1 BIOC-D-14-00498_R1 2 3 Title: Improving policy efficiency and effectiveness to save more species: a case 4 study of the megadiverse country Australia. 5 6 7 Corresponding author 8 Jane McDonald 9 [email protected] 10 School of Biological Sciences 11 University of Queensland 12 St Lucia, 4072 13 Brisbane, Australia 14 Telephone: + 61 410 204 880 15 16 Author addresses 17 Dr Josie Carwardine 18 CSIRO, Ecosystem Sciences 19 Boggo Rd, Dutton Park 20 Brisbane 4102 21 Australia 22 23 Dr Liana Joseph 24 Global Conservation Program 25 Wildlife Conservation Society 26 Bronx, New York 10460 27 USA 28 29 School of Biological Sciences 30 University of Queensland 31 St Lucia Queensland 4072 32 Australia 33 34 Dr Carissa Klein 35 School of Geography, Planning and Environmental Management 36 University of Queensland 37 St Lucia Queensland 4072 38 Australia 39 40 Dr Tracy Rout 41 School of Biological Sciences 42 University of Queensland 43 St Lucia Queensland 4072 44 Australia 45 46 Associate Professor James Watson 47 Global Conservation Program 48 Wildlife Conservation Society 49 Bronx, New York 10460 1 50 USA 51 52 School of Biological Sciences and School of Geography, Planning and 53 Environmental Management, 54 University of Queensland 55 St Lucia Queensland 4072 56 Australia 57 58 Professor Stephen Garnett 59 Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods 60 Charles Darwin University 61 Ellengowan Drive 62 Casuarina NT 0909 63 Australia 64 65 Associate Professor Michael McCarthy 66 School of Botany 67 University of Melbourne 68 Parkville Victoria 3010 69 Australia 70 71 Professor Hugh Possingham 72 School of Biological Sciences 73 University of Queensland 74 St Lucia Queensland 4072 75 Australia 76 77 78 2 79 Abstract 80 Native flora and fauna species continue to decline in the megadiverse, wealthy, 81 economically and politically stable nation of Australia despite current efforts in 82 policy and management. Ongoing research is examining these declines, their 83 causes, and the adequacy of current policy, but strategies for improving the 84 outcomes for threatened species have attracted less attention. We discuss 85 several key aspects of Australia’s national threatened species management 86 approach that potentially hinder the efficiency and effectiveness of management: 87 the threatened species listing process is lengthy and biased; recovery plan 88 development is resource intensive, restricted to a subset of species and often not 89 effective; funding for threatened species management is not allocated efficiently 90 or transparently; and management is not designed to incorporate uncertainties 91 and adapt to changing future threats. Based on these issues we recommend four 92 changes to current process: rationalize listing and assessment processes; 93 develop approaches to prioritize species-based and threat-based responses cost- 94 effectively; estimate funds required to recover species and secure longer term 95 funding; and, accommodate uncertainties and new threats into the current 96 planning framework. Cost-effective prioritization for species and threats 97 identifies which actions are likely to achieve the greatest benefits to species per 98 unit cost, thereby managing more species and threats with available funds. These 99 improvements can be made without legislative reform, additional funding or 100 socio-economic shifts. If implemented, we believe more Australian threatened 101 species will benefit from current efforts. Many of the challenges facing Australia 102 are analogous to issues in other countries including the United States, Canada 103 and the United Kingdom and these recommendations could assist in improving 104 threatened species management. 105 106 Key words: endangered species, prioritisation, policy, cost-effective, threatened 107 species, Australia. 108 109 Introduction 110 Policy interventions in Australia have been unable to halt the loss of species and 111 prevent further extinctions (Environment and Communications References 112 Committee 2013; Garnett et al. 2011; Woinarski et al. 2014). It is likely the 113 challenges facing policy makers will be even greater with accelerating climate 114 change, continued population growth and land use change targeted towards 115 increased food and fibre production (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). 116 Considerable research has measured species loss in Australia, identified causes 117 of declines, and assessed the effectiveness of current management and policy 118 (Bottrill et al. 2011; Evans et al. 2011; Ford et al. 2001; Garnett et al. 2011; Kelly 119 et al. 2003; Kingsford et al. 2009; Moseby & Read 2006; Ritchie 2013; Ritchie et 120 al. 2013; Short & Smith 1994; Steffen et al. 2009; Szabo et al. 2012; Taylor et al. 121 2011; Walsh et al. 2012; Watson et al. 2011; Woinarski et al. 2011). The recently 122 released Action Plan for Australian Mammals, for example, warns that as well as 123 the highest modern record of mammalian extinctions a large proportion of 124 extant mammals are under threat and urges urgent and targeted actions to avoid 125 further extinctions (Woinarski et al. 2014). Although Australia is not alone in 126 experiencing unprecedented rates of extinction (Mace 2005), it presents a 3 127 compelling example of how efforts to manage threatened species in a 128 megadiverse country can be ineffective in avoiding species loss despite economic 129 wealth, relatively good governance and globally recognized scientific expertise. 130 We believe this situation needs urgent attention and recommend four feasible 131 ways to improve national management of threatened species in Australia. 132 The need for improved threatened species management in Australia is urgent 133 (Lindenmayer 2008; Woinarski et al. 2014). Over 10% of mammal species (29) 134 have already become extinct since European settlement in the late 17th Century 135 (Woinarski et al. 2014) and 15% of remaining mammals are listed as threatened 136 (State of the Environment Committee 2011). There is mounting evidence that 137 small mammal populations in northern Australia – a region that is considered to 138 contain the largest area of intact tropical savanna left in the world - are in rapid 139 decline (Woinarski et al. 2011). Recently two species on Christmas Island in the 140 Indian Ocean, a microbat (Pipistrellus murrayi) and a lizard Emoia nativitatis are 141 now presumed to be extinct (Beeton 2010; Woinarski & Cogger 2013). The iconic 142 Orange-bellied Parrot (Neophema chrysogaster) is close to extinction in the wild 143 and 23 species of bird have become extinct and at least four other bird species 144 are also possibly extinct since European settlement of Australia in 1788 (Garnett 145 et al. 2011). The large majority of listed bird species continue to decline (Garnett 146 et al. 2011). The few that have recovered (Gould’s Petrel Pterodroma leucoptera 147 leucoptera and Lord Howe Woodhen Gallirallus sylvestris, for example) represent 148 significant success stories of what can be achieved when adequate resources and 149 expertise are applied. When assessments are conducted, it has been found that 150 very significant proportions of once common widespread amphibians, reptiles 151 and plants are threatened with extinction (up to 52%, 37% and 30% 152 respectively; (State of the Environment Committee 2011). The extinction of the 153 Christmas Island Pipistrelle and the poor outlook for threatened species in 154 general has been the subject of renewed debate. In response, the Australian 155 Senate established an inquiry in 2012-3 into the effectiveness of threatened 156 species management in Australia to which the recommendations in this paper 157 were submitted (Environment and Communications References Committee 158 2013). Recently the Australian Government also appointed a Threatened Species 159 Commissioner with a mandate to prevent further extinctions (Environment 160 Department 2014; 161 http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/commissioner). 162 The major threats to threatened species in Australia include habitat loss, 163 introduced species, inappropriate fire regimes, over-exploitation and disease 164 (Evans et al. 2011). In the long-term, protection and recovery of threatened 165 species in Australia depends on trends in socio-economic drivers such as 166 population growth, per capital consumption and economic growth (Millennium 167 Ecosystem Assessment 2005; State of the Environment Committee 2011), the 168 strength of regulatory protection (Environment and Communications References 169 Committee 2013; Kingsford et al. 2009), the funds to enact protection and 170 amelioration of impacts (Carwardine et al. 2012; McCarthy et al. 2008) and 171 governance arrangements to ensure implementation (Hajkowicz 2009; Morrison 172 et al. 2010). Changing the level of any of these factors is a significant 173 undertaking, requiring shifts in social and economic trends, increased political 4 174 will, more funds and legislative reform. There are, however, gains to be made for 175 threatened species that are feasible within the current policy arrangements and 176 achievable in the short term at no extra cost. By improving the effectiveness and 177 efficiency of Australia’s existing national approach to threatened species, we 178 propose the outcomes for threatened species can be increased and thereby 179 extend the reach of current protection to more species. 180 Threatened species (synonymous with “endangered species” in the United 181 States) have been protected