Dumfries & Galloway Local Biodiversity Action Plan

Written and edited by Peter Norman, Biodiversity Officer, with contributions from David Hawker (Flowering Plants Species Statement), Nic Coombey (Geodiversity & Traditional Orchards) and Clair McFarlan (Traditional Orchards).

Designed by Paul McLaughlin, Dumfries and Galloway Council

Printed by Alba Printers

Published by Dumfries & Galloway Biodiversity Partnership, April 2009 Production of this LBAP has been made possible through funding by

Acknowledgements

Thank-you to all members of the Dumfries & Galloway Biodiversity Partnership Steering Group and Habitat Working Groups, especially Chris Miles of SNH, Alastair McNeill of SEPA, Chris Rollie of RSPB and Sue Bennett of DGC. Thanks also to Liz Holden for invaluable assistance with all things fungal and Andy Acton for advice on lichens.

Numerous publications were consulted during preparation of this plan but in the interests of brevity and readibility individual comments are not referenced. Galloway and the Borders by the late Derek Ratcliffe and The Flora of Kirkcudbrightshire by the late Olga Stewart were particularly useful sources of information.

Valuable discussions/comments also received from David Hawker, Jim McCleary, Richard Mearns, Anna White and the Dumfries & Galloway Eco-Schools Steering Group. Assistance with proof-reading from Stuart Graham, Chris Miles, Fiona Moran, Mark Pollitt and Chris Rollie.

Photographs Thank-you to all photographers who allowed free use of several images for this document: Greg Baillie, Gavin Chambers, Gordon McCall, Maggi Kaye, Paul McLaughlin, Richard Mearns and Pete Robinson. Other photographs were provided by the editor and partners. All images are individually credited.

Additional photography: Laurie Campbell www.lauriecampbell.com, Paul Naylor www.marinephoto.org.uk, Steven Round www.stevenround-birdphotography.com, John Bridges www.northeastwildlife.co.uk .

Where possible, the photographs used in this publication have been taken in Dumfries & Galloway. All such photographs are captioned with the place and date that they were taken. Photographs not from Dumfries & Galloway are not captioned with place or date.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 1 Endorsement by the Dumfries & Galloway Biodiversity Partnership

The Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership comprises of around 80 local groups, businesses, voluntary organisations and statutory agencies. There is no formal membership or written constitution; any organisation or individual that contributes to achieving the aims and objectives of the Local Biodiversity Action Plan is automatically deemed to be a partner. All partners are committed to understanding, safeguarding, restoring and celebrating biodiversity within the Dumfries and Galloway Council area.

The Partnership is co-ordinated by a Steering Group consisting of around 15 key partners, though membership of the Steering Group is open to all partners. The purpose of the Steering Group is to provide guidance and support to the Biodiversity Partnership in order to make progress on the key strategic biodiversity issues in Dumfries and Galloway. It meets on a quarterly basis, is chaired by an elected chairperson and serviced by the Council’s Biodiversity Officer. It has no budget of its own.

The Partnership convenes smaller Working Groups as necessary to address specific issues arising from the Dumfries and Galloway LBAP.

Our Aims

The aims of the Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership are:

• To identify and address strategic and/or pan-Dumfries and Galloway biodiversity issues. • To review and monitor biodiversity actions contained within the LBAP, with reference to the Scottish Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plans. • To provide a link between local groups and national biodiversity strategies, action plans and reporting procedures. • To raise awareness and promote biodiversity by championing individual actions and biodiversity issues generally

Our Commitment

In recognition of the above, we the undersigned pledge our co-operation, commitment and support to the implementation of the Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Local Biodiversity Action Plan and undertake to use our best endeavours to:

• Take cognisance of the Dumfries and Galloway LBAP in the day-to-day business of our organisations. • Identify sources of funding to deliver Dumfries and Galloway LBAP. • Provide guidance and support to other biodiversity partners. • Monitor and report on progress with the Dumfries and Galloway LBAP.

2 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership Roger Grant, Chair Planning, Mark Pollitt, Centre Manager Housing & Environment Committee

Marcus Maxwell, Chair Dumfries & Galloway

John Dougan, Conservator Rob Soutar, Galloway Forest District Manager Bill Meadows, Borders Forest District Manager

Chris Rollie, Area Manager

Jamie Ribbens, Senior Fisheries Biologist

Colin Mitchell, Chairman

Alastair McNeill, Unit Manager

Gordon Mann, Chairman

Quintin Donald Principal Agricultural Officer Chris Miles, Area Manager

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 3 C O N T E N T S

Foreword Introduction

Key Issues • Climate Change...... 9 • Continued Biodiversity Loss...... 12 • Environmental Inequalities...... 13 • Agricultural and Forestry Change...... 14 • Higher Priority for the Marine Environment...... 16 • Higher Standards of Water Quality...... 17

Overall Aims • AIM 1: Biodiversity conserved, enhanced and re-created at the landscape and seascape scale...... 19 • AIM 2: Genetic diversity conserved...... 20 • AIM 3: Biodiversity incorporated into all relevant decision-making...... 20 • AIM 4: Biodiversity awareness, understanding and engagement improved...... 21 • AIM 5: Natural processes allowed to operate wherever practicable...... 21 • AIM 6: Local distinctiveness enhanced...... 22

Central Objectives and Actions • Local, National and International Action for Biodiversity...... 24 • Biodiversity Data...... 26 • Designated Sites...... 28 • Ancient Habitats...... 30 • Non-native Invasive Species...... 33 • Reintroduction and Translocation of Species...... 35 • Wildlife Tourism...... 37 • Geodiversity...... 39 • Related Strategies...... 42

Local Habitat Action Plans Semi-natural Habitats • Subtidal Rock...... 43 • Subtidal Sands and Gravels...... 46 • Subtidal & Intertidal Scar Grounds...... 50 • Intertidal Sand and Mud Flats...... 52 • Seagrass Beds...... 56 • Honeycomb Worm Reefs...... 59 • Intertidal Rocky Shores...... 61 • Coastal Strandlines...... 65 • Coastal Shingle Beaches...... 68 • Coastal Sandy Beaches...... 72 • Coastal Sand Dunes...... 75 • Coastal Saltmarshes (Merse)...... 79 • Coastal Cliffs and Slopes...... 84 • River Headwaters...... 89 • Lowland Rivers and Backwaters...... 93 • Lowland Burns and Ditches...... 98 • Waterfalls...... 101 • Exposed River Shingle...... 103 • Eutrophic Lochs...... 106

4 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership • Mesotrophic Lochs...... 109 • Gardens...... 227 • Oligotrophic Lochs...... 112 • School Grounds...... 231 • Swamps...... 115 • Golf Courses...... 233 • Reedbeds...... 117 • Holiday Parks and Caravan Sites...... 235 • Marshes...... 119 • Walls and Buildings...... 237 • Upland Springs and Flushes...... 122 • Ports, Harbours and Marinas...... 240 • Fens...... 125 • Roads and Verges...... 242 • Raised Bogs...... 128 • Railways...... 245 • Blanket Bogs...... 133 • Bridges and Tunnels...... 248 • Purple Moor-grass and Rush Pastures...... 138 • Industrial and Post-industrial Sites...... 251 • Calcareous Grasslands...... 140 • Quarries and Mineral Workings...... 254 • Neutral Grasslands...... 142 • Urban Watercourses and Wetlands...... 257 • Acid Grasslands...... 145 • Reservoirs...... 260 • Inland Rock Outcrops...... 148 • Montane Moss-heaths...... 151 Species Statements • Upland Heaths...... 154 • Single-celled Species...... 263 • Native Woods...... 158 • Fungi and Lichens...... 264 • Native Wet Woods...... 162 • Non-flowering Plants...... 266 • Native Ash Woods...... 166 • Flowering Plants...... 268 • Native Oak Woods...... 169 • Invertebrates...... 270 • Native Birch Woods...... 172 • Fishes...... 272 • Scrub Woods...... 175 • Reptiles and Amphibians...... 274 • Montane Scrub...... 178 • Birds...... 275 • Veteran Trees...... 180 • Mammals...... 277

Highly-modified Habitats Monitoring Progress • Conifer Plantations...... 183 • Biodiversity Indicators...... 279 • Broadleaved and Mixed Plantations...... 188 • Forest Roads and Rides...... 191 Appendices • Forest Ponds...... 194 1. Local Priority Habitats – • Short-rotation Coppice...... 196 Criteria for Selection...... 280 • Agriculturally Improved Grasslands...... 198 2. List of Local Priority Habitats...... 280 • Arable Fields...... 201 3. Local Priority Species – • Traditional Field Boundaries...... 204 Criteria for Selection...... 280 • Wood Pastures and Parklands...... 208 4. List of Local Priority Species...... 281 • Farm Woods & Shelterbelts...... 212 • Farm Ponds...... 215 • Public Open Spaces...... 218 • Urban Trees...... 221 • Traditional Orchards...... 224

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 5 Foreword

Dumfries & Galloway has as great a range of biodiversity The LBAP has also benefited wildlife viewing and nature as you are likely to find anywhere in the UK. With two based tourism, with new facilities at Wigtown Bay and the hundred miles of coastline lapped by the warming influence establishment of an annual wildlife festival attracting over of the gulf stream, its central position in the British land 2,000 participants per year. The Galloway Kite Trail was mass and remarkably varied topography and habitats, the established in 2003 and has made a significant contribution region holds the northernmost of some ‘southern’ species to the local economy as well as encouraging people to and the southernmost of some ‘northern’ species. This ‘best enjoy the fantastic spectacle of kites around Loch Ken. of both worlds’ bonus applies across a broad spectrum These are just some of the achievements of the LBAP; of flora and fauna, including plants, insects and birds. there are many others. Moreover, this interest encompasses the whole year, with the region being particularly noted for its migrating and The new LBAP builds on existing achievements and sets wintering waterfowl, including the entire world population out a challenging programme of new actions, reflecting of Svalbard barnacle geese, which spend the winter on the some changes in the national status and priority of species Solway - mainly in Dumfries & Galloway. and habitats. For example, the number of priority species found in Dumfries & Galloway is now over 400, and whilst The term biodiversity was given special significance and there are existing plans for some of these, naturally prominence at the 1992 Rio `Earth Summit’ where the UK they can only be referred to in a document of this size, and 150 other countries pledged, through the Convention with more information being available on the web site. on Biological Diversity, to take local action to look after Biodiversity remains at considerable threat from land-use wildlife and thereby ensure its global sustainability. The and climate changes, and a key challenge for this plan will resulting publication in 1994 of the UK Biodiversity Action be to optimise opportunities to maintain and link habitats Plan stimulated a plethora of local action plans, including in ecologically robust networks that can minimise adverse the Dumfries & Galloway Local Biodiversity Action Plan effects on our wildlife in the future. (LBAP). Launched by our partnership in 1999, this was the first comprehensive plan of its kind in Scotland, winning One of the innovative and exciting aspects of this new plan both national and UK awards, and setting a benchmark is recognition that habitats are more than simply collections example for others to follow in the local conservation of of species, but also include the physical aspects of the biodiversity. landscape, and what a varied landscape that is! From the grassy heather moors of Langholm and the whaleback Other sectors and industries had had their plans and hills of Moffatdale, to the shimmering sands of the Solway strategies for years, but here for the first time was a and increasingly rocky Stewartry coast, back-dropped comprehensive initiative and action plan focusing on by the famously rugged grandeur of the Galloway Hills, maintaining, enhancing and promoting our wonderful especially the granite massifs of Criffel, Cairnsmore and wildlife for its own sake, and for the benefit of local people the Dungeon Hills. Beyond these to the west lie the magical and visitors alike, whilst at the same time contributing to Machars, Moors and Rhins of Wigtownshire, which have an this wider national and international effort as envisaged in almost Hebridean quality, bounded as they are by stunning Rio. lichened cliffs and shining seascapes. The new LBAP reflects the importance of these physical aspects in a new The achievements of the LBAP are many and varied, section on geodiversity, which it is hoped will help to protect but include a superb Environmental Resource Centre, and raise awareness of these physical riches upon which launched by Deputy Minister for Environment and Rural our wonderful biodiversity depends. Development Allan Wilson in 2004. This truly first rate community resource receives hundreds of thousands of It is now a statutory duty upon all public bodies to records and delivers high quality information, training and have regard to the protection and enhancement of key volunteering opportunities across the region. More than 45 biodiversity in the undertaking of their work, and various Local Wildlife Sites have been designated and landowners legislative instruments and processes require rigorous given information and advice to incorporate into their environmental assessment of proposed new developments decision making. There has been a significant increase to ensure this. However, it is local pressure and local in the restoration of native broadleaves, including riparian action that will deliver the desired halt in biodiversity loss planting to benefit salmon. Habitat enhancement has also and generate habitat enhancement, and this can only be been undertaken for black grouse and nightjar, whilst there achieved by continually engaging communities and young has been significant creation of reedbed and restoration people in the wonder and needs of their wildlife. This of raised bog. A ‘best practice project’ has enabled local document plays a key role in this and should therefore be farmers to establish demonstration sites of good practice used by everyone, from individuals to large companies and in managing for wildlife, whilst biodiversity has been other organisations, as a starting point in learning more integrated into roadside management by the local authority about our biodiversity and as a guide in finding out what we and the idea picked up nationally, too. Research has been can all do to protect and enhance it for future generations to undertaken on merse (saltmarsh) and sparling (a rare fish), enjoy. whilst vendace, and red kites have been reintroduced into the region. Chris Rollie RSPB Area Manager

6 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership introduction

The first edition of the Dumfries & Galloway Local Biodiversity Action Plan (LBAP) was published in June 1999. It was one of the first LBAPs in Scotland and went on to win the RoyalTown Planning Institute’s Scottish Award for Quality in Planning and the Scottish Silver Green Apple Trophy for Environmental Best Practice.

Since 1999, more than 80 organisations have become part of the Dumfries & Galloway Biodiversity Partnership, and have taken positive action towards LBAP targets. Individuals, land managers, communities, businesses, voluntary environmental groups and statutory agencies have all contributed successful projects, large and small, that have helped protect and enhance the special biodiversity of Dumfries & Galloway.

But much has changed since 1999. This document updates the Dumfries & Galloway LBAP and provides new targets for the years ahead that will enable everyone to further the conservation of biodiversity in the region.

What is Biodiversity? Biodiversity is short for biological diversity. It simply means the variety of life - the great richness of living things in the natural world, everything from the smallest insect to the largest whale, from tiny toadstools to huge ancient trees. Biodiversity is more than just a few rare animals and plants; it includes the huge array of species and habitats, the genetic variation contained within these, and it includes people.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 77 Making best use of the Dumfries & Galloway Local Biodiversity Action Plan The Dumfries & Galloway Local Biodiversity Action Plan is intended as a working document to be used by a wide cross section of people to take positive steps to conserve and enhance biodiversity. Different people will use it in different ways, and not all sections will be relevant to everyone. Rather it should be used as a tool to guide conservation action in those areas where the reader can make the greatest difference. For many people this might mean relatively small-scale improvements in the garden; for foresters, farmers, engineers and other land-managers biodiversity improvements will affect greater areas of land; whilst planners and decision-makers will be able to build biodiversity into wider strategic issues. In order to assist with this, the LBAP has been laid out with the following sections:

• Key Issues are large-scale issues that will exert a significant influence on biodiversity and its management throughout the lifetime of the plan. • Overall Aims are the key outcomes that the LBAP aims to achieve. • Central Objectives are overarching objectives that will, if implemented, result in significant benefits for all biodiversity across the whole of Dumfries & Galloway. These will be achieved by specific Central Actions and/or actions contained in Local Habitat Action Plans. • Local Habitat Action Plans present detailed actions for individual habitats. Semi-natural habitats are classified largely by ecological criteria, whilst highly modified habitats are grouped primarily by different land-uses. However, this is not a scientific classification. Whilst all land in Dumfries & Galloway is covered by at least one action plan, relevant information for some types of habitat may be found in more than one plan. The plans are cross-referenced to facilitate this. Those habitats considered of greatest important for biodiversity are termed Local Priority Habitats. • Species Statements provide an overview of the status, distribution, threats and opportunities for each of the species groups. Unlike the first edition of the LBAP, there are no new detailed Species Action Plans, as the majority of species actions are best achieved through habitat actions. However, the published Species Action Plans from the first edition are still available and will continue to be relevant for much of the lifetime of this second edition. Existing Species Action Plans will be updated and new Species Action Plans published in the future as necessary. Those species considered of greatest importance in the region are termed Local Priority Species. • Lead Partners are identified next to all Central and Habitat Actions. The role of a lead partner is to co- ordinate implementation of an action, but it is expected that other partners will have a role to play in virtually all of the listed actions. As with all local biodiversity action plans, this document is not a statutory requirement and therefore takes a voluntary rather than compulsory approach. Lead partners have committed their support and co-operation to the plan, but uncertainty about future resources and other commitments means that they may not be able to complete all actions.

8 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership KEY ISSUES

Since the first edition of the Dumfries & Galloway Local BiodiversityAction Plan in 1999, a number of issues have increased in importance. Each will exert a significant influence on management for biodiversity during the lifetime of this LBAP, and probably well into the future.

Climate Change

1. Background

Climate change is undoubtedly a reality. Climate is the ‘average weather’, including variables such as temperature, rainfall and wind, over a period of time at a particular location. Climate change refers to a significant variation in the average climate, persisting over decades or more. Over the 20th century, global temperatures rose by around 0.7˚C and 1998 was the warmest year since records began in 1861, with 2005 almost as warm.

Some climate change is the result of natural processes, but changes in global climate have also arisen due to human activities that have altered the gaseous composition of the earth’s atmosphere. Gases such as water vapour

(H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and ozone

(O3) naturally trap the sun’s heat in the earth’s atmosphere. In doing so they warm the earth’s surface by over 30˚C to a level at which humans and other living things can survive. This is known as the ‘greenhouse effect’. Evidence now points to climate change well in excess of natural trends resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere since the Snow may become a rare occurrence in future winters. Dalveen Pass March industrial revolution, primarily from the burning of coal, oil and gas. 2008 (Peter Norman)

The extent to which human and natural systems across the world will be affected will vary greatly from place to place. The government funded Climate Change Scenarios for the United Kingdom was published in 2002. In Scotland it is predicted that: • Annual temperatures averaged across Scotland will rise. In the worst case scenarios this could be by as much as 3.5˚C in the summer and 2.5˚C in the winter. • Summers will become generally drier. There may only be a slight reduction in rainfall in the northwest but as much as a 40% reduction in the south and east. • Winter rainfall will increase by 20-35% in the south, east and northeast. • Average snowfall amounts will decrease, perhaps by up to 90% depending on location, and snowless winters may become normal in some parts. • Scotland’s sea levels will rise, perhaps by up to 600mm. • Sea-surface temperatures will increase around the entire Scottish coastline. • Scotland will have more severe extreme rainfall events, with rainfall from storms in 24 hours up by 25%, expected to occur on average every 2 years, especially in the east.

The impacts of climate change are already being observed in a variety of sectors and some biodiversity changes in Dumfries & Galloway can already be tentatively linked to climate change.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 9 2. Implications

Two approaches to climate change are needed – reducing the net emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, and adapting to the changes that are already inevitable.

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is essential to prevent massive losses of biodiversity. The Scottish target is to reduce emissions by 2.7MtC (million tonnes of carbon or carbon equivalent) per year by 2010. We all have a part to play. For example, one tonne of carbon is emitted by every household in Scotland leaving a 40W light bulb on for 6 minutes, or emitted by around 20 return journeys by plane from Edinburgh to London.

The management of land can act as a source of greenhouse gas emissions, but also a carbon sink or Keeled Skimmer, one of several new dragonfly species to move into Dumfries & Galloway in recent years, probably as a result store. Carbon sequestration is a process or activity that of climate change. Knockman Wood, July 2007. removes carbon from the atmosphere through the uptake (Pete Robinson). of carbon by growing plants - a carbon sink. A carbon store locks up this carbon in organic matter.

On a global scale, the greatest stocks of carbon are stored in rocks and soil (65,000,000 gigatonnes of carbon) and the oceans (39,000 GtC). That stored in forests (550GtC) and other vegetation (1400GtC) is small in comparison. However, some 4000GtC are stored in fossil fuels and are being released (at the rate of 6.3GtC per year in 2003). In the short-term, land-use activities have the greatest capacity to remove some of this additional carbon from the atmosphere.

In Scotland, forestry and other land-uses (excluding agriculture) are currently net carbon sinks. Although they emit greenhouse gases (some 8% of total Scottish emissions in 2003), they absorb much more. Furthermore, the size of this carbon sink has increased from 0.8MtC in 1990 to 1.3MtC in 2003, primarily through forest growth. However, the carbon sink function from forestry can be temporary and dependent on the subsequent use of forest products. Absorbed carbon can be released again through forest fires, diseases, and soil disturbance by forestry operations, including planting. Burning wood fuel results in carbon emissions but the net result can be neutral or positive if the carbon absorbed during its growth is taken into consideration, and the wood fuel substitutes for fossil fuels. Substituting timber and wood products for energy-intensive building materials such as concrete and steel can also result in a neutral or positive net balance of greenhouse gases.

Agriculture is less effective in reducing greenhouse gases than other land-uses (12% of total emissions in Scotland in 2003). The main emissions are nitrous oxide from organic and inorganic fertilisers and methane

from livestock, with only a small amount of CO2 from energy use.

Further contributions to minimising climate change could be achieved by a range of land-use modifications: • Creating new woodlands on soils of low organic content. • Establishing woody crops, such as short-rotation coppice, as a renewable energy source. • Expanding the use of wood as a substitute for energy intensive building materials. • Reducing timber and food miles. • Encouraging more permanent ground cover such as species rich grassland, heather moorland, and wood pasture.

10 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership • Reducing methane emissions from livestock. • More efficient use of organic and inorganic fertilisers through better application techniques and nutrient management. • Providing advice to farmers through the Farm Soils Plan, the TIBRE Handbook (Target Input for a Better Rural Environment), and the PEPFAA Code (Prevention of Environmental Pollution from Agricultural Activity). • Restoring peat bogs. • Conserving soil organic matter through erosion control, cover crops, crop rotation, and incorporation of crop residue. Peatlands lock up more carbon per hectare than any other habitat. Barend Moss, near Laurieston, May 2008. (Peter Norman) • Installing alternatives to so called ‘hard engineering’ for flood protection, such as natural flood attenuation, which results in fewer greenhouse gas emissions during construction, and sequestration during operation.

All of the above have the potential to produce significant biodiversity gains, as well as other environmental benefits, if they are correctly located and implemented.

Adapting to the predicted impacts will require many different forms of action, including changes to the planning system, a different response to flood risks, new building design and construction techniques, and the modification of business activities. The net effect of climate change on the biodiversity of Dumfries & Galloway remains uncertain, but the likelihood is that many more species will be lost than gained unless measures can be put in place to allow species to adapt to the anticipated changes.

A few species are capable of rapid movement and adaptation and have become common, but many others occur only in very low numbers over a wide area, even if ideal habitat is available. These species rely on occasional genetic exchange over a large area (the metapopulation concept). Areas of unsuitable habitat act as a barrier to this exchange, resulting in small and isolated colonies that are unsustainable in the long term.

Should climate change produce environmental conditions that are no longer suitable for a particular species, then this scenario will be greatly exacerbated. Many species will be prevented from moving by areas of unsuitable countryside, even if new areas with suitable environmental conditions are created elsewhere. To counteract this, action is needed at two levels. Firstly, the conservation and enhancement of key biodiversity hotspots is essential to strengthen the ability of species and habitats to withstand a changing climate. Secondly, restoration of substantial areas of the countryside between these hotspots will allow species to move from place to place and successfully adapt to climate change.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 11 Continued Biodiversity Loss

1. Background

Biodiversity is naturally dynamic. Natural processes lead to fluctuations in populations, and periodically to extinctions. Since the arrival of Mesolithic man, biodiversity has also been affected, both positively and negatively, by human activities. Our current diversity of species reflects millennia of interactions between people and nature.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, and especially in the 20th Pearl-bordered Fritillary butterfly, once widespread in century, the rate of change dramatically increased. The net Dumfries & Galloway but now very rare. (Peter Norman) result of intensification of land use and other development pressures in both urban and rural areas was a reduction in semi-natural land, estimated at 17% in the 40 years or so up to 1988. As a consequence of fragmentation or degradation of the remaining semi-natural habitats, populations of many species declined to non-viable levels; others were directly destroyed.

In the last two decades, some declines appear to have been arrested or reversed through habitat restoration or species management. This will not be possible for all habitats and species. Restoration of seabed life for example to some, mostly unknown, pristine condition that pertained prior to exploitation is unachievable. For others, it may take a considerable amount of time to reverse adverse trends, though progress is being made in many cases.

Of the 45 priority habitats and 391 priority species covered by the first UK Biodiversity Action Plan, monitoring in 2005 identified the following trends: • 22% of priority habitats and 11% of priority species were increasing. • 39% of priority habitats and 27% of priority species were declining, but the decline was slowing for 25% of all habitats and 10% of all species. • The UK trend was unknown for 24% of priority habitats and 13% of priority species. • Habitat loss/degradation (particularly due to agriculture and infrastructure development) and global warming were the current or emerging threats of significance to the highest proportion of priority species and habitats.

Whilst at global level, the target is ‘to achieve a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss’, the one addressed at European Union level, is even more ambitious - to halt the loss of biodiversity by 2010. Overall, whilst some signs are encouraging, there is still more to do to meet Small White Orchid, nearing extinction in the 2010 target. Dumfries & Galloway. (Peter Norman)

2. Implications

Many favourable trends in biodiversity have been brought about, or assisted, by political or other strategic level intervention, regulation and the promotion and funding of better land and water management practices. Biodiversity Action Plans have identified vulnerable habitats and species for targeted action, but must continue to tackle the many problems that remain, recognising that new concerns will emerge through time.

12 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership Environmental Inequalities

1. Background

Biodiversity offers many opportunities and benefits to people, but there are inequalities in the sharing of these benefits.

Nationally, environmental inequalities are now recognised to affect both urban and rural areas. The most deprived communities are often those most vulnerable to the pressures of poor local environments. They tend to have the poorest access to environmental information and the fewest opportunities for people to participate in decisions affecting their local environments. Much of the research to date has centred on air and water quality as affected by industry, energy and transport, but biodiversity benefits are also Easily accessible greenspace is not evenly distributed. Dock unevenly spread throughout society. Environmental inequality Park, Dumfries, July 2008. (Peter Norman) studies have also been centred in areas of high population, but inequalities of biodiversity are just as likely to apply in sparsely populated areas such as Dumfries & Galloway.

A study by the Scotland & Northern Ireland Forum for Environmental Research (SNIFFER) in 2005 identified the following issues: • For industrial pollution, derelict land and river water quality there is a strong relationship with deprivation. People in the most deprived areas are far more likely to be living near to these sources of potential negative environmental impact than people in less deprived areas. • For landfills and quarries and open cast sites the patterns of relationship between deprivation and population proximity is less distinct, with no evidence at a national scale that deprived populations are more likely to live near to landfill sites, and limited evidence for quarries and open cast sites. • People living in deprived areas are less likely to live near to areas of woodland. However, areas of new woodland have tended towards deprived populations. • For greenspace, the analysis showed that both the least and most deprived areas in Scotland have high percentages of people living near to a local designated wildlife site, indicating that there is no simple relationship. • People living in the most deprived areas are more likely to experience the poorest air quality. Levels of nitrogen dioxide are especially concentrated in the most deprived areas.

2. Implications

Environmental justice aims to secure a fairer future, enabling all individuals and communities to satisfy their basic needs and enjoy a better quality of life without compromising the quality of life of future generations. It is concerned both with local-level environmental problems and larger-scale sources of pollution, and with both the built and natural environments.

Environmental justice in the biodiversity sector should be achieved through quality of life improvements: • Tackling problems on the ground leading to improvements in local biodiversity. • Building biodiversity objectives into regeneration. • Improving biodiversity in greenspaces and the places people live and work. • Providing access to biodiversity information and biodiversity learning opportunities for all. Addressing issues of biodiversity inequality should assist in reducing the social and health disparities, and the spreading of biodiversity awareness and education throughout society will result in significant biodiversity gains.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 13 Agricultural and Forestry Change

1. Background

Farming and forestry are the dominant land-uses in Dumfries & Galloway. They are key contributors to the environment, biodiversity and sustainable development, as well as to the well being of rural communities and local economies.

Historically, the land has been farmed and wood products harvested from it for more than 5,000 years. Both activities have always been subject to constant change. Initially they were practised on the same land - only since the 18th century has there been a clear distinction between farming and forestry and an obvious demarcation of land Forest operations. Garrogill, near Moffat, March 2007. (Richard Mearns) for one purpose or the other. However, the mid-20th century saw a rate of change for both land-uses never experienced before, largely driven by a desire to yield more food and timber. This resulted in an intensification of production, often at the expense of natural ecosystems, which was exacerbated by entry to the European Economic Community in 1973 and the adoption of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), together with tax incentives that encouraged large scale conifer afforestation. One result of this was that Dumfries & Galloway became the most heavily forested region in the UK, whilst the numbers of sheep on the remaining open ground increased by around 50%. The late 20th century heralded a further change in both international policy and trade, and increasing environmental concerns.

Since publication of the first edition of the LBAP in 1999, changes to both industries have continued at a rapid rate. Reform of CAP in 2003 resulted in the ‘decoupling’ of agricultural support subsidies from production subsidies, removing the incentive to maximise production. Farmers receive Single Farm Payments in return for meeting an agreed standard of agricultural and environmental practice, but they may also qualify for payments in recognition of work done to deliver additional public benefits such as environmental enhancement, better recreational access or improved animal health and welfare. These are delivered through a system of Rural Development Ploughing. Dumfriesshire, April 2008. (Richard Mearns) Contracts. Since 2007 subsidies for the forestry industry are also part of Rural Development Contracts system.

14 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership A range of additional issues will result in further changes for both agriculture and forestry: • A requirement to contribute towards mitigating climate change. This may lead to, for example, the production of energy crops and conversion of by-products into energy; making more effective use of renewable resources; managing land to minimise carbon loss; managing methane emissions; reducing other greenhouse gases from transport and other activities, and becoming more energy efficient. • Due to climate change and competition with land used for energy Traditional breeds, such as Longhorn cattle, are particularly suitable for grazing many semi-natural grasslands. Colvend, July 2007. (Richard Mearns) production, there may be greater demand for land to produce food. This may impact on semi-natural land of high biodiversity value. • Changing international trading arrangements arising from World Trade Organisation agreements. This may have a major impact on prices, whilst increased market access to the European Union may have further consequences for some sectors. • Financial pressures resulting from the enlargement of the European Union. This may lead to reductions in the level of subsidies and consequent changes to land management. • New animal and plant diseases, perhaps exacerbated by climate change and globalisation of trade, requiring higher levels of biosecurity.

2. Implications

Agricultural and forestry change will continue to provide many challenges, but it will also provide new opportunities to influence farming and forestry practices for the benefit of biodiversity. For the foreseeable future, Rural Development Contacts will provide the single largest financial input into biodiversity conservation, affecting the greatest area of land in Dumfries & Galloway.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 15 Higher Priority for the Marine Environment

1. Background

Marine and coastal waters are high in biodiversity. They also provide food, recreation and the potential for energy production.

Nationally, marine policy has a history of haphazard development, presenting a confusing and fragmented management framework to those involved in marine activities. Marine biodiversity and its management have been especially neglected, both in terms of research and public awareness. In Dumfries & Galloway, in comparison to the land, little is known about marine biodiversity and trends. There have been few projects specifically aimed at managing and enhancing marine biodiversity. Mauve Stinger Jellyfish. (Paul Naylor) Recent initiatives have begun to address these issues, examining how activities interrelate, and aiming to strike the right balance between social, economic and environmental considerations. These initiatives have been driven by the increasing range of potential impacts, including climate change, sea-level rise, renewable energy, commercial fisheries/aquaculture, exploitation of mineral resources, shipping, coastal/ marine development, waste disposal and tourism and recreation.

2. Implications

At a UK and Scottish level new management framework options for the sustainable development of marine resources have been discussed, including a draft Scottish Marine Bill, published in 2008. This is likely to result in policy and legislation changes within the lifetime of this LBAP.

Future changes to marine policy and legislation may result in: • The establishment of a larger network of nationally important marine protected areas. Locally, Dumfries & Galloway has two marine areas protected under European legislation, at Luce Bay and in the inner Solway. Options for establishing a coastal and marine national park Snakelocks Anemone, mainly restricted to the west coast of Britain including The have also been explored. Rhins. (Paul Naylor) • The introduction of a marine spatial planning system that guides how and where we use and exploit the sea including fishing, oil and gas exploration, offshore wind development, shipping and coastal development, to avoid conflicts between different users and prevent damage to marine biodiversity. • Reforms in the laws governing inshore fisheries to provide a viable and sustainable future for fish stocks and fishermen. • Strengthened laws to protect vulnerable marine species and habitats. For example, a marine wildlife watching Code of Practice has recently been introduced under the Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004. Flabellina pedata, one of several colourful sea slugs found in coastal waters. (Paul Naylor)

16 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership Higher Standards of Water Quality

1. Background

Good quality water is of fundamental importance to biodiversity.

Prior to the rapid agricultural and industrial changes of the 1800s, Scotland's rivers were generally of very good quality. The deterioration of river water quality throughout the 19th and 20th centuries was mainly caused by the discharge of sewage and changes in agricultural and industrial practices that accompanied the economic lifestyle of the time. Significant efforts to restore Scotland's rivers did not occur until the 1960s. Reductions in heavy industry, the enforcement of new legislation and heightened environmental awareness all contributed to improvements in water quality. The aquatic larvae of stoneflies are good indicators of clean water. (Peter Norman)

In Galloway, acidification of freshwaters increased during the early and mid 20th century. High levels of acidifying pollutants, including oxides of sulphur and nitrogen arising from the burning of fossil fuels and ammonia from intensive livestock rearing, were deposited from the atmosphere. The thin soils overlying hard, slow-weathering rocks had little capacity to neutralise the acidity, and the problems were exacerbated by extensive forestry, as mature coniferous forest filters pollutants from the atmosphere which are then washed into surrounding watercourses. This resulted in acidification of surface waters and significant damage to aquatic ecology. From the end of the 1970s reduced levels of pollutants resulted in a substantial decrease in acidic deposition, followed by more stable concentrations from the 1990s. Attempts have been made to mitigate the effects of acidification, for example by liming of Loch Dee, though such measures cannot provide long-term solutions to the problem. Modifications to forest practice have also reduced the impact, but parts of Galloway remain affected by acidification.

Eutrophication, or nutrient over-enrichment, affected soils and watercourses in Dumfries & Galloway during the 20th century and remains a problem in many freshwaters. Soils have become overloaded with phosphates as a result of nutrient inputs from slurry and fertiliser, together with nutrient-loading from other sources such as sewage treatment works and rural dwellings. These nutrients reach waterbodies through point discharges, such sewage outfalls or farm waste pollution incidents, or more insidiously by percolation through soils, often referred to as diffuse pollution. Eutrophication causes loss of critical water quality resulting in reductions in biodiversity. The development of farm nutrient budgeting is beginning to address such issues.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 17 Since publication of the first edition of the Dumfries & Galloway LBAP in 1999, there has been continued pressure for further water quality improvements. This pressure will be maintained throughout the period of this plan, driven by the requirements of the European Water Framework Directive. This seeks to achieve good water quality across the European Union by 2015, and applies to coastal waters, estuarine waters, inland surface waters and groundwater.

2. Implications

The Water Framework Directive requires the preparation of River Basin Management Plans that have a programme of measures designed to: • Prevent further deterioration, protect and enhance the status of aquatic ecosystems, and have regard to their water needs and terrestrial ecosystems. • Promote sustainable water use based on long- term protection of available water resources. • Protect and improve the aquatic environment, in relation to a progressive reduction in priority hazardous substances. • Ensure the progressive reduction of pollution of groundwater and prevent its further pollution. Common Reed is increasingly being used to clean water. • Contribute to the mitigating the effects of floods (Northeastwildlife.co.uk) and droughts.

18 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership mobile species atthelandscapescale. is thenatural choice forthemovementof many links arelikely toberiparian,asthedrainage network opportunities toincludenew woodpastures. The best to bedenseclosedcanopy habitatsandthereare 20ha ormore,thoughitis not necessaryforallwoods 30% woodlandcover, includingsomelargewoods of semi-natural habitat.FCS/SNH recommendatleast non woodlandhabitatsbyrestoringscrubandother existing woodlandtominimiseisolation,andimprove well woodeddistricts,locatenewwoodlandnextto and improvetheircondition,createlargewoods A foresthabitatnetworkshouldretainancientwoods such asclimatechange. greater speciesresilienceintimesofexternalstress, the populationofspeciesandinturnwillprovide will helpmaintainandenhancegeneticcontactwithin dispersal, toexpandintoadjacenthabitatpatches.It dispersal ability, orrequiringwoodlandhabitatfor by woodedcorridors. This allowsspeciesoflow containing corewoodlandandforestareasconnected A begun toreversethisfragmentationandisolation. approaches shouldbeadoptedandhavealready currently fragmentedandisolated. A numberof networks thatlinkpatchesofhabitatare it islikelytobemorefeasiblecreate creation ofnewhabitats,butinmostcircumstances carried out. This couldbe achievedbythelargescale the scaleatwhichbiodiversitymanagementis changes inclimate,thereisarequirementtoincrease In ordertoallowbiodiversityadaptthepredicted AIM 1:Biodiversityconserved,enhanced Upland grassandheathland,lochwetlands,nativewoods forest habitatnetworkisalandscapestructure conifer plantations.Glentrool,October2003.(PeterNorman) and seascapescale. and re-createdatthelandscape OVERALL AIMS ecological catchment management the integration oftheselandusesinaholistic wayis agricultural landandsettlements. The keytoensuring woodland andwetlandmixed withotherhabitats, be createdinthesamearea, providingamosaicof two arenotnecessarilyincompatible –bothcould topography thanforesthabitat networks,butthe Floodplain restorationismoreconstrainedbyphysical environment, culturalheritageandeconomicactivity.” prevent andreducedamagetohumanhealth,the or restorationoffloodplains,aswellmeasuresto to “considerwherepossiblethemaintenanceand/ and givingriversmorespace.Itasksmemberstates September 2009,talksaboutsustainableflooding transposed intoScotslawfromSeptember2007to of flood. TheEUFloodingDirective,whichwillbe or streamsintowhichflowscanbedivertedintimes by creatingwashlands,areasoflandnexttorivers return toamorenaturalregimecouldbeachieved fisheries andwaterquality. Allowingfloodplainsto recreation opportunitiesandimprovementsin a rangeofotherbenefits,includingfloodalleviation, linking ofhabitats,providinggainsforbiodiversityand would allow large-scale enhancement,re-creationand Floodplain restoration fragmenting openhabitsofhighecologicalvalue. areas willbeunsuitable.Itisalsoimportanttoavoid historic environmentoreconomicreasonssome areas. Foravarietyofreasons,suchaslandscape, but foresthabitatnetworkswillnotbepracticalinall of theCreeValley CommunityWoodlands Trust, being implementedthroughprojectssuchasthose and non-nativeonancientwoodlandsites)isalready of nativewoodlandthatlinkscorewoods(both identify keyareasfortherestorationandexpansion Within Dumfries&Galloway, apracticalmethodto Tree linesandsmallwoodslinktogethertoprovideanetworkfor woodland species.Dalry, October2003. (PeterNorman) Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership isanothertechniquethat . Catchments havemany 19 OVERALL AIMS 20 OVERALL AIMS one rivertoanother beunlikelytoproduce future not onlywouldthetranslocation oflargeSalmonfrom conditions foundintheirnatal rivers.Inthisexample, genetically adaptedtothe precise environmental in thetributariesoflargerivers. These fishare some evidenceoffurthergenetic distinctiveness between riversandevenwithinindividualrivers,with behaviour hasresultedingeneticallydistinctstock to theriverwheretheythemselvesoriginated. This headwater tospawn,butalmosteveryonereturns in northernseasdonotreturntojustanyriver the Atlantic Salmonthattravelthousandsofmiles has recentlyincreasedinprominence.Forexample, role ofgeneticsinplantandanimalconservation focussed atthespeciesandhabitatlevel,but Biodiversity conservationhastraditionallybeen AIM 2:Geneticdiversityconserved. sustainable use. conflict withnationalprioritiesforconservationand also ensurethatregionalandlocalinitiativesdonot in aco-ordinatedandtransparentprocess.Itwill support andimplementthesepoliciesactions together thefullrangeofstakeholderstoinform, an effect onthecoast,andatsametimebring different policiesandmanagementactionsthathave management. This processseekstointegratethe should beachievedthrough activities, inthecoastalandmarineenvironment Co-ordinated actionforbiodiversity, aswellother creating andlinkingbiodiversityareasintowns. greenspace networksprovidethemechanismfor tackling issuesofenvironmentalinequality. Urban biodiversity, providingenjoymentandeducation, important placesforbringingpeopleintocontactwith Furthermore, townsandvillagesarethemost others havesuccessfullyadaptedtourbanconditions. with people,itisequallytruethatalargenumberof true thatmanywildlifespeciesavoidclosecontact should alsobeappliedtourbanareas.Whilstitis the conceptoflandscape-scalehabitatrestoration with onlyaround1.3%oflandclassedasurban,but Dumfries &Gallowayisapredominantlyruralregion, system. land-uses toworktogetherforthebenefitofwhole Management atthecatchmentscaleenablesdifferent or severedbyconflictingland-usepractices. natural linkages,butmanyofthesemaybeweakened integrated coastalzone planning biodiversityprojects. role of genetics and the risks to genetic diversitywhen research, butitisessentialtoconsidertheimportant be possibletoanswerthesequestionswithoutfuture significance ofgeneticvariation.Itmaynotalways adaptation, responsetoclimatechangeandinthe questions relatingtotheroleofgeneticdatain specific localadaptations. Thisgivesrisetomany be ofgreatergeneralimportancethanconserving the processes sustainingandprovidingdiversitymight change, theconservationofspeciesadaptabilityand with environmental However, faced adaptations. integrity andlocal existing genetic assist inmaintaining information may populations. This sub-species or different species, distinctiveness of consider thegenetic actions needto Future biodiversity Salmon inthisriver. the geneticstockof may actuallyweaken the recipientriver, but stocks oflargefishin programmes andgrantschemes; andinpolicy, Particular areasofrelevance includedevelopment address asaroutinepartof theirdecisionmaking. everyone involvedinproviding publicservicesshould duty’ makesitclearthatisnowsomething which as somethingforspecialists,butthe‘biodiversity To date,biodiversitymanagementhasbeenseen exercise ofthosefunctions.” of biodiversitysofarasisconsistentwiththeproper in exercisinganyfunctions,tofurthertheconservation “It isthedutyofeverypublicbodyandoffice-holder, precise wordingcontainedinthe Act is: included abiodiversitydutyforallpublicbodies. The The NatureConservation(Scotland) Act 2004 AIM 3:Biodiversityincorporatedintoall relevant decision-making. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership weakened thegeneticstockofnative Bluebells. Kirkcudbright,May2003. Planting ofSpanishBluebellshas (Peter Norman) between ‘saying’ and‘doing’. understanding intoengagement–closingthegap challenge forthefutureistoconvertawarenessand need tobegearedspecificaudiences. Thebiggest a widerrangeofpeople,andspecifictechniques forms ofcommunicationarealsoneededtoreach be important,butmoreinnovativeandimaginative have playedavitalrole. These toolswillcontinueto the media.RangerServicesandvoluntarygroups interpretation boards,guidedwalks&talks,and in theUK. The traditionaltoolshavebeenleaflets, raise awarenessandunderstandingofbiodiversity A widerangeoftechniqueshasbeenemployedto AIM 4:Biodiversityawareness, levels takeaccountofbiodiversity. plans andprojectsensurethatdecisionsatall improved biodiversitymanagementintoallrelevant to enablerelevantdecision-makersintegrate biodiversity action.Itprovidesthefocusandpriorities facilitation, co-ordinationandpromotionofregional The LBAP shouldassistin thesuccessfulintegration, Assessments. at thestrategiclevelthroughStrategicEnvironmental Biodiversity issuesnowalsoneedtobeconsidered for specificprojects,includingcumulativeimpact. procedures specificallyaddressbiodiversityissues government and business. Environmental assessment planning, designanddevelopmentdecisionstakenby School groupvisittoPolbowerBurn withKirkconnelParish improved. understanding andengagement Heritage Society. (GregBaillie) • • • This requiresbiodiversitycommunicationsbasedon: • • • biodiversity initiativesinScotland: for encouragingpeopletobecomemoreinvolvedin identifies 3themesthatareparticularlyimportant Executive &ScottishNaturalHeritagein2007. This Framework wascommissionedbytheScottish A ScottishBiodiversityCommunicationsStrategy systems. These includephotosynthesisand different tothosethatoperateinentirelynatural that keepmodifiedecosystems functioningareno activities. Despitethis,the fundamental processes of thelandscapeisverymuch aresultofhuman natural habitatsexistandtheoverallappearance transformed fromtheirnaturalstate. Today, notruly millennium BCalmostallBritishhabitatshadbeen was extensiveandbythebeginningoffirst arrived inthearea. The scaleofearlymodification modified byhumanactivitieseversincepeoplefirst The biodiversityofDumfries&Gallowayhasbeen AIM 5:Naturalprocessesallowedto responsibility andownership. Protecting: appealingtopeople’s deepersenseof local environmentbetter. Enhancing: peopletakingstepstomake of natureandthenaturalworld. Enjoying: encouragingpeopletomakethemost behavioural change. general publicandbeinapositiontocreatemass enjoyable. Onlythenwilltheyresonatewiththe and wildlifeneedtobefun,participatory Biodiversity Strategy, messagesaboutnature In ordertoputpeopleattheheartofScottish significant exposuretothetermanditsconcepts. being usedonlyforthosewhohavealreadyhad new totheseissues,withtheterm‘biodiversity‘ communicating forthosewhoarerelatively the term‘natureandwildlife’ beingusedin That asegmentedapproachisrequired,with ways theywilllisten. imaginations intheplacestheygotoand and thechallengeisthereforetocapturetheir Biodiversity isnotcurrentlytheirfirstpriority with manythingstothinkaboutonadailybasis. Acknowledgement thatpeoplehavelivestolive operate whereverpracticable. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership their 21 OVERALL AIMS 22 OVERALL AIMS As waterfiltersthroughtherootsanddecayingplantmaterialinthis enormously. Upuntilthe18 impact andthepaceofchangehavechanged changed littlethroughouthistory, butthetypeof The geographicalscaleofthehumanimpacthas evaporation; erosionanddeposition. water andenergycycling;precipitation and growth;colonisationsuccession;nutrient, respiration; pollinationandfertilisation;reproduction rather thanaproblem. There isa gooddealofworkto functioning foodchainsisa signofahealthysituation the presenceofpredatorpopulations innaturally approach topolicydevelopment. Forexample, and soilpolicy, signallingamuchmoreintegrated recognised acrossmarine,freshwater, landuse on thefunctioningofecosystemsisnowbecoming Further changeisinevitable,butanapproachbased themselves. to fundamentallyaltersomeofthenaturalprocesses very recenttimeshumanactivitieshaveevenbegun have regional,nationalandglobalimplications.In problems thatwereoncelocallyconfinedbeganto could bringonlybenefits.Duringthe19 and improveontheorderofnature,suchchange The overridingbeliefwasthatpeoplecouldcontrol was giventothehumanimpactonenvironment. until theearly20 human impactcontinuedtobeseenasinsignificant cannot changejustonethinginnature.However, the connected toeverythingelseandthatonechange the basiclawsofecology:namelythateverythingis a numberofscientistsbegantorecogniseone constructed wetland,toxicmetalsareremoved.Craigenbay1996. th centurywhenenvironmental (Forestry CommissionScotland) th century, littlethought th century, AIM 6:Localdistinctivenessenhanced. attention justasmuchthe rareandthreatened. that contributetolocaldistinctiveness andrequire it isthecommonplacethings, thelocallyabundant, spoken history, myths,legendsandsymbols.Often are importanttoo-customs, celebrations,names, pieces ofliterature. The ephemeralandinvisible is aboutlocalbuildingstone,architectureand ponds andtheirassociationswithpeopleasit Local distinctivenessisasmuchaboutlocaltrees, different localname–the‘Inks’ ofWigtownBay. management andevena a different historyof look different buthave Galloway theynotonly and steepslopesof inbetween thecliffs but wheretheyoccur Dumfriesshire coast, characteristic ofthe lying saltmarshesare For example,low- people andwildlife. interaction between history andthecurrent conditions, acomplex local environmental This hasresultedfrom from everyotherpart. is distinctiveanddifferent The biodiversityofeverypartDumfries&Galloway fundamental tosustainabledevelopment. or eventhewholeglobe,butatallthesescalesitis to apond,anentireforest,intercontinentalflyway approach couldbeapplied. This mightberestricted landscapes, butinmanyotherareasamorenatural will thereforenotbeappropriateinimportantcultural integral partofecosystems.Somenaturalprocesses and recogniseshumansculturaldiversityarean interactions amongorganismsandtheirenvironment, Biological Diversity, includesprocesses,functionsand was agreedin2004bypartiestotheConventionon can causeirreversiblechange. This approach,which critical thresholdslieandwherecumulativeimpacts limits, suchasrobustmethodsfordeterminingwhere developing abetterunderstandingofenvironmental assess theirresilienceandvulnerability. This includes be donetounderstandhowecosystemsworkand Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership component ofscrubinGalloway, but scarceinmuchoftherest Scotland. Rockcliffe,July2006. Crab Apples areacommon (Peter Norman). • • • • • • • • • • • • • Ground’s RulesforLocalDistinctiveness): the followinginmind(adaptedfromCommon In pursuingbiodiversityobjectivesitisworthbearing management decisions. of centurieshumaninteractionandindividual of environmentalconditions,butpartlyasaresult are alldifferent fromeach other, partlyasaresult For example,thewoodsofDumfries&Galloway regulations willresultinalossoflocaldistinctiveness. to publishedbiodiversityguidanceandinflexible diminish it. There isadanger thatblindadherence change mayenrichaplaceorhomogeniseand people, ideas,activities,andinevitablychange. This remain static.Localfeaturesareinfluencedbynew The localenvironmentalcharacterofaplacedoesnot Aim forhighstandards,not standardisation. Avoid urbanisationofthecountryside. dimensions. in scale.Everyplacehasitsowndistinctive Plan biodiversityprojectsinproportionand insensitive change. to places.Donotunderminelocalpridewith Remember thedepthofpeople’s attachment care. Respect localnamesandaddnewoneswith products -suchasfoodandcrafts. Encourage theproductionoflocalnatural legends ininterpretation. Make useofthehiddenandunseenstories not important. because itcannotbecounted,doesnotmeanis Value subjectiveandemotionalarguments.Just be usedindecision-making. ecological expertiseandlocalknowledgeneedto knowledge andwisdomofaplace.Both Facts andsurveysarenotthesameas Enhance naturalfeaturesoflocalinterest. locality. Encourage thespeciesthatoccurnaturallyina itself. Let thecharacterofpeopleandplaceexpress Change thingsforthebetter, notforthesakeofit. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 23 OVERALL AIMS 24 CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS LOCAL, NATIONAL & INTERNATIONAL ACTION biodiversity strategies developed in individual member 1998, whichisintendedto be complementaryto European CommunityBiodiversity Strategyin under theseDirectives. The EUdeveloped itsown and theNatura2000network ofprotectedareas Directive (1979),theEUHabitats Directive(1992) nature conservation,embodiedintheEUBirds The EuropeanUnionalsohasacommitmentto UK Biodiversity Action Planwascompletedin2007. individual habitatsandspecies. A reviewoftheentire Group Report),followedbyaseriesofactionplansfor require nationalaction(Biodiversity:theUKSteering for biodiversitybylistingspeciesandhabitatswhich 1995, thisgroupproducedaframeworkforaction with astakeinlandmanagementanduse.From governmental conservationorganisationsandothers agencies, business,farming,universities,non- central andlocalgovernment,statutoryconservation biodiversity wasestablishedwithmembersfrom UK Action Plan the UKGovernmentproduced In responsetotheConventiononBiologicalDiversity, Biodiversity. UK aninternationalobligationtoconserveandprotect Convention onBiologicalDiversity Government signeduptotheUnitedNations in 1992,over150countriesincludingtheUK At theEarthSummitonSustainableDevelopment actions wherethesearelocallyapplicable. therefore incorporatesinternationalandnational maintain and enhance biodiversity globally. This LBAP a nationalandinternationalprogrammedesignedto & GallowayLocalBiodiversity Action Planispartof Although locallydrivenanddeveloped,theDumfries 1. Background Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. • • • with internationalandnationaltargetsforbiodiversityfromthefollowingplansprogrammes: Priority Action (LNIAB1):EnsurethatallobjectivesintheDumfries&GallowayLBAP areconsistent Objective 1:Ensurenonetlossofpriorityhabitatsandspeciesduringthelifetimethisplan. Scottish BiodiversityStrategyandImplementationPlans Biodiversity: UN ConventiononBiologicalDiversity LOCAL, NATIONAL & INTERNATIONAL in1994. A UKSteeringGroupfor The UK Action Plan ACTION FORBIODIVERSITY Biodiversity: The . This gavethe vision, anaimandfivestrategic objectives.Italso strategy coverstheperiod up to2030.Itpresentsa at theheartofournational identityandculture. The with theScottishMinisters’ desiretoputbiodiversity Diversity andtotheUKBiodiversity Action Plan,along obligations undertheConventiononBiological response toits Scotland’s It represents organisations. and voluntary public, private partnership of based working Forum, abroad Biodiversity with theScottish close partnership was developedin 2004. This strategy Executive inMay by theScottish was published people ofScotland, wellbeing ofthe to conservebiodiversityforthehealth,enjoymentand Scotland’s Biodiversity:It’s in Your Hands The ScottishBiodiversityStrategyentitled and nationallevel”. current rateofbiodiversitylossattheglobal,regional achievement by2010ofasignificantreductioninthe World SummitforSustainableDevelopmentto“the the agreementbyworldleadersin2002at biodiversity by2010”. This commitmentcomplements Summit bypledgingthemselvesto“haltthedeclineof reaffirmed theircommitmentattheGothenburg states. In2001EUHeadsofStateandGovernment Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Scottish BiodiversityStrategy, published in2004 , whichaims LOCAL, NATIONAL & INTERNATIONAL ACTION FOR BIODIVERSITY

includes a List of Species and Habitats considered 5. Other recommended actions to be of Principal Importance for the purpose of Biodiversity Conservation in Scotland under the • Provide advice to non-biodiversity specialists Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004 (see below). on the implications of national and international targets at a local level. To support implementation of the Scottish Biodiversity Strategy, the Scottish Biodiversity Forum produces a 6. Further Information set of implementation plans which identify the priority actions to implement the Strategy over a 3 year 6.1 Publications period. These plans represent the first step towards achieving the Strategy’s 25-year vision of Scotland as • Biodiversity: the UK Action Plan. (1994) a world leader in biodiversity conservation. Department of the Environment. • Scotland’s Biodiversity: It’s In Your Hands. A The Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act strategy for the conservation and enhancement 2004 gives all public bodies a duty to further the of biodiversity in Scotland. (2004) Scottish conservation of biodiversity, and to have regard to Executive. The Scottish Biodiversity Strategy and the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Act came into force on • The Convention on Biological Diversity. (1992) in November 2004 and applies to all public bodies United Nations Environment Programme. including local authorities, health boards, public utilities, transport agencies, and other public bodies 6.2 Websites involved in arts, tourism, sport, education or business

• Biodiversity Scotland www.biodiversityscotland. ACTION & INTERNATIONAL LOCAL, NATIONAL development. gov.uk 2. Environmental, Economic and Social • EU Biodiversity Strategy http://ec.europa.eu/ Importance of Biodiversity environment/docum/9842sm.htm • Scottish Executive guidance on the biodiversity • National and international strategies and duty www.biodiversityscotland.gov.uk programmes have been developed within • UNEP Convention on Biological Diversity www. the context of sustainable development and biodiv.org are closely linked with social and economic objectives. • UK Biodiversity Action Plan www.ukbap.org.uk

3. Factors affecting national and international action

• The complexity of national and international targets for biodiversity, in addition to targets for many other issues, makes implementation at the local level confusing for the non-specialist.

4. Recent and current activity

• The Dumfries & Galloway Biodiversity Steering Group maintains contact and liaison with those working on national and international targets. CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS AND OBJECTIVES CENTRAL • A number of local partners are part of wider national or international organisations.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 25 26 CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS BIODIVERSITY DATA occurred tothesameextentinDumfries&Galloway. of visitingnaturalistsandexperts,whichhasnot disadvantages, hasbenefitedfromalongtradition Scottish Highlands,whichsharesmanyofthesame research institute/naturalhistorymuseum. The until recentlyithaslackedauniversity, ormajor is theregionlargeandsparselypopulated,but worse thaninmanyotherpartsoftheUK.Notonly The positioninDumfries&Gallowayissubstantially and uncoordinatedstoragetechniques. it islikelytohavebeenlostasaresultofinadequate the righttime.Furthermore,asubstantialquantityof public anddecision-makersintherightformatat world, muchofithasnotbeenmadeaccessibletothe biodiversity researchthananyothercountryinthe history ofcollectingsuchinformationandconducting is happeningtoit. Although theUKhasalonger insufficient knowledgeofwhatwehaveand limited. Formostspeciesandhabitatswehave Our understandingofbiodiversityremainsvery 1. available, toassistinthepromotion,enjoyment,understandingandenhancementofbiodiversity. Objective 2:EnsurethatmoredatarelatingtoDumfries&Gallowayiscollected,collatedandmade Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. Target: A totalof250,000tobeavailableby2012. Priority Action (BD2):Collectandmakeavailableadditionalbiodiversityrecords. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Centre tocontinueprovideahighqualitydataservicebothprovidersandusersofthatdata. Priority Action (BD1):SecurefundingtoenabletheDumfriesandGallowayEnvironmentalResources Moth recordinggroupatwork.Raeburn Flow, September2007. Background BIODIVERSITY DATA (Richard Mearns) priority. of theregion’s biodiversityhasneverbeenashigha range ofotherpolicyareas. A soundunderstanding the environmenthasbecomemoreintegratedintoa biodiversity, informationhavecontinuedtoriseas Requirements forenvironmental,including moved intothearea. of thesearelikelytobespeciesthathaverecently Galloway atarelativelyfrequentrate,andnotall discoveries arestillbeingmadeinDumfries& Even atthebasiclevelofaspeciesinventory, new • 3. • • 2. data remainslow. the collection,collationanddisseminationofthis local supportandfunding amongst thepublicanddecision-makersishigh, Although thelocaldemandforbiodiversitydata Factors affectingbiodiversitydata work. which aredirectlytransferabletootherareasof and developskills,suchastheuseofcomputers, experience ofbiodiversity, allowingthemtolearn involve peoplewithlittlepreviousknowledgeor Collecting andprocessingbiodiversitydatacan rather thananydesiretoprovidescientificdata. primarily asanenjoyablerecreationactivity, Many peopleparticipateinwildliferecording Importance ofBiodiversity Environmental, EconomicandSocial Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership forco-ordinationof BIODIVERSITY DATA BIODIVERSITY DATA BIODIVERSITY

Training for volunteers in how to find Otter tracks and signs. Langholm, May 2006. (DGERC)

4. Recent and current activity 6. Further Information

• The Dumfries & Galloway Environmental 6.1 Websites Resources Centre was established in 2004 • Biological recording in Scotland www.brisc.org.uk as a result of an objective in the first edition of the LBAP. It collects, collates, manages and • Dumfries & Galloway Environmental Resources safeguards relevant data and providing a focal Centre www.dgerc.org.uk point through which anyone may access the • National Biodiversity Network www.searchnbn.net information. • The Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 6.2 Advisory Organisations and Environmental Information (Scotland) • Dumfries & Galloway Environmental Resources Regulations control dissemination of biodiversity Centre, Dumfries (01387) 247543 data.

5. Other recommended actions

• Encourage the collection of new biodiversity data through the co-ordination and training of local volunteers with national recording schemes. CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS AND OBJECTIVES CENTRAL

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 27 28 CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS DESIGNATED SITES the opportunitytoexpandtheir range. species presentondesignated siteswouldthenhave time asimprovementsinthewidercountryside. The be maintained,andifpossibleenhanced,atthesame Instead, thebiodiversityofdesignatedsitesshould especially underpredictedclimatechangescenarios. solely throughdesignatedsitesisdestinedtofail, that attemptstoconserveorenhancebiodiversity important speciesorhabitats.However, anypolicy hotspots, where there is a concentration of particularly These sitesshouldbeviewedasbiodiversity • • • • • • sites havemultipledesignations): and water. This includesthefollowing(notethatsome importance, coveringmorethan100,000haofland sites designatedfortheirbiodiversityorgeodiversity Dumfries &Gallowayhasahighnumberofstatutory 1. Objective 3:Maintainandenhanceanetworkofdesignatedbiodiversitysites. 2,982ha. & HightaeLochsandWigtownBay, covering 2 Kirkconnell Flow, covering9,961ha. of Fleet,Caerlaverock,SilverFloweand 4 covering 75,380ha. 97 48,713ha. 7 covering 91,963ha. 17 Importance covering33,706ha. 5 Background Local NatureReserves National NatureReserves Special Protection Areas Ramsar Wetlands ofInternational Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: 30additionalsitesassessedby2015. Priority Action (DS1):SurveyandassessadditionalpotentialLocalWildlifeSites. Sites ofSpecialScientificInterest Special Areas ofConservation(SAC) DESIGNATED SITES (LNRs)atCastle (SPA) covering (NNRs)Cairnsmore (SSSI) management operations. in orderthatthiscanbetaken intoaccountin landowner ofthepresence ofimportantbiodiversity one ofthemainbenefitsthey provideistoalertthe limited protectionthroughthe planningprocesses,but agreed withlandowners. These sitesreceivesome (LWS) intheregionthathavebeensurveyedand are nowalso45non-statutory As aresultofthefirsteditionLBAP, there Opening ofMabieNatureReserve(andLocalWildlife Site)by Butterfly ConservationandForestryCommissionScotland. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Local Wildlife Sites July 2007.(PeterNorman) DESIGNATED SITES

2. Environmental, Economic and Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Many designated sites provide opportunities for education and enjoyment of the natural heritage. This is particularly the case for National Nature Reserves and Local Nature Reserves.

3. Factors affecting designated sites

• Of the notified features of SSSIs in Dumfries & Galloway surveyed as part of Site Condition Monitoring up to 2006, approximately 31% were considered to be in unfavourable condition, and 69% in favourable condition. DESIGNATED SITES DESIGNATED 4. Recent and current activity

• Scottish Natural Heritage is carrying out Site Condition Monitoring of SPAs, SACs and SSSIs. This identifies sites that are in ‘favourable’ or ‘unfavourable’ condition. • The Natural Care Programme, managed by Scottish Natural Heritage has assisted land managers to address management of sensitive habitats in designated sites. • Funding for the management of designated sites is included in Rural Development Contracts.

5. Other recommended actions

• Continue to identify further sites that are locally important for biodiversity. Work with their owners and managers to secure favourable management.

6. Further Information

6.1 Websites • SNH Information Service www.snh.org.uk/snhi/

6.2 Advisory Organisations • Scottish Natural Heritage (01387) 247010 www.snh.org.uk CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS AND OBJECTIVES CENTRAL

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 29 30 CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS ANCIENT HABITATS biodiversity. Mostresearchhas beencarriedout disturbance generally supportthemost valuable existed forthegreatestlength oftimewiththeleast As ageneralrule,semi-natural habitatsthathave least modifiedarenowtermed ‘semi-natural’. left untouchedbyman. Those habitatsthathavebeen none ofthenaturalbiodiversityBritainhasbeen of thebiggesttransformations. The netresultisthat exponentially, with thelast100yearsseeingsome the intensityandpaceofthischangehasincreased Britain bytheendofNeolithicperiod.However, the clearanceofnaturalwoodlandacrossmost wide, withperhapsthebiggestsinglechangebeing geographical scaleofsuchchangeshasalwaysbeen impact ofhumansonbiodiversityincreased. The was nottolast.FromMesolithicmanonwards,the change accordingtoentirelynaturalprocesses. This the biodiversityofBritaincontinuedtoevolveand 8000 yearsago,butevenafterthiswassevered bridge thatexistedwiththecontinentuntilaround to recolonise.Initiallythiswasassistedbytheland last Ice Age some10,000yearsago,wildlifebegan When theicerecededfromBritainatendof 1. Background Ancient woodssuchasWoodofCreecanneverbereplacedby Objective 4:Recognisethevalueofancienthabitats. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. Target: Identifylocalwoodlandindicatorsby2012. special protectionandhighconservationpriority. documentary evidence,toidentifylocalancienthabitats,inorderthatthesehabitatsshouldbegiven Priority Action (AH1):Developasetofindicatorspeciesthatcanbeused,inconjunctionwith new woodlandcreation.(RichardMearns) ANCIENT HABITATS • • • ancient woods.Forexample: at all. A numberofspeciesarethereforeindicative such woodswillnotrecoloniseforaverylongtime,if are nowconfinedto cross opencountrytocolonisenewwoods. They spread onlyslowlywithinawoodandareunableto Many woodlandplants,fungiandinvertebrates quickly losetheirvitalcomponents. as digging,ploughing,andfertiliserapplicationvery Those thataredisturbedbyhumanactivitiessuch and arefundamentaltothewell-beingofthathabitat. much apartofthehabitatasplantsandanimals a mediumintowhichplantsarerooted;theyas value ofancienthabitats.Soilsaremuchmorethan Ancient soils younger agethanawood. habitat; apondislikelytobecome‘ancient’ atamuch is lessclearlydefined.Muchdependsonthetypeof below). Forotherhabitats,whatconstitutes‘ancient’ given aprecise,ifsomewhatartificial,definition(see woodland, theterm‘ancient’ isfrequentlyusedand applicable tothemajorityofotherhabitats.In with relevancetowoodland,butthisruleisequally in BargalyGlen in1975. liverwort indicator ofancientwoodlandwas found Deceptive Featherwort woodland indicators. Slug Limaxcinereoniger Plated Snail as aresultofconiferisation ofancientwoods. The intolerant ofhumandisturbanceandhasdeclined moss andleaflitterinolddeciduouswoods.Itis The PointSnail ancient woods. of oaksandothertreeslyingonthegroundin usually restrictedtorottingsmallbranchwood scarce weevilrecordedatCarstramonWood, is The larvaeof are perhapsthekeytobiodiversity Spermodea lamellata, Trachodes hispidus, Acicula fuscaisfoundmostlyin ancient woods Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Adelanthus decipiens arealsousefulancient , andiflostfrom anationally the Ash-black a ANCIENT HABITATS

but old unimproved grasslands may contain 20 or more of the 50 species known in Britain. Such waxcap grasslands are of international importance, Britain being their most important European stronghold. Ancient grasslands can also support a wide diversity of flowering plants, though some important waxcap grasslands can be relatively botanically poor.

Peatlands by their very nature are ancient habitats, taking hundreds or thousands of years to form. However, a greater variety of species occur on ancient bogs that are undisturbed, or at least not disturbed or burnt for a considerable period of time. Large hummocks of Austin’s bog-moss Sphagnum austinii and Rusty Bog-moss S. fuscum are largely confined to pristine raised and blanket bogs. Extensive areas of Magellanic Bog-moss S. ANCIENT HABITATS magellanicum and Golden Bog-moss S. pulchrum in wet hollows are also typical species of undisturbed peatlands.

It does not necessarily follow that just because ancient habitats are the most valuable for biodiversity, they support the most species. There are many examples where recently created or disturbed Tree Lungwort Lobaria pulmonaria, a lichen indicator of ancient habitats support a large number of opportunist woodlands. (Peter Norman) species that are quick to find and exploit new niches. An Inventory of Ancient, Long-established and Spiders are particularly adept at this, and a recent Semi-natural Woodland in Dumfries & Galloway habitat is likely to have many more species than an was prepared by the Nature Conservancy Council ancient one. However, the ancient one will support between 1988 and 1990. It provides information on all more of the specialist and rarer species. Likewise, sites over 2ha. raised bogs have rather few flowering plants in comparison to most recent habitats, but many of the Outside of woodland, single trees may be 400 years species that are found there would be unlikely to old or more. Such ancient trees are frequently survive in other habitats. remnants of previous habitats. But even where they have obviously been planted by man the 2. Environmental, Economic and Social long continuity of micro-habitats that they provide, Importance of Biodiversity especially those associated with dead or decaying wood, often support rare lichens and invertebrates • Ancient habitats, by their very nature, have that are incapable of spreading more than a few been disturbed much less than other habitats by metres to adjacent trees. The greatest concentrations modern man. They therefore contain some of of such trees occur in ancient wood pastures, the most valuable archaeological remains, which where in exceptional circumstances there may be a often tell us not only about the social lives of combination of ancient grassland and ancient trees previous generations, but about their utilisation together on the same site. and management of these habitats.

Waxcap fungi Hygrocybe are attractive, brightly- ACTIONS AND OBJECTIVES CENTRAL coloured toadstools which are readily seen and indicate old, not or very weakly fertilised ancient grasslands. They are entirely absent from temporary and recent grasslands. A few species return after 10 or 20 years if no further ‘improvement’ is carried out,

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 31 NON-NATIVE INVASIVE SPECIES

3. Factors affecting ancient habitats 5. Other recommended actions

• With the exception of ancient woodlands, there • Identify ancient indicators for non-woodland is a lack of knowledge about the location of habitats. ancient habitats. • Research the history of sites and landscapes to • A lack of awareness of the importance of ancient identify ancient habitats. habitats. • Ensure that all ancient habitats are protected from new development. If in doubt, treat the site as ancient. • Ensure that long established management practices and the timing of them, including grazing, mowing and water level control, are not changed without good reason and clear evidence that new management will be beneficial.

ANCIENT HABITATS However, traditional management practices that have been long-abandoned, such as coppicing or pollarding, should not be reintroduced without a full assessment of the likely results. • Continue restoration of known ancient habitats, such woods and peatlands.

Yellow Meadow Anthills indicate grassland that has not been disturbed for decades. Craig Farm, Balmaclellan, April 2006 6. Further Information (Mary-Ann Smyth) 6.1 Publications 4. Recent and current activity • Thompson, R., Humphrey, J., Harmer, R. & Ferris, R. Restoration of Native Woodland on Ancient • Forestry Commission Scotland has a programme Woodland Sites. Forestry Commission Practice of restoring plantations on ancient woodland Guide. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh. sites (PAWS) back to native woodland. 6.2 Websites • Historic Scotland and the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of • Ancient Tree Forum Scotland have completed a Historic Land-Use www.woodland-trust.org.uk/ancient-tree-forum Assessment of the Solway Coast National Scenic Areas. This is a desktop survey using 6.3 Advisory Organisations maps, so cannot identify most ancient ecological features, but indicates areas where such features • Scottish Natural Heritage (01387) 247010 are likely to be found. www.snh.org.uk • Restoration of lowland raised bogs has been • Forestry Commission Scotland (01387) 272440 carried out at a number of sites. www.forestry.gov.uk CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS AND OBJECTIVES CENTRAL

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 32 natives. species, butthe majorityofinvasivespecies arenon- beyond theirnatural rangesandbecome invasive small number ofnativespecieshavealso spreadwell such aschangestolandmanagement practices,a termed invasivespecies and causingenvironmental damage. These are at theexpenseofnativespecies, dominatinghabitats suitable conditionsandbeen abletorapidlyspread A fewnon-nativespecieshavetakenadvantageof and fisheries. through, forexample,agriculture,forestry, horticulture our naturalheritage,economyandsocialwell-being, those thatdo,mostmakeapositivecontributionto them failtobecomepermanentlyestablished.Of species presentinScotland;thegreatmajorityof Scottish NaturalHeritageidentified988non-native a resultofnaturalprocesses. An auditconductedby distinguish themfromnativespeciesthatarrivedas years. These aretermednon-nativespecies,to species toBritainhasoccurredforthousandsof The deliberateoraccidentalintroductionofnew 1. Grey SquirrelsarerapidlyexpandinginDumfries&Galloway, atthe Objective 5:Minimisetheimpactofnon-nativespeciesonbiodiversity. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. production ofaguideforthepublicby2014. Priority Action (NNIS2):Raiseawarenessoftherisksposedbynon-nativeinvasivespeciesthrough Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Completeafullriskassessmentby2012. threat tobiodiversity. Priority Action (NNIS1):IdentifytheinvasivespeciesinDumfries&Gallowaythatposegreatest Background NON-NATIVE INVASIVE SPECIES expense ofRedSquirrels.(GordonMcCall) . Insomecircumstances, eradication orcontrolmeasuresformanyspecies. mitigation areequally, ifnotmore,importantthan attempts arenotviable.Detection,surveillance,and some species,controlmeasuresanderadication eradicated; noneinthemarineenvironment.For methods hasvaried.Fewspecieshavebeentotally have beenemployed,buttheeffectiveness ofthe physical, chemicalandbiologicalcontrolmeasures of agenciesandstakeholders.InBritain,avariety need forco-ordinatedactioninvolvingawiderange to rapidre-growthorre-colonisationandthereisa Piecemeal attemptsatcontrolultimatelyfaildue introduction andspreadofinvasivenon-natives. Co-ordinated effort isrequiredtocontrolthe the climatechanges. species thatarecurrentlybenignbecomeinvasiveas Increasingly wecouldalsoseemorenon-native some non-nativespeciestobecomemorecommon. the distributionofournativespecies,andbyenabling assemblages inthecomingyears–bothbyaffecting change willalsohaveasubstantialimpactonspecies for theseproblemstoescalateisincreasing.Climate global movementofpeopleandgoods,thepotential Furthermore, becauseofthecontinuingtrendsin small islandsandinfreshwatersisparticularlyatrisk. certain nativespeciesandhabitats.Biodiversityon destruction, buttheyposeagrowingproblemto a threattobiodiversityashabitatdegradationand Invasive speciesoffloraandfaunaarerarelyasbig • 2. forestry. significant economiclosses tocommercial fisheries. Forexample,Grey Squirrelscause interests suchasagriculture, forestryand Many invasivespeciesalso threateneconomic Importance ofBiodiversity Environmental, EconomicandSocial Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 33 CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS NON-NATIVE INVASIVE SPECIES Reintroduction and Translocation of Species

• The spread of some invasive species, such as 5. Other recommended actions Rhododendron, results in wholesale changes to the landscape. • Assess practicality and cost of controlling/ eradicating invasive species in Dumfries & 3. Factors affecting invasive species Galloway. • Monitor the spread of priority invasive species • A lack of awareness of the risks and so that appropriate action can be taken to target consequences of the introduction of non-native control. species and the actions that can lead to their spread, leading to attitudes and behaviour that • Co-ordinate any control/eradication exacerbates problems. programmes with national programmes and those in adjacent areas. • No lead agency with responsibility • Raise awareness of the activities that may lead to co-ordinate to the introduction or spread of invasive species, action on invasive ways of minimising species, or any these risks, and the contingency plans consequences of not to prevent the doing so. establishment Himalayan Balsam and Japanese of new invasive Knotweed. Nunholm, Dumfries, 6. Further species. August 2007. (Peter Norman) Information LOCAL, NATIONAL & INTERNATIONAL ACTION & INTERNATIONAL LOCAL, NATIONAL • Lack of enforcement of existing legislation to 6.1 Publications prevent and control the establishment and spread of invasive species. • Edwards C. (2006) Managing and • Limited resources are available to ensure controlling invasive sustainable action to control established invasive rhododendron. species. Rhododendron ponticum. Tower Forestry Wood, Mabie Forest, May2007. • Limited capacity and resources to improve Commission Practice (Peter Norman) detection and monitoring of invasive species. Guide. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh. 4. Recent and current activity • The Welsh Assembly, Scottish Executive & Department for Environment, Food and Rural • The Scottish Executive (with the Department Affairs (2007) The Invasive Non-native Species for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Framework Strategy for Great Britain. Protecting Welsh Assembly) prepared an Invasive Non- our natural heritage from invasive species. native Species Framework Strategy for Great Consultation Draft. DEFRA, London. Britain in 2007. This provides a high-level context for regional or local initiatives. 6.2 Websites • Grey Squirrel control is being used as a tool in • GB Non-native Species Secretariat Red Squirrel conservation. Grey Squirrel Control www.nonnativespecies.org Officers operating in Annandale & Eskdale are co- ordinating effort to prevent the spread of pox virus • Introduced Species in the British Isles by the alien invasive Grey Squirrel. www.introduced-species.co.uk • Fringed Water Lily has been controlled at Mill CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS AND OBJECTIVES CENTRAL 6.3 Advisory Organisations Loch SSSI, Lochmaben. • Scottish Natural Heritage (01387) 247010 www.snh.org.uk

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 34 Reintroduction andTranslocation suitable habitat wherethereislessrisk of aproblem. individuals that maycauseapotentialproblem, to by development. Itcanalsoincludemovement of usually carriedoutwhenpopulations arethreatened have anexistingpopulation ofthesamespecies.Itis individuals toanothersite, which mayornot Translocation isadeliberatemovement of wild the flora/fauna. introduced, ratherthanwasanaturalcomponentof the latterimpliesthatspecieshadbeenpreviously sometimes usedinpreferencetore-introduction,as re-introduction hasbeensuccessful.Itisalso establishment isasynonym,butimpliesthatthe range, butfromwhichithasbecomeextinct.Re- in anarea,whichwasoncepartofitshistorical Re-introduction these impacts: A varietyofmeasuresshouldbetakentoaddress management ofdeerpopulations. native woodlandsisrarelypossiblewithouthuman of deer, meaningthatthenaturalregenerationof of wolvesinScotlandhasremovedthemainpredator often unexpected impacts. For example, the extinction functioning ofecosystemsandresultinindirect loss ofcertainkeyspeciescanaffect thenatural of extinctionsvariesaccordingtospecies,butthe degradation, ordeliberatepersecution. The impact but themostcommoncausesarehabitatlossand become extinct.Reasonsfortheirextinctionvary, that oncenaturallyoccurredintheregionhavesince these havebecomeinvasive(seeabove).Others or deliberatelyintroducedandasmallnumberof the millennia.Manyspecieshavebeenaccidentally has beengreatlymodifiedbyhumanactivityover & Galloway, andindeedtherestofBritishIsles, The rangeofspeciescurrentlypresentinDumfries 1. Objective 6:ReintroduceortranslocatespeciesinDumfriesandGallowaywhereappropriate. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. reintroducing keyspeciestoDumfries&Galloway, inlinewithIUCNguidelines. Priority Action (RTS1):Assessthefeasibilityandsocial,economicenvironmentalbenefitsof Background is anattempttoestablishaspecies of Species another species. distribution inordertocontrolthepopulationof to establishaspeciesfromoutsideitsrecorded Biological controlintroduction suitable arealeftwithinaspecies’ historicrange. conservation toolonlywhenthereisnoremaining and eco-geographicalarea. This isanappropriate its recordeddistributionbutwithinasuitablehabitat a species,forthepurposeofconservation,outside Conservation introduction population. individuals toanexisting Re-enforcement tree regeneration. For example,movementofgrazinganimalstoallow • • 3. • 2. attempted inand aroundDumfries&Galloway in native species. Suchreintroductionshave been risk offailure, andthepossibilityofdamaging out withlittlelong-termplanning haveahigh Reintroductions andtranslocations carried without anappropriatelicence. Most reintroductionsandtranslocations areillegal translocation ofspecies Factors affectingreintroductionand a significantboosttothelocaleconomy. It linkswithlocaltourismbusinessesandprovides and localpeopletoviewreintroducedRedKites. Trail wasestablishedin2003toenablevisitors from tourism.Forexample,theGallowayKite public andproducesignificanteconomicbenefits Some reintroducedspeciesareattractivetothe Importance ofBiodiversity Environmental, EconomicandSocial orsupplementationisanadditionof Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership isanattempttoestablish isanattempt 35 CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS REINTRODUCTION & TRANSLOCATION WILDLIFE TOURISM

the past, including Ptarmigan in the 1960s/70s. • Reinforcement of Sticky Catchfly on the Galloway There are however some examples of success, Coast and Oblong Woodsia fern in the Moffat Hills including Mountain Hares and Red Squirrels in has been carried out. the 19th century and Pine Martens in 1981. • A conservation introduction of Vendace to • A thorough assessment of attitudes of local Dumfries & Galloway was carried out in 1997. people to the proposed project is necessary to The original sites for this species at Lochmaben ensure long-term protection of the re-introduced Lochs were no longer suitable, so Loch Skene, population. which had no previous history of this species, was chosen instead. It is perhaps now the most important UK site for this species, which is threatened by pollution at its last remaining natural sites at Bassenthwaite and Derwent Water

5. Other recommended actions Sparling have been the subject of a reintroduction to the River Fleet. (Galloway Fisheries Trust) • Complete feasibility studies on White-tailed Sea • Long-term monitoring is required to assess Eagle and Arctic Charr reintroductions. the success or otherwise of reintroduction • Consider reintroducing additional species to REINTRODUCTION & TRANSLOCATION or translocation projects. The length of such Dumfries & Galloway where all IUCN guidelines monitoring will vary according to the species can be met, there are ecological/environmental involved, but as a minimum it should include two benefits, and the long-term economic gains complete breeding/reproduction cycles, usually outweigh the initial costs of the reintroduction. longer. Possible species for consideration include Marsh Fritillary and Small Blue butterflies, Freshwater 4. Recent and current activity Pearl Mussels and Beavers. • Restrict translocation • Guidelines for re-introductions were published by to scenarios where IUCN - The World Conservation Union in 1995. it is there is no other In summary, these state that introductions should viable alternative, only be considered in the species’ former natural and ensure that habitat and range; in locations where habitat adequate long-term and landscape requirements of the species monitoring is in are satisfied and likely to be sustained for the place. foreseeable future; where factors that caused Red Kite, reintroduced to the original decline of the species have been Dumfries & Galloway in 2001. identified and reduced to a satisfactory level; that 6. Further (Steven Round) the source population should be closely related Information genetically to the original native stock; that the source population should not be endangered; 6.1 Publications that prospective release stock is subject to a • IUCN - The World Conservation Union (1995) veterinary screening process; that adequate Guidelines for Re-Introductions. funding for all programme phases is secured; • Joint Nature Conservation Committee (2001) and that a pre- and post-release monitoring Biological Translocations: A Conservation programme is in place. Policy for Britain. Consultation Draft. JNCC,

CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS AND OBJECTIVES CENTRAL • Reintroduction of Red Kites in Dumfries & Peterborough. Galloway by RSPB was carried out between 2001 and 2005. 6.2 Advisory Organisations • Reintroduction of Sparling into the Water of • Scottish Natural Heritage (01387) 247010 Fleet by Galloway Fisheries Trust and the Fish www.snh.org.uk Conservation Centre was begun in 2007.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 36 socially. sustainable environmentally, economicallyand and naturetourisminScotland inwaysthatare operation, developmentandpromotionofwildlife experience. They aimtoencouragethecommercial committed todeliveringafirstclasswildlife-watching and naturetourismprofessionalswhoareall Tourism Operators Association -agroup ofwildlife Wild Scotland resources.’ businesses totakeadvantageofnaturebased development, especiallyObjective2‘Encourage Partnership Strategy2007-09encouragesfurther for wildlifewatching.However, the Area Tourism not yettakenfulladvantageofitsnaturaladvantages Unlike otherpartsofBritain,Dumfries&Gallowayhas • • • wildlife tourism: Dumfries &Gallowayhasmanyadvantagesfor tourism inthenextdecade. key marketsegmentsinthedevelopmentofScottish industry inScotlandandidentifiedasoneofthe6 Wildlife tourismisafastgrowingsectorofthe 1. Objective 7:IncreasewildlifetourisminDumfries&Galloway. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Annual festivaltoattract5,000peopleby 2012. organisations, VisitScotland andtourismbusinesses. Priority Action (WT2): Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. to assistinthedevelopmentofwildlifetourismby2012. through theestablishmentofapartnershiplocalbusinesses,tourismandbiodiversityorganisations Priority Action (WT1): Easy accessibilitytomanyotherpartsoftheUK. reserves withgoodqualityvisitorfacilities. place, includinganumberofhighqualitywildlife Some infrastructureforwildlifetourismalreadyin the year. significant proportionofthismarketthroughout A richwildliferesourcescapableofattractinga Background istheScottishWildlifeandNature WILDLIFE TOURISM Organise andpromoteanannualWildlifeFestival,inassociationwithpartner Encourage allinterestedpartiesworktogethertopromotewildlifetourism • • • 3. • 2. sites. Poor facilities amongst thoseinthetourism industry. and thefacilitiesavailable for wildlifewatching A services. conservation bodiesandprovidersoftourism activities andmarketing,especiallybetween Relatively Factors affectingwildlifetourism when otherattractionshavelittletooffer. economic benefitstotheareaattimesofyear the opportunitytobringvisitorsandsignificant Wildlife tourisminDumfries&Gallowayhas Importance ofBiodiversity Environmental, EconomicandSocial Visitors totheRedKiteStation,Laurieston.(DeanVaughan) lack ofknowledgeandexpertise little co-ordination of wildlife tourism fortouristsandvisitorsat some Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership ofwildlife 37 CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS WILDLIFE TOURISM GEODIVERSITY

4. Recent and current activity • There are several accredited businesses in Dumfries & Galloway under the Green Tourism • The Dumfries & Galloway Wildlife Festival Business Scheme. Accreditation is based on a was established by the Dumfries & Galloway range of environmental criteria, including waste, Biodiversity partnership in 2004. It takes place energy, water, transport and biodiversity. during or close to the Easter school holidays • A number of partner organisations, for example and consists of wide range of activities, including RSPB and NTS, operate and promote nature guided walks, open days, family activities, art reserves widely to tourists. exhibitions and practical conservation work, provided by biodiversity partners across the 5. Other recommended actions region. Attendance has risen from around 700 in 2004 to more than 2000 in 2007. • Link existing and future wildlife tourism attractions • The Galloway Kite Trail, established by RSPB across Dumfries & Galloway in a co-ordinated in partnership with local businesses in 2003, is marketing programme. an circular route of some 30 miles around Loch • Raise awareness of opportunities relating WILDLIFE TOURISM Ken, with an additional 10 miles of forest drive (summer only). The trail includes 6 outdoor to sustainable wildlife watching to the tourism viewing points with interpretation, countryside industry and other key stakeholders. walks, a visitor centre with CCTV (summer only), • Ensure a quality and sustainable visitor and a kite feeding station. experience by identifying and promoting best • The Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group (FWAG) practice and adopting appropriate codes of project, Linking Sustainable Farming, Tourism conducts and standards. & Biodiversity, is developing and enhancing • Provide networking opportunities for the opportunities for wildlife and countryside exchange of ideas on wildlife and tourism-related interpretation on local farms that have visitor issues. accommodation. • Develop opportunities on farms for promoting • The free Birdwatching in Dumfries & Galloway tourism and recreation rich in wildlife. booklet was produced in 1997. It is now in its • Develop opportunities on caravan sites and fourth reprint, and more than 100,000 copies holiday parks for promoting wildlife tourism. have been distributed.

6. Further Information

6.1 Websites • Dumfries & Galloway Wildlife Festival www.wildlifefestival.org.uk • Galloway Kite Trail www.gallowaykitetrail.com • VisitScotland Sustainable Tourism Unit www.greentourism.org.uk

6.2 Advisory Organisations • Wild Scotland 01463 723013 Large flocks of Barnacle Geese are the region's top www.wild-scotland.org.uk tourist attraction in winter. Caerlaverock, November 2008. (Northeastwildlife.co.uk) CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS AND OBJECTIVES CENTRAL

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 38 the twocontinents eventuallycollided. As theocean and Conglomerates. The Iapetus Oceanclosedand today asShales,Mudstone, Siltstone,Greywacke accumulated ontheocean bedandarepreserved northwards. Particlesofsediment inthewater as Eastern Avalonia whichwasmovinggradually as Laurentia,whiletothesouthwasanotherknown edge ofthisoceanwasacontinentalplate,known geologists astheIapetusOcean.Onnorthern Scotland waspartofadeepocean,knownto 495 and418millionyearsago. At thistimesouthern from theOrdovicianandSilurianperiods,between The oldestrocksknowninDumfries&Gallowayare by geodiversity. management, butmanyofthesearealsoinfluenced slope, aspect,climate,andpastpresentsite influenced byfactorssuchaslatitude,altitude, soil type.Inmanyotherhabitatsbiodiversityismore blanket bogsareclearlydependentontheunderlying form intheappropriategeologicalconditions,and between geodiversityandbiodiversity–seacliffs only or deposits.Insomecasesthereareobviouslinks characteristics fromtheunderlyingsolidgeology the exposedrocks,andsoilsthatderivetheir dependant onearthprocesses,thecharacterof landform. The region’s biodiversityisdirectly environment extendsfarbeyondthephysical The partplayedbygeodiversityinshapingour processes thatformandalterthem. sediments andsoils,togetherwiththenatural is thevarietyofrocks,minerals,fossils,landforms, includes thewholerangeofearthheritagetopics.It Geodiversity isshortforgeologicaldiversityand 1. to biodiversity. Objective 8:HighlightthegeologicaldiversityofDumfries&Galloway, anditscloserelationship Lead: ScottishNaturalHeritage. Target: Promotegeodiversityinatleast5publicationsby2015. audiences. Priority Action (GS2): Lead: Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. Identify atleast10regionallyimportantsitesby2012. Target: Set-upadatabaseofprotectedandotherimportantgeologicalgeomorphologicalsites. Galloway, includingtheselectionofkeyregionalsitesforprotection. Priority Action (GS1): Background Raise awarenessandpromoteunderstandingofgeodiversityamongidentified Identify theextentandlocationofgeodiversityresourcesinDumfries& GEODIVERSITY surface andslowly cooledandsolidified tobecome blobs ofmoltenrockwere trapped deepbeneaththe continent itcausedmelting ofpartsthecrust.Giant When theoceanfloorwas forceddownbeneaththe Uplands. new mountainchainacrosswhatisnowtheSouthern of itwasscrapedoff, foldedandstackedtoforma floor wasforcedunderthenortherncontinentsome Sea-sculptured sandstoneatBarlocco.(RichardMearns) Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 39 CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS GEODIVERSITY There is little further evidence for the region’s geological evolution until the glacial periods. Over the last 1.6 million years ice has reshaped the old landscape and created the one we recognise today. Ice sheets hundreds of metres deep fed glaciers that flowed under their own enormous weight. They gouged out valley bottoms and scoured off layers of rock to expose those below. When the ice melted it left the rock debris it was carrying including large boulders have been dumped, sometimes far from their place of origin.

Geodiversity is present across the whole of Dumfries & Galloway but is most apparent in locations where geological deposits and features may be experienced. GEODIVERSITY Local interest extends from granite pavement and moranic deposits in the Merrick Kells to salt marsh in the Upper Solway Flats and Marshes and from significant fossils at Dob’s Linn to the complex beach and dune system at Torrs Warren.

2. Environmental, Economic and Social Importance of Geodiversity Folded rocks at Ravenshall, July 2007. (Peter Norman) • Quarrying of local building stone has contributed huge pockets of granite. This granite was to have to local distinctiveness. The character of towns an influence on the formation of mineral deposits in such as Creetown, Dalbeattie, Dumfries and Dumfries & Galloway. Annan is very much defined by local granites and sandstones. By the Carboniferous Period, around 340 million years ago Dumfries & Galloway has moved to a • The geology of Dumfries & Galloway has yielded position near the equator and lay on the edge of a a wealth of minerals and fossil fuels that have wide tropical sea. The low lying basins went through been worked for generations. The majority of repeated cycles of changing conditions from shallow the mining activities were of a small scale and seas to swampy forests and back again. In the clear, of intermittent duration but have left a legacy in warm water beds of limestone accumulated while today’s landscape including habitats associated periodic influxes of sand and mud deposited by with spoil and slag heaps. deltas building from a landmass to the north formed • The total living matter in a hectare of soil ranges mudstones and sandstones. The remains of the from 6,000 to 22,000kg (equivalent to 150-550 swampy forests are preserved today as the coal sheep). There are up to 10,000 different species seams of the Coal Measures. of bacteria in one gram of soil, representing more genetic diversity than all the plants, mammals and By about 260 million years ago, during the Permian birds in the whole of Scotland. Period, Dumfries & Galloway lay within tropical latitudes and became an arid desert. Giant shifting • Soils reduce the speed that rainwater reaches sand dunes developed and were to become red watercourses, filtering it in the process, thereby sandstones. With the onset of Triassic times, about reducing flood risk and improving water quality.

CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS AND OBJECTIVES CENTRAL 210 million years ago, the region was still hot and dry • Scottish soils, especially peat, are rich in carbon but seasonal heavy rains would wash the sand into and the adoption of sustainable practices low lying areas to become layers of sandstone. that preserve or enhance this carbon sink is important. Carbon can remain stored in soils for years or may be quickly released back into the

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 40 atmosphere depending predominantly on how as quarries, pits, and road and rail cuttings. the soil is managed. Activities that contribute to • A geological trail in upper Nithsdale has been loss of carbon from soils include deforestation, established by Kirkconnel Parish Heritage intensive cultivation and drainage of wetland and Society. peatland. • A number of museums raise awareness of the 3. Factors affecting geodiversity importance of geodiversity.

• There are no identified sites of local 5. Other recommended actions geodiversity importance. In some other regions, voluntary groups have made audits of geological • Secure resources to establish a site monitoring sites and features and have selected key sites system for geological and geomorphological (known as Regionally Important Geological and sites. geomorphological Sites or RIGS) for protection. • Undertake an audit of existing geodiversity

These are selected by locally developed criteria information. GEODIVERSITY and are currently the most important places for geology and geomorphology outside statutorily • Carry out a systematic survey to identify protected land. potentially important examples of local geodiversity. • Climate change may result in: warmer temperatures that increase loss of organic matter • Review existing policy documents from from soils; increased rainfall that leads to greater local authorities and targeted organisations to erosion, especially of upland peats that store determine whether appropriate policy(ies) to carbon; and sea level rise that increases coastal safeguard geodiversity already exist. erosion. • Identify sites with potential for self guided walks • There is evidence from England and Wales that and geological trails. soil organic matter is being lost, which will have • Identify potential locations for on-site serious affects on soil ecosystem services. interpretation. • Average carbon content of soils appears to be • Identify potential locations for formal education dropping. In England and Wales this has been or community led study. estimated as 0.6% (4 million tonnes) per year. Soil that is sealed under built structures loses all 6. Further Information its ecosystem functions. • Soil contamination from atmospheric nitrogen 6.1 Publications and heavy metals can impact on soil fertility and • Greig, D C. (1971) British Regional Geology: biodiversity. the south of Scotland. Her Majesty’s Stationary Office, Edinburgh. 4. Recent and current activity • Stone, P (ed). (1996) Geology in south-west Scotland: an excursion guide. British Geological • A voluntary geodiversity group, GeoD, was Society. Keyworth, Nottingham. formed in Dumfries & Galloway in 2008.

• Nationally important geological and 6.2 Websites geomorphological sites are protected as Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and represent • British Geological Survey www.bgs.ac.uk the basis for site based conservation in Scotland. • Scottish Geology www.scottishgeology.com These were selected through the Geological ACTIONS AND OBJECTIVES CENTRAL • The Geological Society www.geolsoc.org.uk Conservation Review (GCR), a site based audit of Britain’s geological and geomorphological • The Macaulay Institute www.macaulay.ac.uk resource. The review identified 45 sites in Dumfries & Galloway, and range from natural outcrops and coastal cliffs to artificial sites such

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 41 42 CENTRAL OBJECTIVES AND ACTIONS RELATED STRATEGIES boundaries. the onesthatmostcommonlystraddleadministrative and toalesserextentriverinehabitats,whichare particularly importantformarineanduplandhabitats, across borders.InDumfries&Galloway, thisis and itisimportanttoensureco-ordinatedaction Neither doesbiodiversityrespectpoliticalboundaries wider rangeofbiodiversitystakeholders. a keyissueandpresentsanopportunitytoreach process. The SEA processincludesbiodiversityas Indeed thisLBAP hasitselfbeensubjecttotheSEA of anyadverseeffects beforeplanimplementation. during theirpreparation,allowingforthemitigation the environmentaleffects ofplansandprogrammes completion ofasystematicmethodforassessing Assessment (Scotland) Act 2005. These require regulations cameintoforceundertheEnvironmental The StrategicEnvironmental Assessment (SEA) may beasignificantlink. biodiversity objectivesintoallstrategieswherethere to biodiversity, itisimportanttoincorporate plans, programmesandstrategiesrelatingspecifically virtually anyhumanactivity. Therefore, inadditionto enhanced, anywhereinDumfries&Gallowayby or designatedsites,butcanbeimpactedon, Biodiversity isnotconfinedtonaturereserves 1. Objective 9:BiodiversityincorporatedintorelevantstrategiesinDumfries&Galloway. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. within thelifetimeofthisplan. Priority Action (RS1):Incorporatebiodiversityobjectivesintoallotherrelevantplansandstrategies Background RELATED STRATEGIES • 2. • • 4. • 3. • • • towards ensuringsustainabledevelopment. plans, programmesandstrategiescontributes matters areincludedineconomicandsocial Ensuring biodiversityandotherenvironmental Importance ofBiodiversity Environmental, EconomicandSocial Where possible,encouragespecific community planning. that donotrelatemainlytoland-use,suchas to educationandhealthsectors Focus attentiononmakingLBAP actionsrelevant Other recommendedactions Plan. Management Plan,andShellfish Scenic Area ManagementStrategies,Shoreline Catchment ManagementPlans,National Structure Plan,LocalForestFrameworks, use strategies,includingtheDumfries&Galloway specifically referredtoinanumberoflocalland- The Dumfries&GallowayLBAP isalready Recent andcurrentactivity Cumbria. Ayrshire, South Lanarkshire, Scottish Borders and Establish regularliaisonwith Assessments considered in Ensure LBAP objectivesareadequately note onbiodiversity. Prepare a strategies, rathersimplereferencestotheLBAP. policies andobjectives Supplementary PlanningGuidance Environmental Impact . Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership inrelatedlocal adjacent LBAPsin , andothers LBAP rock supportsmanyspecies. for otherspecies. The openwaterabovesubtidal animals canformreefs,which mayprovideahabitat circumstances coloniesof temperate watermarine usually associatedwithtropical corals,butincertain colonised by a range of encrusting animals.Reefs seaweeds, but rock surfacesinshallowwateraredominatedby has asignificantinfluenceonbiodiversity. Well-lit the degreeoflightpenetrationandthereforealso The depthofwaterabovesubtidalrockgoverns invertebrate communities. rocky wallsofsurgegulliesinparticularsupportrich much morediversitythanunbrokenbedrock. The a widerrangeofenvironmentalconditionsand with asurfacecutbygulliesandcrevicessupporting nature oftherocksurfacecanthereforebeimportant, in suspensionandthelevelsofoxygenation. The the turbidityofwater, thequantityoffoodcarried habitats, particularlyinshallowareas. They influence of subtidalrock on thebiodiversity major influences wave actionare the exposureto tidal streamsand the strengthof anchorage. However, little morethanan rock providing the seawater, the are suppliedin as foodandnutrients terrestrial habitats, biodiversity thanin of aninfluenceon habitats hasless in subtidalrock The typeofbedrock 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Habitat Description Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage. Improve knowledgeofthebiodiversityimportancesubtidalrockhabitatsinDumfries&Galloway Priority Action (SR1) rock surfacesindeepwaterare Hydroids Tubularia indivisaarefound SUBTIDAL ROCK Dense aggregationsofOatenPipe on rockfacesexposedtostrong currents. (PaulNaylor) are sediments. off Dumfries&Galloway, aredominatedbysoft of theUK’s inshoreareas, includingmostofthose headlands, fringingislandsandinrockyinlets.Most Subtidal rockintheUKtendstooccuraround 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext Wigtown Bay in rock, mostnotablythewreckof‘TheJasper’ of wrecksprovideahabitatsimilartoshallowsubtidal occurs atthemouthofLochRyan(MCA). A number where thishabitatextendstoadepthof20m.Italso of Galloway subtidal rockcommunitiesarefoundaroundthe 50km longand3.5kmwide.Particularlyimportant Channel. This trenchisupto302mdeep,about sediments) istheBeaufort’s Dyke The deepestareaofsubtidalrock(andother 2.3 SiteExamples fringe aroundthecoast in biodiversity. To theeastitisrestricted toashallow seabed tothewestofIsleWhithornisrichest and alongthewestcoastofRhins. The rocky between Auchencairn BayandMullofGalloway Subtidal rockexposuresoccuralongtheSolway 2.2 CurrentDistribution carried out. species composition,butlittlemonitoringhasbeen shellfish dredgingoverreefs,mayhaveaffected Galloway. Climatechangeandfishing,including no evidenceofsignificantdamageinDumfries& Subtidal rockhabitatsaregenerallyrobust,with 2.1 RecentTrends 2. action plansmay alsocontainrelevantinformation: and/or overlap withsubtidalrock,andthe following A numberofhabitats occurincloseassociation 2.4 Associated Habitats Head. in afewlocations,mostfrequently around Dumfries &GallowayStatus (SAC/SSSI) andScareRocks . Sabellariaspinulosa Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership intheNorth reefs arefound Burrow (SSSI), . Mull 43 SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SUBTIDAL ROCK P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Subtidal Sands and Gravels, Subtidal & Intertidal Scar 3.2 Fishes (high importance) Grounds, Honeycomb Worm Reefs, Intertidal Rocky Fishes such as Tompot Blenny Parablennius Shores. gattorugine and Conger Eel Conger conger find shelter in gullies and crevices of subtidal rock. 3. Importance for Associated Species The fearsome looking Wolf Fish Anarhichas lupus occurs in a similar habitat, usually only in deeper 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) waters. Other demersal (bottom dwelling) fish include To the west of the Isle of Whithorn tunicates and Greater Spotted Dogfish Scyliorhinus stellaris, sponges dominate the seabed community. On rock commercial species such as Cod Gadus morhua and surfaces in deep water where there is insufficient Haddock Melanogrammus aeglefinus, Ballan Wrasse light for algae to grow, the sponge Amphilectus Labrus bergylta in shallow water and young Pollack fucorum may cover up to 30% of the rock surface. Pollachius pollachius amongst seaweeds. Other typical species include Oaten Pipe Hydroid Tubularia indivisa and Elephant’s Ear Sponge Pachymatisma johnstonia. SUBTIDAL ROCK SUBTIDAL At Burrow Head the boulder habitats and rock surfaces in shallow water are current swept and dominated by sea squirts and important reefs of the polychaete worm Sabellaria spinulosa. These solid, but fragile, reefs are several centimetres thick and raised above the surrounding seabed. They provide a habitat that allows many other species to become established. There are also dense stands of the bryozoans Hornwrack Flustra foliacea and Bugula plumosa and populations of Rosy-feather Stars

Antedon bifida. Tompot Blenny (on sponge), a common inhabitant of rock crevices and wrecks. (Paul Naylor)

Amongst many open water (pelagic) fishes are Atlantic Herring Clupea harengus and Mackerel Scomber scombrus. Basking Sharks Cetorhinus maximus are sometimes recorded during the summer.

3.3 Mammals (high importance) Harbour Porpoises Phocoena phocoena and Bottlenose Dolphins Tursiops truncatus are regularly recorded in open waters around the Rhins of Galloway, along with smaller numbers of Minke Whales Balaenoptera acutorostrata, Common Dolphins Delphinus delphis and other cetaceans. Rosy-feather Stars Antedon bifida are abundant in some locations. (Paul Naylor) 3.4 Birds (medium importance) Many species of crab and the Common Lobster

SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA A number of fish-eating birds feed in the open Homarus gammarus take refuge in gullies and waters above subtidal rock, including Gannets Morus crevices, emerging to feed at night. The uncommon bassanus, Guillemots Uria aalga, and Razorbills Alca Brown Sea-cucumber Aslia lefevrei has been torda. recorded from crevices in bedrock at the entrance to Loch Ryan and the crevice-dwelling Daisy Anemone 3.5 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) Cereus pedunculatus, uncommon in Scotland, has also been recorded at one site in Loch Ryan. Rock surfaces in shallow water are dominated To the east of the Isle of Whithorn the fauna is less by kelp forests, which form a transition between diverse and erect bryozoans and hydroids dominate. subtidal and intertidal rocky shores. These consist

44 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P of a range of brown seaweeds, including Oarweed after the two world wars and the last dumping in Laminaria digitata, Sugar Kelp Saccharina latissima 1976. Surveys have not shown contamination of and Dabberlocks Alaria esculenta. Many, smaller, red seabed sediments or commercially exploited fish seaweeds find refuge amongst the kelp. The Bootlace and shellfish. Weed Chorda filum occurs in Drummore Bay, where it • Bottom fishing gears, though rarely deployed in is sheltered from excessive wave exposure. rocky areas, can damage fragile communities.

Kelp thins out with increasing depth and red algae • Marine litter can kill some species which ingest dominate; Rhodochorton purpureum is a common it or become tangled in it. Lost fishing gear may species of crevices. Drachiella heterocarpa, a small continue to catch fish (“ghost fishing”). red seaweed confined to the subtidal zone of wave- • Discharge of contaminants and nutrient exposed coasts, particularly subtidal cliffs, has an enrichment from run-off and sewage, or even extremely limited western distribution in Britain with ship-based pollution, can result in localised few Scottish records. It occurs at Burrow Head. On changes to seabed communities. rock surfaces in deep water seaweed may be • Dumping of spoil from dredging operations absent altogether. ROCK SUBTIDAL or coastal development work would seriously 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) damage subtidal rock habitats. Marine turtles such as the Leatherback Dermochelys • Recreational diving has the potential to result in coriacea and Loggerhead Caretta caretta feed in minor localised damage. This is not likely to apply open water over subtidal rock during part of their to Dumfries & Galloway where diving conditions annual migrations. over most areas are highly dangerous for all but the most experienced divers. 3.7 Fungi (low importance) Fungi are well represented in marine environments 6. Strategic Actions but virtually all are microspecies. Nevertheless, several species associated with seaweed are likely to 6.1 Recent and current activity play a role in the ecology of subtidal habitats. • Schemes of Management have been prepared by Solway Firth Partnership, on behalf of SNH 4. Environmental, Economic & Social for The Solway and Luce Bay & Sands SACs. Importance of Biodiversity These include some areas of reef, and SNH is undertaking broadscale habitat mapping of Luce • Inshore fishing, using both static and mobile Bay. equipment, in waters above subtidal rock habitats is economically important to some coastal 6.2 Other recommended actions communities. • Assess the distribution and biodiversity • Sea angling for species associated with this importance by collating existing information habitat is of recreational importance for a large and identifying known locations for subtidal rock number of people, and therefore of economic habitats. importance. • Protect from potentially damaging activities. In other parts of the UK this has been achieved 5. Factors affecting the Habitat through marine nature reserves and voluntary codes of conduct. & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA • A lack of knowledge of species and habitats present, due to limited research and surveys. • Undertake research and survey work, including promotion of the Marine Conservation Society’s • Very little statutory protection, even in Seasearch programme. designated sites. • Raise awareness of the biodiversity of subtidal • Beaufort’s Dyke and surrounding waters were rock habitats to generally benefit marine used as a munitions disposal site during the conservation issues. 20th century, with significant quantities dumped

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 45 46 SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SUBTIDAL SANDS & GRAVELS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T have declined sincethelate20thcentury. efficiency andcatchingcapacity, though landings to boatsandfishinggear have generallyincreased significant impactonhabitat quality. Improvements activity sincethemid-20th century, which hashada and QueenScallops,hasbecome themainfishing Commercial shellfishing,particularlyforScallops 2.2 RecentTrends coasts ofDumfries&Gallowayforhundredsyears. Fish andshellfishhavebeenharvestedaroundthe 2.1 History 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus subtidal gravel. fine sandysediments,butdoesincludesomeareasof found onUKseabeds. The Solwayisdominatedby Sands andgravelsarethemostcommonsediments 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext also supportsmanyspecies. The openwaterabovesubtidalsandsandgravels a metreormoreabovethesurroundingseabed. more andthebestexamplesofbedsareraisedupby Individual musselsarefrequently25yearsoldor frequent ingravels,mudsormixedsediments. may carpetsteeprockysurfaces,butaremore Horse Musselbedsformatdepthsof5-70m. They of exposuretowaveaction. structure, thestrengthoftidalcurrentsanddegree their biodiversity, isgreatlyinfluencedbyparticle drift ormud. Their stability, andthereforemuchof banks andgravelabovethebedrock,glacial extensive inarea,theyusuallyformonlythin from bedrock,asintheNorthSea. Although often from shells,asinmostofthewestUK,or Subtidal sandsandgravelsarederivedeither 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage areas bycollatingandmakingavailableexistinginformation. Assess thedistributionandbiodiversityimportanceofsubtidalsandgravelhabitatsinselected Priority Action (SSG1) SUBTIDAL SANDS&GRAVELS sand Loch Ryan(MCA). Horse Musselbedsarefoundat sheltered centralandveryinnerbasin. in themouthtomixedsedimentsandmud Ryan (MCA)gradefromcleansandsandgravel especially in and othersedimentsalsooccurintheouterSolway, patterns oferosionandaccretion.Subtidalsands channels whicharecontinuouslychangingtheir unusually dynamic,separatedbythesixmainriver inner Solway Subtidal sandbanksareextensivethroughoutthe 2.4 SiteExamples few placesontheWigtownshirecoast. Loch Ryan.SmallHorseMusselbedsarefoundina inner Solwaybutalsooccurintheouterand Subtidal sandsandgravelsaremostextensiveinthe 2.3 CurrentDistribution Flats. Grounds, SeagrassBeds, Intertidal SandandMud information: SubtidalRock,&IntertidalScar following actionplansmayalsocontainrelevant or overlapwithsubtidalsandsandgravels,the A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.5 Associated Habitats Common Cuttlefish,amasterofcolour-change camouflage. Luce Bay(SAC).SedimentsinLoch (SAC/SPA/Ramsar/SSSI) andare Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Burrow Headand (Paul Naylor) SUBTIDAL SANDS & GRAVELS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3. Importance for Associated Species Hundreds of species, including sponges, soft corals, anemones, hydroids, tubeworms, brittlestars, urchins, 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) starfish, barnacles, and crabs may occur on dense Due to the dynamic nature of the sand banks in Horse Mussel Modiolus modiolus beds, depending the inner Solway, few invertebrates are found within on depth, degree of water movement, substrate, and or on them other than small polychaete worms and mussel density. amphipods. Numbers of species increase towards the outer estuary, in the silty areas between Castlehill Point and Wigtown Bay, with the bivalve molluscs Fabulina fabula, Nucula sulcata and Abra alba. In Luce Bay the variety of sediments and the sheltered environment leads to a much richer invertebrate fauna. This includes Sand Brittlestars Ophiura ophiura, Sand-burrowing Brittlestars Amphiura brachiata, Sand Stars Astropecten irregularis, Burrowing Heart Urchins Echinocardium cordatum, and Masked Crabs Corystes cassivelaunus. Common Cuttlefish Sepia officinalis lie buried in the sand during

the day but emerge at night to search for prey. They SANDS & GRAVELS SUBTIDAL spawn gregariously on shallow sandy bottoms. Gravel Sea Cucumber Neopentadactyla mixta is uncommon in Commercially exploited shellfish include Great Scotland. (Paul Naylor) Scallops Pecten maximus and Queen Scallops Aequipecten opercularis in firm sand and gravel. In 3.2 Fishes (very high importance) Loch Ryan there is one of the largest beds of Native Lesser Sand Eels Ammodytes tobianus shoal in Oyster Ostrea edulis found in Britain, if not the world. shallow open waters above subtidal sand and are Brown Shrimps Crangon crangon are abundant an extremely important food for many seabirds and throughout the Solway, but mainly fished to the east fish. Commercial fish include: Plaice Pleuronectes of Hestan Island. They are a vital component in the platessa, the most commonly caught flatfish in the ecology of the Solway Firth. Solway, on muddy bottoms; Common Soles Solea solea, widespread on soft muddy ground; Flounders Pleuronectes flesus on the surface of mud and sand banks including brackish waters; and small numbers of Haddock Melanogrammus aeglefinus on hard, coarse sand banks.

Lesser Spotted Dogfishes Scyliorhinus caniculus are relatively common on sandy or muddy grounds, feeding at night, but the largest dogfish is the shark- like Tope Galeorhinus galeus, also found in inshore waters over sand and gravel in summer, but only in deeper water in winter. There is some evidence from local anglers of a substantial decline in this species. Basking Sharks Cetorhinus maximus sometimes SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA move into quite shallow waters over subtidal sand The Solway is an important summer feeding area for Basking Sharks. (Paul Naylor) during the summer, in pursuit of plankton shoals.

Loch Ryan supports a number of other uncommon 3.3 Birds (very high importance) invertebrates, most notably Gravel Sea Cucumber The waters of the region’s bays and estuaries support Neopentadactyla mixta found in coarse gravel banks enormous numbers of birds, especially during the at the entrance to the loch and Chinaman’s Hat Shell winter. The following are of national importance: Red- Calyptraea chinensis, associated with the oyster throated Diver Gavia stellata in Loch Ryan, Great beds.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 47 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus in the inner Solway • Sea angling for species associated with this and Loch Ryan, Slavonian Grebe Podiceps auritus habitat is of recreational importance for a large in Loch Ryan, Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo in the number of people, and therefore also of economic inner Solway, Eider Somateria mollissima in Loch importance. Ryan, Common Scoter Melanitta nigra in the outer Solway, Scaup Aythya marila in the inner Solway, Rough Firth and Loch Ryan, and Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator in the inner Solway and Loch Ryan. Numbers of Scaup in Dumfries & Galloway (over 3,300 each year between 1999 and 2004) are particularly notable, making the region by far the most important British area for this species.

3.4 Mammals (medium importance) Harbour Porpoises Phocoena phocoena are regularly seen throughout the Solway. Small numbers of Grey Seals Halichoerus grypus are also recorded.

SUBTIDAL SANDS & GRAVELS SUBTIDAL 3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium Great, or King, Scallops Pecten maximus excavate their own importance) hollows in sand or gravel beds. (Paul Naylor) Marine turtles in Scottish waters were once thought to be infrequent wayward wanderers, but it is now 5. Factors affecting the Habitat believed that Leatherback Turtles Dermochelys coriacea regularly visit the Solway in late summer and • Disturbance from bottom-fishing gear. autumn as part of their annual migration. Loggerhead Turtles Caretta caretta are also sometimes recorded. • Potential pollution from future aquaculture activities, and chemical and sewage 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) discharges, both directly and via inflowing rivers. Although subtidal sands and gravels generally do not • Radioactive discharges from Sellafield and have extensive seaweed communities some species Chapelcross, and the firing of over 6000 depleted do occur, including a nationally rare red seaweed uranium projectiles into the Solway by the Ministry Spyridia filamentosa that reaches its northern limit of Defence may have some impact, though this is and is locally common in Loch Ryan. It is found not proven. throughout the loch, particularly in the southern basin. Another red seaweed Chondria dasyphylla, • Oil spills and ballast water from shipping. Also rare in Scotland, grows on gravel banks, pebbles TBT (tri-butyl tin) has been used as an anti- and shells in Loch Ryan. The common red seaweed fouling paint on ships and leisure craft since the Rhodothamniella floridula binds coarse sand into 1980s. It has affected the reproductive capacity of sand banks. molluscs, including Native Oysters. • High levels of suspended sediment in Loch 3.7 Fungi (low importance) Ryan detrimentally affects Native Oysters and A number of fungal microspecies are associated with other shellfish. seaweeds and fish. • Sea-borne litter, especially plastic bags and SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA balloons (often released in large numbers as part 4. Environmental, Economic & Social of charity events) are ingested by marine turtles Importance of Biodiversity in mistake for jellyfish, frequently leading to their death. • Scallop fishing and processing is an important • Offshore developments such as wind turbines, local industry. aggregate extraction and the laying of undersea • Loch Ryan supports the largest Native Oyster pipelines and cables may pose a threat to some fishery in Scotland. species.

48 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Dumping of dredging spoil may smother • The commercial significance of Loch Ryan’s important habitats. oyster population provides a mechanism for monitoring the water quality and general health • Non-native invasive species such as Wireweed of the loch’s coastal waters through the Marine Sargassum muticum and Leathery Sea-squirt Laboratory in Aberdeen and by SEPA. Styela clava have been recorded in Loch Ryan. Others such as the American Oyster • Upgrading of Stranraer sewage treatment works Drill Urosalpinx cinerea and the Slipper Limpet has taken into account the biodiversity of Loch Crepidula fornicata may potentially spread to Ryan. Dumfries & Galloway in the future. All can reduce • TBT has been banned and use is being phased native species. out.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Maintain high water quality from direct and indirect discharges or run-off. • Guide inappropriate development away from sensitive sites or the adjacent coastal land to

reduce damage to benthic communities and SANDS & GRAVELS SUBTIDAL species, especially where they are particularly fragile, vulnerable or unusual. Where this has already occurred examine the feasibility of re- establishment or restoration. • Agree codes of practice between Masked Crab, common on sandy seabeds. (Paul Naylor) conservationists and ferry operators that minimise impacts on biodiversity from ferries. 6. Strategic Actions • Implement Schemes of Management for 6.1 Recent and current activity European Marine Sites. • Loch Ryan’s marine environment was recognised • Examine the potential of Loch Ryan to qualify in 1990 when it was designated as a Marine for higher level designation than Marine Consultation Area (MCA) following a survey Consultation Area. carried out by the Marine Nature Conservation • Promote and highlight the value of the marine Review Survey. This is a non-statutory wildlife resource. mechanism for site protection that recognises the quality and sensitivity of the marine environment. • Schemes of Management have been prepared by Solway Firth Partnership, on behalf of SNH, for The Solway and Luce Bay & Sands SACs. • Scottish Natural Heritage is undertaking broadscale habitat mapping of Luce Bay. • The Solway Firth Partnership and Loch Ryan

Forum bring user groups together to discuss & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA management issues. • Monthly bird counts and annual beached bird surveys are undertaken on most sites during the winter.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 49 50 SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SUBTIDAL & INTERTIDAL SCAR GROUNDS Columbia inCanadaandthewestcoastofScotland. Substantial areasarefoundoff thecoastofBritish Subtidal scargroundsoccurthroughouttheworld. 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext inundation bysandsupportgreaterbiodiversity. animals isseasonal.Otherareasawayfromperiodic spawning andrecruitmentofmanymarineplants of yearwhentherockbecomesexposed,as by sandagain.Colonisationisinfluencedthetime and colonisationbymarinelifebeforebeingcovered scoured bysand,withonlybriefperiodsofexposure Low-lying scargroundmaybeperiodicallycoveredor raised abovethelevelofsurroundingsandyseabed. such aspebbles,cobblesandbouldersthatare intertidal situations. They consistofcoarsesediments sandy seabedsandoccurinbothsubtidal Scar groundsareintermediatebetweenrockyand 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. SUBTIDAL &INTERTIDALSCARGROUNDS Dahlia anemoneUrticinafelina,a colourfulinhabitantofoffshore Habitat Description Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayCouncil decision-making byensuringthattheyareincludedinallrelevantcoastalstrategies. Ensure thatthebiodiversityimportanceofsubtidalandintertidalscargroundsistakenintoaccountin Priority Action (SISG1) scar grounds.(PaulNaylor) Worm Reefs,IntertidalRockyShores. Gravels, IntertidalSandand MudFlats,Honeycomb information: SubtidalRock, SubtidalSandsand the followingactionplansmay alsocontainrelevant overlap withsubtidalandintertidal scargrounds,and A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats (SAC). in WigtownBayandontheeastsideof (SSSI), Powfoot Examples ofsubtidalscargroundsarefoundat 2.3 SiteExamples patchy distribution. of theSolway. Onthenorthside,thishabitathasa Scar groundsaremorecommonontheEnglishside 2.2 CurrentDistribution recent years. change intheextentordistributionofscargrounds There doesnotappeartohavebeenanysignificant 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Common MusselsMytilusedulisoftenoccurinlargenumberson Dumfries &GallowayStatus Hestan Rock (SAC/SPA/Ramsar/SSSI), Southerness Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership scar grounds.Mossyard.(PeterNorman) , RavenshallPoint Luce Bay (SSSI) SUBTIDAL & INTERTIDAL SCAR GROUNDS

3. Importance for Associated Species grounds do not support important numbers of birds. Nevertheless, common species such as 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus and Curlews The invertebrate fauna of scar grounds is often richer Numenius arquata feed on intertidal scar grounds. than surrounding muds, sands and gravels, though species composition can change rapidly over time. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

Subtidal scar grounds make a contribution to fisheries, either directly or as a source of food for commercially fished species.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Physical damage of intertidal scar grounds by manual shellfish harvesting, which may be associated with disturbance from tractors and off Mussels on intertidal scar at Southerness. (Richard Mearns) road vehicles. Early colonisers of exposed scar grounds include • Physical damage can result from recreational barnacles Semibalanus balanoides and Elminius pressure, though the number of people walking modestus, with Common Periwinkles Littorina littorina

over scar grounds is unlikely to be high. SCAR GROUNDS & INTERTIDAL SUBTIDAL arriving later. Even on scar ground exposed for longer periods, the dominant species can change rapidly. The Breadcrumb Sponge Halichondria panicea is typical. Others include Dahlia Anemones Urticina felina, Rosy-feather Stars Antedon bifida and Common Starfish Asterias rubens.

Mussels Mytilus edulis can vary enormously in abundance. In years following a good settlement, they may out-compete other invertebrates and seaweeds, but mussel populations may then be reduced following sand inundation.

3.2 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) Colonisers of newly exposed scar grounds include Oystercatchers, regular visitors to scar grounds. (Gordon McCall) gutweeds Enteromorpha linza and E. intestinalis, Sea Lettuce Ulva lactua, and Purple Laver 6. Strategic Actions Porphyra umbilicalis. Some of these may later become abundant, joined by Bladder Wrack Fucus 6.1 Recent and current activity vesiculosus, a brown seaweed Fucus ceranoides, • Scar grounds are protected from damage from a red seaweed Dumontia contorta and Carrageen shellfish harvesting in the Solway Shellfish Chondrus crispus. Many species of invertebrate are Management Association’s management plan.

associated with these seaweeds. & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA 6.2 Other recommended actions 3.3 Fishes (medium importance) Common Gobies Pomatoschistus microps and Sand • Map the location of all scar grounds, survey Gobies P. minutus may be present throughout the their biodiversity importance and monitor warmer months from May onwards. changes. • Raise awareness of subtidal and intertidal scar 3.4 Birds (low importance) grounds, their location, biodiversity importance Due to their relatively limited distribution scar and possible threats.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 51 52 SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS INTERTIDAL SAND & MUD FLATS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T survive inareas withvariableandlowsalinity, so biodiversity. Mostmarineorganismsareunable to Input offreshwaterhasamajor influenceon types exist. Between theseextremesa widerangeofsediment present inthesediment,evenjustbelowsurface. little waterexchangeandoftenhaveoxygen deposited. They remainsaturatedwithwaterbuthave usually wherelargequantitiesofriverderivedsiltare environments. Mudsforminthemostshelteredareas, low tide.Moreshelteredsandsoffer morestable are highlymobileandmaydryoutconsiderablyat currents preventthedepositionofsilt. These banks to windand/orwaveaction,orwherestrongtidal Coarse sandsoccurwheresedimentsareexposed salinity. according tosedimenttype,stabilityandwater in biodiversity extremely rich of life,theyare conspicuous signs show littleorno often appearto the factthatthey mud flats.Despite to finesediment coarse sandflats range frommobile coasts. They occur onopen bays, butalso of estuariesand a majorcomponent mud habitatsform Intertidal sandand 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Lead Partner:SolwayFirthPartnership encouraging universitiestocarryoutresearchintheSolway. Increase knowledgeofthebiodiversityintertidalsandandmudflatsinDumfries&Gallowayby Priority Action (ISMF2) Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage collating existinginformationandincreasingitsavailability, by2012. Assess thedistributionandbiodiversityimportanceofintertidalsandmudflatsinselectedareasby Priority Action (ISMF1) INTERTIDAL SAND&MUDFLATS Nith estuarymudflats.January2008. (Richard Mearns) least 32,000ha. mud flatsisfoundinDumfries&Galloway, withat Europe. A significantproportionoftheUK’s sandand of theNorthSeaand Atlantic seaboardofwestern represent nearlyathirdofthetotalestuarinearea and the163estuarieswhichmakeupthisfigure About 50%oftheUKcoastline(9849km)isestuarine 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext stable. change, whilstfringingsandbanksaregenerallymore River channelsareinparticularsubjecttoconstant exposure tostrongtidalstreamsandwaveaction. changing erosionalanddepositionalregime Intertidal flatscanbeverymobileduetotheever- they mayoccurinvastnumbers. of specieshaveadaptedtoestuarineconditions,but away fromfreshwater. Onlyarelativelysmall number species varietygenerallyincreaseswithdistance third largestarea ofestuarineintertidalflat intheUK, The innerSolway 2.3 SiteExamples fluctuation inwatertemperature. estuary isshallowinnature, leadingtoconsiderable rather thanmuds,dominatemuchoftheSolway. The Highly mobileintertidalsedimentflatsoffinesands, 2.2 CurrentDistribution a regulatedfisheryre-openedin2006. dredging in1994andcompletelyclosed2001,but and mudflats. Thefisherywasclosedtomechanical but alsotheassociatedbiodiversityofintertidalsand 1980s and1990s,affecting notonlycocklestocks, The harvestingofcocklesrosedramaticallyinthe 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus (SAC/SPA/Ramsar/SSSI) hasthe Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership INTERTIDAL SAND & MUD FLATS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

covering some 26,000ha. Rough Firth, Auchencairn Bay (SSSI) and Orchardton Bay (SSSI) are predominantly composed of intertidal sand and mud flats, with around 1,150ha in total extent. A greater proportion Kirkcudbright Bay is constantly covered by the sea, but around 750ha of intertidal areas are also present, and a similar area in nearby Fleet Bay. Approximately 2,900ha of intertidal sand and mud flats are found in Wigtown Bay (LNR/SSSI), and 1,160ha at Luce Bay (SAC). Loch Ryan (MCA) is shallow over its entire area with an average depth of 2 to 5 metres. The southern basin of the loch includes intertidal areas with little freshwater input. Brown Shrimp, a crucial species in the food chains of subtidal and intertidal sandy seabeds. (Paul Naylor) 2.4 Associated Habitats Brown Shrimps Crangon crangon occur at between A number of habitats occur in close association and/ 3-50 million shrimps over 20 square kilometres or overlap with intertidal sand and mud flats, and of sand flat, whilst in clean medium to fine sand the following action plans may also contain relevant flats, such as in the centre of Luce Bay, there are information: Subtidal Sands and Gravels, Subtidal dense populations of the burrowing heart urchin & Intertidal Scar Grounds, Seagrass Beds, Coastal Echinocardium cordatum and razor shells Ensis spp. INTERTIDAL SAND & MUD FLATS INTERTIDAL Sandy Beaches. The nationally rare Wine-glass Hydroid Obelia 3. Importance for Associated Species bidentata grows up to 2.5cm long in tree-like pink colonies in intertidal areas in the inner Solway. 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) Most of the invertebrates A few terrestrial species occur on the upper shore, of intertidal sand and mud especially where freshwater flows over the sediment. flats burrow in the sediment This includes a ground beetle Bembidion maritimum to prevent themselves from at its only Scottish site in Wigtown Bay. drying out and being eaten by surface living predators 3.2 Birds (very high importance) such as birds and fish. They The invertebrate rich sand and mud flats of the feed on other invertebrates, Solway support nationally and internationally plants, or detritus filtered important numbers of over-wintering birds. Winters out from overlying water or are generally mild and many species spend the whole within the sediment. season in the area, but the region’s intertidal flats Empty shell of Burrowing are also of critical importance to birds refuelling on Heart Urchin or Sea Potato The composition of Echinocardium cordatum. migration. The number of birds using the inner Solway invertebrate communities Torrs Warren, June 2007. during the winter swells to over 140,000, making varies according to the (Peter Norman) the estuary the seventh most important in the UK sediment type and salinity, but typical species in terms of bird numbers. Internationally important on the Solway include the Peppery Furrow Shell species are as follows (all in inner Solway): Shelduck Scrobicularia plana, the Baltic Tellin Macoma balthica Tadorna tadorna, Pintail Anas acuta, Oystercatcher and the Common Cockle Cerastoderma edule. The Haematopus ostralegus, Knot Calidris canutus,

latter species can fluctuate widely in numbers as Dunlin Calidris alpina, Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA a result of natural processes. A single successful lapponica, Curlew Numenius arquata and Redshank settlement of spat can result in densities of more than Tringa totanus. Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis 1000 per square metre, but there can be a reduction also use the sand and mud flats as night-time roosts. of up to 80% during a hard winter. The Laver Spire Nationally important species are as follows (all in Shell Hydrobia ulvae is commonest in the upper half inner Solway): Shoveler Anas clypeata, Ringed of the intertidal zone and may occur at densities of Plover Charadrius hiaticula, Golden Plover Pluvialis 200,000 per square metre. The Estuary Ragworm apricaria, Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola, Lapwing Hediste diversicolor and the Lugworm Arenicola Vanellus vanellus, Sanderling Calidris alba and marina are also common. Greenshank Tringa nebularia. Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 53 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.7 Fungi (low importance) Fungi are well represented in marine environments but virtually all are microspecies. Nevertheless, several species associated with seaweed are likely to play a role in the ecology of subtidal habitats.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Sand and Mud Flats play an important role in Plaice spend most of their time on the seabed. (Paul Naylor) coastal defence, dissipating wave energy. 3.3 Fishes (high importance) • Sand and mud flats provide feeding and nursery Sand and mud flats support fish such as the Common areas for commercially exploited fish. Goby Pomatoschistus microps and Flounder • Intertidal communities are directly exploited for Platichthys flesus and provide an essential nursery shellfish such as cockles and shrimps, or for ground for fish such as Sea Bass Dicentrarchus angling bait including lugworms and ragworms. labrax, Plaice Pleuronectes platessa, Common Sole • Important economic benefits result from wildlife Solea solea and Atlantic Herring Clupea harengus. A

INTERTIDAL SAND & MUD FLATS INTERTIDAL (especially bird) watching, and recreational sea number of pelagic species, such as the Lesser Sand angling. Eel Ammodytes oobianus and mullets Mugilidae and are resident for part of the year, whilst others, including the scarce Sea Lamprey Petromyzon 5. Factors affecting the Habitat marinus, River Lamprey Lampetra fluviatilis, Allis Shad Alosa alosa and Twaite Shad Alosa fallax, • Creation of enclosed bays through barrages, migrate over sand and mud flats to their freshwater for power generation, amenity and perceived spawning grounds. The Cree estuary holds one of aesthetic reasons destroys mud flats and the the very few spawning grounds for Sparling Osmerus associated wildlife interest. eperlanus in Scotland. • Coastal defences could interfere with existing patterns of movement of sediments. 3.4 Mammals (medium importance) Harbour Porpoises Phocoena phocoena are • Industrial and agricultural run-off or polluted frequently seen in shallow water over sand and mud storm-water discharge, including eutrophic river flats. water, can create abiotic areas or encourage the growth of algal mats that will adversely affect 3.5 Flowering Plants (medium importance) invertebrate communities. Seagrass forms dense beds (see separate Habitat • Piping or channelling freshwater over the upper Action Plan) but few other flowering plants are able to shore may remove critical invertebrate habitats. survive in these hostile environments. A few species • Intertidal fisheries such as cockling and dredging occur on the landward edge of sand and mud flats, for fish can damage the seabed. including glassworts Salicornia spp., Common Cord Grass Spartina anglica and Townsend’s Cord Grass • Aquaculture has the potential to cause damage if S. x townsendii. not carefully located and managed.

SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA • Recreational pressure, including bait digging, can 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) in exceptional circumstances lead to depletion of The surface of intertidal flats may be covered certain species. with green algae such as Gutweed Enteromorpha • Vehicle use over sand and mud flats at low tide intestinalis or Sea Lettuce Ulva lactua during the affects sediment structure, influencing suitability summer months. The nationally scarce brown for invertebrates and disturbing feeding birds. seaweed Sphacelaria plumigera occurs in intertidal, often shaded, sandy pools. It has been recorded in • Introduction of non-native invasive species. For Wigtown Bay. example Cord Grass has spread along coasts

54 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

and colonised some upper-shore mud flat areas, areas important for birds roosting on the tideline disrupting the ecology. Auchencairn Bay and Fleet was carried out on behalf of BNFL in 1993. Bay have been particularly affected. • Implementation of the Solway Firth Partnership’s • Sea level rise may result in insufficient mobile Management Strategy is in progress. sediment to adjust to new tidal levels in some cases; in other circumstances erosion of mud flats may reduce their extent and quality. • Capital and maintenance dredging for navigation has a negative impact on sediment supply and the sediment biota.

6. Strategic Actions Mud flats with lugworm casts. Sandyhills Bay, June 1991. (Peter Norman) 6.1 Recent and current activity 6.2 Other recommended actions • A Regulatory Order for shellfishing in the Solway was introduced in 2006. Fishing effort, locations • Ensure that development plan policies protect and methods are currently regulated and estuaries from coastal development and other monitored by the Solway Shellfish Management activities that could, individually or cumulatively, INTERTIDAL SAND & MUD FLATS INTERTIDAL Association under a permit system. cause environmental damage. • The first stage of a Shoreline Management Plan • Promote management within the framework was published by Dumfries & Galloway Council of SACs and other coastal zone strategies and SNH in 2005 as an aid to the planning of sea that permit the natural functioning of sediment defences. systems. • Meet and maintain Class A (Excellent) water quality standards in all of the region’s estuaries using the Scottish Environment Protection Agency Estuary Classification Scheme to monitor chemical, biological and radiological quality. • Review current and future dredging operations to ensure minimum impact on the estuarine Cockle shells. (Richard Mearns) environment. • Consider the value of further site protection • Schemes of Management have been prepared systems outwith designated sites using by Solway Firth Partnership, on behalf of SNH for mechanisms such as local sites, voluntary The Solway and Luce Bay & Sands SACs. SNH reserves, no-take zones and sanctuary areas. is undertaking broadscale habitat mapping of Luce Bay. • Ensure that all inshore fisheries operate using methods that have a minimum impact on the firth. • Wigtown Bay Management Committee oversees sustainable management of this site using local • Encourage collaboration between bait diggers bylaws. and conservationists to establish methods for maintaining bait digging areas such that there is • Implementation of a Scheme of Management, minimum impact on biodiversity & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA prepared by SNH for the inner Solway SAC is underway, and a Scheme of Management is in • Highlight the importance of intertidal habitats to preparation for Luce Bay SAC. All ‘Competent decision-makers, tourism bodies and the public. Authorities’ must ensure that any operations • Increase the use of information packs and marine under their management do not cause chests in schools in association with the Solway disturbance or deterioration of the interest Firth Partnership. Develop their information features of these European Marine Sites. content for different age groups. Offer all schools • The Wetland Bird Survey gathers information and education/interpretation facilities about estuaries. monitors bird populations of estuaries. A study of Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 55 56 SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEAGRASS BEDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T hence theyarelessadapted tophysicaldisturbance. sediment sinceitislessdisturbed bywaveaction, Seagrass bedshavehigher siltcontentinthe • • • are nowconsideredtobevariantsofonespecies: in theUK,thoughZosteramarina seagrass (alsocalledeelgrass)havebeenidentified from significantwaveaction. Threespeciesof such aslagoonsandchannelswhicharesheltered estuaries, marineinletsandbays,inotherareas subtidal areasonsandsandmuds. They arefoundin Seagrass bedsdevelopintheintertidalandshallow 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Dwarf Seagrass half-tide toLowWater Spring. found onmudbanks,creeksandestuariesfrom Narrow-leaved Seagrass Low Water Springtideto4m. estuaries, onshelteredgravel,sandormudfrom in fullymarinesituationsandoccasionally Common Seagrass Habitat Description Water. lower saltmarshcommunitiesaroundMeanHigh habitats toZ. Angustifolia Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage. Target: Repeatthe1993-94surveyof Assess changesintheextentandspeciescompositionofseagrassbeds. Priority Action (SB1) Seagrass, RoughFirth, August 2006.(PeterNorman) Zostera noltii Zostera marina butmayextendtothe Zostera angustifolia SEAGRASS BEDS andZ.angustifolia occursinsimilar isfound Zostera angustifolia is

recorded intheNithEstuary. Auchencairn Bay. Seagrassbedshavealso been same locationsinKirkcudbright Bay, RoughFirthand of thesecommunitiesinScotland. threats, butthereiscurrentlynoestimateoftheextent covering thelatestinformationondistributionand status ofseagrassinScotlandwaspublished1993 disturbance andnutrientpollution. A reportonthe the UKseagrassbedsaredecliningduetophysical as nationallyscarceintheUK.Insomeareasof All threespeciesofseagrassarecurrentlyregarded 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext 2. SSSI). and atBaldoonSands Firth, inAuchencairnBay(SSSI), Kirkcudbright Bay, aroundRoughIsland sands. ZosteranoltiiisfoundatManxman’s Lakein at LochRyan(MCA)onshelteredfineormuddy shore andinshallowsubtidalareas,forexample Beds ofZosteramarina 2.3 SiteExamples marina has beencarriedoutintheregionforsubtidal but thisdidnotincludeLochRyan.Norecentsurvey a variabledensitywasrecordedduringthesurvey, Approximately 5squarekm(500ha)ofseagrassat the twointertidalspecies( Solway assessedtheoccurrenceandabundanceof 94 ontheDumfries&Gallowaypopulationsof between 1831andthepresent.Work during1993- & Galloway, recordedfromseven10kmsquares All threespeciesofseagrassarepresentinDumfries 2.2 CurrentDistribution to expandsincethe1990s. monitoring, seagrassbedsappeartohavecontinued Although therehasonlybeenlimitedrecent 2.1 RecentTrends Dumfries &GallowayStatus and Z.noltii . Zostera angustifolia intheSolwayFirthby2013. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership inWigtownBay(LNRand occurontheextremelower Z. noltiiandangustifolia occursinmanyofthe Fleet Bay inRough Z. ). SEAGRASS BEDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.4 Associated Habitats 3.3 Fishes (medium importance) A number of habitats occur in close association and/or Adult pipefish Syngnathus spp. and various species overlap with seagrass beds, and the following action of goby make use of the shelter provided by seagrass plans may also contain relevant information: Intertidal beds. Seagrass beds provide important nursery areas Sand and Mud Flats. for Plaice Pleuronectes platessa and Common Soles Solea solea. 3. Importance for Associated Species 3.4 Birds (medium importance) 3.1 Flowering Plants (very high importance) Seagrass provides an important source of food for Apart from the three species of seagrass themselves, wildfowl such as Wigeons Anas penelope and Brent no other flowering plants are associated with this Geese Branta bernicla, though the latter species only habitat. However, the three species of seagrass are occurs in small numbers in the region at Loch Ryan. the only marine flowering plants found in Britain and they cannot be found in any other habitat. 3.5 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) The green seaweeds Pringsheimiella scutata and 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance) Epicladia perforans are epiphytic on seagrasses and SEAGRASS BEDS The invertebrate fauna of seagrass beds typically other seaweeds. consists of those species associated with the particular sediment type, but the roots of the seagrass 4. Environmental, Economic & Social increases stability of the sediments and provides Importance of Biodiversity shelter and attachment for a number of species. • Seagrass beds are generally regarded as Seagrass provides an important nursery area for valuable and important habitats because shrimps and, in some areas, cephalapods such productivity is high and large amounts of organic as Common Cuttlefish Sepia officinalis. Various material are contributed to the surrounding areas. invertebrates take refuge and sometimes breed on This increases food and nutrient levels for other and around seagrass leaves, including Snakelocks organisms. Anemones Anemone viridis, Harbour Crabs Liocarcinus depurator, Sea Hares Aplysia punctata, • Seagrass binds mud and sand, reducing erosion and Netted Dog Whelks Hinia reticulata. Invertebrates and encouraging deposition of suspended in the surrounding sediment include Common Cockles material. In some areas, the sediment is raised Cerastoderma edule, Common Periwinkles Littorina above the general level, such that in the subtidal littorea, Lugworms Arenicola marina, and Sand areas, waves break further offshore, thus Mason Worms Lanice conchilega. A dense seabed sheltering the adjacent beach. In intertidal areas, fauna of non-selective deposit feeders is usually the raised level may decrease erosion of the present in Z. noltii beds. fragile habitats, including saltmarsh, higher up the shore.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Physical damage from shellfish harvesting by suction or clam dredges has been recorded in Rough Firth and Auchencairn Bay, manual

gathering of shellfish in the same locations, & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA and bait digging in Wigtown Bay. The most dramatic effect of hydraulic suction dredging was reported in Auchencairn Bay when the complete disappearance of Zostera marina was recorded from the dredged areas.

Sea Hares Aplysia punctata (mating trio) graze amongst seagrass beds. (Paul Naylor)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 57 HONEYCOMB WORM REEFS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Warmer sea temperatures as a result of global warming, coupled with low levels of sunlight, may cause significant stress and dieback of seagrass. • Seagrass is known to accumulate tributyl tin and possibly some other marine pollutants, which may reduce nitrogen fixation in the plant and possibly cause a build up of pollutants in the food chain. There is no evidence to suggest that local seagrass beds have been affected. • Colonisation of intertidal muds by invasive cordgrass Spartina anglica has occurred in parts Greater Pipefish make use of the shelter provided by seagrass beds. (Paul Naylor) of Wigtown Bay, Fleet Bay, and Auchencairn Bay but has not so far impacted on seagrass beds. • Construction of pipelines can directly impact on seagrass beds, though none are known to have

SEAGRASS BEDS 6. Strategic Actions so far affected beds within Dumfries & Galloway. • Coastal engineering projects such as flood and 6.1 Recent and current activity sea defence works, dredging of harbours and • The Loch Ryan non-statutory Marine navigation channels, and land reclamation can Conservation Area is in place to promote damage seagrass beds and cause changes in consultation and conservation safeguards. depth, turbidity and current regimes. Only minor • The Solway Firth Partnership, Wigtown Bay operations have so far occurred within the region, LNR Management Committee and Loch none of which are known to have affected local Ryan Forum provide opportunities for users of beds. these areas to discuss activities that may affect • A wasting disease caused by slime moulds is seagrass beds. believed to have affected local seagrass beds in • Seagrass beds are specifically protected from the 1930s, especially in Wigtown Bay. It has been potentially damaging shellfish harvesting under reported more recently in some parts of the UK, the management plan drawn up by the Solway though there is currently no evidence of its return Shellfish Management Association. to Dumfries & Galloway.

• Domestic sewage discharges and agricultural 6.2 Other recommended actions run-off is high in nitrate levels and may reduce seagrass biomass whilst increasing epiphytic • Survey Zostera marina beds to determine the plankton and phytoplanktonic blooms. Most of the current distribution and extent of Dumfries & beds in Dumfries & Galloway are in locations with Galloway populations. high water quality. The Z. noltii beds in Wigtown • Raise awareness of the importance of the marine Bay below Orchardton Farm are thought to be environment of Dumfries & Galloway. beneficially affected by agricultural run-off. • The extent of seagrass beds may alter as a result of natural factors such as severe storms, exposure to air, freshwater pulses, or the

SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA seasonal effects of wildfowl grazing. In Dumfries & Galloway, these factors are not considered significant.

58 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership the northeast Atlantic, which extends southtothe Britain isthenorthern extremityoftherange in 1.2 NationalandInternational Context within theoldervacatedtubes. have colonised,withsome animalseventuallyliving second yeararangeofseaweeds andanimalswill New reefshavefewassociatedspecies,butbytheir location ofreefstendstoberelativelystable. of larvaeontoexistingcolonies.Inthelongterm, but reefslastlongerasaresultoffurthersettlement have alifespanof3-5years,possiblyupto9 colonies ortheirdeadremains.Individualworms stimulated tosettlebythepresenceofexisting more massivereefformations.Larvaearestrongly take theformofhummocks,sheets,overlaysor appearance. The reefscanbe30-50cmthickand in tightlypackedmasseswithadistinctivehoneycomb The worms,whicharefilterfeeders,constructtubes shells. pebbles andcockle substrates, including also formonother action. They can to moderatewave grains, andstrong of suspendedsand with agoodsupply substrate, water there isarocky particularly where the lowwatermark, the shorearound extensive areas over They cancover Sabellaria alveolata. Honeycomb Worm marine polychaete sand builtbythe Honeycomb wormreefsarecomposedoftubes 1.1 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. information. Encourage identificationandrecordingofHoneycomb Worm reefsthroughtheproductionofpublic Priority Action (HWR1) Habitat Description Physical Characteristics HONEYCOMB WORMREEFS Honeycomb Wormreef.Barlocco- Orroland coast,February2008. (Richard Mearns) predators, mayalsooccur within thecolonies. as Fabriciastellaris gaper shell reefs inBritainhere. are someofthebestdevelopedandmostextensive in theSolwayareneartheirnorthernlimit,butthere south DevonandtheClyde.Honeycombwormreefs worm reefsarerestrictedtothewestcoastbetween Mediterranean andMorocco.InBritainhoneycomb Bay (SSSI), Southerness (SAC/SPA/SSSI), The mostextensivereefsarefoundinthe 2.3 SiteExamples the west. locations from Annan intheeasttoRhinscoast are intheouterSolway, buttheyoccurinseveral Greatest concentrationsofhoneycombwormreefs 2.2 CurrentDistribution evidence tosuggestadecline. Recent trendsareimpreciselyknown,butthereisno 2.1 RecentTrends 2. bivalves suchanutshell barnacles, dogwhelks,winkles, musselsandother within crevicesofthereefs,includingsmallcrabs, A numberofmarineinvertebratesarefoundonand 3.1 Invertebrates(highimportance) 3. information: SubtidalRock,IntertidalRockyShores. following actionplansmayalsocontainrelevant or overlapwithhoneycombwormreefs,andthe A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Auchenmalg (SAC)areas. Bay/Islands ofFleet(SSSI),andStairhaven/ Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species Sphenia binghami Meikle Ross(SSSI), and Golfingia Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Nucula nucleus . Smallwormssuch Rascarrel/Balcary spp,andtheir Kirkandrews anda 59 SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS HONEYCOMB WORM REEFS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T INTERTIDAL ROCKY SHORES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.2 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Over time, seaweeds including Dulse Palmaria palmata, Polysiphonia spp, Ceramium spp, gutweeds • Dieback occurs following extremely cold winters, Enteromorpha spp and Sea Lettuce Ulva lactuca particularly at higher shore levels. colonise the reefs. • Although they can tolerate burial by sand for days or even weeks, prolonged burial causes mortality. • Coastal engineering works, where it affects supply of sand can cause both positive and negative impacts depending upon the nature of the work. • Competition with Common Mussels. • Wave exposure may affect recruitment • Recreational activities such as trampling by beach users and bait digging by anglers have the Rock Goby (eating prawn), one of several fish that may be found in the reef crevices. (Paul Naylor) potential to cause damage, though on a localised

HONEYCOMB WORM REEFS and limited scale. 3.3 Fishes (low importance) Blennies Blenniidae and other common seashore fish are found within the crevices.

3.4 Birds (low importance) Several species of wading bird occasionally feed on the reefs at low tide, including Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus and Turnstones Arenaria interpres.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

The formation of honeycomb worm reefs may lead Turnstones feed on intertidal rocky shores, including to the creation of more rockpools on the lower shore, Honeycomb Worm reefs. (Gordon McCall). which can be of educational and recreational value as well as biodiversity value. 6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Honeycomb worm reefs are identified in the Solway Firth and Luce Bay & Sands SACs.

6.2 Other recommended actions

SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA • Locate and map all honeycomb worm reefs in Dumfries & Galloway. • Raise awareness of honeycomb worm reefs through interpretation.

Close-up of individual Honeycomb Worm tubes. Ravenshall, July 2007. (Peter Norman) 60 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership seen inotherhabitats. often resultsinazonation of floraandfaunararely exposure andlengthoftime coveredbyseawater not alwayseasytodistinguish, thediffering wave Although thepreciseboundaries betweeneachare lower shore, The mainintertidalzonecanbedividedintothe extends offshore uptodepthsof20mormore. exposed. The remainderoftheseseaweedforests tides aresomeoftheuppermostplantscompletely out oftheseaatlowwater, butonlyonthelowest rocky shores. The kelpstipesareoftenseensticking Kelp forestsoccurontheseawardedgeofsome overall biomassthanintertidalsandandmudflats. therefore haveahighdiversityofspecies,iflower rocky shoreshaveawidevarietyofmicrohabitatsand limpets andsmallredseaweedspredominate.Most seaweeds, whilstonexposedshoresbarnacles, Sheltered rockyshoresaredominatedbylargebrown wave actionisthebiggestinfluenceonbiodiversity. geology and topography determines the type of shore, exposed opencoaststoshelteredbays. Although the or boulders,andcanbelocatedanywherefrom Intertidal rockyshoresconsistofbedrockoutcrops 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:SolwayFirthPartnership Target: Completeastudyonshellfishgatheringby2015. marketing ofshellfishfromintertidalrockyshores. Examine thecurrentextentandfuturepotentialforsustainablecollectionco-ordinatedlocal Priority Action (IRS1) Habitat Description INTERTIDAL ROCKYSHORES the midshore, Ranger-led schoolvisitatWigtown Bay. (Dumfries &GallowayCouncil) and theuppershore. Sea basin. the rockyseashorefoundwithinwholeofIrish of theUK. The SolwayFirthhasalargeproportionof Intertidal rockyshoresarecommonaroundthecoast 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext rather thanmarinehabitats. biodiversity, withmuchmoresimilaritytoterrestrial in quitedifferent environmentalconditionsand However, thesmalldifference inelevationresults boulders influencedbywavesplashandseaspray. ordinary hightidesandconsistsofrockfaces The splashzone tolerant organisms. they areonlyinhabitedbythemostenvironmentally fluctuations intemperature,salinityandpHsothat are subjecttoextremedaily, tidalandseasonal richest habitat.Shallowerpoolsontheuppershore with deeppoolsonthelowershoreproviding their size,depth,shapeandpositionontheshore, The biodiversityofrockpoolsisdependenton at MullofGalloway Kelp forestsarefoundatLadyBay inLochRyanand There areextensiverocky shores atnumeroussites. 2.3 SiteExamples assemblage ofspeciesthroughout theregion. coast isfarmoreexposed,resultinginadiverse facing andshelteredSolwaycoast,butthewestern of Southerness.Mostrockyshoresareonthesouth are diverseandextensive,particularlytothewest Galloway, butother intertidalrockyshorehabitats Extensive kelpforestsarerareinDumfries& 2.2 CurrentDistribution on thishabitat. recent humanactivitieshavehadasignificantimpact Intertidal rockyshoresarerobustandfew, ifany, 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus is foundjustabovethelevelof . The rockypond atPortLogan Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership , 61 SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS INTERTIDAL ROCKY SHORES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

used to keep fish, provides an unusual feature, now sites in the UK, although identification and taxonomy promoted as a visitor attraction and marine life centre. problems mean that they are likely to be under- recorded. 2.4 Associated Habitats A number of habitats occur in close association and/or The mid shore is often dominated by Bladder Wrack overlap with intertidal rocky shores, and the following Fucus vesiculosus, though Egg Wrack Ascophyllum action plans may also contain relevant information: nodosum may be abundant in sheltered conditions. Subtidal & Intertidal Scar Grounds, Intertidal Sand On more exposed shores other species dominate; and Mud Flats, Honeycomb Worm Reefs, Coastal a brown seaweed Alaria esculenta is common in Strandlines, Coastal Shingle Beaches, Coastal Sandy exposed conditions, whilst the red Aglaothamnion Beaches, Coastal Cliffs and Slopes. sepositum is confined to extreme wave battered shores. The green seaweed Tellamia contorta is known from the Rhins, but is difficult to find and probably widespread, being largely restricted to the inside of living periwinkle shells.

The upper shore is characterised by Channel Wrack Pelvetia canaliculata and sometimes Spiral Wrack

INTERTIDAL ROCKY SHORES ROCKY INTERTIDAL Fucus spiralis, though Sea Lettuce Ulva lactuca and Gutweed Enteromorpha intestinalis can be common in brackish conditions.

Rockpools support many of the same species of algae found elsewhere on rocky shores, but Rockpools are fascinating subjects for outdoor education and seaweeds enjoyment. Orroland, April 2007. (Richard Mearns) rarely dominate. The pool rims 3. Importance for Associated Species are typically encrusted with 3.1 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) red coralline Seaweeds are the main producers of energy in this algae, especially habitat, and show clear zonation on most intertidal Lithothamnion rocky shores. species and Corallina Kelp forests consist of a range of brown seaweeds, officinalis, which including Oarweed Laminaria digitata, Sugar Kelp are difficult to Saccharina latissima and Dabberlocks Alaria find elsewhere esculenta. Many smaller red seaweeds find refuge on the mid and amongst the kelp. upper shores.

On the lower shore brown seaweeds are frequently A few mosses dominated by Serrated Wrack Fucus spiralis. can also Petrospongium berkeleyi has been recorded at Mull Sea Ivory lichen Ramalina siliquosa, withstand sea common on upper shores. Powillimount, of Galloway, one of only a handful of Scottish records, spray and March 2008. (Peter Norman)

SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA but is otherwise restricted to southwest England and are found in Wales. Another scarce brown seaweed Corynophlaea the splash zone. Most typical is Seaside Grimmia crispa at Mull of Galloway is epiphytic on a common Schistidium maritimum on boulders just above the red one, Chondrus crispus. Red seaweeds are found high tide mark. throughout the intertidal zone, but are perhaps most diverse on the lower shore. Two tiny bright red-purple 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance) species Erythrotrichia investiens and E. bertholdii Invertebrates on rocky shores are predominantly grow on other algae in the lower intertidal and shallow marine species, with smaller numbers of terrestrial subtidal zone. They are recorded from very few other species on the upper shore.

62 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P INTERTIDAL ROCKY SHORES ROCKY INTERTIDAL

Wave exposure is the biggest influence on biodiversity. Black Head, Killantringan, March 2007. (Peter Norman)

The gaps between holdfasts in kelp forests support The hoverfly Eristalinus aenus is found in rotting a diverse range of invertebrates including the Blue- seaweed in rockpools, as well as brackish pools rayed Limpet Helcion pellucidum, sea urchins, sea on saltmarshes, and has been recorded in several squirts and sponges. locations along the coast of Dumfries & Galloway.

The lower shore also includes marine species 3.3 Fishes (medium importance) such as Edible Crab Cancer pagarus, whilst some Intertidal rocky shores are the main habitat for a species of the mid and upper shores are virtually number of fish species, although most are present restricted to intertidal rocky habitats, including Rough in the mid and upper shores only during the spring Periwinkle Littorina saxatilis, Common Limpet Patella and summer, moving downshore, or even offshore, vulgata, and Dog Whelk Nucella lapillus. Of terrestrial in the winter. The Common Blenny Lipophrys pholis, species, two nationally scarce ground beetles are Rock Goby Gobius paganellus and Butterfish Pholis associated with the upper shore. Aepus marinus, gunnellus are typical species. recorded in the Machars, is found under stones on fine sand or shingle and in rock crevices; Aepus 3.4 Birds (medium importance) robini (Kirkcudbrightshire and Wigtownshire) shows Purple Sandpipers Calidris maritima feed in the a greater tendency to inhabit deep sand or silt-filled splash zone of rocky shores. In Dumfries & Galloway rock crevices. & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA they are only regularly recorded in small numbers around the lighthouse at Southerness. Other birds Although the invertebrate fauna of rockpools that feed on rocky shores include Turnstones Arenaria generally reflects local rocky shore communities, a interpres, Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus, few species appear particularly well adapted to pool and Rock Pipits Anthus petrosus. The latter two living including some tiny sea slugs, cushion stars species regularly nest just above the intertidal zone. and brittlestars. Beadlet Anemones Actinia equina, Shore Crabs Carcinus maenas, and several species of prawn are more typical rockpool inhabitants.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 63 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.5 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) 6. Strategic Actions A range of colourful lichens dominate the splash zone, including the black Verrucaria maura, the 6.1 Recent and current activity orange Caloplaca marina, the yellow Xanthoria • Guided walks and school activities are run by parietina, the grey Lecanora atra and the green Sea the Ranger Services of Dumfries & Galloway Ivory Ramalina siliquosa. Council, National Trust for Scotland and Hoddom and Kinmount Estates. These include 3.6 Mammals (medium importance) annual participation in World Oceans Day. Otters Lutra lutra feed on intertidal rocky shores and • “The Sea Chest”, which contains books, CDs and undisturbed rocky shores are used by Grey Seals activities related to the sea shore is available for Halichoerus grypus and rarely Common Seals Phoca loan from Scottish Natural Heritage to schools vitulina as haul-out sites, but few other mammals and community groups throughout Dumfries & make extensive use of this habitat. Galloway.

3.7 Flowering Plants (low importance) 6.2 Other recommended actions Typical flowering plants of the upper shore include Common Scurvy Grass Cochleria officinalis, Thrift • Promote the use of intertidal rocky shores for Armeria maritima and Buck’s-horn Plantain Plantago educational visits. INTERTIDAL ROCKY SHORES ROCKY INTERTIDAL coronopus.

3.8 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) Adders Vipera berus and Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara occasionally visit intertidal rocky shores, but the habitat does not support important reptile and amphibian populations.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Intertidal rocky shores provide the classic outdoor classroom for teaching ecology from pre-school up to post graduate levels. • Rockpooling is a popular recreational activity for visitors to the coast.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Pollution from shipping wastes and cargoes, such as oil and chemicals. • Pollution from the land, including sewage discharges, run-off from roads and farmland, and the dumping of garden waste and other SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA commercial waste, including rubble tipped to prevent erosion. • The extent and impact of commercial shellfish gathering is not accurately known. Serrated Wrack Fucus serratus, a typical seaweed of the mid shore. Port Kale, June 2003. (Maggi Kaye)

64 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership mostly annual species. Their seedsarewashed in beaches andconsistofvarious specialistplants- Vegetated strandlines occuronsandyorshingle driftwood usually formsthebulkofstrandline material,but landward ofthenormalhighwatermark. tides meanthatthiszonemayextendseveralmetres shingle beachesandsaltmarshes.Extremehigh This includessandybeaches,intertidalrockyshores, where spaceallowstheaccumulationoftidaldebris. Coastal strandlinesoccuronalllow-lyingcoasts 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:SolwayFirthPartnership/ScottishNaturalHeritage. from physicaldamage/removalofthembyincludinginformationinpublicationsorinterpretationpanels. Raise awarenessoftheimportancecoastalstrandlinesandpotentialimpactsthatmayresult Priority Action (CS1) Habitat Description Strandline atCarrick,FleetBay. May2008.(RichardMearns) is alsousuallypresent. COASTAL STRANDLINES Seaweed common intheUK. to supportafullstrandlinefloraandfaunaarenot other organicdebrisaccumulatesinsufficientquantity Stretches ofcoastwhereseaweed,driftwoodand 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext varies considerablyfromoneyeartoanother. botanical compositionofstrandlinecommunitiesoften sand) untiltheygerminate. The developmentand (midday temperaturesmaybe20ºChigherinopen excessive evaporationandextremesoftemperature by thetideandprotectedstrandlinedebrisfrom (Merse). Coastal SandyBeaches, Saltmarshes Intertidal RockyShores,Coastal ShingleBeaches, action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: or overlapwithcoastalstrandlines,andthefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.3 Associated Habitats the west. perhaps commonestonthemoreexposedcoastsof cliffs andslopesdirectlyabutthesea. They are Galloway coastline,beingabsentonlywherecoastal Strandlines occuronmuchoftheDumfries& 2.2 CurrentDistribution region. now carriedoutonseveralbeachesinthewestof strandline material.Mechanicalbeach‘cleaning’ is ecological andenvironmentalimportanceofnatural strandlines, aswellalackofunderstandingthe amounts ofunsightlylitterbeingwashedupwithin methods. This hasarisenasaresultofincreasing remove strandlinesonbeachesusingmechanical There hasbeenanincreasingtendencytoregularly 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 65 COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL STRANDLINES 3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) A large number of common invertebrates frequent coastal strandlines including spiders such as Pardosa purbeckensis; ground beetles such as Broscus cephalotes, Dicheirotrichus gustavi and Pogonus chalceus; and several species of rove beetle and kelp fly. Of greatest abundance are sandhoppers Talitris saltator. The richest communities occur in thick, wet and rotting seaweed rather than amongst small amounts of dry weed. These invertebrates are the main prey items for birds feeding on strandlines.

Scarce and rare invertebrates also occur. The Mouse-eared Snail Ovatella myosotis is found in muddy sheltered places at high tide level in brackish

COASTAL STRANDLINES COASTAL estuaries and saltmarshes in Dumfriesshire, often under driftwood and other flotsam. Indeed, a number of invertebrates, especially beetles, feed preferentially or exclusively on sea-soaked wood on the strandline. Frosted Orache on the strandline at Brighouse Bay. June 2004. (Peter Norman) The nationally scarce spider Argenna patula occurs in strandline litter on the estuary at Wigtown Bay, whilst the woodlouse Armadillidium album and the 3.3 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Sand Dart moth Agrotis ripae have been recorded Typical species of the strandline include Frosted on Luce Sands, one of their few Scottish locations. Orache Atriplex laciniata, Sea Sandwort Honckenya Amongst the species found below the strandline peploides, Sea Rocket Cakile maritima and Prickly debris at Auchencairn Bay is the nationally scarce Saltwort Salsola kali, the latter experiencing drastic ground bug Scoplostethus pictus, which in the UK has decline in some parts of Britain. The nationally scarce a predominately southern distribution. Early Orache Atriplex praecox occurs on vegetated strandlines of sand and shingle beaches, and Isle of 3.2 Birds (high importance) Man Cabbage Coincya monensis subsp. monensis Waders such as is virtually restricted to coasts between Liverpool and Oystercatchers Glasgow, as well as the Isle of Man. Haematopus ostralegus, 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium Turnstones Arenaria importance) interpres and Slow Worms Anguis fragilis and Common Lizards Curlews Numenius Zootoca vivipara may occasionally forage on the arquata feed on the strandline. In the areas where Natterjack Toads strandline, along with Epidalea calamita occur, these animals have been passerine birds such found using driftwood and other strandline materials COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL as Rock Pipits Anthus as daytime refuges. Such refugia are very important petrosus, Linnets for the toads. Carduelis cannabina, Twites Carduelis 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) flavirostris and Few species of fungi occur in strandlines, although Choughs Pyrrhocorax Ringed Plovers on seaweed a small number of species occur on driftwood. pyrrhocorax. Other strandline at Loch Ryan, January Microfungi may be important in the breakdown of species roost on the 2008. (Gavin Chambers) shells and other inorganic substances produced by strandline at high animals. tide.

66 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6. Strategic Actions Importance of Biodiversity 6.1 Recent and current activity • Through the decomposing action of invertebrates • The Marine Conservation Society Beachwatch and bacteria, strandlines supply most of the and Adopt-A-Beach campaigns encourage organic material in the upper sections of sandy communities to monitor and clean beaches in an beaches. Without this organic material and the life environmentally responsible way. it supports these beaches are more prone to be washed away during storms. 6.2 Other recommended actions • Strandlines are very often the first stage in the • Avoid wholesale mechanical cleaning of formation of coastal sand dunes. Removal of beaches, especially tidelines. strandlines may therefore weaken the natural protection against erosion and flooding afforded • Remove plastic litter from strandlines by hand by dunes. picking to avoid ecological damage. • In some locations, such as Balyett in Loch Ryan, • Encourage educational activities, including birdwatchers are attracted to view birds that feed community beach cleans. on the strandline. STRANDLINES COASTAL

Driftwood with nest holes of leaf-cutter bees. Claymoddie, Luce Bay, August 2007. (Peter Norman)

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Mechanical beach cleaning totally destroys this habitat. Even seasonal or occasional removal of the strandline will disrupt invertebrate breeding COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL cycles. • Use of driftwood for barbecues and bonfires can locally reduce invertebrate communities. • Recreational use at high tide locally disturbs roosting birds.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 67 68 COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL SHINGLE BEACHES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T and hydrological conditionsarealsoan important is amatrixoffinermaterial suchassandorsilt, shingle saline, mobileandpoorin organic matter. Vegetated vegetation cangrow, adaptedtoconditionsthatare a relativelystableareaon which specificshingle Above normalhightidelines,shinglecanbecome influences. that areexposedtoextremeenvironmental Unvegetated shingleisabletopersistonbeaches ridge system. shingle canformamorecomplexspitandmultiple beaches canhavearelativelysimplestructure,orthe pile upshingleontheshoreabovetideline. These energy environmentswheretheseacanmoveand 200 mm(largestones).Shinglebeachesforminhigh- grain sizebetween2mm(largesandsize)and The term shingle is applied to any sedimentrangingin 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Habitat Description Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Completeaninvertebratesurvey Assess theimportanceforinvertebratesofcoastalshingleinDumfries&Galloway. Priority Action (CSB1) willalsoestablishonbeaches wherethere COASTAL SHINGLEBEACHES ofselectedbeachesby2015. Port ofCounan,LuceBay, withSeaKale. August 2007.(PeterNorman) on LuceBayarescarcein the UK. vegetated raisedshinglebeaches ofthetypefound shingle occurs,andlongstretches ofpartially beaches. Only4000haofsemi-stable vegetated However, mostofthisconsists ofsimple,unvegetated by shinglebeaches,whicharewidelydistributed. It isestimatedthat30%oftheUKcoastfringed occurrences outsidetheseareas. west Europe,JapanandNewZealand,withfew Coastal shingleisgloballyrestrictedtonorth- 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext inland. and scrubmayformonmorestableshinglefurther beaches, but vegetation formsontheseawardsideofshingle in bythesea.Usuallyherb-richopen strandline vegetation,including supply comesfromrottingseaweedandother influence onvegetation.Muchoftheinitialnutrient mossandlichenheath,grassland, Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership driftwood pioneer washed COASTAL SHINGLE BEACHES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2. Dumfries & Galloway Status

2.1 Recent Trends Some coastal shingle has been mechanically excavated, but the generally poor access to most of the region’s important shingle beaches has protected them from excessive extraction and recreational disturbance.

2.2 Current Distribution Most shingle beaches in Dumfries & Galloway are bounded on the landward side by raised beaches (with roads at some locations), cliffs and other maritime slopes, rocky protrusions and remnant sand dunes. On the sea-ward side they are fringed by various marine habitats including mud and sand, cobbles and boulders.

There are many unvegetated shingle or sparsely SHINGLE BEACHES COASTAL vegetated beaches, with those in Loch Ryan being of particular importance for nesting birds. The most Yellow Horned-poppy, one of several flowering plants restricted to important areas for vegetated coastal shingle are coastal shingle. Port of Counan, July 1999. (Peter Norman) the bays of Kirkcudbrightshire from Balcary Point to Horned-poppy Glaucium flavum is at its northern Gypsy Point, and the eastern shore of Luce Bay from limit and the nationally scarce Oysterplant Mertensia Carghidown cliffs to the Mull of Sinniness. Vegetated maritima close to its southern limit. shingle is present along 35 km of the Solway Firth coastline, with 41 sites where shingle is greater than Pioneer vegetation, including species such as Sea 100 m in length. Spurge Euphorbia paralias and Sea Kale Crambe maritima, can tolerate periodic movement. Other 2.3 Site Examples notable species include Portland Spurge Euphorbia The eastern shore of Luce Bay (SAC) contains portlandica, Early Orache Atriplex praecox, Isle of some of the most extensive and important vegetated Man Cabbage Coincya monensis subsp. monensis, shingle beaches in Britain. Smaller vegetated shingle Ray’s Knotgrass Polygonum raii, and Wood Vetch beaches are found on the Kirkcudbrightshire coast, Vicia sylvatica. including Rascarrel Bay (SSSI) and Abbey Burnfoot (SSSI). The Scar in Loch Ryan, near Kirkcolm, is the The raised shingle beaches of the Solway are most important shingle beach in the region for birds. important for shingle scrub, comprising of Gorse Ulex europaeus and Bramble Rubus fruiticosus that 2.4 Associated Habitats thrives in acid conditions. Blackthorn Prunus spinosa, A number of habitats occur in close association and/ Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna, and Burnet Rose or overlap with coastal shingle beaches, and the Rosa pimpinellifolia also occur, often in prostrate

following action plans may also contain relevant form on the lower shore. Rascarrel Bay has a locally HABITATS COASTAL information: Intertidal Rocky Shores, Coastal unique shingle habitat that supports wet scrub Strandlines, Coastal Sandy Beaches, Coastal Cliffs composed of sallow Salix cinerea and Hazel Corylus and Slopes. avellana.

3. Importance for Associated Species 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance) Many species of invertebrate are dependent upon 3.1 Flowering Plants (very high importance) shingle vegetation. The most interesting sites are Shingle sites on the Solway Firth are significant those where the shingle extends above the normal locations for 16 plant species at or near their northern high tide limit and is at least partially vegetated. or southern limits of distribution. For example, Yellow

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 69 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

The larvae of the micro-moth Scrobipalpa clintoni feeds within the leaves of the common plant Curled Dock, but the moth was only discovered in 1965 and so far in Britain has only been recorded on sand and shingle beaches on the west coast of Scotland, including at Borgue and Cairnryan.

Driftwood on shingle beaches is usually exposed to full sunlight and drying winds. It therefore supports fewer invertebrate species than dead wood in other locations, but can be extremely important for a few species, especially for bees and wasps that feed on adjacent flower-rich grassland.

3.3 Birds (high importance) Birds such as Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus and Ringed Plovers Charadrius hiaticula nest on shingle beaches and feed at the adjacent

COASTAL SHINGLE BEACHES COASTAL strandline and shore. The Scar at Wig Bay in Loch Ryan supports Dumfries & Galloway’s largest tern colony with Common Terns Sterna hirundo, Arctic Cladonia portentosa lichen. Claymoddie shore, Luce Bay, Terns Sterna paradisaea, Sandwich Terns Sterna August 2007. (Peter Norman) sandvicensis and sometimes rare Little Terns Sterna 3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium albifrons nesting on the shingle. Other species roost importance) on the strandline at high tide. All three Scottish reptile species are found on coastal vegetated shingle.

3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) Mosses and liverworts may be totally absent from mobile shingle, but some species occur on more stable vegetated shingle beaches including Broom Fork-moss Dicranum scoparium and Neat Feather- moss Scleropodium purum.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Sandwich Terns nest on undisturbed shingle beaches. Loch Ryan, April 2008. (Gavin Chambers) Importance of Biodiversity

3.4 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) Shingle beaches are found on exposed coasts There are interesting lichen communities on with high-energy waves. They therefore provide undisturbed upper shingle areas where no organic important protection against coastal erosion, including material has collected, and amongst pioneer protection for several roads and houses. COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL vegetation. Species of Cladonia are most obvious, including C. portentosa and C. furcata subsp. furcata. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Disruption of the dynamics of shingle beach processes by coastal defence or other construction works that interrupts the steady supply of new shingle material.

70 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Dredging of offshore shingle/gravel ridges, 6. Strategic Actions stopping the natural addition of this material to the shingle beaches. 6.1 Recent and current activity • Damage by gravel and sand extraction for • SNH commissioned an Inventory of Shingle private and commercial purposes. Vegetation Survey in the Solway in 2000. • Several sites, including those containing • The first phase of the Dumfries & Galloway significant plant species, have no formal Shoreline Management Plan was published in conservation status and are at risk from dumping 2005. This identifies important shingle beaches of building rubble, garden waste and household and the protection they provide against erosion. rubbish, unauthorised parking or disturbance • Some areas have been given protection through from inappropriate recreational use. statutory designations. • Non-native species, especially Japanese Knotweed, have invaded some areas of shingle. 6.2 Other recommended actions • Wash from high speed ferries may cause • Manage pedestrian and vehicle access to erosion and disturbance to bird colonies in Loch coastal shingle areas to minimise disturbance. Ryan. • Discourage tipping of garden and household • There is a lack of understanding of the value of waste on shingle areas. SHINGLE BEACHES COASTAL shingle areas. • Undertake a baseline survey of breeding birds • Climate change may threaten a number of on shingle areas. Dumfries & Galloway’s coastal shingle beaches. • Raise awareness of the importance of coastal shingle through educational events and publications. COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL

Carline Thistle, with bumblebee Bombus terrestris. Port of Counan, August 2007. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 71 72 COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL SANDY BEACHES Sheltered beachesaresteepwith biodiversity. wave action,andthishasanimportantinfluenceon The natureofthebeachislargelydeterminedby remains permanentlyburiedunderthesurface. and emptyoflife.However, themajorityoflife rock, andsandybeachesmayappearflat,featureless Sand isahomogeneoushabitatincomparisonto 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. the UK. Sandy beaches arewidespreadaround the coastof 1.2 National and InternationalContext from onesedimenttypeto another andbackagain. parts ofthebeach.Somebeaches mayevenchange fine sands,orhavedifferent conditions indifferent Most beachesareintermediate betweencoarseand biomass ofotherlife. bacterial populations,whichsupportsanenormous accumulate organicmaterialthatfuelsteeming seawater, buthaveloweroxygenlevels. They and finesandsthattakelongertobeflushedby Wave exposedbeachesareflatwithlowprofiles examples, biodiversityislimited. and holdlittleorganiccontent.Inthemostextreme drain wellanddryrapidly. The sandtendstobeclean Lead Partner:SolwayFirthPartnership. Target: ProduceaguidetoDumfries&Galloway’s beaches,includingtheirbiodiversity, by2012. their biodiversityandsustainablemanagement. Encourage peopletovisitandenjoycoastalsandybeachestheirassociatedhabitatslearnabout Priority Action (CSB1) Habitat Description White PortBayatthemouthofRoughFirth.June2005. COASTAL SANDYBEACHES coarse sands (Peter Norman) that Coastal ShingleBeaches, Coastal SandDunes. Intertidal SandandMudFlats, CoastalStrandlines, action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: overlap withcoastalsandybeaches,andthefollowing A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats other smallerbeaches. Logan notable beachesat Southerness andMersehead. There arealso Sandhead attheheadofLuceBay, andbetween The mostextensivesandybeachesarefoundaround 2.3 SiteExamples located tothewestofSoutherness. Most ofDumfries&Galloway’s sandybeachesare 2.2 CurrentDistribution largely unspoiltbymajordevelopments. Dumfries &Galloway’s coastalsandybeachesremain 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Sea Sandwort,apioneercoloniserofsandybeaches.Brighouse Dumfries &GallowayStatus and BroadseaBay Sandyhills, Sandgreen,Port Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership , alongwithanumberof Bay, June2004.(PeterNorman) COASTAL SANDY BEACHES

3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Invertebrates (high importance) Though some invertebrate groups are rare or absent from sandy beaches, bristleworms Polychaete, bivalve molluscs and amphipod crustaceans are abundant and total biomass may be enormous. Most species are tiny, but these vastly outnumber the larger invertebrates. The upper shore of free-draining beaches of coarse sand is a hostile environment for marine life and only a few burrowing invertebrates such as amphipods Bathyporeia spp, an isopod Eurydice pulchra and a tube worm Scolelepis squamata are likely to occur to any extent.

A small number of terrestrial invertebrates also Sanderlings are mainly seen on Solway beaches in the spring and occur, such as a ground beetle Dyschirius thoracicus autumn. (Gordon McCall) recorded on bare sandy shores in Kirkcudbrightshire. 3.3 Birds (low importance) BEACHES SANDY COASTAL A few species are associated with vegetation, but this is of minor importance in comparison to the fauna Sandy beaches are of low importance for birds associated with dead material on the strandline. compared to intertidal sand and mud flats. The main specialists are Sanderlings Calidris alba, though most 3.2 Flowering Plants (medium importance) of these birds pass through Dumfries & Galloway only during a few weeks each spring and autumn. Other On more stable sands, usually at the top of the waders, gulls and terns occasionally feed and roost beach, a number of pioneer plants are able to secure on sandy beaches. a foothold. These include Frosted Orache Atriplex laciniata, Sea Sandwort Honckenya peploides, Sea 3.4 Fishes (low importance) Rocket Cakile maritima and Prickly Saltwort Salsola kali. The latter species has undergone a dramatic Dragonets Callionymus lyra are found partly buried decline in some areas, possibly as a result of in very shallow waters on sandy beaches. Lesser recreational pressure. Weavers Trachinus draco are active at night but spend the day buried in sand, except for their backs and dorsal fins, which can give a painful sting if trodden on.

3.5 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) Some tiny fungi are adapted to live on detritus in the upper layers of sandy beaches, producing miniature fruitbodies attached to grains of sand.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social

Importance of Biodiversity HABITATS COASTAL

Sandy beaches have a very high recreational, tourism and landscape value.

Sea Rocket. Ardwell Bay, September 2007. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 73 COASTAL SAND DUNES COASTAL SANDY BEACHES SANDY COASTAL

Seemingly barren beach - the biodiversity is all buried in the sand. Ardwell Bay, July 2006. (Peter Norman)

5. Factors affecting the Habitat 6.2 Other recommended actions • Avoid wholesale mechanical cleaning of • The driving of vehicles on sandy beaches can beaches, especially tidelines. damage fragile communities. • Encourage educational activities, including • Litter is more of an eyesore than a threat to community beach cleans. biodiversity, but in some cases can affect wildlife. • Promote the natural importance and • Mechanical beach cleaning can damage sustainable management of Dumfries & biodiversity and disrupt natural beach processes. Galloway’s beaches.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • A number of beaches are designated Bathing Waters where water quality is monitored to ensure that it meets required standards. Beaches have shown a gradual improvement since monitoring began.

COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL • A few beaches have been adopted by community groups under the Marine Conservation Society’s Adopt-a-beach campaign.

74 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership develop, often shell sandamoreacidicplant communitycan a species-richhabitat.However, inlocationswithout results fromthebreakdown ofshells,andresultsin The highcalciumcontentof fragile soilwithaverylowwatercontent. stable environments,butstillhaveaveryshallowand Fixed dunes burial andseasprayrestrictstherangeofplants. dunes, areactivelybuildingdunes.Constantsand Further inland able tocopewithwind,saltanddroughtconditions. sandy beaches. They arecolonisedbypioneerplants Embryo dunesformatransitionalzoneatthetopof sand availability, butothersextendwellinland. narrow coastalstripswheregeologicalfactorslimit prevents dispersalofthesand.Somedunesoccurin are blownontothelandbywind.Vegetation that driesoutatlowtideandwherethesandgrains to 2mm. The criticalfactoristhepresenceofabeach adequate supplyofsedimentwithinthesizerange0.2 Sand dunesdeveloponcoastswherethereisan 1.1 Physicalcharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:DefenceEstates/ScottishNaturalHeritage. Improve habitatqualityofcoastalsanddunes. Priority Action (CSD1) Lyme GrassandMarramonembryodunesatBackBay, Habitat Description , orgreydunes,aremoreshelteredand foredunes, sometimescalledyellow dune heath COASTAL SANDDUNES Monreith. May2006.(PeterNorman) dominated by Heather dunegrasslands . scrub. other dunewetlandand38haofwoodland dune heathandbracken,2haofslack,133ha of neutral-calcareousfixeddunegrassland,192ha foredune, 253haofacidicfixeddunegrassland,37ha Galloway, comprisingof2haembryodune,32ha An estimated689haiscurrentlyfoundinDumfries& importance. exceed 50haandareconsideredtobeofnational around 31,000hainScotland.InBritain43sites is widelydistributedaroundtheBritishcoastlinewith throughout Europe. Around 50,000haofdunehabitat Coastal sandduneshaveawidedistribution 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext the latter. areas ofthedunesystem,withwillowsdominatingin and fens.Dunescrubdevelopsinbothdrywet system. They caninclude seasonalpools,swamps Dune slacksareareasofwetlandwithinthedune interest. geological, botanical,entomological andornithological some dunegrassland,and isoutstandingforits predominantly acidicdune heathwithslacksand beach anddunesystemin southernScotland.Itis encompasses thelargestand mostcomplex Torrs Warren (SAC/SPA/Ramsar/SSSI) 2.3 SiteExamples Nith estuarywestwards. Sand dunesarerestrictedtothecoastlinefrom 2.2 CurrentDistribution experienced coastalerosion. in thelastdecade.Someduneshave,however, damage hasoccurredinDumfries&Galloway become recognisedandlittledeliberatelossor The biodiversityvalueofsandduneshasincreasingly 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 75 COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL SAND DUNES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

A narrow belt of Marram-dominated dunes occurs Colletes Bee Colletes floralis has not been refound from Southerness to Mersehead (SSSI) and at recently. Fox and Emperor Moths Macrothylacia rubi Port Logan (LWS). At the head of Brighouse Bay and Saturnia pavonia occur on dune heaths, as well (SSSI) there is a small area of embryo dunes and as other heathland. dune grassland. Narrow belts of dune habitat occur elsewhere on the Galloway coast, for example at Narrow-mouthed Whorl Snails Vertigo angustior are Sandyhills Bay, Almorness, Fleet Bay, Monreith, restricted to moist places with short grasses, mosses and Killantringan Bay. or low herbs that are quickly warmed by the sun. In Dumfries & Galloway they are found only on marshy 2.4 Associated Habitats dune grassland behind dunes at Almorness. The first A number of habitats occur in close association and/ Scottish record of a nationally scarce money spider or overlap with coastal sand dunes, and the following Mecopisthes peusi was found at Mersehead in 2001. action plans may also contain relevant information: Coastal Sandy Beaches, Scrub Woods. 3.2 Flowering Plants (very high importance) Sand dunes, especially foredunes, form a very 3. Importance for Associated Species hostile environment and flowering plants require adaptations to aid survival, such as the spreading COASTAL SAND DUNES COASTAL 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) rhizomes of Sand Couch Elytrigia juncea, the Foredunes contain a small but specialised succulent leaves of Sea Spurge Euphorbia paralias, invertebrate fauna. Two species of moth are virtually and the fleshy tap root of Sea Holly Eryngium restricted to this habitat. The Coast Dart Euxoa maritimum. cursoria, which feeds on dune plants such as Sea Growth of Marram Sandwort, Sand Couch and Early Hair Grass, has Grass Ammophila been recorded rarely in Dumfries & Galloway; the arenaria is nationally scarce Belted Beauty Lycia zonaria has stimulated by yet to be confirmed in Dumfries & Galloway but may being covered in occur on foredunes. sand, whilst Lyme Grass Leymus Coastal sand dunes are better suited to support arenarius with warmth-loving invertebrates than any other habitat. its ability to roll A common ground beetle Calathus mollis is almost its leaves in dry Perennial Flax at its only Scottish locality exclusively found in fixed dunes, with records from weather, is one of on dune grassland at Brighouse Bay. June 2004. (Peter Norman) Kirkcudbrightshire and Wigtownshire. A spider- the principal dune- hunting wasp Evagetes crassicornis has been builders. recorded at Torrs Warren, in one of only six 10km squares in Scotland, whilst Dune Robberfly Philonicus Although fixed dunes have a greater range of albiceps and Pied- species, many are still highly specialised. Sand winged Robberfly Sedge Carex arenaria colonises and stabilises with Pamponerus the help of a fast-growing rhizome. The grass Bromus germanicus are hordeaceus subsp. thominei has been recorded in near their northern Dumfries & Galloway only at Torrs Warren. limits in Galloway. COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL Dunes are especially Coralroot Orchid Corallorhiza trifida has been important for bees recorded in the dune slacks at Torrs Warren, its only and wasps, with bare recent site in the region. Common Wintergreen Pyrola sand of particular minor is also found here. value for hunting and burrowing. A mining Perennial Flax Linum perenne is abundant at its only bee Colletes fodiens Scottish site on the dune grassland at Brighouse is present at its only Bay, and within Dumfries & Galloway Pyramidal Scottish site at Torrs Orchid Anacamptis pyramidalis is only regularly found Warren, although its Lichen-covered foredunes at Torrs here and at Port Logan. relative the Northern Warren. June 2007. (Peter Norman)

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3.3 Reptiles and Amphibians (very high importance) Natterjack Toads Epidalea calamita, commonly breed in dune slacks in Britain, but in Dumfries & Galloway more commonly occur in association with saltmarshes. They are found in dunes only in the Southerness to Mersehead area. Great Crested Newts Triturus cristatus are known to breed in the slacks at Torrs Warren.

All three Scottish reptiles, Adders Vipera berus,

Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara and Slow Worms Dune heath, scrub and slack at Torrs Warren. June 2007. Anguis fragilis are regularly recorded from dune (Peter Norman) systems in Dumfries & Galloway. Tortella flavorirens is exclusively coastal in Britain. Although it can be found below cliffs and sometimes 3.4 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) in crevices in coastal rocks it is most abundant in

Few fungi are calcareous sand dunes, usually on fairly stable sand. SAND DUNES COASTAL associated with Several bryophytes are also found in dune slacks. mobile sand, but a number of dune 3.6 Birds (medium importance) specialists are No birds are entirely restricted to dunes, but a number found on fixed of species breed here as well as in other habitats. dunes, including These include Skylarks Alauda arvensis and Linnets Dune Brittlestem Carduelis cannabina. Others such as Common Psathyrella Kestrels Falco tinnunculus, Short-eared Owls Asio ammophila. Some flammeus, and Barn Owls Tyto alba hunt over dunes. species may enable pioneer 3.7 Mammals (low importance) dune grasses to The mammal fauna consists of common and capture essential widespread species, such as Field Voles Microtus elements such agrestis, Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus, and Foxes as phosphorus. Vulpes vulpes. In the absence of livestock, Rabbit A rare birds-nest Moor Club Clavaria argillacea. Torrs grazing may be important in maintaining some plant fungus Cyathus Warren, November 2007. (Peter Norman) and invertebrate communities. stercoreus has been recorded on rabbit dung amongst Marram at 3.8 Fishes (low importance) Torrs Warren. Fixed dunes and dune heaths are also important for lichens, particularly species of Cladonia Dune slacks that hold permanent water support that give the dunes their grey appearance. Slacks are common fish species such as Three-spined the most important dune habitat for fungal diversity, Sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus. though relatively few species are restricted to this 4. Environmental, Economic & Social habitat. HABITATS COASTAL Importance of Biodiversity 3.5 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) Mosses and liverworts thrive on bare patches • Coastal sand dunes provide natural protection of calcium-rich sand, which naturally occur on against erosion and flooding. For example, foredunes where cycles of erosion and re-deposition Southerness golf course receives considerable provide fresh surfaces of bare damp sand. Sand-hill protection from the adjacent dune system. Screw-moss Syntrichia ruralformis is one of the first • A number of dune systems occur behind popular to colonise, forming extensive mats that bind the sand bathing beaches, such as Sandyhills and together. Once these areas become colonised by Brighouse Bay, though they are not frequently larger flowering plants the bare sand disappears and used by visitors other than to access the beach. the habitat becomes less suitable. Yellow Crisp-moss Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 77 COASTAL SALTMARSHES (MERSE) P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

recreational use. Provision of boardwalks and the fencing of sensitive areas can control excessive trampling and erosion, though use of tanalised fences and galvanised wire can damage bryophytes. Use of trail bikes has been noted at Southerness, and is extremely damaging. • Increasing sea levels and storm frequency resulting from climate change can cause foreshore steepening and increased wave attack at the base of dunes, resulting in erosion.

6. Strategic Actions

Mating Dark Green Fritillary butterflies on dune heath. Torrs 6.1 Recent and current activity Warren, June 2007 (Peter Norman) • The most important sand dunes in the region are protected from significant damage COASTAL SAND DUNES COASTAL 5. Factors affecting the Habitat through a range of statutory and non-statutory designations. This does not, however, always • The continued supply and movement of sand ensure positive habitat management. within the site is fundamental to maintaining the • Sands dunes are included within the Luce Bay diverse conditions on the site. Sand is supplied by and Sands SAC management scheme and onshore currents and moves landward over time. process. • Mechanical beach cleaning removes vegetation • The West Freugh Conservation Group aims to behind which sand would normally accumulate. balance potentially conflicting land uses at Torrs • Military use and construction of military facilities Warren. at Torrs Warren has damaged some dune habitat. • Erosion control, through fencing and planting However, military use is likely to have protected it of Marram Grass has been carried out by from greater damage from other land uses. Southerness Golf Course. • Forestry is not widespread on dunes in the • Visitor management at Sandyhills Bay region. Only a relatively small part of Torrs Warren involves boardwalks on well-used access has been planted with conifers, and even here an routes. At Brighouse Bay, previous parking on interesting flora and fauna remains. dune grassland has been prevented, though • Few of the region’s dunes have any form of responsible access on foot encouraged through managed grazing. Light grazing with suitable provision of gates and interpretation. livestock can maintain a diverse vegetation • Low-intensity grazing management at Brighouse structure and benefit invertebrates. Bay has been reinstated. • Deliberate burning of dune heaths has been used as a management tool in the past, but 6.2 Other recommended actions produces few benefits for the habitat. Burning COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL • Consider restoration of sand dunes at Torrs of rank ungrazed heather may result in serious Warren through removal of conifer plantations. damage. There is also a risk from accidental fires. • Examine the feasibility of grazing reintroduction • Dumfries & Galloway’s dunes do not suffer badly at selected sites. from non-native invasive species, as in some other parts of the UK. However, bracken and • Arrange guided walks and environmental scrub invasion has been a problem at Torrs education activities and publications. Warren. • Conduct invertebrate surveys. These would • Public access can be beneficial on ungrazed be highly likely to result in the discovery of new sites, but dunes can be damaged by heavy species for the region.

78 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership COASTAL SALTMARSHES (MERSE) levels ofintertidal mudandsandareas, where fine soil. They develop onthemiddleandupper tidal high daytimetemperatures, andwithpoorlyaerated periodically inundatedbythe tide,oftenexposedto Saltmarshes areareasofspecialised vegetation 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Continue withcurrentmanagement. Priority Action (CSM1) Southwick Merse, August 2007. (RichardMearns) on theSolway. Scotland’s saltmarsh,approximately 2,000ha,isfound around 6,750ha in Scotland. A significant proportion of approximately 29,000haofsaltmarshintheUK,with Channel and Atlantic shores ofEurope. There are Saltmarshes occurontheNorthSea,English 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext few plantscalled accumulate inpatchesto produce areasof marsh with decreases towardstheuppershore,butsaltmay Saltmarsh sedimenthasaveryhighsaltcontentthat migration, storms,tidalcyclesandgeologicaluplift. of marshterraces Solway marshesprovidethefinestBritishexamples diversity andprovidearangeofmicrohabitats. The through creeks Tidal waterflowsinandoutoftheareassaltmarsh of thesaltmarshformsacliff2-3mhigh. saltmarshes. Invariousplacestheerosionaledge A rangeofsmall-scalelandformsisassociatedwith communities andfreshwatergrasslands. with theuppermarshformingtransitionsreed mid anduppersaltmarshthereismorevariation, Lower saltmarshmaybespeciespoor, buton in determiningstructureandspeciescomposition. grazing bydomesticlivestockisparticularlysignificant important precursorofmorestablesaltmarsh,where, vegetation colonisessandandmudflatsisan and durationoftidalinundation. Vegetation varieswithclimateandthefrequency open seashore. coastal shinglebars,butsomeexamplesareonthe sheltered situationswithinestuariesandbehind sedimentation. Usuallysaltmarshestablishesin the plantsslowwaterflowandthusincrease flowering plants(halophytes).Onceestablished, environment conducivetothegrowthofsalttolerant sediments offer asubstrate inalowenergystable andrunnelsthataddtothestructural saltpans. formedbytheprocessofcreek Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Pioneer saltmarsh 79 COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL SALTMARSHES (MERSE) P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2. Dumfries & Galloway Status surrounding pastures of the Solway during the winter, along with large numbers of Pink-footed Geese 2.1 Recent Trends Anser brachyrhynchus and Greylag Geese Anser There has been little pressure recently for anser. Other wildfowl such as Pintails Anas acuta improvement of marshes for agriculture. and Wigeons Anas penelope feed on and around saltmarshes. Golden Plovers Pluvialis apricaria and 2.2 Current Distribution Lapwings gather in mixed flocks of up to 1,000, and Peregrines Falco peregrinus, Merlins Falco Extensive saltmarshes are found in the inner Solway columbarius and other birds of prey frequently hunt and Wigtown Bay, but smaller areas occur in most over saltmarshes during the winter. of the region’s estuaries, and occasionally on more exposed coasts. Twites Carduelis flavirostris are small finches that breed in small numbers in Dumfries & Galloway. 2.3 Site Examples Flocks of up to 230 have been recorded on Almost 3,000ha of saltmarsh are found on several saltmarshes during the winter, although their origins sites in the inner Solway Firth (SAC/SPA/SSSI). On are unknown. the Scottish side of the estuary this includes sites at Browhouses, Dornock, Annan, Priestside Bank, Drying creeks and pans are often a good hunting Caerlaverock (NNR), Kirkconnell Merse, Carse ground for Grey Herons Ardea cinerea. Bay, Green Merse and Southwick Merse. Several COASTAL SALTMARSHES (MERSE) SALTMARSHES COASTAL sites show a complete sequence from pioneer 3.2 Flowering Plants (high importance) to upper saltmarsh and transitions to freshwater The natural zones of vegetation on a saltmarsh result habitats. The greatest extent of saltmarsh in the outer from the degree of inundation by incoming tides. Solway is c450ha at Wigtown Bay (SSSI/LNR). Plants with a higher tolerance to salt and inundation Smaller areas include c135ha in Rough Firth and are found on the lower saltmarsh, whereas those with Auchencairn Bay (SSSI), c75ha in Kirkcudbright a more limited tolerance will be found in the upper Bay, c25ha in Fleet Bay and c35ha in Luce Bay. marsh. Saltmarsh vegetation also reflects the age, type of sediment and management of the marshes. 2.4 Associated Habitats

A number of habitats occur in close association and/ Pioneer saltmarsh is typified by species such as or overlap with coastal saltmarshes, and the following Common Glasswort Salicornia europaea, which action plans may also contain relevant information: colonise the Intertidal Sand and Mud Flats, Reedbeds. mud flats, Annual Seablite 3. Importance for Associated Species Suaeda maritima and Common 3.1 Birds (very high importance) Saltmarsh Grass A number of other wildfowl and wading birds rely on Puccinellia saltmarsh for either breeding, feeding or roosting maritima. during the course of the year. Salicornia beds are uncommon on Breeding waders include Oystercatchers Haematopus a European and COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL ostralegus, Curlews Numenius arquata and UK scale. These Redshanks Tringa totanus, Lapwings Vanellus species also occur vanellus and Snipe Gallinago gallinago. Redshanks on open creeks are particularly important as they have declined as and saltpans. breeding birds in many other habitats. Historically Above the pioneer the Solway merses used to be important for breeding zone there is Sea Lavender at Auchencairn Bay. Dunlins Calidris alpina, gulls and terns although these a transition to August 2008. (Peter Norman). species now rarely breed. grassy lower and mid saltmarsh dominated by Sea Milkwort Glaux The entire world population of Svalbard Barnacle maritima, Sea Arrow-grass Triglochin maritimum, Geese Branta leucopsis feed on the saltmarshes and

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Sea Plantain Plantago maritima Red Fescue Festuca 3.4 Invertebrates (high importance) rubra Sea Aster Aster tripolium and Thrift Armeria The invertebrate fauna is especially rich in the maritima. Common Sea Lavender Limonium vulgare upper saltmarsh zone. Though most species are and Lax-flowered Sea Lavender Limonium humile, of terrestrial rather than marine origin, many are both at the northern edge of their ranges, are found specialists in this habitat, including a spider Pardosa on ungrazed or lightly grazed marshes. purbeckensis, and the ground beetles Dyschirius nitidus, D. salinus, Bembidion minimum, and B. normannum, which have all been recorded in Dumfries & Galloway.

The Tadpole Shrimp Triops cancriformis was known in Dumfries & Galloway from Southwick in 1945, but was considered lost when this area was eroded by the sea in 1960. It was rediscovered in a small seasonal upper saltmarsh pool at Caerlaverock in September 2004. It is known only from one other site in Britain, a single freshwater pond in the New Forest.

The commoner saltmarsh invertebrates provide food

for large numbers of waders, wildfowl and other birds. (MERSE) SALTMARSHES COASTAL Sea Milkwort, Ringdoo Point, Luce Bay. June 2007. (Peter Norman). 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) Saltmarsh provides a specialised habitat in which The upper saltmarsh is dominated by extensive fungi play an important, though not obvious, role. grazed communities of Saltmarsh Grass Puccinellia A number of micro species are associated with maritima and Saltmarsh Rush Juncus gerardii, and saltmarsh plants and soil, and a few larger species tussocky patches of Sea Rush Juncus maritimus. It and lichens also occur, although few are restricted to also includes Sea Wormwood Seriphidium maritimum, this habitat. In some areas there is a local tradition the uncommon Seaside Centaury Centaurium littorale of collecting field mushrooms Agaricus spp. from the and Lesser Centaury Centaurium pulchellum at merse. northern edge of its range, as well as many plants that are not specialist salt-tolerant species, including the nationally rare Holy Grass Hierochloe odorata.

Saltpans and creeks are usually species poor, but on their fringes can be found Saltmarsh Flat Sedge Blysmus rufus, Brackish Water Crow-foot Ranunculus baudotii and Sea Purslane Atriplex portulacoides, the latter at the northern edge of its range.

3.3 Reptiles and Amphibians (high importance) More than 15% of the UK population of the COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL internationally uncommon Natterjack Toad Epidalea calamita is found in Dumfries & Galloway. In many parts of Britain this species is associated with sand dunes and lowland heaths, but at its northern limit in Britain the north Solway population is centred upon upper saltmarshes from east of Powfoot to Mersehead. Tadpole Shrimp caught at Caerlaverock. October 2004. (Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust).

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3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) 5. Factors affecting the Habitat British saltmarshes support relatively few mosses and liverworts. A few species can tolerate the high salinity, • Grazing by domestic stock has historically been such as Hennediella heimii, which is more frequent practised on Dumfries & Galloway’s saltmarshes, here than in any other habitat. Lower saltmarsh restricting many species to creek banks that may be totally devoid of bryophytes, though the are less accessible to livestock. High grazing Solway provides virtually the only UK records of pressure results in a short grassy sward favoured Pseudephemerum nitidum in this habitat. Most by geese, but previously grazed saltmarshes, if species are found in mid to upper saltmarshes, abandoned, become dominated by rank grasses especially where grazed and flushed with freshwater. in the mid to upper marshes, which have limited botanical diversity. Overgrazing by sheep is highly Various microscopic algal species of the genus unsatisfactory for most invertebrates and most Vaucheria, are found on Solway saltmarshes breeding birds. sometimes forming large green mats. Most occupy • Destruction of the natural terrestrial transition slightly different niches, including creeks and affects many saltmarsh species that specialise in brackish waters. Although under-recorded, some of the upper zones of saltmarsh, some of which are these species are rare elsewhere in Britain. only tidally inundated by the highest tides.

3.7 Fishes (low importance) • Cordgrass colonisation of open mud in

COASTAL SALTMARSHES (MERSE) SALTMARSHES COASTAL The widely fluctuating salinity of saltpans restricts Auchencairn, Orchardton Bays, Fleet Bay, their use by fish, but juvenile Flounders Pleuronectes Nith Estuary and Rough Firth occurred rapidly flesus are more tolerant than most and can during the late 20th century producing extensive sometimes be found in these pools, along with Three- monoculture swards of reduced wildlife value. spined Sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus. This expansion continues, albeit at a slower rate. Some colonised areas have steadily built in height 3.8 Mammals (low importance) and progressively been transformed into more typical saltmarsh communities, though some new Brown Hares Lepus europaeus and other mammals clumps of cordgrass have also been detected. are often seen on saltmarshes, but no species are particularly dependent on this habitat. • Erosion has been rapid on some areas of saltmarsh in the region in recent years, though 4. Environmental, Economic & Social for the Solway as a whole accretion may be Importance of Biodiversity balancing erosion. At Eastpark, Caerlaverock there has been a substantial gain in pioneer saltmarsh, with 67ha accreting between 1999 and • Saltmarshes act as a valuable natural flood- 2006 and no significant losses. defence, dissipating wave energy and reducing scour. • Saltmarsh is vulnerable from pollution of the estuaries it fringes, particularly oil spills and • Saltmarshes provide valuable grazing for sheep subsequent clean up operations. Waste tipping, and cattle. In some areas saltmarsh lamb has sewage effluent and agricultural run-off also alter been specifically marketed as a very high quality the flora and fauna of the saltmarsh. product. • Wildfowling can affect numbers of birds using COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL • Wildfowling takes place on many saltmarshes saltmarshes to feed and roost. in Dumfries & Galloway, with visiting wildfowlers providing economic benefits to local businesses • Sea level rise and maintenance of sea defences during the winter months. may cause coastal squeeze (loss of upper and lower habitat).

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6. Strategic Actions 6.2. Other recommended actions • Allow undisturbed saltmarsh to undergo the 6.1 Recent and current activity natural processes of erosion, deposition and • Most saltmarsh in the region is within SSSI plant growth without intervention. In unmanaged designations, with mechanisms in place to saltmarshes, there will be a series of successional prevent deliberate losses of marsh. stages with a varied structure. • Saltmarshes are included within the Solway • Avoid flood defence works, development, European Marine Site management scheme. reclamation or agricultural improvement on saltmarshes. The upper marsh will have the • Scottish Natural Heritage ran a Merse highest interest, but retain a full transition of Management Scheme that aimed to integrate the vegetation types needs of saltmarsh into local agricultural units. This Scheme has now been incorporated into the • Re-creation of saltmarsh may be possible on Scottish Rural Development Programme. a limited number of sites in the Solway by the breaching of sea walls or modification to allow • Careful management of wildfowling is in operation ingress of tidal waters and encourage saltmarsh in Dumfries & Galloway. establishment. Accretion rates may also be • ‘New’ marsh has been allowed to establish in increased or sediments stabilised at some places where retaining walls have been broken locations in order to promote saltmarsh formation.

down, such as at Annan Waterfoot. In 2000, The However, there are no payments to support this at (MERSE) SALTMARSHES COASTAL Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust at Caerlaverock present and any plans would need to cater for a allowed 8ha of improved grassland to become continuity of special niches. Managed realignment seasonally inundated by the tide and thus could raise particular problems with seepage change the composition of the sward, through a marsh, where the hydrology may not adjust. conscious decision not to maintain the sea wall. Gains of saltmarsh using this method may be at • In 2001, RSPB completed an assessment of all the expense of open intertidal areas and upset larger saltmarshes in the region and provided local natural sediment patterns. advice on their management for breeding and wintering birds to landowners. • Historic Scotland has completed an assessment survey of the coast including erosion and geomorphology and its potential impact on archaeology and paleoenvironmental aspects of the inner Solway. COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL

Saltmarsh cliff at Powfoot. July 2006. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 83 84 COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL CLIFFS AND SLOPES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T caves bare rockexposures. A fewhardcliffs also have sea rock facevegetation andcliff crevices,aswell as including microhabitats, range of develop a but may and erosion, weathering resistant to These are sandstone. granite and created by hard cliffs with vertical in landforms, the variation determines geology underlying the sea. The or erosionby between landandsea,formedbyslippageand/ Coastal cliffs andslopesoccuratthejunction 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Committee. Lead Partner:SolwayHeritage/Farming&Wildlife Advisory Group/RegionalProposal Assessment coastal slopesthroughestablishmentofaheath/grasslandrestorationpilotproject,by2012. Demonstrate integratedmanagementforfarming,biodiversity, recreation,andculturalheritageon Priority Action (CCS1) Rhins coastnearDunskeyCastle.July2006.(PeterNorman). , someofwhich arefloodedbythetides.

COASTAL CLIFFS&SLOPES Coastal heathnearDunskeyCastle. August 2006. (PeterNorman) Soft moderately used coastalfootpaths. sites andcar parks, thoughthereareanumber of and relativelylittlecoastal development, caravan England, therearefewcoastal defencesatcliff bases, However, unlikemanycoastalcliffs andslopesin with intensificationoffarming onthecliff top. slopes hasoccurredinrecent decades,combined Almost totalabandonmentofgrazingoncoastal 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus (2,373km) isfoundinScotland. with approximately4,650km,abouthalfofwhich significant proportionofEUseacliffs andslopes, facing coastsofEurope. The UKsupportsa Sea cliffs occurdiscontinuouslyalongthewest 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext sheltered hollowsfavouredbymanyinvertebrates. southerly facingslopesoftenprovidingwarmand bearing onexposureaswellsunlight,with most exposedcoasts. Aspect canhaveanimportant influence ofsaltmayextendupto1kminlandonthe to theseaandleastatcliff top,althoughthe to thewindandsaltspray, whichisgreatestclose Flora andfaunaisgreatlyinfluencedbyexposure modify growthformandhabitatstructure. such asmaritimewoods,themaincoastaleffect isto in theequivalenthabitatsinland,whilstothers, composed ofmanyspecialisedspeciesrarelyfound of these,suchasexposedmaritimegrasslands,are bracken, andcoastalscrubwoodland. heath, coastalgrasslandseepages variety ofdifferent communities,including coastal slopes.Theseslopesarecolonisedbya vertical cliffs atall,orthe cliffs areinterspersedwith Some sectionsofthecoasthavenoverticalornear into acomplexofsmall,distinctmicrohabitats. freshwater runningoverthem. They toooftendevelop stable, beingactivelyerodedbyboththeseaand cliffs, derivedfromsandandclaydeposits,areless Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership coastal Some , COASTAL CLIFFS & SLOPES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.2 Current Distribution The various habitats of coastal slopes are botanically Of Dumfries & Galloway’s 350km of coastline, only rich, with perhaps coastal grasslands being richest very small areas of low soft cliffs occur, mostly in of all. Typically these support Thrift Armeria maritima, the inner Solway. Hard cliffs with vertical exposures Sea Campion Silene uniflora, Bloody Cranesbill are more typical of the outer Solway, extending very Geranium sanguineum, and Wood Vetch Vicia approximately to 11km. A further 97km is composed of sylvatica, with Purple Milk-vetch Astragalus danicus coastal slopes with grassland, scrub and woodland, and carpets of Spring Squill Scilla verna at some not including slopes behind raised beaches. Coastal locations. Some of the more inaccessible grassy heath occurs only in very small pockets, particularly slopes support rare species such as Sticky Catchfly on the Rhins. The maximum cliff height in Dumfries & Lychnis viscaria, Purple Oxytropis Oxytropis halleri, Galloway is 110m at Dunman, near Mull of Galloway. Bithynian Vetch Vicia bithynica, Yellow Vetch Vicia lutea, Small Restharrow Ononis reclinata, and Sea 2.3 Site Examples Stork’s-bill Erodium maritimum. The Mull of Galloway (SAC/SSSI) is the most Typical species of coastal heath include Bell Heather important site in the region for both plants and birds. Erica cinerea, Burnet Rose Rosa pimpinellifolia and Other important sites include Portling to Castlehill Western Gorse Ulex gallii, the latter rare in the rest of Point (part SSSI), Balcary to Torrs Point (SSSI), Scotland. The rare Dotted Sedge Carex punctata is Borgue Coast (SSSI), Burrow Head, and the associated with coastal seepages. west coast of the Rhins. Important coastal scrub AND SLOPES CLIFFS COASTAL and woodland occurs at Ravenshall (SSSI) and 3.2 Invertebrates (very high importance) Southwick (SSSI). The Solway islands – Rough Island, Hestan Island, Little Ross (SSSI), the Soft cliffs are of outstanding national importance for Islands of Fleet (SSSI) and Scare Rocks (SSSI) invertebrates, but no studies have been made of the all include coastal cliffs and slopes. Sea caves few sites that occur in Dumfries & Galloway. include Barlocco Heughs, Dove Cave and Cave of Uchtriemackean. The invertebrate fauna of hard cliffs is relatively modest in comparison, but where shallow trickles or 2.4 Associated Habitats films of water run over hard surfaces algae, mosses and liverworts form the base of the food chain for A number of habitats occur in close association and/ a small, but exceptionally specialised invertebrate or overlap with coastal cliffs and slopes, and the assemblage including caddisflies, beetles, and flies. following action plans may also contain relevant For example, a slender-footed fly Liancalus virens information: Coastal Shingle Beaches, Coastal has been recorded in Dumfries & Galloway, but is Saltmarshes (Merse), Waterfalls, Inland Rock more usually found in Devon and Cornwall. Some Outcrops. invertebrates are associated with carrion and guano from seabird colonies and, remarkably, the House 3. Importance for Associated Species Martin Flea Ceratophyllus hirundinis is almost entirely restricted to cliff nests, with just a few records from 3.1 Flowering Plants (very high importance) nests in coastal buildings. Hard cliffs support a limited range of species, but many are highly specialised and of restricted local Pointed Snails Cochlicella acuta are found on dry, and national distribution, including Rock Sea Spurrey grassy coastal slopes, mostly on the west coast of COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL Spergularia rupicola, Roseroot Sedum rosea, Britain, and have rarely been recorded more than Scot’s Lovage Ligusticum scoticum, Rock Samphire a mile inland. The locally uncommon Bloody-nosed Crithmum maritimum, and Ivy Broomrape Orobanche Beetle Timarcha tenebricosa has been recorded at hederae. Golden Samphire Inula crithmoides is found Rough Firth, whilst records of the attractive, iridescent at its only Scottish location. Remnant examples of Rose Chafer Cetonia aurata are concentrated on the prostrate Juniper Juniperus communis occur on cliffs Rhins coast. between Sandyhills and the Rhins. Ledges occupied by breeding seabirds develop a less important plant Coastal grassland is important in a Scottish and/or community, more able to cope with high nutrient local context for some butterflies and moths, including levels. Soft cliffs are relatively botanically poor. Northern Brown Argus Aricia artaxerxes, Wall

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Lasiommata megera, Grayling Hipparchia semele, Thrift Clearwing Bembecia muscaeformis, Forester Adscita statices, Crescent Dart Agrotis trux ssp. lunigera and Northern Rustic Standfussiana lucernea. The larvae of a micro moth Agonopterix rotundella feeds on Wild Carrot on coastal cliffs in Wigtownshire, its only Scottish location, but the Small Blue butterfly Cupido minimus is probably now extinct.

The nationally scarce spider Talavera petrensis has been recorded from coastal heath at the Mull of Galloway. The only other Scottish record is from Rum.

Soft, eroding cliffs are important for some invertebrates. Inner Virtually the entire Scottish populations of Speckled Solway, February 2008.(Richard Mearns). and Dark Bush Crickets Leptophyes punctatissima Rissa tridactyla, Herring Gulls Larus argentatus, Great and Pholidoptera griseoaptera are found in areas Black-backed Gulls L. marinus, and small numbers of of rough grassland with coastal scrub in Dumfries Black Guillemots Cephus grylle and Puffins Fratercula & Galloway. Scrub also provides valuable nectar arctica. Exceptionally high densities of breeding sources for many insects. Coastal woodland may COASTAL CLIFFS AND SLOPES CLIFFS COASTAL Peregrines Falco peregrinus, Ravens Corvus corax support invertebrates that are absent inland, such as and, rarely, Choughs Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax also the nationally scarce bark beetle Dryocoetinus alni, breed. Several colonies of cliff-nesting House Martins found at Ravenshall. Delichon urbica occur. The Spiders Meta menardi and Porrhomma Although a few birds will visit sea caves, and the convexum are found in sea caves, whilst at scientific name of the Wren Troglodytes troglodytes Ravenshall is the rare cave-dwelling woodlouse means cave dweller, caves generally do not form an Trichoniscoides saerocensis. Common invertebrates, important bird habitat. Choughs will, however, nest in such as Herald Moths Scoliopteryx libatrix are also caves. occasionally found in sea caves.

Coastal scrub supports perhaps the best populations 3.3 Birds (very high importance) of Linnets Carduelis cannabina, Stonechats Saxicola Hard cliffs are most important for breeding birds, torquatus, Lesser Whitethroats Sylvia carruca and supporting nationally important numbers of Gannets Common Whitethroats Sylvia communi in a local Morus bassanus, Cormorants Phalacrocorax carbo context. Small numbers of Twite Carduelis flavirostris and Lesser Black-backed Gulls Larus fuscus as well breed on coastal heath. as regionally important numbers of Guillemots Uria aalga, Razorbills Alca torda, Shags Phalacrocorax 3.4 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) aristotelis, Fulmars Fulmarus glacialis, Kittiwakes The fungal flora of coastal cliffs and slopes is rarely of major importance, usually consisting of species common in other habitats, but a broad array of lichens occurs in this habitat. In many cases quantity

COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL is more important than the quality, with some rock faces having 100% cover of typical species such as Verrucaria maura, Caloplaca marina and Sea Ivory Ramalina siliquosa. However, rare species have also been recorded including Cladonia peziziformis on coastal heath near Portpatrick, Degelia ligulata on rocks in coastal seepages at Portpatrick, Caloplaca britannica on nutrient-rich bird perching sites in the Rhins and Sticta canariensis on moist rocks or trees at Dirk Hatteraick’s Cave. The coastal woods at Young Peregrine Falcons at Portpatrick. (Gordon McCall) Southwick and Ravenshall are particularly lichen rich.

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3.5 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) 3.7 Mammals (low importance) Seaside Grimmia Schistidium maritimum is a moss Several common species of mammal are found on restricted in Britain to coastal rocks on northern and coastal slopes. However, part of the importance of western coasts, usually in shallow crevices where coastal cliff and slope stems from the fact much of there is some shelter or an occasional trickle of it is free from the effects of grazing and predatory fresh water from above. It may also colonise artificial mammals. substrates. Above the influence of salt spray, there is a high diversity of mosses and liverworts, especially 4. Environmental, Economic & Social on cliff faces with gullies and freshwater seepages. Importance of Biodiversity Sea Spleenwort fern Asplenium marinum also finds a home in these damp crevices. • Coastal and marine habitats have an extremely high landscape and amenity value. Much of this Sea caves, especially those not regularly flooded by habitat falls within National Scenic Areas and the sea, can also be important for bryophytes. Light Areas of Regional Scenic Significance. intensity is the critical factor here, but a few species are able to survive in the low light levels near cave • Coastal cliffs and slopes have very high entrances. recreational value, and include some of the most well-walked footpaths in the region on the Colvend coast and at Balcary, Portpatrick and COASTAL CLIFFS AND SLOPES CLIFFS COASTAL Mull of Galloway. The latter site includes a cliff top café. • Coastal areas were of great importance to early people and, due to the relatively limited disturbance of such areas in recent years, many remain rich in archaeology.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Coastal protection works prevent natural erosion processes. Hard rock faces and soft cliffs require no management. • Reduction or cessation of grazing in some areas Dark Bush Crickets are at the northern edge of their range on the has caused an over-dominance of scrub on Galloway coast. Ravenshall, August 2007. (Richard Mearns) maritime grasslands. Overgrazing in other areas by sheep (and perhaps feral goats in a few areas) On cliff tops Soft Shield Fern Polystichum setiferum has caused a loss of plant diversity and removal is sometimes found, whilst Neat Crisp-moss Tortella of cover for nesting birds. nitida has been recorded in Kirkcudbrightshire. It is • Positioning of winter cattle feeding stations frequent on dry, sunny rock outcrops set just back within the coastal strip reduces plant diversity. from the sea in south west England and Wales, even forming extensive patches on wall tops in some • Cultivation of cliff top vegetation has truncated COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL coastal towns, but it is rare in Scotland. the natural transition between maritime and terrestrial vegetation resulting in a loss of plant 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (high importance) diversity and limited interchange of some animal Coastal slopes support important populations of species between the coastal strip and inland all three native reptiles, Adders Vipera berus, Slow areas. Worms Anguis fragilis and Common Lizards Zootoca • Drift from herbicide and pesticide sprays. vivipara. Amphibians are of lesser importance in this • Burning of gorse and other vegetation at habitat. inappropriate places and/or inappropriate times of year.

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• Eutrophication associated with agricultural run-off and from seabird colonies, especially at Almorness and Murray Isles. • Clearance of rocky outcrops and boulders to increase grazing areas. • Dumping of farm rubbish and rubble. • Inappropriate forestry has affected a few sites. • Moderate use of footpaths by walkers can be of benefit, especially in the absence of grazing, but excessive trampling may cause damage. • Rock climbing can disturb nesting birds or damage flora. • Adjacent developments in the form of caravan sites and golf courses may increase disturbance and trampling.

COASTAL CLIFFS AND SLOPES CLIFFS COASTAL 6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Monitoring of larger seabird colonies by RSPB and volunteers. • Seabird ringing by North Solway Ringing Group. • Monitoring of Peregrine and Raven breeding success by Dumfries & Galloway Raptor Study Group. • Sticky Catchfly population enhancement by SWT, SNH and Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. • SSSI notifications have given a degree of protection. • Reserve status or similar provides protection, and in some cases management, at Southwick (SWT), Rockcliffe and Murray Isles (NTS). • The Mountaineering Council of Scotland has produced an information sheet about birds and climbing, which contains guidance on responsible

COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL climbing.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Implement Coastal Zone Management strategies at local, regional and national levels. • Encourage further survey work and research into the ecology of this habitat.

Sea Caves and cliffs. Barlocco, April 2007. (Richard Mearns)

88 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership Committee. Lead Partner:GallowayFisheries Trust/District SalmonFisheriesBoards/RegionalProposal Assessment Target: 30kmofriverbankby2015. to encourageregenerationofsemi-naturalhabitats. Encourage semi-naturalhabitatsonthebanksofriverheadwatersbyfencing(andplantingifnecessary) Priority Action (RH1) Gairland Burnat GlenheadWood.March2007. RIVER HEADWATERS (Peter Norman) and west. headwaters inBritainaremostlyfoundthenorth Headwaters arecommonthroughoutEurope.Upland 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext channels, itismostcommoninheadwaters. course ofrivers,becausethenarrowness wildlife andthoughitnaturallyoccursthroughoutthe in diameterand1mlength.Itsupportsarangeof pieces ofpartiallysubmergedwoodlargerthan10cm of treetrunks,rootboles,logs,branchesandother rarely thecasetoday. Coarsewoodydebrisconsists headwaters mayhavebeenwellwooded,thisis sediments. Although historicallythebanksofriver sparsely vegetated,resultinginahighinputof River banksofheadwaterstendtobesteepand of dissolvedoxygenandcarbondioxide. reaches, lowinnutrientsbutcontaininghigherlevels channel sediments. The wateriscolderthaninlower rocky bottomsstrewnwithbouldersandothercoarse are characterisedbynarrow with irregularvelocity, oversteepgradients. They headwaters arehigh-energyenvironmentsthatflow, Most Britishriversriseintheuplands. Their 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. led byfishandanglinginterests. native treesandstabilisation oferodingriverbanks, and thefencingofsections ofheadwaters,planting techniques throughtheForests andWater Guidelines; through agriculturalgrantschemes;improvedforestry overgrazing, overburningandmoorlanddrainage headwaters. These includethediscouragementof begun toaddresshistoricalimpactsonriver Over thelast20yearsanumberofprojectshave 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Habitat Description Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership river channelswith 89 WETLAND HABITATS RIVER HEADWATERS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.2 Current Distribution 3.2 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) Most of the region’s rivers have a north to south flow. Due to the physical and chemical composition of River headwaters are therefore mostly located the river headwaters, algae, mosses and liverworts are Southern Uplands, in the north of the region. often the dominant vegetation. Alpine Water-moss Fontinalis squamosa is one of the few mosses that 2.3 Site Examples actually grows in the water, usually in river channels All of the region’s main rivers rise in the uplands and with fast flowing water. It is recorded from several have important associated headwaters. Examples sites in Dumfries & Galloway including the River Cree, include Tarf Water (SAC/SSSI) for the River Water of Luce and Water of Ae. Bladnoch, Water of Trool and Water of Minnoch for the River Cree, Big Water and Little Water of Fleet On river banks there are many species and much for the River Fleet, Water of Ken and Blackwater variation between different watercourses, but of Dee for the River Dee, Scaur Water and Carron typical bryophytes include: Yellow Fringe-moss Water for the River Nith, and Moffat Water and Racomitrium aciculare in profusion on top of rocks Water of Ae for the River Annan. in fast-flowing, base-poor headwaters; Fountain Apple-moss Philonotis fontana and Drab Brook-moss RIVER HEADWATERS 2.4 Associated Habitats Hygrohypnum luridum by fast-flowing burns in the uplands; Water Earwort Scapania undulata often A number of habitats occur in close association and/ prominent by acid burns; and Transparent Flapwort or overlap with river headwaters, and the following Jungermannia hyalina commonly found on gritty rock action plans may also contain relevant information: ledges near water-level in stream gullies or on boulder Exposed River Shingle, Waterfalls, Upland Springs tops in rocky rivers. On shaded damp rocks and and Flushes, Blanket Bogs, Acid Grasslands, Inland trees, including in deep headwater valleys, is found Rock Outcrops, Upland Heaths, Native Wet Woods. the locally rare Wilson’s Filmy-fern Hymenophyllum wilsonii. Tunbridge Filmy-fern Hymenophyllum 3. Importance for Associated Species tunbrigense occurs in similar habitats, but is very rare, possibly extinct in the region. 3.1 Fishes (very high importance)

The characteristic fish of river headwaters is the 3.3 Invertebrates (very high importance) Brown Trout Salmo trutta. It thrives in the cold, well- Invertebrates of shallow fast-flowing waters include oxygenated river channels. They, and their close water bears, mayflies, caddisflies, blackflies and molluscs. The region’s largest common dragonfly, the Golden-ringed Cordulegaster boltonii is even able to breed in such habitats. Most of these creatures live under stones and/or have flat bodies to reduce resistance to the current.

A number of notable aquatic invertebrates have been recorded in headwater river channels Dumfries & Galloway, WETLAND HABITATS including a water beetle Hydraena Salmon migrate upstream to spawn in the clean gravel beds of pygmaea headwaters. (Laurie Campbell) under mossy Golden-ringed Dragonflies breed in the flowing boulders in relative the Salmon S. salar require clean, silt free waters of headwater burns. Garroch Glen, July steep streams gravel beds in which to spawn. These beds, known as 1999. (Peter Norman) in Galloway, redds, are found upland headwaters as well as some with recent records from only three 10km squares lowland tributaries. Eels Anguilla anguilla are also typical of headwaters. 90 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.5 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) A number of fungi, mostly micro species, are specifically adapted to river habitats. Some are specialist wood-rotters that create suitable conditions in coarse woody debris for invertebrates to colonise. The largest and most obvious species is the uncommon Vibrissea truncorum, recorded from the River Cree.

A greater range of lichens occurs on headwaters than on lower stretches of rivers, though few are restricted to this habitat. The most important areas are bouldery stretches or waterfalls, where there is much exposed rock. Coarse woody debris in Water of Trool. Caldons, May 2006. (Peter Norman) 3.6 Mammals (medium importance)

in Scotland. All Scottish records for River Skaters RIVER HEADWATERS Aquarius najas relate to Galloway, including Water Water Voles Arvicola terrestris have declined of Trool and Blackwater of Dee. The next nearest substantially in Britain, especially in lowland areas. populations are in North Wales. Freshwater Pearl Although fast flowing rocky headwaters with little Mussels Margaritifera margaritifera once occurred vegetation is a poor habitat for Water Voles, slower in most of the region’s headwaters, but now only flowing stretches with bankside cover may provide the small and vulnerable populations of this rare mollusc best remaining Water Vole habitat in the region. survive. Their larvae grow for almost a year attached to the gills of salmonid fish. 3.7 Flowering Plants (low importance) Most flowering plants are unable to gain a foothold Although little research has been carried out in the in the river channel of headwaters. River banks UK, extensive studies in North America suggest are also generally species poor, though in some coarse woody debris is of high importance for marshy areas with low grazing pressure species a range of specialist invertebrates. These feed such as Grass of Parnassus Parnassia palustris, directly on wood, or on the algae, bacteria and other Heath Spotted Orchid Dactylorhiza maculata and Bog materials on the surface of wood, or indirectly benefit Asphodel Narthecium ossifragum occur, along with from the changes coarse woody debris has to the thickets of willow, including the locally scarce Dark- river and stream structure. Coarse woody debris is leaved Willow Salix myrsinifolia. Serrated Wintergreen particularly important for craneflies, with Lipsothrix Orthilia secunda is an evergreen herb of pine and errans particularly notable in Dumfries & Galloway. birch woods, open moorland and on ledges in rocky Deep pools immediately downstream of coarse woody gullies and stream banks, mainly in the Highlands. debris dams also support mayflies Ephemeroptera. It was recorded at Grey Mare’s Tail (Moffat) in the 1950s and next to Caldons Burn in 1962, but has not A number of invertebrates, such as a ground beetle been relocated at either location. Bembidion atrocoeruleum, are associated with river banks of upland streams across the region. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Overhanging vegetation on the river banks also Importance of Biodiversity

provides an important source of invertebrate food for WETLAND HABITATS fish. Headwaters exert a major influence on the hydrology and quality of rivers downstream, affecting issues 3.4 Birds (medium importance) such as drinking water, flooding, soil erosion and The characteristic bird of river headwaters is the fishing. Dipper Cinclus cinclus, which feeds underwater on mayfly and caddisfly larvae. Goosanders Mergus merganser, Common Sandpipers Actitis hypoleucos and Grey Wagtails Motacilla cinerea also occur.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 91 LOWLAND RIVERS & BACKWATERS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

5. Factors affecting the habitat • Pollution through agricultural and forestry chemicals or oil, though generally not significant • Acidification, caused by atmospheric emissions in the region, has the potential to pose a localised from industry and transport in other parts of the threat to headwater biodiversity. country/world. Those in the west of the region • Removal of coarse wood debris, as this is often such as the Luce, Cree, Bladnoch, Fleet and seen as potentially hazardous. Watercourses Dee, have been most severely affected due to containing high amounts of coarse woody debris heavy rainfall levels, poor buffering capacity of are therefore uncommon. the bedrock and the capacity of extensive conifer plantation to capture atmospheric pollutants. 6. Strategic Actions • Prior to the implementation of recent guidelines, conifer planting often occurred right up to the 6.1 Recent and current activity edge of watercourses, and some of these trees • Many of the factors affecting the habitat resulting still remain. They cast a heavy shade, limit from forestry practices are addressed through vegetation growth, and expose the banks to the Forest and Water Guidelines. In particular, erosion. RIVER HEADWATERS forest restructuring is minimising the impact of acidification. • River catchment plans have been completed for the Bladnoch, Nith, Annan and Dee-Ken catchments. • As part of the Water Framework Directive, a River Basin Plan for the Solway-Tweed is in preparation and will be published by December 2009.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Establish more native broadleaves along the banks of headwaters. • Archaeological sites and other important An aquatic lichen Dermatocarpon luridum, found on rocks in features of the historic landscape may be more upland burns. Tarff Water, May 2008. (Peter Norman) frequent in the uplands. Identify all such sites and ensure habitat works protect and, where possible, • Many of the upland drainage systems installed in enhance them. the last century still operate, affecting the capacity • Carefully plan and execute all road building of upland areas to mitigate peak headwater flows. in forests and other areas in the vicinity of • High turbidity levels due to inputs of fine headwaters, including choice of materials, timing sediments such as clay, silt and fine sands of work and ongoing operational requirements. resulting from poor management of cultivation, Consultation with all relevant organisations is drainage, road building and timber harvesting. essential. This reduces aquatic light levels, biomass • Do not culvert headwaters wherever possible. productivity, fish feeding and migration, and when WETLAND HABITATS it settles it damages fish spawning areas. • Nutrient enrichment following large scale forestry felling or application of fertiliser.

92 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership LOWLAND RIVERS&BACKWATERS backwater systems. rivers, particularlythoseassociated withextensive highest biodiversityoccurs onunmanagedlowland rivers encompassawidevariety ofhabitats. The regimes associatedwithindividual rivers,andmost and riparianwildlifehasadapted tothenaturalflow new channelsformandoldonesarecutoff. Instream and rearranged,meandersmigrate,bankserode, downstream, materialsareconstantlytransported highly dynamicsystems: As waterworksitsway quantity ofsedimentsitcarries.Lowlandriversare flows, thenatureofflowitself,andtype on thepropertiesofbedrockoverwhichit The natureoflowlandriverchannelsisdependent 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Seasonal backwateronWater of Ae, August 2004.(PeterNorman) Lead Partner:ScottishEnvironmentProtection Agency/Regional Proposal Assessment Committee. avoiding sitescurrentlyofhighbiodiversityorhistoricalimportance. Target: Identifypotentialsitesforbackwaterrestorationononeoftheregion’ appropriate. Assess thefeasibilityofrestoringorreinstatingariverbackwatersystem,andencouragethiswhere Priority Action (LRB1) many partsof Scotland. south-west England,Wales, northernEnglandand in Dumfries&Gallowayare foundonhardrocksin and Europe.Similarriverhabitats tothosefound Lowland riversarewidespread throughoutBritain 1.2 NationalandInternational Context Exposed RiverShingle Gravel barsareincludedinaseparateactionplanfor mud arealsoimportantforspecialisedbiodiversity. part ofriversystems.Banksexposedsand,siltand the presenceofsomeerosionfeaturesisanecessary meanders. Though excessiveerosionisdamaging, Eroding pollution. Backwaters actasrefugeareasduringperiodsof are usuallyinfluencedbyfloodstosomeextent. main channelatall,suchasinoxbows. The latter end; orlackanypermanentconnectiontothe reduced flow;connectedonlyatthedownstream at bothendsandthereforehaveacontinuous,if Backwaters shelter, shadeandfoodformanyspecies. protection, modificationofflows,andprovision nutrient re-cycling,riverbankstabilityanderosion It fulfilsmanyfunctions,includingwaterpurification, a watercoursehaslittlevariationinphysicalstructure. healthy andsustainableecosystem,especiallywhere In-stream andriparianvegetationisvitalfora a rangeofaquaticbiodiversity. where deepwaterflowsswiftly. Theyareimportantfor pools maintain them.Rifflesoftenoccurinassociationwith floods soaconstantsupplyofmaterialisneededto formations. They areconstantly beingreprofiledby gravels, stonesorboulders, where shallowwaterflowsrapidlyovercoarse gravels, throughtosilt,clayandalluvium. of awidevarietysedimentsizesfromcobblesand The channelbed , areasofdeeperslow-flowingwater, andruns, bankside cliffsoftenoccurontheoutsideof maybeconnectedtothemainchannel inlowlandriversmaybecomposed Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership s majorriversby2012, arenaturalin-channel Riffles, 93 WETLAND HABITATS LOWLAND RIVERS & BACKWATERS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2. Dumfries & Galloway Status plenty of bank side vegetation. Backwaters are important refuges for young fish from the current of 2.1 Recent Trends the main flow. There has been a recent trend towards more natural techniques of river engineering, though the majority of Most coarse fish such as Pike Esox lucius and hard engineering river defences installed in the past Perch Perca fluviatilis lay their eggs on in-stream are still operational across the region. vegetation. Others such as Minnows Phoxinus phoxinus use gravely areas, such as the tail-end of 2.2 Current Distribution riffles. As most of Dumfries & Galloway’s rivers flow from Sparling (otherwise known as Smelt) Osmerus north to south, most stretches of lowland river habitat eperlanus spend most of their life in the sea, but is located in the south of the region. require unpolluted water and a sandy or gravely channel bed for spawning, around the upper limit of 2.3 Site Examples the tidal influence. They have declined enormously in The main rivers in Dumfries & Galloway are, from Britain, the River Cree being one of the few remaining west to east, the Water of Luce, River Bladnoch, spawning rivers. Important populations of Allis Shad River Cree, Water of Fleet, River Dee, River Urr, Alosa alosa, Twaite Shad Alosa fallax and lampreys River Nith, River Annan, Kirtle Water, River Sark are also found in the region’s rivers. and Border Esk. All have high biodiversity value, LOWLAND RIVERS & BACKWATERS though also have some areas of degraded habitat 3.2 Invertebrates (very high importance) along their course. Lowland rivers support very high numbers of invertebrates – 10-15,000 per square metre of 2.4 Associated Habitats channel bed. Each species is well adapted to its A number of habitats occur in close association and/ environment. For example on rocky beds mayflies or overlap with lowland rivers and backwaters, and of the genus Ecdyonurus have strong limbs to the following action plans may also contain relevant enable them to cling onto the undersides of rocks, information: Exposed River Shingle, Lowland Burns whilst stonefly nymphs search out crevices where and Ditches, Waterfalls, Reedbeds, Swamps, Native turbulence is reduced. Gravel, sand and silt beds Wet Woods. support fewer species, but burrowing invertebrates such as non-biting midge larvae occur in high density. 3. Importance for Associated Species A large number of water beetles are associated with 3.1 Fishes (very high importance) lowland rivers, particularly exposed mud and silt Under the Fresh Water Fisheries Directive, 75% of banks in slow flowing stretches and backwaters: Dumfries & Galloway’s watercourses are designated Hygrotus versicolor was found in the River Dee salmonid waters, capable of supporting Atlantic in 1996, its only Scottish location; Bidessus Salmon Salmo salar Salmon and/or Sea/Brown minutissimus, a nationally rare species has been Trout S. trutta. The other 25% of watercourses are found in fine silt, often among plant roots, at the edge designated as ciprinid waters. This designation of the River Nith at Lochside; Hydraena pulchella includes whole catchments and not just the main occurs in clean silt on the river edge, currently known rivers. Indeed, many of the minor tributaries provide from only four rivers in Scotland; and Heterocerus

WETLAND HABITATS the redds where salmonids spawn and are an integral marginatus on mud banks beside the River Urr, part of the overall catchment. known from only three rivers in Scotland. Other important invertebrates of river sediments include a Most freshwater fish are opportunist feeders, but cranefly Nephrotoma guestfalica of shaded sandy salmon are especially dependent on aquatic insects banks at two sites in Dumfriesshire, out of only four in and crustaceans, whilst trout and other species Scotland. rely on invertebrates associated with in-stream vegetation or that have fallen in the water from Emergent vegetation in backwaters perhaps riparian vegetation. Eels Anguilla anguilla are found supports the most diverse range of invertebrates, in a wide range of freshwaters, but seem to prefer with large numbers of water fleas, caddisfly larvae, slow moving lowland rivers with muddy bottoms and

94 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P water beetles, damselflies and water snails. The latter group includes the Flat Valve Snail Valvata cristata, uncommon in Scotland and restricted to well oxygenated, slowly flowing or still water with rich vegetation, especially in quiet clean backwaters.

3.3 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) The long fronds of Greater Water-moss Fontinalis antipyretica are a familiar sight in pools and runs on most of the region’s rivers. It is the world’s largest moss. Other typical bryophytes of riverside rock or gravel include Yellow Fringe-moss Racomitrium aciculare, Long-beaked Water Feather-moss Otters are found on all of Dumfries & Galloway's rivers. Rhynchostegium riparioides, Brook-side Feather- (Laurie Campbell) moss Amblystegium fluviatile and Water Earwort 3.5 Mammals (high importance) Scapania undulata. Otters Lutra lutra occur on all watercourses in Dumfries & Galloway, but those with abundant in- Riparian vegetation supports fewer specialist stream and riparian vegetation support highest species than riverside rock, but several species population densities. Bankside tree roots, especially have been recorded in association with the silt that oaks, Ash and Sycamore are of great importance LOWLAND RIVERS & BACKWATERS accumulates on tree trunks in the flood zone. These as holt sites. Water Voles Arvicola terrestris are include Many-fruited Leskea Leskea polycarpa now rare on lowland rivers in Dumfries & Galloway, and River Bristle-moss Orthotrichum rivulare. The probably due to predation by American Mink Mustela nationally scarce Spruce’s Bristle-moss Orthotrichum vison. They also prefer tall and luxuriant bankside sprucei, a riverside epiphyte of Alder, Ash, and willow vegetation, but it must not be excessively shaded where occasionally inundated, has been recorded by trees and shrubs. Water Shrew Neomys fodiens beside Cargen Water, near Dumfries. distribution is poorly known, but vegetation cover is essential. All bat species hunt over waterbodies, but 3.4 Flowering Plants (high importance) Daubenton’s Bats Myotis daubentonii are specialist Rivers with floating mats of water crowfoots, hunters low over slow flowing open water, preferring including Stream watercourses more than 9m wide and sheltered by Water Crowfoot overhanging trees. Ranunculus penicillatus ssp. 3.6 Birds (high importance) pseudofluitans For many of the birds that use rivers as breeding and Pond Water and feeding grounds, in-stream and riparian Crowfoot R. vegetation in the form of emergent plants, terrestrial peltatus, are herbs, scrub and trees is a fundamental component, considered providing cover, food and nesting sites. Mallards particularly valuable, Anser platyrhynchos and Moorhens Gallinula both in their own chloropus are able to nest on most rivers, but Little right and in terms of Grebes Tachybaptus ruficollis rely on an abundance the shelter and food of vegetation and are often restricted to backwaters, WETLAND HABITATS they provide for fish whilst Goosanders Mergus merganser need hollow and invertebrates. trees. Kingfishers Alcedo atthis and Sand Martins Other mid stream Riparia riparia dig nest burrows in steep or vertical species include sandy bankside cliffs over water. Many stretches Yellow Water-lily of lowland rivers are also important for wintering Nuphar lutea, Purple Loosestrife, a typical plant of lowland river banks. River Dee at wildfowl, especially species such as Teals Anas Intermediate Water- Threave, July 1994. (Peter Norman) crecca and Goldeneyes Bucephala clangula. starwort Callitriche hamulata and various pondweeds and water-milfoils.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 95 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium • Agriculture and other point source and diffuse importance) discharges have adversely affected rivers. Common Frogs Rana temporaria and Palmate Newts • Sewage treatment works are unable to treat Lissotriton helvetica have been known to breed in some chemicals which are detrimental to fish and quiet backwaters, but the commonest amphibian in invertebrate species. river habitats is the Common Toad Bufo bufo, which wraps it strings of spawn around plants in still or slow • Accidental pollution spills from various sources flowing water up to 30cm deep. including agricultural slurry, silage effluent, sheep dip, and industrial products such as oil, can have 3.8 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) a drastic impact. A number of fungi, mostly micro species, are • Construction/engineering projects, such as specifically adapted to river habitats, and play an roads, urban development and mineral extraction, important role in the decay of submerged leaves. have led to modification of natural river systems. Their spores are abundantly found in river foam, and • Urban development, including industry and a few species are known only from this source. housing, has the potential to affect run-off quantity and quality into rivers. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity • The construction and operation of dams and reservoirs, such as those in the Ken-Dee Hydro

LOWLAND RIVERS & BACKWATERS Scheme, affects rivers and their biodiversity. • Angling for salmon and other freshwater fish in Dumfries & Galloway provides a major source • Although limited livestock access along certain of income to local economies and is a highly reaches can produce muddy margins beneficial significant component of local employment for birds and invertebrates, removal of patterns, both directly and in related tourist woodland, bankside scrub and overwintered industries. vegetation through grazing or agricultural cultivation dramatically reduces the suitability • Rivers and streams provide a wildlife corridor of a river stretch for many species. Vegetation link between fragmented habitats in intensively removal to provide better access for anglers is farmed areas. This is particularly the case in the also carried out, but this is rarely beneficial for the lower reaches of the rivers Dee and Urr. conservation of biodiversity.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat • Introduction of North American Signal Crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus undermines riverbanks and consumes large amounts of aquatic • In the west of the region acidification of vegetation, disrupting the ecological balance of watercourses such as the Luce, Cree, Bladnoch, rivers. Introduction and spread of other invasive Fleet and Dee has led to loss of Salmon and/or plant and animal species, including non-native Trout populations. fish via live bait, also affects the habitat. • Changes in flow patterns by forestry and other • Excessive ground water and surface water land uses in river catchments has affected fish abstraction has the potential to cause damage. stocks in areas of Galloway. • Recreational disturbance, such as canoeing • Land drainage and flood defence works, if

WETLAND HABITATS and angling may have localised impacts. not sensitively carried out, can reduce riverine habitats, isolate streams from their floodplains • Lack of education about catchments and their and reduce river productivity. Dredging the use, problems and current action has led to channel bed with a mechanical digger increases unnecessary damage. suspended sediment load and turbidity for some distance downstream. In the long term it can destroy or disrupt features such as pools, riffles, point bars, floodplains and bankside vegetation. Settling out of the material in suspension will alter composition of the substrate. Disposal of soil from dredging on land may also be damaging.

96 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Backwater pools and willows on River Nith at Dalscone, January 2007. (Peter Norman)

6. Strategic Actions • Water quality, hydrology and salmonid production LOWLAND RIVERS & BACKWATERS are monitored by organisations such as SEPA, 6.1 Recent and current activity Galloway Fisheries Trust and District Salmon • The EU Water Framework Directive requires Fisheries Boards. integrated catchment management across the European Union. 6.2 Other recommended actions • Catchment management plans have been • Meet and maintain the Good Ecological Status produced for the Annan, Nith and Dee-Ken (according to Scottish Environment Protection systems, co-ordinated by SEPA. Agency River Classification System) in all of the region’s rivers. • River habitat enhancement schemes have been undertaken by bodies such as the Nith District • Reduce pollution in watercourses through more Salmon Fishery Board, The River Annan effective treatment of effluent and alternative District Salmon Fishery Board and Galloway disposal methods. Encourage the creation of Fisheries Trust. These schemes have included buffer habitats adjacent to watercourses. exclusion of livestock through fencing, planting • Where bank stabilisation is necessary, use of stabilising deciduous trees, sensitive bankside environmentally sensitive materials and soft protection methods, and sensitive instream works engineering techniques wherever possible. to diversify substrate and flow types. • Ensure that adequate consultation takes • Monitoring of the hatchery release programme on place when developments are proposed in river rivers Luce, Bladnoch, Cree, Fleet, Dee, Nith and catchment systems. Piltanton Burn by Galloway Fisheries Trust or

District Salmon Fisheries Boards. • Take care to avoid any actions that may result WETLAND HABITATS in the spread non-native invasive species. • Education of public value and sensitivity of Eradicate existing non-native invasive species rivers and the species they support, through where this is feasible and resources allow. for example ‘Salmon in the Classroom’ primary school projects. • The ecology of rare fish, particularly Sparling, Allis Shad, Twaite Shad and lampreys has been studied on the Cree by Galloway Fisheries Trust, SNH, consultants and universities.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 97 98 WETLAND HABITATS LOWLAND BURNS & DITCHES throughout lowland Britain. Small watercoursesandditches arecommon 1.2 NationalandInternational Context lowland watercourses. many ofthesamecharacteristics asditchesandsmall the informationinthisplanisrelevant. managed forlanddrainagepurposesandmuchof indistinguishable fromditches.Manyoftheseare and deepeningtosuchanextentthattheyare lowland burnshavebeenmodifiedbystraightening in theactionplansforotherhabitats.However, many Ditches thatareobviouslyman-madeincluded vegetation. material, anddenseaquatic,emergentmarginal bottoms withdeadleavesandotherdecayingplant narrow channelwidthandoftenhavemuddy warm formuchoftheyear. They havearelatively flowing waterthatishighinnutrientsandrelatively Lowland burnsandditchesusuallycontainslow- 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Varied riparianhabitatsincluding Alders, shingle,poolsandriffles Lead Partner:ScottishEnvironmentProtection Agency/Farming &Wildlife Advisory Group. Target: Makedirectcontactwith500farmersby2012. and farmvisits. Raise awarenessoftheimportancesmallburnsandditchesthroughpublications,demonstrationdays Priority Action (LBD1) Habitat Description LOWLAND BURNS&DITCHES on theCrichopeBurn.June2007.(PeterNorman). Canals share Marshes, NativeWet Woods, ConiferPlantations. information: LowlandRiversandBackwaters,Fens, following actionplansmayalsocontainrelevant or overlapwithlowlandburnsandditches,the A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.3 Associated Habitats directly intothesea,withoutenteringamajorriver. larger rivers,butanumberoflowlandburnsflow areas ofDumfries&Galloway. Mostarelinkedto Small burnsandditchesarecommoninlowland 2.2 CurrentDistribution recent drainagesystemstendtousepipeddrains. Few newopenditchesarebeingcreatedtoday– 2.1 RecentTrends 2. fodiens. Otters Arvicola terrestris andWater ShrewsNeomys important habitatintheregion forWater Voles lowland burnsandditches are probablythemost Although detailedsurveyinformation islacking, 3.2 Mammals(highimportance) another smallburnclose-by. Kirkgunzeon Lanein2004.Ithassincebeenfound was discoveredforthefirsttimeinScotland prefers slow-flowing,muddy-bottomedwatercourses, Calopteryx splendens damselfly LestessponsaandBandedDemoiselle breed inburnsandditches,includingEmerald ‘higher quality’ freshwaters. A numberofdragonflies It occursinweed-chokedditches,butrarely UK, buthasbeenrecordedinKirkcudbrightshire. hypnorum organic mud. The MossBladderSnail have aquaticlarvaeinditchesfullofsaturated fauna fromthatinopensituations.Somespecies Ditches andpoolsintheshadesupportadifferent 3.1 Invertebrates(highimportance) 3. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species is rareinScotlandanddecliningthe Lutra lutraalsousesurprisingly small Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership . The latterspecies,which Aplexa LOWLAND BURNS & DITCHES

watercourses for feeding and movement, sometimes with just a few centimetres of water.

3.3 Fishes (high importance) Typical fishes of small slow flowing watercourses include Three-spined Sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus, Eels Anguilla anguilla and Brook Lampreys Lampetra planeri. Lowland burns and ditches may also be important for spawning and juvenile fish, even if there are few adult fish. They can be particularly important for Trout Salmo trutta.

3.4 Flowering Plants (high importance) A high diversity of plants occurs in lowland burns and ditches, and all available microhabitats are usually colonised. For example, there are submerged species such as Spiked Water-milfoil Myriophyllum spicatum Bog Beacon Mitrula paludosa, found on rotting leaves in ditches in and Various-leaved Water Starwort Callitriche Spring. Slogarie, April 2008. (Peter Norman) LOWLAND BURNS & DITCHES platycarpa; plants with leaves that float 3.7 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) on the water surface such as Common A number of fungi grow on submerged leaves in Duckweed Lemna stagnant conditions in ditches. They play an important minor and Pondweeds role in the decay process. The most obvious of them Potamogeton spp.; is Bog Beacon Mitrula paludosa, which produces plants in shallow water orange fruit bodies in late spring. such as Brooklime Veronica beccabunga 3.8 Birds (low importance) and Watercress Moorhens Gallinula chloropus and Sedge Warblers Rorippa nasturtium- Acrocephalus schoenobaenus are among the aquaticum; and common breeding birds in marginal vegetation beside emergent plants such lowland burns and ditches. Herons Ardea cinerea, as Reed Canary Grass Snipe Gallinago gallinago and Green Sandpipers Phalaris arundinace Ditch with range of aquatic Tringa ochropus visit to feed; the first two throughout vegetation, Cree Valley. June 2006. and bur-reeds (Peter Norman) the year, the latter mostly on its migration through the Sparganium spp. Few region in the autumn. rare species occur, but Round-leaved Water Crowfoot Ranunculus omiophyllus is not common in Scotland 4. Environmental, Economic & Social outside of the south west. Importance of Biodiversity

3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium • Most agricultural and urban drains feed into minor importance) watercourses rather than larger rivers. Without Common Toads Bufo bufo, Common Frogs Rana

them, land drainage would cease to operate. WETLAND HABITATS temporaria, Smooth Newts Lissotriton helvetica and Some also provide drinking water for livestock. Palmate Newts Lissotriton helvetica commonly breed • The network of burns and ditches enhances the in slow flowing burns and ditches. landscape. 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Algae play an important role in the ecosystem of lowland burns and ditches. Most are single-celled • A perception that minor watercourses and species, but filamentous green algae, such as ditches are no more than drainage channels Spirogyra, are also common. hinders their conservation.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 99 WATERFALLS

• Culverting ditches and small watercourses virtually eliminates their biodiversity interest. • Mechanised dredging or ‘cleaning’ of small watercourses is frequently carried out. There has been little assessment of the long-term biodiversity impact of such works. • Though they are naturally rich in nutrients, additional nutrient enrichment through agricultural operations causes loss of biodiversity. • Due to their widespread distribution, pollution often enters larger watercourses via small burns and ditches. Pollution sources include slurry, pesticides, road run-off and sewage discharges. • North American Mink are widespread and may exert a serious impact on fish, bird and especially Water Vole populations. LOWLAND BURNS & DITCHES 6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Galloway Fisheries Trust and Solway Heritage carried out an ecological assessment of selected small watercourses that run directly into the sea. • Training days have been organised by SEPA and the Farming & Wildlife Advisory Group, as part of the Dee-Ken Catchment Management Plan, to demonstrate good practice.

Steep, but well-vegetated banks on Abbey Burn, near Dundrennan. 6.2 Other recommended actions June 2006. (Peter Norman) • Highlight the importance of even the smallest burn or ditch in terms of the biodiversity it supports and its linkages it has with other wetlands. WETLAND HABITATS

100 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership Dumfries &Galloway’s waterfalls. There isnoevidence ofsignificantrecent changesto 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&Galloway Status of Britain. therefore occurmorefrequently inthewestandnorth Waterfalls tendtobeconcentratedintheuplands,and 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext river. plunge pool and frostfreeconditions. At thebaseoffalls, and receiveconstantlylowlightlevels,highhumidity falls arecushionedfromenvironmentalextremes but overhangsandcrevicesbehindbesidethe damp conditionsimmediatelyadjacenttothefalls, In thesprayzoneacloudoffineresultsin polished smoothbytheerosiveforceofwater. The rockoverwhichthewaterflowsisusually trickle toatorrent,dependingonweatherconditions. The waterflowingoverwaterfallscanvaryfroma support similarbiodiversity. waterfalls havesimilarenvironmentalconditionsand landscape features,low is ofhigh,spectacular perception ofwaterfalls them. Although thepublic streams hangingabove leaving thefeeder wide U-shapedvalleys, when glaciers gouged out some werealsoformed different rocktypes,but other weaknesses,orto either duetofaultsand erosion ofthebedrock, form duetodifferential Waterfalls usually Characteristics 1.1 Physical 1. HabitatDescription Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership Dumfries andGalloway. Raise awarenessofthebiodiversityimportancewaterfalls,byproducingaguidetowaterfalls Priority Action (WF1) isusuallyoneofthedeepestparts WATERFALLS Spout of Achentallach, near Twynholm. May2008. (Peter Norman) Outcrops, UplandSpringsandFlushes. Backwaters, LowlandBurnsandDitches,InlandRock Cliffs andSlopes,Headwaters,LowlandRivers plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation:Coastal or overlapwithwaterfalls,andthefollowingaction A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats peninsula. Wife atSouthwick,andvariousfallsaroundtheRhins On thecoastareBlackBurnWaterfall nearLot’s Burn andHolyLinn include is GreyMare’s Tail inMoffatdale (SAC/SSSI).Others The highestandbestknownoftheregion’s waterfalls 2.3 SiteExamples immediately beforeenteringthesea. watercourses oftenflowoverraisedbeachslopes the headwatersandonGallowaycoast,where region’s watercourses. They aremostfrequentin Waterfalls occuralongallpartsofmostthe 2.2 CurrentDistribution Shining Flapwort voluta recordedbya waterfallinGarliesWood, and common species to therocksurfaceavoid beingdislodged.Less Nardia, Marsupellaand tend tobeverysmallinstature. Severalspeciesof extremely richliverwortflora, thoughthespecies Waterfalls inrockyravinestheuplandshavean Lemanea to fixnitrogeninnutrient-pooruplandareas;andred tough, leatherytuftsofTolypothrix filaments ofPhormidium crusts onrocksurfaces;slimybrownandgreen such asChamaesiphon thrive intheconditionscreatedbywaterfalls.Genera Both felt-formingandfilamentousblue-greenalgae 3.1 Non-floweringPlants(veryhighimportance) 3. Importancefor Associated Species GreyMare’s Tail onatributaryofthePalnure is commononmanywaterfallsinthespring. includePaleScalewort Jungermannia paroica on theGarpleBurnnearDalry. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Scapania grow tightly pressed and Homoeothrix frequent thelipsoffalls; have theability at several Radula form flat 101 WETLAND HABITATS WATERFALLS EXPOSED RIVER SHINGLE

locations, often on very wet rock ledges or on rocks on Common Toads Bufo bufo, Common Frogs Rana in the water. The latter species is largely restricted to temporaria and Palmate Newts Lissotriton helvetica, Wales, Northern England and Scotland. Mosses are enabling them to breed in parts of the river system more common on lowland waterfalls. Holt’s Mouse-tail which otherwise may not be suitable. Moss Isothecium holtii, a distinctive moss restricted to western Britain, requires high humidity and is 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) frequently found by waterfalls. Although not confined to waterfalls, a number of lichens occur on damp rocks in the splash zone On shaded rocks in the spray zone there are including Collema flaccidum. The spores of some several ferns that benefit from the high humidity. fungi are abundantly found in river foam, and a few These include the locally rare Wilson’s Filmy-fern species are known only from this source. Hymenophyllum wilsonii. Tunbridge Filmy-fern Hymenophyllum tunbrigense occurs in similar 3.6 Birds (low importance) habitats, but is very rare, possibly extinct, in the Waterfalls often feature in the breeding territories region. WATERFALLS of both Dippers Cinclus cinclus and Grey Wagtails Motacilla cinerea, and the nest may actually be 3.2 Invertebrates (medium importance) located behind the falls. However, neither species are Few invertebrates are waterfall specialists, but dependent on waterfalls. saturated moss and surfaces constantly kept wet by waterfalls or fast-flowing streams may support 3.7 Fishes (low importance) populations of rove beetles, including Dianous Waterfalls usually present a barrier in the movement coerulescens and Lesteva pubescens at their of fish. Some species, such as Salmon Salmo salar northern distribution limit on the Urr Water. Mayflies, are able to leap low falls and Eels Anguilla anguilla stoneflies and caddisflies also occur. Aquatic may be able to go round them overland in certain invertebrates above waterfalls benefit from reduced conditions, but most species are constrained by them. fish numbers. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social 3.3 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Importance of Biodiversity Virtually no flowering plants are able to Waterfalls are significant features in the landscape, withstand the harsh and the larger ones usually have individual names. environment of Several are tourist attractions. waterfalls, but in the spray zone a number 5. Factors affecting the Habitat of species, such as Bog Pimpernel Anagallis • Pollution of watercourses has the potential to tenella take advantage adversely affect waterfall wildlife. of the humid conditions. Purple Saxifrage • Pressure for removal of natural waterfalls to Saxifrago oppositifolia allow fish access to a greater part of the river has occurs on only two sites come from some anglers. in Dumfries & Galloway, • Inappropriate abstraction may reduce waterfall WETLAND HABITATS one of which is beside Purple Saxifrage. flow. the Grey Mare’s Tail in (Laurie Campbell) Moffatdale. • There is the potential for disturbance from recreational disturbance. 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) No amphibians are strongly associated with waterfalls, but the barrier that high falls present to the upstream movement of fish reduces predation

102 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership the UK. exposed shinglehabitaton severalriversystemsin glacial deposits.Studiesindicatesignificantlossesof younger rocksthatareresistanttoweathering,or are significantlowlandrivershinglesassociatedwith and westwherethebedrockishard,althoughthere Europe. ItismostcommoninBritainthenorth Exposed rivershingleiswidespreadthroughout 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext across floodplains. and silt,iscloselyassociatedwithriversmeandering of finergravels,sometimesmixedwithareassand the lowerreachesmore and pebbles.In small boulders composed of banks oftenform, unstable shingle extremely valleys, as inU-shaped channels, such but inmoreopen shingle features, the formationof channels prevent steep-sided of riversnarrow upper reaches deposition. Inthe transport and sediment dependent onthenaturalprocessesoferosion, and islands. These featuresaregenerallytransient, Exposed rivershingletakestheformofbanks,bars 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage/ScottishEnvironmentProtection Agency. Target: Assess of20potentialsitesby2015. Identify areasofexposedrivershinglewithimportantinvertebrateinterest. Priority Action (ERS1) Habitat Description EXPOSED RIVERSHINGLE

stable shingle Carrifran. July2006.(PeterNorman) Upland shingleonFirthhopeBurn, , composed River Headwaters,LowlandRiversandBackwaters. action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: overlap withexposedrivershingle,andthefollowing A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats Moffat Water hasextensiveareasofshingle. Bridgend ontheWater of Ae. Onheadwaters,the region forinvertebratesistheextensiveshingleat (LWS) andAuldgirth exposed rivershingleat On theRiverNiththereareimportantareasof 2.3 SiteExamples Dumfries &Galloway. Exposed rivershingleoccursonallthemainriversin 2.2 CurrentDistribution remain atriskofremovalthroughengineeringworks. importance ofexposedrivershingle,thesehabitats Despite anincreasingawarenessofthebiodiversity 2.1 RecentTrends 2. sediments intheupperCree/Minnoch. fly Spiriverpalunulata shingle banknearDumfries;andNorthernStiletto- Bidessus minutissimus edge;awaterbeetle mostly neartothewater’s associated withexposedriverineshingleorsand, areolatus, recent (1990s)recordsfromtheNithof associated withexposedrivershingle. There are A numberofscarceandrareinvertebratesare 3.1 Invertebrates(veryhighimportance) 3. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species ascarcegroundbeetleexclusively Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership . Perhapsthebestsitein onexposedsandyriverine found infinesiltona Carnsalloch ShingleBank Perileptus Ae

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There are old records from southern Scotland of 3.4 Fishes (medium importance) other rare invertebrates associated with this habitat, The removal of exposed shingle denudes the and it is likely that new surveys would find some river of substrates that are an essential part of the of these in Dumfries & Galloway. They include the river system. This removes the possibility of such nationally scarce ground beetles Perileptus areolatus, substrates forming important fish spawning habitats in Thalassophilus longicornis, Bembidion bipunctatum, other parts of the river. B. litorale, B. testaceum and B. monticola and a click beetle Negastrius sabulicola. A tiny and probably much overlooked rove beetle Meotica anglica is associated with riparian gravel and sand, but appears to be largely subterranean and rarely seen on the surface. It is currently known only from four sites in the world, all in the UK, including one in southern Scotland close to the Dumfriesshire border. It may therefore also be present in the region.

Though common in many habitats in Europe, in Britain the Five-spot Ladybird Coccinella 5-punctata EXPOSED RIVER SHINGLE is rarely found more than a few metres from unstable river shingle. Here, it is very rare and endangered, being rediscovered in 1987 following an absence of around 30 years. There are no records from Dumfries Field Pansy on Water of Ae shingle. May 2008. (Peter Norman) & Galloway, but one from near Carlisle suggests that its occurrence is not totally out of the question. 3.5 Flowering Plants (low importance) 3.2 Birds (high importance) Unstable shingle may support no flowering plants Relatively few birds use exposed river shingle, but at all. Any that are able to colonise need to be fast some species more typically found on the coast growing prostrate plants that can withstand both regularly nest on river shingle. These include drought and flood conditions. On morestable shingle Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus and Ringed the main colonisers are mainly opportunistic ‘weed’ Plovers Charadrius hiaticula. Little Ringed Plovers species. Charadrius dubius have also nested on river shingle at a few locations in Dumfries & Galloway, 4. Environmental, Economic & Social virtually their only Scottish breeding sites. Common Importance of Biodiversity Sandpipers Actitis hypoleucos, Grey Wagtails Motacilla cinerea and Pied Wagtails Motacilla alba • River shingle forms an important habitat for regularly feed on river shingle. several fish that are of economic importance. 3.3 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) • Shingle is one of several riverine features that Common mosses, such as River Feather-moss add variety to watercourses, contributing to their Brachythecium rivulare and Fountain Apple-moss visual appeal in the landscape. Philonotis fontana, are the prime colonisers of upland WETLAND HABITATS unstable shingle. As the shingle becomes more 5. Factors affecting the Habitat stable they are replaced by flowering plants. • River engineering, such as straightening, dredging, or grading of river banks is likely to remove this habitat totally unless special care is taken. • Extraction of gravel results in local destruction of the habitat. Even if adjacent areas of shingle are not removed, they may be loosened and become more susceptible to being washed away.

104 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Livestock encroachment on riverside shingle 6.2 Other recommended actions and other river bank features. • Consider designating as Local Wildlife Sites • Agricultural pollution (especially the use of those sites supporting viable populations of pyrethroid sheep dips), nutrient enrichment, and important invertebrates, where this is necessary acidification. to secure their long-term protection and appropriate management. • Water level regulation and control of flow by damming and flood alleviation schemes. • Advise landowners, managers and advisors of the presence of this habitat and the importance of • Colonisation of river banks by Himalayan balsam beneficial management for their conservation. Impatiens glandulifera and other invasive plant species. • Carry out comprehensive invertebrate surveys of potentially important sites. 6. Strategic Actions • Raise awareness of the importance of exposed riverine sediment species and of the conservation 6.1 Recent and current activity issues associated with them. This may be • SNH funded a survey of exposed river sediments achieved by articles in wildlife, environmental, in the Nith catchment in 1996 and 1997. The and user-group (e.g. anglers, engineers) journals. EXPOSED RIVER SHINGLE aim was to survey the habitat resource and to characterise the sediment types favoured by the specialist invertebrate fauna. • Entomologists from the Scottish Entomologists Meeting in 2005 carried out brief surveys of a selected number of sites, and discovered a number of important invertebrates. WETLAND HABITATS

Partially vegetated river shingle on the Water of Ae. May 2008. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 105 106 WETLAND HABITATS EUTROPHIC LOCHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T and severallochs arenowsuffering fromhyper- continues toincrease levelsofeutrophication Intensive agricultureinthe catchmentsoflochs 2.1 RecentTrends 2. being around1785km total extentisnotaccuratelyknown,thebestestimate in thenorthandwest,especiallynearcoast. Their of southernandeasternBritain,buttheyalsooccur Eutrophic watersaremosttypicalofhardwaterareas 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext matter. Their bedsarecoveredbydarkmud,richinorganic algae inmidsummeroftenmakesthewatergreen. abundant invertebrates,anddensepopulationsof 7. Anaerobic mudrichinorganicmattersupports calcium carbonateperlitre,andapHofmorethan classified ashavingmorethan30milligramsof which makesthemveryproductive. They havebeen Eutrophic lochshavenaturallyhighnutrientlevel, 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. waters). in Scotland(around15%ofallScottishstanding Lead Partner:ScottishEnvironmentProtection Agency. Management PlanaspartofEUWater FrameworkDirective. Maintain goodecologicalstatusofeutrophiclochsbyimplementingmeasuresincludedinRiverBasin Priority Action (EL1) Dumfries &Galloway Status Habitat Description Carlingwark Lochwithfringingreedswamp.June2008. 2 intheUKwitharound240km EUTROPHIC LOCHS (Peter Norman) 2

Mesotrophic Lochs,Reservoirs. Reedbeds, Fens,Marshes,NativeWet Woods, plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation:Swamps, overlap witheutrophiclochs,andthefollowingaction A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats Carlingwark Loch(SSSI)andSoulseatLoch. of thebestknownareCastleLoch(SPA/SSSI), There aremanyeutrophiclochsintheregion.Some 2.3 SiteExamples the southofDumfries&Galloway. Eutrophic lochsareconcentratedinthelowlands 2.2 CurrentDistribution invertebrate deaths. eutrophication, leadingtoalgalbloomsandfish/ include Gadwalls Gallinula chloropus platyrhynchos Little GrebesTachybaptus ruficollis include GreatCrestedGrebes Typical breedingwaterfowlofeutrophiclochs 3.1 Birds(highimportance) 3. Importancefor Associated Species Coots arecommon nestingbirdsoneutrophiclochs. , CootsFulicaatraandMoorhens Anas strepera,Garganeys . Rarerbreedingspecies

Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Podiceps cristatus, , MallardsAnser (Gordon McCall) EUTROPHIC LOCHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

querquedula, Pintails Anas acuta, Shovelers Anas 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) clypeata and Tufted Ducks Aythya fuligula, whilst the Planktonic algae are usually abundant in the water very rare Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis column, where they are responsible for production of has attempted to breed recently. In winter, wildfowl most of the nutrients that support other biodiversity. numbers are swelled by large numbers of Teals Anas The rare aquatic fern Pillwort Pilularia globulifera crecca, Wigeons Anas penelope, Pochards Aythya grows in eutrophic lochs where competition is farina, Goldeneyes Bucephala clangula and Coots. reduced by fluctuating water levels or disturbance, such as in Loch Ken. It is however, susceptible to Although grassland feeders, a number of wintering over-eutrophication. geese and swans use eutrophic lochs for roosting. Most important are Whooper Swans Cygnus cygnus, 3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) Pink-footed Geese Anser brachyrhynchus, Greylag Most eutrophic lochs contain too many predators to Geese Anser anser and White-fronted Geese Anser be suitable for breeding amphibians, though some albifrons. may be able to find suitable sites on quiet lochsides. Common Toads Bufo bufo are more able to withstand 3.2 Mammals (high importance) predation than other amphibians. The dense emergent and marginal vegetation of EUTROPHIC LOCHS eutrophic lochs provide ideal habitat for Otters Lutra 4. Environmental, Economic & Social lutra. An abundance of insect life also makes these Importance of Biodiversity lochs valuable for all species of bat, with Daubenton’s Bats Myotis daubentonii being specialist feeders over • Many eutrophic lochs are located close to towns water. and villages and are significant landscape and recreational assets for these communities. 3.3 Invertebrates (high importance) Zooplankton is abundant in the water column of eutrophic lochs, and there may be abundant bottom- 5. Factors affecting the Habitat dwelling invertebrates. Many lochs have a diverse invertebrate fauna, including snails, crustaceans, • Nutrient enrichment caused by organic and water beetles and dragonflies. Blue-tailed damselflies inorganic fertilisers damages plant and animal Ishnura elgans and Common Blue damselflies communities and results in a loss of biodiversity. Enallagma cyathigerum can be abundant. Duck • Algal blooms and excessive weed growth are Mussels Anodonta anatina are known in the region a problem in many lochs, compounded by high only from Castle Loch (Lochmaben). nutrient inputs through diffuse pollution. • Changes in land-cover can result in increased 3.4 Fishes (medium importance) siltation and release of nutrients into the water Eutrophic lochs are important for their high body, causing increased eutrophication. Removal populations of coarse fish, including Pike Esox lucius, of waterside vegetation and reedswamp is Roach Rutilus rutilus and Tench Tinca tinca, which is damaging, as they act as barriers to particulate uncommon in Scotland. matter and absorb nutrients.

3.5 Flowering Plants (medium importance) • The introduction of fish or removal of predators leads to the loss of natural fish

Pondweed communities of eutrophic lochs include WETLAND HABITATS populations and may affect plant and invertebrate less common species such as Flat-stalked Pondweed communities. Heavy stocking of bottom-feeding Potamogeton friesii, Lesser Pondweed P. pusillus, fish such as Carp Cyprinus carpio can cause Blunt-leaved Pondweed P. obtusifolius and turbidity and accelerate the release of nutrients Fennel Pondweed P. pectinatus, all recorded from from sediments. Carlingwark Loch. There is often a marginal fringe of reedswamp that can include scarce species such as Cowbane Cicuta virosa, Sawwort Serratula tinctoria and Lesser Tussock-sedge Carex diandra.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 107 MESOTROPHIC LOCHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Recreational and sporting use may create disturbance. Marginal vegetation may suffer from trampling and wave erosion; the action of boat hulls and propellers destroys aquatic plants and stirs up sediments, contributing to enrichment. The construction of marinas and other leisure facilities may also destroy valuable habitat and can lead to increased pollution. However, recreational use can often be sustained with minimal damage to biodiversity, through adequate management programmes

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity

EUTROPHIC LOCHS • The EU Water Framework Directive requires preparation and implementation of River Basin Management Plans. These will include a series of measures to maintain good ecological status of all waterbodies. • Loch Ken, Castle Loch and Carlingwark Loch have management plans and advisory management committees. • Nutrient levels are monitored by SEPA at some lochs, such as Castle Loch and Carlingwark Loch. • Dumfries & Galloway Council carry out control of algal blooms in Carlingwark Loch by the annual installation of specially designed straw booms Flood debris supports a varied, if inconspicuous, biodiversity. that chemically counteract the algae. Woodhall Loch, March 2007. (Peter Norman)

6.2 Other recommended actions • Conduct research to determine the level of agricultural run-off reaching lochs and the impact in terms of eutrophication. • Investigate the causes of algal blooms and possible solutions. WETLAND HABITATS

108 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 1,750 mesotrophic standingwatersinScotland. rare typeofwaterbody, butthereisanestimated nitrogen andphosphorous, theyareanincreasingly to theirsensitivityartificially increasedlevelsof District aretwoofthebest examples inEngland.Due Britain. Bassenthwaiteand DerwentwaterintheLake the marginsofuplandareasinnorthandwest Mesotrophic lakesandlochsarelargelyconfinedto 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext submerged andemergentplants. a hardsubstratum,oftenclearwater, butplentyof litre, andapHofaround7. They alsousuallyhave as having10-30milligramsofcalciumcarbonateper and totalphosphorous. They havebeenclassified narrow rangeof nutrients, particularly organic nitrogen Mesotrophic lochsarecharacterisedbyhavinga 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:ScottishEnvironmentProtection Agency. Basin ManagementPlanaspartofEUWater FrameworkDirective. Maintain goodecologicalstatusofmesotrophiclochsbyimplementingmeasuresincludedinRiver Priority Action (EL1) Habitat Description Sea Cavesandcliffs. Barlocco, April 2007.(R.Mearns) MESOTROPHIC LOCHS eutrophic. was formerlymesotrophic but nowappearstobe Loch Kindar mesotrophic. They include vegetation surveysandchemical samplesasbeing A numberoflochshavebeenassessedfrom 2.3 SiteExamples lochs intheregion. There isnocomprehensiveinventoryofmesotrophic 2.2 CurrentDistribution threatened habitat. Mesotrophic lochsareanincreasinglyrareand continues toincreaselevelsofeutrophication. Intensive agricultureinthecatchmentsoflochs 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus (LWS). MillLoch Loch Kindar, April 2007.(RichardMearns) Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Milton Loch (SSSI)atLochmaben (SSSI)and 109 WETLAND HABITATS MESOTROPHIC LOCHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.4 Associated Habitats A number of habitats occur in close association and/ or overlap with mesotrophic lochs, and the following action plans may also contain relevant information: Swamps, Reedbeds, Fens, Marshes, Native Wet Woods, Eutrophic Lochs, Reservoirs.

3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Flowering Plants (very high importance) Mesotrophic lochs potentially have the highest diversity of large plants and contain a higher proportion of nationally scarce and rare aquatic plants than any other loch type. Typical species include Yellow Water-lily Nuphar lutea and Amphibious Bistort Persicaria amphibia. Slender Naiad Najas flexilis Four-spotted Chaser dragonfly, Lochmaben 2008. (Paul McLaughlin)

MESOTROPHIC LOCHS is a rare aquatic plant usually found in deep, clear, mesotrophic lochs. It occurs predominantly in western 3.4 Invertebrates (very high importance) Ireland and the Scottish Highlands and Islands, but Mesotrophic lochs are among the richest of all has been recorded from Loch Kindar. caddisfly habitats. Other macroinvertebrates are well represented, with particularly important groups being 3.2 Birds (very high importance) dragonflies, water beetles, stoneflies and mayflies. Mesotrophic lochs support the greatest number and Aquatic marginal and terrestrial transition zones can diversity of waterbirds of any waterbody type. Typical be rich in terrestrial groups such as flies and beetles. breeding species include Great Crested Grebes Hairy Dragonflies Brachytron pratense are typical of Podiceps cristatus Mallards Anser platyrhynchos and well-vegetated mesotrophic lochs in England, but are Tufted Ducks Aythya fuligula. Less common nesting restricted to a few sites in Scotland, including Colvend wildfowl include Gadwalls Anas strepera, Pintails Lochs in Dumfries & Galloway. Anas acuta, Shovelers Anas clypeata, and Teals Anas crecca. 3.5 Mammals (high importance) Emergent and marginal vegetation of mesotrophic In winter, mesotrophic lochs may be used by lochs provide ideal habitat for Otters Lutra lutra. An large numbers of feeding and roosting Whooper abundance of insect life also makes these lochs Swans Cygnus cygnus, Pink-footed Geese Anser valuable for all species of bat, with Daubenton’s Bats brachyrhynchus, Greylag Geese Anser anser, White- Myotis daubentonii being specialist feeders over fronted Geese Anser albifrons, Pochards Aythya water. farina and Goldeneyes Bucephala clangula. 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) 3.3 Fishes (very high importance) Planktonic algae are usually abundant in the water The mesotrophic Mill Loch at Lochmaben once column, where they are responsible for production of supported Vendace Coregonus albula at one of its most of the nutrients that support other biodiversity. few British sites. This species now appears to have Stoneworts are more complex types of algae, often WETLAND HABITATS become extinct due to eutrophication, but has been pioneers on the open beds of newly created water introduced to Loch Skene, an oligotrophic loch in the bodies, forming dense underwater meadows. They Moffat Hills. A wide range of coarse and salmonid fish are not confined to mesotrophic lochs, but are is also found in mesotrophic lochs. often swamped by the vigorous growth of flowering plants in more nutrient-rich waterbodies. Just a few stoneworts have been recorded in Dumfries & Galloway, including Translucent Stonewort Nitella translucens in Morton Loch.

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3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) • Water-borne recreation traffic can damage Most mesotrophic lochs contain too many predators aquatic plants at the point of launch, or through to be suitable for breeding amphibians, though some bankside wave erosion, passage through strands may be able to find suitable sites on quiet lochsides. of vegetation, or the cutting action of propellers. Common Toads Bufo bufo are more able to withstand Increased turbidity from boat-wash may also predation than other amphibians. compound plant loss. This again may promote unwanted algal growth. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity 6. Strategic Actions

Mesotrophic lochs are significant landscape and 6.1 Recent and current activity recreational assets for local communities and visitors. • The EU Water Framework Directive requires preparation and implementation of River Basin 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Management Plans. These will include a series of measures to maintain good ecological status of all • Nutrient enrichment (eutrophication) has a waterbodies.

major impact on mesotrophic lochs, causing MESOTROPHIC LOCHS • SEPA has prepared a provisional inventory of increased growth of aquatic algae and larger Scottish mesotrophic lochs, based on existing plants. If eutrophication reaches a threshold, the survey information. The inventory is not likely to submerged aquatic flora will deteriorate and may be comprehensive. disappear. Many aquatic invertebrates are very sensitive to pollution. Pollution may have many sources, including discharge of sewage effluent, 6.2 Other recommended actions forestry and agricultural run-off, and accidental • Carry out a survey to identify current spillages of, for example, slurry. Airborne water mesotrophic lochs in Dumfries & Galloway, acidification is also a factor in some upland and those that were naturally mesotrophic but catchments. which have been changed as the result of man’s • Activities such as ploughing, afforestation and activities. peat cutting can increase soil erosion with a • Control discharges of effluent from wastewater consequent increase in water-borne sediments. In treatment works and other point sources of suspension, these cause turbidity and reduction pollution to ensure that the quality and quantity of in light levels, inhibiting the growth of rooted they do not pose a threat to mesotrophic lochs. aquatic plants and increasing the likelihood of algal blooms. Settled sediments may continue to • Investigate the causes of algal blooms in introduce nutrients into the water column and may mesotrophic lochs of Dumfries & Galloway. change the lake bed substrate. • Introduced fish for angling can have an adverse effect on loch ecosystems by eating the invertebrates that graze algae and keep it in check. The introduction of bottom-feeding fish such as carp will disturb the sediments, leading to turbidity and the release of nutrients, which will WETLAND HABITATS encourage algal blooms. If not properly managed, angling can also result in disturbance of wildlife, including nesting birds.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 111 112 WETLAND HABITATS OLIGOTROPHIC LOCHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T Southern uplands inthenorthofregion. Oligotrophic lochs arepredominantlylocated inthe 2.2 CurrentDistribution management toreduceeffects on uplandlochs. decades, andconsiderable improvementsinforest There hasbeenlittlenewafforestation inrecent 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus frequent onlyintheuplandsofnorthandwest. Europe. They arealsowidespreadinBritain,but Oligotrophic watersarewidespreadthroughout 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext less than6. milligrams ofcalciumcarbonateperlitre,andapH areas. They havebeenclassifiedashaving0-2 poor waterbodies,highlyacidicandconfinedtopeaty Dystrophic lochsarethemostextremeofnutrient carbonate perlitre,andapHof6-7. been classifiedashaving0-10milligramsofcalcium aquatic plantandinvertebratecommunity. They have cold, welloxygenatedclearwaterswithonlyasmall in acidicuplandareasandarecharacterisedby Oligotrophic, ornutrientpoor, lochstypicallyoccur 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Lead Partner:ScottishEnvironmentProtection Agency. Basin ManagementPlanaspartofEUWater FrameworkDirective. Maintain Priority Action (EL1) Loch DeewithWater Lobeliaintheforeground.July2007. good ecologicalstatusofoligotrophiclochsbyimplementingmeasuresincludedinRiver OLIGOTROPHIC LOCHS (Richard Mearns) Conifer Plantations,Reservoirs. Blanket Bogs,UplandHeaths, Acid Grasslands, action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: or overlapwitholigotrophiclochs,andthefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Lochar Moss. nineteenth andearly20thcenturypeatextractionon category. The lattersiteisentirelyman-madethrough Ironhirst Loch but DernaglarLoch(SSSI)inWigtownshireand Dystrophic lochsarerareinDumfries&Galloway, supporting severalrarespecies. the region, with relatively little human modificationand Skene (SSSI)isprobablythemostimportantsitein several oligotrophiclochsandinDumfriesshire Wigtownshire and LochenbreckLoch Loch Dee,Skerrow, StroanLoch Dungeon Loch ofTheDungeon (SSSI), (SSSI), oligotrophic: The lochsoftheGallowayHillsaremostly 2.3 SiteExamples despite occurringonawider rangeofsubstrates. distribution butislesscommon throughoutitsrange, Spring Quillwort restricted totheHighlands,LakeDistrictandWales. habitats inDumfries&Galloway, butotherwisemainly lochs witharockysubstrate.Itisfrequentinsuch perennial relatedtoferns,foundinoligotrophic Quillwort Isoeteslacustrisisasubmergedaquatic 3.1 Non-floweringPlants(highimportance) 3. Importancefor Associated Species Round LochofGlenhead Loch Valley (SSSI), (SSSI), Loch Enoch Mochrum Lochs(SSSI)includes inDumfriesshiremayfallintothis Isoetes echinospora Loch Grannoch,Fleet, Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership (SSSI), . Away fromthisarea,in (SSSI), Long LochofGlenhead Round LochofThe Loch Neldricken (SSSI), hasasimilar (SSSI) Long Loch

OLIGOTROPHIC LOCHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Though poor in aquatic mosses and liverworts, in Britain. Common Scoter Melanitta nigra may also oligotrophic lochs are reasonably rich in riparian occasionally attempt to breed. More common, though bryophytes. Typical species of loch side boulders still scarce, breeding wildfowl include Teals Anas include Pendulous Wing-moss Antitrichia curtipendula crecca and Wigeons Anas Penelope. A number of and Spreading-leaved Grimmia Grimmia curvata. scarce upland breeding waders, such as Dunlins Calidris alpina feed on the edges of oligotrophic lochs. 3.2 Flowering Plants (high importance) In winter, these lochs support few birds with only Though oligotrophic lochs do not support a great Goldeneyes Bucephala clangula regularly recorded in diversity of flowering plants, a number of species of small numbers. high conservation value are found. These include: Awlwort Subularia aquatica, an annual aquatic that 3.5 Fishes (medium importance) grows on silt, gravel or stony substrates in shallow Brown Trout Salmo trutta are often the commonest water; Water Lobelia Lobelia dortmanna, a slow- fish species in oligotrophic lochs, though conditions growing attractive herb with little ability to withstand rarely ideal for optimum growth. Arctic Charr shade or competition; Intermediate Bladderwort Salvelinus alpinus are scarce in Britain, occurring Utricularia intermedia, a semi-carnivorous, rare- mainly in the Scottish Highlands. In Dumfries & flowering species of shallow water; and Esthwaite Galloway they used to be found in Loch Grannoch OLIGOTROPHIC LOCHS Waterweed Hydrilla verticillata at its only extant UK and Loch Dungeon, but now probably only occur just site. More typical species include Alternate Water- over the border of the region in Loch Doon. Vendace milfoil Myriophyllum alterniflorum and Bog Pondweed Coregonus albula have been introduced to Loch Potamogeton polygonifolius. Skene and appear to be prospering.

3.3 Invertebrates (high importance) 3.6 Mammals (low importance) The invertebrate fauna of oligotrophic lochs is Remote, undisturbed oligotrophic lochs appear dominated by mayflies and caddisflies in shore zones, to fulfil the public perception of ideal Otter Lutra though a few common species from the lowlands, lutra habitat. In reality the low productivity and lack such as a diving beetle Hydroporus erythrocephalus, of dense riparian vegetation mean that they are are equally at home in such habitats. The only known infrequently visited world site of a pond snail Lymnaea burnetti is Loch by Otters and other Skene, although it is probably not a distinct species, mammals. but a form of very common Lymnaea peregra that has resulted from the harsh environment and genetic 3.7 Fungi and isolation. Lichens (low importance) Oligotrophic lochs are generally the richest lochs for lichens, though the degree of shade and type of rock has an important An aquatic lichen Porpidia hydrophila on submerged rocks in Loch Trool. March

bearing on species WETLAND HABITATS 2007. (Peter Norman) composition.

3.8 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) Goldeneye, one of the few ducks to frequent oligotrophic lochs in In some circumstances Common Frogs Rana winter. (Gordon McCall) temporaria, Common Toads Bufo bufo and Palmate Newts Lissotriton helvetica may be found in 3.4 Birds (high importance) oligotrophic lochs, but the habitat is generally poor for The Black-throated Diver Gavia arctica is a nationally amphibians. rare breeder and has attempted breeding on lochs in the Southern Uplands, the most southerly location

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 113 SWAMPS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

Often located in remote areas, oligotrophic lochs are an important component of wild-land environments.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Acidification as a result of atmospheric deposition of pollution, exacerbated by local geology, soils and land use, especially forestry. Despite recent improvements in forest design and management, acidification remains an issue. • Eutrophication caused primarily by nitrates

OLIGOTROPHIC LOCHS or phosphates in run-off from surrounding agricultural or forestry operations, though most land surrounding oligotrophic lochs in Dumfries & Galloway is not subject to intensive management.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • The EU Water Framework Directive requires preparation and implementation of River Basin Management Plans. These will include a series of measures to maintain good ecological status of all waterbodies. • The Loch Dee Project and subsequent research has looked into the causes and possible solutions of acidification. • SEPA monitor freshwater acidification at several sites. • Fish populations are monitored by Galloway Fisheries Trust. • Forestry Commission Scotland has made changes to the structure of forests in line with

WETLAND HABITATS agreed Forest and Water Guidelines. A completely frozen Lillie's Loch, near Clatteringshaws. January 2003. (Peter Norman) 6.2 Other recommended actions • Continue research and action to reduce the impacts of acidification of oligotrophic lochs. • Consider reintroduction of Arctic Charr to Loch Grannoch, if conditions are considered suitable.

114 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership Galloway isnotknown. majority likelytobemarsh). The extentinDumfries& is notknown. since the1990s,buttrend inDumfries&Galloway In Scotland,therehasbeen anincreaseinswamps 2.1 RecentTrends 2. approximately 3370km extent ofswampsinScotland,but1998therewas possible tomakeanaccurateassessmentofthe association withotherwetlandtypes,itisnot to thefactthatthishabitatusuallyoccursinclose probably havedeclinedinthelast50years.Due Swamps arewidespreadacrossEurope,though 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext in associationwithreedbeds. one endandcarrattheothersometimesoccur found separately. Bothoftengradeintoopenwaterat occur togetherandmayintegrate,butcanalsobe one ortwospecies.Fenandswamphabitatsoften year. They usuallyhavetallvegetationdominatedby is abovethegroundlevelformuch,ifnotall,of Swamps arevegetatedhabitatswherethewatertable 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Dumfries &Galloway Status Habitat Description Continue withcurrentmanagement. Priority Action (S1) Fringing swampatHightaeMillLoch,Lochmaben2008. 2 offen,marshandswamp(the SWAMPS (Paul McLaughlin) Reedbeds, Fens,NativeWet Woods. Lochs, MesotrophicOligotrophic may alsocontainrelevantinformation:Eutrophic overlap withswamps,andthefollowingactionplans A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats Cumrue Loch(LWS) andColvendLochs Dowalton Loch Loch (SSSI), Blackpark Marsh Marshes a numberofdesignatedsites,including region, butlargerareasofthishabitatisfoundon A largenumberofsmallsitesarepresentacross the 2.3 SiteExamples reedbeds andopenwaterhabitats. fragmented. Itisusuallyintegratedwithfens,carrs, In Dumfries&Gallowayswampiswidespreadbut 2.2 CurrentDistribution aquatilis Water SedgeCarex Ranunculus lingua, Greater Spearwort Cicuta virosa including Cowbane common plantsoccur, However, less Sedges C.vesicaria rostrata orBladder Sedges Carex by bedsofBottle often dominated comparison tofens, vegetation in species poor Swamps have 3.1 FloweringPlants(highimportance) 3. Importance for Associated Species andGreatFenSedgeCladiummariscus (SPA/SSSI), , Auchrochar Wetlands (SSSI), (SSSI), , Threave (SPA/SSSI),

. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Kenmure Holms(SPA/SSSI), Hightae MillLoch Bogbean, Lochmaben,May2007. (Paul McLaughlin) Ken-Dee Carlingwark (LWS). (LNR), . 115 WETLAND HABITATS SWAMPS REEDBEDS

3.2 Birds (medium importance) 4. Environmental, Economic & Social A number of birds nest and feed within swamps, and Importance of Biodiversity swamp vegetation may be particularly important in providing cover for their young. Species include Little Swamps provide protection from bankside erosion in Grebes Tachybaptus ruficollis, Water Rails Rallus lochs and rivers. aquaticus, Shovelers Anas clypeata, Teals Anas crecca, and Pintails Anas acuta. During the autumn 5. Factors affecting the Habitat and winter, swamps form an important roosting habitat for harriers. • Dumfries & Galloway’s swamps are mostly small in extent and highly fragmented. 3.3 Invertebrates (medium importance) • As with other wetland habitats, swamps are Swamps are an important habitat for several species dependent on good water quality and can be of snail, including the nationally rare Lilljeborg’s Whorl damaged by pollution and excessive nutrient SWAMPS Snail Vertigo lilljeborgi, which is restricted to decaying inputs from vegetation in sedge and rush swamps, sometimes surrounding shaded by Alders. It has recently been recorded at land-uses a few sites in Wigtownshire, but may have been lost leading to form Kirkcudbrightshire and Dumfriesshire. eutrophication.

3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) • Though drainage Amphibians such as Common Frogs Rana temporaria of swamps are found in swamps is rarely successful, changing water levels in adjacent rivers and lochs will lead to the loss or displacement Water Horsetail swamp. Carrick Ponds, June 2007. (Peter Norman) of swamps. • Grazing with cattle can maintain plant diversity, but there is an increasing reluctance to graze stock in such habitats. Ungrazed swamps can Common Frog, Lochmaben, March 2007. (Paul McLaughlin) quickly become dominated by a single species, such as Reed Sweet Grass. 3.5 Mammals (low importance) • Invasive plants such as American Skunk A number of mammals hunt for food in swamps, Cabbage may pose a threat in some locations. though a mosaic of wetland habitats is probably more important to them than swamps alone. Typical 6. Strategic Actions species include Otters Lutra lutra, Water Shrews

WETLAND HABITATS Neomys fodiens and all species of bats. 6.1 Recent and current activity

3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) • In other parts of the UK, loss of cattle grazing has been replaced by grazing with water buffalo. A number of bryophytes are adapted to the semi- aquatic conditions of swamps, including the Lesser Cow-horn Bog-moss Sphagnum inundatum. 6.2 Other recommended actions • Identify the current extent and distribution of 3.7 Fishes (low importance) swamps in Dumfries & Galloway. Though a number of fish species can be found in swamps, the habitat is not of critical importance to them.

116 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership of anyextensive newreedbeds. grown, butthis hasnotsofarresultedin thecreation conservation andwatertreatment perspectivehas Since thelate1990s,interest inreedbedsfroma is likelytohaveresultedin theircontinualdecline. succession ofreedbedsto scrubanddrierhabitats removal ofreedbedsinrecent years,butthenatural There hasbeenlittledeliberatedrainageor 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus than 100haofreedbedsinDumfries&Galloway. nationally scarcehabitat. There areprobablyless mostly insmallblocksoflessthan1ha,makingita reedbed sitesintheUKtotallingaround6,530ha, Europe. In1994therewereapproximately1000 global context,beingsomeofthefarthestwestin British reedbedsaregeographicallyimportantina 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext woodland species. gradual dryingofthebed,allowinggrowthscrubor of deadvegetationand there isheavysiltation.Elsewhere,theaccumulation reedbed maypersistinarelativelystablestateunless sites thataresubjecttoregularfreshwaterflooding,a the eventualsuccessiontowoodland.Intidalareasor or openwaterandreedbedsformatransitionstagein Common Reedisanactivecoloniserofwetground swamp, fenandotherwetlandhabitats. Common Reed maybea component of many typesof there isnocleardistinctionbetweenthetwo,and surface areoftenreferredtoasreedfens.Inpractice reedswamps. Reedbedswithwateratorbelowthe water inthesummertheyareoftenreferredtoas waters. Wheretheyhave20cmormoreofsurface but reedbedsarealsofoundinbrackishandtidal the CommonReed.Mostarefreshwaterhabitats, Reedbeds aredominatedbystandsofoneplant, 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: 20haofnewreedbedby2015. Create newreedbedsinDumfriesandGalloway. Priority Action (RB1) reed litterwillresultinthe REEDBEDS Reedbeds fringe many lochs and ponds. Collochan Loch, Terregles, around theedgeof Some ofthelargerbrackishreedbedsarefound 2.3 SiteExamples many lowlandlochs. are perhapsmostfrequentasanarrowfringearound flowing stretchesofsomerivers.However, reedbeds scattered throughoutlowlandfarmlandandonslow have somereedbeds;theremanysmallreedbeds scattered buthighlyfragmented.Mostoftheestuaries Reedbeds inDumfries&Gallowayarewidely 2.2 CurrentDistribution lowest invertebrate interest being those of open water. important habitats forinvertebrates;the areas of All stagesinthe developmentofreedbeds are 3.1 Invertebrates(highimportance) 3. Importancefor Associated Species Fens, Swamps,Marshes. Saltmarshes (Merse),LowlandBurnsandDitches, plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation:Coastal or overlapwithreedbeds,andthefollowingaction A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Glentoo Loch with moreextensiveareasatafewsites,suchas freshwater reedbedsfringemanylochsintheregion, Kirkcudbright BayandintheNithEstuary. Narrow of Rivers Tarff andDeeintheupperreachesof and LochruttonLoch Wigtown Bay Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership April 2006.(PeterNorman) , attheconfluence (LWS).

117 WETLAND HABITATS REEDBEDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T MARSHES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Forty species of bugs, moths, beetles and flies are 3.5 Flowering Plants (low importance) known to feed only on reed, with a further 24 insects The wettest reedbeds may contain Common Reed feeding partly on reed during their life cycle. A wide Phragmites australis and little else, but most reedbeds range of invertebrates is also associated with reed include some other species, including Yellow Flag even if they do not feed directly on it. These include Iris Iris pseudacorus and Reedmace Typha latifolia. predators (mainly beetles and spiders) and parasites Less common associates include Cowbane Cicuta of the reed-feeding invertebrates which live in the virosa and stands of Greater Tussock Sedge Carex stems, including gall-forming flies and solitary wasps. paniculata.

3.2 Birds (high importance) 4. Environmental, Economic & Social The Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus is a Importance of Biodiversity reedbed specialist, rarely nesting in other habitats. Although common in England, it was not known in Common Reed is known to be an efficient natural Scotland until breeding was recorded in Dumfries water purifier, and is increasingly being used REEDBEDS & Galloway in the 1990s. It continues to expand its specifically for this purpose in constructed reedbeds. range. Water Rails Rallus aquaticus, Sedge Warblers Acrocephalus schoenobaenus and Reed Buntings 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Emberiza schoeniclus also breed in reedbeds, though are less dependent on this habitat. Marsh Harriers • Loss of reedbeds through land drainage and Circus aeruginosus are occasional breeders in conversion to intensive agriculture. Dumfries & Galloway, favouring reedbeds for nesting, but also using other habitats. Bitterns also probably • Lack of management leading to drying, scrub once bred in Dumfries & Galloway and are still encroachment and succession to woodland occasionally recorded as visitors. They require large • Pollution and siltation of water sources feeding reedbeds, but if such conditions could be created it reedbed systems causing eutrophication and is highly likely that they would return as a breeding death of reed and associated organisms. species. 6. Strategic Actions Reedbeds provide roosting sites for a few of other species, particularly Swallows Hirundo rustica, 6.1 Recent and current activity House Martins Delichon urbica and Starlings Sturnus vulgaris, and occasionally Hen Harriers Circus • Reedbeds have been constructed by Scottish cyaneus. Wintering wildfowl also use them. Water for water treatment purposes at various locations (e.g. Beeswing treatment works). 3.3 Mammals (high importance) • In 1997 RSPB began creating new reedbeds on Although by no means confined to this habitat, it has land of low conservation interest at Mersehead. been suggested that Water Voles Arvicola terrestris that inhabit extensive reedbeds are better able to 6.2 Other recommended actions withstand predation by Mink Mustela vison. Water Shrews Neomys fodiens and Harvest Mice Micromys • Assess the current extend and distribution of minutus also breed in reedbeds, the latter at its reedbeds in Dumfries & Galloway. northern limit in Britain. Otters Lutra lutra frequently • Increase the size of reedbeds in Dumfries & WETLAND HABITATS lie-up in the dense cover of reedbeds during the day, Galloway. A few large reedbeds are preferable to and hunt for Eels and other fish during the night. many smaller ones. • Encourage the continued use of reedbeds for 3.4 Fishes (medium importance) water treatment purposes. The fish species of reedbeds are similar to those of lowland rivers. They include Pike Esox lucius and Eels Anguilla anguilla in ditches and Minnows Phoxinus phoxinus and Three-spined Sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus amongst the reedstems of flooded reedbeds.

118 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership brackish orfreshwater and aresometimesusedasstockbarriers, which assistinmaintaininghighgroundwaterlevels watercourses. Bothhabitatsusuallycontain flat groundthatareregularlyfloodedbyadjacent whilst floodplaingrazingmarshes inundated pasturesfoundbehindtheseawall, grazing. Coastalgrazingmarshesareperiodically involves deliberateperiodicfloodingandlivestock some havealonghistoryofmanagementthat Though grazingtakesplaceonmanymarshes, agricultural landwithpoordrainage. with littlehumanmodification.Manyothersoccuron have existedatthesamelocationformanyyears and manyofthese lochs andponds, the marginsof example around circumstances, for relatively natural formed under areas. Somehave found inlowland They areusually most oftheyear. the surfacefor table closeto has thewater mineral soilsthat occurring on to vegetation but usuallyrefers ill definedterm Marsh isarather 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. includes cuttingforhayor silage. a highbiodiversity. Othermanagementsometimes water levelsthroughoutmuch oftheyear, andsupport of landmanagement,soditches tendtohavehigh or permanent.Seasonalflooding isanintegralpart Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayFloodLiaisonand Advisory Group Target: Carryoutafeasibilitystudyby2015. enhancement andfloodalleviation,takingintoaccountofcurrentland-uses,landscapesculturalheritage. Identify areaswherenewfloodplaingrazingmarshcouldbecreatedthatwillcontributetobiodiversity Priority Action (MA1) Habitat Description Extensive marshes,alongwithswampand pools wet woodlandatKenmureHolms,New Galloway, June2007.(PeterNorman) thatcanbeseasonal areareasof MARSHES ditches, Scotland, themajoritylikelytobemarsh. been recreated at SSSI) onthe River Dee.Coastalgrazing marshhas Bladnoch floodplain between Torhouse MillandMochrumParkonthe marshes, aspartofamosaic ofwetlandhabitats, Loch Ken(SPA/SSSI). There areexcellentgrazing Extensive marshesarefound aroundthefringesof 2.3 SiteExamples in areassuchasBroadlandortheSomersetLevels. are nositesthathavethefullrangeoffeaturesfound extremely limitedextentanditispossiblethatthere less than500hainarea. Dee, Ken,Nithand Annan, butitisestimatedtobe Dumfries &GallowayisfoundontheriversBladnoch, but fragmented.Mostfloodplaingrazingmarsh In Dumfries&Gallowaymarshhabitatiswidespread 2.2 CurrentDistribution created byconservationorganisations. A fewnewcoastalgrazingmarsheshavebeen difficult, leadingtoabandonmentofthesepractices. of climatechange,canmakegrazingandmowing Changes tofloodingpatterns,perhapsasaresult management ofthishabitatcontinuestodecline. there havebeennorecentlossesbutthetraditional is notknown.Forfloodplaingrazingmarshes, since 1990s,butthetrendinDumfries&Galloway In Scotland,therehasbeenanincreaseinmarshes 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Wigtown Harbour approximately 3,370km more widespreadandabundant-in1998therewas found outsideEngland).Othertypesofmarshesare plant species(5,000haintheUK,halfofwhichis semi-natural, supportingahighdiversityofnative collectively. Onlyasmallproportionofthisfigureis found inScotland,Wales andNorthernIreland grazing marshintheUK.100,000haofthisare There areanestimatedtotalof300,000ha 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext Dumfries &GallowayStatus Caerlaverock . Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership (LWS) and atThreave(SPA/ 2 offen,marshandswampin Coastal grazingmarshis , Mersehead , and in 119 WETLAND HABITATS MARSHES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.4 Associated Habitats birds such as A number of habitats occur in close association and/or Grasshopper overlap with marshes, and the following action plans Warblers may also contain relevant information: Lowland Burns Locustella and Ditches, Eutrophic Lochs, Mesotrophic Lochs, naevia also Fens, Swamps, Reedbeds, Neutral Grasslands, nest in this Native Wet Woods, Agriculturally Improved habitat, whilst Grasslands, Urban Watercourses and Wetlands. Spotted Crakes Porzana 3. Importance for Associated Species porzana are very rare 3.1 Flowering Plants (high importance) breeders in dense Often the dominant plants of marshes are rushes, ungrazed but many other species are also found. Typical Snipe often nest in tussocky marshes. MARSHES marshes. (Steven Round) wildflowers include Marshes may Meadowsweet also be used by hunting birds of prey, including Hen Filipendula ulmaria Harriers Circus cyaneus, Marsh Harriers Circus and Ragged Robin aeruginosus and Barn Owls Tyto alba. Lychnis flos-cuculi, whilst Small Water 3.3 Invertebrates (high importance) Pepper Persicaria minor, an annual of A wide range of invertebrates is associated with wet marshy places marshes, such as a ground beetle Pterostichus trampled by stock, minor, a common marsh species recorded at various is mostly confined locations in the region. The Silver Hook Deltote to the southwest in uncula, a day-flying moth that is locally distributed in Scotland. Orchids Scotland, frequents marshes and other wet habitats. include Northern The caterpillars of Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary Marsh Dactylorhiza Boloria selene feed on Marsh Violet, and this butterfly purpurella and Early Globeflower, a local speciality is possibly more common on fens and marshes than Marsh Dactylorhiza of marshes and wet meadows, in other habitats in Dumfries & Galloway. Dundrennan, June 2006. incarnata. (Peter Norman)

Typical plants of grazing marshes include Cuckoo Flower Cardamine pratensis, Marsh Cinquefoil Potentilla palustris and various sedges and rushes including Carnation Sedge Carex panacea and tussocks of Soft Rush Juncus effuses. Less common species include Marsh Stitchwort Stellaria palustris. Purple Loosestrife Lythrum salicaria and Common Reed Phragmites australis are typical ditch species.

WETLAND HABITATS 3.2 Birds (high importance) Snipe Gallinago gallinago, Curlews Numenius arquata and Redshanks Tringa totanus are typical breeding The caterpillars of Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary butterflies often feed on Marsh Violets. (Richard Mearns) birds of marshes in Dumfries & Galloway, though have declined in recent years. Lapwings Vanellus The greatest diversity of invertebrates on coastal vanellus require less dense vegetation and are and floodplain grazing marshes is usually found in therefore more common on grazing marshes. Winter the ditches or other permanently saturated ground. flooding attracts wildfowl, particularly Barnacle Geese Dragonflies, ground beetles, water beetles and Branta leucopsis, Greylag Geese Anser anser and some groups of flies are of most importance, though Pink-footed Geese Anser brachyrhynchus. Smaller few surveys have been completed in Dumfries &

120 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Galloway. Non-biting midges Chironomidae are • Loss of traditional management regimes, the most abundant group of insect. Larvae, pupae including the frequency and timing of grazing and adults form a critical part of the food chain for and cutting, affects habitat composition. ducklings and many other birds. They depend on • Eutrophication (nutrient loading) or other organic material in the damp surface layer of the soil. pollution of groundwater or surface water results in changes to plant 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium diversity. importance) No amphibians have a marked association with • Increased salt marshes, but all 6 species have been found in this water flooding habitat, including Natterjack Toads Epidalea calamita. due to sea level Few reptiles are found, though there have been rise threatens unconfirmed reports of Grass Snakes Natrix natrix. coastal sites. • Floodplains, though MARSHES 3.5 Mammals (medium importance) part of a single Otters Lutra lutra, Water Shrews Neomys fodiens, ecological unit, and Water Voles Arvicola terrestris all use marshes, are rarely under though the latter tend to avoid sites with brackish single ownership water. Bats also take advantage of high invertebrate or management. levels for feeding. It is therefore Northern Marsh Orchid. Carrick, Gatehouse of Fleet, June 2007. difficult to allow a (Peter Norman) 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) more natural flood A range of mosses, liverworts and algae is found in regime without affecting adjoining sites. grazing marshes. 6. Strategic Actions 3.7 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) A range of grassland fungi occurs on marshes, 6.1 Recent and current activity especially those that have not been heavily improved. Most coastal grazing marsh is managed for Some such as field mushrooms Agaricus spp. and conservation by organisations such as the Wildfowl mottlegills Panaeolus spp. are also able to withstand and Wetlands Trust, RSPB and Dumfries & some fertilisation. Galloway Council/Wigtown Bay Wildfowlers Club.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6.2 Other recommended actions Importance of Biodiversity • Establish the location and extent of marshes, especially coastal and floodplain grazing marshes, in Dumfries & Galloway. • Floodplain grazing marshes act as a natural form of flood alleviation, absorbing high river flows • Survey coastal and flood plain grazing and reducing the speed that rainwater reaches marshes in the region and use the data obtained watercourses. In doing so they also filter water, to identify areas where restoration is possible and thereby improving water quality. to act as a baseline for a monitoring programme.

• Coastal grazing marshes give protection from • Consider the feasibility of creating new WETLAND HABITATS coastal flooding and erosion. areas of marsh on land of low conservation and farm value, by raising water levels or allowing 5. Factors affecting the Habitat a watercourse to overflow onto its natural floodplain. • Drainage of land for agriculture has reduced the • Conduct farm walks on sites with marshes. extent of marshes. • Changes to flooding regimes and water levels has occurred as a result of engineering works such as hydro-electric schemes and flood defences, as well as climate change. Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 121 122 WETLAND HABITATS UPLAND SPRINGS & FLUSHES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T biodiversity value. springs andflushesarerarer, butare ofexceptional leached byveryhighrainfall. More the surroundingsoilshave oftenbeenextensively nutrients washeddownthrough thebedrock,whilst surrounding landbecausetheyhaveaccumulated tend toberelativelynutrientrichincomparisonthe tend tobecommonestintheuplands,buteventhese acid anddeficientinlime. very different fromthosethatgrowwherethewateris the plantsthatgrowinspringsandflushesare emerges. Wheretherocksarealkalineorrichinlime, the chemicalcompositionofrocksfromwhichit The mineralcontentofthewaterisdeterminedby tends tobefairlyconstantthroughouttheyear. water isusuallycold,buttemperatureandacidity(pH) affected byshort-termfluctuationsinrainfall. The underground aquifers,andarethereforenotgreatly seepages aregenerallyderivedfromveryextensive flow, spring-fed low volumeof Despite the vegetation. stones orsparse over soil,gravel, flows diffusely or othersources, either fromsprings form wherewater, slow seep.Flushes more usuallyasa either strongly, or out oftheground, bubbles orflows where water watercourses, the sourceofmany Upland springsare 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:BordersForest Trust Target: MonitorspringsandflushesatCarrifranuntil2012. Monitor thequalityofspringsandflushesinuplandsDumfries&Galloway Priority Action (USF1) Habitat Description UPLAND SPRINGS&FLUSHES Butterwort, atypicalplantofunshaded flushes. Laghead,GatehouseofFleet, Acid springsandflushes June 2007.(PeterNorman) base-rich

of Britain. habitats, butarewidespreadthroughouttheuplands Springs andflushesaresmall-scalelocalised 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext surface waterrun-off. be verymuchgreaterthanitisinthosederivedfrom means thatdiversityinspringfedflushestendsto community ofplantsandanimals.Inpracticethis highly productiveresourceforasurprisinglydiverse combined withwell-oxygenatedwaterprovidesa all butthesteepestgradients.Richorganicmaterial allows thedevelopmentofathickmuddysubstrateon The lowflowvolumeofmostspringsandflushes Outcrops, UplandHeaths. information: Fens, Acid Grasslands,InlandRock following actionplansmayalsocontainrelevant or overlapwithuplandspringsandflushes,the A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Hills (SAC/SSSI). Important flushcommunitiesarefoundinthe 2.3 SiteExamples and notuncommoninDumfries&Galloway. Spring-fed flushesinuplandareasarewidespread 2.2 CurrentDistribution recent changestouplandspringsandflushes. As farasisknown,therehavebeennosignificant 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership . Moffat UPLAND SPRINGS & FLUSHES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) Upland springs and flushes are often dominated by mosses and liverworts. Typical species of acid flushes include the bright green Fountain Apple- moss Philonotis fontana and the brilliant yellow-green Marsh Forklet-moss Dicranella palustris. Cow-horn Bog-moss Sphagnum denticulatum, with its stout curved red-gold shoots, is a common plant in springs which emerge through peaty soils.

The most common liverwort in springs and flushes is Water Earwort Scapania undulata, but Cordate Starry Saxifrage is found in higher altitude open flushes. White Coomb, July 2007. (Peter Norman) Flapwort Jungermannia exsertifolia is characteristic of stony upland flushes, where it often forms extensive plants are associated with them in Dumfries & turfs. It also grows in springs as rather spongy Galloway: Hairy Stonecrop Sedum villosum, Starry mounds. Saxifrage Saxifraga stellaris, Mossy Saxifrage UPLAND SPRINGS & FLUSHES The greatest diversity of species occurs in base- Saxifraga hypnoides, Pale Forget-me-not Myosotis rich upland flushes, with species such as Lesser stolonifera, Alpine Sawwort Saussurea alpina, Alpine Clubmoss Selaginella selaginoides and Flat-leaved Rush Juncus alpinoarticulatus, Hair Sedge Carex Bog-moss Sphagnum platyphyllum, the most base- capillari, Sheathed Sedge Carex vaginata, Bog Orchid demanding Sphagnum that occurs uncommonly in Hammarbya paludosa and Alpine Foxtail Alopecurus Dumfries & Galloway at the edges of open stony borealis. More typical species include Butterwort calcareous flushes. There are also a few regional Pinguicula vulgaris, Carnation Sedge Carex panicea records for Rigid Bog-moss Sphagnum teres in and Star Sedge Carex echinata. moderately base-rich flushes, often in a narrow band alongside the flush. Warnstorf’s Bog-moss Sphagnum Taller and more continuously vegetated flushes, warnstorfii grows in a similar habitat. merging into fens and marshes, occur wherever the lie of the land concentrates the flow of surface water A number of rare species also occur in this habitat: into hollows, gullies and valley bottoms. Sedges and Varnished Hook-moss Hamatocaulis vernicosus is rushes are more common here than bryophytes. a plant of neutral flushes, especially springheads where alkaline water breaks through an acid peatland, 3.3 Invertebrates (high importance) or areas where alkaline flushes spread on to acid Springs and flushes on wet muds tend to be the flushed ground. In Dumfries & Galloway it was most densely-vegetated and to have the richest recently refound at its former site in the Dalveen invertebrate fauna, those on peat are often very acid Pass. Water Grimmia Schistidium agassizii, a moss and sustain fewer species. Some spring and flush with few British records, has been recorded from invertebrates are at least partially subterranean and flushed igneous outcrops in a valley in the Galloway a number are aquatic, frequently occurring in the Hills. Splachnum vasculosum was found on dung upper sections of seepages. Microscopic aquatic WETLAND HABITATS in springs and flushes at high altitude in the Moffat animals occur in enormous numbers, up to 16 million Hills in 1957 and 1985. Duval’s Thread-moss Bryum protozoans per square metre of Sphagnum moss. weigelii is also recorded from flushes in the Moffat Examples of larger aquatic species include the water Hills. beetles Hydroporus longulus and Hydraena britteni. Other invertebrate groups frequently encountered in 3.2 Flowering Plants (very high importance) springs and flushes include spiders, flies, and aphids. Though springs and flushes may represent only a A number of very rare snails and craneflies have also very small part of the total area of an upland site, been recorded from springs and flushes in northern they are distinct vegetation communities in their England, but little survey work has been completed in own right. A number of rare or uncommon flowering Dumfries & Galloway.

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3.4 Birds (high importance) 4. Environmental, Economic & Social A number of upland waders and other birds feed on Importance of Biodiversity the invertebrates associated with springs and flushes. Such invertebrates are crucial for the survival of Red • Water from upland springs has long been Grouse Lagopus lagopus and Black Grouse Tetrao associated with many religions and is believed to tetrix chicks. In winter, springs and flushes become have therapeutic qualities. The town of Moffat is even more important for feeding birds when other founded on such associations. ground is frozen and invertebrates are otherwise • Around 30 brands of natural spring water, unobtainable. Similarly, they assume greater which by law must come from an unpolluted importance in dry periods during the breeding season, underground source, be free from microbial an increasingly common occurrence in recent years. contamination and have received no treatment apart from filtration, are currently sold in the UK. 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) None is collected from upland springs in Dumfries A few lichens are specialists of springs and flushes, & Galloway, which is maybe just as well as the including Polyblastia cruenta, which forms an plant life of the original spring rarely survives the inconspicuous dark brownish-green layer over process. However, upland springs do supply a submerged stones in acid springs, and the distinctive number of private water supplies. bright orange Lonaspis lacustris, which is also

UPLAND SPRINGS & FLUSHES common on stones. • Scottish spring water is the basic liquid from which whisky is made. 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Common Frogs Rana temporaria abound in upland springs and flushes, and Common Toads Bufo bufo, • Sheep, cattle, deer goats, hares and rabbits Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara and Adders Vipera graze in springs and flushes and their trampling berus also hunt in this habitat. and poaching may help to keep the cover of vegetation open and prevent encroachment of trees and shrubs. However, in some places deer can badly damage springs. They wallow in springs and flushes in summer, coating themselves with peat in order to discourage flies and to protect themselves from the heat of the sun. • Large scale developments such as open-cast mining can destroy natural springs and flushes, and such features are almost impossible to reinstate following restoration. • Springs and flushes are susceptible to damage by Adder (Laurie Campbell) quad-bikes and recreational activities. WETLAND HABITATS

124 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership of Europeanrich-fens intheUKandSweden. In size throughout Europe,withasignificant proportion Fens havebeen reducedtoafragment of theirformer 1.2 NationalandInternational Context be richandvaried. complex assemblageofvegetation types,whichcan lowland anduplandfens,butmanyfensconsistofa mires. There arealsosignificantdifferences between lateral, suchassprings,rillsandflushesvalley ground wherewatermovementsarepredominantly permanently high.Soligenousfensoccuronsloping as basinsandfloodplainswherethewatertableis peat orsoil. They occurinpoorlydrainedareassuch subject togenerallyverticalwatermovementsinthe water sourceandquality:topogenousfensare Fens aresubclassifieddependingontheground intermediate forms. enriched theyarecalled are knownas Where thewaterisderivedfrombase-poorrockthey water liesclosetothesurfacethroughoutyear. soils ofsourceareas,aswellbyrainfall).Ground water chemistryinfluencedbythemineralrocksand Fens areminerotrophicpeatlands(peatlandswitha 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Lead Partner:ScottishEnvironmentProtection Agency/Catchment PlanSteeringGroups. Target: Completeastudyinatleastonecatchmentby2012. mosaic ofwetlandhabitats. Examine thepotentialforenhancementandrestorationoffensonacatchmentscale,aspart Priority Action (FE1) Floodplain fenatDowLochs,CreeValley. June2004 poor-fens andwherethewaterisbase rich-fens, buttherearealso (Peter Norman) FENS approximately 250ha. & Gallowayhasanumberoffens,whichcover Scotland, themajoritylikelytobemarsh.Dumfries approximately 3370km northern EnglandandnorthWales. In1998therewas distribution, withconcentrationsinEast Anglia, the UK,fensarewidespreadbutunevenintheir Reedbeds, Marshes,Upland SpringsandFlushes. Mesotrophic Lochs,Oligotrophic Lochs,Swamps, also containrelevantinformation:EutrophicLochs overlap withfens,andthefollowingactionplansmay A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats Newlaw MossnearDundrennan(SSSI). (SSSI), Other importantsitesinclude also 50haontheRSPB’s Ken-DeeMarshes hydroseral bog/fendevelopmentinScotland. There is Wood ofCreereserve,isonethebestexamples and Clachaneasy, particularlywithintheRSPB’s The CreeValley floodplainbetweenNewtonStewart 2.3 SiteExamples waterbodies. are alsoassociatedmarginalareasoflochsandother hollows hasallowedtheirformation.Somerich-fens where thetopographyofdrumlins,gorseyknollsand Fens arescatteredacrossDumfries&Galloway, often 2.2 CurrentDistribution and/or landusechangesonadjacentland. quality asaresultoflossappropriatemanagement fens inrecentyears,butseveralhavedeteriorated There hasbeenlittledeliberatedrainageorlossof 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus Perchall LochnearLockerbie(SSSI)and Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 2 offen,marshandswampin Black Lochnear Ae reserve. 125 PEATLAND HABITATS FENS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3. Importance for Associated Species Purple Small Reed Calamagrostis purpurea, Greater Spearwort Ranunculus lingua, Purple Flag Iris Iris 3.1 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) versicolor and Broad-leaved Cotton-grass Eriophorum Due to the limited extent of fens in the UK, many fen latifolium. mosses and liverworts are now scarce. Imbricate Bog-moss Sphagnum affine is known from a number 3.3 Invertebrates (very high importance) of sites in Dumfries & Galloway. It is found in very wet Fen habitats support thousands of invertebrate poor-fens, as well as other wetland habitats. Twisted species including more than half the UK’s dragonfly Bog-moss Sphagnum contortum is one of the most species, as well as a large number of aquatic beetles. base-demanding bog-mosses, restricted to rich-fens A number of important invertebrates are known and flushes and rare in Dumfries & Galloway. Marsh from fens in Dumfries & Galloway. These include: A Fern Thelypteris palustris is a rare species, found at jumping spider Sitticus floricola, known from just a Newlaw Moss and a very few other sites in Dumfries handful of British fens and bogs including Kenmure FENS & Galloway but virtually absent from the rest of Holms and Stroan Loch; the Large Amber Snail Scotland. Succinea putris inhabiting fens and other wetlands at the northern edge of its range; a ground beetle Carabus granulatus restricted to marshes and fens in Britain; a hoverfly Chrysogaster cemiteriorum found in fens, wet meadows and valley bogs, at the northern edge of its British range; and the nationally scarce ground beetle Pterostichus anthracinus, found on shallow-profiled water margins and ditch-sides.

The caterpillars of Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary Boloria selene feed on Marsh Violet, and this butterfly is possibly more common on fens and marshes than in other habitats in Dumfries & Galloway.

3.4 Birds (high importance) Fens support a number of breeding birds, including Water Rails Rallus aquaticus, Snipe Gallinago gallinago, Curlews Numenius arquata, Sedge Warblers Acrocephalus schoenobaenus, Grasshopper Warblers Locustella naevia and Reed Buntings Emberiza schoeniclus. UK Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus populations are increasing. This species has already bred recently in Dumfries & Galloway, but is likely to make more use of nesting opportunities in the future. The very rare Spotted Crake Porzana porzana has also bred in the past, and may still do so but is easily overlooked. The dense undisturbed Lustrous Bog-moss Sphagnum subnitens. Carrick, Gatehouse of Fleet, June 2007. (Peter Norman) nature of the habitat makes it of great value to PEATLAND HABITATS PEATLAND breeding wildfowl and some areas support roosts of 3.2 Flowering Plants (very high importance) wintering Starlings Sturnus vulgaris and wintering Up to a third of the UK’s native higher plant species raptors, particularly Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus. The are associated with fens across the country. The habitat is also important for migratory and wintering nationally scarce Elongated Sedge Carex elongata Snipe and Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus. is found at Wood of Cree as well as on part of Ken- Dee Marshes. Water Sedge Carex aquatilis, which 3.5 Mammals (high importance) is restricted in the UK, is reasonably common in Fens of the region provide essential daytime cover Dumfries & Galloway. Other notable plants include and laying up sites for Otters Lutra lutra. The quiet, undisturbed cover provided by fen vegetation is also

126 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P of importance to Water Shrews Neomys fodiens, 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Water Voles Arvicola terrestris and the most northerly population of Harvest Mice Micromys minutus in the • The total area of fen habitat in Dumfries & UK. Galloway is small and there are critically small populations of several key species. 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) • Past drainage of surrounding areas of land for conversion to agriculture has lowered water Five amphibian species are found in fens in Dumfries tables and led to drying of remnant fen habitats. & Galloway, namely Common Frogs Rana temporaria, Common Toads Bufo bufo, Great Crested Newts • Nutrients from agricultural run-off and other Triturus cristatus, Smooth Newts Lissotriton vulgaris sources leads to eutrophication of fen waters. and Palmate Newts Lissotriton helvetica. This is likely to lead to a loss of aquatic vegetation and increased incidence of algal blooms, and FENS 3.7 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) may boost aggressive plants such as reed, which A number of specialist fungi can be found on fens, then become dominant at the expense of herb such as Fen Puffball Bovista paludosa, though there rich fen. Valley fens are particularly susceptible to has been little assessment of this habitat for fungi in agricultural run-off. Dumfries & Galloway. • Afforestation within catchments can lead to drying. • Loss of grazing on fens results in a build up of vegetation layers, drying and succession to species-poor fen and ultimately carr. • Fens on the Ken-Dee system are regularly flooded by hydro-generation operations, which can affect breeding birds in spring.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • RSPB manage fen habitats on their Wood of Cree, Ken-Dee Marshes and Kenmure Holms reserves for the benefit of breeding and wintering birds.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Manage catchments to enable fens to be maintained as part of a mosaic of wetland habitats. • Avoid water abstraction, including from

underground aquifers. HABITATS PEATLAND • Minimise nutrient enrichment from the Angelica, typical of the tall vegetation in rich fens. Lochaber Loch, August 2007. (Peter Norman) application of fertilisers within the water catchment and consider buffer zones around fens. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Fens play an important part in the water cycle and in certain locations provide critical water storage functions that alleviate flooding.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 127 128 PEATLAND HABITATS RAISED BOGS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T providing arange ofconditionsthatsupport plants a microtopography of an almostcontinuouscarpet ofbog-mosseswith surfaces arenotuniform;they aremadeupof Relatively undisturbedlowland raisedbog acidic conditionscharacteristic ofombrotrophicbogs. of criticalimportancetothecreationstrongly but notalways).Sphagnum peat) ordegraded(oftencapableofrestoration, blocked. Secondarybogscanbeactive(layingdown stabilised becausethedrainagepatternhasbecome been damagedbutwherethewatertablehas whilst ‘secondary’ bogsoccurwheretheboghas communities typicallyoccuraretermed‘primary’, where acrotelmisundisturbedandrichbog-moss rainfall (anombrotrophicsystem).Raisedbogs and thereforeallnutrientswatercomefrom bog israisedabovethelevelofwatertable of plants(calledtheacrotelm). The surfaceofthe to 12m)ofwater-loggedpeatandasurfacelayer Raised bogsconsistofadeepaccumulation(up 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Restoration ofKirkconnellFlowthroughtreeremoval.March2005. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Arrange 10publiceventsby2015. selected high-profileeventssuchasNationalBog Week. Raise awarenessofthedamagecausedbyextractionandusehorticulturalpeat,concentratingon Priority Action (RB2) Lead Partner:RegionalProposal Assessment Committee. Investigate fundingforrestorationofRacksandIronhirstMossesaspartaLocharcomplex. Priority Action (RB1) Habitat Description hummocks and hollows speciesabundanceis RAISED BOGS

(SNH) has approximately3.5%ofUK’s raisedbogs. 500ha remaininginEngland.Dumfries&Galloway 94% from95,000hatoaround6,000ha,withonly extent of primary raisedboghas decreased by around UK butsincearoundthestartof19thcentury 800 raisedbogscoveringmorethan700,000hainthe Solway. Itisestimatedthatthereoncewereatleast west England,NorthernIrelandandbothsidesofthe for formation,suchastheScottishcentralbelt,north- certain areasthathaveconditionsparticularlysuitable and lowlandsituationsbuttendtobeclusteredin concentrations. IntheUKtheyarefoundinupland Finland, Sweden,UKandIrelandholdsignificant Raised bogsarefoundinmostEUcountries,butonly 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext stable relationshipwithbogcommunities. scattered scrubandbogwoodland leads tothelossofbog,insomecircumstances diversity. Although colonisationbytreesusually forms thathasmorenutrientsandagreaterspecies fen typevegetation,termedthelagg,sometimes the bogmeetsthatfromadjoiningmineralsoilsa In thezonearoundraisedbogswherewaterdraining hostile environmenttomostspecies. the historyofhumanactivities. They presentavery of bogs,theirfrequencyandpatterndependingon and animals. conifers were removedfromtwositesin Dumfries of thousands of naturallyregeneratedand planted the RestorationofScottish RaisedBogsProject,tens reintroduce grazing.From 2001 to2005,aspartof of restorationprojects,including experimentsto leading tochangesinnational policyandanumber become morewidelyrecognised inrecentyears, The conservationimportanceofraisedbogshas 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Bog pools Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership arenotanaturalcomponent canexistina RAISED BOGS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

& Galloway – Kirconnell Flow and Longbridge Muir. Further west, smaller numbers were removed from Carsegowan Moss, and as part of a separate project, 64ha of Moss of Cree was cleared of conifers. Drainage ditches at these sites have been blocked.

However, most of Dumfries & Galloway’s area of remaining raised bogs remains under conifer plantation, and there are extant planning permissions for peat extraction on several other sites.

2.2 Current Distribution Dumfries & Galloway’s largest raised bogs occur in lowland areas on the inner Solway plain and adjacent to the Cree estuary. There are a few raised bogs in RAISED BOGS the uplands, and several that show characteristics of both raised and blanket bogs as well as the transition habitats in-between.

2.3 Site Examples On the Solway plain a number of raised bogs were created under estuarine conditions. These now form the largest and most extensive raised bogs in the region, and include Kirkconnell Flow (SAC/SSSI/ NNR), and Longbridge Muir (SAC/SSSI). There are many smaller sites including Bell’s Flow (SSSI), Raeburn Flow (SAC/SSSI), Ring Moss (SSSI), Carpet of Red Bog-moss Sphagnum capillifolium. Kirkconnell Flow, February 2008. (Peter Norman) Kelhead Flow (LWS), Cowgarth Flow (LWS), Cadgill Flow (LWS), Burnfoothill Moss (LWS), 3. Importance for Associated Species Greenwrae Flow (LWS), Merkland Moss (LWS), and Carsegowan Moss (SAC/SSSI). Redhills Moss 3.1 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) (LWS) Catherinefield Moss (LWS) are remnants of Bog-moss Sphagnum abundance is of critical the Lochar Moss. Ellergower Moss (SSSI) is one of importance to the creation of the strongly acidic the few remaining examples of an intact upland raised conditions characteristic of ombrotrophic bogs. In fact bog. it could be argued that Sphagnum does not just occur on raised bogs, it actually is raised bogs. Thirty of the Several large sites remain under conifer plantations, 36 UK species have been recorded in Dumfries & although some are probably capable of restoration. Galloway, often from raised bogs, including Feathery These include Craigs, Ironhirst and Racks Moss (all Bog-moss Sphagnum cuspidatum and Cow-horn part of the Lochar Moss complex), Rascarrel Moss Bog-moss S. denticulatum in pools, Red Bog-moss (LWS) and most of Moss of Cree (LWS). S. capillifolium and Papillose Bog-moss S. papillosum on hummocks, and Blunt-leaved Bog-moss S. PEATLAND HABITATS PEATLAND 2.4 Associated Habitats palustre forming carpets between the hummocks. A number of habitats occur in close association and/ The scarce Golden Bog-moss Sphagnum pulchrum or overlap with raised bogs, and the following action occurs on pool edges, and the very rare Baltic Bog- plans may also contain relevant information: Blanket moss Sphagnum balticum, was identified on Racks Bogs, Fens, Native Wet Woods, Conifer Plantations. Moss in 1960 but is now probably extinct following afforestation. A wide diversity of other mosses and liverworts are also found on raised bogs, in addition to bog-mosses.

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Raised bogs are not as important for ferns as mosses, but the scarce Royal Fern Osmunda regalis is still extant on Lochar Moss.

3.2 Invertebrates (very high importance) Localised invertebrates such as Black Darter dragonflies Sympetrum danae and Large Heath butterflies Coenonympha tullia are found on some lowland raised bog sites in the region. Marsh Fritillary butterflies Euphydryas aurina were last recorded in Dumfries & Galloway on the Lochar Moss complex in the 1970s, but are now extinct following afforestation.

Many scarce invertebrates in Dumfries & Galloway Round-leaved Sundew. (Peter Norman) are closely linked to Sphagnum, including the RAISED BOGS money spiders Maro lepidus, Bathyphantes setiger, 3.3 Flowering Plants (high importance) Centromerus levitarsis and Erigone welchi, the water Typical species include Round-leaved Sundew beetle Laccobius atratus and Sphagnum Bugs Hebrus Drosera rotundifolia, Hare’s-tail Cottongrass ruficeps. All of these have a very restricted Scottish, Eriophorum vaginatum and Deer Grass Trichophorum if not UK, distribution. The pond skater Gerris gibbifer cespitosum. Cranberry Vaccinium oxycoccos and is known in Scotland only from Dumfries & Galloway. Bog Rosemary Andromeda polifolia, though scarce in It was last recorded on bog pools Lochar Moss much of Britain, are abundant on many raised bogs in in 1946, prior to afforestation, but still remains on Dumfries & Galloway. Less common species include Kirkconnell Flow and in non-bog habitat on the Black Great Sundew Drosera anglica and Oblong-leaved Water of Dee. A nationally rare jumping spider Sitticus Sundew Drosera intermedia. Species associated with floricola was recorded at Kirkconnell Flow in 2006. bog pools include White Beak-sedge Rhynchospora alba and Bog Sedge Carex limosa both frequently found on bare wet peat on pool margins, sometimes in shallow standing water. It is not known if any stable bog woodland exists in Dumfries & Galloway, but a similar habitat, consisting of scattered trees on the central areas or more usually on the lagg, is found on most local bogs. Birch Betula spp. and Bog Myrtle Myrcia gale are typical species.

3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (high importance) Adders Vipera berus occur on most raised bogs, often the only suitable habitat for them within extensive Large Heath butterfly. (Laurie Campbell) areas of improved farmland. Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara may also occur, but the water is Bog woodland supports a number of specialist generally too acidic for amphibians to breed.

PEATLAND HABITATS PEATLAND species, including Bog Bush Crickets Metrioptera brachyptera in open woodland with Cross-leaved 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) Heath and Purple Moor Grass, and Bilberry Pug A number of species of fungi are adapted to bogs, moths Pasiphila debiliata in birch woodland with or to the plants growing in them. This is especially abundant Blaeberry at their only Scottish location the case with Sphagnum mosses, which have a at Kirkconnell Flow. Although not restricted to bog specialised fungal flora including Bog Bell Galerina woodland, the very rare Six-spotted Pot Beetle paludosa. However, most bog fruit bodies are small, Cryptocephalus sexpunctatus is also known from the such as those of several species of the genus latter site. Mycocalia, closely related to the bird’s-nest fungi, which grow amongst wet vegetation.

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3.6 Birds (low importance) 5. Factors affecting the habitat Breeding birds do not occur in high densities on raised bogs. Skylarks Alauda arvensis and Meadow • Afforestation of bogs results in loss of habitat, Pipits Anthus pratensis are probably the commonest although this is often a very gradual process with breeding species, with smaller numbers of Stonechats bog conditions persisting for many years under Saxicola torquatus. Although the habitat appears the trees. Tree planting on neighbouring areas suitable for feeding Nightjars Caprimulgus europaeus, also dries out bogs and acts as an invasive seed there are only a few records of this species breeding source. on raised bogs in Dumfries & Galloway. Red Grouse • Removal of peat for fuel or horticultural use Lagopus lagopus and Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix no results in loss of habitat. Planning permissions longer occur on most lowland raised bogs. exist on a number of bogs.

Birds of prey such as Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus, • Use of bogs for landfill sites results in loss of Merlins Falco columbarius and Short-eared Owls Asio habitat. flammeus hunt over raised bogs outside the breeding • Livestock and game management on bogs RAISED BOGS season, and there are a number of important roosts. may damage habitat though drainage, trampling, burning, and contamination with feed and 4. Environmental, Economic & Social droppings. Importance of Biodiversity • Agricultural use of neighbouring areas often reduces water levels on bogs, as a result • Being supplied with water and nutrients entirely of marginal ring-ditches and other drainage from the atmosphere, raised bogs are sensitive measures. Run-off from agricultural land indicators of climate change and pollution. (fertilisers and pesticides) may also damage bog • The process of peat formation locks up ecology. atmospheric carbon for thousands of years. • Water abstraction within the catchment area Recent research has suggested that 3.5 times may have an adverse effect on the hydrology the quantity of carbon is locked up in peat than in of raised bogs. There has been little built the world’s tropical rainforests. Drainage of peat development on bogs, but natural hydrology may releases this carbon back into the atmosphere. be disrupted by neighbouring developments However, active peatlands give off methane, and associated roads. which is a ‘greenhouse gas’. • Drying out the raised bog allows invasion by • Peatlands provide a historical record of past scrub and trees which it turn speed up the drying climates, vegetation and human history. out process and lead to the loss of special habitat Stored within the peat are plant and animal and fauna. remains, pollen grains, human artefacts and even occasionally ‘bog bodies’. Scientists and • The mosaic created by domestic hand-cutting of archaeologists use these remains to reconstruct peat provides a range of small-scale structures Scottish landscape history and prehistory. across a site, and is beneficial for some species. However, cutting is always damaging to the • Small-scale peat extraction for domestic use has habitat when carried out on a part of the bog been undertaken in Dumfries & Galloway, and surface not previously worked or in areas where

has not significantly damaged any sites. Although HABITATS PEATLAND past peat extraction has been so extensive as to the use of peat in horticulture has provided many leave only a thin covering of peat over the mineral benefits, and supports an extraction industry, soil. use of all horticultural peat is incompatible with biodiversity conservation. • Climate change may affect hydrology, habitat quality and species composition.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 131 BLANKET BOGS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • SNH has undertaken a programme of mapping, identifying the location, condition and potential threats to peatlands in Scotland. Details are held within the Lowland Raised Bog inventory (LRBI). • Forestry Commission policy includes a strong presumption against further forestry expansion on extensive areas (exceeding 25ha) of active raised bogs and degraded raised bogs capable of restoration to active status. It also encourages the conservation and restoration of peatland habitats within forests as part of the design and

RAISED BOGS management of open ground. • The SNH Peat Policy promotes the use of sustainable growing-media based on recycled organic materials in place of peat. • A number of raised bogs, such as Kirkconnell Flow and Carsegowan Moss are managed as nature reserves, and promoted to the public by SNH and Scottish Wildlife Trust.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Survey all raised bogs to at least Phase 1, ideally NVC, with an assessment of habitat condition where data not currently available. • Review existing planning consents for the extraction of peat on all raised bogs and examine whether consents on non-severely degraded sites can be withdrawn. Ensure Forest Design Plans identify areas of raised bog that have previously been planted, and where viable that they restore these areas through removal of trees. • Use the raised bog restoration schemes at Longbridge Muir and Kirkconnell Flow to evaluate measures for conserving and managing lowland raised bogs and to demonstrate best practice.

PEATLAND HABITATS PEATLAND • Phase out the use of horticultural peat by all statutory agencies. Promote public use of horticultural alternatives.

132 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership water chemistry isnutrient-poorandthe habitatis growth andimpeded decayof the peatisstillcapableofaccumulating through cover). Active blanket bogsarethoseinwhich atmospheric sources(rainwater, mistandcloud- the waterandmineralsupply comesentirelyfrom Sphagnum Blanket bogsarecomposedmostlyofwaterheldin ground, hencethenameblanketbog. typically formsoverlargeexpansesofundulating occurs inwethollowsoronslopesofupto30 exceeding 5m,although0.5-3mismoretypical.It decomposition ofmosses. This canreachdepths accumulates slowlyovermanyyearsthroughtheslow can coverwholelandscapes. A mantleofpeat and regularrainfall.Insuchareasblanketbogs with anoceanicclimate,whichiscoolhigh Blanket bogischaracteristicofareastheUK 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:SouthernUplandsPartnership/RegionalProposal Assessment Committee. Target: Identifysuitableblanketboglocationsby2012. designated sites,orthoseadjacenttosites. Restore degradedblanketbogsthroughtheblockingofmoorland‘grips’ Priority Action (BB1) Habitat Description mossesandareombrotrophic, thatis BLANKET BOGS Sphagnum . The o , but less than50,000ha. current areaof blanketboginDumfries & Gallowayis north andwestofBritainfrom DevontoShetland. The this habitat.Blanketbogsare distributedmostlyinthe it oneofthemostimportant internationallocationsfor significant proportionofthe totalglobalarea,making of blanketbogwith1,759,000ha inScotland,a and Ireland. The UKhasanestimated2,210,000ha In Europe,blanketbogsarefoundprimarilyintheUK 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext they canbecommononsomeblanketbogs. with localtopographyandgeographicallocation,but The frequencyofbogpools habitats. vegetation typesthatmayalsoprovideimportantsub- margins andvalleymires. These willsupportdifferent the nutrientsinit),suchassprings,flushes,stream systems (thosethatareaffected byground-waterand bog landscapemayalsocontainminerotrophic dominated byacidicplantcommunities. A blanket Bog poolwithBogbean.SilverFlowe,July1999.(PeterNorman) anddrains,especiallyon Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership onthesurfacevaries 133 PEATLAND HABITATS BLANKET BOGS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2. Dumfries & Galloway Status are the principal peat forming species on blanket bogs. Austin’s Bog-moss Sphagnum austinii and 2.1 Recent Trends Rusty Bog-moss Sphagnum fuscum are virtually There has been little recent loss of blanket bog to new restricted to undisturbed raised and blanket bogs. afforestation or drainage, but many existing drainage Extensive surface patterning with Feathery Bog-moss systems continue to operate. Sphagnum cuspidatum hollows occurs at Kirkcowan Flow, whilst the increasingly uncommon Golden Bog- 2.2 Current Distribution moss Sphagnum pulchrum normally grows around bog pool edges, and is a distinctive feature at Kilhern Blanket bog in Dumfries & Galloway occurs from 70 Moss. metres above sea level on the Wigtownshire mosses, to altitudes of nearly 700 metres on the tops of 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance) Merrick/Kells and the Moffat Hills. Blanket bog is of great importance to many 2.3 Site Examples invertebrates such as spiders and leaf-hopper bugs. The nationally scarce ground beetle Agonum ericeti Blanket bogs occur on many of the hill ranges in BLANKET BOGS is associated with Sphagnum moss in a few Dumfries Dumfries & Galloway, including Merrick-Kells (SSSI), & Galloway bogs, along with the spider Clubionia Moffat Hills (SSSI), and Lowther Hills (SPA/SSSI). norvegica. Large Heath Butterflies Coenonympha Within the Merrick Kells range Silver Flowe (SSSI/ tullia also occur on blanket bogs, though not in NNR/Ramsar) consists of almost 200ha of mostly the density found on raised bogs. Azure Hawker blanket bog, although parts of the site grade into a dragonflies Aeshna caerulea breed in shallow bog raised bog type habitat. Areas of blanket bog are also pools with Sphagnum. Outside of northern Scotland, found on Cairnsmore of Fleet (NNR/SSSI). their only UK sites are in the Silver Flowe area. At lower altitude, there are a number of important blanket bogs in Wigtownshire, including Mochrum Lochs (SAC/SSSI), Kirkcowan Flow (SAC/SSSI), Kilhern Moss (SAC/SSSI), Blood Moss (SSSI), Derskelpin Moss (SSSI) and Flow of Dergoals (SAC/SSSI).

2.4 Associated Habitats A number of habitats occur in close association and/ or overlap with blanket bogs, and the following action plans may also contain relevant information: Raised Bogs, Upland Heaths, Acid Grasslands. Azure Hawker dragonfly, restricted in the UK to the bogs of Silver 3. Importance Flowe and the Scottish Highlands. (Laurie Campbell) for Associated The fringes of blanket bogs can support important Species marginal vegetation. Tussocky vegetation of taller Molinia, Carex or Juncus and the associated litter 3.1 Non-flowering build-up provides cooler, more sheltered microhabitats

PEATLAND HABITATS PEATLAND Plants (very high for adult craneflies and drier sites for over-wintering importance) invertebrates such as spiders. Ericaceous dwarf Bog-mosses, including shrubs also support many heather-feeding moths and Papillose Bog- other insects, as well as providing a well-developed moss Sphagnum vegetation structure for spiders. papillosum, Soft Bog- moss S. tenellum and 3.3 Birds (high importance) Magellanic Bog-moss Many areas of blanket bog are important for Black S. magellanicum, Grouse Tetrao tetrix which feed on the invertebrates Cloudberry. Mid Craig, Moffat Hills, and cotton grasses that can be abundant in these July 2007. (Peter Norman) areas. Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus also occur, and

134 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P wading birds such as Curlews Numenius arquata, Golden Plovers Pluvialis apricaria and Dunlins Calidris alpina all nest on blanket bogs, though have become increasingly scarce in recent decades.

A number of birds of prey, such as Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos, Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus, Merlins Falco columbarius and Short-eared Owls Asio flammeus often hunt over blanket bogs.

3.4 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Typical blanket bog plants include Cross-leaved Heath Erica tetralix, Crowberry Empetrum nigrum, Round-leaved Sundew Drosera rotundifolia, Bog Asphodel Narthecium ossifragum, and cotton grasses Eriophorum spp. Cloudberry Rubus chamaemorus BLANKET BOGS forms a dense carpet on some blanket bogs in the east of the region. Bogbean Menyanthes trifoliata is typical of bog pools.

Tall Bog Sedge Carex magellanica is a perennial of bog pools and hummocks in Sphagnum bogs, or at the edges of gently sloping bogs where there is slight lateral water movement. It is thinly scattered in Britain with some colonies lost as a result of drainage and afforestation. A number of other species are rare outside of the Highlands, but have been found in Dumfries & Galloway. These include Bog Blaeberry Vaccinium uliginosum, recorded in the Moffat Hills, and Few-flowered Sedge Carex pauciflora, a very inconspicuous species that grows on and around hummocks, usually in association with Sphagnum. Bog Bellcap Galerina sp. on Sphagnum mosses. Mid Craig, Moffat Hills. July 2007. (Peter Norman) 3.5 Mammals (medium importance) 3.7 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) Water Voles Arvicola terrestris are usually thought As with raised bogs, several species of fungi are of as mammals of lowland rivers, but as they have adapted to the plants growing in blanket bogs, declined in such habitats, it has become clear that especially with Sphagnum mosses that have a they also occur on blanket bogs and moorlands, specialised fungal flora including Bog Bell Galerina although their presence is often not obvious. Indeed, paludosa. However, most bog fruit bodies are small, this is their main habitat in some parts of Europe and such as those of several species of the genus upland populations appear to be surviving better than Mycocalia, closely related to the bird’s-nest fungi, those in the lowlands of the UK. Red Deer Cervus

which grow amongst wet vegetation. HABITATS PEATLAND elaphus wallow in bog pools to rid themselves of flies and parasites. 3.8 Fishes (low importance) 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium Salmon Salmo salar and Sea/Brown Trout Salmo importance) trutta benefit from the quality of waters produced by peatland catchments. Adders Vipera berus are frequently found on blanket bogs.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 135 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Peatlands play a significant role as carbon dioxide sinks in minimising global warming (see Raised Bogs). • Blanket bogs play a vital role in many catchments in the maintenance of water quality. Most of Scotland’s drinking water comes from catchments dominated by bogs. • Without the protective layer of peat high rainfall Blanket bog at Watch Knowe, next to Loch Skene, Moffat Hills. would erode many of the less stable upland soils July 2007. (Peter Norman) off the hill and into watercourses. • Uncontrolled burning can lead to increased • Where numbers of birds allow, grouse shooting

BLANKET BOGS erosion and the loss of characteristic bog species, is a sustainable economic use of upland areas. including the death of peat-forming species. Blanket bogs support many invertebrates, These can slowly recover over time (more than especially craneflies that are an essential 20 years), but the invertebrate population will be component of the diet of grouse chicks. seriously affected • The application of fertilisers and lime to 5. Factors affecting the habitat increase stock grazing productivity will inevitably lead to nutrient enrichment of the water supply, • Afforestation over extensive tracts of blanket modifying bog ecology to the detriment of bog and adjacent areas, often accompanied by biodiversity. furrowing of the ground, affects the hydrology and species composition. This increases as the trees • Acidification from atmospheric deposition has mature, require more water and cast more shade. altered the nutrient status of bogs, and hence the plant species composition. However, if lime is • Drainage of blanket bogs and their margins added to lochs, lakes and rivers as a treatment has been widespread in Dumfries & Galloway. for acidification, this may also have a detrimental Drainage ditches, both new and old, lower the effect on adjacent areas of blanket bog. water table and may initiate erosion, oxidation of the peat and modification the surface patterning, • Development, such as wind farms and leading to the loss of Sphagnum hollows. Even communication masts, together with associated unmaintained old drains continue to affect infrastructure such as access and maintenance hydrology. Lowered water tables alter the species roads can cause significant hydrological composition of the surface vegetation and have a disruption. Links to the national grid via landlines detrimental impact on specialist invertebrates. and pylons also has an impact on very fragile blanket bog during the construction phase. • Heavy grazing by sheep can have a significant impact on blanket bog vegetation, especially • The bog surface is a fragile habitat and can be if there is supplementary feeding (which damaged by even modest levels of recreational will increase the nutrient input) and other use. This is usually restricted by the natural PEATLAND HABITATS PEATLAND management measures such as drainage, wetness of blanket bogs, sometimes making them burning or fencing. Grazing and trampling by feral dangerous places to walk, but localised areas goats affects some sites. can suffer severe erosion. There is also a fire risk from recreational use.

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• Erosion exposes more of the peat to the atmosphere, increasing drying and oxidation of the peat. Hag erosion may be instigated, resulting in extensive patches of bare eroding peat both in gullies and flatter areas.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • SNH has undertaken a programme of mapping, identifying the location, condition and potential threats to peatlands in Scotland. Details are held within the Scottish Blanket Bog inventory (SBBI). • Forestry Commission policy includes a strong

presumption against further forestry expansion BLANKET BOGS on extensive areas (exceeding 25ha) of active blanket bog averaging 1m or more in depth or any associated peatland where afforestation could alter the hydrology of such areas. It also encourages the conservation and restoration of peatland habitats within forests as part of the design and management of open ground.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Manage at the scale of hydrological units or catchments. Operations some distance away from the ombrotrophic Sphagnum communities can have a devastating effect if they are within the same hydrological unit. In order to conserve characteristic bog communities, it is necessary to look beyond the boundaries of a particular site. • Monitor the impact of recreational use of blanket bogs. Determine in detail the area, extent and condition of blanket bog within Dumfries & Galloway. • Use sites such as Silver Flowe NNR to demonstrate good practice. • Raise public and landowner awareness of blanket bog through guided walks, talks,

publications, press releases, and environmental HABITATS PEATLAND education opportunities, including National Bog Week. • Identify and evaluate opportunities for restoration of blanket bog habitats as forests are re-designed at felling and re-stocking. Where hydrologically possible, restore blanket bog adjacent to SSSIs such as Kirkcowan Flow, Derskelpin Moss, Flow of Dergoals and Ring Moss.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 137 138 GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS PURPLE MOOR-GRASS & RUSH PASTURES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T contain elements ofpurplemoorgrassand rush The following SitesofSpecialScientific Interest 2.3 SiteExamples habitat. of SpecialScientificInterest intheregionincludethis Galloway ataltitudesupto 300m,andatleast4Sites Purple MoorGrassandrushpastureisfoundin 2.2 CurrentDistribution Recent trendsarenotknown. 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus known, butthereisatleast65ha. extent inDumfries&Gallowayisnotaccurately An estimated4,500haoccursinScotland. The total Wales andwesternScotlandasfarnorthern Argyll. of Ireland.Itisfoundinsouth-westEngland,south Europe, withthepossibleexceptionofRepublic considerably morethansurvivesintherestof extent ofthishabitatintheUKisaround56,000ha, throughout westernEurope. The totalestimated Purple Moor-grassandrushpasturesoccur 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext biodiversity. to apatchworkofdiversehabitatsthatsupportshigh wet heath,scrubanddrygrassland,whichcontribute Rush. This habitatisoftenfoundinconjunctionwith abundant PurpleMoor-grassandSharp-flowered distinctive species-richvegetationcommunitywith rainfall. The soilsareusuallyacidic,supportinga drained sitesinlowland-midaltitudeareaswithhigh Purple Moor-grassandrushpasturesoccuronpoorly 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription PURPLE MOOR-GRASS&RUSHPASTURES Lead Partner:RegionalProposal Assessment Committee/Farming&Wildlife Advisory Group. Target: Restore8haby2015. Restore PurpleMoor-grassandrushpastures. Priority Action (PMG2) Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. Target: Completestudyby2012. Dumfries &Galloway. Determine theextent,distribution,compositionandstatusofPurpleMoor-grassrushpasturesin Priority Action (PMG1) Grasslands, UplandSpringsandFlushes. relevant information:Fens, Acid Grasslands,Neutral and thefollowingactionplansmayalsocontain or overlapwithPurpleMoor-grassandrushpastures, A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Loch (SSSI). Cleugh (SSSI) habitat hasnotbeencarriedout: pasture, butacompletesurveyoftheextentthis The habitatischaracterisedbyplantspeciessuch 3.2 FloweringPlants(highimportance) rarely formingthecarpetsfoundonbogs. leaved Bog-moss Cow-horn Bog-moss such asCompactBog-moss Purple Moor-grassandrushpastures.Bog-mosses A diversemossandliverwortfloraisfoundinmany 3.1 Non-floweringPlants(highimportance) 3. Importancefor Associated Species Grass ofParnassus. StronachHill,Skyreburn,September 2007. Bailliewhirr S. palustrecanbecommon,though S.denticulatumandBlunt- Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership (SSSI) andDowalton Sphagnum compactum Skyreburn (SSSI), (Peter Norman) , PURPLE MOOR-GRASS & RUSH PASTURES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

as Fairy Flax Linum catharticum, Field Gentian 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Gentianella campestris, Quaking Grass Briza media, Importance of Biodiversity Frog Orchid Dactylorhiza viridis, Greater Butterfly Orchid Platanthera chlorantha, Spignel Meum • Purple Moor-grass and rush pastures provide athamanticum, Whorled Caraway Carum verticillatum rough grazing for cattle and sheep. and Marsh Hawk’s-beard. Many of these are locally or nationally uncommon. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat 3.3 Invertebrates (high importance) • Lack of information and understanding about Purple Moor-grass the distribution, quality and importance of this and rush pastures habitat leading to poor appreciation of its value. provide important areas for butterflies • Agricultural improvement through drainage, and moths such as cultivation and fertiliser applications. the Small Pearl- • Agricultural abandonment, leading to rankness bordered Fritillary and scrub encroachment through lack of grazing. Boloria selene, Scotch Argus • Inappropriate management, including Erebia aethiops and overgrazing by sheep and burning. Narrow-bordered • Afforestation on or adjacent to important sites. Bee Hawkmoth Hermaris tityus. PURPLE MOOR-GRASS & RUSH PASTURES 6. Strategic Actions Scotch Argus, the characteristic 3.4 Reptiles and butterfly of local Purple Moor Grass 6.1 Recent and current activity Amphibians and rush pastures. (Richard Mearns) (medium importance) • None known, except maintenance of this habitat All of the region’s terrestrial reptiles and all of the on designated sites. common amphibians are found in Purple Moor-grass and rush pastures. 6.2 Other recommended actions • Include information on the importance of this 3.5 Birds (medium importance) habitat and its sensitivity to land use changes in Breeding birds of purple moor grass and rush pasture publicity and interpretation materials. include Lapwings Vanellus vanellus, Snipe Gallinago gallinago, Curlews Numenius arquata and Skylarks Alauda arvensis. Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus, Barn Owls Tyto alba and Short-eared Owls Asio flammeus are likely to feed over this habitat if they are nesting or wintering close by.

3.6 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) No species of fungi are restricted to Purple Moor- grass and rush pastures, but a wide range of unimproved grassland species occur, including waxcaps Hygrocybe spp. Field mushrooms Agaricus spp. may be found on more improved sites. GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND 3.7 Mammals (low importance) Although a wide variety of mammals may be found on Purple Moor-grass and rush pastures, including Purple Moor-grass and rush pasture at Stronach Hill, Skyreburn. Brown Hares Lepus europaeus and high densities of August 2006. (Peter Norman) small mammals, none are restricted to this habitat.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 139 140 GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS CALCAREOUS GRASSLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T pockets oflime-loving plantsarealsofound on disused quarries inDumfriesshire.However, small limited tosmallfragments on limestone,mostlyin Calcareous grasslandsinDumfries &Gallowayare 2.2 CurrentDistribution grasslands inrecentyears. resulted inadeclinethequalityofcalcareous Scrub encroachmentondisusedquarriesmayhave 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus 50ha withlessthan10hainDumfries&Galloway. Scotland withanestimatedextentoflittlemorethan north Lancashire.Calcareousgrasslandsarerarein soils, particularlyinthenorthPennines,Cumbriaand England areanothersignificantsourceoflime-rich Downs. Carboniferouslimestonesinthenorthof concentrations inWiltshire,DorsetandtheSouth Most lowlandgrasslandsoccuronchalkwith to areasofthecountrywithsuitablegeology. grassland throughouttheUK,butitisrestricted There isanestimated40,000-65,000haofcalcareous 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext verges, oldlimestonequarriesandrailwaycuttings. practices havesurvived.Itisalsofoundonroadside where low-intensityfarming grazing livestock,particularly across theUK,maintainedby calcareous grasslandsoccur phosphate. A rangeofdifferent poor inavailablenitrogenand soil andarerichincalciumbut the free-drainingnatureof be drygrasslandsbecauseof old redsandstone. They tendto chalk, limestone,serpentineand shallow base-richrockssuchas Calcareous grasslandsoccuron 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: All appropriatesitesdesignatedasLWS by2015. Designate calcareousgrasslandsasLocalWildlifeSitesandprovidemanagementadvice. Priority Action (CG1) CALCAREOUS GRASSLANDS Calcareous grasslandin former limestonequarry at Kelhead.June2007. (Peter Norman) and Flushes,QuarriesMineralWorkings. Neutral Grasslands, Acid Grasslands,UplandSprings Coastal SandDunes,Cliffs andSlopes, action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: overlap withcalcareousgrasslands,andthefollowing A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats Stranfasket (SSSI), also befoundamongstotherhabitatsat Quarry (LWS). Pocketsofbase-richgrasslandcan around Eaglesfield Former industrialsitesincludeflooded 2.3 SiteExamples grasslands. isolated areasofbase-richglacialdriftwithinacid invertebrates. This isparticularlysowhere itformsa Calcareous grassland supportsarichdiversity of 3.2 Invertebrates(highimportance) from upperNithsdaleandthe Dundrennanarea. calcareous soils,suchasHerb Paris grasslands. There areoldrecordsofplants are notconfinedtocalcareous Arabis hirsuta,althoughthese campestris andHairyRockCress such asFieldGentian number oflocallyscarcespecies, nummularium Common Rockrose Fairy FlaxLinumcatharticum Quaking GrassBrizamedia, Wild Thyme Thymuspraecox, Galloway, typicalspeciesinclude for floweringplants.InDumfries& species diverse of all grassland types considered astherichestandmost Calcareous grasslandsare 3.1 FloweringPlants(veryhighimportance) 3. Importancefor Associated Species Cleugh (SSSI), . . They alsocontaina Helianthemum , BarjargLimeKilnandKelhead Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Gentianella Skyreburn (SSSI)and

and Paris quadrifolia lime pits Twayblade orchids. Bailliewhirr (Peter Norman) Common

CALCAREOUS GRASSLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

mosaic with other habitats 4. Environmental, Economic & Social such as scrub, rock outcrops Importance of Biodiversity and sparse bracken. Species include butterflies Due to their floristic richness, calcareous grasslands such as Common Blue tend to be attractive sites of high landscape value. Polyommatus icarus and One site (Kelhead) in Dumfries & Galloway is Small Heath Coenonympha managed as a picnic area. pamphilus; grasshoppers such as Meadow Chorthippus Common Blue butterfly. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat parallelus and Common (Peter Norman) Green Omocestus viridulus; • There is no current survey of the extent bumblebees such as the Common Carder Bombus or importance of this habitat in Dumfries & pascuorum and Red-tailed B. lapidarius ; and ants Galloway. such as Yellow Meadow Ant Lasius flavus. None of these insects are confined to this habitat. Although • Under-grazing and the complete cessation there are rare species more strongly associated with of management, especially at lowland sites, this habitat elsewhere in Britain, no detailed surveys can result in reversion to rank grassland and have been completed in Dumfries & Galloway. eventually closed scrub and woodland. • Overgrazing can result in the loss of tall herb and CALCAREOUS GRASSLANDS There are several molluscs in Dumfries & Galloway shrub species. that have a stronger association with calcareous • Agricultural intensification, including fertiliser grasslands. This habitat is particularly important for use, herbicide application, ploughing and snails because most need calcium in considerable re-seeding causes damage to calcareous quantities for their shells. Species include Wrinkled grasslands. Snail Candidula intersecta, Moss Chrysalis Snail Pupilla muscorum and Ribbed Grass Snail Vallonia • Development, particularly the in-filling of costata. abandoned limestone quarries where grassland has re-established itself, can result in loss of 3.3 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) habitat. For example, Eaglesfield lime pits were There are few species of fungi restricted to calcareous originally targeted for infill when the upgrading of grasslands. Their ecology depends much more on the the A74 was proposed; others were lost. presence of other species, especially mosses, rather • Areas of calcareous grassland have been than directly on the pH of the soil, though soil pH planted with conifers, especially those that does of course influence the presence of such plant appear as pockets within acidic grasslands. associates. Nevertheless, several species seem to prefer calcareous grassland, including Snowy Waxcap 6. Strategic Actions Hygrocybe virginea var. ochraceopallida, Big Blue Pinkgill Entoloma bloxamii and Grassland Puffball 6.1 Recent and current activity Lycoperdon lividum. • One site, at Kelhead Quarry, is currently 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium designated as a Local Wildlife Site. importance) The dry nature of calcareous grasslands makes them 6.2 Other recommended actions more suited to reptiles than amphibians, though • Carry out a survey to determine extent and the small size of most sites reduces their value. All quality of this habitat type in Dumfries & Galloway. three native terrestrial reptiles occur on calcareous GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND grasslands that are part of a mosaic of suitable • Raise awareness of the importance of this habitats. habitat with owners and encourage appropriate management, including possible grazing.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 141 142 GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS NEUTRAL GRASSLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T 100ha inDumfries &Galloway. less than3,000hainScotland. There arelessthan grassland isestimatedtobe lessthan15,000ha,with total UKextentofunimproved species-richneutral somewhere inbetweenthese twoextremes. The the majorityofneutralgrasslandsareprobably by agriculturalimprovementisrareandthreatened; species poorandimproved;grasslandunaffected Many grasslandsfoundonfarmsintheUKarenow 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext relative tograsses. high proportionofbroad-leavedherbaceousspecies colourful landscapefeaturesinthesummer, duetoa traditional haymeadowsorpastures. They areoften use andre-seeding,areusuallymanagedas agricultural improvement,suchasextensivefertiliser balanced innutrients. They arenotheavilyaffected by grasslands growonwell-drainedfertilesoilthatiswell Semi-natural neutral(sometimescalledmesotrophic) 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics: 1. Lead Partner:National Trust forScotland. Target: 10publications/eventsby2015. leaflets/panels and/orguidedwalks/talks. Highlight theimportanceoflowlandmeadowstolandmanagersandpublicbyincludingthemin Priority Action (NG2) Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership/RegionalProposal Target: Restore5haby2015. Restore lowlandneutralgrasslands. Priority Action (NG1) Habitat Description NEUTRAL GRASSLANDS conditions make haycuttingdifficult. Nithsdale, but evenherethesmallsize and ground The bestexample isfoundat 2.3 SiteExamples found onroadvergesand other urbansites. vulnerable toscrubinvasion. Smallareasarealso remnant unimprovedgrassland,butthesesitesare intensively managedforagriculture,maycontain Areas suchassteepbanks,whichcannotbe remnants offormerhaymeadowscanbefound. to occasional,oftenisolated,fieldedgeswhere Unimproved neutralgrasslandsarenowrestricted 2.2 CurrentDistribution neglect isoftenthegreatestthreat. with moreerraticpatternsofweather. As aresult, manage themcanbedifficulttomaintain,particularly sometimes labourintensivetechniquesrequiredto more intensiveuses.However, thetraditionaland and thereislittleornodeliberateconversionto The importanceofthishabitatisnowrecognised 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Hay meadowatRockcliffe.July2007.(PeterNorman) Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Assessment Committee. Lag Meadow (SSSI)in NEUTRAL GRASSLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.4 Associated Habitats improved for agriculture, such sites require at least A number of habitats occur in close association 30 years to recover their grassland fungi. A few well- and/or overlap with neutral grasslands, and the known species such as the Field Mushroom Agaricus following action plans may also contain relevant campestris and the Giant Puffball Calvatia gigantea information: Calcareous Grasslands, Acid Grasslands, (which produces some of the largest fruitbodies of all Agriculturally Improved Grasslands. British fungi reaching 70cm or more across) are able to withstand some fertilisation. 3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Flowering Plants (very high importance) Plants such as Yellow Rattle Rhinanthus minor and Meadow Cranesbill Geranium pratense indicate lack of agricultural improvement. Other typical plants include Black Knapweed Centaurea nigra, Pignut Conopodium majus, Crested Dog’s-tail grass Cynosurus cristatus, Dyer’s Greenweed Genista tinctoria, and several NEUTRAL GRASSLANDS NEUTRAL orchid species: Northern Marsh Orchid Dactylorhiza purpurella, Fragrant Orchid Gymnadenia Common Green Grasshoppers create the sound of summer conopsea and meadows. Langholm, July 2005. (Peter Norman) Common Twayblade Listera ovata. 3.3 Invertebrates (medium importance) Locally scarce plants Management of grasslands as hay meadows is not include Melancholy ideal for many invertebrates as most larval foodplants Thistle Cirsium are cut and removed all at once. However, species heterophyllum and such as grasshoppers are able to exploit the short- Upright Vetch Vicia term cover provided by the grasses and large orobus and Lesser numbers of pollen and nectar-feeding insects, such Butterfly Orchid as bees, butterflies and hoverflies may visit during the Platanthera bifolia. flowering period. Earthworms occur at high densities whilst Spignel Meum and play a significant role in the ecology of neutral athamanticum may grasslands, mixing the soil, improving drainage and Crested Dog's-tail, a common grass of be locally common, assisting in the decomposition of dead material. neutral grasslands. (Peter Norman) but has a restricted UK distribution. 3.4 Birds (low importance) The demise of unimproved neutral grasslands is the 3.2 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) principal reason for the almost total disappearance of Species characteristic of unimproved grasslands Corncrakes Crex crex from the UK mainland. The last include scarce species such as Pink Meadow regular breeding in Dumfries & Galloway was in the Waxcap Hygrocybe calyptriformis. Genera with 1980s. Today, Skylarks Alauda arvensis are the main most or all of their species in grasslands include the nesting species, whilst Barn Owls Tyto alba, finches waxcaps Hygrocybe spp., pinkgills Entoloma spp., and other birds feed on the abundant small mammals,

earthtongues Geoglossaceae and Dermoloma spp. seeds or invertebrates associated with this habitat. HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND

Agricultural intensification has a more rapid and more drastic effect on fungi than on flora. Application of artificial fertilisers and liquid manure has been shown to eradicate many species within one year and all but a few others within five years. Once fertilised and

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 143 ACID GRASSLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.5 Mammals (low importance) 6. Strategic Actions Field Voles Microtus agrestis may reach high densities during the summer. Hedgehogs Erinaceus 6.1 Recent and current activity europaeus and Moles Talpa europaea take advantage • Traditional hay meadow management is still of the worm-rich soils. practised on a few sites.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6.2 Other recommended actions Importance of Biodiversity • Develop a fuller understanding of restoration techniques with the aim of expanding remnant • Most neutral meadows survive in a highly valued patches of unimproved neutral grassland. landscape of hedges and small woods, or in upland fringe landscapes with stone walls and • Train farmers to recognise valuable grasslands moorland. on their farms and to link with management advisory services such as FWAG. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat • Following an assessment of the likely impacts, restore traditional management techniques to

NEUTRAL GRASSLANDS NEUTRAL • Commercial improvement of pasture by sites where this is possible. drainage, ploughing, reseeding, and the • Consider the feasibility of creating new neutral application of inorganic fertilisers and herbicides grasslands by reducing soil fertility and direct has been shown to adversely affect floristic seeding of wildflowers. richness even at low levels of application. • Increased use of slurry, which unlike traditional, occasional, light applications of farmyard manure and lime, is detrimental to floristic richness. • The change from hay to silage production involves more frequent cutting, which reduces seeding opportunities for plants and disrupts the breeding of birds and other animals. • The change from mowing to spring and summer grazing resulting in the loss of those meadow plants and animals which are intolerant to summer grazing and adapted to traditional cutting management. • Abandonment and neglect results in gradual reversion to rank grassland dominated by False Oat-grass and eventually reversion to scrub or secondary woodland of lesser nature conservation value. • Remaining sites are small and highly fragmented.

GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND Rattling ripe seed pods of Yellow Rattle once indicated harvest time. Kirkconnel, July 2007. (Greg Baillie)

144 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership semi-natural habitats inBritain,yetlittle is known Acid grassland isprobablyoneofthemost extensive 1.2 NationalandInternational Context They arethesubjectofseparate actionplans. considerably tothebiodiversity ofacidgrasslands. Rock exposures the uplands, but is also normally managedas pasture. draining soilsandismorelikelytobeenclosedthanin occurs belowc300monnutrient-poor, generallyfree- grazing. Lowlanddryacidgrassland type. Itisusuallymanagedasunenclosedrough has lowfloristicdiversity, isbyfarthemostabundant as sandsandgravels acid igneousrocksandonsuperficialdepositssuch 4 to5.5derivedfromacidrockssuchassandstones, Acid grasslandsoccuronsoilswithpHrangingfrom 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics: 1. Lead Partner:RSPB. Target: 10interpretationleaflets/panelsand/orguidedwalks/talksby2015. including informationoninterpretationleaflets/panelsand/orguidedwalks/talks. Raise awarenessoftheimportanceextensiveareasuplandacidgrassland,especiallyforbirds,by Priority Action (AG2) Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership/RegionalProposal Target: Restore6haby2015. Restore lowlanddryacidgrasslands. Priority Action (AG1) Habitat Description andspringsflushes ACID GRASSLANDS Upland acidgrassland typically Upland acidgrasslandsaretypicallyextensive.UpperNithsdale,June2007.(GregBaillie) add , which currently known extent ofacidgrasslandinDumfries&Gallowayisnot 30,000ha withonly5000hainScotland. The exact in Scotland.Inthelowlandsitisunlikelytoexceed acid grasslandinuplandUKareas,with743,000ha suggest thatthereisinexcessof1,200,000ha requirements, especiallyinthelowlands.Estimates about itstrueextentorconservationmanagement scattered lowland areas. acid grasslandarefoundless frequentlyinwidely found throughouttheuplands. Smallpatchesof Large expansesofuniform acidgrasslandare 2.2 CurrentDistribution occurred atamuchreducedlevelsincethe1980s. Loss ofacidgrasslandstonewafforestation has 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Assessment Committee. 145 GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS ACID GRASSLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.3 Site Examples 3.2 Invertebrates (medium importance) Extensive upland acid grassland examples include Acid grasslands are poorer than calcareous sites for Merrick-Kells Hills (SAC/SSSI), Moffat Hills (SAC/ invertebrates, though the difference is not as marked SSSI) and Cairnsmore of Fleet (SSSI/NNR). as for flowering plants. Recent work on invertebrate fauna of Dumfries & Galloway suggests that although 2.4 Associated Habitats diversity is low, a few species are locally or nationally A number of habitats occur in close association and/ rare. Scotch Argus butterflies Erebia aethiops are or overlap with acid grasslands, and the following reasonably common in the region on lightly grazed action plans may also contain relevant information: or ungrazed acid grasslands, but they are known Upland Springs and Flushes, Upland Heaths, Inland from only two sites south of the border. The larvae of Rock Outcrops. In many cases, the presence of other Small Purple-barred moths Phytometra viridaria feed habitats in a mosaic with acid grassland is critical to on Heath Milkwort and possibly Lousewort, and have the overall biodiversity of an area. been recorded on a few sites in the region.

3. Importance for Associated Species 3.3 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) Unimproved, well-drained acid grasslands can be ACID GRASSLANDS 3.1 Birds (very high importance) rich in fungi, including many species of waxcap The typical upland acid grassland birds are Skylarks Hygrocybe, Entoloma and Dermoloma. Alauda arvensis and Wheatears Oenanthe oenanthe, the latter favouring areas with rock exposures. Ring Ouzels Turdus torquatus may also occur in rocky areas.

Several species of high conservation importance occur at low densities, but require extensive areas of the habitat in order to persist. Extensive sites form an important part of the territories of birds such as Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos, Red Kites Milvus milvus, Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus, Merlins Falco

columbarius and Field Voles runs - more often seen than the animals themselves. Barn Owls Tyto alba. Morton Loch, February 2007. (Peter Norman) Breeding waders may include Curlews 3.4 Mammals (medium importance) Numenius arquata, Field Voles Microtus agrestis can occur in enormous Lapwings Vanellus numbers on acid grasslands, so long as they are vanellus, Snipe not heavily grazed. Populations tend to cycle wildly Hen Harriers nest in heathland but Gallinago gallinago over 3-5 years, which has a knock-on effect on the hunt over extensive upland grasslands. (Steven Round) and rarely Golden populations of predators. Plovers Pluvialis apricaria. Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix also use the 3.5 Flowering Plants (medium importance) habitat where it is part of a mosaic with heathland, Lowland sites can be species rich, but most of the scrub and woodland. GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND uplands consists of species-poor swards. Grasses such as bents Agrostis spp., fescues Festuca spp., and Mat Grass Nardus stricta commonly occur, and Purple Moor Grass Molinia caerulea is abundant in wetter areas. Typical herbs include Tormentil Potentilla erecta, Heath Bedstraw Galium saxatile,

146 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Lack of grazing leading to an invasion by coarse grasses and scrub. • Change in agricultural production to silage production. In the uplands the main causes of change are: • Inappropriate grazing regimes (sheep, cattle, deer), typically excessive grazing at the wrong time of year. • Inappropriate muirburning can lead to habitat deterioration and destroy the nests of ground nesting birds. Tormentil, perhaps the most characteristic flower of acid grasslands. (Peter Norman) • Inappropriate forestry planting can threaten species of high conservation concern. Harebell Campanula rotundifolia, hawkweeds • Abandonment and neglect leading to

Hieracium spp., milkworts Polygala spp., and ACID GRASSLANDS Eyebright Euphrasia spp. Plants such as Heath encroachment by bracken. Spotted Orchid Dactylorhiza maculata, Mountain • Liming, ploughing and re-seeding around the Pansy Viola lutea, and Green-ribbed Sedge form lower fringes of upland areas. interesting assemblages in Dumfries & Galloway. • Windfarms can result in direct loss of habitat through turbine bases and associated 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) infrastructure. Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara are associated with this habitat. 6. Strategic Actions 3.7 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) 6.1 Recent and current activity Mosses and liverworts occur in low density in most acid grasslands, but interesting species can still • RSPB has identified upland areas that are sometimes be found in otherwise species poor important for birds, particularly those that are swards. Rock exposures considerably add to the sensitive windfarm developments. interest. 6.2 Other recommended actions 4. Environmental, Economic & Social • From aerial photographs and previous survey Importance of Biodiversity work, identify acid grasslands in Dumfries & Galloway that are capable of restoration, either to • The main hillwalking routes in Dumfries & high quality grasslands or other high biodiversity Galloway pass principally through upland acid habitats. grasslands. • Ensure minimal reduction in habitat area due to • Upland acid grasslands have often resulted from other land uses such as forestry. a degradation of heathland. Some are capable of • Through restoration, aim to link of fragmented restoration to this habitat, including commercial remnants of acid grasslands with each other and grouse moors. Once afforested or otherwise with other habitats. converted, restoration of such moors is very much more difficult or even impossible. • Promote appropriate management of acid

grassland habitat through advice to landowners. HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND 5. Factors affecting the Habitat • Ensure that the progress made in implementation and other information relevant to the habitat In the lowlands the habitat is affected by: is disseminated in existing newsletters and • Agricultural intensification, particularly circulars. fertilisation, ploughing and drainage.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 147 148 GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS INLAND ROCK OUTCROPS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T but especiallyrocktype. Variation isrelatedtoaspect,altitude,soilconditions, Inland rockoutcropsformanear-naturalhabitat. 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. the greater changebecomes.Lightlevels drop that surrounds them,butthedeeper cavegoes, similar qualities andspeciestotheexterior rock Shallow cavesandcaveentrances possessmany Natural caves also carrieddowntheslope withthewater. drought israrelyaproblem.However, nutrientsare habitats but,astheyoccurinareasofhighrainfall, moving downslope. They aregenerallywell-drained be moremobile,butevenlargeblocksmayslowly large blocks.Screesmadeofsmallerstonestendto can rangefromsmallstonesthroughtobouldersand adjacent slopes. The rocksareusuallyangularbut Screes valuable. the bedrock.Base-richseepagesareespecially have accumulatednutrientsleacheddownthrough comparison tothesurroundinglandbecausethey and ledgesbuttendtoberelativelynutrientrichin seepages are extremelyvaluableforarangeofspecies. base-rich substratesthatareinaccessibletograzing, but rockledges,particularlythoseintheuplandswith species capableofsurvivalinahostileenvironment, Parsley FernonscreeslopesamongstHeather. MennockPass, Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage. Expand populationsofrareandscarcespeciesoninlandrockoutcrops. Priority Action (IRO1) Habitat Description occurwhereweatheredrockfallsonto notonlyaddmoisturetorockfaces provideuniqueenvironments. INLAND ROCKOUTCROPS Rock faces August 2007.(PeterNorman) supportonly Upland Slopes, QuarriesandMineral Workings. Upland SpringsandFlushes, CoastalCliffs and action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: or overlapwithinlandrockoutcrops,andthefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Linn include the Clints(SSSI/NNR).Othernotablerockoutcrops Craignaw, andClintsofDromoreSpouto’ Vegetation ofinlandrockoutcrops ischaracteristically 3.1 Flowering Plants(veryhighimportance) 3. several sitesinthe Granite outcropsincludethe 2.3 SiteExamples explored bypeople. few deepnaturalcavesthatarelargeenoughtobe the region. Also thegeologymeansthatthereare rock outcropsoccurintheuplandsnorthof Due tothenatureofgeology, mostnaturalinland 2.2 CurrentDistribution outcrops. There hasbeenlittlerecentchangetoinlandrock 2.1 RecentTrends 2. almost impossibletoachieve. assessment ofitsextent,bothnationallyandlocally, is and itsoftennearverticalstructure,anaccurate areas. Duetothefragmentednatureofthishabitat localised indistribution,predominantlyupland This habitatoccurswidelyacrossEurope,butisvery 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext specialised faunatoexist. much morestable,whichallowsasmallbuthighly sharply andtemperaturehumiditylevelsbecome Importance for Associated Species Dumfries &GallowayStatus contains importantsandstoneoutcrops. Cairnbaber (SSSI)GlenwhargenCraig MoffatHills Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Dungeon Hills (SSSI). Crichope , , and INLAND ROCK OUTCROPS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

discontinuous and sparse. Typical species of Loch Dungeon. Sandstone has good moisture holding upland rock ledges include Great Woodrush Luzula capacity and can therefore be rich in mosses and sylvatica, Wood Crane’s-bill Geranium sylvaticum, liverworts. Water Avens Geum rivale and Wild Angelica Angelica sylvestris. Juniper Juniperus communis, Aspen Mobile screes are poor for ferns and bryophytes, Populus tremula and Rowan Sorbus aucuparia may with Parsley Fern Cryptogramma crispa and Woolly- also become established on these ledges, and even fringe Moss Racomitrium languginosum being the in narrow cracks on vertical rock faces, though the most obvious species. However, more stable screes latter is generally poor for flowering plants. composed of larger stones, and especially block screes, support many species in moist nooks and Botanists have long recognised the outstanding crannies that are similar to those found in woodland. importance of upland rock ledges as a habitat for a diversity of nationally rare and scarce plants. 3.3 Birds (very high importance) They are of particular importance where water Several birds of prey use rock ledges as nesting from upland seepages trickles over rocks. The sites, especially Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos, following species are mostly confined to the Scottish Peregrines Falco peregrinus, Kestrels Falco Highlands, with only small populations in the Lake tinnunculus and occasionally Buzzards Buteo buteo

District, the Pennines, North Wales and at a few and Merlins Falco columbarius. Many of the same INLAND ROCK OUTCROPS locations in Dumfries & Galloway: Alpine Cinquefoil rock faces are used by nesting Ravens Corvus corax. Potentilla crantzii, Alpine Sawwort Saussurea alpina, an eyebright Euphrasia frigida, Black Alpine Ring Ouzels Turdus Sedge Carex atrata, Hair Sedge Carex capillaris, a torquatus have lady’s mantle Alchemilla wichurae, Purple Saxifrage declined rapidly in Saxifraga oppositifolia, Roseroot Sedum rosea, Dumfries & Galloway, Mountain Sorrel Oxyria digyna and Alpine Meadow- with just a few pairs rue Thalictrum alpinum. now breeding in the east of the region. Screes colonise with flowering plants only very slowly, They particularly if at all. However, plants of more stable screes include favour crags, gullies, Bell Heather Erica cinerea and Heath Bedstraw screes and boulder Galium saxatile. A few screes, such as in Scaur Glen, fields, especially have been colonised by Hazel Corylus avellana and those overhung with Peregrine. (Laurie Campbell) other scrub species. heather and scattered trees. Wheatears Oenanthe oenanthe are also typical of scree slopes. 3.2 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) Oblong Woodsia Woodsia ilvensis is one of Britain’s 3.4 Invertebrates (medium importance) rarest ferns, and was reduced almost to extinction In upland seepages where shallow trickles or films by Victorian collectors in the Moffat Hills. It has of water run over rock exposures, the rock surface subsequently been reintroduced, but remains highly will generally have an algal film growing on it, and threatened. Holly Fern Polystichum lonchitis also this forms the base of the food chain for a small, but occurs on base-rich rock ledges and crevices in the exceptionally specialised invertebrate assemblage. Moffat Hills, its only site in the south of Scotland. There may also be a scattering of other plants, especially mosses and liverworts that are inhabited Inland rock ledges and outcrops are also important by some of the invertebrates that constitute this for mosses and liverworts. The typical habitat of assemblage. Narrow-leaved Fringe-moss Racomitrium aquaticum GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND is vertical siliceous rock faces on exposed or shaded Red Carpet moths Xanthorhoe decoloraria are mountain crags or in gorges, whilst Upright Brown known from only a few sites in the region, but are Grimmia Schistidium strictum is a moss of exposed probably common wherever Lady’s-mantle, the larval rock faces on upland crags. It is scarce south of the foodplant, occurs on exposed rocks in moorland. Highlands. Toothed Pouncewort Drepanolejeunea Cave life is largely unexplored in the region but at hamatifolia is a liverwort with a very limited global least 35 species of UK invertebrate are known to be distribution, but has been recorded on crags near restricted to such habitats.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 149 MONTANE MOSS-HEATHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium However, there is no evidence that historical importance) stone removal for drystone dyking has had a Although inland rock ledges and outcrops may major impact. appear inaccessible to reptiles, Adders Vipera berus • Some livestock and especially feral goats are and Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara do manage agile enough to reach inland rock outcrops to find their way onto these sites and south facing not accessible to other herbivores. They may ledges and outcrops form ideal basking sites. Holes therefore restrict the distribution of some plants in under rocks and screes, and narrow caves may also the Moffat and Galloway Hills. be used as hibernacula. • Agricultural practices such as grazing, fertiliser 3.6 Mammals (medium importance) and herbicide treatment, and stock feeding can seriously damage the biodiversity of inland rock Much of the biodiversity of rock ledges and outcrops. Bracken spraying needs to be carefully outcrops results from the fact that they are free from planned to avoid damage to scree communities. mammalian grazers and predators. However, where caves occur, particularly deeper ones, they can be very important roosting and hibernation sites for bats. 6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity INLAND ROCK OUTCROPS 3.7 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) Inland rock outcrops support many lichens but, • An action programme is underway for the unlike flowering plants, they are not susceptible to restoration of Oblong Woodsia populations co- grazing. Therefore, the type of rock and its location/ ordinated by Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. aspect is more important than its accessibility to • Monitoring of Ravens, Peregrines and other grazing animals, crag nesting birds of prey is carried out by the and rare species Dumfries & Galloway Raptor Study Group. are not confined to Sites prone to disturbance receive special inaccessible ledges protection. and faces. Rocks on scree slopes • The National Trust for Scotland relays live may be subject to CCTV images of nesting Peregrines to its visitor frequent movement, centre at Grey Mare’s Tail. making lichen • The Mountaineering Council of Scotland has establishment more Cudbear lichen Ochrolechia tartarea. produced an information sheet about birds and (Peter Norman) difficult. climbing, which contains guidance on responsible climbing. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity 6.2 Other recommended actions

Inland rock outcrops add considerably to the • Examine grazing levels in key locations to landscape, often forming the most dramatic feature of assess whether modifications to rates and an area. timing and/or use of exclosures might lead to an expansion of rock ledge communities. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat • Negotiate reasonable access restrictions with climbing organisations on specific sites at specific • Rock climbing can accidentally disturb times of year where recreational disturbance is nesting birds or damage flora. Some birds, and known to be a problem.

GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND occasionally plants, are subject to deliberate • Ensure that all new cycle and footpaths avoid illegal disturbance and theft. disturbance to important areas for breeding • Stone removal for agricultural or recreational birds. purposes such as track/path building could damage biodiversity and geological features.

150 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership infrastructure developments andclimatechange. walking, mountain-biking,quad/trail bikes,potential pressure, withaddedrecent pressuresfromhill- have continuedtobeadversely affected bygrazing The smallremainingareasofmontanemoss-heath 2.1 RecentTrends 2. montane heathvegetation,probablylessthan100ha. known. Littleofthelandabove600msupports heath inDumfries&Gallowayisnotaccurately Cairngorm Mountains. The areaofmontanemoss- Scotland, mostlyintheHighlands,especially 600,000ha ofmontanehabitatintheUKare Greenland, RussiaandCanada.Over90%ofthe distribution, butoccurextensivelyinNorway, Iceland, Montane moss-heathshavearestrictedEuropean 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext rocks arealsocommononmontaneheaths. liverworts. Sparselyvegetated snow-bed lies forlongperiodssupportanevenmorespecialist snow cover. Hollowswheresnowaccumulatesand Woolly-fringe Mosscannottolerateprolongeddeep Woolly-Fringe Moss,arefrequent. and lichens.Carpetsof way tohabitatsdominatedbymosses,club-mosses strong winds.Intheseareasgrassandheathergive exceptionally cool,cloudysummersandfrequent at loweraltitudeswhereanoceanicclimateproduces much oftheuplandsScotland,thoughcanoccur This isaround600mabovesealevelthroughout approach mostcloselytothoseof Arctic regions. the naturalleveloftreegrowthwhereconditions Montane Moss-heathsarefoundinareasabove 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage/ForestryCommissionScotland/National Reduce grazingpressureonmontanemoss-heathswherethisisconsiderednecessary Priority Action (MMH1) Dumfries &GallowayStatus Habitat Description habitatofgrasses,sedges,mossesand MONTANE MOSS-HEATHS moss-heath, dominatedby stony areasand Upland SpringsandFlushes,InlandRockOutcrops. Acid Grasslands,UplandHeaths,MontaneScrub, action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: overlap withmontanemoss-heaths,andthefollowing A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats Lamachan. Cairnsmore ofFleet(NNRandSSSI) Beninner, Moorbroch,CairnsmoreofCarsphairn, Coomb (SAC/SSSI).Otherexamplesoccuron are foundon moss-heath southoftheHighlands.Goodexamples the bestdevelopedandlargestareasofmontane The Merrick-KellsandMoffat rangesholdsomeof 2.3 SiteExamples further north. composition ofthespecialistcommunitiesfound modified, onlyrarelydoesitapproachthespecies snow accumulates,althoughthevegetationmaybe lying snow-bedsintheregion.Inareaswherewinter Carsphairn andGallowayranges. There arefewlong- hills ofDumfries&Galloway, mostlyintheMoffat, This habitatislimitedtosmallareasonthehighest 2.2 CurrentDistribution Woolly Fringe-moss Racomitriumlanuginosum.White Coomb, Corserine (SAC/SSSI)andWhite Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Trust forScotland. . July 2007.(Peter Norman)

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3. Importance for Associated Species 3.5 Birds (medium importance) Few birds breed in this hostile environment. Dotterels 3.1 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) Charadrius morinellus have occasionally been found Late-lying snow-beds and moss-heaths have breeding, but are easily overlooked and most likely characteristic bryophyte communities. Woolly-Fringe to be seen on their spring migration; Golden Plovers Moss Racomitrium languginosum is well adapted to Pluvialis apricaria also breed in such habitats though montane conditions, deriving all its nutrients from elsewhere in the UK are more common on lower rain and mist and able to withstand total drought moorlands; Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis for up to a year. Other moss heath species, though are scarce non-breeding visitors. Perhaps only not restricted to this habitat, include Broom Fork the occasional Skylark Alauda arvensis, Meadow Moss Dicranum scoparium, Little Shaggy-moss Pipit Anthus pratensis and Wheatear Oenanthe Rhytidiadelphus loreus, Glittering Wood-moss oenanthe are regular breeders. Other birds, such as Hylocomium splendens, Red-stemmed Feather-moss Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos and Merlins Falco Pleurozium schreberi and Fir Clubmoss Huperzia columbarius visit montane heaths to hunt and swifts selago. The rare Splachnum vasculosum, recorded often feed low above montane heath. in the Galloway Hills in 1957 and 1985 is sometimes associated with such conditions. Liverworts include 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) Alpine Rustwort Marsupella alpina and Notched MONTANE MOSS-HEATHES MONTANE Remarkably, Common Frogs Rana temporaria on Rustwort M. emarginata. montane heaths are not uncommon. However, the habitat is generally of low importance for reptiles and 3.2 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) amphibians. A diverse range of lichens is associated with montane heath including Reindeer ‘Moss’ Cladonia arbuscula and Iceland ‘Moss’ Cetraria islandica. Fungi associated with snow-melt are known from the Alps and have recently been discovered in the Scottish Highlands and the Lake District. Some may also occur in Dumfries & Galloway.

3.3 Invertebrates (high importance) Despite the hostile environment, a number of invertebrates specialise in moss-heath habitats, although few are totally restricted to this habitat: A money spider Hilaira frigida is found beneath rocks on the summits of mountains, a nationally scarce fly Alliopsis atronitens is found in moss-heath and snow-bed communities in the Moffat Hills, and a Common Frog, (Paul McLaughlin) ground beetle Carabus glabratus is an exclusively montane species. The nationally rare Broad-bordered 3.7 Mammals (low importance) White Underwing moth Anarta melanopa, a day-flying Mountain Hares Lepus timidus occasionally feed on species recorded from moss-heath on the Moffat and montane heaths. Galloway Hills, is known from just one site south of Dumfries & Galloway. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity 3.4 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Monitoring of montane heath may provide a good GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND Though montane heaths have a low diversity of flowering plants a number of important species indicator of climate change. occur. Species present include Wavy Hair-grass Deschampsia flexuosa Stiff Sedge Carex bigelowii, Dwarf Willow Salix herbacea, Heath Bedstraw Galium saxatile and Mountain Crowberry Empetrum nigrum subsp. hermaphroditum.

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5. Factors affecting the Habitat 6.2 Other recommended actions • Carry out surveys to identify areas of near Poor soils and extreme climate render montane natural montane communities. heath unsuitable for forestry or intensive agriculture. However, the shallow soils, the restricted growing • Protect from inappropriate development. season, and the fragmented distribution render • Discourage disturbance and damage from montane areas especially vulnerable to: inappropriate forms and levels of use, including • Overgrazing by sheep, goats and deer which vehicles and recreational pressure. has caused the loss of much montane heath by • Ensure that Galloway Military Training Area conversion to grazing-tolerant grasses. Heavy excludes vulnerable zones and times. grazing may also result in nutrient enrichment and physical uprooting of plants. • Ensure that organised events (e.g. mountain marathon, orienteering etc.) consult with • Increasing recreational pressure from walkers relevant organisations to minimise damage to and mountain bikes causing damage to the fragile vulnerable zones. vegetation and soils. • Consider the need for studies to investigate • Quad bikes, even a single journey, can cause the effects of acid deposition on montane

significant damage. MOSS-HEATHES MONTANE communities. • Fires spreading from the sub-montane zone causing destruction of soils and vegetation. • The long-term effects of pollution such as acidification and global warming may result in the loss of species that will be unable to recolonise. • Developments such as radio masts and wind farms have the potential to cause substantial damage. • Climate change has the potential to totally wipe out this habitat in Dumfries & Galloway; a process that may already be underway.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Monitoring of the impact of hill-walking and grazing on montane heath at White Coomb by the National Trust for Scotland. • A PhD study entitled ‘Assessing the potential for recovery of degraded montane heaths” was begun in 2006, funded by SNH and supervised by Aberdeen University, SNH, Macaulay Land Use Research Institute and the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology. It will assess the current condition

of UK montane heath and whether a decrease in HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND grazing will allow successful recovery of degraded heaths. Fir Clubmoss. White Coomb, Moffat Hills, May 2007. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 153 154 GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS UPLAND HEATHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T grassland, scrub,woodland androckhabitats. is oftenpartofamosaic habitatswithblanketbog, areas withover100cmofprecipitation ayearandit in northernScotland.Heathland isusuallyfoundin above sealevel,thoughdescending tonearsealevel For muchofBritainthisisbetween300mand600m above theupperedgeofenclosedagriculturalland. Upland heathsarefoundbelowthemontanezonebut vegetation ondeeppeatisgenerallyregardedasbog. podsols orshallowpeat(lessthat0.5mdeep).Heath of dwarfshrubsonnutrientpoormineralsoils,peaty Upland heathsarecharacterisedbythepresence 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:LangholmMoorlandDemonstrationProject/RegionalProposal Target: Restore3000haby2017. Restore anextensiveareaofuplandheathforbiodiversity. Priority Action (UH1) Habitat Description Managed heathermosaic.MennockPass, August 2007. UPLAND HEATHS (Peter Norman) heath intheUKsouthofHighlands. This includesthemostextensiveareaofuplandwet upland heathlandisfoundinDumfries&Galloway. 50% heatherdominance. An estimated100,000haof million hectaresofitisestimatedtohavelessthan This islandwithatleast25%heathercover, but1.6 heath habitatintheUK,2,514,000haofitScotland. There isapproximately3.7millionhectaresofupland the BritishIslesandwesternseaboardofEurope. conservation significanceandarelargelyconfinedto Upland dwarf-shrubheathshaveinternational 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext including and PurpleMoorGrass,withacarpetofmosses species areCross-leavedHeath,Heather, Deer Grass where theclimateisdamper. Heretypicalplant are morecommonlyfoundinthenorthandwest Blaeberry, CrowberryandBellHeather. Wet heaths neutral soils. Typical shrubspeciesincludeHeather, regime). Dryheathsoccuronfreelydrainingacidto practices (includinggrazingpressureandburning aspect, slope,maritimeinfluencesandmanagement also influencedbyfactorssuchasgeology, altitude, upland heathsisbroadlylinkedtoclimate,but The variationinthevegetationcommunitiesof on theLowtherHills Good examples ofuplandheatharetobe found 2.3 SiteExamples the eastofregion. best qualityandmostextensive areasarelocatedin but duetogeology, climateandland-use history the Heathland isfoundthroughouttheSouthernUplands, 2.2 CurrentDistribution cover. be replacedwithgrassland,duetolossofheather years, areasofuplandheathlandhavecontinuedto Although losestoforestryhavedeclinedinrecent 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Sphagnum species. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership (SPA/SSSI), withextensive Assessment Committee. UPLAND HEATHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

areas also on the Langholm Hills (SPA/SSSI). Most bryophytes of upland heaths are common Further west, the heaths tend to be wetter and more species, but in the north west Highlands several fragmented, generally with less Heather cover. species of liverwort of restricted world distribution Merrick-Kells Hills (SAC/SSSI) includes many sites, form luxuriant mats under the heather canopy. A few such as on Corserine, but the most extensive upland of these have been recorded in Dumfries & Galloway, heath in west is on Glen App and Galloway Moors on Cairnsmore of Fleet and other sites. They include (SPA/SSSI). Smaller areas are found at many other Lesser Whipwort Bazzania tricrenata and Purple locations, such as Cairnsmore of Fleet (SSSI/NNR), Spoonwort Pleurozia purpurea. Laughenghie and Airie Hills (SSSI), Artfield Fell, Criffel and Glenquicken Moor.

2.4 Associated Habitats A number of habitats occur in close association and/or overlap with upland heaths, and the following action plans may also contain relevant information: Acid

Grasslands, Blanket Bogs, Inland Rock Outcrops. UPLAND HEATHS

3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Birds (very high importance) Upland heaths are prime habitats for a suite of breeding birds including Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus, Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix, Golden Plovers Pluvialis apricaria, Dunlins Calidris alpina, Snipe Gallinago gallinago, Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus, Merlins Falco columbarius, Wheatears Oenanthe oenenthe, Ring Ouzels Turdus torquatus and Twites Northern Eggar Moths, abundant over upland heaths in some Carduelis flavirostris. Most of these have declined years. Grey Mare's Tail, July 1993. (Peter Norman) substantially over the last 100 years, and some, such as Dunlins and Ring Ouzels, are now very rare upland 3.3 Invertebrates (high importance) heathland breeding species. Wide-ranging species such as Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos hunt over Many invertebrates are dependent on the three- upland heaths. dimensional structure of upland shrubs and other vegetation. Insects such as craneflies Tipulidae 3.2 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) form a major part of the diet of the chicks of many moorland birds, including the Red grouse. The larvae The moss and liverwort community of upland heaths of a large number of moths feed on Heather and is strongly influenced by the stage of the heather. Blaeberry, including Emperor Moth Saturnia pavonia Many species are abundant during the pioneer phase and Northern Eggar Lasiocampa quercus. Sword- of heather growth. For example, Compact Bog-moss grass Xylena exsoleta is also known from moorland, Sphagnum compactum, a moss of wet heaths, is a as well as open woodland, though its larval foodplant poor competitor and usually found in open vegetation is not known. with bare ground. Some mosses have been shown to aid heather regeneration, but they decline as the A number of uncommon species have been recorded heather matures, only returning as the heather begins from heaths in the region, such as the nationally to degenerate and gaps open in the canopy. However, scarce spider Clubiona norvegica on wet moorlands;

at this stage they have to compete with flowering HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND a nationally scarce ground beetle Carabus nitens on plants. Light burning can be beneficial for bryophytes, wet upland heaths with Sphagnum; and a rare bee allowing the pioneer phase to begin again, but Nomada roberjeotiana at its only Scottish sites. intensive burning can be very damaging, wiping out some species.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 155 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.4 Flowering Plants (high importance) 4. Environmental, Economic & Social In addition to Heather Calluna vulgaris, upland heaths Importance of Biodiversity in Dumfries & Galloway are characterised by plants such as Crowberry Empetrum nigrum, Blaeberry • Most upland heaths are managed as extensive Vaccinium myrtillus, Mat Grass Nardus stricta, Red grazing for livestock, and/or as grouse moors that Fescue Festuca rubra and Sheep’s Fescue Festuca are dependent on Heather and its associated ovina. Where they are derived from former woodland, plants and invertebrates. the Heather may provide a refuge for many of the • Extensive upland heaths dominate the associated species of the original woodland ground landscapes where they occur, particularly during layer. flowering in late summer and autumn. Less common upland heath species in Dumfries & • Though there is a historic tradition of collecting Galloway include Cloudberry Rubus chamaemorus moorland berries, this is currently limited to a few and Lesser Twayblade orchid Listera cordata growing parts of the Highlands. In Finland, an estimated amongst or beneath Heather and Blaeberry on wet 67% of the population pick these resources;

UPLAND HEATHS heaths, and Bearberry Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, a in Sweden it is the basis of a significant rural low shrub found on dry heaths over gravely or rocky business; whilst in Norway the health authorities ground. Dwarf Cornel Cornus suecica, occurs in are so convinced of the benefits that they have Scotland south of the Highlands in only in a few small produced maps of good berry-picking areas. areas of the Moffat Hills. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) Some areas of upland heathland are very rich in • Overgrazing of sheep and Red Deer, especially lichen communities, including a covering of Cladonia on newly burnt areas, is incompatible with species. maintaining upland heather cover and diversity. • Heather Beetles may be increasing, along with 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (high importance) the frequency of beetle outbreaks. It is believed Adders Vipera berus are the typical upland heathland that heather beetle is more likely to kill old reptile, but Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara and heather or heather that has been stressed by amphibians such as Common Frogs Rana temporaria drought, heavy grazing, trampling etc. also occur. • Poorly managed muirburn causing simplification 3.7 Mammals (high importance) of vegetation structure, loss of lower plant assemblages and erosion of peat. Mountain Hares Lepus timidus are charcteristic members of the upland heath community, but there • Conversion to more intensive forms of is evidence of local declines. Other mammals, such agriculture, through drainage of wet heath and as Red Deer Cervus elaphus, also make use of this moorland ‘gripping’, ploughing, reseeding, liming habitat. and fertilisation, particularly at lower elevations. • Encroachment of bracken reduces the biodiversity value of the habitat. • Replacement of heathland with forestry has taken place in the past, but is now controlled by national forestry policy. • The development of wind farms and associated

GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND access tracks is an increasing threat. • Hillwalkers and mountain bikes can cause localised erosion. • Acidification from atmospheric deposition may

Mountain Hare in winter. (Laurie Campbell) lead to habitat degradation.

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• Heath Star Moss Campylopus introflexus, an • Encourage studies to investigate the effects of introduced species from the southern hemisphere acid deposition. first discovered in Britain in 1941, has spread • Minimise disturbance from activities such as rapidly over heathland throughout the country and off-road cycling or use of motor bikes or 4-wheel threatens native mosses and liverworts. drive vehicles, especially at fragile higher altitude sites. A small amount of localised ground 6. Strategic Actions disturbance is beneficial to some species.

6.1 Recent and current activity • Raise public awareness of upland heathland through guided walks, talks, publications, • The Linking the Ling Project, led by the press releases, and environmental education Heather Trust has worked with landowners on opportunities. demonstration sites in Nithsdale, and uses these to promote good management practice. • Raise landowner awareness of the importance of upland heathland. • The Black Grouse Recovery Project, led

by RSPB, has heathland restoration and UPLAND HEATHS enhancement as an important prescription for key Black Grouse leks. Work undertaken in both Galloway and Nithsdale on upland heaths. • SNH’s Moorland Management Scheme provided funding for the management of designated sites. This is now incorporated into the Scottish Rural Development Programme. • The Langholm Moor Demonstration Project, an ambitious and innovative 10-year moorland restoration project that aims to integrate grouse, raptors, biodiversity and other land use interests was begun in 2007. It is supported by The Buccleuch Group, SNH, The Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust, RSPB and Natural England.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Restore, extend and enhance upland heaths as part of upland mosaics and transitions of semi-natural and natural habitats appropriate to soils and climate. An upland heathland mosaic with grassland, scrub, flower-rich areas, boggy pools, Sphagnum lawns, flushes, wet peat and seepages will benefit a wide range of invertebrates and birds. Maintain as much Heather provides nectar for many bees, hover-flies and in this case structural diversity as possible. a robber-fly. Wanlockhead, August 2007. (Peter Norman) • Identify opportunities for restoration in Forest Design Plans and restocking proposals. GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND • Encourage measures that reverse habitat fragmentation. • Use demonstration sites to provide advice on best management and restoration practices for upland heaths. Promote advice on good muirburn practices.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 157 158 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS documentary evidence datingthisfarback israrely can betracedbacktoatleast 1600.InScotland, England, woodsareconsidered tobeancientifthey likely tosupportspecialised woodlandspecies.In wooded formanycenturies, andarethereforemost woods growonsitesthathave beencontinuously are themostimportanttypeofnativewood. These From abiodiversityperspective, standing trees. have demonstratedduringtheirhistory, withoutany is possibleforwoodstosurvivetemporarily, asmany are asmuchapartofwoodlandthetrees,andit trees. The soils,bacteria,fungi,plantsandanimals native woodsaremuchmorethansimplygroupsof have not been plantedby man. However, semi-natural from naturalregenerationorvegetativeregrowth;they Semi-natural woods native Britishwildlifeoverthelast10,000years. not considerednativeastheyhaveevolvedwith naturally inBritainpriortothelasticeage,theyare such asNorwaySpruceandSilverFiroccurred and highlydependentonthishabitat. Although trees many centuries,sometimesbecominghighlyadapted associated withthemhasevolvedover greatest valueforbiodiversitybecausethewildlife species oftreesandshrubs. These woodsareof those thatarestillcomposedpredominantlyofnative have beenmodifiedbypeople,nativewoodsare the influenceofman. AlthoughallwoodsintheUK the originalnaturalwoodlandcoverofanareabefore Native tree 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Plans. conjunction withtheindividualHabitat Action to allwoodlandtypes,andshouldbereadin of theslope.Thefollowinginformationapplies birches onthehighergroundand Ash atthebase especially onslopingground,butoftenwith other. Oaksarecommoninmanylocal woods, in closeproximityandintergradewitheach trees andstandsofallwoodlandtypescanoccur woods arecomposedofmixedbroadleaved birch woods,andscrubwoods.Inreality, most & Galloway:wetwoods,oak Ash woods, the maintypesofnativewoodlandinDumfries There areseparateHabitat Action Plansforall Habitat Description andshrubspeciesarethosethatformed arethosethathavegrownup ancient woods NATIVE WOODS

Broadleaved andMixedPlantations Action Plan). of itisidentifiedonlyas‘Mixed Broadleaves’.(See most ofthisisunlikelytobesemi-natural,and60% approximately 2,500haofbroadleavedwoodland,but Forestry CommissionScotlandownsandmanages 2% oftheregion)which5,000haissemi-natural. about 12,000haofbroadleavedwoodland(lessthan is notaccuratelyknown. There isthoughttobe of semi-naturalnativewoodsinDumfries&Galloway the landcoverofScotland. The fullextentandquality Native woodscurrentlyaccountforonlyaround2%of 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext common inmostmodernwoods. though ahistoryofremovalmeansthatitisnot important naturalcomponentofallnativewoods, Decaying wood wood. invertebrates thatarerareinthemainpartof are oftenmorealkalineandcontainplants natural pondsinBritain;andground-water seepages left byupturnedrootplatesaresomeofthemost diversity; woodlandponds and makeavitalcontributiontotheirecological rock outcropsareintegralpartsofthesewoods valuable forbiodiversity:Openareasassociatedwith habitats, whichalthoughsmallinextent,areoften Within nativewoods,thereareanumberofsub- understorey isfrequentlypoorlyrepresented. layer isoftenwelldevelopedbutthefieldand developed. Inuplandwoods,forexample,theground woods oneormoreofthelayersmaynotbewell and acanopyoftreeboughsleaves.Insome growing woodyshrubssuchasHazelandHawthorn; and ferns;ashrublayerorunderstoreyoflow mosses andotherplants;afieldlayerofwildflowers Most woodsconsistofagroundlayerleaflitter, research. through localecological,archaeologicalandhistorical the bestwayofassessingageawoodis (c1860), areconsideredtobeancient.However, (1747-1755) andtheFirstseriesofOrdnanceSurvey shown onGeneralRoy’s MilitarySurveyofScotland available, soallpresentdaywoodsthatwerealso , bothstandingandfallen,isan Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership createdinthehollows NATIVE WOODS

2. Dumfries & Galloway Status aemula, found in Carstramon Wood. There is also a wide range of mosses and liverworts in the region’s 2.1 Recent Trends native woods. Since the Forestry Commission’s review of policy for broadleaves in 1985, the conservation and 3.3 Flowering Plants (very high importance) management of native woods has become more The field layer of native woods typically flowers in important. In recent years approximately 200ha of spring, before the canopy comes into full leaf and new broadleaf planting has taken place annually restricts light levels. Ungrazed and lightly grazed together with 150ha of restocking, mainly as broadleaf native woods are particularly notable for Bluebells element within commercial woodlands. Hyacinthoides non-scripta, which occur in a profusion seldom encountered beyond the British Isles. Wood 2.2 Current Distribution Anemone Anemone nemorosa, Dog’s Mercury Dumfries & Galloway’s native woods are concentrated Mercurialis perennis and Wild Garlic Allium ursinum in the main river valleys, especially the Cree, Fleet, can also grow in profusion depending on local Dee/Ken and Nith. conditions. Though such species are widespread and common, they are an important component of native 3. Importance for Associated Species woods and require conservation. A few less common species also occur, including Early Dog Violet Viola 3.1 Fungi and Lichens (very high importance) reichenbachiana at some of its few Scottish localities. Most trees are Distinctive flush vegetation dominates woodland dependent on seepages with Opposite-leaved Golden Saxifrage mycorrhizal Chrysosplenium oppositifolium typical in Dumfries & associations with Galloway. The understorey is not noted for a high fungi, so it is no diversity of flowering plants, but a few grow on the surprise that fungi trees themselves, including Atlantic Ivy Hedera helix attain their greatest subsp. hibernica, native in Scotland only in the south diversity in woodland. west. They also play an essential role in the 3.4 Invertebrates (very high importance) decomposition of plant litter and in nutrient Native, especially ancient, woods have the richest recycling. Though invertebrate fauna of any habitat in Dumfries & fungi are widely Galloway. Due to the long history of woodland distributed in all native exploitation many species have extremely restricted Chanterelle Cantharellus cibarius, woods, some species one of the best known woodland distributions and some are very rare indeed. that are restricted to mushrooms. Holy Linn, particular types. A September 2006. Invertebrate species that rely on decaying wood are (Peter Norman) number of rare fungi now some of the most threatened in Britain. More have been recorded in the native woods of Dumfries than 700 species of flies and a similar number of & Galloway, including Rimbachia bryophila recorded beetles are dependant to some extent on deadwood on moss in Carstramon Wood in 1993. However, few in the UK. For example, in Dumfries & Galloway the mycological surveys have been undertaken and a hoverfly Criorhina floccosa is found in wet rotting number of other species probably await discovery. Wych Elm, Sycamore and Beech; the larvae of a nationally scarce soldier beetle Malthodes guttifer 3.2 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) develops in decaying wood; fungal and epiphytic growth on both sound and decaying timber provides WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE Ferns are often abundant in native woods, notably a habitat for invertebrates such as fungus gnats; and Hard Fern Blechnum spicant, Male Fern Dryopteris fallen dead wood on the ground provides shelter filix-mas Lady Fern Athyrium filix-femina and and overwintering sites for adult ground beetles Common Polypody Polypodium vulgare. Wilson’s and woodlice, as well as essential habitat for the Filmy Fern Hymenophyllum wilsonii is rare, restricted developing larvae of saproxylic invertebrates such as to shaded woodland, often in ravines/cleughs, a many rove and longhorn beetles. Fallen dead wood similar habitat to Hay-scented Buckler fern Dryopteris

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 159 on groundwater seepages and in streams supports other habitats, whilst Leisler’s Bat Nyctalus leisleri, a varied fauna of flies, including the nationally rare found in woods in the Cree valley, is virtually absent Lipsothrix errans cranefly. from the rest of Scotland. The essential habitat requirement appears to be holes and crevices for Woodland seepages are extremely important for roosting, best created by the retention of standing a very large number of decaying wood. specialist invertebrates. Although of only moderate 3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium pH, the water in seepages is importance) sufficiently rich in calcium to A number of reptiles and amphibians are found within support diverse communities native woods, particularly in woods with extensive of molluscs, found amongst open spaces. Amphibians breed in woodland ponds the vegetation and in that are at least partly unshaded. saturated leaf litter. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social 3.5 Birds (very high Importance of Biodiversity importance) Buzzard (Paul McLaughlin) Lowland native woods • Landscapes are significantly enhanced by support possibly a greater diversity of bird species native woods, which soften open hillsides and than any other habitat, although few, if any, are plantations. restricted to this habitat. Typical species include Chiffchaffs Phylloscopus collybita, Sparrowhawks • Native woods are part of our cultural heritage and Accipiter nisus, Buzzards Buteo buteo, Tawny Owls have a long association with landscapes. This is Strix aluco and Green Woodpeckers Picus viridis. reflected in many local place names in Gaelic, Scots, Welsh as well as English, and in songs 3.6 Mammals (very high importance) and paintings. Most British mammals evolved in wooded habitats, • Archaeological relics dating back to prehistoric so it is no surprise to find that woodland remains very times, and sometimes more recent features such important for them. Badgers Meles meles, Roe Deer as deserted shielings or ruined croft houses are Capreolus capreolus, Fallow Deer Dama dama and often found within native woods. Those woods even Red Deer with a coppice history have been part of the local Cervus elaphus landscape for centuries. They and the woodbanks are essentially which define them will be amongst the oldest woodland historical monuments in some areas. animals, • A number of native woods are managed as nature although they reserves and/or have footpaths and interpretation, are now also providing a valuable recreation and tourism found in more resource. open habitats. Red Squirrels • Upland woods can often provide valuable Sciurus vulgaris have Fallow Deer (Paul McLaughlin) shelter for sheep and cattle and can give good moved into some grazing. However, grazing pressure needs to be conifer plantations, but are still found in native woods. carefully managed to avoid risking the survival or In the long-term, they are likely to be displaced from ecological value of the woods. this habitat by Grey Squirrels. Unless an effective NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE control measure can be found for the greys, native 5. Factors affecting the Habitat woods cannot be managed to retain their Red Squirrel populations. • The native woods of Dumfries & Galloway are generally long and narrow, concentrated All bats feed in and around trees. Some, such as in the river valleys and in strips at the coast. the Brown Long-eared Bat Plecotus auritis are so This produces a greater edge effect than the dependent on woodland that they are rarely found in national average.

160 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership • Overgrazing by sheep, deer and rabbits leading • A large mixed upland native wood is being to change in the woodland structure, ground flora created by Borders Forest Trust at Carrifran in impoverishment and difficulties for regeneration. the Moffat Hills. • Air pollution affects lichen and bryophyte • Conservation organisations such as RSPB and communities, though this is localised in Dumfries Scottish Wildlife Trust own and manage a & Galloway. number of native woods. RSPB have begun to create 371ha of new native wood at Barclye, • Invasive species such as Rhododendron, Cherry adjacent to Wood of Cree. Laurel, Snowberry, Sycamore, Beech and other species leads to changes in the composition of • Cree Valley Community Woodlands Trust the woods and the ground layer and threatens has been working since 1996 to restore and link woodland regeneration. fragments of native woodland in the Cree valley. • Management of native woods for game can • The South West Community Woods are be compatible with high biodiversity, but the strongly orientated to native trees and woods. strawing of rides, use of release pens and introduction of exotic trees and shrubs can 6.2 Other recommended actions all be damaging. The higher the number of pheasants in a wood, the greater is the chance of • Expand native woods through natural damage. regeneration wherever possible. • Ditching and other drainage measures, including • Where natural regeneration is not feasible, the loss or dredging of woodland ponds reduces maintain genetic integrity by careful selection of biodiversity value. planting stock. • Nutrient enrichment leading to changes in soils • Maintain existing native tree species and ground flora may occur from spray drift or composition, including birches, willows and runoff from adjacent agricultural land. shrubs such as Hawthorn. • In some cases, unsympathetic forest • Maintain a high structural diversity with trees management, where felling rates, choice of of different ages and sizes, to ensure that there broadleaf species planted, or methods of working will be a continuity of habitat availability. A variety do not yet reflect published guidelines. of aspects and degrees of exposure and shading should also be retained to provide a range of • Clearance of dead wood, an essential microclimates. component of woodland ecosystems, on the grounds of safety or neatness reduces • Implement local integrated strategies for biodiversity value. management of deer and feral goats. • Abandonment of practices such as coppicing • Ensure that proposals for new non-native may in some areas lead to a reduction in plantations avoid native woodland and areas structural diversity within the woods. that could potentially be used to link native woods. 6. Strategic Actions • Survey the native woodland resource in Dumfries & Galloway using standard methods. 6.1 Recent and current activity Focus on neglected, un-recorded, moribund and small woodlands (less than 2ha). Identify sites • Forestry Commission Scotland is involved where restoration is possible. with many native woodland projects, including

managing grazing to assist natural regeneration, • Research the possibilities for reviving the WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE removal of Rhododendron and the restoration of economic value of producing timber from native plantations on ancient woodland sites (PAWS). woodlands, with particular attention to local markets. • Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) carries out monitoring of designated woods and works with • Raise awareness of the importance of native their owners on subsequent management. woods, through guided walks, open days, illustrated talks and publicity.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 161 162 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE WET WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T many ofthetrees areshort-livedspecies. carr. Deadwood composed primarilyofwillows or Alder isoftentermed those onmiresasbogwoods, whilstwoodland to riversandlochsarereferred toasriparianwoods, relatively stable.Wet woodsimmediatelyadjacent and drierwoodland,butin some locationsitcanbe successional stagebetweenopenwetlandareas Wet woodlandoftenrepresentsatransient peaty tomineralsoils. a widerangeofsubstratesfromacidtobase-rich,and be seasonallyfloodedorconstantlywet,andoccur on species suchaswillows,birchesand Alder. They may wooded areaswhendampgroundiscolonisedby on floodplainsandassmallpatcheswithinlarger Native wetwoodsarefoundbesideriversandlochs, 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics Woods Also seegeneralinformationonalltypesofNative 1. Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Expandby440ha2012. Expand nativewetwoods. Priority Action (NWW2) Lead partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Restore190haby2012. habitats ofhighbiodiversityvalue. Restore nativewetwoodsonforestedsites,givingprioritytositesthatconnectwetlandorwoodland Priority Action (NWW1) Habitat Description Dense birchesandwillowsatLochaberLoch. August 2007. canbefrequent inallofthese,as NATIVE WETWOODS (Peter Norman) important areaforthishabitat. but Dumfries&Gallowayisprobablythenextmost 35,000ha. MostofthisoccursintheHighlands, woodland resourceoftheUK,totallingapproximately Scotland isestimatedtohavearoundhalfofthewet 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext shade oftenresultsinlittlevegetation. in andaroundthewatercourse,althoughlevelof exceptionally diversefaunainthemudanddetritus woods. These areexploitedbyanimportantand of branchingrunnelsor woodland floorisoftenabundant.Extensivenetworks other habitats,anddecayingorganiclitter Floods alsowashinlargequantitiesofmaterialfrom may extendsomewayupthetrunksoftrees. be periodicallyenrichedwithnutrientfromsilt. This In seasonallyfloodedwoods,the 2ha. fragmented. Few, ifany, sitesextendtomorethan though notexclusivelyinthe lowlands,theyarehighly common acrossDumfries & Galloway, particularly, Though nativewetwoodsarewidespreadandfairly 2.2 CurrentDistribution they threatenmorevaluablewetlandhabitats. woods hasbeenclearanceofspreadingtreeswhere the onlysignificantmanagementofcarrandbog along rivers,particularlybyfisheriesbodies.However, two decades,withextensiveplantingofripariantrees Habitat losshasbeenpartiallyreversedinthelast 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership ditchesoccurinmanywet flood zone onthe may NATIVE WET WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.3 Site Examples in Dumfries & Galloway. The nationally scarce Most lowland lochs in Dumfries & Galloway have at Spruce’s Bristle-moss Orthotrichum sprucei, a least a narrow fringe of wet native woodland, such as riverside epiphyte of Alder, Ash, and willows where at Castle Loch (SPA/SSSI/LNR). Other native wet occasionally inundated, has been recorded beside woods occur in river floodplains such as at Wood Cargen Water, near Dumfries. Flood moss Myrinia of Cree, and on the sites of silted-up lochs, such as pulvinata, a rare species in Scotland, is known only Ladypark Scottish Wildlife Trust reserve in Dumfries, from Kenmure Holms. Dowalton (SSSI) in the Machars and Barscraigh (LWS) in Dalbeattie Forest. Royal Fern Osmunda regalis, found in fen-carr woodland, declined heavily as a result of habitat loss 2.4 Associated Habitats and collecting in Victorian times. Though it is now recovering, it remains uncommon. A number of habitats occur in close association and/ or overlap with native wet woods, and the following 3.2 Invertebrates (very high importance) action plans may also contain relevant information: River Headwaters, Lowland Rivers and Backwaters, The number of invertebrates associated with Alder, Lowland Burns and Ditches, Eutrophic Lochs, birches and willows is very large, and wet woods Mesotrophic Lochs, Fens, Marshes, Raised Bogs, support many species which are rare in Britain. A snail WET WOODS NATIVE Native Woods, Scrub Woods. Leiostyla anglica associated with this habitat type is virtually endemic, being otherwise known only from 3. Importance for Associated Species a tiny area of western France. The association of dead wood with water provides specialised habitats 3.1 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) not found in dry woodland types. A large number of craneflies specialise in this habitat, including the Native wet woods have a well-developed moss and scarce Lipsothrix errans, the larvae of which probably liverwort flora. Typical ground bryophytes include live in submerged rotting wood. Standing dead wood Feather Moss Eurhynchium praelongum and Forest is also valuable for the larvae of species such as Star Moss Mnium Lunar Hornet Clearwing moths Sesia bembeciformis hornum. Blunt- that live within willow trunks. leaved Bog-moss Sphagnum palustre, Many invertebrates are associated with fungi, and wet Girgensohn’s Bog- woods are probably the most important single habitat moss Sphagnum for a range of fungus-feeding flies. Larvae of the girgensohnii and hoverfly Helophilus hybridus are often associated with Fringed Bog-moss wet, decaying organic litter, as are soldier beetles Sphagnum fimbriatum Malthodes dispar. A nationally scarce spider Maro are shade-tolerant sublestus, has also been recorded in fens and wet species found woods in Kirkcudbrightshire. amongst birches and willows. On the trees Ditches and their margins support a special themselves, there fauna. Strongly shaded ditches with choked with are many epiphytic Blunt-leaved Bog-moss Sphagnum saturated organic mud provide the special habitat but species on willow. palustre. Killiegowan Wood, biodiversity is richest where some light penetrates to Alder is relatively Gatehouse of Fleet, February 2007. allow herb or aquatic plants to grow. Even quite small species poor, though (Peter Norman) wet seepages may support important invertebrates. a few notable species NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE have been recorded in other parts of Britain. 3.3 Fungi and Lichens (very high importance) In the flood zone there are several typical species Willow Gloves Hypocreopsis lichenoides is a small on exposed roots and tree bases enriched with silt but distinctive fungus that is no longer known in the from flooding, including Many-fruited Leskea Leskea wild in Britain, although herbarium collections remain. polycarpa, Kneiff’s Feather-moss Leptodictyon It grows on willow branches and was recorded near riparium and Blunt Feather-moss Homalia Dalry and Moniaive in the late 19th century. More trichomanoides. None are particularly common typical fungi include Blushing Bracket Daedaleopsis

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confragosa and Alder Bracket Inonotus radiatus. 3.7 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Lichen diversity is greatest on old trees rather Native wet woods frequently contain species that are than the relatively young ones that comprise characteristic of the majority of wet woods. However, important fens and marshes. species do occur. Despite its name, Scotland is the These include European stronghold for Norwegian Specklebelly Marsh Marigold Pseudocyphellaria norvegica. It grows on moss- Caltha palustris, covered trees in woods and willow carr, and has been Wild Angelica found at a few sites in Galloway. Angelica sylvestris and Meadowsweet 3.4 Fishes (high importance) Filipendula ulmaria. Well managed riparian woodlands provide essential A number of scarce habitat in the life-cycle of various fish, especially Trout species also occur Salmo trutta. They assist in reducing the siltation of in Dumfries & spawning grounds, supply invertebrate and leaf-litter Galloway, including food, and provide shade and shelter. Elongated Sedge

NATIVE WET WOODS NATIVE Carex elongata, a 3.5 Mammals (high importance) nationally scarce Bird Cherry flowers. Caldons species found at Wood, May 2006. (Peter Norman) The combination of woodland and wetland provides a number of sites, ideal conditions for bats, supporting large quantities of particularly favouring Alder woods; and Sawwort invertebrate food. Trees also provide roost sites and Serratula tinctoria found in a range of wet habitats, shelter for bats foraging over water. All bat species including wet woods in the Dee and Urr valleys. make use of such conditions. Otter Lutra lutra dens, or holts, are frequently located in flood debris or in 3.8 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium mature bankside trees with root cavities such as importance) oaks and Ash, although non native species such as Sycamores are also used. Several of the commoner amphibians – Palmate Newts Lissotriton helvetica, Common Toads Bufo 3.6 Birds (medium importance) bufo, and Common Frogs Rana temporaria breed and overwinter in wet woodland, so long as the canopy A high density of breeding birds occurs in wet woods. is not so dense as to keep waterbodies in constant Mostly these are common woodland species including shade. Long-tailed Tits Aegithalos caudatus, Redpolls Carduelis cabaret and Willow Warblers Phylloscopus trochilus, the latter species now possibly declining 4. Environmental, Economic & Social nationally. Willow Tits Poecile montanus are certainly Importance of Biodiversity in rapid UK decline and Dumfries & Galloway is now their Scottish stronghold. They excavate new nest • Despite their relatively limited extent, native wet holes each year, so require dead wood and partially woods make a significant contribution to the decayed trees. Woodcocks Scolopax rusticola require landscape of the region. This is particularly the soft ground to probe for invertebrates, and are case in some farmland and upland areas where therefore often found in wet woods. they may constitute the majority or even the only native trees in the landscape. • Native wet woods are of fundamental importance

NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE to the health and productivity of freshwater ecosystems, capturing and recycling nutrients. In certain situations the input of leaves and other organic matter can provide 90% of a stream’s energy budget.

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Fallen timber and pools are important invertebrate habitats. Killiegowan Wood, WET WOODS NATIVE February 2007. (Peter Norman)

• Riparian woods protect river banks and control • Removal of old, diseased or larger moss- erosion. covered trees and dead wood due to concerns over safety or hygiene. • Along with other natural riparian habitats, native wet woods ameliorate the effects of heavy rainfall • Invasive species, such as American Skunk and reduce the downstream risk of flash floods. Cabbage Lysichiton americanus, may have a They may also act as a buffer, intercepting localised impact. excessive nutrients and reducing the risk of water pollution. 6. Strategic Actions

5. Factors affecting the Habitat 6.1 Recent and current activity • The UK Forestry Standard recognises the • Clearance and/or coniferisation of wet woods importance of riparian management. for agriculture or intensive forestry have occurred in the past. • Riparian planting by Galloway Fisheries Trust and district salmon fisheries boards. • Fragmentation. By their nature, wet woods are small and localised. However, they would have 6.2 Other recommended actions often been linked to each other though semi- natural habitats such as wetlands. • Collate existing information to assess the current extent and distribution of native wet • Water pollution and nutrient enrichment from woods. agricultural run-off affects wet woods and species associated with them, especially bryophytes and • Consider opportunities for the creation of new invertebrates. native wet woods through natural regeneration, or if necessary planting. Avoid open semi-natural

• Lowering ground-water in wet woods results in WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE habitats that are likely to already have a high an invasion of Nettles and Brambles and loss of biodiversity value, and important archaeological biodiversity. sites. • Removal or major disturbance of flood debris, tidying of fallen wood from streams, ditching of streams, and drainage or interception of seepages is extremely damaging to bryophytes and invertebrates.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 165 166 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE ASH WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T ancient semi-natural woodsofthistype. There areestimatedtobe 40,000–50,000ha of the mostnortherlyexamples ofthistypeintheworld. Morecambe Bay. Those innorth-west Scotlandare districts suchastheMendips, Penninesandaround Britain, butareparticularly characteristicoflimestone Ash woodsarefoundthroughoutuplandareasof 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext could beconsidered Rowan andWych Elm.Indeed,somesmallwoods present inwoodlandofthistype,suchasBirdCherry, field layerflora.Othertreespeciesaregenerally allowing thegrowthofaflourishingandoftendiverse Canopy foliagetendsnottobeover-dense,thus Ash woods 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics Woods Also seegeneralinformationonalltypesofNative 1. Coppiced Ash. BackWood,ScaurGlen,May2008.(PeterNorman) Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Extendby210ha2015. have thepotentialtolinkexistingwoods,especiallyancientwoods. Expand native Ash woodsinareascurrently oflowbiodiversityandarchaeologicalimportance,butthat Priority Action (NAW2) Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Restore60haby2015. Restore plantationsonancient Ash woodlandsites. Priority Action (NAW1) Habitat Description mainlyoccuronneutraloralkalinesoils. elm woods NATIVE ASHWOODS . Native BirchWoods, ScrubWoods, MontaneScrub. Flushes, NativeWet Woods, NativeOakWoods, River Headwaters,Waterfalls, UplandSpringsand action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: or overlapwithnative Ash woods,andthefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Glenmaddie Wood Back Wood (SAC/SSSI)onCrawickWater; and Glen; Chanlockfoot(SAC/SSSI)inScaur SSSI); and includewoodsalongthe concentrated inthetributaryvalleysofRiverNith, The bestexamplesofupland Ash woodsare 2.3 SiteExamples in rivervalleys,particularlythepartsofNithsdale. These areconcentratedonsteepslopesorpoorsoils than 2ha)thatcontributesmarkedlytobiodiversity. large woods,butadiverserangeofsmallwoods(less more commonintheeastofregion. There arefew As aresultofsoilsandclimate Ash woodstendstobe 2.2 CurrentDistribution other woodlandtypes. woods, Ash woodshavereceivedlessattentionthan Despite recentrestorationandcreationofnative 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Stenhouse Wood (LWS) ontheEuchanWater. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership (SAC/SSSI)inShinnel Mennock Water (SAC/ NATIVE ASH WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3. Importance for Associated Species 3.2 Flowering Plants (very high importance) Well-developed Ash woods tend to have a more 3.1 Fungi and Lichens (very high importance) diverse flora than upland oak and birch woods. Many native They are notable for displays of flowers, such as woods hold very Bluebells Hyacinthoides non-scripta, Primroses diverse lichen Primula vulgaris, Dog’s Mercury Mercurialis perennis, communities Common Dog Violets Viola riviniana, Wood Sorrels and the alkaline Oxalis acetosella, and Wood Avens Geum urbanum. bark of Ash A few less common species also occur, including and Wych Early Dog Violet Viola reichenbachiana at some of its Elm supports few Scottish localities. particularly important 3.3 Invertebrates (very high importance) lichens, Ash woods support a slightly different invertebrate including rare fauna to oak and birch woods. They can be especially species such

important for molluscs, which need calcium for ASH WOOD NATIVE as Biatoridium their shells, and ancient upland Ash woods include monasteriense some special species. Base rich seepages and on a single tree springs in Ash woods support a number of rare in Garlies Wood. species. Although of only moderate pH, the water in seepages is sufficiently rich in calcium to support There are diverse communities of molluscs, found amongst relatively few the vegetation and in saturated leaf litter. The fungi specifically Lichen and moss covered Ash trunk. snails Acicula fusca and Spermodea lamellata are associated with Glenmaddie Wood, June 2008. associated with this habitat type; all are at their (Peter Norman) Ash. The best extreme west European distribution. S. lamellata known is King is an indicator of ancient woodland. However, the Alfred’s Cakes Daldinia concentrica on dead trunks invertebrate fauna of woodland seepages is very and Shaggy Bracket Inonotus hispidus high up on poorly known, and more survey work is urgently mature trees. However, many other species are found required in order to better inform decision-making. in Ash woods on rotting wood or leaves. The caterpillars of the rare Barred Tooth-stripe moth Trichopteryx polycommata feed on Ash, though have also been recorded on privet. Ash is also one of the better trees for decaying wood (saproxylic) insects, especially flies. These species are now some of the most threatened in Britain.

3.4 Mammals (very high importance) There is little distinction between the mammal fauna of Ash woods and other kinds of native woods in Dumfries and Galloway; all are of very high importance for a wide range of species, especially bats. NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE

3.5 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) There is a wide variety of mosses, liverworts and ferns found in the region’s native Ash woods. Big Shaggy-moss Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus grows most typically in woodland on more calcareous substrates Common Dog Violet, Scaur Glen, May 2006. (Peter Norman) where it forms a conspicuous part of the flora.

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3.6 Birds (high importance) 6.2 Other recommended actions The bird fauna of upland ash woods is less • Expand native Ash woods through natural characteristic than other types, but all the typical regeneration wherever possible. Avoid open woodland species are present. semi-natural habitats that are likely to already have a high biodiversity value, and important 3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium archaeological sites. importance) • Where natural regeneration is not feasible, A number of reptiles and amphibians are found within maintain genetic integrity by careful selection of Ash woods, particularly in woods with extensive open planting stock. spaces. Amphibians breed in woodland ponds that are at least partly unshaded.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

NATIVE ASH WOOD NATIVE • In common with other types of native woods, Ash woods provide landscape, cultural heritage, archaeological, recreation and tourism benefits. • Mature upland Ash woods on fertile soils can often provide valuable shelter for sheep and cattle and can give good grazing. However, grazing pressure needs to be carefully managed to avoid risking the survival or ecological value of the woods.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• The native Ash woods of Dumfries & Galloway are generally concentrated in narrow river valleys. This produces a greater edge effect than the national average. • Other factors affecting Ash woods are similar to those affecting other types of native wood.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Forestry Commission Scotland has completed a survey of the current distribution of Ash woods in Dumfries and Galloway, and this has identified Dog's Mercury often dominates the springtime ground flora of Ash potential areas for expansion and creation of new woods. Stenhouse Wood, May 2006. (Peter Norman) Ash woods. NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE • Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) carries out monitoring of designated woods and works with their owners on subsequent management.

168 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership common inthe westoftheregion. There arefew large As aresultof soilsandclimate,oakwoods aremore 2.1 CurrentDistribution 2. this type. 60,000–70,000ha ofancientsemi-naturalwoods the finestlandscapes. Thereareestimatedtobe District, and Argyll theyformimportantelementsof Scotland. InpartsofExmoor, Snowdonia,Lake Britain fromsouthernmostCornwalltonorth-west Upland oakwoodsarefoundinwesternandnorthern 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext wind andsaltexposure. influences. Thetreesareoftenstuntedandprunedby oak woodthathasbeenmodifiedbymaritime Coastal oakwoodsareessentiallyaformofupland ones tothosedominatedbymosses. communities throughgrassandBrackendominated degree ofgrazing,rangingfromBluebell-Bramble-fern layer variesaccordingtotheunderlyingsoiltypeand species. The rangeofplantsfoundintheground/field Rowan andHazelareoftenthemainunderstorey along withsomebirch.Varying amountsofHolly, predominance ofusuallySessileOakinthecanopy, leached brownearthsoilsandarecharacterisedbya woods low altitudesarebestconsideredas UK, allofthoseinDumfriesandGalloway, evenat Although thereareothertypesofoakwoodinthe 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics Woods. Also seegeneralinformationonalltypesofNative 1. Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Expandby300ha2015 that havethepotentialtolinkexistingwoods,especiallyancientwoods. Expand uplandnativeoakwoodsinareascurrentlyoflowbiodiversityandarchaeologicalimportance,but Priority Action (NOW2) Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Restore250haby2015. Restore plantationsonancientoakwoodlandsites. Priority Action (NOW1) Dumfries &Galloway Status Habitat Description . These arefoundonacidic,oftenshallow, NATIVE OAKWOODS upland oak . Coastal oakwoodsinclude wood pasture,ratherthanwoodland. Beattock isdominatedbyoaks,buthasahistoryof in theDee-Kenvalley. Lochwood Hannaston Wood the Fleetvalley;andAirdsofKellsWood Wood valley; KilliegowanWood Woods (LWS) andBlackcraigWood of Cree(SAC/SSSI), examples ofuplandoaktypewoods,including Though atloweraltitude,therearemanyothergood (SAC/SSSI) alsohasareasofuplandbirchwood. upland nativeoakwoodland.Nearby Glentrool probablyprovidethebestexamplesof Buchan andGlenheadWoods (SAC/SSSI)in 2.2 SiteExamples few onthecoast. are most frequent intheCreeandFleetvalleys,witha valleys, contributesmarkedlytobiodiversity. These concentrated onsteepslopesorpoorsoilsinriver woods, buttherangeofsmallwoods(lessthan2ha), Native BirchWoods, ScrubWoods, MontaneScrub. Flushes, NativeWet Woods, Native Ash Woods, River Headwaters,Waterfalls, UplandSpringsand action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: or overlapwithnativeoakwoods,andthefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.3 Associated Habitats Gibb’s HoleWood at Carsluith,Heughwood Though fungi arewidelydistributedinall native 3.1 Fungiand Lichens(veryhighimportance) 3. Importance for Associated Species (SAC/SSSI)andCardonessWood (LWS) in (SSSI),andOaksofKirkconnell (LWS) at Almorness. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Holm Wood (SSSI)atSouthwickand (SAC/SSSI), Ravenshall Wood (SSSI),near (LWS) Camer Caldons Wood intheCree Carstramon (SSSI), (SSSI) Wood 169 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE OAK WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

woods, there are some species that are restricted to Hylocomiastrum umbratum is found in hilly districts of oak, such as Beefsteak Fungus Fistulina hepatica, western Britain where it occurs on the ground in open Oak Milk-cap Lactarius quietus and Hen of the Woods woodland, in turf and amongst rocks and scree. It is Grifola frondosa. uncommon in Dumfries & Galloway.

Greater Whipwort Bazzania trilobata is a classic liverwort of oak woods in western Britain: it can be an abundant component of the ground layer in the most humid wooded valleys, but is restricted to the rockiest sections of less humid woods. As well as growing on the ground and on rocks, it can colonise logs or grow on tree trunks but it is seldom found away from woods. Trunk Pawwort Barbilophozia attenuata is found on decaying tree stumps and the trunks of acid- barked trees.

NATIVE OAK WOODS NATIVE Beefsteak Fungus Fistulina hepatica. Holy Linn, September 2006. Rarer liverworts include Deceptive Featherwort (Peter Norman) Adelanthus decipiens, typical of the best Atlantic oakwoods in western Scotland. It has been recorded Wet and mossy upland oak woodland is an just once in Dumfries & Galloway, at Bargaly Glen exceptionally rich lichen habitat. The moss forms a in 1975. Outside of Britain it is known only in France base on which the rare, but conspicuous ‘Lobarion’ and Spain. Brown Scalewort Radula aquilegia is a lichen community is found, including Tree Lungwort liverwort that is endemic to Europe, with its world lichen Lobaria pulmonaria. Though internationally headquarters in the west of Britain. There are several rare lichens are not as plentiful as in the Atlantic oak historical records from the New Galloway area, most woods further north, a few examples of such lichens recent of which was in Hannaston Wood in 1975. have been recorded from several Galloway oak Hutchins’ Hollywort Jubula hutchinsiae has been woods. recorded in damp shady woodland at Chlenry Burn, and Jamesoniella autumnalis has been found on 3.2 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) decaying wood. The mosses, liverworts and ferns found in the region’s native woods show a similar distribution to 3.4 Invertebrates (very high importance) lichens. Upland oak woods, though generally not as Acidic oak woods have a number of invertebrates diverse and rich as those in the west Highlands, are in common with birch woods. The soldier beetles particularly important. Malthodes flavoguttatus and M. fuscus are most frequently found here, whilst the Hollowed Glass Snail Little Shaggy-moss Rhytidiadelphus loreus is a Zonitoides excavatus is the only British snail that common species of acidic upland woodland where avoids base-rich habitats. It is usually found in the leaf it forms conspicuous stands. Shaded Wood-moss litter of poorly drained places in old established birch and oak woods.

Different species typically exploit different sub- habitats of native oak woods. A wide range of invertebrates occur on the leaf litter of the ground

NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE layer, including the common ground beetles Abax parallelepipedus, Agonum assimile and Calathus piceus.

The canopy holds important invertebrates that are rarely seen at lower levels. The Great Prominent moth Peridea anceps appears restricted to larger native Little Shaggy-moss Rhytidiadelphus loreus carpeting boulders. woods in Dumfries & Galloway, so far recorded only Hannaston Wood, February 2008. (Peter Norman) in Kirkcudbrightshire. Its caterpillars are associated

170 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P with the oak canopy. Purple Hairstreak Neozephyrus 4. Environmental, Economic & Social quercus butterflies, near the northern edge of their Importance of Biodiversity range in Dumfries & Galloway, pupate on the ground but spend most of their adult lives in the oak canopy. • In common with other types of native woods, oak woods provide landscape, cultural heritage, 3.5 Birds (very high importance) archaeological, recreation and tourism benefits. Upland oak woods, especially those with a poorly developed understorey have a very characteristic 5. Factors affecting the Habitat bird fauna. The typical species are Pied Flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca, Redstarts Phoenicurus • The native oak woods of Dumfries & Galloway phoenicurus, Tree Pipits Anthus trivialis and Wood are generally small in extent and concentrated Warblers Phylloscopus sibilatrix. on steep slopes in the river valleys or on the coast. This produces a greater edge effect than 3.6 Mammals (very high importance) the national average. There is little distinction between the mammal fauna of oak woods and other kinds of native woods • Other factors affecting oak woods are similar to in Dumfries and Galloway; all are of very high those affecting other types of native wood. OAK WOODS NATIVE importance for a wide range of species, especially bats. 6. Strategic Actions

3.7 Flowering Plants (high importance) 6.1 Recent and current activity The field layer of upland native oak woods is • Forestry Commission Scotland is involved with typically not as varied as other woodland types, being many native oak woodland projects, including dominated by non-flowering plants. Ungrazed and managing grazing to assist natural regeneration, lightly grazed native woods at lower altitudes have removal of Rhododendron and the restoration of the greatest range of species, including Bluebells plantations on ancient woodland sites (PAWS). Hyacinthoides non-scripta, Wood Anemones • Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) carries out Anemone nemorosa and Wood Sorrels Oxalis monitoring of designated woods and works with acetosella. their owners on subsequent management. • Conservation organisations such as RSPB and Scottish Wildlife Trust own and manage a number of native oak woods. RSPB have begun to create 371ha of new native wood at Barclye, adjacent to Wood of Cree. • Cree Valley Community Woodlands Trust has been working since 1996 to restore and link fragments of native woodland in the Cree valley. Most of these woods are of native oak.

6.2 Other recommended actions

Bluebells at Carstramon Wood. May 2004. (Peter Norman) • Expand native oak woods through natural regeneration wherever possible. Avoid open NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE 3.8 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium semi-natural habitats that are likely to already importance) have a high biodiversity value, and important A number of reptiles and amphibians are found within archaeological sites. oak woods, particularly those with extensive open • Where natural regeneration is not feasible, spaces. Amphibians breed in woodland ponds maintain genetic integrity by careful selection of that are at least partly unshaded, though the more planting stock. acidic conditions of oak woods may limit species composition in comparison to Ash woods.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 171 172 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE BIRCH WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T in theScottish Highlands,inotherupland areasthey can allbefound. Though birchwoodsareextensive Cherry, BirdCherry, Hazel,Hawthornand Blackthorn oaks, Rowan, Aspen, Ash, Alder, Goat Willow, Wild there maybefewothertrees. Onmorefertilesites, dominant inthecanopy, andonthepoorest soils infertile soils.Birches,especially DownyBirch,are Upland 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics Woods. Also seegeneralinformationonalltypesofNative 1. Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Expandby430ha2015. Expand uplandnativebirchwoodsinareascurrentlyoflowbiodiversityandarchaeologicalimportance. Priority Action NBW2 Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Restore20haby2015. Restore plantationsonancientbirchwoodlandsites. Priority Action (NBW1) Habitat Description birch woods Caldons Wood,Glentrool.May2006.(PeterNorman) aretypicallyfoundonacidic, NATIVE BIRCHWOODS broadleaved woodlandinScotlandisuplandbirch. extensive inthenorth,andnearlyhalfofall throughout uplandBritainbutaremuchmore a considerablylargerareathanthis. They occur more recentsemi-naturalbirchwoodlandoccupies of ancientsemi-naturaluplandbirchwoods,but In Britain,thereareestimatedtobe15–25,000ha 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext woods. other habitats,suchasnativewetwoodsandscrub other broadleaves.Birchesalsooccurcommonlyin often occuraspatchesinamosaicwithoaksand upland birch,aswelloak. Caldons Wood (SAC/SSSI)inGlentroolhas areasof 2.3 SiteExamples woods. are uncommonintheregionandtherefewlarge woods intheregionisnotaccuratelyknown,butthey The fullextentandqualityofsemi-naturalnativebirch 2.2 CurrentDistribution grazing pressureisreduced. in regeneratingandcolonisingnewgroundwhere the uplandvalleysbirchisbeinglocallysuccessful birch woodlandhaverecentlybeenplanted,andin gradually becomemoreimportant.Newareasof and managementofnativebirchwoodshas of policyforbroadleavesin1985,theconservation However, sincetheForestryCommission’s review weeds withincommercialwoodsandplantations. Until quiterecently, bircheswereoftenviewedas 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership NATIVE BIRCH WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.4 Associated Habitats A number of habitats occur in close association and/ or overlap with native birch woods, and the following action plans may also contain relevant information: River Headwaters, Waterfalls, Upland Springs and Flushes, Native Wet Woods, Native Oak Woods, Native Ash Woods, Native Birch Woods, Scrub Woods, Montane Scrub.

3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Fungi and Lichens (very high importance) There is a distinctive and substantial mycota in upland native birch woods. Probably the best known of all British fungi, Fly Agaric Amanita muscaria, is usually associated with birches, and the Birch

Polypore Piptoporus betulinus is also well-known. BIRCH WOODS NATIVE There are also many brittlegills Russula, milk-caps Lactarius and webcaps Cortinarius. Hoof Fungus Fomes fomentarius was formerly found almost entirely on birches, but in recent years has spread Yellow-horned Moth, a birch specialist. Caldons Wood, March to other trees. 2007. (Peter Norman) Many native birch woods also hold 3.3 Mammals (very high importance) very diverse lichen Hoof Fungus Fomes fomentarius on There is little distinction between the mammal fauna communities. birch. Caldons Wood, March 2007. of birch woods and other kinds of native woods (Peter Norman) in Dumfries and Galloway; all are of very high 3.2 Invertebrates (very high importance) importance for a wide range of species, especially Upland birch woods have a number of invertebrates in bats. common with upland oak woods. The soldier beetles Malthodes flavoguttatus and M. fuscus are most 3.4 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) frequently found here, whilst the Hollowed Glass Snail There is usually an abundance of mosses and Zonitoides excavatus is the only British snail that liverworts in birch woods, though rarer species are avoids base-rich habitats. It is usually found in the more usually associated with adjacent oak woods. leaf litter of poorly drained places in old established birch and oak woods. Birches are bettered only by 3.5 Birds (high importance) willows and oaks in terms of the number of larger Typical species of upland birch woods include moths they support. Although birch-specific moths Redstarts Phoenicurus phoenicurus, Tree Pipits occur on birch within other habitats, birch woods have Anthus trivialis, Redpolls Carduelis cabaret and a characteristic moth fauna, including Yellow-horned Willow Warblers Phylloscopus trochilus. Achlya flavicornis, Scarce Prominent Odontosia NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE carmelita and the day-flying Orange Underwing 3.6 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Archiearis parthenias. The field layer of upland native birch woods is typically not as varied as other woodland types, being Invertebrate species that rely on decaying wood are dominated by non-flowering plants. now some of the most threatened in Britain. More than 700 species of flies and a similar number of beetles are dependant to some extent on deadwood in the UK and birch, which rots quickly, supports many species. Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 173 SCRUB WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) A number of reptiles and amphibians are found within birch woods, particularly those with extensive open spaces. Amphibians breed in woodland ponds that are at least partly unshaded, though species composition may be limited in acidic conditions.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• In common with other types of native woods, birch woods provide landscape, cultural heritage, archaeological, recreation and tourism benefits. Birch wood at Slogarie, near Laurieston. February 2008. • Birch is used mainly for firewood at present and (Peter Norman) is often regarded as worthless for timber because NATIVE BIRCH WOODS NATIVE of the poor form of many present-day birchwoods. 6. Strategic Actions The latter is at least partly due to lack of tending and to browsing, which results in twisted coppice 6.1 Recent and current activity stems. Improvements in form can be expected • Under Forestry Commission policy, native birch with good management, at least with Silver Birch woods within conifer plantations are retained on the better sites. Good quality birch timber is during felling. in fact strong and versatile and can be sawn for general use. Straight birch stems make excellent 6.2 Other recommended actions turnery wood. Other potential uses could be developed if a sufficient supply of good quality • Expand native birch woods through natural birch was available. regeneration wherever possible. • Where natural regeneration is not feasible, 5. Factors affecting the Habitat maintain genetic integrity by careful selection of planting stock. • Birch woods rarely attract the same level of interest from the public and land managers as other types of woodland, such as oak woods. • Virtually no commercial use is currently made of birch products. • Other factors affecting Birch woods are similar to those affecting other types of native wood. NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE

174 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership is aspecialised andrareformofscrubwoodland. form densewoods ofitsown;and shrub withinnativewoodland but Hazel usuallyoccursasa scattered understorey on agriculturallandandis often singlespecies; and/or Blackthorn;Gorsescrub usually occurs Thorn scrub of avarietyspeciesandtakeforms. woods orontheedgeofwoods.Itcanbecomposed Scrub woodlandcanoccurinisolatedpockets,within coast andclosetothetopsofhills. mostly ungrazed,occurringanywherebetweenthe relatively densesemi-naturalscrubwoodlandthatis concerned withscrubintheremainingsituations– modified formashedgerows. Thisactionplanis near mountaintops.Scrubalsooccursinahighly- parklands; andmontanescrubabovethetreeline woods; scrubpastureongrazedgrasslandsandin wet scrubonfens,raisedbogsandaspartof scrub isfoundonshingle,dunesandcoastalslopes; Scrub growsinarangeofdifferent situations.Coastal hundreds ofyears. sometimes for decades, it canpersist certain situations woodland, butin habitats and between open a transitionstage scrub occursas stands, Much impenetrable dense, sometimes often growingin less than5mtall, trees, usually shrubs andsmall are composedof Scrub woods 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage/Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. Promote thevalueofscrubwoodlandforbiodiversity. Priority Action (SW1) Habitat Description isusuallycomposedofHawthorn Juniper scrub,Tynron, February2007. SCRUB WOODS Hazel scrubcan Juniper scrub (Peter Norman) with acanopycoverof50%ormorewereincluded. this actionplan(butnotbirchor Alder scrub). All areas willow scrub,aswellthescrubtypesincludedin This includescoastalscrub,montanescrubandwet Britain in1990,ofwhich200km there wasveryapproximately900km definitions andboundaries. Thebestestimateisthat abundance ofscrubinBritainduetoimprecise There islittleinformationonthedistributionand 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext scrub woods. and maturetreesfrequentlyoccurascomponentsof some scrub.Otherspecies,suchasElder, DogRose grow justashighandevenmoreimpenetrablethan technically cannotformscrub, Although brambleisnotawoodyspeciesand entirely ofHazelscrub. an unusualwoodinalocal context,consistingalmost woods. BanksofDervaird (LWS), is near Glenluce, There aremanyexamples ofGorseandthornscrub 2.3 SiteExamples valley. uncommon, thelatterbeingrestrictedtoNith type intheuplands. also widespread,perhapsbeingthemostfrequent and someuplandfringeareas. especially extensiveonmanycoastalpeninsulas type ofscrubwoodlandinDumfries&Galloway, being Gorse scrubisthemostwidespreadandabundant 2.2 CurrentDistribution the uplands. result ofareductioninstockingdensity, particularlyin that itmayhaveincreasedinthelast10yearsasa in Dumfries&Galloway. Anecdotal evidencesuggests No detailedinformationisavailableonrecenttrends 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Wood SSSI), Dumfries &GallowayStatus aretheonlylocal examplesofthistype. Beuchan Juniper Wood Hazel andJuniperwoods Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Tynron JuniperWood Bramblethicketscan Thorn scrub 2 wasinScotland. andKeirJuniper 2 ofscrubin is (SAC/ are 175 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS SCRUB WOODS 2.4 Associated Habitats 3.2 Birds (high importance) A number of habitats occur in close association and/ A number of species of birds nest commonly in or overlap with scrub woods, and the following action scrub woods. These include Dunnocks Prunella plans may also contain relevant information: Coastal modularis, Common Whitethroats Sylvia communi, Shingle Beaches, Coastal Sand Dunes, Coastal Lesser Whitethroats Sylvia carruca, Willow Warblers Cliffs and Slopes, Raised Bogs, Native Wet Woods, Phylloscopus trochilus, Bullfinches Pyrrhula pyrrhula, Native Woods, Montane Scrub, Wood Pastures and Linnets Carduelis cannabina and Yellowhammers Parklands, Traditional Field Boundaries, Roads and Emberiza citrinella. Several of these are in national Verges. decline. Other species, such as Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix and Long-eared Owls Asio otus use some types 3. Importance for Associated Species of scrub at certain times of the year as part of a wider habitat mosaic. 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) Several scrub 3.3 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) species are Scrub is an important habitat for mosses and SCRUB WOODS amongst the most liverworts. Elder is the pre-eminent species for important nectar- epiphytic mosses and liverworts, unsurpassed by bearing plants for any other tree in Britain, with species such as Wood invertebrates in Bristle-moss Orthotrichum affine found commonly Britain. As a group, only in association with this species. Hazel woods, their importance especially where long established can also support is matched only notable bryophyte communities. by the umbellifers Hawthorn Shieldbug, one of many (many of which invertebrates dependent on scrub. 3.4 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Minnigaff, May 2007. (Gavin Chambers) often grow in A number of close association). uncommon Hawthorn, Blackthorn and Ivy are especially valuable, flowering but bramble thickets in open, sunny situations are plants are also very valuable for invertebrates. associated with scrub woods There are also many invertebrates that feed on in Dumfries the leaves, flowers or other parts of scrub species. & Galloway, Willows, Blackthorn, Hawthorn, Hazel and Bramble though the each host more than 200 different UK species. Gorse majority of these and Juniper support many fewer species, but Juniper are restricted Broom, a colourful component of many hosts several species that are specific to it alone, and scrub woods. Kate's Wood, Balmaclellan, to coastal May 2005. (Maggi Kaye) are nationally rare. Moths and beetles are the most scrub. Western numerous of the groups represented. Gorse Ulex gallii is widespread in the lowlands of Kirkcudbrightshire, and sometimes forms dense patches. It is rare elsewhere in Scotland. Greater Broomrape Orobanche rapum-genistae is associated with Gorse and Broom. It suffered a dramatic national decline in the nineteenth and early 20th centuries and in Scotland is now largely restricted to the Nith valley. NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE

3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) Scrub woods with open areas are utilised by reptiles such as Adders Vipera berus, Slow Worms Anguis fragilis and Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara. Open grassy or rocky areas are used for basking, whilst the Long Tailed Tits build their nests in dense scrub. (Gordon McCall)

176 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership scrub provides shelter. This shelter is also valuable, 5. Factors affecting the Habitat in some locations, for amphibians such as Great Crested Newts Triturus cristatus. • Scrub is rarely deliberately managed as a habitat in its own right. Rather it is allowed to expand when management of open habitats is reduced or abandoned, or cleared when management of open habitats is initiated or intensified. • Unmanaged scrub can encroach on more valuable biodiversity habitats and archaeological sites. Open, patchy scrub woods tend to support a greater biodiversity than dense thickets, but without low intensity management there is a tendency for open areas to be lost.

• Juniper woods have suffered from overgrazing SCRUB WOODS and burning, diminishing its range.

Fiery Milkcap Lactarius pyrogalus is associated only with Hazel (Peter Norman) 6. Strategic Actions

3.6 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) 6.1 Recent and current activity There are interesting fungi species associated with • Scottish Natural Heritage, in association with Hazel, Juniper and willow scrub, though less so with the site’s owner, support the management of Blackthorn, Hawthorn or Bramble. Elder supports Tynron Juniper Wood with the aim of regenerating a good lichen flora, whilst Blackthorn scrub on the Juniper, or restocking by planting where coast often has spectacular arrays of beard lichens regeneration is not successful. Usnea spp. Hazel is even more important for lichens, with a number of rare specialist species recorded in Scotland. However few studies of Hazel lichens have 6.2 Other recommended actions been completed in Dumfries & Galloway. • Survey current local distribution, extent and value of scrub woods. 3.7 Mammals (low importance) • Assess where expansion of scrub would Many mammals, including Badgers Meles meles, be most desirable. The final decision should Foxes Vulpes vulpes, Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus be made on a site by site basis but particular and various deer, make use of scrub woods but these locations, such as the edges of native woods may are common species and scrub is not a critical habitat be preferable. Avoid open semi-natural habitats component for any of them. that are likely to already have a high biodiversity value, and important archaeological sites. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Extensive areas of Gorse scrub form a distinctive landscape in parts of Dumfries & Galloway, especially during the main spring flowering period, NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE and this contributes to the image of the region to tourists.

Hazel scrub wood. Carlinstane Bank, Scaur Glen, May 2008. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 177 178 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS MONTANE SCRUB utilisation ofmontane scrubinDumfries &Galloway There isvirtually noevidenceofthemanagement or 2.1 RecentTrends 2. though severalrestoration projects areunderway. bushes survive in the Southern Uplandsand Cumbria, 0.5ha. ElsewhereinBritainonlyafewscattered in theScottishHighlands,biggestnomorethan A fewsmalldiscretestandsofmontanescruboccur in Norway, Sweden, FinlandandCzechRepublic. on severalEuropeanmountainranges,mostnotably Montane scrubisarareEuropeanhabitatbutfound 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext grazed steeprockyslopesorboulderfields. today, mostlyonungrazedledges,butrarelylightly small remnantsofmontanescrubsurviveinBritain elevations inshelteredgullies.However, onlyafew enough topreventitentirely. Italsooccursathigher growth oftallwoodyspeciesbuttheyarenotsevere conditions andshortgrowingseasonrestrictthe in anenvironmentwherelowtemperatures,windy the uplandsbetweenwoodlandandmossheath, trees andshrubs.Itoccursinatransitionzone Montane scrubconsistsoflow-growing,crooked 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland/BordersForest Trust. Target: Establishatotalofatleast40hain2locationsby2015. Establish areasofmontanescrubinDumfries&Galloway. Priority Action (MS1) Dumfries &Galloway Status Habitat Description Planting montanescrubatFirthHope,Carrifran.March2008. MONTANE SCRUB (Borders ForestTrust) Montane scrubisbeingcreatedat Coomb (SAC/SSSI)andontheMerrick Tiny remnantsofmontanescruboccurat 2.3 SiteExamples Moffat andGallowayHills. A fewremnantsofmontanescrubarefound inthe 2.2 CurrentDistribution in Scotland,inspiredbyexamplesfromEurope. However, interestinthishabitathasbeenincreasing in recentdecades,presumablyassolittleofitexists. Native Woods. Grasslands, UplandHeaths,MontaneMoss-heaths, plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation: Acid overlap withmontanescrub,andthefollowingaction A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats SSSI). montane willow, thoughfewifanyof thesehaveyet and beetles,have beenrecordedasspecialists on A numberofinvertebrates, includingsawflies,moths 3.2 Invertebrates(highimportance) habitat. become morewidespread with expansionofthis occasionally foundinmontanescrubandmay restricted intheuplandstoungrazedledges,are and Globeflower Plants suchasWood Cranesbill birches, shouldnotalsoformpartofthishabitat. communis, aswellstuntedtreessuchoaksand why otherwoodyspeciessuchasJuniper Willow Salixmyrsinites.However, thereisnoreason leaved Willow herbacea a mixtureofwillows,includingDwarfWillow Most remnantareasofmontanescrubconsist 3.1 FloweringPlants(highimportance) 3. Importance for Associated Species , DownyWillow Salix myrsinitesand Trollius europaeus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Salix lapponum, Geranium sylvaticum Carrifran Whortle-leaved , usuallynow (SSSI). White Dark- Juniperus Salix (SAC/ MONTANE SCRUB

been recorded in Dumfries & Galloway. Pontania 6. Strategic Actions herbacea has been noted as a gall on Dwarf Willow in the Moffat Hills. 6.1 Recent and current activity • The National Trust for Scotland has erected a 3.3 Birds (medium importance) fenced exclosure at Grey Mare’s Tail to prevent Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix would benefit from areas grazing of existing montane willows. of montane scrub. Other birds, including Ring Ouzels Turdus torquatus and other thrushes, Whinchats • Borders Forest Trust has designed areas of Saxicola rubetra, and finches would be likely to nest montane scrub into their Carrifran Wildwood within the scrub. Project. • Forestry Commission Scotland and Cree 3.4 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) Valley Community Woodlands Trust have Due to the rarity of this habitat in the UK, few studies initiated a montane scrub project in the Galloway have been completed on fungal associations. Hills as part of Highland Birchwoods’ Action Research from elsewhere in Europe suggests that for Mountain Woodlands Project. This involves

there may be a number of species restricted to this propagating and planting out Downy Willow and SCRUB MONTANE habitat. Juniper above the conifers on Merrick.

3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) 6.2 Other recommended actions Adders Vipera berus and Common Lizards Zootoca • Incorporate montane scrub into management of vivipara would be likely to occur in montane scrub. existing forests.

3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) As with fungi, little research has been completed on the importance of montane scrub in Dumfries & Galloway for mosses.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Montane scrub could be used to soften the upper edges of conifer plantations, bringing visual improvements to upland landscapes. • In such situations as above it would also shelter the plantation, increasing growth rates and reducing windthrow. • Montane scrub would help prevent erosion, reduce leaching of soil nutrients, and contribute to a reduced risk of flooding in the catchment.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Current environmental and grazing conditions WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE are unlikely to result in the expansion of montane scrub. Juniper, including dwarf forms, is a natural component of montane scrub. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 179 180 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS VETERAN TREES large numberof average quantitiesof have greaterthan trees typically trees. Veteran identifies veteran more usually characteristics of lessprecise feature andarange to detectsucha it israrelypossible decrease. However, to progressively main trunkbegins annual ringsinthe of successive when theareas becomes aveteran Technically, atree 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. characteristics ofallveterantrees. Trees thatareold trees. Sizeand agearethereforenotnecessarily particular history ofmanagementinrelatively young trees. However, thesefeaturescanalsoresultfroma characteristics andmanyveterans arelarge,old Old agetendstoproducemany oftheabove trees, makingthemlesssusceptible towind-throw. not killed.Indeeddecaydecreasesthebulkofveteran bulky heartwoodisaffected andthelivingtissuesare such decaycansurviveformanyyearsasonlythe bodies ofheart-rottingspecies. Ancient treeswith as fernsandlichens;frequent vessels; alargenumberof damage extendsfromthebarktoconductive sap runswherestress,wind,droughtorcollision of water;areasdamagedandlostbarkincluding trunk andbranches,oftenwithnaturallyformedpools Lead: Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Arrange 1trainingcourseby2009. Raise awarenessoftheimportanceandmanagementveterantreesamongstcountrysidestaf Priority Action (VT2) Lead: Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre/Woodland Trust. veteran trees. Establish aveterantreeprojecttorecruitandtrainvolunteers,inorderidentify Priority Action (VT1) Habitat Description hollows, holesandcavities dead anddecayingwood Heavy-branched veteranbirch.Holm epiphytic plants Farm, Creevalley, May2006. VETERAN TREES fungal fruiting (Peter Norman) such inthe ; a remain extremelyvulnerable. and adesireforincreased‘tidiness’. They therefore danger fromtreeswithdeadanddecayingwood, has beenmatchedbyanincreasedperceptionof recognised inBritainsincethe1990s.However, this The valueofveterantreeshasonlybecomewidely 2.1 RecentTrends 2. as HawthornandHazeltobecomeveterans. introduced, anditispossiblefor Veteran treescanbeofanyspecies,bothnativeand event. Very oftensuchtreeshaveindividualnames. cultural heritage,oftenaspecificpersonorhistorical ancient trees,butareassociatedwithsomeaspectof Heritage Trees trees, butonedoesnotautomaticallyfollowtheother. considerable overlapbetweenancientandveteran in relationtoothersofthesamespecies. There is years old.Mostancienttreesalsohavealargegirth ancient at100yearsold,butoaksnotuntil300 ancient trees.Forexample,birchesmaybecome in relationtoothersofthesamespeciesaretermed Massive multi-stemmed oak.High Ardwall, GatehouseofFleet, Dumfries &GallowayStatus neednotnecessarilybeveteranor Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership , surveyandpublicise scrub speciessuch April 2007.(Peter Norman) f. VETERAN TREES

2.2 Current Distribution 3.2 Invertebrates (very high importance) Veteran trees have been recorded throughout Veteran trees in Britain are the most important Dumfries & Galloway, but the current distribution is in Europe for invertebrates, including many rare imprecisely known. A number are likely to occur on species. Even a single tree can be very important. long-established private estates. Few surveys have been completed in Dumfries & Galloway, but a few typical species have been 2.3 Site Examples identified. Lochwood (SSSI) near Beattock contains one of the best collections of veteran trees in Britain. Nearby Most invertebrates Raehills Estate also contains important examples. A associated with sample survey of the Fleet Valley National Scenic veteran trees require Area in 2005 identified more than 200 potential decaying wood, but veteran trees. very often this needs to be of a particular 2.4 Associated Habitats stage of decay or in

a specific part of the VETERAN TREES A number of habitats occur in close association tree. For example, and/or overlap with veteran trees, and the following the nationally scarce action plans may also contain relevant information: cranefly Ctenophora Traditional Field Boundaries, Wood Pastures and pectinicornis is Parklands. associated with rot Short, stubby veteran Alder holes in large broad- with holes through the trunk. 3. Importance for Associated Species leaved trees, especially Glenmaddie Wood, Sanquhar, June 2008. (Peter Norman) Beech. Larvae often 3.1 Fungi and Lichens (very high importance) occur in shattered ends of trunks and have been Fungi are critical in the ecology of almost all of the found in rotten boughs, but only those that have fallen wildlife associated with old trees and some are from at least 10m high. It is widespread in southern themselves rare Britain but scarce in the west and north. The larvae of and restricted to the hoverfly Xylota sylvarum develops in wet decaying only the oldest of roots of broad-leaved trees, ascending up the trunk trees. It is fungi to pupate beneath the bark, and in rot holes. It is which cause widespread in old woods and wood pastures. The the decay and larvae of the soldier beetle Malthodes marginatus hollowing on which develops in decaying wood or beneath bark on dead the other wildlife timber, whilst the adults are mainly predatory on depends. The insect larvae but also feed on decaying timber. The decay of heartwood hoverfly Criorhina berberina lays its eggs around and hollowing are the base of stumps and on the underside of leaves a perfectly natural next to stumps. The larvae develop in the heart rot part of the ageing of roots, whilst adults feed at Hawthorn blossoms. It process of the tree, is mainly associated with ancient woods and wood probably prolonging pastures. its life, and are Sulphur Polypore Laetiporus sulphureus. not necessarily a Knockman Wood, June 2004. Sap runs, are often small and inconspicuous but (Peter Norman) sign of ill health. highly important for invertebrates. They should not be WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE Oak Polypore Piptoporus quercinus is restricted viewed as a sign of ill-health. to veteran oaks. It was discovered at Lochwood in 2005, the first and so far only location in Scotland for 3.3 Mammals (very high importance) this internationally rare species. The rare Beeswax Due to the presence of numerous deep narrow Bracket Ganoderma pfeifferi is restricted to old Beech crevices, veteran trees probably constitute the trees, and was recorded in Glencairn Parish 2000. single most important breeding habitat for bats in Some slow-growing lichens are only found on the Dumfries & Galloway. All species use veteran trees, bark of very old trees.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 181 but some, such as Noctules Nyctalus noctula rarely • Limited knowledge amongst tree surgeons, roost in buildings or other non-tree sites. Though little statutory agencies and even conservation research has been completed, veteran trees are also organisations of the importance of veteran trees likely to be used by many bats as hibernation sites. and their management. • A public perception that all trees with dead and 3.4 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) decaying wood are of little biodiversity value, A wide range of epiphytic mosses is found on veteran aesthetically offensive and potentially dangerous. trees. Park Yoke-moss Zygodon rupestris is closely Such perceptions frequently result in pressure to associated with veteran trees, whilst Marble Screw- remove veteran trees. moss Syntrichia papillosa is most typically a species of mature trees, although rarely it also grows on walls, 6. Strategic Actions stones or tarmac. It is an infrequent plant throughout Britain and Ireland. 6.1 Recent and current activity

3.5 Birds (high importance) • The Woodland Trust runs an Ancient Tree

VETERAN TREES The hollows, holes and cavities in the trunks and Hunt that encourages volunteers to find and branches of veteran trees are used as nest sites by collect information on ancient trees for a national many species of birds, notably Barn Owls Tyto alba, database. Only a few have so far been recorded Redstarts Phoenicurus phoenicurus and Spotted from Dumfries & Galloway. Flycatchers Muscicapa striata. Furthermore, the quantity of dead and decaying wood allows those 6.2 Other recommended actions species that excavate their own nest hole, such as • Produce, or contribute to the national production, woodpeckers, to utilise veteran trees. of an illustrated field guide to identify the various forms of veteran trees and the history and 3.6 Flowering Plants (low importance) ecology that has led to their current form. Apart from the fact that the veteran trees are flowering plants themselves, very few flowering plants are directly dependent on them.

3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) Although all native reptiles and amphibians may occasionally be found in or on veteran trees, the habitat is of low importance for this group.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• All veteran trees are of historic interest. They are as much a part of Dumfries & Galloway’s heritage as its castles and churches. • A number of veteran trees have been the subject of paintings by local artists.

NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE • Decaying trees play a critical ecological role, releasing nutrients into woodland ecosystems.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Poor knowledge of veteran tree distribution, history and biodiversity value in Dumfries & Galloway. Fat-trunked veteran oak. Boreland Hills, Gatehouse of Fleet, October 2004. (Peter Norman)

182 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership Most treesare harvestedat40-70years old,before ground flora. Thisismostmarkedatthe forestedge. reach theforest floorandsomere-establishment of deciduous larchplantations), allowingmorelightto higher, sometimesmoreopen high foreststage(30-70yearsold)resultsin a Some plantationsarethinned atthisstage. The almost totalabsenceofground floraandunderstorey. light fromreachingtheforestfloor, resultinginan old) thetreesformadensecanopypreventingmost are present.Duringthe plantations whereremnantsoftheprevioushabitat richest forbiodiversity, especiallyinfirstrotation are approximately0-12yearsold),is described asthe The earlyyearsofforestgrowth,sometimes used alternativeestablishmenttechniques. planting, althoughmorerecentplantationsmayhave a networkofditchesanddeepploughedpriortotree plantations areongroundthathasbeendrainedby edge, ormorerarelyscatteredthroughout.Most a varietyofnativetreesandshrubsonthe scale, speciescompositionmaybemoremixed,with Spruce. At theforest Spruce orNorway native larches,Sitka species, typicallynon- by standsofsingle trees, oftendominated or mainlyofconiferous are composedwholly game functions. They have landscapeand lowlands mayalso though afewinthe is timberproduction, most coniferplantations The primarypurposeof 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead: ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: 100haofnewlong-termretentionby2015. Expand areasoflong-termretentionwithinconiferplantations. Priority Action (CP2) Lead: ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: CompleteforesthabitatnetworkstudyforDumfries&Gallowayby2012. Identify coniferplantationsthatcouldbeconvertedtobroadleavesaspartofaforesthabitatnetwork. Priority Action (CP1) Habitat Description CONIFER PLANTATIONS pre-thicketstage(whenthetrees thicket stage(10-30years Forest trailinDalbeattieForest. canopy (especiallyin August 2006.(PeterNorman) perhapsthe forest value forbiodiversityisofhighimportance. plantations intheregion,theirexistingandpotential 10% ofallUKplanting.Giventheextentconifer (23% oftheregion)plantedwithconifers,almost Dumfries &Galloway, withapproximately145,000ha are themostwidespreadandabundantofhabitatsin Along withimprovedgrasslands,coniferplantations by coniferplantations,with993,000hainScotland. Approximately 1,516,000ha(7%)ofBritainiscovered 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext and landscapepurposesinsomelocations. beyond this age is now beingpractised for biodiversity of trees.Long-termretention restocked forasecondandsubsequentrotation forestry isincreasinglybeingused. The siteisthen using clearfellmethods,thoughcontinuouscover reaching maturity. Harvestingisfrequentlycarriedout of nativeScot’s Pinesoccur. Only intheScottishHighlands dosemi-naturalwoods for atinynumberofJunipers, areofplantationorigin. uplands. All ofDumfries &Galloway’s conifers,except Conifer plantationsarewidespread, especiallyinthe 2.2 CurrentDistribution recreate formerhabitats,especiallyraisedbogs. instances, coniferplantationshavebeenremovedto encouragement ofunderstoreyvegetation.Insome trees, moresensitivetreatmentofwatercoursesand glades, retentionofoldstandswithdeadanddying tree speciesandages,managementofrides needs throughthecreationofagreaterdiversity planned totakeaccountofnatureconservation has promptedmanysecondrotationforeststobe given tothebiodiversityofconiferplantations. This In thelast20yearsincreasingattentionhasbeen 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership ofmatureconifers 183 FOREST HABITATS CONIFER PLANTATIONS 2.3 Site Examples Pine Martens Martes martes were reintroduced to Extensive examples of conifer plantations are found Dumfries & Galloway in the 1980s. Since then, the at Eskdalemuir, Forest of Ae, Mabie Forest, extensive conifer plantations of the region have Dalbeattie Forest and in Galloway Forest Park. enabled their population to expand and increase, although they are rarely seen. A variety of other 2.4 Associated Habitats mammals have successfully adapted to conifer plantations. These include Badgers Meles meles, A number of habitats occur in close association and/ Roe Deer Capreolus capreolus and Red Deer Cervus or overlap with conifer plantations, and the following elaphus. action plans may also contain relevant information: River Headwaters, Exposed River Shingle, 3.2 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) Native Woods, Broadleaved and Mixed Plantations, Forest Roads and Rides, Forest Ponds. Conifer forests, even fairly recent ones, provide good habitats for larger fungi. If the total number of species is lower than native woods, then this is almost certainly due to the fact that plantations tend to be monocultures. Species such as CONIFER PLANTATIONS the Saffron Milk- cap Lactarius deliciosus are even able to survive in the dense thicket stage, though rarer fungi tend to be associated with more mature trees. For example,

The region's conifer forests may offer a last refuge for Red the nationally Squirrels. Loch Ken 2007. (Gordon McCall) rare Fayodis bisphaeriga and 3. Importance for Associated Species Rhodocybe gemina Herald of Winter Hygrophorus hypothejus have been found in is restricted to pinewoods. Torrs Warren, 3.1 Mammals (very high importance) association with pine November 2007. (Peter Norman) The natural habitat of Red Squirrels Sciurus vulgaris and other conifers in in Dumfries & Galloway is native broadleaved Kirkcudbrightshire, and Galerina stylifera in the Forest woodland, but they also occur in low densities in of Ae. Some species, such as Pholiota flammans conifer plantations from the thicket stage onwards. recorded at Kirroughtree, are more usually found in However, introduced Grey Squirrels are better able Caledonian Pine Woods, whilst Melanotus proteus, to compete for food and will eventually replace them an uncommon fungus of pine stumps, is from a in native woods. Large conifer plantations with few predominantly a tropical/sub-tropical genus. A number large-seeded broadleaves might provide the only of species, such as the Larch Bolete Suillus grevillei, long-term prospect for the survival of Red Squirrels have been introduced into Britain as a result of the FOREST HABITATS in Dumfries & Galloway, although even here changes creation of conifer plantations. to species composition and age structure will be required. Microfungi, including mycorrhizal species that are essential for the growth of most British plants, are less Insect food for bats is usually plentiful in conifer common in conifer plantations, often lost through soil plantations, but the harvesting of the trees prior disturbance during initial ploughing or subsequent use to maturity limits the availability of holes, even in of heavy machinery. the high forest stage. Special provision has to be made for them, usually with boxes. More long-term retention of conifers, including retention of standing dead-wood, would increase their prospects.

184 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership The poor qualities of conifer bark, the lack of 3.4 Invertebrates (medium importance) deadwood and old trees, excessive shade, and a lack Large, dense stands of conifers of uniform age are of ecological continuity due to the clearfelling system not of great interest for invertebrates. Those that do make most conifer plantations poor in lichen diversity. occur are either recent arrivals to Britain or common generalists that have spread from native plants. 3.3 Birds (high importance) However, given their extent in Dumfries & Galloway, Several birds, including Short-eared Owls Asio their overall total contribution to invertebrate flammeus and Grasshopper Warblers Locustella biodiversity in the region is not insignificant. A few naevia favour the pre-thicket stage of the conifer nationally scarce species, such a ground beetle plantations. Second rotation forests have not so far Trechus rubens, also occur. provided the same benefits for these species as the original plantings. A number of new invertebrate Conifer plantations, especially in the high forest species have stage, are the favoured habitat for a number been attracted of species, including Song Thrushes Turdus to the canopy philomelos, Coal Tits Periparus ater, Willow Warblers of conifer Phylloscopus trochilus, Goldcrests Regulus regulus, plantations, CONIFER PLANTATIONS Siskins Carduelis spinus and Common Crossbills including several Loxia curvirostra. Only the latter species is restricted hoverflies. to conifers, the others also occurring in a range of For example, other habitats. Chaffinches Fringilla coelebs are very Eupeodes common in conifer plantations and given the extent of lundbecki, this habitat in Dumfries & Galloway, regional numbers although may well be significant in a UK context. A number of common in birds of prey also nest in plantations at this stage, Europe, was and even more so in areas of long-term retention. recorded at These include Buzzards Buteo buteo, Sparrowhawks one of its first Accipiter nisus, Goshawks A. gentilis and Long-eared locations in the The caterpillars of Red-necked Footman moths feed on lichens growing on conifers. Owls Asio otus. UK at Tynron in Glenwhan, July 2005. (Richard Mearns) 1984. Other recent Dumfries & Galloway has many forest edge habitats colonists include Eriozona erratica, E. syrphoides, which should offer potential for the foraging of Melangyna compositarum, Parasyrphus lineola, and Black Grouse Tetrao P. malinellus. The latter was new to science when tetrix. Merlins Falco discovered in 1952. Although most are predators of columbarius will also nest aphids and other canopy species, they also require on the forest edge, so the presence of flowers at ground level. long as there is suitable adjacent open ground The importance of dead and decaying wood is usually for hunting. Practical associated with broad-leaved trees, but it is also of conservation measures importance in long-term retention conifers. The

within conifer forests longhorn beetles Rhagium bifaciatum favours dead FOREST HABITATS have resulted in dramatic and decaying pine, though it also occurs on other improvements in the trees. number of Barn Owls Tyto alba. Barn Owl, The Hairy Wood Ant Formica lugubris is regularly (Paul McLaughlin) recorded in conifer plantations in the Highlands. There Dumfries & Galloway supports almost the entire is a pre-1970 record from the Machars. Although it is Scottish population of Nightjars Caprimulgus now probably extinct, there is an outside possibility europaeus, which nest and feed in forest clearings, that a population may still exist in local forests. including areas of clearfell. Forest restructuring may be able to provide suitable habitat continuity for these birds.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 185 3.5 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Although numbers of species and quantity of plants Importance of Biodiversity can be high, conifer plantations support a poor quality moss and liverwort flora, composed almost entirely of • Though conifer plantations are rarely common species. Important species occur only where economically profitable without state aid, they plantations contain remnants of former habitats, such continue to provide economic and employment as native woods or bogs, or sometimes on decaying benefits to Dumfries & Galloway. large stumps or logs. One species of interest, Ostrich- • The softwood timber produced in the plantations plume Feather-moss Ptilium crista-castrensis is is generally of low quality but does supply a perhaps most typically a plant of northern Scottish number of markets, typically for pulpwood. pinewoods, where its growth can be quite luxuriant, but it has also been found, rarely, in pine plantations • Given the extent of conifer plantations in Dumfries in Dumfriesshire. & Galloway, they make an important contribution to carbon sequestration. However this is rather 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) limited in comparison to the totals for peatlands, Conifer plantations in Dumfries & Galloway support semi-natural habitats and seas. virtually all of the region’s reptile and amphibian

CONIFER PLANTATIONS • Conifer plantations are well suited to outdoor species, but most occur at very low density within the recreation activities such as mountain-biking trees. The most important areas tend to be localised and paint-balling that may cause damage to less open spaces, such as forest ponds or forest roads, or robust habitats. transient habitats such as clearfell areas. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat 3.7 Flowering Plants (low importance)

Rare plants associated with Caledonian pinewoods • Uniform age and species composition of have been recorded in conifer plantations outside of forests has not benefited biodiversity. the Highlands, including the Borders and Cumbria, but few, if any, are known from Dumfries & Galloway. • There is the prospect of shorter rotations as As a result, the flora of conifer plantations generally timber processing becomes more efficient and consists of common and widespread flowering plants. timber markets change, which may impact on species associated with more mature trees. Following clearfelling there can be rapid • Removal of stumps for use in biomass power recolonisation of flowering plants from adjacent or stations is likely to reduce fungal and bryophyte buried seed sources. However species tend to be diversity of planted conifer plantations. opportunists, with little, if any recolonisation of pre- plantation flora. • Wind and fire damage can open up clearings in forests and encourage biodiversity associated 3.8 Fishes (low importance) with the catastrophic events that occur in natural ecosystems. No species of fish are strongly associated with conifer plantations. Indeed, poorly planned forests can exacerbate acidification of adjacent watercourses, severely depleting fish populations. FOREST HABITATS

186 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • The management and expansion of conifer plantations in the UK is regulated by the government through the Forestry Commission. Grants are paid where the management or creation of plantations is in accordance with UK forestry policy. This is set out in a series of publications: The UK Forestry Standard defines and applies government commitments to sustainability and biodiversity and this is augmented by a series of guidelines on biodiversity, landscape, water, archaeology and Eyed Ladybird, a conifer specialist. Kirkconnel, August 2007. (Greg Baillie) recreation. • UK forestry policy addresses problems of uniform

species cover, stipulating inclusion of a minimum CONIFER PLANTATIONS proportion of minor conifer species together with open space and broadleaves. These elements are likely to comprise 20-30% of new and second rotation forests. The policy also provide guidance on continuous cover silvicultural systems and the identification of long term retentions to produce old trees. • Local forest strategies, termed Forest Frameworks, have been developed by Forestry Commission Scotland, Scottish Natural Heritage and Dumfries & Galloway Council for Galloway and Lockerbie-Langholm to guide the location of new forests.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Direct any new conifer plantations towards areas of low conservation value, such as derelict industrial, low grade arable, and improved pasture, which will result in a net gain for biodiversity. Avoid semi-natural open habitats and native woods of a high conservation importance. • Where feasible, restore high biodiversity

habitats damaged by conifer planting. FOREST HABITATS • Identify locally, as well as nationally and internationally important habitats and species within and around conifer plantations and ensure actions for them are included in forest plans. • Develop systems to monitor the biodiversity value of conifer plantations, for example by assessing critical habitat features and selecting key or indicator species.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 187 188 FOREST HABITATS BROADLEAVED & MIXED PLANTATIONS ecosystem. grow trees,butmaynever acquire afullwoodland Plantations onhighlyimproved agriculturalsoilsmay modified duringtheperiod thatthewoodwasabsent. woodland typesoilthathas beenleastdisturbedand with thebestchanceofdoing soarethosewitha may notdosoformanyhundredsofyears. Those inter-relationships ofsemi-naturalancientwoods,and none haveyetacquiredthecomplicatedecological difficult todistinguishfromthem,butitislikelythat characteristics ofsuchwoodsandcanbecomemore plantations mature,theytakeonmanyofthe with semi-naturaland/orancientwoods. As Plantations ofnativetreesshouldnotbeconfused ground inthelowlands. with conifers,andoccurprimarilyonmorefertile native andnon-nativebroadleavedtrees,oftenmixed of semi-naturalwoods. They arecomposedbothof open groundorinsomecasesbyunder-planting wildlife conservation.Mosthavebeenplantedon game cover, timber, landscapeandamenity, and created foranumberofpurposes,mostcommonly Broadleaved andmixedplantationshavebeen 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. BROADLEAVED &MIXEDPLANTATIONS Lead: ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: CompleteforesthabitatnetworkstudyforDumfries&Gallowayby2012. Identify suitablelocationsfornewbroadleavedplantationsaspartofaforesthabitatnetwork. Priority Action (BMP1) Habitat Description A mixedplantation,createdentirelyforrecreationatPowfoot Lakes. July2006.(PeterNorman) This areawillhavesubsequentlyincreased. 1998, themajorityofwhichwasplantationorigin. 3000km plantation origin.InScotland,therewasaround The majorityofBritain’s broadleavedtreesareof 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext Scot’s Pineand Sitka Sycamore, Ash, Beech, the 1930s,withoaks, designed landscapein was plantedontopofa at GatehouseofFleet Machars. CallyWoods largest woodlandinthe Kilsture Forestisthe interesting flora.Nearby, and Ash. Itsupportsan predominantly ofoaks is anoldplantation, (SSSI) atBladnoch Cotland Plantation 2.3 SiteExamples origins areusuallynotobvious. patchwork onagriculturalland,andtheirhistorical also widespread. They oftencompriseasinuous non-native Beech,Sycamoreandconifers,are native oaks,birches,elmsand Ash, oftenwith estates, housesorcastles,butsmallerwoodsof Larger plantationstendtobeassociatedwithprivate composed ofnativespecies,areplantedorigin. Most woodsinDumfries&Galloway, eventhose 2.2 CurrentDistribution a verynewformofplantation. wildlife andgamepurposes.Short-rotationcoppiceis timber value,buthavebeencreatedforamenity, state grantprogrammes.Fewhaveanysignificant been increasinginthelast20years,encouragedby The numberandareaofbroadleavedplantationshas 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus 2 ofbroadleavedandmixedwoodlandin

Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership flora. Drumlanrig, September characteristic sparseground 2006. (PeterNorman) Beech plantationwith BROADLEAVED & MIXED PLANTATIONS

and Norway Spruce the main trees. It supports Hawfinches Coccothraustes coccothraustes may good bird, bat, lepidoptera and fungi populations. occasionally be found in plantations that contain Other important policy woodlands include those at Beech, Cherry and Hornbeam. Drumlanrig, Kelhead and parts of Mabie Forest. 3.3 Mammals (high importance) 2.4 Associated Habitats The mammal fauna of broadleaved plantations is little A number of habitats occur in close association and/or different to semi-natural native woods - management overlap with broadleaved and mixed plantations, and practices are of more importance than tree species the following action plans may also contain relevant composition. Bats in particular require the retention of information: Native Wet Woods, Native Ash Woods mature and semi-mature trees with plenty of holes for Native Oak Woods, Native Birch Woods, Scrub roost sites. Woods, Veteran Trees, Conifer Plantations, Forest Roads and Rides, Forest Ponds, Wood Pastures and 3.4 Invertebrates (medium importance) Parklands. As a result of the poor colonising ability of woodland invertebrates, broad-leaved plantations lack the 3. Importance for Associated Species characteristic species of semi-natural ancient woods. Unless the plantation adjoins ancient woodland, 3.1 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) the invertebrates will generally be common species A number of non-native trees are important for that occur in a range of habitats. Nevertheless they fungi and lichens. In can occur in high numbers. A few species of more particular Beech is restricted national distribution are known from mixed & MIXED PLANTATIONS BROADLEAVED crucial for a whole plantations, including the larvae of the hoverfly array of fungi, Cheilosia longula that feeds only within fungi growing and Sycamore is under broadleaved and coniferous trees. important for lichens. The nationally rare 3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium Golden Bootleg importance) Fungus Phaeolepiota The spiny underside of the edible Hedgehog Fungus. St. Ann's, Reptiles and amphibians are more influenced aurea was recorded in September 2006. (Peter Norman) by plantation structure than its age or species a mixed open plantation composition. Populations in open plantations can in Kirkcudbrightshire and from Mabie Forest, both in therefore be just as high as in native woods. 1993. 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) Plants generally take much longer to colonise plantations than animals, especially if the plantations are isolated from existing ancient woods. As a result, most plantations lack the typical species diversity associated with ancient woods, though long- established plantations may have acquired at least some of them.

3.7 Flowering Plants (low importance) FOREST HABITATS As with non-flowering plants, the best plantations for flowering plants tend to be the oldest ones that have been least disturbed. Chaffinch. (Paul McLaughlin)

3.2 Birds (high importance) A wide range of birds is found in well-managed plantations, including various thrushes, tits and finches. Though very rare in Dumfries & Galloway,

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 189 FOREST ROADS & RIDES

• The siting of pheasant release pens, especially if intensively stocked can lead to soil enrichment and loss of ground flora. • Climate change may affect tree species distribution throughout Britain. For example it has been suggested that conditions may become unsuitable for Beech in much of the south of England. Although not native to Scotland, in the future this tree may be more suited to environmental conditions in Dumfries & Galloway.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • New mixed plantations have been created at a Common Figwort tolerates shaded habitats in number of locations including Barfill Farm, near plantations. Dalry, July 2007. (Maggi Kaye) Crockeford. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6.2 Other recommended actions Importance of Biodiversity BROADLEAVED & MIXED PLANTATIONS BROADLEAVED • Implement the same management techniques for • Nature conservation is rarely the main reason broadleaved and mixed plantations as for native for the establishment or management of woods, wherever this does not conflict with other broadleaved and mixed plantations. Most fulfil a uses. Encouragement of a diverse species variety of other roles including landscape, timber and age structure, creation of open space, production, amenity, recreation, shelter and game retention of wet areas and decaying wood, cover. can all usually be incorporated into management whilst retaining the primary purpose of the • A survey by the Forestry Commission in 2003 plantation. found that 18% of the Scottish population had collected non-timber forest products in the • Consider planting Beech woods on ground preceding 12 months, mostly from mixed woods. of low biodiversity value. Do not plant Beech in 173 species were collected, mostly to eat or for existing semi-natural native woods. medicinal or craft uses. Most products were for personal use and the collecting was considered to be of social and cultural importance, but some collecting also resulted in a modest economic income.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

FOREST HABITATS • Management work, including felling and thinning, can be damaging to bird and bat populations and ground flora, if carried out at sensitive times of the year. • Creation of a dense shrub layer for pheasants in woods managed for game has sometimes been achieved by the planting of potentially invasive shrub species such as Rhododendron, Laurel and Snowberry. Mixed broadleaved plantation. Cally Woods, Gatehouse of Fleet, July 2007. (Peter Norman)

190 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership is theabundance oflight.However, thepresence of biodiversity, incomparisontotheinterior of theforest, The greatestphysicalasset ofroadsandridesfor ground andwetland(ditch) habitatscanalsooccur. predominantly coniferousforests. Grassland,bare shrubs andtreesfrequentlyoccur, evenin diverse thanthesurroundingplantation.Broadleaved ground andvegetatedhabitatsthatisoftenmore Both roadsandridesprovideamosaicofopen firebreaks. forest rides.Bothroadsandridesmayalsoserveas cut underpowerlinesprovideaverysimilarhabitatto by specialistoff-road forestryvehicles.Wayleaves are unsurfacedanddesignedforinfrequentuseonly stacking/loading areasmayalsobepresent. drainage ditches.Passing/turningplacesandtimber the groundsurface,andusuallyhaveassociated created bytheremovalofsoilandre-profiling use byheavytimbertransportvehicles. They are routes withmetalledsurfacesdesignedtosupport purposes offorestmanagement. coniferous andbroadleavedplantationsforthe Roads andrideshavebeenconstructedinboth 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead: Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership/ButterflyConservation/RSPB. Target: Arrange trainingcourseby2012. best tomanagethem. Raise awarenessofforestmanagerstheimportanceroadsandridesforbiodiversity Priority Action (FRR1) Habitat Description Forest roadwithgrasslandandscrubbyedge.PotterlandHill, FOREST ROADS&RIDES July 2007.(PeterNorman) Roads areaccess Rides often longintervalsbetweenboutsofdisturbance. trees alsoprovidesshelterfromwind,andthereare Workings. Plantations, ForestPonds,QuarriesandMineral Conifer Plantations,BroadleavedandMixed action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: overlap withforestroadsandrides,thefollowing A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats all oftheregion’s largerforests. Forest roadsandridesarewidelydistributedthrough 2.3 CurrentDistribution or flailistheprincipaltool. increasingly mechanisedandthetractor-drawnswipe decades has,justlikeforestmanagement,become Maintenance ofroadsandridesintherecent 2.1 RecentTrends 2. the Pearl-borderedFritillary management ofsuitableforest roads. These include following afforestation throughthe creationand have beenretained species ofbutterfly conifers. A numberof aged singlespecies composed ofeven- where plantationsare plantation, especially than thatinthe of greaterinterest and ridesisgenerally fauna offorestroads The invertebrate 3.1 Invertebrates(highimportance) 3. Mabie, theGrayling and theDingy Skipper Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species Hipparchia semele Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Erynnis tages atDalbeattie. that useopensunnyroadsandrides. Dunskey, August 2003.(MaggiKaye) Painted Lady, oneofmanybutterflies Boloria euphrosyne at Sandyhills , andhow at 191 FOREST HABITATS FOREST ROADS & RIDES Moths are less dependent than butterflies on sunlight, In upland areas, but the abundance of broadleaved shrubs, particularly several species have willows and birches, on forest roads and rides benefited from the provides important foodplants. Other invertebrates reduced grazing have been little studied, but sun-loving groups such pressure in forests, as bugs, bees, wasps and hoverflies are likely to compared to adjacent be more common here than in the shade of the sheep pastures. Bog forest. Predatory insects of other habitats, such as Asphodel Narthecium dragonflies from forest ponds, are often attracted to ossifragum often hunt in the sheltered conditions provided by roads flowers profusely and rides. and Heather Calluna vulgaris and Bog 3.2 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) Myrtle Myrica gale Roads and tracks through woods and plantations grows tall along provide an important microhabitat for fungi including forest rides. Heath rare tooth fungi. These species appear to have a Cudweed Gnaphalium preference for fruiting in bare mineral soils and forest sylvaticum, one of the Self Heal, often abundant on forest roads. Mark Hill, Colvend, July 2007.

FOREST ROADS & RIDES few native vascular tracks often offer a perfect habitat. Many other fungi (Peter Norman) also fruit along forest roads, though it is not clear plant species to exactly why this is the case. Common forest road benefit from the extensive afforestation programmes species include Orange-peel Aleuria aurantia and of the 20th century, grows on open woodland and Shaggy Ink-cap Coprinus comatus. forestry rides in areas of former heathland, though now appears to be in national decline and is locally rare.

In forests planted on bogs, once the canopy closes the only remnants of the original bog vegetation is usually to be found along rides, including Cranberry Vaccinium oxycoccus. Such plants provide a reservoir of seeds that can recolonise adjacent areas following harvesting, and are therefore valuable in any bog restoration projects. However, experience at Longbridge Muir and Moss of Cree suggests that this may be a very slow process.

3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) Conical waxcap Hygrocybe conica on forest road. Mabie, August 2007. (Peter Norman) Wide roads and rides are a good habitat for Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara. Common Frogs Rana 3.3 Flowering Plants (medium importance) temporaria may also breed in ditches. The flora of roads and rides can be completely 3.5 Birds (medium importance)

FOREST HABITATS different to the forests through which they pass. A greater diversity of flowering plants is found on Birds of forest roads and rides are more typical of the lowland forest roads and rides than in the uplands. early stages of forests, rather than the more mature Bird’s-foot Trefoil Lotus corniculatus, Common Dog high forest stage. Species include Garden Warblers Violet Viola riviniana and Black Knapweed Centaurea Sylvia borin, Chiffchaffs Phylloscopus collybita and nigra are typical species, all of which are important Tree Pipits Anthus trivialis. Forests roads and rides for butterflies. Bird’s-foot Ornithopus perpusillus, a may also be important for hunting Sparrowhawks tiny localised plant of open grassland, has been found Accipiter nisus and owls, and for the ‘roding’ display thriving on the disturbance created along some forest flights of Woodcocks Scolopax rusticola. roads in the region.

192 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 3.6 Mammals (medium importance) In mature forests with sufficient bat breeding sites (caves, tree holes or bat boxes) for bats, linear features such as streams, roads and rides provide essential opportunities for feeding and movement of most species, especially if they link areas of semi- natural habitat. Indeed, forest roads and rides are the best places to locate bat boxes. They are also extensively used by feeding deer, and are ideal locations for deer control where required.

3.7 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) Stag’s-horn Clubmoss Lycopodium clavatum and Alpine Clubmoss Diphasiastrum alpinum occur sufficiently frequently on the forest roads and rides to be an important part of the flora at almost all altitudes. Neither species is common in Dumfries & Galloway. FOREST ROADS & RIDES Roadside ditches support a broad range of mosses Green Tiger Beetles Cicindela campestris benefit from open sunny and algae. rides. Balloch Wood, August 2006.(Peter Norman)

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Roads and rides are the most publicly accessible part of forests, frequently used by walkers and cyclists. High biodiversity adds to the interest and enjoyment of such forest users. • Game management can be compatible with management for biodiversity.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Blanket application of herbicides as a way of managing forest roads is detrimental to biodiversity, especially flora and invertebrates.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity

• The forest roads around Lochaber Loch in Mabie FOREST HABITATS Forest have been monitored for butterflies on a weekly basis by Forestry Commission Scotland during the summer for more than ten years, and management adjusted accordingly.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 193 194 FOREST HABITATS FOREST PONDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T elevations. forests atlower is locatedwithin of forestponds greatest density is likelythatthe the uplands,it forests arein Although most Galloway. Dumfries & Forest pondsarewidespreadwithinforestsin 2.2 CurrentDistribution features thanearlyforestponds. have tendedtomorenaturalcontoursand conservation andamenitypurposes. These ponds have beenconstructedinrecentyears,primarilyfor easier thaninthepast. As aresultnumberofponds that excavationofnewforestpondshasbeenmuch The increasedmechanisationofforestrymeans 2.1 RecentTrends 2. management regime. can alsobeaffected bythehistoricandcurrent conditions ofthesurroundinglandscape,butall and environmental by thegeological these areinfluenced aquatic plants. All of of marginaland shading andquantity quality, degreeof bank profile,water including size,depth, a rangeoffactors, ponds dependson value offorest pond, thebiodiversity As withanyother 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead: ForestryCommissionScotland/Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. Target: Map100andsurvey25forestpondsby2015. their locationandcarryingoutsamplesurveys. Assess thedistributionandecologicalimportanceofforestpondsinDumfries&Galloway Priority Action (FP1) Dumfries &GallowayStatus Habitat Description Dalshinnie Loch in MabieForest.July Forest pondatScreel. August 2004. FOREST PONDS 2004. (PeterNorman) (Peter Norman) Plantations, ForestRoadsandRides,FarmPonds. plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation:Conifer or overlapwithforestponds,andthefollowingaction A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Forest andEarshaigPondsnearBeattock. near Glentrool, Wood Pond interest include Some pondsthatareknowntohavehighbiodiversity 2.3 SiteExamples Plantain scorpiodes edge offorestponds:Water Forget-me-not Myosotis A rangeofflowering plantsisfoundin,oronthe 3.3 FloweringPlants(medium importance) breed inforestponds. vulgaris Newt Triturus cristatus,SmoothNewtLissotriton bufo, CommonFrogRanatemporaria calamita With theexceptionofNatterjack Toads Epidalea importance) Amphibians (high 3.2 Reptilesand groups. surveys ofotherinvertebrate There havebeenfewer restricted UKdistribution. pulchellum, Damselfly Coenagrion populations ofVariable forest pondssupport Usually commonspeciesareinvolved,butseveral ponds thathaverecordedatleasttenspecies. ideal habitatfordragonflies,andtherearenumerous The shelteredenvironmentofmanyforestpondsis 3.1 Invertebrates(highimportance) 3. Importance for Associated Species andPalmateNewt , allnativeamphibians(Common Toad Bufo Alisma plantago-aquatica , Water MintMenthaaquatica which hasa near NewtonStewart, Dalshinnie Loch Penninghame Pond Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Lissotriton helvetica (LWS) inMabie dragonfly offorestponds. Common Darter, atypical andanumber , bymapping BorganPond Dunskey, August 2003. and Knockman , GreatCrested , Water (Mike Kaye) )

FOREST PONDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

of pondweeds Potamogeton spp. Forest ponds, 5. Factors affecting the Habitat especially in remote parts of the forest, are less frequently visited by botanists than more natural • Damage during forest operations can result ponds. from vehicle use, run-off or large amounts of brash or other debris falling into the pond. Such 3.4 Birds (medium importance) damage is now usually avoided through detailed Though there are planning of forest operations. no birds directly • A perception that forest ponds need to be dependent on, regularly ‘cleaned’ can result in damage. forest ponds, they are visited by many • Introduction of fish into fishless ponds has species, including occurred in ponds valuable for dragonflies. Such Grey Herons Ardea action is now illegal. cinerea, Mallards Anser platyrhynchos, Moorhens nest on most lowland forest 6. Strategic Actions FOREST PONDS Moorhens Gallinula ponds. (Gordon McCall) chloropus and a 6.1 Recent and current activity range of small birds. A number of these may breed. • A pond at Kirroughtree Forest Visitor Centre not only adds to visitor interest, but has been 3.5 Mammals (medium importance) constructed by Forestry Commission Scotland Larger forest ponds, especially where they connect to and Cree Valley Community Woodlands Trust watercourses, are used by aquatic mammals such as with platforms to enable educational groups to Otters Lutra lutra, Water Voles Arvicola terrestris and safely sample the aquatic life. Water Shrews Neomys fodiens. They are also used by terrestrial mammals for drinking. • Eskrigg, within Turnmuir Plantation at Lockerbie, is a former curling pond that is now managed as a 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) nature reserve by the Lockerbie Wildlife Trust. Aquatic algae form the basis of most pond food • Garrochar Ponds have been created on the chains, but have been little studied in Dumfries & site of a former curling pond within the Forestry Galloway. A number of aquatic and semi-aquatic Commission’s Balloch Wood at Creetown. mosses and liverworts also grow in ponds, and Though managed by the Balloch Community muddy pond edges tend to be most important for such Woods group primarily for amenity purposes, species. they have quickly become of high biodiversity value. 3.7 Fishes (low importance) • Contaminated groundwater (Acid Mine Discharge) Though many forest ponds support fish populations, issuing from the forest quarry at Craigenbay and some have been deliberately stocked, few has been successfully treated by Forestry of these are of conservation importance. The Commission Scotland using a series of four introduction of fish may seriously damage amphibian ponds that have a natural appearance and also and invertebrate populations. make a positive contribution to wildlife.

• A number of forest ponds have been surveyed for FOREST HABITATS 4. Environmental, Economic & Social their dragonfly populations. Importance of Biodiversity

6.2 Other recommended actions • Forest ponds contribute to local landscapes and provide a focal point on forest walks. • Carry out further pond surveys to identify ponds of high biodiversity value. Species • Accessible forest ponds have high educational groups likely to benefit from additional survey value. effort include dragonflies, water beetles, aquatic • Correctly designed, located and constructed bugs, amphibians and aquatic plants. ponds can assist with the treatment of pollutants from forest quarries or roads.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 195 196 FARMLAND HABITATS SHORT-ROTATION COPPICE around arablecrops. wider andlesssusceptible tochemicaldriftthanthose areas differently tothemaincrop. They tendtobe to operate,providingopportunities tomanagethese are normallyrequiredforthe harvestingmachinery the wintermonths(NovembertoMarch). usually low. Mechanical harvestingtakesplaceonlyin the establishmentperiod,subsequentinputsare preparation andherbicideusemayberequiredduring fields oflowlandareas. Althoughintensivesoil more economicaltogrowinthefertile,larger and soiltypes,butitproduceslargeryieldsis Short-rotation coppicecanbegrownonmostland are muchlesscommonlyusedthanwillows. needs tobereplanted.Poplarsarealsosuitable,but produce 8-10cropsover25-30yearsbeforetheplot 7-8 metreshigh. The cutwillowsthenregrowandcan fields andharvestedonrotationsof3to5yearswhen usually non-native,sterilewillowsthatareplantedin fuel inbiomasspowerstations. The speciesusedare stands offast-growingtreesforuseaswoodchip broadleaved plantation,designedtoproducedense Short-rotation coppiceisahighlyspecialisedformof 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Short-rotation coppiceatBarrasgateFarm,Cummertrees, August Lead: ForestryCommissionScotland/RegionalPriority Assessment Committee. detrimental impactonbiodiversity. to sitesimportantforLocalPriorityHabitatsorSpecies,wherethereislikelybeasignificant Ensure thatallgrant-aidedshort-rotationcoppiceinDumfries&Gallowayisnotlocatedonoradjacent Priority Action (SRC1) Habitat Description SHORT-ROTATION COPPICE 2007. (PeterNorman) Headlands extensive areasofshortrotationcoppicethantheUK. Scandinavia, havealongerhistoryandmore A numberofEuropeancountries,especially in 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext Traditional FieldBoundaries. Agriculturally ImprovedGrasslands, Arable Fields, action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: overlap withshort-rotationcoppice,andthefollowing A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.3 Associated Habitats planted beyondthisradius. 10ha perfarmispreferred. A fewareashavebeen farms withinthisarea,thoughaminimumextentof Lockerbie. Fieldstendtobescatteredonvarious is withina50-mileradiusofthepowerstationat Most oftheshortrotationcoppiceplantedtodate 2.2 CurrentDistribution Dumfries &GallowayandCumbriaby2012. the foreseeablefuture,withatargetof4,000hain has beenincreasingandthisislikelytocontinuein short-rotation coppiceintheregion. The areaplanted provided muchoftheimpetusforestablishment of abiomasspowerstationatLockerbiein2007has first cropswereestablished.Sincethen,theopening coppice hasbeenrapidsincearound2005,whenthe Encouraged bygovernment,interestinshort-rotation 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Warblers warblers areespecially common,especially Willow than inadjacentarableorgrassland fields.Migrant tits andwarblersarealllikely tobemoreabundant on whichtheyareusuallyplanted. Finches,thrushes, different birdcommunityfromarableandgrassland rapidly developintoascrub habitat,andattracta Once established,Short-rotationcoppiceplantations 3.1 Birds(mediumimportance) 3. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species Phylloscopus trochilus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership . SHORT-ROTATION COPPICE

Birds associated with increase. The number of different plant species also open farmland, such increases as the crop grows, especially at edge. geese, Lapwings Vanellus However, few scarce or threatened species have so vanellus, Golden Plovers far been recorded. Pluvialis apricaria, and Skylarks Pluvialis 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) apricaria can be displaced Rust caused by a number of fungi called Melampsora by planting, but in winter is the most important disease of short rotation Snipe Gallinago gallinago coppice. No species of high conservation value are and Woodcocks Scolopax known to favour this habitat. rusticola, prefer short rotation coppice crops 3.6/3.7 Non-flowering Plants & Reptiles and to arable and grass Several species of small bird, Amphibians fields nearby. Recently such as Dunnocks, nest in Little research has been so far carried out on the planted or cut short short rotation willows. (Gavin importance of short rotation coppice for the above rotation coppice can also Chambers) species groups. temporarily support Skylarks and Lapwings.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social COPPICE SHORT-ROTATION 3.2 Invertebrates (medium importance) Importance of Biodiversity As it matures the willow canopy attracts a diverse insect fauna. Bugs Hemiptera and beetles Coleoptera • Short rotation coppice has very low net carbon are most abundant, emissions. However, Blue Willow Beetle Phyllodecta • Short rotation coppice and well managed vulgatissima is the major conservation headlands can provide cover and insect pest of coppice food for game birds such as pheasants. willow and spraying for • Correctly sited and designed, short rotation this species can harm coppice can enhance the landscape. beneficial invertebrates. The sheltered headlands of mature crops 5. Factors affecting the Habitat attract butterflies in Peacock butterfly, one of the species that benefit from wide The recent creation of this habitat and its limited greater numbers than headlands.(Peter Norman) extent to date means that few land managers and surrounding arable and their advisors are familiar with good practice for grassland fields, especially whites, Meadow Browns maximising biodiversity potential. Maniola jurtina, Small Tortoiseshells Aglais urticae and Peacocks Inachis io. These are generalist species – few specialists have been recorded. 6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity 3.3 Mammals (medium importance) Little research has been carried out on small mammal • Advice and grants are available from Forestry populations, but plantations with a dense ground Commission Scotland. cover are likely to support large numbers of mice and HABITATS FARMLAND voles, and their mammalian predators. Rabbits and 6.2 Other recommended actions deer are excluded from plantations where they may • Do not provide grants and incentives for short pose a problem during the establishment phase. rotation coppice on land of high conservation value for species associated with open ground. 3.4 Flowering Plants (low importance) Recently planted or harvested short rotation coppice • Carry out research into the management of is dominated by annual plants, such as Groundsel headlands to increase the natural predators of Senecio vulgaris, Fat Hen Chenopodium album Willow Beetle and reduce the need for intensive and Creeping Thistle Cirsium arvense. With growth, spraying. the proportion of annuals declines and perennials Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 197 198 FARMLAND HABITATS AGRICULTURALLY IMPROVED GRASSLANDS AGRICULTURALLY IMPROVED GRASSLANDS underground drainage networkinthefield. ditch thatmay, ormaynot, belinkedintoanartificial prone towaterlogging oftenhaveasurrounding open drystone dyke. Those fieldsinlowlyingareasor this issometimescombined withahedgerowor by astockproofbarrier, usuallyawirefencebut Most agriculturallyimproved fieldsaresurrounded every fewyears. being ploughedandreseededorputtoanotheruse Leys areimprovedgrassfieldsthattemporary, season, buttheyareusuallygrazedatothertimes. from silageandhayfieldsduringthemaingrowing frequently bycattleand/orsheep.Stockisexcluded by storingdriedplantmaterial)orgrazing,most partial fermentation),hay(animalfodderthatismade storing greenplantmaterialthatispreservedby either forsilage(animalfodderthatismadeby Agriculturally improvedgrasslandsaremanaged rye grassesandclover. of plantspecies,oftenconsistingalmostexclusively This resultsinthedominanceofaverynarrowrange plants suchasdocksattheexpenseofotherplants. grasses andasmallnumberofcommonbroadleaved use inparticularstimulatesthegrowthofcompetitive and pesticideapplicationreseeding.Fertiliser heavily modifiedthroughdrainage,fertiliser, slurry Agriculturally improvedgrasslandshavebeen 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:RegionalProposal Assessment Committee/Scottish Agricultural College. range ofsitestodemonstratebestpractice. Increase biodiversityaroundtheperimeterofimprovedgrasslandfieldsbyprovidingandpublicisinga Priority Action (AGG1) Improved grasslandlandscapesarebrightgreen,eveninwinter. Habitat Description Goldilea, April 2006.(PeterNorman)

horses (2,650in2006). There isamuchsmaller, butincreasingnumberof sheep andanimportantelementofthebeefsector. third ofScotland’s totaldairyherd,15%ofbreeding sheep inDumfries&Galloway, representingalmosta cattle (roughly45%dairy/55%beef)and1,108,000 166,000ha. In 2006 there were approximately 432,000 Galloway, therespectiveareaswere48,000haand 922,000ha morethan5yearsold.InDumfries& of which322,000hawereunder5yearsoldand of agriculturallyimprovedgrasslandinScotland, area. In2006therewereapproximately1,244,000ha in theUKhasincreasedbyapproximately90% In thepast60yearsagriculturallyimprovedgrassland 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext Parklands. Traditional FieldBoundaries,Wood Pastures and Marshes, Lowland BurnsandDitches, Arable Fields, information: NeutralGrasslands, Acid Grasslands, the followingactionplansmay alsocontainrelevant overlap withagriculturallyimproved grasslands,and A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.3 Associated Habitats fringe. many examplesofimprovedgrasslandsintheupland Rhins, MacharsandSolwayplain,buttherearealso silage. Mostofthisisinthelowlands,particularly is improvedgrassland,managedeitheraspastureor land intheregionisfarmedandmajorityofthis habitat inDumfries&Galloway. Three quarters ofall improved grasslandisthemostcommon Agriculturally 2.2 CurrentDistribution pesticides. Rye Grassnowuncommon,andmoretargeteduseof number ofspeciesusedinseedmixtures,with100% entirely. There hasalsobeenanincreaseinthe slowed inthelastdecadeortwo,buthasnotstopped wetland toimprovedgrasslandhasdramatically The conversionofsemi-naturalgrasslandand 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership AGRICULTURALLY IMPROVED GRASSLANDS

3. Importance for Associated Species 3.2 Mammals (medium importance) Moles Talpa 3.1 Birds (high importance) europaea are found Few birds nest on improved grassland. Lapwings wherever the soil Vanellus vanellus may occasionally do so, though this is deep enough is usually limited to semi-improved pastures in the for them to burrow upland fringe; densely stocked lowland pastures and and feed primarily silage fields are rarely used. on earthworms. They are affected A wider range of species, including thrushes, Pied by deep ploughing. Wagtails Motacilla alba, Rooks Corvus frugilegus Rabbits Oryctolagus and Starlings Sturnus vulgaris, feed on invertebrates cuniculus and in agriculturally improved grasslands. The local Badgers Meles decline, to virtual extinction, of Choughs Pyrrhocorax meles also pyrrhocorax is probably linked to the loss of grassland commonly feed in invertebrates, especially those associated with dung. improved pastures. The decline of Brown Hares Lepus europaeus Rabbit (Paul McLaughlin) may be related to the increased use of chemicals and machinery on

improved grassland, but loss of mixed farms and IMPROVED GRASSLANDS AGRICULTURALLY increased stocking rates may also have had an impact (hares are known to avoid heavily stocked fields). However conclusive evidence for any of these theories is lacking.

3.3 Invertebrates (low importance) Species diversity of invertebrates in improved grassland is poor, but there may be high numbers of In improved pastures, Rooks feed on soil invertebrates such as leatherjackets. (Gavin Chambers) some invertebrates, including earthworms, ground beetles and cranefly larvae. Some flies, beetles and In winter a relatively small number of fields, usually other invertebrates are associated with dung, and the same ones each year, are used by feeding geese provide food for birds and bats. Ditches can be and swans, including Whooper Swans Cygnus very valuable for a wide range of invertebrates, but cygnus, Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis, Greenland only where there is permanent or regular flowing or White-fronted Geese Anser albifrons flavirostris, standing clean water. Greylag Geese Anser anser and Pink-footed Geese Anser brachyrhynchus. For some of these species, 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) such as Greenland Whitefronted Geese, there is No species of reptile or amphibian regularly uses evidence to suggest that the switch from feeding on agriculturally improved grasslands, unless they are in semi-natural grasslands to agriculturally improved close proximity to more suitable habitats. grasslands has occurred quite recently, possibly due HABITATS FARMLAND to a reduction in semi-natural grasslands. All feeding 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) species prefer short grass. Few fungi grow in improved grasslands, but field The edges of ditches are particularly valuable mushrooms Agaricus spp. and Brown Mottlegill feeding areas for species such as Lapwings, Starlings Panaeolina foenisecii, which is stimulated by mowing, and others. can occasionally be found. Harvested and bagged silage provides an unusual fungal habitat with the first

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 199 ARABLE FIELDS

Scottish record of Split-gill Schizophyllum commune • A number of avermectin-based veterinary coming from near Stranraer in the 1960s. This is an medicines are used to control internal worms and uncommon deadwood species of southern England, other parasites. Stock treated with these products but is now recorded breaking out through the excrete residues for several weeks, adversely polythene of silage bails. affecting invertebrates and fungi associated with dung. • Careless application or spillage of chemicals, slurry and silage effluent can affect habitats such as wetlands and watercourses by changing their nutrient status. • Slurry may be toxic to soil invertebrates such as earthworms. • Waterlogging reduces invertebrate populations.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Goose management schemes, managed by Coprobia sp. fungus on dung. Crichope, June 2007. Scottish Natural Heritage, operated in parts of (Peter Norman) the region most affected by goose grazing. These AGRICULTURALLY IMPROVED GRASSLANDS AGRICULTURALLY 3.6 Flowering Plants (low importance) have now been incorporated into the Scottish Agriculturally improved grasslands are dominated by Rural Development Programme. a small number of highly productive grass species, • The Scottish Agricultural College has completed sometimes grown with White Clover Trifolium repens. research that highlights the value of conservation A few species, such as sorrels, may remain in semi- headlands in grassland, as well as their more improved grasslands, and ditches may support usual location in arable fields. species not found in the middle of the field. • There have been attempts to convert improved grassland to habitats closer to semi-natural types, 3.7 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) including flower-rich grassland, heathland or Intensively managed agriculturally improved woodland. So far these have been relatively small grasslands have few, if any, non-flowering plants. scale experiments, and there have been few in Dumfries & Galloway. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity 6.2 Other recommended actions The large flocks of wintering swans and geese that • Encourage adoption of a range of measures, feed on agriculturally improved grasslands are one of including management of traditional field the wildlife spectacles of Dumfries & Galloway, and boundaries, to improve the biodiversity of field attract many visiting birdwatchers. They do, however, margins. cause localised agricultural damage to fields. FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND 5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• There has been a move away from hay production with lower inputs and greater species diversity to re-seeded rye grass silage with higher chemical inputs. • Local stock breeds are used less, which may affect sward composition.

200 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership provides space, lightandfoodforarange ofwildlife. and harvesting iscritical. growth, andthereforethetiming ofcultivation,sowing crop. These factorschangeatdifferent stagesof available forwildlifetogrow ortomovethroughthe and densityalsoinfluences theamountofspace within thecropandatsoilsurface.Cropheight speed, andthereforethehumiditytemperature crop. This affects thedegreeofshadingandwind importance istheheightanddensityof associated withparticularspecies.Perhapsofgreater significant directinfluencewithsomeinvertebrates on anumberoffactors. The cropspecieshasa The valueofarablefieldsforbiodiversityisdependent plan. a separateagriculturallyimprovedgrasslandaction old isnotconsideredasarable,andincludedin the purposesofthisplan,grasslandunder5years entirely forbiodiversityand/orgamepurposes.For have recentlybeenintroducedonsomefarms crops, includinglegumes,brassicasandlinseed, consumption orforanimalfodder. Unharvested species. These maybegrowneitherforhuman Cereals, rootcrops,rapeandmaizearetypicalarable 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Farming&Wildlife Advisory Group. courses andestablishmentofademonstrationsite. Provide adviceforfarmersandtheiradvisorsonimprovingarablefieldsbiodiversity Priority Action (AF1) Habitat Description Barley fieldPowfoot,July2006.(PeterNorman) Overwintered stubble ARABLE FIELDS standing was smallincomparison,ataround21,000ha. Scotland in2006. The extentinDumfries&Galloway There wasaround600,000ha.ofarablelandin 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext therefore oftendeepandsteepsided. in ordertokeepthesurroundinglanddry. They are to haveawaterlevelwellbelowtheground hedges andwoods.Onarablefarmland and areinfluencedbyadjacenthabitatssuchas Field margins numbers onarableland. measures thathavedramatically increasedbird At Mersehead 2.3 SiteExamples 1786ha. ofsetasideon269farms 3379ha. ofothercrops(mostlymaize)on319farms 186ha. ofkale&cabbageon45farms 392ha. ofturnips,swedes&fodderbeeton80farms 415ha. ofpotatoeson57farms 302ha. ofoilseedrape(winter)on15farms 583ha. ofoats(77%spring,23%winter)on70farms farms 11992ha. ofbarley(73%spring,27%winter)on572 1632ha. wheaton105farms crops inDumfries&Gallowayconsistedof: lower Nithsdaleand Annandale. In2006,arable Most arablefieldsarelocatedintheStranraerbasin, 2.2 CurrentDistribution agri-environment schemes. to adoptsuchtechniqueslargelythroughincentivesin loss ofbiodiversity. Farmershavebeenencouraged enhance biodiversityinarablefieldswithminimum However, newmethodshavebeendevelopedto in Dumfries&Gallowayhascontinuedtodecline. Over thelast10-20years,areaofarableland 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus , RSPBhaveintroduceda range of havelesscompetitionfromthecrop, Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership , throughtraining ditches need 201 FARMLAND HABITATS ARABLE FIELDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.4 Associated Habitats A number of habitats occur in close association and/or overlap with arable fields, and the following action plans may also contain relevant information: Agriculturally Improved Grasslands, Traditional Field Boundaries.

3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Birds (high importance)

Few birds nest in mature standing crops, although Corn Spurrey, a plant introduced to Britain with early farming but Quails Coturnix coturnix and Marsh Harriers Circus now in decline. Near New Abbey, July 2007. (Peter Norman) aeruginosus are rare exceptions. Species such as Lapwings Vanellus vanellus and Oystercatchers 3.2 Flowering Plants (high importance) Haematopus ostralegus use spring-sown cereals, Flowering plants of arable fields are mostly annuals, ARABLE FIELDS but not autumn/winter sown crops that are too high adapted to quickly exploit bare ground, making use at nesting time. Skylarks Alauda arvensis also nest in of conditions that are free of competition and shade. standing crops, but only up to a maximum crop height Most of them germinate in the spring, and therefore of around 30cm. not in autumn/winter sown cereals. They include some of the rarest plants in Britain. In Dumfries & Galloway there is a long list of such species that are now either believed extinct or are very rare in the wild. They include Prickly Poppy Papaver argemone, Purple Ramping-fumitory Fumaria purpurea, White Mustard Sinapis alba, Field Pepperwort Lepidium campestre, Cornfield Knotgrass Polygonum rurivagum, Field Woundwort Stachys arvensis, Cornflower Centaurea cyanus and Rye Brome Bromus secalinus.

3.3 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) A specialised moss and liverwort flora has recently Tree Sparrows have declined as a result of the loss of arable fields. been discovered in arable fields, though the species (Steven Round) concerned are generally small and inconspicuous. Grey Partridges Perdix perdix require long grass Intensively managed fields may have none of these for nesting and abundant invertebrate food for their at all, but fields those managed less intensively, chicks. They therefore tend to nest on field margins particularly those with overwintered stubble, can but feed on invertebrates within the standing crop and be rich. Although some arable bryophytes, such on winter stubbles. as Glaucous Crystalwort Riccia glauca have been recorded in Dumfries & Galloway, the number and Standing crops are visited for food by birds such as extent of important sites is not known.

FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND Tree Sparrows Passer montanus nesting in adjacent habitats. However, arable fields become most 3.4 Mammals (medium importance) valuable for seed-eating species such as Linnets Brown Hares Lepus europaeus fare better on farms Carduelis cannabina, Corn Buntings Miliaria calandra with arable fields, than those without – the crop and Yellowhammers Emberiza citronella at harvesting providing cover for leverets, but without the intensity time and in the months following. Overwintered of cutting of silage fields. They particularly avoid stubble is especially valuable, not only for spilt grain, heavily stocked pastures. Dumfries & Galloway is but for the seeds of weed species. Roosting Golden the only part of Scotland to support Harvest Mice Plovers Pluvialis apricaria may also use winter Micromys minutus, but so far they have only been stubble fields, but flocks have reduced dramatically in found in wetlands and rough grasslands, rather than recent years due to the loss of such fields. the arable fields after which they were named.

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3.5 Invertebrates (medium importance) • Fertilisers greatly encourage modern crops and A large number of money spiders, hoverflies and a small number of weed species, but these plants ground beetles, such as Bembidion lampros, occur in then out-compete wild plants. arable fields, many of which assist with pest control. Bumblebees are important pollinators of many crops, 6. Strategic Actions but also require nectar and pollen from wild plants when the crop is not flowering. Well-managed field 6.1 Recent and current activity margins support few rare invertebrates but very • Agri-environment schemes provide incentives to large numbers of common ones, including butterflies, enhance arable fields. grasshoppers and plant bugs. • Scottish Natural Heritage’s Targeted Inputs 3.6 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) for a Better Rural Environment (TIBRE) project Few fungi of conservation importance occur. Crop provides information to show how technology can pests such as mildews and poisonous species be used in farming to benefit the environment. such as ergots are effectively controlled by modern • A Farmland Birds Working Group, organised ARABLE FIELDS techniques. by RSPB, meets to co-ordinate survey and management projects across the region. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social • The Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust is Importance of Biodiversity undertaking a research project called Sustainable Arable Farming for an Improved Environment, Traditionally managed arable fields with wide field which aims to enhance farmland biodiversity margins, wild flowers and overwintered stubble make by developing more wildlife-friendly farming a significant contribution to arable landscapes that techniques. can otherwise appear monotonous. Extensive arable landscapes are rare in Dumfries & Galloway; rather individual fields contribute to a ‘patchwork’ landscape. 6.2 Other recommended actions • Encourage the uptake of agri-environment 5. Factors affecting the Habitat schemes to enhance the biodiversity of arable fields. • The decline of mixed farming, with arable fields, • Improve awareness and training in the practical has reduced and fragmented populations of techniques, such as headlands and beetlebanks, species associated with these habitats. that can be used to enhance arable fields. • A widespread move to autumn-sown cereals has made many fields unsuitable for many nesting birds and wild plants. • Loss of traditional cropping systems, and associated loss of winter stubble, has reduced winter food sources for many farmland birds. • Cropping systems have become more uniform with less rotation giving fragmentation and

reduced habitat variety. HABITATS FARMLAND • The use of insecticides, fungicides and herbicides may cause significant harm to non-target species, even at less than the recommended application rate. • Aerial drift of chemicals may result in impacts outside of the cropped area, such as field margins and ponds. Wide arable field margins Arbigland, • Seed treatment may impact on seed-eating birds August 2006. (Peter Norman) if some seeds are left unburied at sowing.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 203 204 FARMLAND HABITATS TRADITIONAL FIELD BOUNDARIES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T and throughstones andtopstonesbridging thetwo separate dyke faceswithsmallstonesin-between standard andcommonestform consistsoftwo on localtraditionandavailability ofmaterials. The Drystone dykestakeavariety offormsdepending drystone walls. Individual treescanalsooccurwithinthelineof they fulfilthesimilarfunctionsforwildlifeasahedge. fertile areasalsohavedykes.Inbothenvironments is tooharshforhedgerows.Butsomelowland,more outcrops arecommon,thesoilisthinandclimate dykes, arethedominantfieldboundarieswhererocky Drystone walls,betterknownlocallyas habitat. farms, theymaybethesinglemostimportantwildlife provide additionalstructuretohedges.Onsome Hedgerow trees,typically Ash, Wych Elmandoaks, earth mounds,sometimesmixedorfacedwithstones. microclimate. Hedgebanksarehedgesplantedon ‘edge’ habitattomanyspecies,withaslightlydifferent stock-proof structureoffer aswellan an‘interior’ form hedges.Largehedgeswitha Beech, Hazel,Privet,DogRoseandGorsecanalso many othershrubs,includingBlackthorn,Elder, Holly, Hedges aretypicallycomposedofHawthorn,but 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Scottish Agricultural College. Carry outresearchintothebiodiversityofdrystonedykesandtheirmanagement. Priority Action (TFB2) Lead Partner:RegionalProposal Assessment Committee. Increase thequalityofhedgerows,includinghedgerowtrees,inDumfries&Galloway Priority Action (TFB1) Habitat Description TRADITIONAL FIELDBOUNDARIES Drystone sheeppens,Queensberry(RichardMearns) dense,bushy drystone often haveawoodlandflora,whilst Hedge-bottoms or fertiliserdrift. roads andtracks, from adjacent nutrient enrichment may suffer from activities. Some by agricultural undisturbed often relatively field, andtheyare humidity thanthe temperatures and higher daytime sheltered with are usuallywell hedges anddykes The basesof sheltered, perhapswithatrickleofwater. but thebottomsheltered.Insideitcanbedryand dyke andadryer, warmerside. The topiswindswept granite. There isusuallyanexposed,wetsidetoa and therocktypeisusuallyigneous,especially field clearancestoneasopposedtoquarriedmaterial, parts ofGalloway. They arealmostinvariablybuiltof but canbeverycommoninsomelocalities,including single wall,formonlyasmallproportionofalldykes where mostofthestonesareverylargebouldersina as sandstone,limestoneorgreywacke.Singledykes, of materials,oftenquarriedsedimentarystonesuch faces together. They areconstructedfromavariety type, though similarstructures are foundinotherparts single dykesare themostlocallydistinctive boundary or theotherdid notformpartoftheview. Galloway difficult tofindmanyparts ofthecountrywhereone integral partofthelandscape asinBritain.Itwouldbe but therearefewcountries wheretheyformsuchan occur inmanyformsasfar awayasSouth America, Hedges andwallsarenotespeciallyBritish;they 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext usually moreweedy. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Red sandstonedykeatCrichopeLinn, . June 2007.(PeterNorman) dyke-bases are TRADITIONAL FIELD BOUNDARIES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

of Scotland, Wales, northern England and Dartmoor. 3. Importance for Associated Species There is approximately 814,000km of hedgerows in the UK, 48,700 of which are in Scotland, and 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) approximately 87,500km of walls in Scotland. These Many invertebrates are associated with traditional figures compare with more than 235,000 of fences in field boundaries, though few, if any, require Scotland. maintenance of the boundary in a stockproof condition. The number of invertebrates associated with hedgerows probably runs into many thousands. Typical moths include Early Moth Theria primaria, Chinese Character Cilix glaucata and Green-brindled Crescent Allophyes oxyacanthae. The caterpillars of the Orchard Ermine moth Yponomeuta padella live gregariously in webs on Hawthorn and Blackthorn hedges and can defoliate long stretches. The Bird Cherry Ermine Yponomeuta evonymella may do the same where Bird Cherry occurs in hedges, though in both cases the host plant always recovers. Many bees, wasps, sawflies, mirid bugs, shield bugs, leaf beetles are also to be found. TRADITIONAL FIELD BOUNDARIES TRADITIONAL A myriad of invertebrates and their eggs are found Hedgelaying training course at Bombie Farm, Kirkcudbright, January 2005.(FWAG) in drystone dykes - spiders, woodlice, springtails, millipedes, bees and wasps. The rare Wall Mason Bee Osmia parietina, typically associated with 2. Dumfries & Galloway Status drystone walls, has been recorded in two locations on the Solway coast (out of less than 20 in the UK), 2.1 Recent Trends whilst the even rarer ruby-tailed wasp Chrysura Whilst deliberate destruction of field boundaries hirsuta, usually found in pastures with dykes, has has virtually ceased in the last 30 years, the been recorded in the region just once, near Whithorn fortunes of hedgerows and drystone dykes has in 1973. A spider Textrix denticulata is often found varied enormously in this period. Many dykes have amongst stone dykes, whilst the Muslin Footman been rebuilt along their original lines. There are moth Nudaria mundana feeds on lichens growing on also examples of successful hedgerow restoration dykes and other rocks. projects, but this has had a minimal impact on the scale of the problem. The vast majority of the region’s The nationally rare Wall Whorl Snail Vertigo pusilla hedgerows remain in an extremely poor condition, is most typically found at ivy-covered dyke-bases, unmanaged other than by an annual flail with a usually shaded by trees. The weedy flora of dyke- tractor-driven machine, and continuing to slowly bases can also be important for some butterflies, disappear from existence. Virtually none of them are including Nettle-feeding Peacocks Inachis io and stockproof without the need for additional fencing. Small Tortoiseshells Aglais urticae.

2.2 Current Distribution 3.2 Birds (high importance)

Hedgerows and dykes are widespread throughout the HABITATS FARMLAND Well-maintained region, though hedgerows are predominantly lowland bushy hedgerows in distribution. Hedge banks are rare. can provide food and nest 2.3 Associated Habitats sites for many A number of habitats occur in close association and/ species of small or overlap with traditional field boundaries, and the bird, including following action plans may also contain relevant Linnets Carduelis information: Veteran Trees, Agriculturally Improved cannabina and Grasslands, Arable Fields, Roads and Verges. Yellowhammers Dunnock, sometimes called Hedge Sparrow Emberiza (Paul McLaughlin)

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citronella, whilst Grey Partridges Perdix perdix often nest in hedge bottoms. Hedgerow trees add further structure to the habitat and are used by nesting Tree sparrows Passer montanus, Barn Owls Tyto alba and other species.

Dykes are of lesser importance for birds, but some species such as Wrens Troglodytes troglodytes, and in the uplands Wheatears Oenanthe oenanthe, may nest in cavities within them.

3.3 Flowering Plants (high importance) Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna is by far the most abundant hedgerow plant, though in Dumfriesshire Beech hedge at Claygate, near Canonbie, February 2008. there are also many Beech Fagus sylvatica hedges. (Peter Norman) Other shrubs that are often part of the hedge, and in travelling between areas of semi-natural habitat. some cases can be the dominant species, include Most bats avoid from crossing open fields, and Blackthorn Prunus spinosa, Gorse Ulex europaeus, may even shun from crossing quite small gaps in Holly Ilex aquifolium, Elder Sambucus nigra, Wild hedges. Hedges can also form an important habitat

TRADITIONAL FIELD BOUNDARIES TRADITIONAL Privet Ligustrum vulgare and Guelder Rose Viburnum component for other species, including of course opulus. A feature of many parts of Dumfries & Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus. Galloway in the spring are the great drifts of Cow Parsley at hedge-bottoms. In other areas there is Voles, mice and shrews find shelter within dykes, more of a woodland flora with Primroses Primula where they are hunted by Stoats Mustela erminea vulgaris, Bluebells Hyacinthoides non-scripta and and Weasels Mustela nivalis. even Early Purple Orchids Orchis mascula. 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) A number of plants grow on drystone dykes, Shady, damp dykes can be totally covered in mosses including cranesbills and stonecrops. and liverworts. Semi-derelict dykes in more exposed environments are colonised by Woolly Fringe- 3.4 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) moss Racomitrium languginosum. Hedgerow trees, Lichens generally favour the exposed side of dykes, especially Ash, Sycamore and Wych Elm can be rich leaving the damper sheltered side to the mosses. in mosses and liverworts, including the possibility of Where stock rubs against the dyke, the lichen flora rare species. may be limited to a few species able to cope with this. 3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium Hedgerow trees are very important for lichens. importance) They support species not found in woodlands; Dykes are used for shelter and basking sites by instead rather approaching the diversity of those of Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara and Slow Worms wood pastures. However, due to the abundance of Anguis fragilis. Newts, Common Frogs Rana hedgerows, in comparison to wood pastures, their temporaria and Common Toads Bufo bufo may also total value may be greater. The species and age of find shelter, perhaps even hibernation sites, within FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND the tree has a significant influence, but so to do local them. conditions and management. Elm is the prime host of the most threatened lichens, but Ash and Sycamore 4. Environmental, Economic & Social are also valuable. In areas with little native woodland, Importance of Biodiversity hedgerows may be the only significant habitat for epiphytic lichens. • Hedges, boundary trees and dykes are highly significant features in most agricultural 3.5 Mammals (medium importance) landscapes. Bats use holes in hedgerow trees for breeding and roosting and will often fly along hedgerows when • Both hedges and dykes provide shelter for livestock and crops.

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• The ground beetles, ladybirds and parasitic wasps that are associated with traditional field boundaries provide a biological control service that greatly outweighs the damage caused by the pests found in these habitats.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• There is a widespread perception that field hedgerows should look like garden hedges, neatly clipped and tidy. Unfortunately mechanical flailing can never produce the same results as garden shears. • Cutting hedges in the summer destroys bird nests, and in the autumn prevents the formation of berries. • The loss of hedgerow trees probably outnumbers the loss of the hedgerows

themselves. Dutch Elm Disease has contributed FIELD BOUNDARIES TRADITIONAL to this loss, but management practices, including annual flailing, rarely favour their replacement. • Overstocking of fields can lead to the loss of flowers and lichens associated with hedgerows, dykes and trees. Conversely, loss of grazing can lead to ivy encroachment, which has benefits for invertebrates, but can lead to loss of lichens. • Well established, traditional field boundaries are often the first casualty of road widening schemes. Their replacements will take many decades to acquire the same biodiversity interest.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Agri-environment schemes have funded the creation of new hedgerows. • The Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group has promoted good practice in hedgerow management through advice, demonstrations and

training events. HABITATS FARMLAND

6.2 Other recommended actions • Options are available for field boundaries as part of Rural Development Contracts and Rural Priorities. • Develop hedge management skills through training and advice. Lichen encrusted seashore stones in dyke at Claymoddie, Machars, August 2007. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 207 208 FARMLAND HABITATS WOOD PASTURES & PARKLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T through fertiliser andpesticideapplication, but have grassland thathasbeenagriculturally improved The majorityofwoodpastures andparklandsnow protection fromgrazingto allow treestoregenerate. numerous invertebratesand birds,butalsoprovides pastures andparklands.It not onlysupports Scrub isessentialforhighbiodiversityinwood and manyarenowconsideredtobe hollows. Someshowevidenceofpreviouspollarding, heavy branching,basalswelling,fattrunksandmany trees inthattheytypicallyhaveroundedcrowns,low pastures andparklands. They differ fromwoodland Open-grown treesarecharacteristicofwood landscape reasons. superimposed overolderwoodpastures,primarilyfor usually inthevicinityofalargehouseandsometimes as woodpasturesbutweredeliberatelydesigned, Parklands havethesamevegetationalstructure products, thoughmanagementoftreesisnowrare. for theproductionofbothlivestockandtimber elements ofthehabitatweretraditionallymanaged heathland combinedwithtreesorshrubs.Both Wood pasturescompriseofgrazedgrasslandor 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead: SulwathConnections. Target: Dedicatedwoodpastureprojecttooperateregion-widefrom20082013. the region. Complete SulwathConnectionsWood Pastureprojectandsecurefundingtoextendthiswork throughout Priority Action (WPP1) Parkland atShambellie,New Abbey, May2004.(PeterNorman) Habitat Description WOOD PASTURES &PARKLANDS veteran trees . compared totheirEuropeancounterparts. British woodpasturesandparklandsisoutstanding, trees andtheabundanceofassociatedspeciesin of management.Inparticular, thenumberofveteran unique, andfewcountrieshavesuchalonghistory used inBritishwoodpasturesandparklandsare species compositionandmanagementtechniques many Europeanandothercountries.However, the Wood pastures,inoneform oranother, existin 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext even rarer. wood pastureisalsoofhighbiodiversityvalue,but and isofhighbiodiversityvalue.Heathlandunder unimproved grasslandstilloccursonsomesites abandoned inthe19 The techniquesofmanagingwoodpastureswere 2.1 RecentTrends 2. site hasahistory ofwoodpastureandcontains oneof the bestwood pasturesiteintheregion. Although the Lochwood 2.3 SiteExamples widespread, neitherisevenly distributed. predominantly lowland.However, althoughbothare the uplandsandlowlands,whilstparklandsare accurately assessed.Wood pasturesoccurinboth parklands inDumfries&Gallowayhasnotbeen The presentdistributionofwoodpasturesand 2.2 CurrentDistribution significant impactinDumfries&Galloway. to thecreationofnewones. This hasyettohavea fragments ofwoodpastures,andconsiderationgiven research intonewtechniquestorestoretheremaining In thelasttenyearstherehasbeenconsiderable their biodiversityvalue,especiallyveterantrees. resurgence ofinterestinwoodpastures,primarilyfor However, inthelate20 land managementbecamealmosttotallyforgotten. an extentthattheveryexistenceofthisform Dumfries &GallowayStatus (SSSI),nearBeattock,isoften quotedas th Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership and20 th centurytherewasa th centuriestosuch WOOD PASTURES & PARKLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

frondosa are more common species. Where it exists, unimproved grassland beneath the trees may also be important for grassland fungi such as waxcaps.

3.2 Invertebrates (very high importance) Due to the presence of many veteran trees, many wood pastures are very important for invertebrates. Most of these are associated with decaying wood in veteran trees, but others feed on fungi and other invertebrates that are found on the trees. For example, the larvae of a nationally scarce darkling beetle Eledona agricola develops in the fruiting bodies of Sulphur Polypore Laetiporus sulphureus, and occasionally other bracket fungi, mostly in old Short, stubby, veteran oaks. Boreland of Parton, July 2007. wood pastures. Virtually no local surveys have been (Peter Norman) completed of such species. the finest collections of veteran trees in Britain, most of it has not been managed as wood pasture for some However, the presence of many veteran trees is time. There are, however, some very good examples not the only reason why wood pastures are very WOOD PASTURES & PARKLANDS WOOD PASTURES of current wood pasture on its fringes and on nearby important for invertebrates; those sites with scrub, Raehills Estate. Other sites include Boreland Hills especially Hawthorn and Blackthorn blossom, provide and Ardwall Hill in the Fleet Valley. Good examples essential nectar for the adult insects that emerge of parklands are found at Drumlanrig Castle and from the trees. Unimproved grassland provides a at Kirkconnell House and Shambellie House near nectar-rich habitat, but scrub and associated flowers New Abbey. such as Hogweed Heracleum sphondylium and other umbellifers are equally valuable within improved 2.4 Associated Habitats pastures. A number of habitats occur in close association and/ or overlap with wood pastures and parklands, and 3.3 Mammals (high importance) the following action plans may also contain relevant Though many mammals, including Brown Hares information: Native Woods, Veteran Trees. Lepus europaeus and Badgers Meles meles undoubtedly make use of wood pastures, their 3. Importance for Associated Species greatest importance is for bats. Veteran trees, with their numerous holes and hollows, provide many 3.1 Fungi and Lichens (very high importance) opportunities for breeding roosts and hibernacula, The combination of habitats in wood pastures whilst invertebrates associated with both the trees means that they are important for a range of fungus and unimproved grassland provide abundant food. species. On the open-grown trees, light and humidity conditions are often ideal for many lichen species. 3.4 Non-flowering Plants (medium Importance) For example, Tree Lungwort Lobaria pulmonaria Epiphytic ferns are usually abundant on veteran trees is known from several current and former wood in wood pastures and parklands. Common Polypody pastures across the region. Other lichens, recorded Polypodium vulgare is the typical species, but others FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND only rarely in Dumfries & Galloway, that may benefit also occur. Veteran trees also provide an ideal habitat from enhancement of wood pastures include Bacidia for epiphytic mosses and liverworts, though isolated incompata, Schismatomma graphidioides and trees are of less value, being susceptible to drying Orange-fruited Elm Lichen Caloplaca luteoalba. winds. Little work has been carried out in Dumfries & Galloway, but the local bryophyte flora may be better The presence of veteran trees also makes wood than in some of the ‘classic’ wood pasture sites in pastures important for a range of saproxylic fungi. southern England, where air pollution is a restricting The internationally rare Oak Polypore Piptoporus factor. Typical species include Park Yoke-moss quercinus has been recorded at Lochwood, whilst Zygodon rupestris and Squirrel-tail Moss Leucodon other bracket fungi such as Beefsteak Fungus sciuroides. Fistulina hepatica and Hen of the Woods Grifola

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3.5 Birds (high importance) Hole-nesting species that feed in open areas are the typical birds of wood pastures. These include Barn Owls Tyto alba, Redstarts Phoenicurus phoenicurus and Spotted Flycatchers Muscicapa striata. Areas of scrub may attract breeding Dunnocks Prunella modularis and Linnets Carduelis cannabina.

3.6 Flowering Plants (low importance) Apart from their veteran trees, most wood pastures in the region tend to have improved or semi-improved grassland that supports a limited range of flowering plants. Crab Apples Malus sylvestris are a distinctive feature of many wood pastures in Dumfries & Scrub pastures, often dominated by Gorse, are common across the Galloway. region. Lochanhead, April 2006. (Peter Norman)

3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) lived and worked. Apart from the value of the The open conditions of wood pastures is of more trees themselves, many contain other features of cultural heritage value including earthworks,

WOOD PASTURES & PARKLANDS WOOD PASTURES benefit to reptiles and amphibians than dense woods. However, the trees alone are of little value without a disused mines, rock carvings, a Neolithic burial field layer that provides shelter, invertebrate food and, cairn, a hill fort and a 12th century motte. in the case of amphibians, breeding ponds. Therefore, only those wood pastures with unimproved 5. Factors affecting the Habitat grassland, heathland or wetland tend to support high reptile and amphibian populations. • Removal of trees and dead wood through perceptions of safety and tidiness where sites 4. Environmental, Economic & Social have high amenity use, forest hygiene, the supply Importance of Biodiversity of firewood or vandalism. • Loss of veteran trees through disease, • Wood pastures and parklands are of considerable physiological stress such as drought and landscape value. In parklands, the combination storm damage, and competition for resources of trees and pasture was deliberately planned to with surrounding younger trees. be pleasing to their owners, often when viewed from the windows of their homes, but even in non- • Damage to trees and roots from soil compaction designed wood pastures, the diversity of colours, and erosion caused by trampling of livestock and shapes and light offered by this habitat forms an car parking. attractive landscape. • Neglect, and loss of expertise of traditional tree • Wood and scrub offers shelter for stock in winter management techniques (e.g. pollarding) leading and shade in summer. Some grazing of trees to trees collapsing or being felled for safety and shrubs may occur, but this is rarely managed reasons. in any way, although recent research has • Lack of regeneration of trees, producing a FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND suggested that livestock might benefit from the skewed age structure, leading to breaks in the supplementary feeding of tree foliage. continuity of dead wood habitat and loss of • Timber production would historically have been specialised dependent species. one of the uses of wood pastures. Some sites • Pasture improvement through reseeding, deep retain patches of high forest as well as open- ploughing, fertiliser and other chemical grown trees and these can be thinned out to treatments, leading variously to tree root provide good timber. damage, loss of nectar-bearing plants, damage to • Many wood pastures illustrate past land use the soil and epiphytes. and are therefore part of the region’s cultural heritage, providing evidence of how our ancestors

210 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P WOOD PASTURES & PARKLANDS WOOD PASTURES

White Galloway cattle grazing under Ash trees. High Ardwall, Gatehouse of Fleet, August 2005. (Peter Norman) • Inappropriate grazing levels: under grazing • A project to manage, and possibly create, wood leading to loss of habitat structure through pastures in selected locations in Dumfries & bracken and scrub invasion; and over grazing Galloway was begun in 2007 as part of the leading to bark browsing, soil compaction and Heritage Lottery Funded Sulwath Connections loss of nectar plants. Landscape Scheme. • Pollution derived either remotely from industry • RSPB has begun to create a wood pasture (or, and traffic, or locally from agro-chemical depending on definition, restore of a degraded application and nitrogen enrichment from pasture one) at Barclye in the Cree Valley, with the overstocking, causing damage to epiphyte support of Sulwath Connections. communities and changes to soils. • Wood pastures have been poorly served by agri- 6.2 Other recommended actions environment and forestry grant schemes. • Promote the positive features of grazing in woodland and the role of wood pasture in 6. Strategic Actions planning ecological restoration. • Identify sites with current or historical evidence 6.1 Recent and current activity of wood pasture. This does not mean that all • A preliminary assessment of the distribution and such areas should be managed as wood pasture extent of the wood pasture resource in Dumfries but its existence should be appreciated and the & Galloway was commissioned by Scottish possibility of maintaining or enhancing wood- Natural Heritage in 2006. pasture features considered. HABITATS FARMLAND • A detailed assessment of wood pastures in the • Examine the feasibility of running training Fleet Valley National Scenic Area, including courses in traditional tree management history, management, vegetation and veteran techniques (e.g. pollarding). trees was carried out in 2005 by SEPA, Solway • Explore possibilities for the creation of new Heritage and Dumfries & Galloway Council. An areas of wood pasture. introductory booklet to wood pastures in Dumfries & Galloway was produced at the end of this • Encourage and contribute to the national project. production of an illustrated management guide to wood pasture and parkland.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 211 212 FARMLAND HABITATS FARM WOODS & SHELTERBELTS 16,000ha were foundinDumfries&Galloway. woodland inScotland in2006,ofwhich around There wereapproximately 250,000ha offarm 1.2 NationalandInternational Context woodland offers thegreatestpotential forbiodiversity. value. Oftentheinterfacebetweenfarmlandand but evenrelativelyyoungplantationshavesome interest tendstoincreasewiththeageofwood, depending ontheirstructureandlocation.Biodiversity species, andcanbeusedforavarietyofpurposes and shelterbeltscanbecomposedofnativeorexotic Though predominantlyofplantedorigin,farmwoods a result,manyarelinearinshape. be foundalongaccesstracksandfieldboundaries. As are oftenlocatedclosetofarmbuildings,butmayalso as partofthedaytoactivitiesfarm. They for timberproduction,mostfarmwoodsaremanaged which areoftenmanagedbyexternalagentsprimarily hectares. Unlikethelargercommercialplantations, Most woodsonfarmsaresmall,usuallylessthan2 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. College. Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland/Farming&Wildlife Advisory Group/Scottish Agricultural specific advice. Improve thebiodiversitymanagementofexistingfarmwoodsandshelterbeltsthroughprovisionsite- Priority Action (FSB2) Lead Partner:RegionalProposal Assessment Committee. Target: 50newfarmwoodsonappropriatesitesby2015. Create newfarmwoodsandshelterbeltsonlandcurrentlyoflowbiodiversityarchaeologicalinterest. Priority Action (FSB1) Habitat Description Conifer andbroadleavedfarmshelterbeltsatDalswinton. FARM WOODS&SHELTERBELTS (Richard Mearns). Plantations, Traditional FieldBoundaries. information: NativeWoods, BroadleavedandMixed the followingactionplansmayalsocontainrelevant or overlapwithfarmwoodsandshelterbelts, A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.3 Associated Habitats of alargeestateoftenhavemorefarmwoods. woods thanothers.Farmsthatare,orwereonce,part in thelowlands,haveagreaterdensityofthese Dumfries &Galloway, thoughsomeareas,particularly Farm woodsandshelterbeltsarewidespreadacross 2.2 CurrentDistribution have notbeennumerous. woods havebeencreatedinrecentdecades,these been clearedbutnotreplaced. Though newfarm as aresultofdisease,stormsoroldagehaveusually been managedtoanyextent. Trees thathavefallen that havebeenconvertedtoconifers,mostnot recent decades.However, withtheexceptionofthose Few farmwoodshavebeendeliberatelyremovedin 2.1 RecentTrends 2. frugilegus on thefarm. Typical speciesincludeRooks important nestingsitesfor birds thatfeedelsewhere species areusuallyfound.However, theycanform woodland breedingbirds,althoughafewcommon Farm woodsarerarelylargeenoughtosupportmany 3.1 Birds(mediumimportance) 3. suitable holes ornestboxes.Inexceptional cases, Owls Tyto alba maynestinfarmwoodsif thereare Sparrows Passermontanus Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species and Starlings Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Sturnus vulgaris inafewlocations with Tree Corvus . Barn FARM WOODS & SHELTERBELTS

they may also be used by Little Owls, on the northern 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium edge of their range, or Long-eared Owls Asio otus, importance) which avoid larger woods dominated by Tawny Owls Though farm woods in themselves may not be of high Strix aluco. value for reptiles and amphibians, they are often an important component for a wider habitat mosaic for newts and Common Toads Bufo bufo.

3.5 Invertebrates (low importance) The small size, open nature, limited range of tree species and lack of deadwood usually limits the value of farm woods for the rarer species of invertebrates. Nevertheless, such woods may contain an abundance of common species that may be rare elsewhere on the farm.

3.6 Flowering Plants (low importance) As with invertebrates, the history and environmental conditions found in farm woods and shelterbelts, is

rarely suitable for important flowering plants, but such WOODS & SHELTERBELTS FARM sites may contain common species that may not be found elsewhere on the farm.

3.7 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) The open nature of most farm woods makes them poor habitats for mosses and liverworts.

4. Environmental, Economic and Social Great Spotted Woodpeckers will nest in quite small woods if Importance of Biodiversity suitable deadwood is available. (Gordon McCall)

3.2 Mammals (medium importance) • The landscape value of farm woods and Farm woods are valuable habitat features for bats. shelterbelts, both individually and collectively, Old trees provide roost sites and the wood can be a is enormous. They can also screen unsightly valuable source of insect food, but even when this is buildings. not the case they provide valuable habitat linkages • Farm woods and shelterbelts act as buffers to between areas of high insect abundance, such as increase farm biosecurity. wetlands, and roost sites in farm buildings. Many bat species will not cross open country. • Many small woods provide cover for pheasants and other game. 3.3 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) • Farm woods and shelterbelts reduce wind-borne A range of fungi can be found in farm woods, though soil erosion and help reduce both the amount and there are none are restricted to this habitat. Such rate of run off into watercourses, thus contributing woods are of greater value to lichens, as their high to flood alleviation. HABITATS FARMLAND ratio of edge habitat and often their open nature, • Footpaths and public access routes are often provides environmental conditions closer to wood defined by farm woods, and they add interest for pasture than dense woodland. Also, the tree species the visitor. typical of many farm woods in Dumfries & Galloway – Ash and Wych Elm, is well suited to many lichens.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 213 FARM PONDS

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Dutch Elm Disease has reduced the number of elms in farm woods and shelterbelts. • Unmanaged stock access can damage ground flora and prevent regeneration. • Dead and fallen trees are usually cleared immediately, often for firewood. This removes an important habitat for many species of bird, bat and invertebrate. • Some woods are used to screen the dumping of farm rubbish. FARM WOODS & SHELTERBELTS FARM

Rookery at Kirkton. (Richard Mearns)

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Some farm woods have been fenced from livestock under agri-environment schemes.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Carefully plan new farm woods to avoid habitats that are already of biodiversity interest, such as wetlands or unimproved grasslands, and archaeological sites. Maximise biodiversity and other benefits, by linking existing habitats, such

FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND as ponds and hedgerows. • Aim for several small woods on the farm, especially when managing for game birds. • Consider reversion of conifer woods to broadleaved or mixed woods. Small conifer plantations rarely have an economic value.

214 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership biodiversity andamenitybenefits. watercourses. They should,however, alsoprovide farm steadings,toprevent damage tonatural ponds aredesignedtotreat andstorerunoff from Sustainable FarmDrainage Systems. New pondshavealsorecentlybeencreatedfor are muchmoreimportantthantheoriginofpond. exposure topollutionandlocationinthelandscape ponds. Factorssuchasgeology, waterdepth, difference betweenman-madeandsemi-natural Unlike manyotherhabitats,thereislittleecological amenity, wildlifeorsportingvalue. farm management,butthemajoritynowonlyprovide seasonal. Manyoriginallyservedaspecificpurposein adds totheirvalue. The watercanbepermanentor lochans of1-2hectaresormore,butthisvariation in sizefrompuddlesofonesquaremetretodeep farm pondshavebeenartificiallycreated. Theyvary Natural pondsoccuronfarms,butthemajorityof 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Farming&Wildlife Advisory Group. Target: Arrange 2trainingcoursesby2012. Provide traininginthemanagementoffarmponds. Priority Action (FP2) Lead Partner:RegionalProposal Assessment Committee. support importantpondspecies. Create newpondlandscapes(severalpondslinkedbywildlife-richhabitats)infarmlandareasknownto Priority Action (FP1) A recentlycreatedsustainablefarmdrainagepondatBarnboard Habitat Description Farm, BridgeofDee, August 2006.(PeterNorman) FARM PONDS Such Marshes, NativeWet Woods, ForestPonds. Eutrophic Lochs,Mesotrophic Lochs,Swamps, action plansmayalsocontain relevantinformation: and/or overlapwithfarmponds, andthefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociation 2.4 Associated Habitats Britain forGreatCrestedNewts. forms oneofthemostimportantbreedingareasin A networkoffarmpondsatBurrowHead(SAC/SSSI) important inScotlandforwaterbeetles. Carrick Ponds(SSSI)aresomeofthemost 2.3 SiteExamples been littleresearchintovariationsinponddensity. areas acrossDumfries&Galloway, buttherehas Ponds arebelievedtobewidespreadinallfarming 2.2 CurrentDistribution recent years. there hasbeenrelativelylittlelossoffarmpondsin that thisisnotthecaseinsouthwestScotlandwhere match thosestillbeinglost,althoughitissuspected scale thenumberofnewpondsisestimatedonlyto at thebeginningof20thcentury. Indeed,onaUK resulted inaponddensityanywherenearthatseen or amenitypurposes.Howeverthishasnotyet create newfarmpondsforangling,shooting,wildlife In thelastfewdecadestherehasbeenatrendto 2.1 RecentTrends 2. unknown. Their numberandextentinDumfries&Gallowayis waterbodies upto2ha,aroundhalfoftheBritishtotal. Scotland isestimatedtohaveatleast150,000 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 215 FARMLAND HABITATS FARM PONDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3. Importance for Associated Species A wide variety of flowering plants is found in farm ponds. Mudwort Limosella aquatica, an annual of 3.1 Reptiles and Amphibians (very high the muddy edges of ponds, if found only erratically importance) in Dumfries & Galloway. Lesser Reedmace Typha Common Frogs Rana temporaria, Common Toads angusifolia, of restricted distribution in Scotland, Bufo bufo and all three species of newt – Great grows in slightly deeper water on the edge of ponds Crested Triturus cristatus, Smooth Lissotriton vulgaris than its larger and commoner relation. and Palmate Lissotriton helvetica regularly breed in farm ponds. Natterjack Toads Epidalea calamita, 3.5 Mammals (medium importance) though of limited distribution, also breed in a few farm Larger farm ponds, especially where they connect ponds. to wetland, are used by aquatic mammals such as Otters Lutra lutra, Water Voles Arvicola terrestris and Water Shrews Neomys fodiens. They will also be used for drinking by terrestrial mammals. FARM PONDS FARM 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) Algae are a natural part of ponds and form rich habitats for many invertebrates and the basis of many food chains. However nutrient enrichment can cause dense algal growth and blooms, to the detriment of other species.

3.7 Fishes (low importance) Though farm ponds may be stocked with fish for Common Toads benefit from larger ponds. Kirkconnel, angling or amenity purposes, the species involved 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance)February 2006. (Greg Baillie) are of low conservation importance. It is damaging, Many aquatic invertebrates are found in farm ponds. and potentially illegal, to stock ponds with fish that are Typical species include moths such as Bulrush currently fishless. Wainscots Nonagria typhae that feed on Reedmace, water beetles such as Great Diving Beetles Dytiscus 4. Environmental, Economic & Social marginalis, and dragonflies such as Large Red Importance of Biodiversity Damselflies Pyrrhosoma nymphula.

• Water creates a focal point in farm landscapes. A number of locally important species have also been recorded from a few ponds in the region. These • Ponds have a cultural and archaeological value. include Water Spiders Argyroneta aquatica, the only Mill ponds and other farm ponds provide valuable spider to live an almost entirely submerged existence, information about the history of a place. and Variable Damselflies Coenagrion pulchellum that • Ponds may be of considerable amenity value: have a restricted UK distribution. some are used for shooting or fishing, others for boating or part of a nature reserve. 3.3 Birds (high importance) Mallards Anser platyrhynchos and Moorhens

FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Gallinula chloropus are the typical breeding birds of farm ponds, with Sedge Warblers Acrocephalus • On a national scale, pollution may be more of schoenobaenus and Reed Buntings Emberiza a threat to ponds than actual loss. This includes schoeniclus in the surrounding marsh and scrub. nutrient over-enrichment (eutrophication) from However, farm ponds may be of critical importance fertiliser and slurry runoff and accidental chemical in providing food for birds that may nest elsewhere contamination. on the farm, including Lapwings Vanellus vanellus, Redshanks Tringa totanus and Tree Sparrows Passer • Excessive cattle poaching on the banks of montanus. 3.4 Flowering Plants (medium importance)

216 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

ponds can cause turbidity and decreased dissolved oxygen concentrations as a result of sediment and excrement entering the water. • Well-intentioned mismanagement may be more damaging than doing nothing. For example, dredging silt and removing vegetation for the sake of creating open water may in some circumstances damage the conservation interest of ponds.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity

• The Working Towards Best Practice Project, led PONDS FARM by FWAG, is carrying out a number of wetland projects on farms and promoting best practice to other farmers and landowners. • The Pond Monitoring Network is establishing an online database of ponds throughout the UK.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Link new ponds to other habitats within the landscape. Avoid open semi-natural habitats that are likely to already have a high biodiversity value, and important archaeological sites. • Maintain habitat mosaics. Ponds associated with semi-natural habitats such as unimproved grasslands or native woods are likely to be of higher conservation value. FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND

Extensive network of ponds within farmland at Carrick, Gatehouse of Fleet, June 2007. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 217 218 BUILT HABITATS PUBLIC OPEN SPACES attracted afewspecialist species, mostlyfungi. woodchip mulch hasprovidedanewhabitat thathas plants changed twoorthreetimesayear. However, managed, sometimesbeing dugandbedding in otherurbanareas. They tendto beintensively Municipal domestic, orsemi-tame,wildfowl. for intensiveactivitiessuchasboatingandfeedingof created, concretelinedwithverticalbanks,andused exceptions, thetypical of semi-naturalhabitat. Though therearemany management, aretheirsizeandproximitytoareas on theirvalueforbiodiversity, apartfromtheir remnants ofprevioushabitats.Otherinfluences established longer amenity grassland,butthesetendtohavebeen Town parksalsousuallycontainlargeareasof habitats intheseareas. than theactualplayingpitchwithpotentialforother in character, butusuallycoveramuchlargerarea high nutrientlevels. frequently closemown.Itthereforeissubjecttovery by seedingimportedtopsoilandisregularly open spaces,themajorityofwhichisnewlycreated Amenity grasslandisthemainhabitatofpublic 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:SulwathConnections. Target: Implementprojectson10sitesby2011. spaces. Work withlocalcommunities toincreasemanagementandinterpretationofbiodiversityinpublicopen Priority Action (POS1) Habitat Description Rhonehouse FairGreen,November2007.(RuthPaterson) Participation isthebestwaytolearn-tree-plantingdayat flowerbeds andmaythereforecontain Sportsgrounds occur bothwithinparksand park pond PUBLIC OPENSPACES isartificially arealsouniform more than20townparksand130churchyards. sites thaninmoreurbanenvironments,butthereare Galloway meansthatthereisalowerdensityofsuch throughout Britain. The ruralnatureofDumfries& Public openspacesarewidespreadandcommon 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext Wetlands in theactionplanforUrbanWatercourses and and urbanponds(otherthanparkponds)areincluded Urban Trees arecoveredbyaseparateactionplan, similar intermsofwildlifeandmanagement. churchyards soimportant. subsequent speciesdiversity make carefully managed orchids togrow. This variationinmanagementand may bemuchshorterallowingbird’s-foot trefoilor the effect ofahaymeadow. Inothercasesthegrass daisy, commonpoppyandyellowrattlegrow, giving grasses amongstwhichfloralplantssuchasox-eye In somecasesthismaytaketheformoflongmeadow may supportgreaterdiversitythansurroundingareas. because oftheirageandlowerintensitymanagement type ofhabitatfoundinchurchyardsisgrassland,but species-rich thanotherurbanenvironments. The main burial grounds.Buttheycanbesignificantlymore from anygardensimplybecauseoftheirroleasthe land surroundingchurches,givenadifferent status At firstglancechurchyardsaremerelypiecesof grasslands and parks. has therefore becomemorelikethatinamenity grow. Management ofchurchyardsandcemeteries black polishedheadstones uponwhichlichenscannot increased useofchemicals anduseofmachine-made headstones, intensification ofmowingregimes, highly managed. This hasinvolved movementof of parks,somechurchyardshavebecomemore has beenatendencyforreducedmanagement space hasbecomemoreuniform.Whilstthere Over thepast30yearsmanagementofpublicopen 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Cemeteries areoften PUBLIC OPEN SPACES

2.2 Current Distribution out to assess such sites Public open spaces are predominantly within towns in Dumfries & Galloway. and villages and are therefore concentrated in the In parks and other coastal lowlands and river valleys. municipal flowerbeds, the increasing use of 2.3 Site Examples woodchip mulches has encouraged the spread A number of town Parks include features of high of several species of biodiversity interest, such as the pond at Blairmount fungi, and even created a in Newton Stewart, grassland at Castledykes habitat for new species, in Kirkcudbright, and trees at Castledykes in such as Agrocybe Dumfries. rivularis. Larch Bolete Suillus grevillei on mown grassland beneath ornamental 2.4 Associated Habitats 3.2 Birds (medium larch. The Crichton, September 2007. (Peter Norman) A number of habitats occur in close association and/ importance) or overlap with public open spaces, and the following The mix of open grassland and trees and shrubs in action plans may also contain relevant information:

many public open spaces can lead to a high density PUBLIC OPEN SPACES Scrub Woods, Broadleaved and Mixed Plantations, of breeding birds. Typical species include Blackbirds Traditional Field Boundaries, Wood Pastures and Turdus merula, Song Thrushes Turdus philomelos, Parklands, Urban Trees, Gardens, School Grounds, Dunnocks Prunella modularis and Spotted Walls and Buildings, Roads and Verges, Urban Flycatchers Muscicapa striata. Watercourses and Wetlands.

3.3 Invertebrates (medium importance) 3. Importance for Associated Species Large numbers of invertebrates are associated 3.1 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) with public open spaces, though most tend to be species that are also common and widespread Churchyards and cemeteries are known to in other habitats. Typical butterflies include Small support important lichen Tortoiseshells Aglais urticae, and where there is communities. Different longer grass Meadow Browns Maniola jurtina. Holly species occur on the Blues Celastrina argiolus, on the northern edge front, back and tops of of their UK range, have been seen in the Crichton headstones, with some grounds. Other common invertebrates include 300 species recorded from ladybirds, hoverflies and bumblebees. British churchyards. One of the most common lichen 3.4 Flowering Plants (medium importance) species, the bright orange Xanthorias thrive on the Over 100 species of plant may occur in an average nutrient-rich tops where sized churchyard. Typically, older churchyards have bird droppings accumulate. more native species, with mature Yew Taxus baccata Leafy lichens Platismatia and Beech Fagus sylvatica dominating, mixed with If headstones are moved glauca on headstone. to ease management, the Durisdeer Church, March 2008. exotic conifers often planted in Victorian times.

likelihood is that the lichens (Peter Norman) Shrubs including Holly Ilex aquifolium and climbers HABITATS BUILT will not survive. like Ivy Hedera helix are also typical.

In built-up or agriculturally improved areas, old 3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium churchyards and cemeteries that are closely mown importance) at regular intervals can form the most important Great Crested Newts Triturus cristatus occur in at long-established grassland habitats for fungi, least two ponds within towns and villages in Dumfries especially when nitrogenous fertilisers have not & Galloway at Newton Stewart and Gatehouse been applied. Some well-studied British sites have of Fleet. In churchyards and cemeteries, older recorded more than 200 species, including important headstones laid on their side provide basking sites for species such as Pink Meadow Waxcap Hygrocybe reptiles such as Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara calyptriformis. However, little work has been carried and Slow Worms Anguis fragilis.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 219 URBAN TREES

3.6 Mammals (medium importance) 6. Strategic Actions The proximity of public open spaces to buildings, which offer bats many roosting opportunities, 6.1 Recent and current activity makes them valuable feeding areas for Pipistrelles • Sulwath Connections Community Biodiversity Pipistrellus spp. and occasionally other species. Action Project has worked with several Where dense cover is available, they may also be communities to enhance public open spaces. used by Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus. • Green Flag Awards, judged by the Civic Trust on 3.7 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) the quality of park and greenspace management in England and Wales, has recently been In contrast to lichens, little information has been launched in Scotland. collected on mosses and liverworts in churchyards, but such sites are likely to be important where the • Judging for Eco-congregation Awards can surrounding area is include conservation management of church built-up or intensively grounds. farmed. Most • Community volunteers have created Garries species are found Park wildflower meadowin Gatehouse of Fleet.

PUBLIC OPEN SPACES on headstones or other hard surfaces, • Lochside Park in Castle Douglas, on the such as paths. Bryum shores of Carlingwark Loch, includes wildlife argentum is probably interpretation and a no-boating zone to prevent the most widespread Rustyback, an uncommon fern in disturbance to nesting birds and other wildlife. plant in the world, Scotland, growing in the lime mortar of Dunscore churchyard, August • The Crichton grounds are well maintained with growing between 2008. (Peter Norman) large areas of mown grassland and specimen paving stones in trees, but minimal use of chemicals leads to an virtually every town and city in the world. interesting range of fungi.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6.2 Other recommended actions Importance of Biodiversity • Carry out an audit of urban biodiversity information in Dumfries & Galloway. Identify and • Biodiversity enhances the interest and enjoyment map important areas for biodiversity within public of visitors. green spaces, including parks and cemeteries. • The different greys, greens and yellows of • Incorporate the conservation and headstone lichens give a sense of age to the enhancement of wildlife into the design and churchyard and a feeling of warmth to the stones. management of urban greenspace. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat • Reduce negative biodiversity impacts resulting from grounds maintenance contracts in public open spaces, parks and sports grounds (e.g. the • Lack of knowledge of existing value of urban use of herbicides, the timing and extent of grass habitat in the planning of developments/re- cutting and the type of equipment used). developments. BUILT HABITATS BUILT • Encourage community and individual action • The threat of development encroachment onto to survey, plan for and manage urban wildlife parks and old cemeteries. habitats. Consider designation as Local Nature • Simplification of the management of parks, Reserves. cemeteries and amenity grassland. This can • Promote wild space in urban areas as an involve clearing of shrubs, filling-in of ponds and educational resource to inform communities levelling land with hillocks and hollows making about local wildlife in the context of the wider them less attractive to wildlife. environment. • The use of invasive species in landscaping • Organise basic biodiversity training for staff schemes where this could pose a threat to in order to ensure that biodiversity is considered existing natural habitats. during their everyday work.

220 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 40,000 urban trees were lost between 2001 and 2006. declining. Forexample,in London anestimated of Britain,itisbelievedthat numbersarerapidly Although therearemanytreesintheurbanareas 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext in areasofhightrafficdensity. those inruralsituations,particularlyiftheyarelocated to copewithhigherlevelsofairbornepollutantsthan centimetres ofthesoil.Urbantreesalsousuallyhave food. The majorityofatree’s rootsareinthetopsix water andessentialmineralnutrients,storageof three importantfunctions:stability, absorptionof is criticaltotheircontinuedexistence.Rootsperform The environmentexperiencedbyurban forms mayalsohavebeenplanted. Chestnut, andSycamore. A numberofornamental native species,typicallyCommonLime,Beech,Horse many townsandvillages.Oftentheseconsistofnon- small groupsandsingleurbantreesarefrequentin Urban andsuburbanwoodlandisuncommon,but 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayCouncil. Target: Completesurveyby2015. age andcondition. Complete asurveyofallstreettreesinpublicownership,includingtheirlocation,species,approximate Priority Action (UT1) Horse ChestnutandothertreesarethedominantfeatureatMill Habitat Description Green, Dumfries.September2007.(PeterNorman) URBAN TREES tree roots Parks andCaravanSites. Trees, PublicOpenSpaces,GolfCourses,Holiday plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation:Veteran or overlapwithurbantrees,andthefollowingaction A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats feature ofthecentreKirkcudbrightandWigtown Thornhill the centreofsometownsandvillages,including Avenues ofurbantreesareanotablefeature 2.3 SiteExamples restricted toareassuchasparksandchurchyards. of morerecentorigin,orexpansion,tendbe established townsandvillages. Trees insettlements The bestexamplesofurbantreesarefoundinlong- 2.2 CurrentDistribution adequately replaced. growing species.Fewmatureurbantreeshavebeen have notbeenmaintainedorsmaller in treeplantingrecentdecades,manyofthese Though therehasbeenaconsiderableinterest trees throughdevelopmentorperceptionsofsafety. There hascontinuedtobeagraduallossofurban 2.1 RecentTrends 2. and bark-boringbeetles. fauna, whilstCommonLime hasagoodfoliagefauna sap runswhichsupportan interestinginvertebrate invertebrates. HorseChestnut ispronetoproducing value, butstillprovidefoodandhabitatformany Honeysuckle and Traveller’s Joyareoflesser invertebrates. Otherclimbingplants Ivy growingontreescanbeveryimportantfor 3.1 Invertebrates(mediumimportance) 3. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species andMoffat. Trees arealsoanotable Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership suchas . 221 BUILT HABITATS URBAN TREES 3.2 Birds (medium importance) rate of grassland. Urban trees that are remote from semi-natural A study in the West habitats generally support fewer birds than those in Midlands predicted the countryside, but Waxwings Bombycilla cedrorum that doubling the are remarkable exceptions. These birds, which breed number of trees in remote Siberia, occasionally winter in Britain in could reduce large numbers and in Dumfries & Galloway have been excess deaths due recorded on trees in car parks at the Council Offices to particles in the and Morrisons supermarket in Dumfries, and the air by up to 140 per M74 services at Gretna. They favour bearing-bearing year. trees. More typical species include Starlings Sturnus • Trees also vulgaris, House Sparrows Passer domesticus and remove carbon Greenfinches Carduelis chloris. dioxide from the atmosphere, Urban trees include some unusual 3.3 Mammals (medium importance) but in Dumfries species, such as this Indian Bean URBAN TREES Tree at St.Michael's Church, Bats find many roosting opportunities in urban areas, & Galloway this Dumfries. (Peter Norman) and in some locations street trees provide the only is a very minor opportunity to find insect food they need to survive. contribution to carbon sequestration. • Trees positively affect property values. 3.4 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) In Dumfries & Galloway’s towns, air quality is much • Several urban trees are local landmarks and have better than in other urban areas, but still may be been the subject of local artists. sufficient to prevent colonisation by the most sensitive lichen species. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat

4. Environmental, Economic & Social • Newly planted trees may struggle to grow and Importance of Biodiversity survive in towns due poor growing conditions as a result of compacted soils and a shortage of • Urban trees contribute to the landscape character, mineral nutrients. setting and local distinctiveness of towns and • Above average air temperatures created by villages. heat radiating off tarmac, paving, glass and • Trees improve people’s quality of life and reduce buildings can cause already drought-stressed everyday stress through their aesthetic qualities, trees to lose even more water. by providing shade and humidity, by reducing • Neglect, including lack of water, weed infestation, noise levels and by providing privacy. constricting ties on standard trees (which restrict • Trees provide summer shade and winter shelter the flow of water and sap), strimmer and mower enabling the saving of energy. damage (which damages and removes the bark), overdosing/misuse of herbicide and de-icing salt • Trees affect air quality, both negatively by emitting (which then becomes toxic to trees). gases known as volatile organic compounds

BUILT HABITATS BUILT (VOCs) that contribute to the production of • Vehicles that accidentally drive into trees damage pollutants, and positively by removing pollutants, bark, break stems and snap roots. Guards, especially ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and particles fencing and posts can help trees to avoid vehicle from the air. Different tree species in different damage. locations perform differently, but generally Ash, • Service runs including drains, sewers, water, Alder, Larch, Silver Birch, Scot’s Pine are best, electricity, gas, telephone and cable TV laid via oaks and willows are worst, in terms of improving open trenching can cause serious disruption to air quality. existing trees by damaging or severing roots, • Particles in the air have an impact on human making the tree unstable and reducing its health. Mature, mixed woodland captures capacity to absorb water, oxygen and essential airborne particles at approximately three times the mineral nutrients. Leaks from some of these

222 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership services, such trees out of the ground, and premeditated ring as gas and barking, sawing off branches/crowns of young water, can trees and poisoning roots. It is illegal to damage a harm or kill public/protected tree, but this often fails to perturb roots. the vandal. Tree vandalism is a social problem, not a tree problem. • Engineering work, including • Deliberate removal of Ivy from trees destroys a installation and valuable wildlife habitat. However, dense ivy can maintenance restrict tree safety surveys and increase the tree’s of paving susceptibility to windthrow. Each case should slabs and be considered individually, but it may be best to tarmac, kerbs prevent a dense covering being created. and private • Future colonisation of Grey Squirrels in urban driveways areas, parks and cemeteries may cause damage

may cause URBAN TREES through bark stripping. severance or Pollarded Lime trees are a feature of the centre of Thornhill. May2008. damage to (Peter Norman) roots. 6. Strategic Actions

• Trees growing in certain locations may be a 6.1 Recent and current activity source of conflict with the public. Complaints usually involve blocking of light, fear that they • Tree Preservation Orders, Conservation Area may fall and damage people or property, or Orders and Planning Conditions serve to ensure seasonal problems such as leaf fall. These may that trees are retained and protected during and result in pruning or removal of these trees. after construction works. • Pressure to fit as many houses as possible on • British Standard 5837 ‘Trees in relation to development sites can bring trees into direct Construction’ provides guidance, in respect of conflict with building projects. As sites become development sites. It applies to applications for crowded during construction, and trees are most developments where construction work subsequently damaged by machinery, fires and is involved, but will not generally be applied to storage of materials. In the long-term such trees householder applications unless the site contains may become unstable and/or diseased and may a large number of trees. be felled. 6.2 Other recommended actions • Even where trees are successfully retained on a site, often consideration is not given to their • Strengthen protection for urban trees, including long-term growth requirements, in terms of the use of Tree Preservation Orders in areas height and width. As a result, residents of the site where they will safeguard biodiversity. may become concerned as these trees begin to • Ensure the successful retention of trees in reach above the roof tops, block increasing levels development works. of light and drop more leaves. • Encourage owners and occupiers of land to BUILT HABITATS BUILT • Long-term management of urban trees can safeguard and re-instate hedgerows and trees be expensive if carried out to the correct of biodiversity value where these are affected professional standard, and therefore may be by development or re-development proposals. neglected. As a result drastic action is often taken such as lopping/topping, heavy crown reduction • Report contractors who are suspected of or removal, as this provides an immediate quick carrying out unauthorised works to protected fix solution, even though these options are not trees. good for the tree and the safety of people. • Education and raising awareness of trees is the • Vandalism of trees can take two main forms: best way to reduce vandalism. Opportunistic snapping of side branches, breaking off crowns, uprooting and pulling whole

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 223 224 BUILT HABITATS TRADITIONAL ORCHARDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T During the20 2.1 RecentTrends 2. orchards intheUK,a64%decline27years. that in1997therewere22,400haofcommercial orchards areinthesouthofEngland.Figuressuggest production, notatraditioninScotland.Mostofthese significant acreageisgivenovertociderapple where aswellgrowingcommercialeatingfruit, Elsewhere intheUKtherearemanyorchardareas, area aroundCarseofGowrieontheFirth Tay. include Dumfries&Galloway, theBordersand with atraditionofsignificantorchardcultivation the mostsignificantorchardarea.Otherareas it isclearthattheClydeValley hasalwaysbeen numbers, areasandproductionwithinScotlandbut There arenoreadilyavailablestatisticsfororchard 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext increasingly rare. varieties offruitsuchastheGallowayPippinthatare of geneticdiversityinsupportinglocallydistinctive Traditional orchardsarealsoimportantreservoirs can providecrevicesandhollowsfornestingbirds. decay morequicklythanmostBritishhardwoodsthey orchards canbeover60yearsoldandasfruittrees to woodpastureorparkland. Trees withinold trees withingrasslandgivesahabitatwithsimilarities ecological value. The combinationofoldindividual modern commercialorchardsandthereforehavehigh have beenplantedandmanagedlessintensivelythan also bepresent. Traditional orchardsarethose which nut-bearing treessuchasWalnuts andHazelnutscan as apples,pearsandplumsand/ordamsonsalthough Orchards arecollectionsofcultivatedfruittreessuch 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. traditionally grown inDumfries&Galloway. Today productive and thisledtoadeclineinvarieties encouraged tousearange ofapplethatwasmore Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayOrchardNetwork. to determinetheirextent,distribution,compositionandstatusinDumfries&Galloway Compile adatabaseoftraditionalorchards,includinganyknownhistoricalandbiodiversityinformation, Priority Action (TO1) Dumfries &Galloway Status Habitat Description th Centuryapplegrowerswere TRADITIONAL ORCHARDS species. bit Scabious Meadow Cranesbill swards include Yellow Rattle minimum. Specieslikelytobefoundinthesegrass where applicationsoffertilisershavebeenkepttoa associated withtraditionalorchards,especially Species richunimprovedgrasslandisoften 3.1 FloweringPlants(highimportance) 3. and Parklands. Neutral Grasslands,NativeWoods, Wood Pastures action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: or overlapwithtraditionalorchards,andthefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats as theCroft-angryapple. location oftheoriginalGallowayPippinknownlocally “Croft-an-Righ” HouseinWigtown,anotherpossible old orchardssuchas Some countryestatesandhouseshaveremnantsof 2.3 SiteExamples current distribution. is requiredtoassessthesesitesandestablish traditional orchardswithinthem.Furthersurveywork grid squaresinDumfries&Gallowaywhichhave distribution mapsuggeststhattherearesix10x10km unreliable weatherconditions.However, theUKBAP large-scale commercialapplegrowingduetothe Dumfries &Gallowayisnotanarearenownedfor 2.2 CurrentDistribution houses andVictorian backgardens. gardens ofcountryestatesorlargehouses,farm Galloway, withoccasionalremnantsremainingin there areveryfeworchardsleftinDumfries& Importance for Associated Species Succisa pratensis Geranium pratense Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Galloway HouseGardensand Rhinanthus minor, andvariousorchid . , Devil’s- TRADITIONAL ORCHARDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.5 Mammals (medium importance) Various species of bats use orchards. Pipistrelles Pipistrellus spp. and Brown Long-eared Bats Plecotus auritis find the open scrub habitat provided by some orchards suitable as foraging habitat, and if the trees are old enough to produce crevices, then species such as Pipistrelle and Noctule Nyctalus noctula may also use them as roosting sites. Other mammals such as Red Squirrels Sciurus vulgaris, Badgers Meles meles and deer are attracted to this habitat type, and a range of small mammals such as mice and voles is also found.

Peacock butterfly. (Paul McLaughlin) 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance) Many mosses and liverworts grow on fruit trees, and The blossom of fruit trees can also provide a source species associated with damp unimproved grasslands of nectar for invertebrates such as bees, butterflies are found in orchards in the region. and hoverflies, whilst the dead wood of mature trees ORCHARDS TRADITIONAL orchards can form important refuges for dead wood 3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) (saproxylic) invertebrates. If ponds are present within orchards then it is likely that amphibians will be present. 3.3 Birds (medium importance) Flower buds and leaf buds provide 4. Environmental, Economic & Social food for birds such as Bullfinches Importance of Biodiversity Pyrrhula pyrrhula, whilst windfall fruit is eaten in autumn and winter by • Traditional varieties of fruit, produced with high Fieldfares Turdus pilaris, Redwings environmental standards, can be marketed to a Turdus iliacus and other thrushes. specific, high spending market. Birds such as Woodcocks Scolopax • Traditional orchards can be grazed by sheep or rusticola, Green Woodpeckers Picus cattle. viridis and Spotted Flycatchers Bullfinch. Muscicapa striata that are (Paul McLaughlin) • Many invertebrates act as biological control associated with wood pastures are agents against pests of fruit. For example the also attracted to orchards, along with Buzzards Buteo mirid bugs Blepharidopterus angulatus and buteo, Barn Owls Tyto alba and Tawny Owls Strix Psallus ambiguu are predators of Fruit-tree aluco that may roost in mature trees and forage over Red Spider Mite, the flower bugs Anthocoris open grassy areas. nemorum and Anthocoris nemoralis feed on aphids, and the Common Earwig Forficula 3.4 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) auricularia is an important predator of Codling A diverse fungus flora is associated with old or dead Moths. The Whirligig Mite Anystis baccarum

trees. Several species of waxcap, including the impacts on Apple-grass aphid populations HABITATS BUILT Pink Waxcap Hygrocybe calyptraeformis are among and has also proved compatible with various many small fungi characteristic of such pastures. fungicides commonly used for apple scab control. Sarcodontia crocea is a rare fungus that seems to It therefore offers much potential to be integrated specialise in old apple trees, though has not yet been into pest control programmes for apple orchards. recorded in Dumfries & Galloway. • Sites can be used for educational activities, The bark of fruit trees can support a good cover and guided walks and talks. range of lichens such as Parmelia sp.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 225 GARDENS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Lack of information and understanding about the distribution, quality and importance of this habitat leading to poor appreciation of its value. • Loss of habitat due to grubbing out or death of mature trees. • Agricultural improvement through drainage, cultivation and fertiliser applications. • Agricultural abandonment, leading to rankness and scrub encroachment through lack of management. • Inappropriate management, including overgrazing by horses. • Most beneficial invertebrates are susceptible to

TRADITIONAL ORCHARDS TRADITIONAL agrochemicals and cannot survive in intensively managed orchards. • Development of land adjacent to village or estate orchards.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • The Dumfries & Galloway Orchard Network was set up in 2000 to promote the understanding and enhancement of traditional apple varieties in the region.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Encourage the enhancement and reinstatement of orchards on traditional orchard sites. • Promote greater awareness of the importance of this habitat and its sensitivity to land use changes. • Arrange activities such as Apple Days and

BUILT HABITATS BUILT Budding Days through the Dumfries & Galloway Orchard Network.

226 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership shallow, and areoftensubjecttorapidly fluctuating Garden Ponds biodiversity reasons. and afewhaveinstalled Compost heapsarealsoafeatureofsome gardens, woodland habitats,atleast intermsoftheirstructure. dead wood. that hasattractedsomespeciesassociatedwith need forweedinghasprovidedagardenhabitat plants. The useofwoodchipmulchestoreducethe weeding, andsometimesregularreplacementof non-native flowersandsubjecttoregulardigging, lawnmower. Flowerbeds All areadaptedtofrequentandshortcuttingwitha colonise allbutthemostintensivelymanagedlawns. or twospeciesofgrass,butotherplantsquickly Garden lawnsareusuallyplantedwithjustone flowers ingreenhousesorpolytunnels. gardens commerciallygrowfruitvegetablesand and tendtohavelessintensivemanagement. on allotments. These arelargerthanprivategardens gardens, butvegetablesaremorecommonlygrown Vegetable plotsaresometimesafeatureofprivate different habitats. tend tobemuchlargerandcontainpatchesof Public gardens diverse thanmuchofthesurroundingcountryside. cover asignificantareaandareconsiderablymore are highlyclustered,resultinginhabitatmosaicsthat their valueisconsiderablyenhancedbythefactthey therefore havelimitedbiodiversitypotential.However, air pollutionthanthecountryside.Individualgardens urban areas,tendtobesubjecthigherlevelsof levels ofdisturbance,andbeingmostcommonin Private gardensaresmallinsize,subjecttohigh 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:SolwayHeritage. Target: Establishdemonstrationgardenby2012. Promote agardenthatdemonstratesgoodpracticeforwildlifemanagement. Priority Action (GA2) Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Interpretationat3sitesby2015. interpretation. Encourage publicgardensandgardencentrestopromotewildlifegardeningbyinstalling Priority Action (GA1) Habitat Description Shrubs andtreesmimicmorenatural are typicallyvery smalland are similarinmanyrespects,but log piles areusuallystockedwith , specificallyfor GARDENS Market RSPB, SWT andWWT. total ofallwildlifereservesintheregionmanagedby (12,000 acres). This islargerthanthecombined resulting inanestimatedareaofalmost5,000ha households, themajorityofwhichhavegardens, Dumfries &Gallowaythereareapproximately60,000 more than1.2millionhectares(3acres).In There aresome16millionUKgardenscovering 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext species. to eachother, allowingrapidrecolonisationofmany biodiversity benefitsfromthecloseproximityofponds use. However, aswithgardensgenerally, aquatic nutrients fromadjacentgrasscuttingandchemical water levelsandtemperatures,highinputsof plants andpot plants. polytunnels on 22sites,mostlygrowing bedding there were12,755 squaremetresofglasshouses/ in Dumfries&Galloway. Nevertheless,in 2006 Market gardeningisnotanimportantactivity public gardens numbers inothertownsand villages.Incontrast, urban areasofDumfriesand Stranraer, withsmaller gardens andallotmentsarelocatedinthemain The majorityofDumfriesandGalloway’s private 2.2 CurrentDistribution feeders andnestboxes. especially adramaticincreaseinthenumberofbird gardening hasalsobecomemuchmorepopular, in theuseofgardenchemicals.However, wildlife more paving,tarmacandgravel,anincrease been anincreasingtendencyforhardsurfacing,with been acontinuedincreaseinnumber. There hasalso probably notincreasedinrecentyears,therehas Although theaveragesizeofprivategardenshas 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus generallyhaveamorerural location. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 227 BUILT HABITATS GARDENS 2.3 Site Examples Wool Carder Bees Anthidium manicatum are striking Glenwhan Gardens at Dunragit has created and medium-sized bees that are common in southern promoted wildlife habitats, and biodiversity has been England. However the only Scottish records come promoted by special wildlife events at Blackstone from Dumfries & Galloway where they can be found Garden Plants in Kippford. hovering around patches of labiates, including those in garden flower beds. Other garden bees include 2.4 Associated Habitats Red Mason Bees Osmia rufa, Rose Leaf-cutter Bee Megachile centuncularis, Honey Bees Apis A number of habitats occur in close association and/ mellifera and the bumble bees Bombus pratorum, B. or overlap with gardens, and the following action pascurum, and B.terrestris. The first Scottish record plans may also contain relevant information: Walls of a mining bee Lasioglossum morio came from and Buildings, Public Open Spaces, Urban Trees, Threave Gardens in 2006, although this species is not Traditional Orchards. generally a garden specialist.

GARDENS 3. Importance for Associated Species Garden butterflies are mainly common widespread species such as whites, Small Tortoiseshells Aglais 3.1 Reptiles and Amphibians (high importance) urticae and Peacocks Inachis io, but the first recorded Garden ponds are extremely valuable for breeding of Holly Blue Celastrina argiolus in Scotland amphibians. Even the smallest pond can support came from a Rockcliffe garden in 2004. breeding Common The average suburban garden in Dumfries & Frogs Rana Galloway is likely to support in excess of 200 temporaria, species of moth. One species, Blair’s Shoulder-knot Smooth Newts Lihophane leautieri, is virtually confined to gardens, Lissotriton as its caterpillars feed on planted shrubs and trees vulgaris and of the cypress family. First recorded in Britain in 1951, Palmate Newts it reached Kirkcudbright in 2001 and is now found in Lissotriton gardens across the region. Conversely, the decline helvetica. Garden ponds provide a valuable habitat of Currant Clearwing Moth Synanthedon tipuliformis Common Toads for Common Frogs. Kirkconnel, June 2007. (Greg Baillie). may be linked to fewer currant plants being grown in Bufo bufo prefer vegetable plots and allotments. larger ponds. Log piles provide essential hibernation sites. Most garden ponds will support common species of breeding damselflies, as well as pond skaters, water Slow Worms Anguis fragilis occur in suitable gardens beetles, pond snails and other aquatic invertebrates. in greater density than in many semi-natural habitats, although populations may be seriously affected by cat 3.3 Birds (medium importance) predation. Compost heaps are a favoured egg-laying Much time and money is spent erecting nest boxes site for Grass Snakes in southern England, though and feeders the presence of this species in Dumfries & Galloway for garden is not confirmed. birds, but of

BUILT HABITATS BUILT much greater 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance) importance is More than 11,000 species of invertebrate has been the structure recorded from a single British garden. The average of garden for a garden in Dumfries and Galloway will be vegetation. considerably lower, but will nevertheless be counted Shrubs and in the thousands. trees provide food, nest House Sparrows, in rapid national decline, are Flower beds, even those composed entirely of non- sites and still common in local gardens. (Gordon McCall) native species, can be rich in nectar sources for bees, protective cover from predators such as cats for butterflies, moths and hoverflies and can provide such Dunnocks Prunella modularis and Robins Erithacus nectar (and pollen) early and late in the season when natural sources are not abundant. 228 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership rubecula; lawns The practice of using wood chips for mulching offer feeding flower beds and on garden paths has introduced opportunities a new fungal habitat to Britain in recent years. for Blackbirds Agrocybe rivularis, new to science in the Pennines Turdus merula in 2003, was discovered on a pile of wood chips at and Song Nunholm, Dumfries in 2007. Other species have Thrushes Turdus been introduced with exotic plants. The False Truffle philomelos; Hydnangium carneum, known in Britain since 1875, garden ponds has been found in association with eucalypts at Logan provide essential Botanic Garden. Blackbirds nest in high densities in gardens. drinking (Paul McLaughlin) and bathing Common species of lichen may be found on shrubs opportunities for many species. and trees, as well as garden paths, walls and fences.

Spotted Flycatchers Muscicapa striata are declining 3.5 Mammals (medium importance) GARDENS across the UK, but populations in gardens seem Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus occur in a greatest to be fairing better than those in woodland or density where grassland and woodland is found farmland. There has also been a dramatic reduction in close proximity. A mosaic of garden shrubs and in numbers of House Sparrows Passer domesticus trees, together with lawns therefore provides an ideal in Britain, though local declines have not been habitat. They can occur here at a density of more detected. Reasons for the national trend are unclear, than 1 per 5-10ha, compared with 1 per 15-20ha in but increased use of garden chemicals and the plantations and farmland. corresponding reduction in weed seeds has been implicated as a contributory factor. Common and Soprano Pipistrelle bats Pipistrellus pipistrellus and Pipistrellus pygmaeus regularly roost in houses and feed over gardens.

3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) A typical suburban garden may support more than 20 species of bryophyte, though most are common species. Common Liverwort Marchantia polymorpha is a frequent garden species, often sharing plant pots with garden flowers, whilst Crescent-cup Liverwort Lunularia cruciata may be found on paving and patios. Few species occur in flower beds, but Springy Turf-moss Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus, a ubiquitous species usually at home in grassland, is found on lawns where the grass is kept short through mowing. Agrocybe rivulosa on garden woodchips. Nunholm, Dumfries, August 2007. (Peter Norman) Here it can form extensive, almost pure swards of moss. Several species of bryophyte have been 3.4 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) introduced with imported plants, though none have BUILT HABITATS BUILT Few species of fungus are specifically associated yet had a significant impact on wild populations. with gardens. Perhaps the Fairy Ring Champignon Marasimus oreades, though not restricted to garden 3.7 Flowering Plants (low importance) lawns, is one species best known from this habitat. Many wildlife garden publications recommend Old lawns that are regularly mown but have not planting predominantly native flowers to benefit received fertilisers or herbicides are now rare, but garden wildlife. However, such plants can never where they occur they can provide a nationally replace or support wild populations, and recent important habitat for uncommon species of fungi, research has even suggested that native species especially waxcaps Hygrocybe spp. Lawns with moss do not necessarily offer greater benefits to insects are particularly valuable. and birds than exotic plants. A mix of native and introduced flowers may be most beneficial, especially

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 229 SCHOOL GROUNDS

if these are nectar-rich plants. A high variety of plant • The use of limestone in gardens damages rare structures from low-growing creepers to tall shrubs and important semi-natural limestone pavements and trees, supports the greatest diversity of wildlife. that support species not found in other habitats. • Predation by domestic cats can cause local 3.8 Fishes (low importance) reductions of some birds and mammals. As well as ornamental fish, garden ponds may support some species of native fish, such as • Poor hygiene and overfeeding of garden sticklebacks. However, garden populations make an birds can result in potentially lethal bird diseases insignificant contribution to fish conservation and for building up in uneaten food and unwanted garden the benefit of amphibians and insects all fish are best pests, such as rats. kept out of garden ponds wherever possible. 6. Strategic Actions 4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6.1 Recent and current activity

GARDENS Importance of Biodiversity • Advice on wildlife gardening has been published • Wildlife adds to the interest and enjoyment of by many organisations including the Royal gardens. Horticultural Society. • Insects are responsible for the pollination of • Garden Wise garden centre in Dumfries has many garden plants. Bumblebees are particularly promoted biodiversity during special weekends. important for fruit trees and soft fruits. • Other insects are important predators or parasites 6.2 Other recommended actions of garden pests. Less than 1% of insects are • Encourage garden owners to contribute to garden pests. national garden wildlife surveys such as RSPB’s Big Garden Birdwatch, BTO’s Garden 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Bird Survey and Butterfly Conservation’s Garden Butterfly Survey. • Intensive lawn management involving moss • Promote garden biodiversity through garden removal, fertiliser and herbicide application open days, walks, talks and leaflets. reduces biodiversity value. Various species of microfungi are associated with grasses and in natural grasslands they present no special problems, but in the artificial monocultures of ornamental lawns they can attack and damage seedlings of fine grasses and established turf. Nevertheless, care should be taken in the application of fungicides, since many other microfungi play a vital role in recycling nutrients and form mutually beneficial associations with grasses.

BUILT HABITATS BUILT • Garden plants have sometimes been sourced from the wild, either in Britain or abroad, weakening native populations. • The introduction of non-native varieties of British native wildflowers has the potential to threaten on wild populations. • The use of peat in gardens damages rare and important semi-natural peatlands that support species not found in other habitats.

White-tailed Bumblebee Bombus lucorum. Dalry garden, April 2007. (Maggi Kaye)

230 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership offer morebiodiversity benefits,butopportunities opportunities for enhancement. the schoollandscape,and thesehaveonlylimited Hard surfaceareassuchas opportunities tocreatenew onesfromscratch. be enhancedforwildlife,but therearealso Most schoolshaveexisting featuresthatcan community. Scottish schoolsalsomaintaingroundsinthewider part oftheirgroundsforwildlife,butaround5%all schools. Secondaryschoolsareleastlikelytodevelop greatest demandforsuchareasisfromnursery most likelytohaveaschoolwildlifearea,butthat Research hasshownthatprimaryschoolsarethe habitats. The typeofschoolalsohasaninfluence. together withtheirsoiltypeandproximitytonatural variety ofhabitatsandfeatureswithinthegrounds, educational value.Ofmuchgreaterimportanceisthe little bearingontheirbiodiversityorenvironmental School groundsvarywidelyinsize,butthishas 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:EcoSchools/Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Organisein-servicetrainingdayforteachersby2012. curriculum-based teachingprogramme. Encourage schoolstoestablishandmaintainschoolwildlifeareasusetheseaspartofthe Priority Action (SG1) Pupils atPortWilliam Primaryadmireanewpond.(EcoSchools) Habitat Description SCHOOL GROUNDS playgrounds Playing fields dominate

grounds. commonly occurringwildlifehabitatinScottishschool value, butmosthavetreesandshrubs-the flat, whichrestrictstheiraestheticandwildlife that areunderused.Mosttendtobeunnecessarily significant areasaroundtheedgesofplayingfields their primarypurpose.Howeverthereareusually for enhancementarealsolimitedwithoutaffecting Trees. Open Spaces,Gardens,Walls andBuildings,Urban plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation:Public overlap withschoolgrounds,andthefollowingaction A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.3 Associated Habitats the region. School groundsarelocatedinallthemaintowns 2.2 CurrentDistribution often havesuchfeaturesbuiltintotheirdesign. and createdgardenswildlifeareas.Newschools development ofchildren.Manyhaveplantedtrees the importanceofschoolgroundstoeducational In recentdecadestherehasbeenmorerecognitionof 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Aglais urticae these arethebutterflies,such asSmall Tortoiseshells planting ofnectar-richspecies. Foremostalmost to childrencanbeattracted toschoolgroundsthrough Many attractiveinvertebrates thatarelikelytoappeal 3.2 Invertebrates(highimportance) as thereissufficientadjacentlonggrassforfeeding. breed inquitesmallpondsschoolgrounds,solong Common Frogs 3.1 Reptilesand Amphibians (high importance) 3. Importancefor Associated Species bumblebees and dragonfliesonponds. Red Admirals V. atalanta.Othersinclude ladybirds, Dumfries &GallowayStatus , PaintedLadysVanessa cardui Ranatemporaria Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership and possiblynewts and 231 BUILT HABITATS SCHOOL GROUNDS GOLF COURSES

3.3 Birds (medium importance) 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Traditional Importance of Biodiversity features of school grounds • School grounds have the potential to contribute attract several to schemes that promote wider environmental species of birds: stewardship, such as through Eco Schools Playgrounds and Forest Schools. The way school grounds are visited by are developed and used can have a significant House Sparrows impact on pupils’ attitudes and behaviour, towards Passer school, towards each other and towards the wider domesticus and Blackbirds find food on school playing fields. environment and society. Pied Wagtails Minnigaff, April 2008. (Gavin Chambers) • Much of the formal curriculum can be taught Motacilla alba; outside. Indeed some can only be taught outside. playing fields attract Blackbirds Turdus merula and Rooks Corvus frugilegus. Trees and shrubs, particularly if close to woods, attract Chaffinches 5. Factors affecting the Habitat SCHOOL GROUNDS SCHOOL Fringilla coelebs, Greenfinches • Pupils spend as much as 25% of their time at Carduelis chloris school in school grounds, but wildlife usually and tits. Most adapts to such disturbance and noise and stay well hidden, activity is rarely a problem. but can easily be • Long-term maintenance requires commitment attracted to feed in from enthusiastic staff, as well as assistance from front of classroom grounds staff. windows by bird tables • Most school grounds have subsoil that has been and feeders. compacted by heavy machinery, a drainage Oystercatchers system intended for playing fields, and rich topsoil Haematopus dominated by a few very vigorous grasses. This ostralegus have hinders good root development by trees and Robins are shy woodland birds in much of shrubs and the encouragement of wildflowers. nested on the roof Europe, but in Britain can become quite of Dalbeattie School. tame with regular feeding. (Gordon McCall) 6. Strategic Actions 3.4 Mammals (medium importance) A range of mammals is present in most school 6.1 Recent and current activity grounds, but most tend to be nocturnal. Hedgehogs • All 125 state schools in Dumfries & Galloway are Erinaceus europaeus and bats benefit from areas of registered for the Eco Schools programme and longer grass that support more insects. more than 100 of them have won the Bronze Eco School Award or higher. Most have done work on 3.5 Flowering Plants (low importance) their school grounds as part of this award. School grounds are unlikely to support any important BUILT HABITATS BUILT species of wildflower, but common species such 6.2 Other recommended actions as thistles, and garden flowers, are important food sources for insects and birds. • Encourage promotion of biodiversity in environmental education by Ranger visits to schools, visits by schools to biodiversity sites, and support for the establishment of school nature clubs.

232 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership increase has taken placepredominantly onfarmland. in recentyears, andothershaveexpanded. This become established inDumfriesandGalloway A numberofnew coursesanddrivingrangeshave 2.1 RecentTrends 2. bunkers and‘ features suchas a rangeofother golf courseshave of mowngrass,but have extensive areas range ofhabitats. All topography, and the course,itssoils, upon thelocalityof courses depends found ongolf The rangeofwildlife 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. ranges intheregion. accurately known,butthereare31courses/driving Scotland. The areainDumfries&Gallowayisnot There aresome27,000hectaresofgolfcoursein 1.2 Nationalandinternationalcontext may enhanceplayingconditions. relatively smallchangesthatcostlittleornothingand and coastalgrasslands. All canbeenhancedby have additionalfeatures,sometimesincludingdunes Coastal coursescan and smallwoods hazards, trees such aswater ‘out-of-play’ areas as well as substantial Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Holdtrainingdayby2012. day. Improve biodiversityknowledgeandtrainingforgolfcoursestaf Priority Action (GC2) Lead Partner:ScottishGolfEnvironmentGroup. Target: 5coursesby2012. Prepare orupdateenvironmentalstatementsforgolfcoursesinDumfries&Galloway Priority Action (GC1) Dumfries &Galloway Status Habitat Description rough . ’, GOLF COURSES Bloody Cranesbillintheroughat Glenluce GolfCourse,1999. (Peter Norman) Open Spaces,Urban Trees. Wood PasturesandParklands,FarmPonds,Public Sand Dunes,BroadleavedandMixedPlantations, plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation:Coastal or overlapwithgolfcourses,andthefollowingaction A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Golf Course(SSSI/LWS). Bay HolidayParkGolfCourseandSoutherness biodiversity enhancementwork,including Several localgolfcourseshavecarriedout 2.3 SiteExamples include elementsofcoastalhabitats. towns andvillages. Almost athirdofallcourses Most golfcoursesarelocatedclosetothemajor 2.2 CurrentDistribution diversity inareasoflight for wildflowers,theremaybemorebotanical Though closelymownfairwaysareoflittleimportance 3.1 FloweringPlants(mediumimportance) 3. most local courses,butevenhere themosaicof trees, roost sitesfor bats. Younger treescurrently dominate Mature treesandsmallwoods provideexcellent 3.2 Mammals(mediumimportance) angusifolia such asthelocallyscarce Lesser Bulrush provide conditionsforaquaticplantstocolonise, found atGlenluce.Creationof grasslands arerare,thoughexcellentexamples Flower Cardaminepratensis such asPignutConopodiummajus competition fromcoarsegrasses,allowingspecies grasslands. Insuchcases,occasionalcuttingreduces Importance for Associated Species f byholdingagolfandbiodiversitytraining atBrighouse. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership rough togrow. Unimproved . water hazardscan thaninunmanaged andCuckoo Brighouse Typha 233 BUILT HABITATS GOLF COURSES HOLIDAY PARKS & CARAVAN SITES

rough and water hazards provides many feeding 4. Environmental, Economic & Social opportunities for bats. Daubenton’s Bats Myotis Importance of Biodiversity daubentonii make nightly feeding forays over ponds at Cally during the summer. • Integration of sound environmental principles should ensure that golf clubs reduce over- 3.3 Birds (medium importance) management and minimise maintenance costs. The intricate mix of open grassland, trees and small • Biodiversity enhances the aesthetic character, woods on golf courses can lead to a higher density atmosphere and challenge of the course. of breeding birds that are more usually found on woodland edges. Typical species include Song Thrushes Turdus philomelos, Dunnocks Prunella

modularis and Spotted Flycatchers Muscicapa striata. Small Copper More open courses, often those on the coast, may butterfly in the have Skylarks Alauda arvensis nesting in the rough. rough at New Galloway Golf Course, GOLF COURSES 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium August 2008. importance) (Peter Norman) Water hazards provide breeding opportunities for 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Common Toads Bufo bufo, Common Frogs Rana temporaria and Palmate Newts Lissotriton Helvetica, • The loss of semi-natural habitats during the adults of which feed in areas of rough. course creation has not been a major issue in Dumfries & Galloway where recent courses have 3.5 Invertebrates (medium importance) been created on improved farmland. Regular cutting of fairways and rough • High levels of fertilisers and chemicals may prevents flowering, whilst runoff or seep into watercourses, causing nutrient unmanaged rough is over-enrichment and pollution. dominated by grasses. • Intensive grassland management around the Therefore opportunities roots of mature trees damages root systems for nectar-feeding leading to poor tree health and premature death. invertebrates are often few, unless there are 6. Strategic Actions areas of nectar-rich grassland. Likewise, 6.1 Recent and current activity bunkers are too heavily managed for most sand- Ponds can attract a range of • The Scottish Golf Environment Group has dragonflies, such as Emerald assisted several courses in Dumfries & Galloway nesting solitary bees. Damselflies. (Richard Mearns) Trees and small woods, to prepare holistic environmental management especially mature trees, provide the best invertebrate plans, so that all relevant environmental issues habitats, though common aquatic species are also are recognised for different parts of the golf found in water hazards. facility. BUILT HABITATS BUILT • A biodiversity survey of selected courses 3.6 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) was carried out by a student from Scottish Trees and small woods on golf courses potentially Agricultural College Auchincruive in 2002/3. provide a good fungus and lichen habitat, with light • Brighouse Bay was the overall winner of the and humidity conditions not dissimilar to those in Scottish Award for Environmental Excellence on wood pastures. However, this is presently limited by Golf Courses in 2006. the relatively young age of most such features on golf courses in Dumfries & Galloway. Short grassland, away from intensively managed areas, may also 6.2 Other recommended actions be good for waxcap fungi, but the presence of such • Develop partnerships with local clubs to carry areas in the region is currently not known. out projects to enhance biodiversity.

234 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership HOLIDAY PARKS &CARAVAN SITES chalets. in thenumberandsizeofsemi-permanent wooden of facilitiesoffered. There hasalsobeenanincrease sites havecontinuedtoincrease insizeandtherange Over thelast10years,holiday parksandcaravan 2.1 RecentTrends 2. the valueofallsites. However, management shouldbeusedtoincrease semi-natural habitatssuchascoastsandwoods. holiday parksandcaravansitesistheirproximityto A keyfeaturethatinfluencesthebiodiversityof that aremanagedspecificallyforwildlife. formal gardenareas,pondsandsometimesareas some sitesincludeplayareas,sportsfacilities,more planted trees and shrubs. Additional features found on but eventhosethatarenotusuallyhaveareasof few sitesarelocatedwithinopenmaturewoodlands, located onanextensiveareaofmowngrassland. A chalets, caravansandsometimesacampingarea, Holiday parksandcaravansitesconsistofwooden 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: 10eventsby2015. interpretation and/orevents. Raise awarenessofbiodiversityforvisitorstoholidayparksandcaravansitesbyorganisingwildlife Priority Action (HPCS1) Dumfries &GallowayStatus Habitat Description Guided walklookingatshellsonthebeachSandyhills Holiday Park.(2007) Spaces. information: Walls andBuildings,PublicOpen the followingactionplansmayalsocontainrelevant or overlapwithholidayparksandcaravansites, A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Park andBarnsoulFarmatShawhead. Brighouse BayHolidayPark,Kippford wildlife attractionsfortheirvisitors. These include carried outenhancementsforwildlifeandpromoted Several holidayparksandcaravansiteshavealready 2.3 SiteExamples concentrated onthecoast. across DumfriesandGalloway, buttendtobe Holiday parksandcaravansitesarewidespread 2.2 CurrentDistribution and Starlings Turdus philomelos, Song Thrushes Turdus merula, Blackbirds include edges. These of woodland more typical common birds a highdensityof shrubs attracts and trees of grassland The mosaic 3.1 Birds(mediumimportance) 3. holidays parks andcaravansitesarecommon and Though most invertebrateslikelytobefound on 3.2 Invertebrates(medium importance) striata benefitfromscatteredtrees. use scrub,whilstSpottedFlycatchers modularis Importance for Associated Species andWillowWarblers Phylloscopustrochilus Sturnus vulgaris

RobinsErithacusrubecula attracted tonestindensetreesandbushes. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Bullfinch, acolourfulspeciesthatcanbe . DunnocksPrunella Muscicapa (Gordon McCall)

235 BUILT HABITATS HOLIDAY PARKS & CARAVAN SITES WALLS & BUILDINGS

widespread species, these can include some very 4. Environmental, Economic & Social attractive species that are likely to appeal to visitors. Importance of Biodiversity Foremost amongst these are the butterflies, and it should be possible to attract Small Tortoiseshells • Adding biodiversity features to holiday parks and Aglais urticae, Painted Ladys Vanessa cardui and caravan sites can considerably increase their Red Admirals V. atalanta to most sites. Others include appearance and attractiveness to visitors. ladybirds, bumblebees and dragonflies on ponds. • Trees and shrubs can be used to screen unsightly 3.3 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium features such as bin stores, and can add to the importance) privacy of the site. Common Toads Bufo bufo, Common Frogs Rana temporaria and Palmate Newts Lissotriton Helvetica 5. Factors affecting the Habitat have all been recorded breeding in ponds within holiday parks. Great Crested Newts Triturus cristatus • Most holiday parks were created on farmland are may also occur. All require suitable terrestrial habitats, still relatively young in ecological terms. They such as long grass, as well as breeding ponds. therefore have not yet developed many mature trees or other habitats. • Biodiversity management is not simply less management. It requires new skills and training

HOLIDAY PARKS & CARAVAN SITES & CARAVAN PARKS HOLIDAY for maintenance staff, which may not be available in-house. • Many park visitors are urban based and biodiversity features such long grass, log piles and scrub may be perceived as untidiness.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • In 2007, 11 holiday parks and caravan sites A mix of woodland and grassland provides good habitat for in Dumfries & Galloway held David Bellamy Hedgehogs. Loch Ken, June 2006. (Peter Norman) Conservation Gold Awards for their wildlife and environmental management. 3.4 Mammals (low importance) Caravans are rarely suitable roost sites for bats. • A number of holiday parks and caravan sites have However, if alternative roosting locations are available wildlife interpretation, including information nearby, the mix of trees, shrubs and open areas panels, leaflets, guided walks and family events. makes holiday parks valuable feeding areas for • Several parks have contributed to the Dumfries bats. For example, one of the few known Noctule & Galloway Wildlife Festival. Nyctalus noctula roosts in the region is at Loch Ken Holiday Park. Dense cover is also attractive to other 6.2 Other recommended actions BUILT HABITATS BUILT mammals, such as Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus. • Encourage parks to enter for environmental 3.5 Flowering Plants (low importance) awards. A high intensity of management usually means that • Provide training in biodiversity management for holiday parks are rarely rich in native wildflowers maintenance staff. unless there are remnants of previous semi-natural habitats. The locally rare Slender Trefoil Trifolium micranthum has been recorded at a holiday park in Newton Stewart.

236 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership flora. climate. Onlynorth-western Francehasacomparable vegetation inEurope,asa resultofamild,wet Western Britaincontainssomeofthefinestwall 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext constructed them. few havesharedourlivingspaceseversincewefirst spaces notpermanentlyoccupiedbypeople,buta habitat forbiodiversity. Mostspeciesoccupythe The interiorspacesofbuildingsprovideafurther several species. small holesandcrevicesthatoffer opportunitiesfor biodiversity interest.Slateandtileroofsoffer many this, togetherwiththeangleofslope,influences are usuallycomposedofadifferent materialand Roofs offer aslightlydifferent habitattowalls–they survive onverticalfaces. for speciesofplantsandanimalsthatareunableto another dimensiontobiodiversity, providingahabitat microclimate. Wall ledges,wheretheyexist,add structure ofwalls;thelattertwolargelycontroltheir former influenceschemicalcompositionandphysical upon constructionmaterials,locationandaspect. The standing orpartofabuilding,isstronglydependent The biodiversityofexterior are withoutinterest. mean thatwallsandbuildingsintownsvillages have different speciesagain.However, thisdoesnot as woodland,andwallsbuildingsonthecoast they arelocatedclosetosemi-naturalhabitatssuch have different speciestothose intowns,especiallyif their location.Farmbuildingsinthecountrysideoften The biodiversity of walls andbuildingsis influenced by 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Publishanddistributetoarchitects,buildershouseholdersby2015. guide tothespeciesandmanagement. Encourage greaterpublicawarenessofthevaluewallsandbuildingsforbiodiversitybypublishinga Priority Action (WB1) Habitat Description WALLS &BUILDINGS wall faces,whetherfree- Watercourses andWetlands. Tunnels, IndustrialandPost-industrialSites,Urban information: Traditional FieldBoundaries,Bridgesand following actionplansmayalsocontainrelevant and/or overlapwithwallsandbuildings,the A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociation 2.4 Associated Habitats historic wallsandbuildings,farmsteadings. for biodiversityincludescastles,churchesandother Dumfries &Galloway. Someofthemostimportant There isawiderangeofbuildingsandwallsin 2.3 SiteExamples lowlands, becominglesscommonintheuplands. and buildingsarerelativelyevenlyspacedinthe Outside ofthemainurbancentreDumfries,walls 2.2 CurrentDistribution walls andbuildingscompriseof20thcenturyhouses. internal habitats.Numerically, mostoftheregion’s for biodiversity, thoughjustasmany, ifnotmore, Modern materialsprovidefewerexternalopportunities 2.1 RecentTrends 2. example Long-eared Bats buildings influences thetypeofbatspresent. For design andconstructionof may notbeobvious. The of sight,sotheirpresence - mosttuckthemselvesout hang inexposedpositions hibernating. Fewspecies for breeding,roostingand to providethemwithshelter on buildings,especiallyroofs, Large numbersofbatsrely importance) 3.1 Mammals(veryhigh 3. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Associated Species Importance for Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Plecotus auritus Long-eared Batspreferolder buildings closetowoodland. Cally Woods,June2000. (Peter Norman) usually 237 BUILT HABITATS WALLS & BUILDINGS fly around roof spaces prior to leaving the building to Joints and cracks on otherwise smooth slate and hunt in woodland. Therefore they are most frequently tile roofs enable species such as Capillary Thread- found in older, rural buildings. Conversely, Pipistrelle moss Bryum capillare and Grey-cushioned Grimmia Bats Pipistrellus pipistrellus and P. pygmaeus. are Grimmia pulvinata to get a hold, whilst Great Hairy frequently found in new houses in urban areas. Of Screw-moss Syntrichia ruralis might be found on flat Dumfries & Galloway’s eight species of bat, only the asphalt roofs. Noctule Nyctalus noctula does not make extensive use of buildings. Churches and castles are important habitats for non-flowering plants in many parts of Britain, but in Although other wild mammals may occasionally Dumfries & Galloway they are not constructed on use buildings, none are of significant conservation the most valuable building stone (limestone), and importance in Dumfries & Galloway. are usually located in areas that have many natural rock outcrops. As a result they rarely support notable 3.2 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) species. Lichens are common on many wall faces, but species composition is strongly influenced by the wall 3.4 Flowering Plants (medium importance)

WALLS & BUILDINGS WALLS substrate and associated chemical attributes and A few species, such as Biting Stonecrop Sedum textures. In south east England the rare Churchyard acre, favour the tops of walls, but the upper and Lecanactis lichen Lecanographa grumulosa is entirely middle zones of wall faces generally support the restricted to limestone walls of medieval churches and most distinctive vegetation, including Herb Robert castles. It has been recorded in Dumfries & Galloway, Geranium but only from natural rock faces on the coast. A few robertianum and non-lichenised microfungi also grow on walls, but they the introduced are not of high conservation importance. Ivy-leaved Toadflax Cymbalaria 3.3 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) muralis and Yellow Ferns, liverworts, mosses and algae are more tolerant Corydalis Corydalis of lower light lutea. Another levels that introduced species other plants Fairy Foxglove and therefore Erinus alpinus is frequently known from a few dominate walls, including the shadier wall abbeys at Glenluce faces. Species and Dundrennan, include Wall whilst Wallflower Yellow Corydalis, a native of the Alps, Erysimum cheiri on sandstone wall at Castledykes Park, Rue Asplenium Dumfries. September 2007. was lost from the (Peter Norman) ruta-muraria, Grey-cushioned Moss Grimmia pulvinata, Maidenhair common on urban walls. (Peter Norman) walls of Sweetheart Spleenwort Abbey through cleaning by the Ministry of Works Asplenium trichomanes and Revolute Beard-moss in the 1950s. Navelwort Umbilicus rupestris and BUILT HABITATS BUILT Pseudocrossidium revolutum on lime-mortared walls. Pellitory-of-the-wall Parietaria judaica are locally rare Wall Screw-moss Tortula muralis is the commonest native species, growing on just a few walls. Walls with moss on many mortared or base-rich walls, both lime mortar are especially rich, with even granite walls brick and stone, and can tolerate some shade and supporting lime-loving plants. pollution. It also grows on concrete, roof tiles and other man-made structures, but is rarely found away Lower zones and wall bases usually receive from human habitation. Rough-stalked Feather-moss excessive nutrients and moisture, and support a Brachythecium rutabulum is typical on wall-tops. less interesting flora, whilst woody species are able to establish on poorly maintained walls with missing mortar.

238 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 3.5 Invertebrates (medium importance) 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Old walls provide good nesting sites for bees, wasps and ants if the mortar is soft enough for burrowing. • Over-zealous removal of all plant species Indeed relict populations of some species may survive reduces biodiversity. only in walls after loss of their natural nesting sites. • The use of biocides to control mosses and Ants play an important part in the seed dispersal of lichens. This is rarely necessary and should be many wall plants. limited to very exceptional circumstances.

The Zebra Spider Salticus scenicus, a jumping • Certain mosses and lichens have declined as a spider that hunts on sunny wall faces, occurs more result of the reduction in the use of lime mortar. frequently along the Solway coast than in other parts • If not sympathetically carried out, roofing repairs of Scotland, and the first Scottish record of a large may reduce bat habitat and directly lead to the long-legged spider Tegenaria parietina came from the death of some bats. In such circumstances a interior space of a house in Dumfries in 2006. criminal offence may be committed. • Bat roosts may be unknowingly destroyed,

possibly resulting in the death of those bats using & BUILDINGS WALLS the roost at the time. • There is a negative perception of the wildlife associated with built habitats, including mice, rats, pigeons and roof nesting gulls, although these habitats also support a number of other species of conservation value including Barn Owls, Swifts and Swallows.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • It is a legal requirement that any building works Swallows are almost entirely reliant on buildings for nest sites. take account of known bat roosts, but only a small (Gordon McCall) proportion of the roosts have been discovered or recorded. SNH therefore request surveys to be 3.6 Birds (medium importance) completed where there is a risk to bats. House Martins Delichon urbica make use of the underside of wall ledges, especially eaves, to build 6.2 Other recommended actions their nests. Barn Owls Tyto alba, Swallows Hirundo • Provide advice on incorporating design for rustica and Swifts Apus apus rely much more on biodiversity into new buildings and other interior spaces, the first two predominantly in structures, such as ‘bat bricks’ and bird nesting unoccupied rural buildings, and the latter in the roofs platforms. of urban buildings. • Survey and record flora on walls. HABITATS BUILT 4. Environmental, Economic & Social • Consult SNH prior to re-roofing if there is any Importance of Biodiversity likelihood of bats being present, or if bats are found during roofing work. • A covering of flowering plants, mosses and • Ensure nesting Barn Owls are protected during lichens add to the aesthetic appeal of many walls barn conversions or other relevant building and buildings. repairs, and subsequent provision is made for • Some lichens break down stone, but there is them. evidence that others protect some types of stone • Consider turf and Sedum roofs on appropriate by providing a shield against water erosion. new buildings.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 239 240 BUILT HABITATS PORTS, HARBOURS & MARINAS augmented by many smallboatstoaccommodate) thisisusually vessels, butinmarinas(where thereareusually These structuresalsoprovide securemooringsfor hardness arefoundfromconcrete andirontowood. but liketherockyshoresthey resemble,gradationsof in species. These areusuallyconstructedfromstone, conditions oftheinnerharbourwallsareusuallyricher a similarhabitat. The quieter, siltierandmoreturbid waves, sandandpebbles.Hardseadefencesprovide composition astheyarerelentlesslybatteredby sides ofthesewallsarepoorestintermsspecies is usuallyenhancedby located inshelteredcoastalwaters,butthisshelter Ports, harboursandmarinas,bytheirverynature,are 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Seaweed atIsleofWhithornHarbour, April 2008.(PeterNorman) Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership/SolwayFirthPartnership. Target: Interpretationat3sitesby2015. managers ofports,harboursandmarinasbyprovidingwildlifeinformation/interpretatio. Encourage greaterawarenessofbiodiversityandenvironmentalissuesamongsttheusers Priority Action (PHM1) Habitat Description PORTS, HARBOURS&MARINAS floating pontoons harbour walls . . The seaward present atKirkcudbright region nowreceivelittleornotraffic.Marinasare fleet isbasedatKirkcudbright.Otherharboursinthe recreational craft,thoughasmalloffshore shellfishing a combinationofsmallinshorefishingvesselsand Garlieston, Kirkcudbright Drummore, PortWilliam, IsleofWhithorn, and villagesincluding Ireland. Smallharboursarefoundinseveraltowns Ryan, whichbothdealprincipallywithferrytrafficto Galloway are The principalcommercialportsinDumfriesand 2.3 SiteExamples hard seadefencesofanyextentintheregion. harbours areinthewestofregion. There arefew The largestoftheDumfries&Galloway’s portsand 2.2 CurrentDistribution recreational useofStranraer. traffic fromStranraertoCairnryan,andincrease At thetimeofwritingitisplannedtorelocateallferry craft. Bothoftheregion’s marinas areatfullcapacity. but therehasbeenarecentincreaseinrecreational Commercial andfishingvesselsremainatalowlevel, 2.1 RecentTrends 2. valuable fornesting birds. The abandonedMullberry that arelesssusceptible todisturbance can bevery nest inPortpatrickharbourwalls the birdsmostcloselyassociated withharbours. They Apart fromgulls,BlackGuillemots 3.1 Birds(mediumimportance) 3. Buildings. information: IntertidalRockyShores,Walls and the followingactionplansmayalsocontainrelevant or overlapwithports,harboursandmarinas, A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species Stranraer Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Portpatrick, PortLogan, andCairnryaninLoch and Kippford and Annan. Mostsupport . Offshore structures Cephus grylle . are PORTS, HARBOURS & MARINAS

Harbour at Garlieston is one of the biggest breeding inland walls are augmented by maritime specialists Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo colonies in the such as Common and Danish Scurvygrass Cochleria region, whilst terns (as well as Black Guillemots) have officinalis & C. danica, Thrift Armeria maritima and nested on the disused South Deep jetty at Cairnryan. Buck’s-horn Plantain Plantago coronopus.

3.5 Fishes (low importance) Though several species of fish enter harbours and find productive feeding areas around walls and other structures, species composition is the same as adjacent coastal areas.

3.6 Mammals (low importance) Despite their name, Harbour Porpoises Phocoena phocoena rarely visit the shallow waters of inner harbours, though they may be seen close to the harbour entrance. Seals are also infrequent visitors, but Otters Lutra lutra may visit on a nightly basis.

Black Guillemots nest in several harbours and ports. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social PORTS, HARBOURS & MARINAS (Gordon McCall) Importance of Biodiversity 3.2 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) Wildlife and interpretation enhances ports, harbours Typical seaweeds of harbour walls include Spiral and marinas for passengers and visitors. Wrack Fucus spiralis. Another seaweed Callithamnion tetragonum is mostly restricted to kelp fronds the west 5. Factors affecting the Habitat coast of Britain including Wigtownshire, but regularly occurs on marina pontoons and may move into such Risks of accidental oil spillage or other pollution are a habitat in Dumfries & Galloway. greater in ports, harbours and marinas.

3.3 Invertebrates (medium importance) 6. Strategic Actions The invertebrates of ports, harbours and marinas are not particularly specialised, usually reflecting those 6.1 Recent and current activity found on adjacent shores of a similar sediment type. • Kirkcudbright Marina was the first in Scotland to Harbour walls support a similar range of species to receive a Blue Flag award. rocky shores, often under the curtain of seaweeds, including Common Limpets Patella vulgata, Barnacles • Wigtown Harbour is a principal access point and Balanus crenatus, Beadlet Anemones Actinia equina car park for Wigtown Bay Local Nature Reserve, and another anemone Sagartia elegans. Their with wildlife interpretation and a bird bide. predators are also similar, including Shore Crabs Carcinus maenas and Harbour Crabs Liocarcinus 6.2 Other recommended actions depurator. The latter is not restricted to harbours • Raising awareness of biodiversity amongst HABITATS BUILT despite its name. The Shipworm Teredo nivalis may users and managers of ports, harbours and bore into wooden structures. marinas would benefit not only the wildlife of these sites, but would encourage increased 3.4 Flowering Plants (low importance) reporting of marine species. There are no flowering plants found in the waters of ports, harbours and marinas. Some species are able grow on the upper parts of harbour walls and on land-based structures. The typical species of

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 241 242 BUILT HABITATS ROADS & VERGES has beengiven tosuchissues. issues onroads. As aresult, much greaterthought has helpedto heightenawarenessabout biodiversity impact ofroadsandroadbuilding inrecentdecades Increased concernregarding thewiderenvironmental 2.1 RecentTrends 2. in aseparateplan. Traditional fieldboundariesonroadsidesarecovered and steepsided. surrounding landdry. They aretherefore oftendeep well belowthegroundlevelinordertokeep Roadside vehicle emissions. high levelsofpollutantssuchasde-icingsalt,oiland as anunintentionalresultoftheirlocation,relatively cutting andothermanagementbothreceive, to operationalsafetyrequirementswithregard which nowconstitutetheverge.Botharesubject unimproved grassland,heathlandornativewoods, may passthroughsemi-naturalhabitatssuchas stretches ofminorroads road. However, some construction ofthe or shortlyafter, created during, improved grassland usually consistof opportunities. They Verges offer more on veryminorroads. all wildlife,otherthan habitat forvirtually is aninhospitable that thecarriageway and trafficlevelsmean construction techniques Modern road 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayCouncil/AmeyHighways. Target: 10newConservationVerges by2015. designation ofnewConservationVerges. Provide specialmanagementofroadsandvergesatsitesknowntobeimportantforbiodiversitythrough Priority Action (RV1) Dumfries &Galloway Status Habitat Description ditches needtohaveawaterlevel

salting. A75 near Annan, April 2007. Danish Scurvygrass,aplantfast expanding itsrangeduetoroad ROADS &VERGES (Peter Norman) Boundaries, Urban Trees, Bridgesand Tunnels. Neutral Grasslands,ScrubWoods, Traditional Field action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: or overlapwithroadsandverges,thefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats regular movementroutesformanyspecies. traverses mostoftheregion’s rivervalleysthatare A74(M) through Annandale. The A75Euroroute The onlysectionofmotorwayintheregionis 2.3 SiteExamples valleys withfewer, moreminorroadsintheuplands. The majorroadsarelocatedinthelowlandsandriver Dumfries &Galloway, mostofwhichhasaverge. There aresome2,900miles(4,666km)ofroadin 2.2 CurrentDistribution Perhaps thebest example has encouraged them. road management to theroad,butbecause they werepresentprior verges, notbecause A fewplantsoccur on and Broomscrub. associated withGorse a vergeinDumfries,is in theregionincluding known fromafewsites is rareinScotlandbut rapum-genistae Broomrape grasslands. Greater especially neutral road wasconstructed, that existedbeforethe are remnantsofhabitats Most roadverges 3.1 FloweringPlants(highimportance) 3. Importance for Associated Species Orobanche , which thatareimportantforwildflowersof Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership as Wild Thymesometimesgrow directly onthecarriageway. The On minorroads,flowerssuch Machars, July1999. (Peter Norman) ROADS & VERGES

is Danish Scurvygrass Cochlearia danica, a plant sometimes Buzzards Buteo buteo attempt to feed of the cliff-tops, sand dunes and sea walls that first on carrion on the carriageway. Few species nest on started appearing inland on the central reservations the verge itself, though Oystercatchers Haematopus of motorways and dual carriageways in the late 20th ostralegus are recorded doing so most years. A century as a result of salt treatment. The distribution number of birds, including Barn Owls Tyto alba, are map in the New Atlas of British and Irish Flora regularly killed by traffic as they hunt along verges or (2002) clearly shows this plant along the route of the fly over the road. A74(M), but it has since spread westwards along the A75 to Dumfries. Although now frequent on single 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) carriageways, it is seldom seen below A-class roads. Unlike flowering plants, there are few salt and heavy metal-tolerant mosses that are specialists of road 3.2 Invertebrates verges. (medium importance) 3.7 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) The first Scottish Road verges

colony of are rarely of ROADS & VERGES Narrow-bordered significant 5-spot Burnet interest for Moth Zygaena fungi, although a lonicerae subsp. limited range of latomarginata nitrogen-tolerant was found on a species occur, verge of the A711. such as Shaggy It remains the Ink-cap Coprinus only site for this Narrow-bordered 5-spot Burnet moth. comatus and the species in Dumfries Dalskairth road verge, July 2004. Horse Mushroom & Galloway. (Peter Norman) Agaricus arvensis. 3.3 Mammals (medium importance) Potentially of Other than mice and voles, roads and verges support more importance few mammal species. However roads are a significant are upland Pestle Puffball Handkea excipuliformis by cause of death for several species of conservation verges with the A762 near Mossdale. August 2008. concern, including Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus, unimproved (Peter Norman) Otters Lutra lutra and Badgers Meles meles. grassland. Fortunately it currently appears that these deaths are not limiting local populations. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) • Road verges that are high in biodiversity, There are recorded instances of reptiles basking on especially wildflowers, add to the landscape and

warm carriageways of very minor roads, but more enhance the area for tourists. HABITATS BUILT often roads pose a threat to reptiles and amphibians. • Some types of roadside vegetation reduce noise Toads in particular tend to use the same routes and pollution from traffic. between feeding areas and breeding ponds and on damp evenings at certain times of the year can be highly susceptible to traffic. Nevertheless populations 5. Factors affecting the Habitat of other species prosper on certain verges, including Slow Worms Anguis fragilis on the A713 beside Loch • Road safety must always take priority in the Ken. management of roadside verges and hedges. • Fragmentation of habitats as a result of roads 3.5 Birds (medium importance) acting as barriers to movement. Rooks Corvus frugilegus, Crows C. corone and

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 243 RAILWAYS

• A high incidence of wildlife road kills in Dumfries 6.2 Other recommended actions & Galloway involving mammals and birds of • Enhance populations of nationally and conservation importance, including Otters, regionally uncommon plants and invertebrates Badgers, Red Squirrels and Barn Owls. Other that occur on road verges through modifications species can be affected by noise, movement or to management or timing of management. light disturbance. • Identify blackspots for wildlife road kills. • Excessive grass cutting, shrub and hedge brashing can change habitat structure. • Include proactive design measures to safeguard against animal kills on new roads such as the • Over-use of chemicals to control weeds can installation at appropriate locations of animal affect non-target species, and run-off of chemicals underpasses and culverts. and oil can pollute watercourses. • Implement measures to safeguard against animal • Road construction and maintenance can result in kills on existing roads, by carrying out works to alterations to the natural drainage pattern of a encourage animals to use existing culverts, such locality. as fencing, reflectors and culvert modification.

ROADS & VERGES • Treatment of verges on new roads or following carriageway alterations may not benefit biodiversity. Top-soiling and inappropriate planting produces poor results. Usually the outcome is a missed opportunity for biodiversity, but in some cases can lead to potentially invasive species. For example, Bird’s-foot Trefoil is usually a valuable foodplant for butterflies, but much of it on the A75 is a non-native vigorous subspecies of limited value that has spread from introduced seed mixes. • Flailing roadside scrub may look untidy but has little detrimental impact on biodiversity as long as it is not carried out in the bird breeding season.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • The Scottish Executive drafted a Trunk Road Biodiversity Action Plan for trunk roads across Scotland. • Dumfries & Galloway Council drafted a Roadside Biodiversity Action Plan in 2000 and has implemented most of its recommendations.

BUILT HABITATS BUILT As part of this, several conservation verges have been identified in the region and received special management. Cow Parsley display on verge by minor road near Dundrennan. June 2006. (Peter Norman)

244 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership covered bya separate actionplans. and thehighly specialisedhabitatoftunnels are rail side. The masonryofplatforms,wallsandbridges, ballast onthetrackbedanddrainage landscape, anumberofother habitatswerecreated: or shadycuttings. Although lessobviousinthe support different speciestonorth-facingslopes biodiversity; thesunniersouth-facingembankments influence ontheirmicro-climate,andtherefore The orientationofthesefeaturesexertsasignificant and embankments cuttings wereexcavatedthroughhigherground to allowsteamtrainsoperateatmaximumspeed; the Victorian ageofsteam.Gradientswereminimised Virtually allofBritain’s railways were establishedin 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Trees andshrubsbesideworkingrailway, Dumfries. August 2007. Lead Partner:NetworkRail/Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. Target: Survey10selectedsitesby2015. access forvolunteersurveyors. Assess thebiodiversityofrailnetworkinDumfries&Gallowaybyprovidingsafetytrainingtoenable Priority Action (RA1) Habitat Description constructedacrosslowground. RAILWAYS ditches bythe (Peter Norman) disused railway. line inDumfries&Galloway, andatleast160milesof There isapproximately125milesofworkingrailway along the21,000milesofnationalrailnetwork. There areover30,000hectaresoflinesidevegetation 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext and remainsafeatureofworkingrailwaylines. herbicides, butregulardisturbancehasalwaysbeen ignited bysparks.Lateritinvolvedgreateruseof removal scrubontherailsidestopreventitbeing of vegetationgrowingthroughtheballast,and biodiversity. Initiallythisinvolvedregularhandcutting of vegetationexertedasignificantinfluenceon for thespreadofsomespecies,whilstmanagement The turbulencecreatedbythetrainswasresponsible woods andgrasslands. agricultural areas,linkingotherhabitatssuchas natural corridorsthroughtheintensively-managed in landuse.Furthermore,therailnetworkprovides disappeared inthesurroundingareaduetochanges are theremnantsofhabitatsthathavenowalmost along therailwaylinecontaincommunitiesthat agricultural intensification. Thereforemanyareas time ofrailwayconstruction,waslessaffected by from thesurroundingcountrysidewhich,at but themajorityofwildlifecolonisednaturally occasionally grass,topreventthemwashingaway, Some embankmentswereplantedwithtrees, railway linesare stilldiscernibleontheground. Stranraer toGlasgow. The majority ofthedisused Dumfries, CarlisletoGlasgow viaLockerbieand restricted tothelinesfrom Carlisle toGlasgowvia Working railwaylineinDumfries&Gallowayis 2.2 CurrentDistribution especially inDumfries. have beenturnedintowalkingandcyclingroutes, Over thelast10years,anumberofshortstretches 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 245 BUILT HABITATS RAILWAYS by a range of plants that are resistant to moisture stress, such as Procumbent Pearlwort Sagina procumbens. On working lines, these are regularly removed, allowing the process of colonisation to start all over again, but if the line ceases to be used, a grassland habitat forms that can be very species-rich. On acidic sites, a Heather Calluna vulgaris community may develop, but on neutral sites a more diverse, taller vegetation dominates. This includes species such as Red Fescue Festuca rubra, Tansy Tanacetum vulgare, Common Toadflax Linaria vulgaris and Black Knapweed Centaurea nigra. Rare species recorded from railway lines in Dumfries and Galloway include Common Wintergreen Pyrola minor. RAILWAYS A disused railway line providing habitat linkages through an urban Cuttings tend to support the richest grassland, due area. Caledonian Cyclepath, Dumfries, August 2007. to their slopes being composed largely of unfertilised (Peter Norman) soil. Drifts of Rosebay Willowherb Chamerion 2.3 Site Examples angustifolium, and Ox-eye Daisy often dominate long The Caledonian Cycleway in Dumfries is the longest sections, but less common species such as Meadow stretch of disused railway in the region to be turned Crane’s-bill Geranium pratense and Common into a walking/cycling route. Spotted Orchid Dactylorhiza maculata are also found. Eventually scrub invades. One of the first woody 2.4 Associated Habitats species to colonise, particularly in more urban areas, A number of habitats occur in close association and/ is Buddleia Buddleja davidii, but Hawthorn Crataegus or overlap with railways, and the following action monogyna, Blackthorn Prunus spinosa and Elder plans may also contain relevant information: Neutral Sambucus nigra often form dense thickets. Grasslands, Acid Grasslands, Inland Rock Outcrops Scrub Woods, Traditional Field Boundaries, Bridges 3.2 Invertebrates (medium importance) and Tunnels, Walls and Buildings, Industrial and Post- A number of butterflies, such as Common Blue industrial Sites. Polyommatus icarus and Wall Lasiommata megera, are found on railway lines. The bare ground of the ballast and some embankments is especially valuable for them and their foodplants, whilst cuttings (as long as they are not too shady) provide shelter.

3.3 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) Slow Worms Anguis fragilis and Adders Vipera berus bask on ballast and south-facing embankments that heat up quickly, and make use of the surrounding BUILT HABITATS BUILT vegetation for shelter.

3.4 Birds (medium importance) Although none of the rarer species of bird is Dog Rose, a typical plant of railway banks. (Peter Norman) dependent on railway lines, there is a diverse range of birdlife found on the network. Typical species are 3. Importance for Associated Species those associated with scrub, such as Dunnocks Prunella modularis, Common Whitethroats Sylvia 3.1 Flowering Plants (medium importance) communi, Willow Warblers Phylloscopus trochilus, Studies have found around 70% of the native British Bullfinches Pyrrhula pyrrhula, and Linnets Carduelis flora from railway land. Ballast is typically colonised cannabina.

246 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership RAILWAYS

Goldfinch, a colourful species that feeds on thistle and other seeds. (Gordon McCall)

3.5 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Field Horsetail Equisetum arvense is a frequent invader of ballast, being somewhat resistant to • Safety obligations are of paramount importance herbicides. Other typical ballast species include on working railway lines. Biodiversity Capillary Thread-moss Bryum capillare and Common management of these areas must be compatible Cord-moss Funaria hygrometrica, but it has been with safety issues. known to support species more typical of upland • Safety restrictions restrict access to working areas, including Green Mountain Fringe-moss railway lines, which means that few wildlife Racomitrium fasciculare. Shady Earwort Scapania surveys have been carried out. umbrosa and several other liverworts are found in deep cuttings • In many areas, particularly on disused lines, scrub growth has affected species rich 3.6 Mammals (low importance) grassland.

Many mammals are found on railway lines, and HABITATS BUILT several use them as corridors to move through the 6. Strategic Actions countryside, but no species are dependent on this habitat. 6.1 Recent and current activity Network Rail has developed a Biodiversity Action 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Plan for their UK operations. Importance of Biodiversity

The biodiversity of the railway network, both working and disused, adds to the interest and enjoyment of users and contributes to the landscape.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 247 248 BUILT HABITATS BRIDGES & TUNNELS characteristics. Riverbridgesexperience morehumid a railwayorsome otherobstacleaffects itsphysical Whether thebridge crossesawatercourse, aroad, bridges havealsobeenconstructed. have feweropportunitiesfor biodiversity. A fewmetal road, oftencrossinganother road. They generally of concrete,including More recentbridgeshavemostlybeenconstructed position ofledges/holesinfluencestheirbiodiversity. The typeofstoneandmortar, andthenumber of shortmasonryarchedspanssupportedontowers. span bridgestolarge these arestillinuse. The rangefromshortsingle- largely constructedofstoneorbrick,andmany short footbridges.Nineteenthcenturybridgeswere constructions butfewareinusetoday, otherthan characteristics. Earlybridgesweresimplewooden used inconstruction,andthereforetheirphysical greatly influencestheirdesign,thematerials The dateofconstructionbridgesandtunnels 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayCouncil. Target: 10bridgesby2015. Install integralbirdand/orbatboxesintobridgesduringanyscheduledmaintenanceorupgradingwork. Priority Action (BT2) Lead Partner:DistrictSalmonFisheriesBoards. Target: Completeby2012. available, aninventory. Assess bridgesinneedofremedialworktoallowunimpededpassagefishbycompiling,andmaking Priority Action (BT1) Habitat Description viaducts, consistingofaseries flyovers thatsupportamain BRIDGES &TUNNELS the tunnel. regime andpermanentlydark,humidconditionswithin This largelyresultsfromamorestabletemperature have verydifferent physicalcharacteristicstobridges. construction techniques,materialsandlocation,they Though tunnelsarealsoinfluencedbytheirage, shadier areasofthebridge. and temperature,incomparisontothenorth-facingor of thebridgeexperiencinggreaterextremeslight also important,withthesouthfacing,exposedside railways areaffected byemissions.Orientationis conditions, whilstthoseoverroadsandoperational of bridgesthathavebeenupgraded. more significancetobiodiversity, isthelargenumber have beenbuiltinrecentyears. However, ofmuch A numberofnew bridges,particularlyfootbridges, 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Bridge overNithatThornhill.(PaulMcLaughlin) Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership BRIDGES & TUNNELS

2.2 Current Distribution between freshwater spawning grounds and the sea, There are more than 1,400 bridges in Dumfries and but even non-migratory species require a variety of Galloway, spread throughout the region. aquatic habitats and may travel several miles up and down a watercourse. 2.3 Site Examples 3.2 Mammals (high importance) A number of large viaducts are found in the region, such as at Big Water of Fleet (1861), near Bridges and tunnels are important hibernation and Gatehouse. Notable bridges include Devorgilla’s roost sites for most species of bat, with Daubenton’s Bridge (c1432) and Tongland Bridge (1804-8). The Bat Myotis daubentonii particularly associated with latter supports the largest colony of House Martins bridges. Otters Lutra lutra frequently mark their in the region. However, many of the smaller bridges territory with spraints (droppings) under bridges. are equally, if not more important from a biodiversity perspective. There is only one major tunnel in 3.3 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) Dumfries & Galloway, slightly over 1km in length, on The lichen flora of bridges is, as on other walls, the operational railway line between Dumfries and strongly influenced by the wall substrate and Kirkconnel, near Drumlanrig. associated chemical attributes and textures. A wide range of species is found. BRIDGES & TUNNELS

3.4 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) The masonry of bridges and tunnels was particularly suitable for a range of ferns during the steam age, when the additional moisture encouraged growth wherever trains were regularly halted. For example, Rusty-back Ceterach officinarum occurred on Little Water of Fleet Viaduct prior to its demolition. Others ferns still persist. The lower sections of bridges over water also support a range of mosses, liverworts and algae.

Virtually every compartment under the ledge of Tongland Bridge 3.5 Birds (medium importance) has a House Martin nest each summer. (Peter Norman) Dippers Cinclus cinclus regularly nest under bridges that span watercourses. The largest House Martin 2.4 Associated Habitats Delichon urbica colony in Dumfries & Galloway occurs A number of habitats occur in close association and/ on Tongland Bridge. or overlap with bridges and tunnels, and the following action plans may also contain relevant information: 3.6 Invertebrates (low importance) River Headwaters, Lowland Rivers and Backwaters, Construction of a new bridge over a river may Lowland Burns and Ditches, Exposed River Shingle, impact on aquatic invertebrates as much as fish. A Walls and Buildings, Urban Watercourses and diving beetle Bidessus minutissimus, at one of its Wetlands, Reservoirs. few UK sites, is believed to have been affected by

construction of a flyover over the River Nith for the HABITATS BUILT 3. Importance for Associated Species Dumfries bypass.

3.1 Fishes (high importance) 3.7 Flowering Plants (low importance) Freedom of movement, both upstream and A similar range of flowering plants is found on bridges downstream, is essential for the survival of many as on other walls. species of fish, and this can be severely affected by bridges. Both young and adults of migratory species such as Salmon Salmo salar, Sea Trout Salmo trutta and Eels Anguilla anguilla travel hundreds of miles

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 249 INDUSTRIAL & POST INDUSTRIAL SITES

4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6.2 Other recommended actions Importance of Biodiversity • Incorporate well-designed and effective wildlife underpasses into all new roads Bridges that cross watercourses and affect fish wherever required. If the location is appropriate, passage impact on the economic and recreational consider more effective structures such as green benefits of local fisheries. bridges. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat • Assess bridges in need of remedial work to allow unimpeded passage of fish. • Fish passage at river crossings is important in the • Give consideration, where feasible, to the planning, design, installation and upgrading of installation of integral bird and/or bat boxes bridges. Improperly designed culverts and other into bridges during scheduled maintenance or river crossing structures act as a barrier to fish upgrading work. movement. Problems include inadequate water depth, excessive water velocities, vertical barriers and works carried out at an inappropriate time of

BRIDGES & TUNNELS year. • Repointing of masonry bridges not only reduces opportunities for roosting bats, but has the potential to entomb and kill any bats using the structure at the time of the work being carried out.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • A pro-active approach has been taken on a number of bridges being renovated by Dumfries & Galloway Council, with a check for bats being carried out by a countryside ranger prior to work commencing. • Renovation of the disused Goldilea Viaduct involved special measures to cater for Common Wintergreen plants and bats that were found on the bridge. • Forestry Commission Scotland has built bat and bird boxes into the construction of bridges for forest roads. • In parts of Europe, specially designed green An old, unpointed bridge with many opportunities for roosting bats. bridges have been constructed over major roads

BUILT HABITATS BUILT Kirkconnell Bridge, Ringford. May 2008. (Peter Norman) specifically to enable wildlife to cross.

250 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership INDUSTRIAL &POSTSITES free fromcompetition. Shallowdisused species thatare tolerantofsuchconditions canthrive, an extremeenvironmentfor plantcolonisation,but metal concentrationsandlow nutrients,produces techniques employed. The combination oftoxic and chemicalcomposition, andanyrestoration that canbeofvalue,depending ontheirphysical features, includingpondsand are oftenassociatedwithextensivesurface Deep mineshavelittleecologicalinterest,but industrial brownfields. military rangesoftensupportsimilarhabitatstopost- including abandonedairfields,munitionsfactoriesand properties ofthesoil. because oftheseveritychemicalorphysical often persistfordecadeswithoutactiveintervention grassland, heathlandandscrub,butthehabitatcan occur here,andovertimemaydevelopintoareasof scarce andthreatenedopenvegetationcommunities concrete, metalandotherartificialsubstrates.Several ground, oftenmixedwithbuildingstone,bricks, sites arecharacterisedbyanabundanceofbare other land-uses.Intheearlypost-industrialyears, developed, usuallyforindustrialusebutsometimes Bownfields 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Former leadmineatWanlockhead. August 2007.(PeterNorman) Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership/BusinessEnvironmentPartnership. Target: Encourage1industrialbusinesstoprepareplanandbeginimplementationby2015. site Biodiversity Action Plan. Encourage industrialbusinessestomanagetheirlandholdingsforbiodiversitythroughpreparationofa Priority Action (IPIS1) Habitat Description aresitesthathavepreviouslybeen SecondWorld War sites, mine spoil mine shafts (bings) and Galloway. rehabilitation. 216ha(2.9%)ofthiswasinDumfries incapable ofdevelopmentforbeneficialusewithout Scotland, definedasdamagedbydevelopmentand In 2006therewas7,480haofderelictlandin 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext quarries andmineralworkings. cast minesareincludedinthehabitatactionplanfor and cansupportspecialisedflorafauna.Open share similarphysicalcharacteristicstonaturalcaves, Gatehouse Brickfields . been installed onacommunitynaturereserve at Ponds, boardwalksandwildlife interpretationhave substrate, makethesiteoutstanding foramphibians. to scrubbywoodland,combined withthesandy from wetlands,throughgrasslands andheaths sidings andlagoons. The widerange ofhabitats infrastructure, suchasabandonedstores,railway Ordnance Powfoot The siteofaformerexplosivesfactoryatRoyal 2.3 SiteExamples usually closetolargersettlements. Active industrialsitesarepredominantlylowland, are alsosomepost-industrialsitesintheuplands. these arelargelyrestrictedtoloweraltitudes,there Galloway isassociatedwithmilitarysites. Although Much ofthepost-industriallandinDumfriesand 2.2 CurrentDistribution the 1950s. mainly greenfieldlightindustrial/businesssitessince of agencieshavebeeninvolvedintheprovision cast, ratherthandeepminingmethods. A number It hassincerecommenced,butemployingopen in theSanquhar-Kirkconnelfielduntil1960s. food processing.Coalminingremainedimportant established inrecentdecades,includingtimberand A numberoffurtherindustrieshavebecome 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus (SSSI)retainsmuchoftheold Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 251 BUILT HABITATS INDUSTRIAL & POST INDUSTRIAL SITES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Wanlockhead (SSSI) contains the most important amongst rubble in the lead mining workings at lead-zinc deposits in Scotland, which were actively Wanlockhead in 2006, its only current UK site worked for over 400 years. The area contains old (previously recorded only in Argyll in 1962). mine workings and spoil heaps. The lead mines at Blackcraig have influenced the ecology of a range of 3.3 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) habitats. The adjacent woods, now a reserve of the Mine spoil can support rare bryophytes that are Scottish Wildlife Trust, were described on the mine tolerant of heavy metals. plan of c1760 as ‘Oak wood fit for all kinds of work underground’. They would have been managed and 3.4 Mammals (high importance) modified by the miners. Disused mine shafts, including some at Wanlockhead, provide the most important bat 2.4 Associated Habitats hibernation sites so far discovered in Dumfries & A number of habitats occur in close association and/ Galloway, although this undoubtedly partly reflects the or overlap with industrial and post-industrial sites, and difficulty in locating tree hibernacula. the following action plans may also contain relevant information: Walls and Buildings, Railways, Quarries 3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (high importance) and Mineral Workings. Natterjack Toads Epidalea calamita breed in ponds at the disused industrial site at Powfoot. Indeed, this 3. Importance for Associated Species is possibly the only site in Scotland to support all 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) INDUSTRIAL & POST INDUSTRIAL SITES & POST INDUSTRIAL INDUSTRIAL Scottish native reptiles Brownfields are probably the single most important and amphibians. invertebrate habitat away from semi-natural habitats. Sites can support important invertebrate communities, 3.6 Flowering Plants including rare species of beetles, butterflies, moths, (medium importance) bees and wasps that require bare substrate, sandy Brownfields that have burrowing or nesting sites, and nectar sources. not been reclaimed can Common ‘weeds’ such as Pineappleweed Matricaria be rich in wildflowers, discoidea are important to invertebrates as larval including former foodplants and nectar supplies for adults. agricultural weeds that are now rare on farms, such as Mugwort Artemisia vulgaris and poppies Papaver spp. Metal-rich mine spoil supports interesting species, such as at Wanlockhead. Habitats that more closely resemble semi-natural environments also occur, such as orchid rich Common Spotted Orchids are BUILT HABITATS BUILT grassland within the Du found at several industrial sites. Kirkconnel, June 2007. Pont industrial compound (Greg Baillie) at Cargenbridge.

Rhizocarpon petraeum, one of the many lichens on mine spoil at Wanlockhead. August 2007. (Peter Norman) 3.7 Birds (low importance) 3.2 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) Species that feed on weed seeds, such as Linnets Carduelis cannabina and Goldfinches C. carduelis are Mine spoil is colonised by a number of lichens frequently found in large numbers on brownfield sites tolerant of the extreme conditions. A critically that have not been restored to a uniform land use. endangered nationally rare lichen Gyalidea roseola was found on a block of calcareous sandstone

252 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6.2 Other recommended actions Importance of Biodiversity • Encourage businesses to carry out ecological audits of large industrial sites and modify • High biodiversity on working industrial sites activities to reduce their impact. increases adds interest and can even improve the • Encourage businesses to carry out practical health, job satisfaction, and therefore productivity, biodiversity projects on industrial sites. of the workforce. • Promote the use of vacant and derelict land, • The biodiversity of post-industrial sites often either temporarily or permanently as wildlife reflects a long history of management. It should habitats. be viewed as an integral part of their industrial archaeology.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Sites of high biodiversity interest on post- industrial land are at risk of destruction and serious degradation. Major factors threatening it include redevelopment, unsuitable reclamation, eutrophication, lack of appropriate management and natural succession. INDUSTRIAL & POST INDUSTRIAL SITES & POST INDUSTRIAL INDUSTRIAL • The biodiversity of post-industrial sites is easily over-looked as they are rarely visited and species may persist in low numbers. • Few previously developed sites have been afforded SSSI protection and creation of new sites is limited.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Dumfries & Galloway Council is required to assess significant harm to ecological systems, especially on designated sites, as part of its identification of contaminated land.

• The Museum of Lead Mining at Wanlockhead Former brickworks at Gatehouse of Fleet, now a nature reserve. has produced interpretation of the wildlife of the October 2004. (Peter Norman). area. • Magnox North has carried out an assessment of BUILT HABITATS BUILT the biodiversity interest around Chapelcross and published a Biodiversity Action Plan in 2008. • The Wildlife Trust’s Biodiversity Benchmark award enables businesses to assess the quality of their land management, improve their contribution to the environment and demonstrate their commitment to biodiversity.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 253 254 BUILT HABITATS QUARRIES & MINERAL WORKINGS which limitstheir biodiversityvalue. marginal vegetation, sided, withlimited are deepandsteep- open watersinquarries former workings,most result oftheflooding as thisisusuallya quarries. However, disused andworking feature ofmany Open waterisa area. have agreaterrangeofcontoursbutcoverwider coal workings to havehighverticalrockfaces,whilst result fromit.Forexamplehardrockquarriestend technique employedandthelandformchangesthat composition ofthesoil,buttypeextraction being worked. This notonlyaffects thechemical their valueforbiodiversityisthenatureofmaterial landscape. Perhapsthebiggestsingleinfluenceon more prominentinthe tend tobelargerand and workingquarries abandoned quarries obvious. Morerecently always immediately previous useisnot an extentthattheir vegetation tosuch colonised bynatural that havebeen small-scale features years agotendtobe abandoned many quarries thatwere landscapes. features inmost workings arecommon Quarries andmineral 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayCouncil. expansion objectives. Ensure thatanynewrestorationplansforquarriesandmineralworkingscontributetoLBAP Priority Action (QU1) Habitat Description QUARRIES &MINERALWORKINGS Disused andsandgravelpits formerly asand&gravelworks,now includes someofthehighestrock Kirkmabreck QuarryatCreetown a naturereserve.October2007. Dyke FarmQuarrynearMoffat, faces intheregion.July2004. open-cast (Peter Norman). (Peter Norman) usually Dumfries &Gallowayarenotknown. of minerals.EquivalentfiguresforScotlandand under planningpermissionfortheactiveworking In 2005,over64,000haoflandinEnglandwas 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext local conditions. range ofwoodlandtypesispossibledependingon the commonestspeciesonthinsoils,butawide around activeones.Willows,birchesandoaksare quarries andmineralworkingsmaybepresent Scrub andwoodland richness. the shallownessofsoil,oftenleadstoahighspecies to beagriculturallyunimprovedandthis,togetherwith Grasslands inquarriesandmineralworkingstends crannies canbeparticularlyvaluable. value. Pilesoflargestoneswithplentifulnooksand but notremovedfromthesite,itcanbeofbiodiversity lichens. Evenwherematerialhasbeenexcavated, even relativelysmoothsurfacescanbecolonisedby rock outcropswithledgesandwetseepages,but the materialiscritical.Quarryfacescanmimicnatural once againthephysicalandchemicalcompositionof supports aspecialisedforfloraandfauna,though quarries, eventhoselongsincedisused. This Bare groundorbarerockisafeatureofmost contributes to theregion’s economy. and Kirkcudbright. Gravelandcoalextraction also plants suchasthoseatLocharbriggs, Dalbeattie resulting inthedistinctivelandmarks ofquarry quarrying areforaggregates andconcreteproducts aggregate. The mainmarketsnowforhardstone but thereisstillconsiderable demandforprimary the UK. The useofrecycledaggregateisincreasing, aggregates areneededperheadofthepopulationin is ongoingandeveryyearnearlyfourtonnesof Although afiniteresource,demandforminerals 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership oftencolonisesdisused habitat QUARRIES & MINERAL WORKINGS

2.2 Current Distribution particularly butterflies, There are at least 14 active quarries or mineral bees and wasps. workings and many disused ones in the region. Quarry faces, scrub or Active quarries tend to be in lower river valleys or woodland provides an on the coast, but disused quarries are widespread additional benefit in the in both the uplands and lowlands. The great majority form of shelter from of quarrying is for hard rock, with a few open cast wind. A ground spider coal workings in Upper Nithsdale, and sand and Zelotes apricorum, gravel workings in Lower Nithsdale, Annandale and virtually restricted in Wigtownshire. Scotland to stony areas of the Solway coast, is Large Skipper butterfly. Clatteringshaws disused quarry, 2.3 Site Examples regularly recorded from July 2007. (Peter Norman) quarries in England. Two disused quarries have been designated as Sites of Special Scientific Interest for their geological 3.3 Birds (high importance) importance; Clatteringshaws Dam Quarry and Talnotry Mine. The biodiversity potential of quarries Several pairs of Kestrels Falco tinnunculus, has so far been little explored, but live CCTV Peregrines Falco peregrinus and Ravens Corvus images of nesting Peregrines in Creetown Quarry corax nest on quarry faces of both working and are transmitted to Creetown Heritage Centre and disused quarries. At Portpatrick, the extensive cliff Kelhead Quarry is a designated Local Wildlife Site. faces quarried for the harbour works in the late 18th WORKINGS QUARRIES & MINERAL Dyke Farm Quarry at Moffat has recently been and early 19th centuries have been colonised by restored for amenity and nature conservation use. Fulmars Fulmarus glacialis.

2.4 Associated Habitats Gravel works provide nest sites for Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus, Ringed Plovers Charadrius A number of habitats occur in close association and/or hiaticula and occasionally Little Ringed Plovers overlap with quarries, and the following action plans Charadrius dubius, the latter a very rare breeding may also contain relevant information: Calcareous species in Scotland. Grasslands, Inland Rock Outcrops, Scrub Woods, Industrial and Post-industrial Sites. Extensive areas of grassland may be used by Skylarks Alauda arvensis, whilst a wide range of birds 3. Importance for Associated Species frequent areas of scrub and woodland. Open water in the region’s quarries is not of major importance for its 3.1 Flowering Plants (high importance) bird life. Studies on the colonisation of plants in disused limestone quarries found that species diversity 3.4 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) approached that found in much older semi-natural Quarries, even active ones, can support an interesting calcareous grassland within only 10-20 years. and varied bryophyte flora, though usually just a version of the natural communities found on nearby Common Centaury Centaurium erythraea thrives on rock outcrops, rather than a specialised flora. Thick- the well-drained, disturbed bare ground of quarries set Earwort Scapania compacta, a common liverwort

and Common Cudweed Filago vulgaris, which has HABITATS BUILT in rocky situations in western Britain, often grows in undergone a dramatic national decline as a result of disused quarries. agricultural change, is known from similar habitats in at least one disused quarry. Orchids, including Wet ground on disused quarry floors is good for Common Spotted Dactylorhiza maculata and mosses and liverworts in the few years immediately Common Twayblade Listera ovata can be abundant, following closure, until flowering herbs and eventually depending on local conditions. scrub and trees become dominant. 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance) 3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium Bare ground (especially composed of soft material importance) such as sand) combined with species-rich grassland Sir William Jardine’s collection of fossil reptile makes an ideal combination for many invertebrates,

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 255 URBAN WATERCOURSES & WETLANDS

footprints found in the 1850s at the sandstone quarry 5. Factors affecting the Habitat at Corncockle is now in Royal Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh. More recently, the combination of bare • Restoration to agricultural land has been the ground for basking, grassland for hunting and piles main after use of mineral workings, and most of stones for hibernation makes many quarries and active sites have restoration to agriculture built mineral workings good habitats for Common Lizards into their planning consent. Zootoca vivipara, Slow Worms Anguis fragilis and Adders Vipera berus. Quarries are therefore valuable • An RSPB study identified the main reasons for reptile habitats, and may be critical for their survival not restoring quarries and mineral workings to in areas of otherwise intensive agriculture or forestry. a nature conservation after-use as being a lack This habitat combination can also be good for frogs, of support from the landowner, a perceived toads and newts, but these species also require inadequate financial return, a difficulty in relatively shallow, well-vegetated, predominantly securing long-term conservation management fishless areas of open water, which are often lacking and the proximity of the site to an airfield (threat from hard rock quarries, being common only in some of bird strike). The last reason is not relevant to sand and gravel workings. Dumfries & Galloway, but all the others probably apply. The willingness of the mineral company is 3.6 Mammals (low importance) usually not a problem. Roosting bats use crevices and caves in quarry • Rock climbing can disturb nesting birds or

QUARRIES & MINERAL WORKINGS QUARRIES & MINERAL faces, and the presence of open water, grassland, damage flora in some quarries. woodland and scrub is also of benefit to them. • Disused quarries and mineral workings are However, few bat surveys of quarries have been prone to waste dumping, usually unofficially and completed in Dumfries & Galloway. Other mammals illegally. In particular, small disused quarries are tend to be widespread and common species, for a frequent location for farm dumps, though the which quarries are of minor importance in relation to impact on amenity value is usually greater than other habitats. that on biodiversity.

3.7 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) 6. Strategic Actions Bare rock on quarry faces and other places is readily colonised by lichens, though few notable species 6.1 Recent and current activity are known. Other fungi associated with quarries and mineral workings tend to be generalist species, • Dyke Farm Quarry, near Moffat, has been though some old quarry floors in other parts of Britain restored to a nature reserve following sand and are developing good waxcap mycotas. gravel extraction by Patersons of Greenoakhill Limited. 3.8 Fishes (low importance) • Tarmac has prepared Biodiversity Action Plans Though a number of disused quarries and mineral for all its quarries in Dumfries & Galloway. workings have been restored as recreational and • The Mountaineering Council of Scotland has commercial fisheries, species are generally of low produced an information sheet about birds and conservation value. climbing, which contains guidance on responsible

BUILT HABITATS BUILT climbing. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity 6.2 Other recommended actions Create new habitats on disused quarries and mineral • Features of geological interest are often exposed workings. There is enormous potential to create a in quarries and mineral workings and offer range of habitats. In England, RSPB has calculated opportunities for education and interpretation. that restoration of mineral sites for biodiversity could, • Quarries and mineral workings restored for in itself, meet all of the targets for at least seven UK wildlife have the potential to be managed as BAP priority habitats. nature reserves, offering recreational and educational facilities, along with associated landscape and economic regeneration benefits.

256 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership URBAN WATERCOURSES &WETLANDS have separate actionplans. spaces andindustrial &post-industrialsites are oftenneglected. Pondsingardens, public open ponds. Wherethisusehas beenlost,theseponds including curlingponds,distillery ponds,andmill areas. Pondswerecreatedforarangeof purposes A numberofother wetlandscanbefoundinurban marred byrefuseandlitter. aesthetic perspective,urbanwatercoursesareoften grass cuttingandotherurbanactivities.Froman surfaces, andhighnutrientslevelsfromadjacent and otherpollutantsthatruns-off surroundinghard polluted thantheyoncewere,manystillreceiveoil concrete orsteel. Although theyarenowmuchless straightened andoftenculverted,oratleastlinedwith are frequentlyhiddenfromview. They arealsousually built). Incontrast,smallerurbanburnsandditches natural floodplain(uponwhichthesettlementisoften in bywallsandembankmentscutoff fromtheir with pools,rifflesandgravelbedsremoved,hemmed modified fromtheirnaturalform-usuallystraightened the nameoftown.Nevertheless,mostarehighly and sometimestheirnameisevenincorporatedinto Houses thatoverlookthemaremuchindemand, Urban rivers 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Brieryhill sustainable urban drainage scheme. Lockerbie, July 2006. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayCouncil. 2015. Target: 10SUDSschemesfornewdevelopmentstoincludedesignenhancementsbiodiversityby Incorporate biodiversityintoSustainableUrbanDrainageSystemsinnewdevelopments. Priority Action (UWW1) Habitat Description areoftenthefocalpointofsettlements. (Peter Norman)

problems intheseareas. watercourses comparewiththescaleorextentof recovering. NoneofDumfries&Galloway’s urban lifeless inthemid-late20 and Tyne werehighlypollutedandbecamevirtually of BritainandEurope,suchastheRhine,Mersey Many riversandwetlandsinhighlyindustrialparts 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext biodiversity. surfaces. Someofthesecanbedesignedtoimprove wetlands, infiltrationdevices,swalesandpermeable detention basins,retentionponds,constructed to reducepollutionandfloodrisk. Theyinclude alternative toconventionalurbandrainagesystems are deliberatelydesignedandconstructedasan are arelativelynewkindofurbanwetland. They Sustainable UrbanDrainageSystems(SUDS) in NewtonStewart . Annan, NithinDumfriesFleet Gatehouse, Cree through urbanareas,notably theRiver Annan in A numberofDumfries &Galloway’s mainriversflow 2.3 SiteExamples Dumfries &Galloway’s townsandvillages. There areurbanwatercoursesandwetlandsinallof 2.2 CurrentDistribution biodiversity. can alsobeusedtocreatehabitatsandenhance contributing tofloodrisk. Thesenewtechniques passing themdownstreamasquicklypossible, with potentialcontaminantsatsource,ratherthan avoid pipedoutlets. The introductionofSUDSdeals schemes protectbankswithnaturalmaterialsand with nature,ratherthanagainstit.Softengineering recently installedschemeshaveaimedtowork and importanceofurbanwatercourses,several There isnowabetterunderstandingofthecomplexity 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership th century. They arestill

257 BUILT HABITATS URBAN WATERCOURSES & WETLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.4 Associated Habitats freshwater algae form the basis of aquatic foodchains A number of habitats occur in close association and/ and are essential for a healthy watercourse. or overlap with urban watercourses and wetlands, and the following action plans may also contain relevant 3.5 Birds (medium importance) information: Lowland Burns and Ditches, Public Open Mute Swans Cygnus olor, Mallards Anser Spaces, Walls and Buildings, Industrial and Post- platyrhynchos, Moorhens Gallinula chloropus, industrial Sites, Bridges and Tunnels. Kingfishers Alcedo atthis and Grey Wagtails Motacilla cinerea are 3. Importance for Associated Species residents or frequent visitors 3.1 Fishes (very high importance) to many urban All fish of rural rivers, including Salmon Salmo salar watercourses and and Trout Salmo trutta are also found in urban wetlands. Dippers watercourses, including small burns, unless local Cinclus cinclus, factors have affected their habitat or food supply. although usually The only spawning bed in Dumfries & Galloway of associated with the nationally rare Sparling Osmerus eperlanus is river headwaters, Mallard, the typical duck of urban watercourses. (Peter Norman) located within Newton Stewart. The fact that towns are also and villages are often located on the lower reaches associated with of rivers means that any problems here may limit some urban rivers, nesting annually in the centre of

URBAN WATERCOURSES & WETLANDS URBAN WATERCOURSES the free movement of migratory fish throughout the Dalbeattie and Gatehouse of Fleet. catchment. 3.6 Invertebrates (medium importance) 3.2 Reptiles and Amphibians (high importance) Some species such of invertebrates, such as the Urban ponds wetlands, rather than flowing larvae of Chirononus midges and Tubifex worms watercourses, support high populations of most native amphibians, particularly Common Toads Bufo bufo, Common Frogs Rana temporaria and Palmate Newts Lissotriton Helvetica. A few ponds, such as those at Gatehouse of Fleet and Newton Stewart, also have Great Crested Newts Triturus cristatus.

3.3 Mammals (high importance) Although domestic cats undoubtedly take some Water Voles Arvicola terrestris, it has been suggested that they are less susceptible to predation on urban watercourses, due to the deterrent effect of cats on Mink. Otters Lutra lutra make frequent, often nightly, Mute Swans and Cygnets, Paul McLaughlin use of all urban rivers and on occasion even quite will survive in even highly polluted watercourses small burns. but in cleaner water mayfly and stonefly nymphs BUILT HABITATS BUILT may be found. Indeed the species composition of Bats, which find many roosting opportunities in watercourses is an accurate measure of pollution urban buildings and bridges, use watercourses for levels, and these species provide the food supply of feeding. Pipistrelles Pipistrellus sp., Noctules Nyctalus many fish and birds. Variable Damselfly Coenagrion noctula and Daubenton’s Myotis daubentonii bats are pulchellum has a restricted UK distribution but has regularly recorded on the River Nith in Dumfries town been found on a number of ponds in Dumfries & centre. Galloway, including some close to urban locations. 3.4 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) 3.7 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Polluted urban watercourses are associated with The banks of urban watercourses and wetlands have masses of Blanket-weed Cladophora on the surface been highly managed for many years, usually giving or bottom, but such a sight is now rare. Instead,

258 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P rise to a plant community dominated by opportunist surface water discharging into coastal waters invaders such as Monkey Flowers Mimulus spp. and and for single dwellings. In certain locations it Himalayan Balsam Impatiens glandulifera. Both were is possible to design such schemes to enhance introduced as garden flowers in the 19th century, but biodiversity. spread rapidly along watercourses during the late 20th century. Complete eradication of them is now 6.2 Other recommended actions impossible. Instead they should be appreciated for the urban colour, bank stabilisation and nectar sources • Protect all existing stretches of semi-natural they provide. A few less common species have been river and burn corridor and other wetlands in recorded, including Yellow Bartsia Parentucellia urban areas. viscosa on the banks of the Nith in Dumfries. • Encourage designers and developers to use alternatives to culverts on rivers and burns 4. Environmental, Economic & Social through urban and other areas. Importance of Biodiversity • Where feasible and realistic, restore degraded sections of watercourse, particularly weirs, • More natural management of urban watercourses underground and concrete-lined sections. Provide and wetlands reduces flood risks. variation in stream and bank habitats, such as • Unpolluted and biodiverse watercourses and riffles, pools, gravel beds and vegetation. wetlands provide landscape, recreation and • Enhance SUDS to provide biodiversity benefits, quality of life benefits for urban residents. as well as preventing pollution from surface water & WETLANDS URBAN WATERCOURSES • Shallowly sloping banks with marginal vegetation drains entering watercourses and reducing peak are safer than canalised watercourses, as they flows. limit access to deep water.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• There is a perception that all watercourses in urban areas are a safety hazard and an inconvenience. As a result they have often been hidden from public view with little or no access. This is especially the case with smaller burns. • Previous management has focussed on increasing flow capacity. This has resulted in embanking, straightening, mechanical excavating, lining with concrete or steel, and culverting of watercourses in urban areas. • Management of urban infrastructure, such as bridges, footpaths and street lighting can affect some species. BUILT HABITATS BUILT

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Dumfries & Galloway Council has published Supplementary Planning Guidance on the Flooding and the use of Sustainable Urban Drainage Schemes. Several SUDS have been installed in urban developments and under the Controlled Activities Regulations they are now The River Nith in Dumfries town centre supports a wide range of required for all new development except for species. February 2008. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 259 260 BUILT HABITATS RESERVOIRS that cansupport onlyspecialisedplants andanimals. days tomonths, creatingharshecological conditions use ofthereservoir, cyclesofexposurecanvaryfrom be regularlyfloodedandexposed. Dependingonthe pumped inandout,areas of baremudandrockmay reservoirs, butrareinnatural waterbodies. As wateris The draw-downzone banks aresteep-sided. over moreacidicgeology, thewaterisdeep,and than uplandones,usuallybecausethelatteraresited Lowland reservoirstendtohavegreaterbiodiversity banks linedwithconcreteusedtoretainthewater. valleys, othersaresitedonfairlyflatlandwithearth exist. Somehavebeenmadebydammingshallow natural lochs,butsizeablelowlandreservoirsalso have floodedextensivevalleys,sometimesexpanding reservoirs areusuallyinuplandareaswheredams release itundercontrolledconditions. The largest water fromwatercoursesandcatchments, both purposesaredesignedtocatchandmaintain reasons forthereservoirconstruction.Reservoirs Water supplyandwaterpowerarethetwomain 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. Target: Collectandcollateallbiodiversityinformationrelatingtoreservoirsby2015. maintenance andmanagementprogrammes. Increase theavailabilityofbiodiversityinformationrelatingtoreservoirs,inorderthatitcanbeused Priority Action (RE1) Habitat Description isafeaturecommontomost RESERVOIRS Grassland atGlenkilnReservoir, dominatedbyPignut.June2007.(PeterNorman) addition toanumberofsmallordisusedreservoirs. currently usedforhydro-powerorwatersupply, in are atleast14reservoirsinDumfries&Galloway Reservoirs arewidespreadthroughoutBritain. There 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext only rudimentarypasses. passes It isalegalrequirementtoinstalleffective fish banks tomajorstoneorconcretewalls. Dams appear tobe the region’s largestreservoirbut itfeeds, Clatteringshaws Loch,withitslarge dam,may 2.2 SiteExamples fringe. scattered acrosstheregion, mainlyintheupland of theDee-Kenvalley. Elsewhere,theyare well is theseriesthatpowershydro-electricstations modified naturallochs. Thegreatestconcentration Most reservoirsinDumfries&Gallowaytendtobe 2.1 CurrentDistribution 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus takeavarietyofforms,fromsimpleearth onallnewdams,butolderdamsmayhave Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership RESERVOIRS

via a pipeline, into the Dee-Ken system where the Dumfries & Galloway’s best known plant of reservoirs long, narrow Loch Ken (SPA/SSSI) covers a larger is a grass-like fern Pillwort Pilularia globulifera, with area. This reservoir lacks a major dam, appears very the reservoirs of the Dee-Ken hydro scheme providing natural and has high biodiversity. Other sizeable one of its UK strongholds. Though largely submerged, reservoirs include Penwhirn, Loch Whinyeon, it benefits from fluctuating water levels. Lochinvar, Glenkiln, Black Esk and Winterhope, as well as several smaller dams on other waterbodies. 3.3 Birds (medium importance) Blates Mill Dam (LWS), near Laurieston, now shows Loch Ken is the outstanding reservoir in the region little of its artificial origins, the small dam being barely for bird life, with a wide range of wildfowl and waders. discernible amongst natural vegetation. Unlike some other parts of Britain, Dumfries and Galloway has few other large reservoirs that attract 2.3 Associated Habitats large numbers of waterfowl, only small numbers A number of habitats occur in close association and/or of Great Crested Grebes Podiceps cristatus and overlap with reservoirs, and the following action plans common species of duck, sometimes with night-

may also contain relevant information: Eutrophic time roosting of geese and Whooper Swans Cygnus RESERVOIRS Lochs, Mesotrophic Lochs, Oligotrophic Lochs, cygnus. Swamps, Industrial and Post-industrial Sites. Common Sandpipers Actitis hypoleucos often feed 3. Importance for Associated Species and nest in the draw-down zone. Ringed Plovers Charadrius hiaticula have also known to frequent 3.1 Fishes (very high importance) the draw-down zone and previously nested at The most significant impact of reservoirs on fish Clatteringshaws, but inland breeding is now rare. populations is caused by dams that lack properly functioning fish-passes. These prevent free A number of species, including Kestrels Falco movement of all species of fish up and down the tinnunculus, have been known to nest on dams, watercourse, but migratory species such as Salmon usually in cavities or on associated infrastructure. Salmo salar and Sea Trout Salmo trutta can be especially affected. There are no Eels Anguilla 3.4 Flowering Plants (medium importance) anguilla upstream of Tongland Dam, due to the Typical plants of the draw-down zone include difficulty of adults passing downstream though the Shoreweed Littorella uniflora, Amphibious Bistort power station. Persicaria amphibia, Marsh Yellow-cress Rorippa palustris and Marsh Cudweed Gnaphalium In the reservoirs themselves, there are few resident uliginosum. The locally scarce Trifid Bur-marigold species of conservation importance. Typical species Bidens tripartita is found at Loch Ken. include Pike Esox lucius and Perch Perca fluviatilis. 3.5 Mammals (medium importance) 3.2 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) The mammal fauna of Dumfries & Galloway’s The exposed draw-down zone of reservoirs is an reservoirs differs from their more natural freshwater important habitat for several species of mosses and counterparts. Otters Lutra lutra are present on all liverworts. Many are tiny and ephemeral, but grow such waterbodies. in profusion when conditions are right. The wet mud BUILT HABITATS BUILT nearest the water’s edge is likely to produce the 3.6 Invertebrates (low importance) rarest species. Species of this habitat include Clay Though rare beetles, spiders and other invertebrates Earth Moss Archidium alternifolium, Delicate Earth are found on Loch Ken, they are not typical of Moss Pseudephemerum nitidum and Drummond’s reservoirs in the region, which generally have a Thread Moss Pohlia drummondii. Although only the restricted range of common aquatic invertebrates. latter species has been recorded from a reservoir in Dumfries & Galloway (Clatteringshaws) this probably 3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) reflects a lack of survey work. Most large reservoirs are too deep and have too many fish to support amphibian populations, though common species occur at a few locations.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 261 4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6. Strategic Actions Importance of Biodiversity 6.1 Recent and current activity • Scottish Power has prepared a Biodiversity Action Plan for the Galloway Hydros Scheme. For example, work with Galloway Fisheries Trust is underway to improve fish passage. • Recreational activities on Loch Ken are strictly zoned to minimise disturbance to wildlife, and Scottish Power has an agreement with RSPB to manage water levels, as far as possible, in order to benefit breeding birds. Blue-tailed Damselflies breed in a wide range of waterbodies, including well-vegetated reservoir margins. (Gavin Chambers) 6.2 Other recommended actions RESERVOIRS • Reservoirs can attract tourists and other visitors • Assess the biodiversity of all reservoirs and, to watch wildlife. Several of the most popular where feasible, incorporate biodiversity nature reserves in Britain are based around conservation and enhancement into maintenance reservoirs. and management programmes. • Well-managed fisheries can produce income and enhance biodiversity.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Poorly designed dams and fish passes restrict or prevent fish movement. Other problems may result from altered flow velocities and changes to water temperatures and oxygen levels in reservoirs, and in the release of stored water from reservoirs. • Some deliberately introduced species, including non-native fish introduced for angling, pose a threat to other species. North American Signal Crayfish are present in Loch Ken and could spread to adjacent catchments. • Recreational activities such as boating, walking and angling can disturb wildlife, though such disturbance is rarely significant in Dumfries & Galloway. Willow scrub below Clatteringshaws Dam. July 2007. BUILT HABITATS BUILT (Peter Norman)

262 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership animals. partners benefitfromtherelationship)ofmulticellular important asparasitesandsymbionts(whereboth the numbersandbiomassofbacteria. They arealso The principalimportanceofProtozoaistocontrol them areessentialforlife. most ofthemarecompletelyharmlessandsome bacteria arebestknownasagentsofdiseasebut including onandinsideourbodies.Viruses and they havethepowertodivide. They existeverywhere, Bacteria arecapableofmultiplyingbythemselves,as in ordertobeablemakemorevirusparticles. to invadea‘host’ cellandtakeoveritsmachinery Viruses cannotmultiplyon theirown,sotheyhave species inScotland. Protozoa: A roughestimateofmorethan37,000 Bacteria: An estimated3,300speciesinScotland. Viruses: An estimated3,300speciesinScotland. around halfofallknownspeciesinScotland: too smalltobeseenbythenakedeyebutmakeup most abundantformoflifeonthisplanet. They are In termsofweight,single-celledorganismsarethe 1. StatusandDistribution A slimemould Lycogala sp. ondecayingwood.(PeterNorman) SINGLE-CELLED SPECIES is excessivedisturbanceandcontaminationofsoils. be avoidedwherepossible.Principalamongstthese that areknowntobedamagingthem,andshould single-celled organisms,therearecertainactivities to managehabitatsenhancetheirpopulationsof of humanactivities.Whilstitisnotcurrentlyfeasible ignorance oftheircriticalroleandthepotentialimpact The principalthreattosingle-celledorganismsis 2. Threats to globalclimaticcontrol. energy flow, biogasproductionandhencecontribute in determiningmicrobialbiodiversity, nutrientand of seawater. Viral actionhasfarreachingimplications found inexcessof100millionvirusesperteaspoonful component oftheoceanswithconcentrationsoften Viruses numericallydominatethemicrobial detoxify pesticidesandotherpollutants. balances. Micro-organismskeepsoilsfertile,and transformations, hydrologicalcyclingandenergy many processes,includingdecomposition,nitrogen how isnotyetclear. Itislikelythattheyarecriticalto important roleinsoilecosystems,thoughprecisely keeps theEarthhabitable. They playaparticularly life keepsmanyecosystemsfunctioningand organisms, butitbecomingclearthatthismicroscopic There isstillmuchtodiscoveraboutsingle-celled Galloway. about theirdistributionandimportanceinDumfries& wood orseaweed,butalmostnothingisknown found inavarietyofhabitats,particularlyonrotting reproductive structuresarefungus-like. They canbe is definitelyanimal-like,butthesporeproducing the creepingmovementachievedbyslimemoulds are oftenincludedinfungalstudies.Physiologically, have beentraditionallystudiedbymycologistsand protozoa single-celledorganisms.However, they Slime mouldssharesomeofthecharacteristics Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 263 SPECIES STATEMENTS SINGLE-CELLED SPECIES 264 SPECIES STATEMENTS FUNGI & LICHENS Dumfriesshire Kirkcudbrightshire Wigtownshire fungi) species inDumfries&Galloway (excludinglichenised Minimum estimatesofnumber oflargerfungus below theactualnumberofspeciespresent. Galloway, sothe figuresbelowarelikelytobewell Few surveyshavebeencompletedinDumfries& and asmany12,000ifthemicrofungiareincluded. are certainlymorethan3,500largerspeciesinBritain, that decayanddisappearwithinafewdays. There easy tomisssincemostspeciesproducefruitbodies highly variablefromyeartoyear. They arealsovery species occurinaparticularlocalityasfruitingis It isnotpossibletosaywithanycertaintyhowmany externally onaclub-likecellcalledbasidium. called anascus. The Basidiomycota Ascomycota producetheirsporesinsidealongcell on thewaythattheyproducetheirspores. The larger fungiaredividedintotwomaingroupsbased of thesewillsuccessfullyformnewcolonies. The habitats theyproducemillionsofspores.Very few Fungi canreproducevegetatively, buttoexploitnew have thisshape. arise fromsuchanetwork,butmanyfungidonot mushrooms aremerelythefruitingstructuresthat tips toformavastnetworkormycelium. The familiar and branchattheir hyphae thatextend filaments called microscopic in theformof Most fungigrow own kingdom. to warranttheir different toboth are sufficiently However, they to animals. closely related they aremore suggests that evidence plants, molecular fungi resemble Although some 1. StatusandDistribution Shaggy ScalycapPholiotasquarrosain 450 800 650 FUNGI &LICHENS October 2007.(PeterNorman) Castledykes Park,Dumfries. formtheirspores agricultural practices. atmospheric andwaterpollution, andintensive and itspossessionoflarge areaslittleaffected by comparatively richheritage ofancientwoodlands, from itsvariedgeology, topographyandclimate, European biodiversityhotspot forlichens,resulting Being hometosome1,600species,Scotlandisa the oldestlivingorganismsinScotland. 0.1mm ayearandcanlivetogreatage,probably vegetatively. Somecrustlichensgrowasslowly ‘fruit bodies’,thoughsomecanalsoreproduce by tinysporesthatareborneonspecialminiature They reproduce for itsalga. environment protective a stable, and provides of thelichen the mainbody fungus forms whilst the photosynthesis, food through manufactures in closeassociationwitheachother. The alga Lichens consistofafungusandanalgathatlive major industry, butsofarlimitedtoafewspecies. industries. Indoorcultivationofediblemushroomsisa for useinthefood,textileandothermanufacturing transplants. Manyenzymesareproducedfromfungi used forpreventingrejectionofhumanorgan compounds, suchasantibioticsandthecyclosporins been harnessedtomanufactureimportanttherapeutic dependent onfungalyeasts.Fungalfermentationhas been carriedoutforthousandsofyearsandbothare biotechnology arefungi.Brewingandbakinghave Some ofthemostimportantorganismsusedin that aredependentonfungiforfoodandshelter. are alsoover1,000speciesofinvertebrateintheUK would notsurvivewithouttheirfungalpartner. There have afungusassociatedwiththeirrootsandmany uptake ofwaterandnutrients.Over90%plants other plants(mycorrhizalfungi),assistinginthe Others formassociationswiththerootsoftreesand leaf litterandhaveanimportantroleinrecycling. saprotrophs, livingondeadorganicmattersuchas Fungi playavitalroleinnature.Manyare Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Map LichenRhizocarpongeographicum. Whithorn, August 2007.(Peter Norman) FUNGI & LICHENS

on the trunks of elms in rural, wayside and parkland situations. Loss of unimproved grassland and deadwood has had a similar impact on many fungi.

3. Opportunities

• Manage fungi and lichen habitats appropriately, including minimum disturbance to soils, minimising nutrient enrichment Curry-scented Milkcap Lactarius camphoratus, one of many and pollution, and species that exude a milky liquid from the gills. Hills Wood, FUNGI & LICHENS September 2006. (Peter Norman) retaining a full range of dead wood Devil's Matchstick lichen Particularly important habitats for fungi include sand habitats. Habitat Cladonia sp. Ironhirst Moss, dunes, unimproved grasslands, and upland heaths; February 2007. (Peter Norman) management is with the addition of coastal cliffs, inland rock outcrops the only secure, long-term way of ensuring the and even man-made walls for lichens. However, conservation of most species. woods and other habitats with trees are the best of all. Birches, willows, pines and old oaks are especially • Encourage mycologists and lichenologists good for fungi and Ash, Hazel, Wych Elm and to visit and record in Dumfries & Galloway. Sycamore for lichens, though some species, including Approximately half of Dumfries & Galloway’s rare and threatened ones, occur in association with rare species of fungus were recorded by visiting other trees. mycologists on only two days in September 1993 – an indication that there are likely to be more rare species waiting to be discovered by anyone 2. Threats with the necessary identification skills. • Follow the Scottish Wild Mushroom Code when • Despite their vital role in ecosystems, fungi collecting fungi. are rarely included in recording schemes, conservation 4. Further Information projects and environmental 4.1 Publications assessments. • Fletcher, A. (ed) (2001) Lichen Habitat • Air pollution has Management. British Lichen Society, London. been a major factor in the loss of fungi • Spooner, B. & Roberts, P. (2005) Fungi. and lichens in the HarperCollins, London. (A general introduction to Candle-snuff Fungus Xylaria fungi but also includes a chapter on conservation) UK, though areas hypoxylon. Drumlanrig, September such as Dumfries & 2006. (Peter Norman) Galloway have been 4.2 Websites SPECIES STATEMENTS less severely affected. Continued improvements • Association of British Fungus Groups in air quality have resulted in recovery of lichen www.abfg.org populations. • British Mycological Society (fungi) • Loss of habitat has affected many species. For www.britmycolsoc.org.uk example, loss of mature elms through Dutch elm disease has drastically reduced Orange-fruited • British Lichen Society www.thebls.org.uk Elm Lichen Caloplaca luteoalba and Bacidia • UK Fungi http://fungus.org.uk/ incompta, which were both formerly characteristic

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 265 266 SPECIES STATEMENTS NON-FLOWERING PLANTS air andwater pollution, andmanyactas indicatorsof and dominating someofthem. They aresensitive to quickly colonisingallnatural andman-madehabitats dispersal byvastnumbers oftinywind-bornespores, Bryophytes andfernsareperfectly adaptedforrapid Lake DistrictandDumfries &Galloway. other areas,especiallynorthWales, thePennines, important specieshavesmalloutlyingpopulationsin biodiversity featureoftheUK.Somethese (and lichens)areperhapsthesinglemostimportant international termsnorthwestScotland’s bryophytes in theHimalayasandBritishColumbia.Indeed, bryophytes, someofwhichareotherwisefoundonly particular, isinternationally famousforits‘Atlantic’ However, Britain,andnorth westScotlandin Britain andmostcanbefoundacrosstheworld. for manyspecies,thoughveryfewarelimitedto ferns, andBritain’s coolwetconditionsareideal Climate isthemajorinfluenceonbryophytesand ferns, 7clubmosses,3quillwortsand8horsetails. UK fernsandalliedplantsarelessnumerous,with47 possibly asmuch5%oftheworldbryophyteflora. here, constitutingaround60%oftheEuropean,and with almost90%oftheUKbryophyteflorafound is betterrepresentedinScotlandthanEngland, the UK. This isoneofthefewspeciesgroupsthat and hornworts(collectivelyknownasbryophytes)in There arearound2,100speciesofmosses,liverworts proportion oftheUK’s biodiversity. and algae. Together theyconstituteasignificant quillworts, horsetails,mosses,liverworts,hornworts Non-flowering plantsconsistofferns,clubmosses, 1. StatusandDistribution Great Horsetail.PortKale, August 2006.(PeterNorman) NON-FLOWERING PLANTS Green Seaweeds Brown Seaweeds Red Seaweeds Mosses Bryophyta Hornworts Anthocerophyta Liverworts Marchantiophyta Horsetails Clubmosses &Quillworts Ferns Filicopsida species inselectedgroupsDumfries&Galloway Minimum estimatesofnumbernon-floweringplant 30 arefoundintheUK. fresh orbrackishwaterthatisclearandunpolluted. unique groupofcomplexalgaethattypicallygrowin with fungustocreatelichens,whilststonewortsarea or damprockfaces.Otheralgaeformassociations to rockorothersurfaces. A fewgrowonland,soil (planktonic), movingthroughsediments,orattached in almostallaquatichabitats,suspendedwater photosynthesis andnumbersofspecies. They occur are thepredominantalgalgroupintermsofboth none ofwhichislargerthan2mmindiameter, in theUK,around9,000ofthemScotland.Diatoms, plants with more than 20,000 speciesthought to occur Algae arethemostnumerousofnon-flowering reservoirs duringthesummer. cause problems,suchastoxicbloomsinlochsand for manyfoodstuffs. However, somespeciescan support fisheries,andbyprovidingingredients of mostthemarineandfreshwaternutrientsthat roles throughmodificationtheatmosphere,production the photosynthesisonearth,andtheyfulfillessential length. Together algaecarryoutjustunderhalfofall the sea,sometimesreachinghundredsofmetresin plants, buttheseaweedsarebotanicalmastersof related tofungiandprimitiveanimalsthanflowering the nakedeyeandsomespeciesaremoreclosely freshwater habitats. The majority areinvisibleto Algae arethedominantplantsofmarineand and newdiscoveriesarestillbeingmade. ignored andneglectedpartofScotland’s biodiversity, water absorptioncapacity. Yet theyareoftenan ground; andreducingflashfloodingthroughtheir woodlands andforests;stabilisingdamagedorburnt invertebrates andfungi;nutrientrecyclinginwetlands, environmental roles,includingprovidingahabitatfor a cleanenvironment. They alsofulfillavarietyofother Sphenopsida Rhodophyceae

Chlorophyceae Phaeophyceae Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 8 Lycopsida 3

100 9 44 450 170 56 40 NON-FLOWERING PLANTS

Particularly important habitats in Dumfries & Galloway 3. Opportunities for non-flowering plants include intertidal rocky shores, coastal sand dunes, coastal cliffs and slopes, • Raise awareness of the importance and native woods, lochs, rivers, fens, raised bogs, blanket sustainable uses of non-flowering plants bogs, inland rock outcrops, upland springs and flushes, and montane heaths. • Train ecologists and amateur naturalists in the identification and recording of non-flowering 2. Threats plants. • Encourage non-flowering plant experts to visit Lack of knowledge about the distribution of non- and record in Dumfries & Galloway. flowering plants in Dumfries & Galloway, and the • Take the requirements of non-flowering plants into shortage of ecologists able to identify many of these account in habitat management works. species, is one of the greatest constraints on local conservation projects. However, this should not be • Reduce, and ultimately stop the use of used as an excuse for damage. Threats include: horticultural peat. • Changes in climate as a result of global warming may affect upland bryophyte flora. 4. Further Information NON-FLOWERING PLANTS • Air pollution is less of a threat than it once was, 4.1 Publications but still has the potential to locally affect non- flowering plant populations. • Long, D. and Ward, S. (2005) Strategy for the conservation of lower plants and fungi in • Eutrophication resulting from the widespread Scotland. Plantlife International, Salisbury. use of fertilisers can be extremely damaging, especially in watercourses where common • Rothero, G.P. (2005) Mosses and Liverworts. species of algae can wipe out more important Scottish Natural Heritage, Battleby. non-flowering plants. • Developments, including windfarms, hydro- 4.2 Websites electric schemes and roads, may be detrimental • British Bryological Society (mosses & liverworts) to habitats rich in non-flowering plants. www.britishbryologicalsociety.org.uk • Muirburn of wet ground can wipe out important • British Pteridological Society (ferns) bryophyte populations. www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/bps/ • The spread of non-native invasive species, • British Phycological Society (algae) especially Rhododendron in native woods poses www.brphycsoc.org a threat to bryophytes in these habitats. However, Dumfries & Galloway’s woods are generally not as badly infested as those further north. Overgrazing and undergrazing of woods may also affect ferns and bryophytes. • Drainage of bogs and other wetlands, as well as previous afforestation of many of these sites has reduced populations. Commercial peat extraction for horticulture is a non-sustainable use of a SPECIES STATEMENTS resource largely created from bog-mosses. • Indiscriminate collecting of mosses for floral displays and hanging baskets is known to occur, but its effects are not clear. A liverwort Conocephalum conicum. Dunskey Glen, July 2003. (Maggi Kaye)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 267 268 SPECIES STATEMENTS FLOWERING PLANTS and Mediterranean climates. species oftemperate, southerntemperate, Atlantic of Arctic, borealormontaneclimates, andsouthern plants inScotlandbetween northernspeciesofmainly these places.Consequently thereisanoverlapof Stream thatrenderstheclimate moretemperatethan is influencedbytheNorth AtlanticDriftortheGulf Moscow, Hudson Bay, andthe Aleutian Islands, although onthesamelatitudeassouthernNorway, of southernEngland.HoweverthewestScotland, less diversegeologyofScotlandcomparedtothat various partsoftheUK,butalsoareflection partly areflectionofclimaticdifferences betweenthe the UK. This is one goesin further north species the the numberof decrease in is ageneral plants there flowering Unlike non- continent andthisrestrictstheUKflora. Climatic variationsarealsosmallerthanthoseonthe to rivalthoseofthe Alps norlargeexpansesofforest. continental Europewith,forexample,nomountains because ofthesmallerrangehabitatsthanon to thecolonisationoffurtherspecies.Itisalsopartly English ChannelandtheNorthSeacreatedabarrier the islands,butriseinsea-levelstoform Age. Beforethis,manyspecieswereabletocolonise British IslesfromcontinentalEuropeafterthelastIce partly onaccountofthephysicalseparation the UK.IncontextofEurope,thisnumberislow, There arearound4,100speciesoffloweringplantsin Stonecrop thatarelessthan1cmhigh. small floweringplantssuchaspearlwortsandMossy range fromthetallesttrees,throughshrubstovery grasses, sedges,rushesandorchids. Together, they plants; thosewithone (Monocotyledons)include with two(Dicotyledons)formmostoftheflowering whether theyhaveoneortwoseed-leaves. Those Angiosperms arefurtherdivideddependingon others, whichhavetheseedsinafruit(Angiosperms). that haveseedsinacone(Gymnosperms);andthe UK. They consistoftwomajor groups–conifers visible andeasilyrecognisablebiodiversityofthe Flowering plantsformthemajorpartofvery 1. StatusandDistribution FLOWERING PLANTS Sheep's-bit, KillantringanBay, July 1998.(PeterNorman) Casuals Neophytes Archaeophytes Native Modern records(since1970) All records of Dumfries&Galloway Number of species recordedinthe three vice-counties shown inthetablebelow. distribution betweenthethreeconstituentcountiesas UK, Dumfries&Gallowayhasunderhalf,withthe Of theplantspeciesoccurringinwild established populations. casuals arespeciesintermittentlyrecordedandwithno AD; neophytesarespeciesintroducedbymansince1500; Archaeophytes arespeciesintroducedbymanupto1500 changes inthe flora. Threatsinclude: population size, whichmakesitdifficult toassess to continuously. Howeverthereislittledata on of floweringplantssince1962 whichisbeingadded There isaconsiderabledatabase onthedistribution 2. Threats substrate andwaterdepth. governed bywaterflow, alkalinity, nutrientlevels, recorded. They havespecifichabitatrequirements, been overlookedbybotanistsandareunder Flowering plantsofaquatichabitatshavetraditionally unimproved grasslandandfensmarshes. and blanketbogs,somelowlanduplandlochs, of theuplands,coastline,nativewoods,raised These includemuch has notbeenhigh. by man’s activities nutrient enrichment plants arethosewhere Galloway forflowering habitats inDumfries& The mostimportant activities. increase withhuman latter groupislikelyto The proportionofthe deliberately byman. either accidentallyor the remaining30%beingintroducedtoregion, Native speciesmakeuparound70%ofourwildflora, Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership

Yellow FlagIris,BrighouseBay. June 2004.(PeterNorman) 62 181 63 825 1134 1288 Dfs. 72 297 66 925 1363 1488 Kbt. 58 181 65 777 1084 1209 Wig. FLOWERING PLANTS

• Climate change, or global non-local sources (often introducing species not warming, which will affect found in the region). not only the species present in the region, but 3. Opportunities also the composition of the flora of all habitats. Upland • Raise awareness of the importance and and montane species are sustainable uses of flowering plants. most at risk. • Increase the recording of flowering plants in • Rising sea levels could the region by training people in identification affect the shoreline plant Harebell, Ravenshall. and recording methods, utilising the Dumfries & communities and a loss July 2007. (Peter Norman) Galloway Environmental Records Centre. of habitat coupled with an • Amend the management of road verges to inability of the plants to transfer to new areas recognise their important contribution to plant quickly enough. diversity and the attractiveness of the area • Eutrophication particularly of water-courses and • Encourage participation in the government-funded water bodies as a result of widespread use of FLOWERING PLANTS agri-environment schemes. nitrate and phosphate based fertilisers draining in to the waters. The most vigorous species may • Encourage schools to become involved with out-grow and suppress the slower growing and projects to enhance the rarer species that often rely on nutrient-poor soils school grounds and to for survival. become more aware of their environment through visits • Developments such as wind-farms, hydro-electric to nature reserves. schemes and roads may be detrimental to habitats by alteration of drainage patterns, partial • Encourage developers, land destruction of habitats, and fragmentation of managers and planners to habitats. recognise the importance of biodiversity and develop • Muirburn can reduce the heather component of a unified approach to the heathlands to be replaced by coarse purple moor- natural environment. grass with a lower species diversity Bog Asphodel, Cree Valley. July 2007 • Spread of invasive, non-native species such 4. Further Information (Peter Norman) as Rhododendron Rhododendron ponticum, Japanese Knotweed Fallopia japonica, Variagated 4.1 Publications Yellow Archangel Lamiastrum galeobdolon, New Zealand Pigmyweed Crassula helmsii, and other • Martin, M. E. R. (1985) Wild Plants of aquatic species. This can result from dumping of Dumfriesshire. Transactions of the Dumfriesshire unwanted garden plants in the countryside, where and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian a few species may become invasive. Society III, 60, pp21-42. • Overgrazing or under-grazing of marginal • Silverside, A. J. (1990) The Flowering Plants and habitats such as native woods, bogs, heaths and Ferns of Wigtownshire: A very provisional check- unimproved grasslands. list. Unpublished. • Drainage of upland habitats and wetlands and • Stewart, O. M. (1990) Flowering Plants and SPECIES STATEMENTS replacement with a monoculture crop, for forestry Ferns of Kirkcudbrightshire. Transactions of the and agricultural purposes, thereby reducing Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and diversity. Antiquarian Society III, 65, pp1-68. • ‘Gardening’ of the countryside by repeated 4.2 Websites mowing/cutting of road verges which reduces biodiversity and the planting of roadsides with • Botanical Society of the British Isles inappropriate species such as cultivated daffodils, www.bsbi.org.uk introduced willows, seed mixtures derived from • Plantlife www.plantlife.org.uk

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 269 270 SPECIES STATEMENTS INVERTEBRATES & Galloway’s geographical positionwithalong south- favour warmand relativelysunnyconditions, Dumfries Given thatmanyterrestrial invertebratespecies Millipedes Spiders Araneae Hoverflies Ground Beetles Butterflies &LargerMothsMacrolepidoptera Lacewings Mayflies Ephemeroptera Grasshoppers &Crickets Dragonflies Marine shellfish Land &freshwatersnailsslugs in selectedgroupsDumfries&Galloway Minimum estimatesofnumberinvertebratespecies for someofthebetterstudiedgroups. although reasonablyaccurateestimatesareavailable Dumfries &Gallowaywillalwaysremainunknown, The numberofinvertebratespeciesoccurringin Orders onlandandfreshwater. with over200Orders,asopposedtolessthan40 diversity ofinvertebratelifeformshereismuchgreater fewer speciesinthemarineenvironment,but have beenrecordedinScotland. There are60-70% mammals. Morethan14,000speciesofinsectalone total forplants,fish,amphibians,reptiles,birdsand known inBritain,greatlyoutnumberingthecombined terrestrial andfreshwaterspeciesofinvertebratesare Excluding microscopicspecies,atleast30,000 1. StatusandDistribution Velvet SwimmingCrab-almostallcrustaceansaremarineor Diplopoda Syrphidae Neuroptera Odonata Mollusca Carabidae

Orthoptera

INVERTEBRATES aquatic species.(PaulNaylor) Mollusca 26 280 132 139 570 13 16 9 21 70 121 • • • • • • • • • particular importanceare: in Dumfries&Galloway. Of habitat andeverylocation Invertebrates occurinevery parts ofScotland. many speciesthanother makes itmoresuitablefor facing coastandmildwinters reserves and many ofBritain’s historicallyimportant invertebrates are notbeingmet,evenon nature invertebrates. Itisnowclearthattheneeds ofmany vertebrates onasitewillautomatically caterfor erroneous beliefthatmanagement forplantsor In thepasttherehasbeen awidespreadbut 2. Threats including hoverflies. Wet woodlandforcraneflies,mothsandflies, Over 1,000speciesarefoundno-whereelse. and flies,includinghoverfliesfungusgnats. Decaying woodforlonghornbeetles,rovebeetles beetles. moths and butterflies & & crickets, grasshoppers slopes for Coastal snails. beetles and sandhoppers, strandlines for Coastal species. riverbanks, thishabitatsupportsover10,000 River shingleforbeetlesandflies. Together with beetles, bumblebeesandhoverflies Flower richgrasslandandscrubforweevils,leaf water beetles,groundbeetlesandcraneflies Wetlands fordragonflies,mayflies,aquaticbugs, solitary wasps for miningbeesand Bare groundanddunes invertebrates. and manyothermarine and rockformolluscs Intertidal sand,mud Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership common intheregiononraisedbogs. Green Hairstreakbutterfliesaremost Catherinefield Moss,May2007. July 2005.(PeterNorman) sp.Kirkcudbright, (Peter Norman) Fly Scathopaga Yellow Dung INVERTEBRATES

invertebrate sites have declined due to a prolonged • Encourage entomologists to visit and record in sequence of inappropriate habitat management Dumfries & Galloway. decisions. 4. Further Information Not all invertebrates have 4.1 Publications the same needs and a simple • Kirby, P (1992) Habitat Management for uniform approach Invertebrates: A Practical Handbook. RSPB, to habitat Sandy. management • Buglife (2005) Managing Priority Habitats for may not maintain Invertebrates. Buglife. biodiversity, • Futter et al. (2006) Butterflies of SW Scotland. but there are a Argyll Publishing, Glendaruel. number of basic Speckled Bush Cricket. Ravenshall,

August 2007 (Pete Robinson) INVERTEBRATES principles of invertebrate conservation: 4.2 Websites • Many invertebrates have very specialised habitat • Amateur Entomologists Society requirements. Apparently minor features and www.amentsoc.org microclimates may be of vital importance to them. • Bees, Wasps & Ants Recording Society • Most invertebrates have annual life cycles. www.bwars.com Suitable conditions must be present in each and • British Arachnological Society (spiders & allies) every year. It may only take one ‘wrong’ year www.britishspiders.org.uk to cause local extinction. Poor timing of habitat management may have profound effects. • British Conchological Society (molluscs) www.conchsoc.org • Many species have poor powers of dispersal and • British Dragonfly Society cannot easily colonise www.dragonflysoc.org.uk new sites. • British Entomological and Natural History Society • Life cycles can be www.benhs.org.uk complex with different • British Myriapod and Isopod Group (millipedes, stages requiring centipedes & woodlice) www.bmig.org.uk different habitats. • Butterfly Conservation SW Scotland Branch • Vegetation structure www.southwestscotland-butterflies.org.uk is important, as is the juxtaposition of habitats, • Dipterists Forum (flies) Nursery-web Spider Pisaura www.dipteristsforum.org.uk including edges and mirabilis. Dalbeattie Forest, transitions in vegetation. May 2006. (Peter Norman) • UK Moths www.ukmoths.org.uk

3. Opportunities 4.3 Advisory Organisations • Scottish Natural Heritage (01387) 247010 • Take the requirements of invertebrates into www.snh.org.uk SPECIES STATEMENTS account in habitat management works. • Buglife Scotland (01786) 447504 • Manage sites to create a mosaic of habitats and a www.buglife.org.uk varied vegetation structure. • Butterfly Conservation Scotland (0870) 7706151 • Raise awareness of the importance and www.butterflyconservation.org sustainable uses of invertebrates. • Train ecologists and amateur naturalists in the identification and recording of invertebrates.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 271 272 SPECIES STATEMENTS FISHES before therelatively deepcolderwaters oftheNorth northerly ofthe shallowwarmwatersof the IrishSea, This isprobablybecauseits watersarethemost number oftunnysandsharks, andevenseahorses. Swordfish Xiphiasgladius many otherpartsofScotland. These haveincluded number oftropicalor marinespeciesthan 130 specieshavebeenrecorded,includingagreater platessa dwelling) speciessuchasPlaice spawning andnurserygroundsfordemersal(bottom- range ofmarinespeciesandareparticularlyimportant The sandandmudflatsoftheSolwaysupportawide supporting fishcommunities. the mostextremeofnutrientlevels,arecapable waterbody frompondstolargelochs,withallbut waters havedifferent requirements,butallsizesof habitats attherighttimeofyear. Fishofstanding reproduction; andadequateaccesstotherightmicro and overhangingvegetation;suitablesubstratesfor range ofwaterdepthsandvelocities;in-streamcover rich wateratsuitabletemperatureandpHlevels;a terms, riverfishesrequireacontinuousflow;oxygen- unpolluted waterisarequirementforall.Ingeneral habitats fordifferent stagesoftheirlifehistory, though vary greatlyandmostspeciesrequiredifferent brought inforanglingpurposes.Habitatrequirements this includesmanyintroductions,mostofthem diverse rangeoffreshwaterfishinScotland,although Dumfries andGallowaysupportspossiblythemost been recordedinUKcoastalwaters. species. At leastanother330speciesoffishhave compared withmostofEurope,around30 The UKhasarelativelylimitedfreshwaterfishfauna 1. StatusandDistribution Corkwing Wrasse,anabundantfishofshallowwatersonrocky andCommonSole , SunfishMolamola Soleavulgaris Pleuronectes coasts. (PaulNaylor) . Morethan FISHES , a Roach Rutilusrutilus include Pike introduced totheNithand Annan. Coarsespecies game fishincludetheGrayling to SalmonSalmosalar including more than £1m on coarse fishing. In addition almost £6.75mtoDumfries&Gallowayin2003, expenditure onanglingwasestimatedtobeworth more importanttothelocaleconomy. Direct fishing ofbothcoastalandfreshwatersis,however, support alargecommercialfishery. Recreational The coastalwatersofDumfries&Gallowaydonot not recordedinlargenumbers. that swiminmid-water)anddeepwaterspeciesare the westbut,notsurprisingly, pelagicspecies(fish conger andmanywrasses,arealsorepresentedin Channel. Rockyspecies,suchasCongerEel • • • • • • 2. Threats Crayfish, pose athreattosomefishpopulations. non-fish speciessuchas North AmericanSignal Introduced species integrity ofnativefishstocks. Escapes fromfishfarms may reducethegenetic prevent migration. Obstacles impact incertainlocations. Acidification overall stocks,affecting localdistributions. Global widespread andlonger-termimplications. freshwaters, butdiffuse pollutionmayhavemore arise fromaccidentalspillages,bothatseaandin Pollution Lamprey fromWater ofFleet.(GallowayFisheriesTrust). overfishing ofcertainspeciesreduces Esox lucius,PerchPercafluviatilis isaseriousthreattoallfish. Thiscan onwatercoursescanrestrictor offreshwatershashadaserious Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership . and Trout Salmotrutta, , bothnon-nativefishand Thymallus thymallus Conger and FISHES

• Most UK freshwaters are free of serious 4. Further Information diseases, but Gyrodactylosis and other diseases has been found elsewhere in Europe and has the 4.1 Publications potential to spread to Scotland, wiping out stocks Scottish Natural Heritage (2007) River Bladnoch completely. SAC Atlantic Salmon Catchment Management Plan. Scottish Natural Heritage, Battleby.

4.2 Websites • Association of Salmon Fishery Boards http://asfb.hub.uk.com/ • Atlantic Salmon Trust www.atlanticsalmontrust.org • Scottish Freshwater Fisheries Management FISHES www.sffm.org.uk/ • Shark Trust www.sharktrust.org • Wild Trout Trust www.wildtrout.org Atlantic Salmon from the River Dee. (Galloway Fisheries Trust) 4.3 Advisory Organisations 3. Opportunities • District Salmon Fishery Boards (see ASFB above website for current contact details) • Improve habitat management of river catchments and coastal areas. This should include habitats • Galloway Fisheries Trust (01671) 403011 that are some distance from water, but may have www.gallowayfisheriestrust.org an impact. • Fisheries Research Services (01224) 876544 • Improve fisheries management to ensure that www.frs-scotland.gov.uk decisions are taken that benefit a wide range of • Scottish Natural Heritage (01387) 247010 species and the wider environment, rather than www.snh.org.uk just the target fish species. • Encourage fisheries managers and anglers to take all necessary precautions to prevent the introduction or transfer of diseased fish. SPECIES STATEMENTS

Thornback Ray, common in both deep and shallow coastal waters. (Paul Naylor)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 273 274 SPECIES STATEMENTS REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS • 2. Threats integral partoftheregion’s marine fauna. no longerconsideredtobejustararevisitor, butan Dermochelys coriacea records ofLeatherback Turtle marine turtles.Indeed, and recordsofallthe Grass SnakeNatrixnatrix, unconfirmed recordsof In additionthereareafew Southern Uplands. extending wellintothe more widespread,sometimes Toad andCommonFrogare Palmate Newt,Common but CommonLizard, Adder, along theSolwaycoast, occur mostfrequently temporaria and CommonFrog Toad Epidaleacalamita helvetica Newt Lissotritonvulgaris berus, GreatCrestedNewtTriturus cristatus,Smooth vivipara amphibian: CommonorViviparous Lizard to supportallScottishnativespeciesofreptileand Dumfries &GallowayistheonlypartofScotland British waters. native), andrecordsof5speciesseaturtlein which 1or2speciesinEnglandmayprovetobe there arerecordsofafewintroducedspecies(of reptiles doso.Inaddition in Scotland,only3ofthe all 6amphibiansoccur amphibians, andthough native reptilesand6 has only6non-marine climatic reasons,Britain found inEurope.Mainlyfor species ofamphibianare marine reptileand45 Some 85speciesofnon- 1. StatusandDistribution This sometimes resultsindeliberatekilling. extent, amphibians, isnotgenerallyfavourable. The publicperceptionofreptiles, andtoalesser , SlowWorm Anguisfragilis , Common Toad Bufobufo,Natterjack . All thesespecies REPTILES &HIBIANS Rana are nowsofrequentthatitis , , PalmateNewtLissotriton June 2007.(PaulMcLaughlin) Common Frog.Lochmaben, Common Lizardonfence post atDrumlanrig, April , Adder Vipera 2007. (PeteRobinson). Zootoca • • 4.3 Advisory Organisations • • • • • 4.2 Websites • • • • 3. Opportunities • 4.1 Publications 4. FurtherInformation of somepopulations. Habitat fragmentationhasresultedintheisolation www.snh.org.uk Scottish Natural Heritage(01387)247010 www.narrs.org.uk National Amphibian &ReptileRecordingScheme www.herpconstrust.org.uk Herpetological Conservation Trust Froglife British HerpetologicalSociety www.arg-uk.org.uk Amphibian &ReptileGroupsoftheUK Halesworth. Crested NewtConservationHandbook Langton, T., Beckett.C.,&Foster, J.(2001) Conservation Committee,Peterborough. Herpetofauna Workers’ Manual Gent, T. &Gibson,S.(eds.)(1998) Peterborough. Toad ConservationHandbook reptiles, andtheirroleinecosystems. Raise thepublicprofileofamphibiansand populations ofsomeamphibians. management, thesesignificantlyboostlocal and forests. Together withassociatedhabitat Create pondsandwetlandsingardens,farms Beebee, T. &Denton,J.(1996) www.froglife.org Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Young Adder. (PaulineSpilling) . EnglishNature, www.thebhs.org . JointNature The Natterjack The . Froglife, Great BIRDS REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS BIRDS

1. Status and Distribution 2. Threats

Approximately • Habitat change, particularly as a result of 700 species of agricultural change and afforestation. bird are known from Europe, • Loss of and 514 of food and these have been disturbance recorded in resulted Scotland. This is from Cockle a relatively small dredging in total compared Whooper Swan. (Gordon McCall) the Solway, prior to

to parts of Africa BIRDS regulation and South America, but British birds are the most Barn Owl, Paul McLaughlin highly studied species group in the world. In Dumfries being & Galloway around 350 species of birds have been introduced. recorded. Of these, some 160 are known to have bred • Deliberate persecution, especially of birds of at some time during the last 100 years. prey, reduced some species to extinction in the 19th century, and despite being illegal still limits The most important habitats in the region for birds are some populations. the coasts and estuaries, and the many freshwater • Climate change, though likely to result in new wetlands. Collectively these support internationally species for Dumfries & Galloway, threatens important numbers of overwintering and migrating others, particularly those that breed in the uplands wildfowl and wading birds. The Solway is regarded or depend on food from the sea. as one of the most important estuaries for 3. Opportunities birds in Europe and is particularly • Create new habitats such as wetlands and native associated woodlands. Most bird species respond to habitat with Svalbard creation much quicker than other species groups. Barnacle Geese • Diversify existing habitats. Relatively small Branta leucopsis, changes to the management of extensive habitats with virtually such as farmland and forests can often produce the entire world significant benefits for birds, such as Black population Grouse. wintering on the Black Grouse • Encourage participation in the government-funded Solway. The (Northeastwildlife.co.uk) region’s uplands agri-environment schemes. are also important for breeding Hen Harriers Circus • Encourage public participation in web-based cyaneus and Peregrines Falco peregrinus. A number surveys such as RSPB’s Garden BirdWatch, BTO of wetland and upland sites have been designated as surveys or BBC surveys. Special Protection Areas for their bird interest. SPECIES STATEMENTS Other important populations include Barn Owls Tyto alba and Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix, whilst Red Kites Milvus milvus have been successfully reintroduced. In addition, the region is near the northern British limit for some species, such as Nightjars Caprimulgus europaeus and Willow Tits Poecile montanus, and near the southern limit for others, such as Black Guillemots Cephus grylle and Black-throated Divers Gavia stellata.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 275 MAMMALS

4. Further Information

4.1 Publications • Dickson, R. C. (1994) The Birds in Wigtownshire. GC Publishers, Wigtown. • Dodds, G.W., Appleby, M.J. & Campbell, L. (1996) A Management Guide to Birds of Upland Farmland. RSPB, Sandy. • Forrester, R. & Andrews, I. (eds)(2008) The Birds of Scotland. Scottish Ornithologists’ Club, Edinburgh.

BIRDS • Symes, N. & Currie, F. (2005) Woodland Management for Birds. RSPB & Forestry Commission England, Sandy. • Winspear, R & Davies, G. (2005) A Management Guide for Birds on Lowland Farms. RSPB, Sandy. • Various editors. (from 1985) Annual Dumfries & Galloway Regional Bird Reports.

4.2 Websites • British Trust for Ornithology www.bto.org • Scottish Ornithologists Club www.the-soc.zenwebhosting.com

4.3 Advisory Organisations • Scottish Natural Heritage (01387) 247010 www.snh.org.uk • RSPB Scotland, Dumfries & Galloway (01556) 670464 www.rspb.org.uk • Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust, Caerlaverock (01387) 770200 www.wwt.org.uk SPECIES STATEMENTS

Peregrine Falcon. (Laurie Campbell)

276 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership However, a numbersuchasbats,Badgers, Red habitats, and most remainassociatedwith trees. Most terrestrialnativemammals evolvedinwoodland Mice. and istheonlyareawithrecent reportsofHarvest Dumfries &Gallowayhasan especiallyrichbatfauna, but arenowextinct.ComparedtotherestofScotland, species areknowntohaveexistedinhistoricaltimes, accidentally introducedbyman. A numberofother Of these,atleast12havebeendeliberatelyor Cetaceans (whales&dolphins) Seals Ungulates (deeretc) Carnivores Rodents Lagomorphs (rabbits&hares) Bats Insectivores from Dumfries&Gallowayinrecenttimes,asfollows: Fifty-two speciesofmammalhavebeenrecorded mammals areperhapsthebest-studiedonEarth. of themajormammalgroupsarepresentandBritish species hadmanagedtoreachBritain.Howeverall after theendoflastIce Age, beforeanumberof the landbridgebetweenBritainandEuropesoon This impoverishmentislargelyduetothecuttingof whales anddolphinsfromonlyahandfulofsightings. known fromScotland,thoughsomeofthebats,seals, only toaround100species. At least79oftheseare considerably impoverishedincomparison,amounting recorded inEurope. The mammalfaunaofBritainis More than300speciesofwildmammalhavebeen 1. StatusandDistribution The currentstatusofWater Voles inDumfries&Gallowayis unclear. (Environment Agency) MAMMALS c10 2 6 9 9 3 8 5 farmland andevenurbanareas. highly-modified habitatsincludingconiferplantations, Deer andRedSquirrelshavesuccessfullyadaptedto • • • • • 2. Threats health andultimatelytopopulation crashes. damage tosemi-naturalhabitats, reducedanimal abnormally highpopulations thatcauseserious herbivores suchasdeerand goatscanleadto An have dramaticallyrecovered. years andsomepopulations,suchasOtters, this hasbecomemuchlessofathreatinrecent reduced populationsofsomespecies,although farmland, gardensandinbuildingshasseriously The useof habitats. abundant invertebratefoodassociatedwiththese insectivores andbatsthataredependentonthe native woods,hasparticularlyaffected some Loss ofhabitat and Water Voles. Deer, GreySquirrelsandRed native species.Forexample,SikaDeerandRed A numberof of speciesinDumfries&Galloway. abundance andpopulationtrendsforthemajority There isa absence ofnaturalpredators forlarger lack ofknowledge toxic chemicalsinwetlands, non-native mammalsthreaten , especiallywetlandsand Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Grey Seal(GordonMcCall) ofdistribution, , andMink 277 SPECIES STATEMENTS MAMMALS BIODIVERSITY INDICATORS

• A high incidence of road deaths, particularly 4. Further Information affecting Hedgehogs, Badgers and Otters. The A75 is one of the worst roads in Scotland for 4.1 Publications mammal road kills. However, there is no evidence • Corbet, G. B. & Harris, S. (1991) The Handbook that this is having a serious overall impact on of British Mammals (3rd Edition). Blackwell, local populations. London. • A poor public perception of some species, • Entwistle, A. C., Harris, S., Hutson, A. M., Racey, especially bats. P. A., Walsh, A., Gibson, S. D., Hepburn, I. & Johnston, J. (2001) Habitat Management for Bats. A guide for land managers, land owners and their advisors. JNCC, Peterborough. • Forestry Commission, Bat Conservation Trust,

MAMMALS Countryside Council for Wales and English Nature (2005) Woodland Management for Bats. Forestry Commission, Wetherby. • Strachan, R. (1998) Water Vole Conservation Handbook. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Oxford.

4.2 Websites • Badger Trust www.badger.org.uk Leisler's Bats in box at Buchan Wood, Glentrool. (Pete Robinson) • British Deer Society www.bds.org.uk 3. Opportunities • Mammal Society www.abdn.ac.uk/mammal • Mammals Trust UK www.mtuk.org • Increase the recording of mammals in the region by training people in identification and recording • SeaWatch Foundation methods, utilising local bat, squirrel and mammal www.seawatchfoundation.org.uk groups and Dumfries & Galloway Environmental • Whale & Dolphin Conservation Society Resources Centre. www.wdcs.org • Eradication of non-native invasive mammals is unlikely to be possible. Monitor their distribution 4.3 Advisory Organisations and carry out localised control programmes, • Scottish Natural Heritage (01387) 247010 using humane methods that are likely to be most www.snh.org.uk effective to sustain native mammal populations. • Scottish Badgers www.scottishbadgers.org.uk • Take account of mammal requirements in habitat management. • Bat Conservation Trust Scotland (01786) 826 792 www.bats.org.uk • Carry out humane control of deer and goats to maintain populations that in balance with habitats. • Deer Commission Scotland (01463) 725000 www.dcs.gov.uk • Where possible, install mammal underpasses SPECIES STATEMENTS on roads with a high incidence of mammal kills. • Red Squirrels in South Scotland Greatest opportunities arise when new sections of www.red-squirrels.org.uk road are constructed. • Continue the educational work of organisations such as the Dumfries & Galloway Bat Group to raise awareness of species that can be encouraged by the public.

278 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership required. indicators, sufficient quantityandquality ofdatais and distribution.Forbiodiversity engagement challenge istohaveadequate dataonabundance For biodiversitystateindicators tobeofusethe process. within theDumfries&GallowayCommunityPlanning wider indicatorseries.Forexampleonsustainability programmes wheretheywillformasubsetof to themeasurementofprogressonotherregional scales. LBAP indicatorsshouldbeabletocontribute a varietyofdifferent trendsatdifferent geographical information, oncecollectedcanbeusedtoindicate those beingusedatnationallevel,sothatthesame It isimportanttoensurethatlocalindicatorsrelate • • and biodiversityengagementindicators. indicator aredescribed,biodiversitystateindicators own BiodiversityStrategy. Inthelatter, twokindsof Development Strategy(ChoosingourFuture),andits strategy, buthasalsopublisheditsownSustainable The ScottishGovernmentissigneduptothis to biodiversityaction,fishstocksandriverquality. indices relatingtobirdpopulationsandoneeach handful relatedirectlytobiodiversity. There arefour of socialandeconomicactivity. Ofthese,onlya Development Strategycoveringabroadcanvas There are68indicatorssetoutintheUKSustainable biodiversity trends. a suiteofindicatorswillprovideguidanceonthemain overall effectiveness ofLBAP activitiesmonitoringof record everything. Therefore, inordertojudgethe Centre. However, itisnotfeasibletomonitorand the Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResources biodiversity monitoringandmuchofthisiscollatedby Many oftheLBAP partners alsocarryouttheirown called Biodiversity Action ReportingSystem(BARS). will becarriedoutusinganonlinenationalsystem Monitoring ofprogressagainstthisactionplan decisions ofindividualsandorganisations. also aimtoexaminehowthisaffects actionsand professional) andanorganisationallevel. They biodiversity onanindividual(personaland of understandingof,andengagementwith, Biodiversity engagementindicatorsaremeasures ecosystem health. biological indicatorsasameasureofwider and qualityofhabitats,abundancekey abundance ordiversityofspeciesgroups,extent Biodiversity stateindicatorsaremeasuresof BIODIVERSITY INDICATORS 13. 12. 11. Biodiversity Engagementindicators 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Biodiversity Stateindicators as follows: Biodiversity indicatorsforDumfriesandGallowayare of awardsasmonitoredbyEcoSchools. Number ofregisteredEco-Schools andlevels Environmental Resources Centre. recording asmonitoredbyDumfries & Galloway Number ofpeopleinvolvedinbiodiversity Commission. monitored annuallybyWWT/RSPB/SNH/Forestry Number ofvisitorstonaturereserves volunteer CetaceanGroup/SeaWatch Foundation. Cetacean sightings Association/Freshwater ResearchServices. annually bySolwayShellfishManagement Cockle stockassessment sites asmonitoredannuallybySEPA. Freshwater invertebratediversity Galloway Fisheries Trust. annually beDistrictSalmonFisheriesBoards/ Salmonid counts monitored every6yearsbySNH. favourable conditiononprotectedsites Proportion ofnotifiedhabitatareain monitored every6yearsbySNH. in favourableconditiononprotectedsites Proportion ofnotifiedspeciespopulations change data. squares asmonitoredBSBI Atlas andlocal Vascular plantdiversityinselected10km of coloniesbyJNCC/RSPB. years, augmentedbyannualsurveysofasample by fullseabirdsurveysacrossScotlandevery15 Abundance ofbreedingseabirds Wetland BirdSurvey/WWT/RSPB/JNCC. annually throughmonthlywintercountsbythe waterbirds (e.g.BarnacleGoose)asmonitored Abundance ofselectednon-breeding Dumfries &GallowayRaptorStudyGroup/RSPB. Hen HarrierRedKite)asmonitoredannuallyby Abundance ofselectedbreedingbirds Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership inmainriversasmonitored asmonitoredannuallyby asmonitored asmonitored atselected as (e.g. as as 279 MONITORING PROGRESS BIODIVERSITY INDICATORS APPENDICES

Appendix 1

Local Priority Habitats - Criteria for selection

All UK Priority Habitats, or their nearest equivalents, that occur in Dumfries & Galloway have been selected as Local Priority Habitats.

Appendix 2

List of Local Priority Habitats

Subtidal Rock Mesotrophic Lochs Upland Heaths Subtidal Sands and Gravels Oligotrophic Lochs Native Wet Woods Intertidal Sand and Mud Flats Reedbeds Native Ash Woods Seagrass Beds Fens Native Oak Woods Intertidal Rocky Shores Marshes Native Birch Woods Honeycomb Worm Reefs Upland Springs and Flushes Forest Ponds Coastal Shingle Beaches Raised Bogs Wood Pastures and Parklands Coastal Sand Dunes Purple Moor-Grass and Rush Pastures Arable Fields Coastal Saltmarshes (Merse) Blanket Bogs Traditional Field Boundaries Coastal Cliffs and Slopes Calcareous Grasslands Farm Ponds River Headwaters Neutral Grasslands Traditional Orchards Lowland Rivers and Backwaters Acid Grasslands Industrial and Post-industrial Exposed River Shingle Inland Rock Outcrops Sites Eutrophic Lochs Montane Moss-heaths Urban Watercourses and Wetlands Appendix 3

Local Priority Species - Criteria for selection

1. National Importance UK Priority Species and species on the Scottish Biodiversity List that occur in Dumfries & Galloway on a permanent/semi-permanent/regular basis (i.e. not as rare vagrants).

2. Local Importance in a National Context Any species not included above for which Dumfries & Galloway supports 30% or more of the UK population or A UK nationally rare or UK nationally scarce species for which Dumfries & Galloway supports 75% or more of the Scottish population.

3. Local Rarity Species that have less than 100 individuals or Occur in only 1 or 2 10km squares in Dumfries & Galloway.

4. Local Decline Species that have declined in numbers or range as a result of human activity by 10% or more during any period in the last 100 years, or species threatened with decline on this scale.

5. Local Distinctiveness Species that are characteristic of Dumfries & Galloway.

Note: Evidence to support the above criteria should be observed and documented wherever possible. However estimated, inferred or suspected evidence may be acceptable if documented evidence is not available, if agreed by local experts. Population can be measured either in terms of absolute numbers or distribution (i.e. number of sites or OS grid squares occupied) 280 280 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership Appendix 4

List of Local Priority Species

Note: Future amendments to the Scottish Biodiversity List and the UK Biodiversity Action Plan may result in modifications to the list of Local Priority Species for Dumfries & Galloway. Please check the website for an up to date list.

Fungi

A slime mould Craterium muscorum A slime mould Diderma ochraceum Willow Gloves Hypocreopsis lichenoides A fungus Fayodia bisphaerigera (gracilipes) (SBL) Dung Bird's-nest Cyathus stercoreus (SBL) A fungus Inocybe calospora A fungus Galerina stylifera Golden Bootleg Phaeolepiota aurea A fungus Rimbachia bryophila (SBL) A fungus Aleurodiscus wakefieldiae (SBL) Zoned Tooth Fungus Hydnellum concrescens A fungus Rhodocybe gemina (SBL) (UKBAP/SBL) Scarlet Elf Cup Sarcoscypha coccinea (SBL) Oak Polypore Piptoporus quercinus (Buglossoporus pulvinus) (SBL) Beeswax Bracket Ganoderma pfeifferi

Lichens

Sap-groove Lichen Bacidia incompta (UKBAP/ A lichen Biatoridium monasteriense (UKBAP/SBL) SBL) Churchyard Lecanactis Lecanographa grumulosa Orange-fruited Elm Lichen Caloplaca luteoalba (SBL) (UKBAP/SBL) A lichen Caloplaca britannica (SBL) A lichen Cladonia peziziformis (UKBAP/SBL) A lichen Collema fasciculare (SBL) A lichen Degelia ligulata (SBL) A lichen Fuscopannaria sampaiana (SBL) A lichen Hypotrachyna sinuosa (SBL) A lichen Hypotrachyna taylorensis (SBL) A lichen Lecanographa amylacea (Lecanactis amylacea) (SBL) A lichen Lecanora albella (SBL) A lichen Lempholemma intricatum (SBL) A lichen Leptogium britannicum (SBL) A lichen Leptogium burgessii (SBL) A lichen Leptogium cyanescens (SBL) Tree Lungwort Lichen Lobaria pulmonaria (SBL) A lichen Lobaria amplissima (SBL) A lichen Lobaria scrobiculata (SBL) A lichen Lobaria virens (SBL) A lichen Menegazzia terebrata (SBL) A lichen Micarea stipitata (SBL) A lichen Pannaria conoplea (SBL) A lichen Pannaria rubiginosa (SBL) A lichen Parmeliella parvula (SBL) A lichen Parmeliella testacea (SBL) A lichen Parmeliella triptophylla (SBL) A lichen Peltigera collina (SBL) A lichen Porina hibernica (SBL) Norwegian Specklebelly Pseudocyphellaria A lichen Ramalina fraxinea (SBL) norvegica (UKBAP/SBL) Speckled Script Lichen Schismatomma A lichen Schismatomma cretaceum (SBL) graphidioides (UKBAP/SBS) A lichen Stenocybe septata (SBL) A lichen Sticta fuliginosa (SBL) A lichen Sticta canariensis (SBL) A lichen Sticta sylvatica (SBL) A lichen Sticta limbata (SBL) A lichen Synalissa symphorea (SBL) A lichen Usnea ceratina (SBL) A lichen Usnea florida (SBL) A lichen Gyalidea roseola (SBL)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 281 Seaweeds

A red seaweed Drachiella heterocarpa A red seaweed Spyridia filamentosa

Mosses

Cernuous Bryum Bryum uliginosum (UKBAP) Don's Thread-moss Bryum donianum (SBL) Many-seasoned Thread-moss Bryum intermedium Silky Swan-neck Moss Campylopus setifolius (SBL) (SBL) Spruce's Bristle-moss Orthotrichum sprucei (SBL) Rugged Collar-moss Splachnum vasculosum Bent-moss Campylostelium saxicola (SBL) Yellowish Fork-moss Dichodontium flavescens (SBL) Whip Fork-moss Dicranum flagellare (SBL) Hasselquist's Hyssop Entosthodon fascicularis (SBL) Varnished Hook-moss (Slender-green Feather Flood-moss Myrinia pulvinata (SBL) Moss) Hamatocaulis vernicosus (SBL) Long-leaved Fork-moss Paraleucobryum Oval-leaved Pottia Pterygoneurum ovatum (SBL) longifolium (SBL) Megapolitan Feather-moss Rhynchostegium Water Grimmia Schistidium agassizii (SBL) megapolitanum (SBL) Compact Grimmia Schistidium confertum (SBL) Tufted Feather-moss Scleropodium cespitans (SBL) Glass-wort Feather-moss Scleropodium tourettii Baltic Bog-moss Sphagnum balticum (SBL) (SBL)

Vascular Plants & Ferns

Shady Horsetail Equisetum pratense Wilson's Filmy-fern Hymenophyllum wilsonii Royal Fern Osmunda regalis Marsh Fern Thelypteris palustris (SBL) Holly-fern Polystichum lonchitis (SBL) Hay-scented Buckler Fern Dryopteris aemula Oblong Woodsia Woodsia ilvensis (UKBAP/SBL) Pillwort Pilularia globulifera (UKBAP/SBL) Juniper Juniperus communis (UKBAP/SBL) Hairy Buttercup Ranunculus sardous (SBL) Greater Celandine Chelidonium majus (SBL) Globeflower Trollius europaeus Least Water-lily Nuphar pumila Prickly Poppy Papaver argemone (SBL) Purple Ramping-fumitory Fumaria purpurea White Ramping-fumitory Fumaria capreolata (SBL) (UKBAP/SBL) Wild Cabbage Brassica oleracea (SBL) White Mustard Sinapis alba (SBL) Charlock Sinapis arvensis (SBL) Swine-cress Coronopus squamatus (SBL) Field Pepperwort Lepidium campestre (SBL) Early Dog-violet Viola reichenbachiana (SBL) Wild Pansy Viola tricolour (SBL) Imperforate St John's-wort Hypericum maculatum subsp. maculatum Mistletoe Viscum album (SBL) Sticky Catchfly Lychnis viscaria Isle of Man Cabbage Coincya monensis subsp. Alpine Mouse-ear Cerastium alpinum monensis Shepherd's Cress Teesdalia nudicaulis (SBL) Annual Knawel Scleranthus annuus (SBL) Good-King-Henry Chenopodium bonus-henricus Prickly Saltwort Salsola kali (SBL) (SBL) Long-stalked Orache Atriplex longipes Early Orache Atriplex praecox Perennial Flax Linum perenne (SBL) Sea Stork's-bill Erodium maritimum (SBL) Long-stalked Crane's-bill Geranium columbinum Spiny Restharrow Ononis spinosa (SBL) (SBL) Small Restharrow Ononis reclinata (UKBAP/SBL) Purple Oxytropis Oxytropis halleri (UKBAP/SBL) 282 282 DumfriesDumfries andand GallowayGalloway BiodiversityBiodiversity PartnershipPartnership Wood Bitter-vetch Vicia orobus (SBL) Bithynian Vetch Vicia bithynica (SBL) Yellow-vetch Vicia lutea (SBL) Sea Pea Lathyrus japonicus (SBL) Narrow-leaved Everlasting-pea Lathyrus sylvestris Strawberry Clover Trifolium fragiferum (SBL) (SBL) Slender Trefoil Trifolium micranthum (SBL) Harsh Downy-rose Rosa tomentosa (SBL) Dewberry Rubus caesius (SBL) Hoary Cinquefoil Potentilla argentea (SBL) Mossy Saxifrage Saxifraga hypnoides (SBL) Blunt-fruited Water-starwort Callitriche obtusangula (SBL) Sea-holly Eryngium maritimum (SBL) Wild Celery Apium graveolens (SBL) Whorled Carraway Carum verticillatum Tubular Water-dropwort Oenanthe fistulosa(SBL) Rock Samphire Crithmum maritimum (SBL) Spignel Meum athamanticum Sun Spurge Euphorbia helioscopia (SBL) Cornfield Knotgrass Polygonum rurivagum (SBL) Black-bindweed Fallopia convolvulus (SBL) Black-poplar Populus nigra (SBL) Downy Willow Salix lapponum (SBL) Whortle-leaved Willow Salix myrsinites Bog Rosemary Andromeda polifolia Intermediate Wintergreen Pyrola media (SBL) Rock Sea Lavender Limonium recurvum ssp. Scarlet Pimpernell Anagallis arvensis (SBL) humile (SBL) Lesser Centaury Centaurium pulchellum (SBL) Common Gromwell Lithospermum officinale (SBL) Oysterplant Mertensia maritima Henbane Hyoscyamus niger (SBL) An eyebright Euphrasia rostkoviana ssp. montana An eyebright Euphrasia anglica (SBL) An eyebright Euphrasia frigida Yellow Bartsia Parentucellia viscosa (SBL) Ivy Broomrape Orobanche hederae (SBL) Greater Broomrape Orobanche rapum-genistae (SBL) Large-flowered Hemp-nettle Galeopsis speciosa Field Woundwort Stachys arvensis (SBL) (SBL) Hoary Plantain Plantago media (SBL) Clustered Bellflower Campanula glomerata (SBL) Rampion BellflowerCampanula rapunculus (SBL) Ivy-leaved Bellflower Wahlenbergia hederacea (SBL) Field Madder Sherardia arvensis (SBL) Dwarf Elder Sambucus ebulus (SBL) Golden-samphire Inula crithmoides (SBL) Common Cudweed Filago vulgaris (SBL) Heath Cudweed Gnaphalium sylvaticum (SBL) Milk Thistle Silybum marianum (SBL) Cornflower Cenaurea cyanus (UKBAP/SBL) Saw-wort Serratula tinctoria (SBL) Chicory Cichorium intybus (SBL) Smooth Cat's-ear Hypochaeris glabra (SBL) Hawkweed Oxtongue Picris hieracioides (SBL) Northern Hawk's-beard Crepis mollis (SBL) Esthwaite Waterweed Hydrilla verticillata (SBL) Shinning Pondweed Potamogeton lucens Slender Naiad Najas flexilis (UKBAP/SBL) Bluebell Hyacinthoides non-scripta (UKBAP/SBL) Field Garlic Allium oleraceum (SBL) Bog Orchid Hammarbya paludosa Common White Orchid Pseudorchis albida Lesser Butterfly-orchid Platanthera bifolia (SBL) Greater Butterfly-orchid Platanthera chlorantha Round-fruited Rush Juncus compressus (SBL) Alpine Rush Juncus alpinoarticulatus Elongated Sedge Carex elongata (SBL) Sheathed Sedge Carex vaginata Dotted Sedge Carex punctata (SBL) Hair Sedge Carex capillaris Black Alpine Sedge Carex atrata Tufted-Sedge Carex elata (SBL) Confused Fescue Festuca lemanii Holy-grass Hierochloe odorata Soft Brome Bromus hordeaceus subsp. thominei Rye Brome Bromus secalinus (SBL) Alpine Foxtail Alopecurus borealis

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 283 Invertebrates

Wine-glass Hydroid Obelia bidentata A pond snail Lymnaea burnetti Medicinal Leech Hirundo medicinalis Lilljeborg's Whorl Snail Vertigo lilljeborgi Narrow-mouthed Whorl Snail Vertigo angustior (UKBAP/SBL) Freshwater Pearl Mussel Margaritifera margaritifera Native (Flat) Oyster Ostrea edulis (UKBAP/SBL) (UKBAP/SBL) Swan mussel Anodonta cygnea (SBL) A bivalve mollusc Pisidium henslowanum (SBL) A woodlouse Armadillidium album Tadpole Shrimp Triops cancriformis (UKBAP/SBL) A money spider Mecopisthes peusi A money spider Gongylidiellum murcidum A money spider Erigone welchi A money spider Maro lepidus A money spider Centromerus levitarsis (SBL) A money spider Neriene radiata A mesh-web spider Argenna patula A running foliage spider Agraecina striata A foliage spider Clubiona norvegica A jumping spider Talavera petrensis A jumping spider Sitticus floricola Azure Hawker Aeshna caerulea Hairy Dragonfly Brachytron pratense Variable Damselfly Coenagrion pulchellum Speckled Bush Cricket Leptophyes punctatissima Bog Bush Cricket Metrioptera brachyptera (SBL) (SBL) A ground beetle Blethisa multipunctata A ground beetle Dyschirius angustatus (SBL) A ground beetle Dyschirius nitidus A ground beetle Perileptus areolatus (SBL) A ground beetle Aepus robini A ground beetle Thlalassophilus longicornis A ground beetle Bembidion nigricorne A ground beetle Bembidion testaceum (UKBAP/ SBL) A ground beetle Pterostichus anthracinus A ground beetle Lebia chlorocephala A crawling water beetle Haliplus apicalis (SBL) A whirligig beetle Gyrinus distinctus (SBL) Smaller Noterus Noterus crassicornis (SBL) A diving beetle Copelatus haemorrhoidalis (SBL) A diving beetle Bidessus minutissimus (UKBAP/ A diving beetle Hygrotus versicolor (SBL) SBL) A diving beetle Hydroporus elongatulus (SBL) Hydroporus longulus (SBL) A diving beetle Hydroporus rufifrons (UKBAP/SBL) A diving beetle Porhydrus lineatus A diving beetle Agabus conspersus A diving beetle Agabus uliginosus (SBL) A diving beetle Ilybius fenestratus A diving beetle Ilybius subaeneus A diving Rhantus suturalis (SBL) A water beetle Hydraena pulchella (SBL) A small water beetle Hydraena pygmaea (SBL) A small water beetle Hydraena testacea A small water beetle Ochthebius auriculatus (SBL) A water beetle Helophorus alternans (SBL) A water beetle Helophorus fulgidicollis A water beetle Helophorus tuberculatus (SBL) A water beetle Hydrochus angustatus (SBL) A water beetle Hydrochus brevis (SBL) A water beetle Anacaena limbata (SBL) A water beetle Laccobius atratus (SBL) A water beetle Helochares punctatus (SBL) A water beetle Enochrus testaceus (SBL) A water beetle Cercyon convexiusculus (SBL) A water beetle Cercyon depressus (SBL) A water beetle Cercyon melanocephalus (SBL) A water beetle Cercyon quisquilius (SBL) A water beetle Megasternum obscurum (SBL) A water beetle Sphaeridium scarabaeoides (SBL) A rove beetle Carpelimus schneideri A rove beetle Omalium rugulipenne A click beetle Negastrius sabulicola (UKBAP/SBL) A marsh beetle Elodes pseudominuta (SBL) A water beetle Cyphon kongsbergensis (SBL) A water beetle Cyphon ochraceus (SBL) A water beetle Cyphon punctipennis (SBL) A water beetle Cyphon pubescens (SBL) A water beetle Scirtes hemisphaericus (SBL) A long-toed water beetle Dryops nitidulus (SBL) A long-toed water beetle Dryops similaris (SBL) A water beetle Heterocerus fossor (SBL) A water beetle Augyles (Heterocerus) maritimus A water beetle Plateumaris rustica (SBL) (SBL) A flower beetle Oedemera virescens (UKBAP/SBL) A darkling beetle Eledona agricola Musk Beetle Aromia moschata Water-Lily Reed Beetle Donacia crassipes (SBL)

284 284 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership A reed beetle Donacia impressa (SBL) A reed beetle Donacia marginata (SBL) A reed beetle Donacia obscura (SBL) A reed beetle Donacia thalassina (SBL) Six-spotted Pot Beetle Cryptocephalus A leaf beetle Macroplea appendiculata sexpunctatus (UKBAP/SBL) A weevil Notaris bimaculatus (SBL) A weevil Poophagus sisymbrii (SBL) Water Plantain Weevil Bagous alismatis A weevil Thryogenes nereis (SBL) A weevil Melanapion minimum (UKBAP/SBL) A weevil Procas granulicollis (SBL) A weevil Trachodes hispidus Sphagnum Bug Hebrus ruficeps (SBL) River Skater Aquarius najas (SBL) A pond skater Gerris gibbifer (SBL) An aquatic bug Plea minutissima (SBL) A micro moth Scrobipalpa clintoni Red-tipped Clearwing Synanthedon Forester Adscita statices (SBL) formicaeformis Narrow-bordered Bee Hawk-moth Hemaris tityus Barred Tooth-stripe Trichopteryx polycommata (UKBAP/SBL) (SBL) Bilberry Pug Chloroclystis debiliata Argent and Sable Moth Rheumaptera hastata (UKBAP/SBL) Square-spotted Clay Xestia rhomboidea (SBL) Broad-bordered White Underwing Anarta melanopa Sword-grass Xylena exsoleta (UKBAP/SBL) Dingy Skipper Erynnis tages tages (SBL) Northern Brown Argus Articia artaxerxes (UKBAP/ Pearl-bordered Fritillary Boloria euphrosyne SBL) (UKBAP/SBL) Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary Boloria selene A caddisfly Phacopteryx brevipennis A craneflyTipula hortorum A craneflyLipsothrix errans (UKBAP/SBL) A craneflyPrionocera pubescens (SBL) A craneflyNephrotoma scurra (SBL) A craneflyNigrotipula nigra (SBL) A craneflyLimonia magnicauda (SBL) A fungus gnat Urytalpa macrocera A horsefly Haematopota bigoti Black Deerfly Chrysops sepulchralis Northern Silver Stilleto-flySpiriverpa (Thereva) A dolichopodid fly Dolichopus latipennis lunulata (SBL) A flat-footed flyCallomyia elegans A hoverfly Anasimyia lunulata A hoverfly Cheilosia latifrons (SBL) A hoverflyParhelophilus consimilis A hoverfly Pipizella maculipennis A hoverfly Platycheirus europaeus A hoverfly Platycheirus immarginatus A fly Acanthocnema glaucescens A mayflyKageronia (Heptagenia) fuscogrisea A ruby-tailed wasp Chrysura hirsuta (UKBAP/SBL) Hairy Wood Ant Formica lugubris (UKBAP/SBL) Negro Ant Formica fusca (SBL) A spider-hunting wasp Evagetes crassicornis (SBL) Red-banded Sand Wasp Ammophila sabulosa (SBL) A digger wasp Crabro peltarius (SBL) Common Spiny Digger Wasp Oxybelus uniglumis (SBL) Northern Colletes Bee Colletes floralis (UKBAP/ A mining bee Colletes fodiens (SBL) SBL) Short Horned Yellow-Face Bee Hylaeus brevicornis A mining bee Lasioglossum fulvicorne (SBL) (SBL) A mining bee Lasioglossum villosulum (SBL) A cuckoo bee Sphecodes gibbus (SBL) A cuckoo bee Stelis punctulatissima (SBL) Wool-Carder Bee Anthidium manicatum (SBL) Wall Mason Bee Osmia parietina (UKBAP/SBL) A cuckoo bee Epeolus variegatus (SBL) A cuckoo bee Nomada roberjeotiana (SBL) A cuckoo bee Nomada leucophthalma (SBL) A cuckoo bee Nomada obtusifrons (SBL) Shrill Carder Bee Bombus sylvarum (UKBAP)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 285 Fishes

Sea Lamprey Petromyzon marinus (SBL) River Lamprey Lampetra fluviatilis (SBL) Brook Lamprey Lampetra planeri (SBL) Basking Shark Cetorhinus maximus (UKBAP/SBL) Tope Galeorhinus galeus Spurdog Squalus acanthias Common Skate Dipturus batis (SBL) European Eel Anguilla anguilla (SBL) Twaite Shad Alosa fallax (SBL) Allis Shad Alosa alosa (UKBAP/SBL) Smelt (Sparling) Osmerus eperlanus (SBL) Vendace Coregonus albula (UKBAP/SBL) Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar (SBL) Lesser Sand-eel Ammodytes tobianus (SBL) Plaice Pleuronectes platessa (SBL)

Birds

Black-throated Diver Gavia arctica (SBL) Whooper Swan Cygnus cygnus (SBL) White-fronted Goose (Greenland race) Anser Barnacle Goose (Svalbard race) Branta leucopsis albifrons (SBL) (SBL) Scaup Aythya marila (SBL) Common Scoter Melanitta nigra (UKBAP/SBL) Osprey Pandion haliaetus (SBL) Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos (SBL) Red Kite Milvus milvus (SBL) Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus (SBL) Merlin Falco columbarius (SBL) Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus (SBL) Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus (SBL) Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus (SBL) Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix (UKBAP/SBL) Grey Partridge Perdix perdix (UKBAP/SBL) Lapwing Vanellus vanellus (SBL) Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria (SBL) Dotterel Charadrius morinellus (SBL) Dunlin Calidris alpina (SBL) Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica (SBL) Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa (SBL) Curlew Numenius arquata (SBL) Woodcock Scolopax rusticola (SBL) Herring Gull Larus argentatus (SBL) Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus (SBL) Little Tern Sterna albifrons (SBL) Common Tern Sterna hirundo (SBL) Arctic Tern Sterna paradisaea (SBL) Sandwich Tern Sterna sandvicensis (SBL) Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus (UKBAP/SBL) Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus (SBL) Barn Owl Tyto alba (SBL) Kingfisher Alcedo atthis (SBL) Swift Apus apus (SBL) Skylark Alauda arvensis (UKBAP/SBL) Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus (SBL) Song Thrush Turdus philomelos (UKBAP/SBL) Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus (SBL) Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix (SBL) Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata (UKBAP/ Willow Tit Poecile montanus (SBL) SBL) Chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax (SBL) Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris House Sparrow Passer domesticus Tree Sparrow Passer montanus (UKBAP/SBL) Twite Carduelis flavirostris Linnet Carduelis cannabina (UKBAP/SBL) Siskin Carduelis spinus (SBL) Bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula (UKBAP/SBL) Yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella Reed Bunting Emberiza schoeniclus (UKBAP/SBL) Corn Bunting Miliaria calandra (UKBAP/SBL)

286 286 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership Reptiles

Adder Vipera berus Leatherback Turtle Dermochelys coriacea (UKBAP/ SBL)

Amphibians

Great Crested Newt Triturus cristatus (UKBAP/ Natterjack Toad Epidalea calamita (UKBAP/SBL/ SBL/EPS) EPS)

Mammals

Water Vole Arvicola terrestris (UKBAP/SBL) Brown Hare Lepus europaeus (UKBAP/SBL) Mountain Hare Lepus timidus (SBL) Otter Lutra lutra (UKBAP/SBL/EPS) Common Pipistrelle Pipistrellus pipistrellus (SBL/ Soprano Pipistrelle Pipistrellus pygmaeus (UKBAP/ EPS) SBL/EPS) Brown Long-eared Bat Plecotus auritus (SBL/EPS) Daubenton's Bat Myotis daubentonii (SBL/EPS) Whiskered Bat Myotis mystacinus (SBL/EPS) Natterer's Bat Myotis nattereri (SBL/EPS) Noctule Bat Nyctalus noctula (SBL/EPS) Leisler's Bat Nyctalus leisleri (EPS) Red Squirrel Sciurus vulgaris (UKBAP/SBL) Bottle-nosed Dolphin Tursiops truncatus (UKBAP/ SBL) Common Dolphin Delphinus delphis (SBL) Harbour Porpoise Phocoena phocoena (UKBAP/ SBL) Killer Whale Orcinus orca (SBL) Minke Whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata (SBL)

Additional species: The following species/species groups were identified as being important to the Scottish public in the Scottish Biodiversity Strategy. They are generally widespread, common in Dumfries & Galloway, though no more so than most other parts of Scotland. They are not considered to be locally threatened.

Oak Quercus spp (SBL) Heather Calluna vulgaris (SBL) Harebell Campanula rotundifolia (SBL) Thistle (SBL) Robin Erithacus rubecula (SBL) Badger Meles meles (SBL) Roe Deer Capreolus capreolus (SBL) Red Deer Cervus elaphus (SBL)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 287 Abbreviations

BTO British Trust for Ornithology EPS European Protected Species EU European Union FWAG Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group JNCC Joint Nature Conservancy Council LBAP Local Biodiversity Action Plan LNR Local Nature Reserve LWS Local Wildlife Site MCA Marine Consultation Area NNR National Nature Reserve RSPB Royal Society for the Protection of Birds SAC Special Area of Conservation SBL Scottish Biodiversity List SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment SEPA Scottish Environment Protection Agency SNH Scottish Natural Heritage SPA Special Protection Area Sp. Species (singular) Spp. Species (plural) SSSI Site of Special Scientific Interest SUDS Sustainable Urban Drainage Scheme UKBAP United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan WWT Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust

288 288 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership