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N1-2009 FINAL:Maquette Geomorpho Géomorphologie : relief, processus, environnement, 2009, n° 1, p. 47-64 Geomorphic impacts of large and rapid mass movements: a review Impacts géomorphologiques des mouvements de masse volumineux et rapides : une revue Monique Fort *, Etienne Cossart**, Philip Deline***, Marc Dzikowski***, Gérard Nicoud***, Ludovic Ravanel***, Philippe Schoeneich****, Patrick Wassmer***** Abstract Studies on large and rapid mass movements have become a challenging issue in relation to paraglacial and morpho-tectonic evolution of mountain slopes. Rockfalls, rockslides and rock avalanches will be considered here on the basis of selected sites in the French and Swiss Alps and in the Himalayas. The main topics developed relate firstly to the modes of emplacement of, and the internal structures observed in, the body of the runout deposits and the influence of the surface (bedrock, superficial deposits, glacier, lake) over which the propagation takes place. The impacts of these rockslope failures on geomorphic systems (damming effects, storage, control on sed- iment fluxes) are then considered. Finally, the possible influence of climate change on high-alpine rockwalls, and potential threat to adjacent inhabited areas, are presented. Key words: rapid mass movement, runout deposits, climate change, The Alps, Himalayas. Résumé Les études sur les grands mouvements de terrain sont devenues un sujet de débat important en relation avec l’évolution morpho- tectonique et paraglaciaire des grands versants montagneux. Seront considérés ici les écroulements rocheux, les glissements rocheux et les avalanches rocheuses à partir de quelques sites emblématiques des Alpes françaises et suisses ainsi que de l’Hima- laya. Les principaux thèmes abordés sont ceux des modalités de mise en place des dépôts associés à ces mouvements de masse et l’étude de leurs structures internes, ainsi que l’influence que peut avoir la nature de la surface (substrat rocheux, formations super- ficielles, glaciers, lac) sur laquelle ces matériaux s’étalent. Les impacts des grands mouvements de masse rocheux sur les systèmes géomorphologiques sont ensuite étudiés (barrages, rétention de sédiments et contrôle des flux sédimentaires), avant de discuter de l’influence possible des changements climatiques sur les hautes parois alpines et la menace qu’ils font peser sur les zones habitées voisines. Mots clés : mouvement de masse rapide, dépôts d’écroulement, changement climatique, Alpes, Himalaya. Version française abrégée (massifs du Mont Blanc, de la Vanoise, des Écrins, des Pré- alpes), suisses (massifs du Valais et des Grisons) et en Hi- Depuis longtemps les géomorphologues français ont pris, malaya (massif de l’Annapurna). En se conformant à la ter- à côté des géologues structuralistes et des ingénieurs, une minologie anglo-saxonne, une caractérisation en est rapi- part dans l’étude des mouvements de terrain. Cet article est dement donnée. consacré aux écroulements rocheux, glissements rocheux et Les modes de mise en place des dépôts et les structures as- avalanches rocheuses rapides de plus ou moins grande am- sociées sont d’abord considérés, en relation avec le contexte pleur, étudiés principalement dans les Alpes françaises géologique régional et la morphologie préexistante du sec- * Université Paris-Diderot, CNRS UMR 8586 PRODIG, Case Postale 7001, 75 205 Paris Cedex 13. Courriel : [email protected] ** Université Panthéon-Sorbonne, CNRS UMR 8586 PRODIG, 191 rue Saint-Jacques, 75005 PARIS. Courriel : [email protected] *** EDYTEM, université de Savoie, CNRS, 73376 Le Bourget du Lac, France. Courriel : [email protected] ; marc.dzikowski@univ- savoie.fr ; [email protected] **** Institut de Géographie Alpine, UMR 5194 PACTE, 14 bis avenue Marie-Reynoard, Université Joseph-Fourrier, Grenoble. Courriel : [email protected] ***** LGP UMR 8591, CNRS, 1 Pl. A. Briand, 92 198 Meudon Cedex, Faculté de Géographie et d’Aménagement, Université de Strasbourg. Courriel : [email protected] Monique Fort, Etienne Cossart, Philip Deline, Mark Dzikowski, Gérard Nicoud, et al. teur où se sont produits les mouvements de terrain. Les deux tent en œuvre une chaîne complexe de processus (fig. 7) qui premiers exemples traitent de deux avalanches rocheuses affecte à la fois les dépôts émergés et les sédiments sous-la- volumineuses (>1 km3 et 10 km2 pour Dhampu-Chooya en custres, provoquant des phénomènes de liquéfaction et Himalaya ; 12 km3 et 20 km2 pour Flims dans la haute val- même le déclenchement d’une onde de choc (Beres et al., lée du Rhin Suisse). La première, qui obstrue depuis plu- 2000; Schoeneich et al., 2007). sieurs milliers d’années la vallée de la Kali Gandaki, entre D’une façon plus générale, les grands mouvements de ter- Annapurna (8091 m) et Dhaulagiri (8 167 m), avait créé rain ont un impact durable sur les systèmes morpholo- une vaste retenue lacustre sur plus de 30 km de long, dont giques, du fait des obstructions que leurs dépôts associés les sédiments sont aujourd’hui disséqués (fig. 2). La mise en peuvent provoquer dans les vallées alpines, du cloisonne- place de cette avalanche est liée à la proximité de la faille ment et des ruptures de pente des profils en long qui en ré- Nord Himalayenne, dans une zone qui connaît un rythme de sultent, ce qui affecte les budgets sédimentaires (Fort et surrection important (6-8 mm/a) (Bilham et al., 1997). La Peulvast, 1995 ; Fort, 2000 ; Wassmer et al., 2004 ; Cossart rupture s’est produite selon une direction parallèle à celle et Fort, 2008a). Mais ces écroulements ont également une des plans de foliation des gneiss et a affecté toute une crête influence sur les bilans de masse glaciaires, en réduisant (Fort, 2000). La masse écroulée a bloqué la vallée dans un considérablement l’ablation en surface des glaciers (Deli- secteur étroit. On peut observer la pulvérisation des maté- ne, 2008 ; Deline et Kirkbride, 2009). riaux dans leur partie basale, tandis que des structures fo- Enfin, la question de l’influence des changements clima- liées de la roche initiale, malgré la fracturation, sont enco- tiques probables sur la recrudescence des écroulements en re reconnaissables dans la partie supérieure du dépôt. Dans haute montagne est posée et évoquée à travers le suivi de le cas de Flims, la masse écroulée, détachée du versant l’évolution de parois caractéristiques du massif du Mont selon des plans de stratification, a disposé localement d’un Blanc, comme la face ouest des Drus (fig. 8), qui a vu en espace plus ouvert, permettant le développement d’une 2005 la disparition du pilier Bonatti (Ravanel et Deline, structure originale en ‘jeu de cartes’ (Wassmer et al., 2004 ; 2008) ou la face est de la Tour Ronde (Deline et al., 2008). Schneider et al., 1999). Cette structure est caractérisée par Les premiers résultats obtenus suggèrent une probable deux faciès, l’un granulaire, l’autre en blocs basculés sépa- dégradation du permafrost. rés par des zones de broyage (fig. 3), bien étudiés grâce à l’encaissement du Rhin au travers de l’accumulation de Introduction l’avalanche rocheuse épaisse de 400 m. Les deux exemples suivants, de volume plus réduit (de Until recently most landslide research in France was car- l’ordre de 107 m3), illustrent plutôt l’influence de la nature du ried out with structural geological or geotechnical concerns substrat et de la morphologie du site où se produit l’écroule- in mind. Yet, the geomorphological approach played an in- ment. Dans le cas de l’avalanche rocheuse de Fontfroide creasing part in this research (Flageollet, 1988). A few stu- ayant barré le Pré de Madame Carle (vallée de Vallouise) dies on large and rapid mass movements and their associa- (fig. 4), l’origine de la rupture est liée à la décompression ted deposits were developed in various places in the Alps post-glaciaire, indirectement attestée par des datations par and in high mountains worldwide (Deline, 2001, 2008; cosmonucléides (Cossart et al., 2008, Cossart et Fort, 2008b), Cossart et al., 2008; Fort, 1987, 2000; Fort and Peulvast, tandis que l’écroulement historique du Mont Granier (1248 1995; Schoeneich, 2000; Wassmer et al., 2004). These stu- AD) est davantage lié au dispositif géologique des Préalpes dies followed a direction that has become a challenging (calcaires fissurés, mise en porte-à-faux par les marnes sous- issue in the international literature (Evans and DeGraff, jacentes) (Nicoud et al., 1999). Ces deux exemples s’opposent 2002; Hewitt et al., 2008). There are at least three reasons également par le fait qu’en Vallouise, la vallée étroite a favo- underpinning our recent focus on large (> 0.5 x 106 m3), risé la création d’un barrage toujours efficace, alors que la rapid, and catastrophic rock slope failures. Firstly, they are large vallée d’origine glaciaire qui borde le Mont Granier a considered as one of the modalities of ‘orogenic erosion’, permis l’étalement de la masse écroulée et son évolution qua- in which rock deformation and surface processes interplay siment synchrone en glissement boueux (fig. 5), à l’origine de to shape the present mountain landscapes (Burbank et al., nombreuses victimes. 1996; Willett, 1999; Montgomery, 2001; Hovius and Stark, La nature de la surface sur laquelle s’écroulent les dépôts 2006; Korup et al., 2007). Secondly, these failures may re- d’avalanches rocheuses est également un facteur de différen- sult from glacial unloading, an efficient parameter to reac- ciation important. Dans le massif du Mont Blanc et de la Va- tivating pre-existing discontinuities and modifying the noise, les écroulements qui se produisent sur un glacier ont stress distribution in glacially, oversteepened slopes; this is un impact en général plus étendu que ce que le coefficient the ‘debuttressing effect’ (Evans and Clague, 1994) or pa- moyen de friction laisserait présager (fig. 6), du fait de l’in- raglacial readjustment (Ballantyne, 2002). Thirdly, the gro- corporation de neige et de glace qui facilite l’entraînement et wing concern with climate change involves it as a poten- l’étalement des débris, comme cela a bien été montré sur le tial, yet complex determining cause of slope instability, glacier de la Brenva (Deline, 2008).
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