I. INTRODUCTION

DRAFT DOCUMENT (August 2014) Prepared by AC Le Gall (ICP M&M),

To be reviewed by ICP M&M NFCs

Updated by Anne Christine Le Gall, Chairwoman of the Task Force on Modelling and Mapping, from initial text by Till Spranger, Mapping Manual 2004

Please refer to this document as: CLRTAP, 2014. Introduction, Chapter 1 of Manual on methodologies and criteria for modelling and mapping critical loads and levels and air pollution effects, risks and trends. UNECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution; accessed on [date of consultation] on Web at www.icpmapping.org .” Chapter I – Introduction Page I - 3

TABLE OF CONTENT

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 I.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 5 I.2 THE CRITICAL LOAD AND LEVEL CONCEPT IN THE UNECE CONVENTION ON LONG-RANGE TRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION ...... 6 I.3 AIMS AND ORGANIZATION OF THE MODELLING AND MAPPING PROGRAMME ...... 11 I.3.1 Division of Tasks within the Programme ...... 11 I.3.2 Mandate for the Task Force of the ICP on Modelling and Mapping ...... 12 I.3.3 Mandate for the Coordination Centre for Effects ...... 12 I.3.4 Responsibilities of the National Focal Centres ...... 13 I.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE MANUAL ...... 13 I.5 STRUCTURE AND SCOPE OF THE MANUAL ...... 14 I.6 REFERENCES ...... 15 I.6.1 Historical references ...... 15 I.6.2 Gains model ...... 15 I.6.3 Other bibliography ...... 16

Chapter I – Introduction Page I - 5

I.1 INTRODUCTION

The critical loads and levels concept is an effect- The general definition of critical levels based approach that has been used for defining is “the atmospheric concentrations of emission reductions aimed at protecting pollutants in the atmosphere above ecosystems and other receptors, such as which adverse effects on receptors, materials and human health. These indicators, such as human beings, plants, which may be used in a sustainability framework, ecosystems or materials, may occur are defined for specific combinations of pollutants, according to present knowledge” effects and receptors. Critical loads and levels (Nilsson and Grennfelt, 1988). Critical loads correspond to the pollutant provide a sustainable reference point against depositions on receptors. The which pollution levels can be compared. They can implications of these definitions in further be used for calculating emission ceilings terms of calculations and applications for individual countries with respect to acceptable within scientific and policy frameworks air pollution levels (e.g., defined reductions of are presented in Chapters III. 5 and critical load/level exceedances). VI.

Critical loads and levels have been designed to support the setting of ambition levels and assess the efficiency of of air pollution reduction policies. Their development and their application in such a policy framework can be seen as an environmental design process, using the same models and methods as causal research but in a reverse sequence as shown in Figure I.1. Causal research

Infrastructure Emission Deposition Ecosystem Effect

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

Model -1 1 Model -1 2 Model -1 3 Model -1 4

Adaptation of Emission Critical Ecosystem No effect infrastructure limitations load requirement

Environmental design Figure I.1 Environmental research vs. environmental design (adapted from Harald Sverdrup) Page I - 6 Chapter I – Introduction

I.2 THE CRITICAL LOAD AND LEVEL CONCEPT IN THE UNECE CONVENTION ON LONG-RANGE TRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION

During the 1970s, it was recognised that Bad Harzburg workshop the first trans-boundary air pollution has ecological discussions took place on the possible use and economic consequences (e.g. for the of critical level/loads maps for defining forest and fish industries) caused by areas at risk. It was foreseen that these acidifying air pollutants. In response to this, could play an important role in the the countries of the UN Economic development of air policy. Commission for Europe (UNECE) As a result of these workshops, in 1988, developed a legal, organisational and the Executive Body for the Convention scientific framework to deal with this approved the establishment of a problem. The UNECE Convention on Long- programme for mapping critical loads and range Transboundary Air Pollution levels (Task Force on Mapping) under the (LRTAP) was the first international legally Working Group for Effects (WGE) with binding instrument to deal with problems of Germany as the lead country air pollution on a broad regional basis (see (http://icpmapping.org/ ). In 1989 the http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/ ). Signed in Executive Body welcomed the offer of the 1979, it entered into force in 1983. Netherlands to host a Coordination Centre 1 The Convention requires that its Parties for Effects (CCE) that was established at cooperate in research on the effects of RIVM in Bilthoven, The Netherlands sulphur compounds and other major air (http://wge-cce.org/ ). In 1999, the pollutants on human health and the Executive Body replaced the Task Force environment, including agriculture, forestry, on Mapping with the Task Force of the natural vegetation, aquatic ecosystems and International Cooperative Programme on materials (Article 7(d) of the Convention). Modelling and Mapping of Critical Loads The Convention also calls for the exchange and Levels and their Air Pollution Effects, of information on the physico-chemical and Risks and Trends (ICP M&M). In biological data relating to the effects of September 2009, France became the lead LRTAP and the extent of damage which country of this programme. these data indicate can be attributed to The mandates of the ICP M&M 2, the CCE LRTAP (Article 8(f) of the Convention). To and its National Focal Centres 3 are this end the Executive Body for the described further below. The Programme Convention established a Working Group position within the Convention is shown in on Effects (WGE) that is supported by a Figure I.2. number of International Cooperative Programmes (ICPs, cf. Figure I.2). In 1986, a work programme under the Nordic Council of Ministers agreed on scientific definitions of critical loads for sulphur and nitrogen (Nilsson, 1986). This stimulated the work under the Convention and in March 1988 two Convention workshops were held to further evaluate the critical levels and loads concept and to provide up-to-date figures. The Bad Harzburg (Germany) workshop dealt with 1 at the Netherlands Office for Environmental critical levels for direct effects of air Assessment (www.rivm.nl/cce) pollutants on forests, crops, materials and 2 established by the Executive Body in 1999 to natural vegetation, and the Skokloster replace the Task Force on Mapping, see Ch. (Sweden) workshop on critical loads for 1.3 sulphur and nitrogen compounds (Nilsson 3 and Grennfelt 1988). Furthermore, at the In 2013, 24 National Focal Centres are actively participating in the ICP M&M Chapter I – Introduction Page I - 7

EXECUTIVE BODY

IMPLEMENTATION COMMITEE EECCA COORDINATING GROUP

WORKING GROUP WORKING GROUP ON EMEP STEERING BODY ON EFFECTS STRATEGIES AND REVIEW

TASK FORCE ON EMISSION ORESTS C ICP F OORDINATING INVENTORIES AND TASK FORCE ON REACTIVE PROGRAMME CENTRE PROJECTIONS NITROGEN CENTRE FOR EMISSION ICP I NTEGRATED INVENTORIES AND MONITORING P PROJECTIONS (CEIP) ROGRAMME CENTRE TASK FORCE ON HEAVY METALS TASK FORCE ON M ICP M ATERIALS AIN RESEARCH MEASUREMENTS AND CENTRE MODELLING CHEMICAL COORDINATING TASK FORCE ON CENTRE (CCC) TECHNICO -ECONOMIC ISSUES ICP V EGETATION PROGRAMME CENTRE METEOROLOGICAL SYNTHESIZING CENTRE ICP W ATERS WEST (MSC-W) PROGRAMME CENTRE METEOROLOGICAL SYNTHESIZING CENTRE ICP M ODELLING C EAST (MSC-E) AND MAPPING OORDINATION CENTRE FOR EFFECTS TASK FORCE ON INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT MODELLING TASK FORCE ON HUMAN HEALTH CENTRE FOR INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT MODELLING (CIAM) JOINT EXPERT GROUP ON DYNAMIC TASK FORCE ON HEMISPHERIC MODELLING TRANSPORT OF AIR POLLUTANTS Figure I.2: LRTAP organisation chart showing the position of the ICP M&M Task Force within the WGE. The Convention has been extended by for sulphur, i.e. avoid future exceedances. eight protocols which identify specific However, cutting sulphur dioxide emissions obligations or measures to be taken by to achieve deposition levels below critical Parties (cf. loads was not feasible for all ecosystems in http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/status/lrtap_ Europe. Even so, the negotiations were s.html). The first substance-specific based on the assessment of environmental protocols were negotiated on the basis of effects and the protection of ecosystems as economic and technological information well as technical and economic (e.g. best available techniques). They set considerations. the same emission targets for all Parties, Three of the eight protocols (Heavy Metals, either in terms of a percentage reduction, POP and the Gothenburg Protocol to abate or as a decrease to an emission level of a acidification, eutrophication and ground former year. They took no direct account of level ozone) have been amended between the effects of the emissions. A second 2009 and 2012. The revised protocols will generation of protocols came into being enter into force when two thirds of the when, in June 1994, a second protocol for parties have ratified, accepted or approved reducing sulphur emissions (the ‘Oslo them. protocol’) was signed by 30 countries. This identified effects-based, cost-effective The application of the critical levels and abatement measures based on the analysis loads concept and the role of critical of impacts using critical loads. The long- levels/loads maps for the development and term objective for negotiating national implementation of air pollution control emission reductions was to eliminate the strategies is shown in Figure I.3 excess sulphur deposition over critical loads . Page I - 8 Chapter I – Introduction

National Critical Levels/Loads Maps

European European Critical Concentration and Levels/Loads Maps compare Deposition Data

European Critical Air Pollutants Levels/Loads Emission Data Exceedance Maps

Emission Reduction Integrated Optimized Emission Costs Assessment Models Reduction Scenarios

Figure I.3: Critical Loads and Abatement strategies

Summarising this figure, the following • Define excess deposition/concentration "crucial steps" are involved: per unit area; • Define methods and criteria to • Use the results for developing strategies determine and map critical loads and and negotiating agreements. levels (Convention workshops);

• Obtain international approval (Working Group on Effects and Executive Body ); Figure I.4 describes in more detail how spatial information on receptors, pollutants • Perform a mapping exercise (based on and critical levels/loads are combined in this Manual and on the proceedings of the mapping process at a regional or critical levels/loads and mapping national levels. workshops);

Chapter I – Introduction Page I - 9

Figure I.4: Production of critical levels/loads exceedance maps (adapted from Gauger et al., 2002). • In practice, maps of critical loads have Carbon dioxide (CO 2) been used as yardsticks to assess the • need for reducing depositions in each Methane (CH 4) EMEP grid cell. An emission scenario may be assessed by comparing a computed • Nitrogen oxides (NOx) European deposition map with the • European critical loads map. In support of Nitrous oxide (N 2O) the Oslo protocol (1994), the negotiators • started to consider the use of computer Particulate matter (TSP, PM 10 , PM 2.5 models to assess the costs and and PM 1) effectiveness of emission reduction scenarios. In particular, the RAINS • Sulphur dioxide (SO 2) (Regional Acidification INformation and Simulation) and its successor the GAINS • Volatile organic compounds (VOC) (Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution In teractions and Synergies) models have • Ozone (O 3) been applied to assist key policy negotiations on improving air quality in Certain versions of the GAINS Model also UNECE and in Europe. address :

A full description of the GAINS model is • Ammonia (NH 3) given in Amann et al., 2011 and on the model website • Carbon monoxide (CO) http://gains.iiasa.ac.at/models/ from which the following information is adapted. The • Fluorinated greenhouse gases (F- GAINS Model is an integrated assessment Gases) model that simultaneously addresses health and ecosystem impacts of particulate pollution, acidification, eutrophication and tropospheric ozone. The GAINS Model considers also greenhouse gas emission rates. Thus pollutants included are: Page I - 10 Chapter I – Introduction

The GAINS Model calculates emissions on framework. Critical load data and critical a medium-term time horizon. Emission level data may also be compiled projections are specified in five year exogenously and incorporated into the intervals through the target year. Options GAINS Model framework. The CCE and costs for controlling emissions are Environmental Impact Assessment scheme represented by several emission reduction (Figure I.5) shows how the GAINS data technologies. Atmospheric dispersion may be used in conjunction with critical processes are often modelled exogenously loads calculated exogenously. and integrated into the GAINS Model

Figure I.5: The CCE Environmental impact assessment illustrates the links between the GAINS model and critical loads exceedance evaluation (Hettelingh et al., 2008). The GAINS Model can be operated in the First, a more complex formulation of critical “scenario analysis” mode, i.e. following the loads was developed and used in support pathways of the emissions from their of the 1999 Protocol to Abate Acidification, sources to their impacts. In this case the Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone (the model provides estimates of regional costs “Gothenburg Protocol”). It recognizes that: and environmental benefits of several a) sulphur as well as oxidized and emission control strategies. The GAINS reduced nitrogen contribute to Model can also operate in the “optimization acidification. Therefore, two mode” which identifies cost-optimal allocations of emission reductions in order critical loads for acidity had to be to achieve specified deposition levels, distinguished, the critical load of concentration targets, or GHG emissions sulphur-based acidity and the ceilings. The current version of the model critical load of nitrogen-based can be used for viewing activity levels and acidity (see Ch. V.1 - V.4). emission control strategies, as well as calculating emissions and control costs for b) both oxidized nitrogen and volatile those strategies. organic compounds contribute to Since 1994 and the Oslo Protocol the formation of tropospheric negotiations, the complexity of the work ozone, for which a critical level under the ICP M&M has increased, was identified for forests, crops together with the scientific knowledge and natural vegetation (see Ch. mobilized to support policy. III.2.4). Chapter I – Introduction Page I - 11

c) a small deposition rate of Third, climate change and biodiversity nitrogen which can be taken up by losses have become major issues and vegetation or immobilized is not have raised new challenges. Relevant indicators have been (and still are) detrimental to ecosystems (see developed (cf. chapter III to VIII). These Ch. V.3). new indicators are provided to policy makers as they complete the information d) deposition of both oxidized and issued from GAINS. reduced nitrogen exceeding the critical load for nutrient nitrogen Thus complete policy support is provided by combining information gathered, contribute to eutrophication (see measured and modelled by EMEP and Ch. V.1 to V.3). WGE groups.

Second, integrated assessment modelling Furthermore, there have been major with GAINS is commonly used to assess activities to develop effects-based relationships between economic activities, approach also for heavy metals for the pollutants emissions, their transport, their preparation of the review and revision of deposition and their impacts on biological the 1998 Århus Protocol on Heavy Metals. targets. Critical limits, transfer functions and adapted methods to determine and apply critical loads of heavy metals are being developed and are listed in Ch. V.5.

I.3 AIMS AND ORGANIZATION OF THE MODELLING AND MAPPING PROGRAMME

The aims and objectives of the ICP on on the modelling and mapping of Modelling and Mapping were approved by the present status and trends in the WGE at its nineteenth session in 2000 impacts of air pollution.” (Annex VII of document EB.AIR/WG.1/2000/4): Short-term and specific aims are defined in “To provide the Working Group the convention workplan, agreed at on Effects and the Executive sessions of the Working Group and Body for the Convention and its approved by the Executive Body. These are in line with the Convention Long Term subsidiary bodies with Strategy and respond to policy needs comprehensive information on (LRTAP, 2010). Bi-annual work plans are critical loads and levels and their available on the Convention web pages exceedances for selected (http://www.unece.org/environmental- pollutants, on the development policy/treaties/air-pollution/meetings-and- and application of other methods events/air-pollution/ ). for effect-based approaches, and

I.3.1 DIVISION OF TASKS WITHIN THE PROGRAMME

A network of National Focal Centres for critical loads. CCE reports on this work (NFCs) under the ICP M&M is responsible to the Task Force of the ICP M&M. for the generation of national data sets. The Programme´s organization and NFCs cooperate with the Coordination division of tasks between its subsidiary Centre for Effects to develop modelling bodies, as approved by the WGE methodologies and European databases (EB.AIR/WG.1/2000/4) are as follows : Page I - 12 Chapter I – Introduction

“The International Cooperative Programme on Modelling and Mapping was established in 1999 (ECE/EB.AIR/68, para. 52 (f)) to further develop and expand activities so far carried out by the Task Force on Mapping of Critical Levels and Loads and their Exceedances (led by Germany [led now by France]) and by the Coordination Centre for Effects (at the National Institute of Public Health and the Environment 4 at Bilthoven, Netherlands), pursuant to their original mandates (EB.AIR/WG.1/18), amended to reflect the present structure of the Executive Body and the new requirements: I.3.2 MANDATE FOR THE TASK FORCE OF THE ICP ON MODELLING AND MAPPING (a) The Programme Task Force supports the Working Group on Effects, the Working Group on Strategies and Review and other subsidiary bodies under the Convention by modelling, mapping, reviewing and assessing the critical loads and levels and their exceedances and by making recommendations on the further development of effect-based approaches, and on future modelling and mapping requirements; (b) The Task Force plans, coordinates and evaluates the Programme’s activities, it is responsible for updating the Programme Manual, as well as for quality assurance; (c) The Task Force prepares regular reports, presenting, and, where appropriate, interpreting Programme data. I.3.3 MANDATE FOR THE COORDINATION CENTRE FOR EFFECTS (a) The Coordination Centre for Effects (CCE) assists the Task Force of the ICP on Modelling and Mapping, and gives scientific and technical support, in collaboration with the Programme Centres under the Convention, to the Working Group on Effects and, as required, to the Working Group on Strategies and Review, as well as to other relevant subsidiary bodies under the Convention, in their work related to the effects of air pollution, including the practical development of methods and models for calculating critical loads and levels and the application of other effect-based approaches; (b) In support of the critical loads/levels mapping and modelling exercise, CCE: (i) Provides guidance and documentation on the methodologies and data used in developing critical loads and critical levels of relevant pollutants, and their exceedances; (ii) Collects and assesses national and European data used in the modelling and mapping of critical loads and levels of relevant pollutants. The Centre circulates draft maps and modelling methodologies for review and comment by National Focal Centres, and updates modelling methodologies and maps as appropriate; (iii) Produces reports and maps on critical loads/levels documenting mapping and modelling methodologies, with the assistance of the National Focal Centres and in cooperation with the Task Force on ICP on Modelling and Mapping; (iv) Provides, upon request, the Working Group on Effects and the Task Force on ICP on Modelling and Mapping, the Working Group on Strategies and Review and the Task Force on Integrated Assessment Modelling, with scientific advice regarding the use and interpretation of data and modelling methodologies for critical loads and levels; (v) Maintains and updates relevant databases and methodologies, and serves as a clearing house for data collection and exchange regarding critical loads and levels among Parties to the Convention, in consultation with the International Cooperative Programmes and EMEP; (vi) Conducts periodic training sessions and workshops to assist National Focal Centres in their work, and to review activities and develop and refine methodologies used in conjunction with the critical load and critical level mapping exercise; (c) While the Coordination Centre for Effects reports to the Working Group on Effects and the Task Force of ICP on Modelling and Mapping, and receives guidance and instruction from them concerning tasks, priorities and timetables, it also assists the Working Group on Strategies and Review, the Task Force on Integrated Assessment Modelling, and other bodies under the Convention, when appropriate.”

4 since 2003 at the Netherlands Office for Environmental Assessment Chapter I – Introduction Page I - 13

I.3.4 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE NATIONAL FOCAL CENTRES

The tasks of the National Focal Centres e) Making the necessary provisions to have been defined in the 1996 version of obtain national maps in accordance the Mapping Manual. The National Focal with the resolution and standards Centres are responsible for: (measurement units, periodicity, a) The collection and archiving of data etc.) described in the Manual; needed to obtain maps in f) Collaborating with the Coordination accordance with the Manual Centre for Effects to permit guidelines and in collaboration with assessment of the methods applied the Coordination Centre for Effects; in order to perform multinational b) The communication of national mapping exercises (e.g. using GIS) mapping procedures (data, formats, and model comparisons; models, maps) to the Coordination g) Updating the Mapping Manual as Centre for Effects; appropriate, in collaboration with the c) The provision of written reports on Task Force on Mapping and the the methods and models used to Coordination Centre for Effects. obtain national maps; d) Organising training facilities for national experts in collaboration with the Coordination Centre for Effects;

I.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE MANUAL

The principal objectives of this Manual are This Manual includes methodologies used to describe the recommended methods to by ICP Materials to assess impact of be used by the Parties to the Convention, pollution on corrosion and soiling of represented by their National Focal building materials (Ch. 4) and by ICP Centres, to: Vegetation concerning the impact of air a) Model and map critical levels and pollutants, and especially ozone, on crops loads in the ECE region; and semi-natural vegetation (Ch. 3). In contrast to Manuals (or comparable b) Model and map areas with air methodological documents) of other ICPs pollution values exceeding critical and EMEP CCC this manual does not levels or loads; contain information on methods of c) Develop, harmonize and apply measurements nor on detailed data methods and procedures (including generation. This reflects the aims and tasks dynamic modelling) to assess of the ICP Modelling and Mapping within recovery and risk of future damage the Convention. on specific targets including Specific technical information as well as biodiversity in a context of climate detailed results and other information by change; National Focal Centres can be found in CCE Status Reports (and publications d) Determine and identify sensitive (http://wge-cce.org/Publications and receptors and locations. bibliographic references therein). Thus it provides a scientific basis on the application of critical levels and loads, their interrelationships, and the consequences for abatement strategies, e.g. for the assessment of optimized allocation of emission reductions. Page I - 14 Chapter I – Introduction

I.5 STRUCTURE AND SCOPE OF THE MANUAL

Chapter I has given an overview of the Chapter V describes how to quantify and Convention focuses on impact assessment map critical loads of nutrient nitrogen, and, within the Convention, of ICP M&M potential acidity and heavy metals. The activities. These include the development structure of the chapter takes into account of impact indicators, including the critical three main elements: ecosystems types loads and levels, whose calculation (aquatic and terrestrial), impacts methods are presented in the following (eutrophication, acidification, pollution by chapters. heavy metals) and methods (empirical and modelling). The chapter starts with an Chapter II describes methods to map overview including definitions (V.1), pollutant concentrations and depositions. followed by a subchapter on Empirical These may be used to generate Critical Loads (V.2) with sections on exceedance maps by subtracting critical nutrient nitrogen (results of a workshop in levels/loads from them. At the European Noordwijkerhout in 2011) and acidity scale, chemistry transport models such as (results of a workshop in York in 2000). EMEP model are used to construct such Chapter V.3 describes methods to model maps (cf http://www.emep.int/mscw/ ). The critical loads for terrestrial ecosystems modelled pollutant concentrations and (SMB model), again divided into depositions are derived from national subchapters on eutrophication and emissions which provide the link to acidification. Chapter V.4 deals with Critical negotiations on emission controls. In Loads for surface waters (developed in addition, NFCs are encouraged to produce close cooperation with ICP Waters). Again high resolution maps which can be used for the chapter is divided into subchapters on effects assessments in specific ecosystems eutrophication and acidification. Finally, at the national and local level. This chapter Chapter V.5 describes methods to model was produced by experts including those and map critical loads of heavy metals. from EMEP. Finally, new and preliminary approaches to Chapter III describes the methods assess the impact of nitrogen on developed for the quantification and biodiversity are described here. This mapping of critical levels and fluxes of chapter is at the chore of ICP M&M activity gaseous pollutants for vegetation. It is and has been mainly written by CCE. largely based on conclusions and Chapter VI describes dynamic models for recommendations of Convention acidification and eutrophication and the use workshops and, for ozone, on intensive of their results. The authors developed it in work coordinated by ICP Vegetation in close cooperation with the Joint Expert cooperation with EMEP. This chapter has Group on dynamic modelling. been prepared by ICP Vegetation experts (http://icpvegetation.ceh.ac.uk/ ). The last two chapters present issues common to the use and the calculation of Chapter IV describes the derivation and critical loads for all type of effects application of Acceptable Levels for effects (acidification, eutrophication, heavy on materials. It is part of the Manual of ICP metals). on Materials ( www.corr-institute.se/ICP- Materials ). It has been prepared by ICP Chapter VII describes how to identify Materials experts. critical load exceedance and parameters derived from exceedance (protection isolines, [average] accumulated exceedances). Chapter VIII describes procedures needed to produce maps, including map geometry / projections, spatial generalisation and representativity, and the estimation of uncertainty and bias. Chapter I – Introduction Page I - 15

I.6 REFERENCES I.6.1 HISTORICAL REFERENCES

For historical details on the establishment (e) Manual on Methodologies and of the Task Force on Mapping and the Criteria for Mapping Critical mandates of the cooperating partners in Loads/Levels and Geographical the modelling and mapping exercise see Areas Where They Are Exceeded EB Air/R.18/Annex IV, Section 3.6 and EB (fully revised in 1995/1996); Texte Air/WG.1/R.18/Annex I, as well as Umweltbundesamt 71/96, Federal document EB.AIR/WG.1/2004/3. Environmental Agency (UBA)(ed.), The historical development of the Berlin, Germany programme and the approaches used for calculating critical loads and levels can be (f) CLRTAP (2004). Manual on followed by consulting the following methodologies and criteria for background material: modelling and mapping critical (a) Nilsson J (ed) (1986) Critical Loads loads and levels and air pollution of Nitrogen and Sulphur. effects, risks and trends. ICP Environmental Report 1986:11, Mapping and Modelling 251 p Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen, 232 pp. (g) Numerous scientific articles referenced in the following (b) Report of the Initial ECE Mapping chapters. Workshop, Bad Harzburg 1989

(c) Mapping Vademecum 1992, Status, results and agenda of the ICP Modelling and Mapping are described in available at the Coordination Centre various documents to be found on the for Effects, Bilthoven, The Convention’s web site Netherlands, RIVM Report No. (www.unece.org/env/wge). Various aspects 259101002. concerning technical and scientific background and detailed results also of (d) Manual on Methodologies and National Focal Centres can be found in Criteria for Mapping Critical CCE publications, especially the CCE Loads/Levels (First Edition); Texte Status Reports, found on the CCE web site Umweltbundesamt 25/93, Federal (http://wge-cce.org/Publications ). Environmental Agency (UBA)(ed.), Berlin, Germany

I.6.2 GAINS MODEL

About the GAINS model as developed by • Publications: the IIASA, see: http://www.iiasa.ac.at/web/home/res • Gains Europe: earch/researchPrograms/MAG- http://gains.iiasa.ac.at/gains/EUN/in Publications.en.html dex.login?logout=1

Page I - 16 Chapter I – Introduction

I.6.3 OTHER BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amann, M., Bertok, I., Borken-Kleefeld, J., Hettelingh, J.P., Posch, M., Slootweg, J., Cofala, J., Heyes, C., Höglund-Isaksson, 2008. Status of the critical loads L., Klimont, Z., Nguyen, B., Posch, M., database and impact assessment. In: Rafaj, P., Sandler, R., Schöpp, W., Hettelingh, J.P., Posch, M., Slootweg, J. Wagner, F., Winiwarter, W., 2011. Cost- (Eds.), Critical load, dynamic modelling effective control of air quality and and impact assessment in Europe. CCE greenhouse gases in Europe: Modeling Status Report 2008. PBL Netherlands and policy applications. Environmental Environmental Assessment Agency, Modelling & Software 26, 1489-1501. Bilthoven, The Netherlands, pp. 15-28. Gauger, T., Anshelm, F., Schuster, H., LRTAP, 2010. Long-term strategy for the Erisman, J.W., Vermeulen, A.T., Convention. Moving forward: a strategic Draaijers, G.P.J., Bleeker, A., Nagel, H.- vision for the Convention for 2010–2020. D., 2002. Mapping of ecosystem specific Convention on Long-range long-term trends in deposition loads and Transboundary Air Pollution; United concentrations of air pollutants in Nations, European economic Germany and their comparison with commission, Geneva, Switzerland, p. 9. Critical Loads and Critical Levels Part 1: Deposition Loads 1990-1999. UBA, Nilsson, J. (Ed.), 1986. Critical loads of Umweltbundesamt. nitrogen and sulphur. Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen, Denmark. Nilsson, J., Grennfelt, P., 1988. Critical loads for sulphur and nitrogen. Nordic council of Ministers, Report from a workshop held at Skokloster, Sweden, 19-24 March 1988. Miljorapport 15, pp. 1 - 418 .