Hallucinogenic Drug Use and Personal Belief in Paranormal Phenomena

Home , Aura (paranormal), Paranormal, Telepathy

MELISSA GARTHWAITE Use of marijuana has been linked to belief in extrasensory perception (ESP) and other paranormal phenomena. We examined the possibility that such acceptance University of Southern Maine is characteristic of users of other types of hallucinogens. We also explored acceptance of other paranormal phenomena in relation to drug use. In Study 1, surveys JOE MIELE were distributed to university students; in Study 2, a snowball sample of acquaintances was used to diversify the group surveyed. Results indicated there is no East Stroudsburg University signiﬁcant relationship between use of serotonergic hallucinogens and acceptance of ESP. Furthermore, no link was observed between marijuana use and belief in JOHN BROIDA* ESP. Belief in other paranormal experiences, including telepathy and aura, was related to the use of hallucinogenic agents. Factors other than use of hallucino- University of Southern Maine genic agents may be more important in creating a belief in the paranormal.

ELIEF IN THE PARANORMAL IS QUITE COMMON. each of which constituted a different set of space-time Approximately two thirds of the adults in the coordinates” (Blewett, 1963, p. 53). Another user in- BUnited States may believe in extrasensory per- dicated that “I became aware of awareness itself. . . . ception (ESP), that is, in acquiring knowledge about But an escape was implied as well as anguish, since, information not obtained from the senses (“Polls In- in being liberated from the ego, consciousness was dicate,” 1987). Another study reported that 61% of able to perceive its unity with the world” (Parker, 1975, participants believed in the possibility of telepathy, p. 129). the ability to sense others’ thoughts, and 58% believed Van Asperen De Boer, Barkema, and Kappers in the possibility of precognition, the ability to fore- (1966) found that some individuals performed bet- tell the future (Clark, 1991). Neither of these studies ter on tests of extrasensory ability under psilocybin assessed drug use, a behavior that may predispose intoxication. However, these researchers did not as- people to accept the validity of paranormal phenom- sess belief in paranormal phenomenon. Leary, ena (Tart, 1993). Metzner, and Weil (1965) proposed that hallucino- Use of hallucinogenic agents may alter psychic genic drugs may act as a “key” to our nervous system, awareness and consciousness (Pahnke, 1966). Sero- unlocking otherwise unrealized abilities and experi- tonin-like hallucinogens, including lysergic acid di- ences, including the ability to experience and explore ethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, and marijuana are paranormal phenomena and other aspects of mysti- linked to altered experiences of reality (Julien, 1995), cal consciousness. Pahnke and Richards (1969) noted even after these drugs are no longer present in the a similarity between mystical consciousness and psy- body (McKim, 1997). Specifically, LSD has often been chedelic experience, and suggested that the use of characterized as having a profound effect on aware- hallucinogenic drugs may be linked to belief in para- ness. For example, one user reported that “I was out- normal experience. side our dimensions of space and time and felt an Belief in ESP, precognition, telepathy, and aura understanding of infinity. . . . My consciousness of (a changing field of colored light reflecting the emo- the universe was in terms of rapidly shifting images tional state or health of a person) are linked to use of

170 PSI CHI JOURNAL OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ! Winter 1998 Copyright 1998 by Psi Chi, The National Honor Society in Psychology (Vol. 3, No. 4, 170–174 / ISSN 1089 - 4136). *Faculty Supervisor PSYCHEDELICS AND ESP ! Garthwaite, Miele, and Broida

hallucinogenic drugs (Tart, 1993). The following two (not objects), what people have called the ‘aura’” studies were conducted to determine if individuals (Tart, 1993, p. 156). who use marijuana or other hallucinogenic agents Tart’s (1993) original drug use survey of 14 ques- are more likely to believe in paranormal phenom- tions was adjusted to include questions about the use ena. If hallucinogenic drug use affects belief in para- of LSD and psilocybin. Marijuana use was assessed normal phenomena, then those individuals who have on a four-point scale from responses to the question used hallucinogens should be more likely to believe “How many times have you smoked marijuana?” and in ESP, precognition, telepathy, and auras than would LSD use was measured on a four-point scale from nonusers. responses to the question “How many times have you used LSD?” Psilocybin use was similarly assessed on a Study 1: College Student Surveys four-point scale from responses to the question “How Use of hallucinogens may change perception of many times have you used psilocybin (mushrooms)?” reality (Leary et al., 1965) and may make individuals Procedure. Students received questionnaires at more aware of their potential paranormal ability the end of a class period and returned them to their (Pahnke, 1966; Tart, 1993). This study was designed instructor during the next class period. They were to examine the relationship between drug use and told that this questionnaire packet consisted of a se- belief in paranormal phenomena. ries of surveys developed by various students to assess many characteristics and beliefs. The intent to explore Method the relationship between hallucinogenic drug use and Participants. Two hundred fifty-three students paranormal belief was not mentioned. Confidential- (178 women, 75 men) taking psychology classes at ity was assured by recording names of participants two northeastern universities received surveys in class. on a separate form as surveys were returned. Partici- The participants received extra credit for returning pants were encouraged to contact the researcher to the survey. obtain details about the intent and results of this study. Materials. A questionnaire concerning drug use and belief in paranormal phenomena was included Results and Discussion as part of a 28-page questionnaire examining effects Table 1 shows the percentages of inexperienced of parental alcoholism, familial dysfunction, and re- and experienced users (those participants who have lated sex differences. The portion of the survey rel- used a drug 12 or more times) of hallucinogenic evant to this study began with a paragraph assuring drugs. Only 6% were experienced users of LSD and confidentiality and was followed by separate measures 12% were experienced users of psilocybin. Forty-eight to assess drug use and belief in ESP (Tart, 1993). percent of the participants reported using marijuana Questions from Tart’s (1993) survey were used 12 or more times. to assess four elements of paranormal phenomena. The participants who had smoked marijuana at Belief in ESP was assessed on a three-point scale from least once were more likely to use: (a) psilocybin, 2(4, responses to the statement “I believe in the existence N = 238) = 80.0, p < .0001, and (b) LSD, 2(4, N = of extrasensory perception (ESP), i.e. , that people 237) = 65.0, p < .0001. Users of LSD were more likely can sometimes acquire knowledge about things hap- to use psilocybin, 2(4, N = 252) = 120.0, p < .0001. pening at a distance in time or space, or about other Thus, use of one drug was related to the likelihood people’s thoughts, when there is no possibility of this of using other drugs. knowledge having been acquired through the known Acceptance of ESP was related to: (a) belief in senses (sight, hearing, etc.)” (Tart, 1993, p. 154). telepathy, 2(4, N = 252) = 41.0, p < .0001, (b) belief Belief in telepathy was measured on a five-point scale from responses to the statement “I feel so aware of TABLE 1 what people are thinking that it must be telepathy, mind reading, rather than just being more sensitive Percentage of Participants in Study 1 to the subtle cues in their behavior” (Tart, 1993, p. Who Have Used Hallucinogens (N = 253) 154). Participants’ belief in precognition was assessed on a five-point scale from responses to the statement Marijuana LSD Psilocybin “I can foretell the future by some kind of precogni- Never used 30 77 76 tion, more than just predicting logically from present events” (Tart, 1993, p. 155). Belief in aura was mea- Some use 22 17 12 sured on a five-point scale from responses to the state- 12+ uses 48 6 12 ment “I see fringes of colored light around people

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in precognition, 2(6, N = 253) = 43.0, p < .001, and TABLE 2 (c) belief in aura, 2(2, N = 252) = 13.0, p < .002. Belief in telepathy was significantly related to: (a) Percentage of “Strong Belief” in the Paranormal 2 belief in precognition, (6, N = 252) = 110.0, p < in Relation to Drug Use in Study 1 (N = 253) .0001, and (b) belief in aura, 2(2, N = 252) = 16.0, p < .001. Acceptance of the possibility of precogni- Drug use Never Some Lots (12+) tion was related to belief in aura, 2(2, N = 252) = 10.0, p < .001. Thus, students who believed in one ESP element of the paranormal tended to accept other Marijuana 25 25 32 elements as well. LSD 25 36 38 As shown in Table 2, there was no relationship Psilocybin 27 23 37 between marijuana, LSD, or psilocybin use and be- Telepathy lief in ESP. Telepathy belief was related to LSD use, Marijuana 31 20 32 2 (2, N = 251) = 13.0, p < .02, but no other drug use. LSD 23 38 56a A relationship was observed between psilocybin use Psilocybin 25 33 37 and belief in aura, 2(2, N = 252) = 6.5, p < .04, and between LSD use and belief in aura, 2(2, N = 251) = Precognition 9.7, p < .01. Marijuana 17 22 22 One possible explanation of our failure to find a LSD 18 19 43 relationship between use of hallucinogens and belief Psilocybin 17 19 33 in ESP is that the sample contained such a small num- Aura ber of users of these drugs. Experienced use of hallu- Marijuana 8 8 11 cinogens as defined by Tart (1993) was uncommon LSD 6 17 31a among students in this sample. Psilocybin 7 13 23a Study 2: Mailed Surveys a Level of drug use related to acceptance of this paranormal phenomenon ( p < .05). College students are not an especially diverse group. They tended not to use the stronger serotonergic hallucinogens. Therefore, a snowball sample of sent to New York, Pennsylvania, Washington, and friends and acquaintances was used to limit the im- Washington, DC. Participants were free to fill it out pact of geographic location and academic achieve- at their leisure and send it back to the senior author. ment on the results. Participants were debriefed by a statement contained in the envelope used for returning their surveys. The Methods debriefing statement was placed so as to be notice- Participants. The snowball sample (N = 40) was able only when respondents placed the survey into obtained by asking authors’ acquaintances to partici- the envelope. Of the 120 surveys sent to participants, pate in a survey, and they, in turn, were asked to seek 40 (33%) were returned. their acquaintances for participation. The sample consisted of 22 men and 18 women. A survey was Results and Discussion mailed to anyone interested in filling it out. Partici- Table 3 shows the percentages of inexperienced pants had no extrinsic motivation to complete the and experienced hallucinogenic drug users. Clearly, survey. the percentage of experienced drug users was greater Materials. The survey for Study 1 was used in in this sample than in Study 1 (see Table 1). Only 4 Study 2, but it was not included in the 28-page ques- participants in this sample (N = 40) claimed they had tionnaire. In an effort to better disguise the purpose never used marijuana. of the study, 31 questions from the larger question- A relationship was noted: (a) between marijuana naire were included. This created a shorter (two use and LSD use, 2(4, N = 39) = 29.0, p < .02, (b) pages) and perhaps less daunting survey. Two enve- between marijuana use and psilocybin use, 2(4, N = lopes were attached to the survey: one for the return 39) = 20.5, p < .001, and (c) between LSD use and of the survey, the other for participants’ questions. psilocybin use, 2(4, N = 40) = 23, p < .001. Thus, as Instructions for mailing back responses were included in the earlier study, use of hallucinogens was not lim- at the end of the survey. ited to a single type of drug. Procedure. Surveys were mailed to acquaintan- As in Study 1, belief in ESP was related to: (a) ces who had agreed to distribute surveys. Surveys were belief in telepathy, 2(2, N = 40) = 6.8, p < .05, (b)

172 PSI CHI JOURNAL OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH ! Winter 1998 PSYCHEDELICS AND ESP ! Garthwaite, Miele, and Broida

TABLE 3 TABLE 4 Percentage of Participants in Study 2 Percentage of “Strong Belief” in the Paranormal Who Have Used Hallucinogens (N = 40) in Relation to Drug Use in Study 2 (N = 40)

Marijuana LSD Psilocybin Drug use Never Some Lots (12+)

Never used 10 37 50 ESP Marijuana 100 29 46a Some use 18 33 15 LSD 46 54 42 12+ uses 72 30 350 Psilocybin 40 33 64 Telepathy Marijuana 50 14 46 2 belief in precognition, (2, N = 40) = 12.0, p < .01, LSD 20 61 50 2 and (c) belief in aura, (1, N = 40) = 5.0, p < .03. Psilocybin 30 33 71a Belief in telepathy was related to: (a) belief in precognition, 2(4, N = 40) = 34.0, p < .0001, and (b) Precognition belief in aura, 2(2, N = 40) = 6.7, p < .05. Marijuana 50 14 14 As shown in Table 4, there was no significant re- LSD 20 15 17 lationship between LSD or psilocybin use and belief Psilocybin 15 17 21 in ESP. Surprisingly, nonusers of marijuana were more Aura likely to believe in ESP than were users, 2(2, N = 39) Marijuana 25 0 43a = 6.9, p < .04. The belief in ESP by participants who LSD 20 38 42 had never used marijuana presumably reflects the Psilocybin 15 50 50 sample and is not characteristic of all non–marijuana a Level of drug use related to acceptance of this paranormal users, as shown in Study 1; therefore, use of this hal- phenomenon (p < .05). lucinogen may not be related to acceptance of paranormal phenomenon. This possibility is supported by our findings that to fill out and return the survey than were those who marijuana users were more likely to believe in aura, were not interested. By comparison, the Study 1 2(2, N = 39) = 6.9, p < .04, but not other paranormal sample, motivated by a desire for extra credit, may phenomenon such as telepathy or precognition. Psilo- have had a different bias. This hypothesis is suggested cybin use was related to belief in telepathy, 2(4, N = by the fact that all participants in Study 2 indicated 40) = 12, p < .02, but not to other paranormal beliefs. they believed in ESP, this in comparison to the 72% Study 2 essentially replicates many of the findings of who did so in Study 1. Forty-two percent of partici- Study 1: users of one drug tended to have used oth- pants in Study 2 indicated belief in telepathy, and only ers, belief in one paranormal phenomenon was re- 27% did so in Study 1; likewise, belief in aura was lated to belief in others, and belief in ESP was not 32% in Study 2 and only 10% in Study 1. linked to use of hallucinogens. Differences in results of these studies also sug- gest that belief in paranormal phenomena may re- General Discussion flect characteristics of the participants rather than the These results indicate that belief in ESP was effects of hallucinogens. As discussed by Leary et al., closely related to belief in other paranormal phenom- (1965), a high percentage of hallucinogen users re- ena including telepathy, precognition, and aura. Simi- ported spiritual experience, but almost all of them larly, belief in telepathy was closely related to belief were members of the clergy. in precognition and auras. If participants accepted Contrary to our original hypothesis and the re- one element of the paranormal experience, they were port by Tart (1993), we found no relationship between likely to accept others. hallucinogenic drug use and belief in ESP. However, As expected, sample characteristics resulted in LSD use was linked to belief in telepathy and aura, differences in percentages of drug users in the two psilocybin use was linked to belief in telepathy and samples. These differences may reflect differences in aura, and marijuana use was linked to belief in aura. the motivations of participants in the two studies. Thus, there was some support for the idea that users Participants in Study 2 who were interested in the of hallucinogens may be more predisposed to accept subject matter of the study may have been more likely the validity of paranormal phenomena.

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These different relationships may result from References chemical and potency differences of the drugs in the Asperen De Boer, S. R. van, Barkema, P. R., & Kappers, J. (1966). hallucinogenic category. All hallucinogens may be Is it possible to induce ESP with psilocybine? An exploratory investigation. International Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 2, 447–473. linked to belief in aura because of the visual effects Blewett, D. (1963). Psychedelic drugs in parapsychological re- of this class of drugs. search. International Journal of Parapsychology, 5, 43–74. Stronger serotonergic hallucinogens, including Clark, D. (1991). Belief in the paranormal: A New Zealand survey. Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, 57, 412–425. LSD and psilocybin, may exert their effects in other Julien, R. M. (1995). A primer of drug action: A concise, nontechnical ways. The experience of telepathy may be a way of guide to the actions, uses, and side effects of psychoactive drugs. (7th explaining the drug’s effect on perception, instead ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. Leary, T. F., Metzner R., & Weil G. (1965). The psychic reader. New of an actual experience of a paranormal phenom- York: Carol Publishing Group. enon. Hallucinogenic drug users’ reports of ex- McKim, W. A. (1997). Drugs and behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: panded consciousness, “outside our dimension” Prentice Hall. Pahnke, W. N. (1966). Drugs and mysticism. International Journal (Blewett, 1963, p. 53), and that “consciousness was of Parapsychology, 8, 295–314. able to perceive its unity with the world” (Parker, 1975, Pahnke, W. N., & Richards, W. A. (1969). Implications of LSD p. 129) may simply be a parallel to a non–drug user’s and experimental mysticism. Journal of Transpersonal Psychol- ogy, 1, 69–102. deﬁnition of telepathy. This fact may signify physical Parker, A. (1975). States of mind: ESP and altered states of conscious- brain alteration during hallucinogen use rather than ness. New York: Taplinger. the unrealized potential suggested by Leary et al. Polls indicate paranormal experiences well on their way to be- coming normal. (1987). Brain/Mind Bulletin, 12(7), 1–5. (1965). Tart, C. T. (1993). Marijuana intoxication, psi, and spiritual experiences. The Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 87, 149–170.

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