. We who is able to stand the test of time against the journeyed to Swem Karagbe and on our female contractors. way back, we missed our ways. Another example of the use of Tiv folklore in Hagher's Swem Karagbe is that of dance The Queen and her female contractors here celebration or festival. In the play, the use of represent the spirits world. The politicians on dance as a form of Tiv folklore appears on two their way to Swem Karagbe encounter the land of occasions. The first is in Happening Three the Ajikokos which represent the male spirits and where the female contractors with their queen, now on their way back they stray into the female Mammywata play host to the politicians and spirits' world, where the Queen here is not their slave guide who are descending from Swem willing to release them. Mountains back to their community.

Mammywata: Great men, great warriors and Mammywata: My friends and lords please be leaders, I am but a woman; but I promise seated. Let my band entertain you. (Drinks you that even if you spend a year with me, and food are served).Let us eat together in a you won't regret it. After the day's work, it bond of unequalled friendship. (They is right that a man should relax. What begin to eat and chat merrily except for Ankpan better rest can you have than at my palace? who feigns sickness. Women dancers form a We have little over one thousand women circle in front of the men and begin to dance here, richly endowed with womanhood; the belly dance with erotic gestures) [p.515]. all at your service (p.515). This dance is significant in the sense that Tiv The two politicians are already falling to the people usually dance in circle and women trick having seen the array of beautiful women. dancers generally are known for waist and belly twisting while dancing, even though this Yatwen: (to Gbabo) Look at the paragon of particular dance is purposely targeted at beauty! seducing the male visitors to their “queendom”. Gbabo: Strange things her eyes do to me. Are Another place dance is used in the play is at these the fruits of leadership? the end of the play in Happening Four where Yatwen: Of course (p.515). Ankpan, having returned alive to the Mammywata: (sensing the men are drunk) Now community is now crown governor of Awuna come, my naughty children (she embraces community, and dance celebrations are them both). What naughty things do you performed to grace the occasion. want to do? Would you like to crawl? (She pushes them down, and they craw like children. Chief Nyamazenga: My governor I salute you. She turns to the audience). (Several dance groups perform in celebration These are your leaders. (Beckons to some as group after group come to pay tribute) women). Would you like to make little [p.527]. donkeys out of them? Girls: Yes, yes. [And they jump on the backs of the The dance here is typical of Tiv people two, who are too drunk to protest, and only celebration where different dance group feature smile sheepishly] (p.516). in a ceremony of this nature. It is called dance

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):295 - 306 300 ANDREW AONDOFA NYIKYAA Appraisal of Tiv Folklore and Cultural Education in Hagher's Swem Karagbe and Gbilekaa's Prized ... celebration and can some time take the form of Jor-Gbaikyom's tsav spirit now takes him to an couple dance (Ivom Uden) or tribute dance such open confrontation with Shacia as he seeks the as the one the playwright describes here, which reason to use against him in his Mbatsav is a tribute to Ankpan who is just chosen as (witches' coven) cult meeting. governor of Awuna community. In Gbilekaa's Prized Chickens are not Tasty, we Jor-Gbaikyom: Shacia Tor-Gbande, great son also see a composite use of Tiv folklore. The use of the soil, best farmer of the clan, of Tsav (witchcraft) as a religious myth with handsome and elegant, husband of many jealousy as its metaphor appears prominently in beautiful wives. I salute you. the play. Jor-Gbaikyom, Shacia's maternal uncle Shacia: Jor my brother, what manner of carries his tsav practice to the malicious extent, greetings is this? Have you also taken up and it develops to the most deadly proportion. In praise singing lately? Situation One, we see his jealousy and hatred Jor-Gbaikyom: Even if I were to take up praise over Shacia being reviewed. singing, I won't compose my songs for Akile: But more seriously, a wealthy man who is upstarts, clowns and debtors. also fashionable is identified by what he Shacia: Meaning…? wear and when he matches it with Jor-Gbaikyom: You owe me a female ward as character and personality like Shacia, exchange of my sister for your mother. then, he has what it takes to be an Shacia: Oh!Oh! So it is true what I have been honourable man. hearing? Jor-Gbaikyom: Abomination! Why do you spoil Jor-Gbaikyom: What have you heard? good talks with bad news of impostors? Shacia: That you have been complaining to your cult members that I owe you a female Abida, the burukutu seller quickly senses danger ward (pp 19 & 20). in the conversation and then raises alarm. His resolve to destroy Shacia, the successful Abida: I say if you men are not here to drink, man of that clan through his tsav (witchcraft) then go away. Leave…I will not have my activities is clear. He has to convince his fellow place used for malevolent schemes (p. 6). Mbatsav (witches and wizards) cult members for him to strike the man down. Moreover, the hatred develops fast. In Situation Jor-Gbaikyom: Birds of the night, who nobody Two, where Shacia's age mates and other elders rouses without cause, (there is gene Response come to celebrate with him for taking his tenth of mhn) I have a small matter to present to wife, they also smell a rat because of Jor- you. Gbaikyom's conspicuous absence. 1st Bird: Owl of the night, you know the penalty of rousing us up for no good cause. Make Agia: But what disturbs me greatly is that his sure therefore that no matter how small own householder and protector is not the matter is, it is worthy of being here. Did he not inform him of this presented before us. occasion? My age mates let me not spoil Jor-Gbaikyom: Kite of the night, I am aware. your day. I only ask a question. Simply put, Birds of the night, have a Akende: A good observation Agia has made. young cockerel for sacrifice to you. Let me answer for Shacia. All elders in 2dn Bird: Good but what is the reason for the this clan were invited (p.16 & 17). sacrifice. Jor-Gbaikyom: It is showing dangerous signals.

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It is learning to crow before it is mature (p. their backs, getting down with 25). outstretched hands doing a diligent set of movements as if bones don't inhabit their Although, the acclaimed owner of the chicken bodies. I am certain you want to see them here is not able to convince his fellow cult again. (Narrator starts the same song. members, his persistence and desperation to Dancing start and stops after a while) [p. 1]. eliminate “it” compel the cult members to accept the sacrifice to please their man. The dance here is used as part of the story telling performance to whet the appetites of the 2nd & 3rd Birds: Kite of the night, we still have our audience before the story itself. Much further in reservations but what do you feel as our Situation Three, dance is used as celebration of leader? Shacia's achievements. The playwright opens 1st Bird: Birds of the night, ours is a world of Situation Two with this catchy description: logic and reason. It is a world in which cult supremacy supersedes blood knots. The The same venue as situation one. Shacia chicken has to be sacrificed. is dressed in kingly robes. Following 2nd & 3rd Birds: Then let that has called for the him is a retinue of musicians. He walks feast strike the first blow… majestically on to the arena 1st Bird: Owl of the night, evoke the soul of your synchronizing his movement to the prized chicken and do as you have been rhythmic beats of the drums. In advised (pp 40 & 41). between the music there are verbal Jor-Gbaikyom: (Looks inside clay dish and says his interactions by the commentator (p. 7). incantations as if in a trance).Shacia Tor Gbande, come, come to the valley of This is just the opening glee for Shacia who is death, walk gently and steadily, come. (His being celebrated to give his welcome speech. image now appears in the clay dish. Jor strikes The commentator now takes over to beckon on him with a sharp object. As he falls, the other the dancers to enter the arena and sweat it out. Birds also strike with their own objects) [pp 41 & 42]. Akende: Shacia Tor-Gbande, I salute you for your honest and frank talk. My age mates, The playwright's use of Tsav as Tiv religious we have come here to rejoice. Let us make myth tied neatly with a historical fact regarding merry. Call the dancers. (There follows exchange marriage (Yamshe).It provides several kinds of dancers. The dancers are grounds for Jor-Gbaikyom to craft evil against accordingly remunerated by Shacia. After a Shacia. while the leader Akende stops the dances) [p.9]. Dance festival is another example of significant folkloric tradition used in this play. The occasion for celebration here is that Shacia Right from the beginning of the play the has taken a new wife, the tenth in the number of playwright describes how the performers his wives. Other Tiv folkloric forms used in the surround by the audience. The narrator then play such as proverbial verbalisation, picks up the narrative: symbolisms, round huts and rest huts compound system as well as allegorical Narrator: Ha, ha, haa. You hear them. Of characterisation is complementary to the core course you did. They are very interesting folkloric forms. dancers aren't they? Yes, always bending The use of folklore in the selected plays

NTAtvc J of Comm. 2019;3(2):295 - 306 302 ANDREW AONDOFA NYIKYAA Appraisal of Tiv Folklore and Cultural Education in Hagher's Swem Karagbe and Gbilekaa's Prized ... appears in a composite whole. A pattern that is cultural setting for instance, the storyteller is identified as Tiv religion (centered around usually a multitalented and dexterous older myths of Swem, Tsav, adzov spirits in relation to person who is held to a high esteem by his Aondo, the supreme God) and the use of dance audience. There is a demonstration of this festival Amar Amirin (for celebration of one's notion in the selected plays thus: attainment or tribute to one's status). It's twilight. The head of the family sits Tiv Folklore and Cultural Education in Swem on an easy chair, smoking. He has just Karagbe and Prized Chickens are not tasty finished the evening meal. His son comes out of the house and with a horn The selected plays primarily have one thing in and blows shrill notes. There is common. They are all written from Tiv cultural immediate response as several young background. The raw materials harnessed by the men and women come together round playwrights are integral part of the cultural the old man, the narrator. The African society where they have observed and choose to story telling performance is the setting portray. As Agoro (2001 p. 72) aptly submits: (p. 496).

Playwrights derive their inspiration for The playwright's description at the beginning of their works from the direct and indirect the play, Swem Karagbe here set the tone for the experiences. Direct experiences come use of folktale performance in the play. The as a result of their involvement in head of the family is surrounded by younger several situations in the normal process members of his household in readiness of the of living in the society. Indirect night tale. This implies that knowledge of experiences are derived from reading or folkloric tradition like Swem myth is preserved from watching television, video by older members of the household and programmes, or movies. Really transmitted to the young ones through everything in life could be analysed and storytelling. The narrator in a typical opening imaginatively recreated in drama. glee takes to the arena: Narrator: Do you know why it is never the oldest This underscores the fact that playwrights do or richest or handsomest, tallest or the not create out of a vacuum. They create using most educated men that are leaders of our what is considered to be of striking interest to country? them. For a folk playwright, who harnesses Audience: No! folklore for his play, he creates his play in Narrator: Okay, give me your undivided accordance with the basic cannons of the attention. Once upon a time, several people's culture and tradition. Basic cannons hundreds of years ago, there lived a chief here are synonymous with folklore, which is of the Awuna people. rooted, in the cultural milieu of the society. The manner of usage of folklore in these In Prized Chickens are not tasty too, the dexterous plays posits them as media through which narrator opens the story with a song which is cultural education is communicated to the chorused by the audience amidst dance before audience by the playwrights. For example, the he now hands costumes to members of the use of the Narrator in the selected plays audience to play roles in the story. indicates a usual African storytelling tradition using a raconteur verses the audience. In Tiv Narrator: Meanwhile, let me tell you a story. It

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is a story about Shacia, a man of means picturesque and reveals the religious believe and prosperity. (Stops abruptly), no I have regarding the place as a mysterious dwelling changed my mind. I am sure there are place of supernatural force capable of among us in the audience those who have responding to the people's needs. The heard of the story as well and can control playwright communication of culture in this their emotions to tell it better. Yes, can I light suggests that the god of Tiv people dwells at have volunteers? Five in Number. (Hands Swem, hence the sacredness of the land. It also each a costume) [p.2]. reveals that a journey to see and experience the supernatural requires lot of sacrifices and self The plays set the tune for storytelling denial to attain. “All sorts of hardships” (p.511) performance where there is a close here connotes resilience and determination to commonality between the storytellers and the achieve results. Political leadership is audience. The opening glee and dexterity of the synonymous with selflessness and servitude in narrators in these plays reveal the fact that in accordance with your society's political culture. African storytelling tradition in general and Tiv This is what the playwright tries to folkloric tradition in particular, nobody is the communicate through the characters in Swem sole owner of the story. Other members of the Karagbe. society who may constitute the audience can Accordingly, the narrator relates the challenge the narrator in the course of the consequences of Tsav practice to the audience in performance if they are not impressed or Prized Chickens are not Tasty. satisfied. This is what Ukala's theory of “Folkism” advocates regarding the laws of Narrator: This word is the juxtaposition of the “joint performance” and “urge to judge”. When tragic and comic. While others are the audience approves a performer, they take the thinking of how to make ends meet, how responsibility to co-perform with him by singing to make more money, how to ensure along, asking questions, passing comments and peace, others are busy planning how to sometimes even take over the tale (performance) pluck their fellow men down…(p. 23). from the unimpressive performer (1996). Moreover, from the eyes of the narrators in The narrator is referring to Jor-Gbaikyom's the two plays, we see the dramatization of resolve to destroy Shacia with witchcraft historical and religious myths of Swem and through jealousy and envy. The belief in institution of Tsav as well as dance festivals traditional Tiv society that Igba (maternal which are cherished folkloric traditions that lineage) and Ityo (paternal lineage) which Gbor have permeated generation upon generations. (2006 p.33) describes as “patrilineal and matrilineal descendants” are responsible for Narrator: And so it was for them. They longevity or otherwise of persons in the society underwent all sorts of hardships. At is dramatized in this play. Mbatsav use the intents last,they arrived on the peak of Swem of people in the two lineages to operate as Karagbe. Everywhere was pitch darkness dramatized in the play. The character at the on the mountain. But their eyes were centre of the controversy has reason he is opened, and they saw a beautiful city of capitalizing on. solid gold, and their god addressed them (p.511). Jor-Gbaikyom: It is my mother's womb that gave him breath. My mother's daughter The narrator's description of Swem is was given to his father who exchanged her

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with Shacia's mother as wife. That was the added dimension, in relation to other practice in those days and up till today he researchers who refer to the myth as “Swem”. has not paid that debt either to me or to His reference lend credence to Makar's account any of my brothers or uncles (p. 5). ascribing Swem to one Tiv ancestral descendant, Karagbe (from Nongov lineage) who was The debt of a female ward Jor-Gbaikyom is sacrificed on the Ilyum (Sacred) altar before the laying claim to here is such a complex issue that migration to the present day Benue valley only the elders of the land who are direct (Makar,1994). This underscores the significance products of Yamshe (exchange marriage) can of a medium such as play in communicating unravel its knot. It is the same claim Jor- culture that endears people to relevant Gbaikyon takes to the witchcraft coven as an education in this regard education. excuse to eliminate Shacia. The playwright is communicating culture here by bringing to bear Conclusion the old marriage system and its attendant The notion of cultural education is predicated contradictions in the society. Jor-Gbaikyom upon three dimensions in the two plays. One is takes advantage of these contradictions to that each of the plays explores Tiv folkloric achieve his malevolent intensions on Shacia. traditions to develop the plot of the plays. In The exchange marriage system is a very old Hagher's Swem Karagbe the plot centers on practice in Tiv society, which the British consequential trip to Swem land by would-be colonialists abolished because of its political leaders amidst the Adzov (spirits) world complications and, replaced it with Kem kwase in search of fortunes for their community. While (marriage by bride price). in Gbilekaa's Prized Chickens are not Tasty, the Similarly, the protagonist in Swem Karagbe plots captures the myth of Tsav through open is relating to us a historical issue his father told jealousy as a weapon of destruction with the use him: of historical notions like Yamshe (exchange Chief Nyamazenga: My father spoke of a place marriage) as subject of controversy and he claimed was our original home, where malevolence. our god dwelt, and still dwells. My people, Another dimension is the use of storytelling if anybody should desire leadership, he narratives as techniques of communicating to must go to Swem Karagbe, our original the audience in the selected plays. It is through home (pp. 502). the eyes of the narrators that we get to understand the significance of Swem land and The dramatisation of Swem Karagbe, Adzov Adzov world as well as Tsav and dance festivals in spirits and Tsav as a religious myth peculiar to the respective plays. The other level of usage is Tiv people underscores the theatricality of the that both Swem and Yamshe (which forms the use of folklore in playwriting. The playwright basis for wizards' manipulation) are Tiv who uses his artistry to document stories such as folkloric traditions shrouded in history. The these makes use of his play as medium of mention of Swem land where Tiv people communicating cultural education. It is migrated from to the present Benue Valley and interesting to note that the transmission of folk the reference to the defunct marriage system of culture from one generation to another usually Yamshe (Exchange Marriage) in the respective experience variations. The playwright use of plays suggest that Tiv folklore is the Swem as Tiv religious myth here is shaped by his juxtaposition of history and culture, interpretation of it. For example, his underscoring the fact that history and folklore conceptualisation of it as “Swem Karagbe” is an have symbiotic relationship.

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Recommendations Ibiamegh, Makurdi: Aboki Publishers. Owing to the findings of this paper, the Gbilekaa, S.(ed) (2013) The Trickster Hero in Tiv researcher recommends that: Folktales in Another Voice: Meta- Critical Essays in 1. Playwrights in their creative enterprise Drama, Theatre and Politics, Zaria: Ahmadu Bello should do more research in their cultural University. Gbilekaa, S. (2002) Prized Chickens are not Tasty, milieu in order to portray the actual ideals Abuja: M. Bakare Commercial Printers of their cultural society, in order to harness Gbor, T.W. (2006) The Concept of Culture and Tiv the right cultural materials that would be Cultural Values, Jos: Seyee Prints, Nigeria. true reflection of the tradition capable of Hagher, I. (2008) Global Home and other Plays, Ibadan: achieving cultural education. Spectrum Books Limited. 2. Cultural institutions should commission or Hagher, I. (2003) The Kwagh-hir Theatre: A Metaphor sponsor talented playwrights to research of Resistance, Ibadan: Kaltop Publications Ltd. adequately into our epic traditions with a Makar, T. (1994) The History of Political Changes th th view to documenting them in order to Among the Tiv in the 19 and 20 Centuries, Enugu: preserve and promote cultural education. Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd. 3. Plays written in the realm of folklore such as Tsevende, A.R. et al (2013) Tiv Swange Music and these should be at the forefront of cultural Dance, Abuja: Timexperts Publishing. Ukala, S. (1996) “Folkism”: Towards a National studies in our schools. This will endear Aesthetic Principle for Nigerian Dramaturgy” more people to our epics and the need to in New Theatre Quarterly, XII (47) celebrate them. Ukala, S.(1999) “Masquerade, Folktale and Literary Theatre of English Expression in Africa” in References Eagle in Flight: The Writings of Sam Ukala, Ogude Abrams, H.M. (1999) A Glossary of Literary Terms S., Ogede B., Uhunmwangho (eds) Ibadan: Seventh Edition: Earl McPeek. Safmos Publishers. Agoro, S.N. (2001) Theatre and Drama in Education, Ushima T.C. (2002) “A Biblical Evaluation of the Tiv Ibadan: Caltop Publications (Nigeria) Limited. Traditional Worldview” in Reformed Blacks of Darah, G.G. (2014) “The Folktale is Dead: Long American: A Centre of African-American Live Story-Telling” in The Folktale in Nigeria, Emphasising a communal and Progressive Rasheed A. and Aliyu A.S. (eds) Zaria: Ahmadu Understanding of Reformed Theology USA. Bello University Press. Retrived from www.lamp and world books Finnegan, R. (1984) Oral Literature in Africa, London: .n.d.com on 12th March 2015. Oxford University Press. Usman, B.(2013) Folklore and History: The Twin Rivers Geri, T.G. (2012) A History of Tiv Religious Practices of World Heritage, Abuja: Klamidas and Changes: A Focus on Imborvungu, Poor and Communications Ltd.

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