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1996 Women's rights in china : a paradigm shift in progress Jennifer Hoag

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A Paradigm Shift in Progress

by

Jennifer,,/ Hoag

Senior Project

Jepson School of Leadership Studies

University of Richmond

April, 1996 Women's Rights in China A Paradigm Shift in Progress

JenniferHoag Sr. project Dr. Ciulla April 15, 1996 P[Qject Outline

Introduction

I. How women were oppressed Footbinding Language Education and CulturalExpectations Tradition of"Old Same"

II. Changes in Women's Rights F ootbinding Education Economics though early 1900's Assembly Economics 1949-1978 Marriage, Land, and Labor One Child Policy 1 Education 1978-1990 s

III.Current Issues Suicide Violence ExtramaritalAffairs and Divorce Assembly Employment Research Scholarship Government Women's Conference

IV. Analysis of Change Education Economics Paradigm Shift Social Movement

V. Future hnplications Hindrance of Movement Tradition Government Logistics Lack of Necessity Results of Hindrance Reactions of Feminists

Conclusion Introduction

Chinese womenhave been historically oppressed. Female childrenhavebeenkilled.

Women's feet havebeen bound.have They denied access to education. Femaleoppression is part of Chinese tradition which is the most powerful influence in China. Economic independence and increasedhave education lead womento mobilize. Thispaperasserts that thismobilization has created afeministmovement which in tum is causing a paradigmshift inthe way Chinese view women.

I. Howwere women owressed? Infanticide

Female infanticide has been rampantlypracticed in China. "'Baby ponds', immersion in cold or boiling water, suffocation, strangulation, burying aliveormore commonly abandonment or exposure" were commonmethods of extinguishing newborn females' lives. [Guisso,

Johannesen 163] Whywould the Chinese do this to their daughters?

"A daughter is a troublesome and expensive thing anyway. Not only hasshe to be fed, but there is all the trouble of binding her feet, and of getting her betrothed, and of makingupher wedding gannents. Even when she is married offshe must have presents made to her when she has children. Really, it is no wonderthat so many baby are slain at their birth. Admittedly a child could beexchanged for a babygirl fromanother family whowould eventuallybecome the wife ofa son, or she could be soldconcubine, asa slave or prostitute." [Guisso, Johannesen

176]

"On the other hand, boys were of overwhelming importance tothe family. When a son reached adulthood, he was expected to work forandsupport his parents and grandparents; he was in fact regarded as a formof insurance forold age. Should a son become successful scholar­ official, his family,particularly his parents, basked inthe glory. Even more importantly, sonswere regarded as the only means of ensuring a continuity of ancestor worship. Directmake

descendants were expected to carry out such functions as periodic presentation of food at the

grave, sweeping the grave and burning paper money, clothes and articles. This is vitally important

to the welfu.re of the family, as itwas believed that the ancestors had the power to aid or punish

their descendants. In Chinese view, female descendants could not do any of these things for their

ancestors."[Guisso, Johannesen 176]

By these accounts it isno wonder that a female child's lifehad no value, when such little

value was placed on women. Their lives for the most part were of negative value. Infanticide is

murder. How could so many womenhave committedthis crime against their ownoffspring?

First it was for their ownsafety and maintenance of status. Menwantedmale children and

women who did not provide them were treated harshly. So infanticide wasselfprotection. It was

also a way of sustaining life. Male children were the ones who would provide for the parents as

they aged. So it was necessary to have male childrento ensure support in thefuture. As the one

child policy came into effecthaving a male child was even more important because families were

onlyallowed one and they needed to be supportedthe in future.

Culture certainly promotes maleoffspring but how could female infanticide have been

institutionalized in China? Could it be that women are so undervalued that they couldnot bearto

bring a female into this atmosphere? Orcould it be that women were already so oppressed that

they could not handle the punishment and shame of birthing a female child?Thesecond appears

to be the most accurate. Because womenwereso oppressed, they did not have options andwere

unaware they could resist inany way. Theywere oppressed physically through footbinding, and

intellectually and emotionally through isolation. Beyond those limitations those that lived were subject to extremely high and narrow expectations. They also bore immense burdens begirming with the binding of their feet.

Footbinding

"The term 'footbinding' refers toChinese theHan custom of using artificial meansto stunt the normal growth of women's feet and render them unnatural inshape and smallness. The custom dates back at least to 1130 AD., but some sources claim it originated as early as 1766-

1122 B.C. The initial attractiveness of the custom stennned only from its esthetic appeal but also from its role as a sign ofconspicuous leisure, like the cultivation oflong fingernails."[Guisso,

Johannesen 179] Women with boundfeetwere a symbol of status for their husbands. It demonstrated he could keep his wifeidle whichwas expensive.

The pain involved inthisprocess demonstrates again the lack of value placed onwomen in the Chinese culture. Theprocess of binding the feet begins while the bones are still softand malleable. "The foot is bandaged so as to make the toes bend under and into the sole, bringing the sole and heel as close together as possible. After a yearof intense pain, during whichthe four smaller toes became broken and portions offleshwere slothed off fromthe foot and the largest toe was bent up and backwards, the feet becamenumb. Ideally in returnthis for suffering, a girl gained a desirable adult foot shape threeof to five inches." [Guisso, Johannesen 180] Girls chose this fate rather than suffer the shame of the community for not doing it. She was socialized into the practice and hadlittle or no choice due to the economic impact of her decision.

"In a society in which marriages were parentally arranged, status wasaprime consideration in marital alliances. Thus women instructed their daughters that withoutboundfeet no suitable marriageproposals would be forthcoming. Intermingled with notions of marriage desirability and ideal beauty ofwas amystique sexual attractiveness. After puberty, a footbomtd woman would not allow anyone to glimpse hernaked feet; thus the bound foot exercised an even more powerful effect on Chinese male imaginationthe than female ankle or breast on the fantasy life of Western men."[Guisso, Johannesen 180]

Footbinding was a device fort he suppression of women. It restricted female activity but more importantly served as a cultural symbol of female dependence and subservience. This physical mutilation is amanifestation of women's subservience. They are willing to endure pain, limit their capabilities, hide their deformed feet for a husband they haveyet to meet. For this sacrifice they gain dependence. Yet they will have much toil to maintain their status.

Footbinding further institutionalized dependence. Division of labor was clearly drawn down gender lines. Women's work was domestic and occurred only in the privatearena while men's waspublic. The binding of the feet made women incapable of labor outside the home for they were immobile. As this became more and more nonnative, the upper class became even more extreme. Ideal foot size decreased further. Having a neighbor say that they had never seen the womanespecially outside thehousewas the highest compliment. So boththeir physical pain andtheir isolation increased. As this happened their level of education fell and their emotional well-being decreased with their Jack of contact withthe rest ofsociety.

Language

Male superiority over womenwas established in Chinese philosophy of ancient times and it was this premise that would define the relationshipbetween men and women insociety. This is first realized initsreflection inthe Chinese language. "Inboth termsof sentence construction and vocabulary, every language is closely connectedto the way its speakers conceptualize the world.

The characters of Chinese script, thus, alsocontribute to an understanding of Chinese culture. In this systemof writing, which originated from pictograms, each meaningfulelement of language is represented by a specific character. Asthe society developed, however, maintaining a purely pictorial script would have led to inmnnerable complicated characters thatwould soon have become impossible to manage. Throughthe centuries, Chinese script has continued to develop toward increasing abstraction andconventionality. The character for women can be interpreted as a pictogramofa womankneeling withher hands crossed in front of her." [Chinafor Women 7-8]

The character for a marriedwomen is composed of a womanand a broom. It originally meant to assist or help. The married women is a ''helper" who follows the instructionsof her husband and submits to others. The verb to match is made of the symbolsfor a womanand a mouth. It originallymeant to follow. The nature of a womanbeing to followorders given by the mouth of a man. The character for slave is a womanand a hand. Slaverywas punishment for criminals. The symbol for good is awoman and a child. Good andbeauty are closelybound togetherhere. [China for Women 9-10) Throughthese examples it is clearthat women have no identityindependent of men. They are present to take orders, performtasks, and givebirth. And beautywas defined by men through painful thedeformation of feet.

Other composite characters that use the woman symbol fall into three groups. The first and largestthe is name. The second largest group has the meaningbeauty or good. Words that fall in this categoryare restrained, respectfui modest,obedient, andpracticed. The thlrd group refers to womenwho are neither good nor beautiful.examples Some are unrestrained, disruptive, greedy, quarrelsome, jealous, slanderous. In this category alsofallexpressions concerning sexuality. [Chinafor Women 10-11) Thoughthe final group isthe smallest, it isthe most oppressive. Women feared being called these words and theirbehavior wasrestricted by this fear.

It is similarto slave men inthe United States fearing lynching andwomen fearing . The fear limits options and changes their behavior.

The association of good and beautifulto seem have verylittle to do with actual physical beautyor beauty that comes fromthat within comes from knowing the self. Good and beautiful seems to defined in tennsof a woman'sinteraction men. with Their namesare definedrelation in to men, the tasks they perfo� or where they are located. Theirworth is determined byhow well they conformto oppressivetraditional roles. The pressure to conformis great becausetheir worth is built on theirmarriage partner andreputation; and a reputationcan be ruineda in moment. Thisleaves little noor roomfor deviation. Anydeviation can ruin your re putation and that is a fate worse than death.

Even subconsciousmessages reinforce submission. Positive explorations of sel� relationships, andthe world are regarded asthe worst of insults. These insultscontain the characterfor woman. Their symbolshave no power. Their role models haveno power. There areno obviousnor acceptable ways to challenge the status quo.

Nushu

The womenof the Shangjiangxu province developed Nushu. Nushu is the secret language of Chinese women. Itwasdevelopedbecause women did not have access to education. Nushu has its own characters. Itiscenturies old (Shang dynasty 11 B.C.)andnow there is only one womanwho can read and speakitfluently. "Generally deniedto access an education''men's in words," they were spared indoctrinationthe in textual tradition thatsubordinatedthem. Nor did they have to agonize overmaking theirpalatable truths to men. Yet because they were not writingmen's in words, nothing wrotethey would revise the dominant textualtradition inthe slightest. But these womenmaneuvered within social constraints in innnediate, daily ways, formingin the process socialnetworks of emotionaland sometimes economic support in which theycould voice theirobjections to the inequities andpain of theirlives."[China for Women 13-

14]

Men did not mindthis secret language.accepted They and even encouraged its use becauseit was a prestigious activity for theirwomen to engage in. Women shared songsand storiesover needle work, fires andpotlucks. Theirwords are written on cloth, paperand funs.

Thesepieces tell the stories of the Chinese woman. There are autobiographies, vows of sisterhood, letters of condolencesand prayers. It is ironic how as women'seducation has increasedtheir language of support and sisterhood as ceasedto exist, instead of gaining strength.

It symbolizes their integrationinto theculture but decreasestheir uniqueness and bond to one another. Since thiswas a source of power, community and strength, it isunfortunate that as their struggle for equal treatment progresses itsfrequency is decreasing.

Traditionof ''Old Same" Another tradition that bound Chinese womentogether is called laotong. The word literallymeans "old same." Old is a term ofendearment. A girlat the age of eight or nine was pairedwith another girl from another town that washer equal, her "same," in everyway. The childrenwould havethe same size feet, the same family status,the same level of beauty. The girls would exchange funs andpledge undying sisterhood. These couples defined traditions andgave women and opportunity forexpression Because these womenhad no economic opportunities, marriagewas a necessity. They left their familiesto assume the lowest status in another. The

«third-daybook" isdelivered to the brideon the third day after marriage.way Itwasa the woman and her friends to express theirfeelings about the marriage and the loss involved. Some even containedthreat to the mother-in-lawto treat the new bridewell.

''Confucius seldom mentioned women Once in histo reply Ai Kung, he said, 'Women are those who followthe instruction ofman;do thus they become capable."'[Guisso, Johannesen 66]

Since the primaryrole of educationwas to learnto read Confusionteachings, womenhad no messages or images power.of Theywere not considered worthy of educationand ifthey were exposed to education it was onlyto improve their ability as a wife.respected Womenthenare only then for their roles.familial

Unfortunatelyboth Nushu andlaotong were traditionsthat were practiced byfew. Nushu was limitedto one provinceand laotong was oftenlimited to the upperclasses. Thesetwo rituals are significant becausethey were waysthat womenbrok e their isolationand found a sense of communityand validation For these reasons they increased women's esteem and knowledge about the world. It was an escape thatmade their lives both more meaningful andmorebearable.

EducationRole /Cultural Expectation The education womendid receive came from four books thathave long been used as basic textbooks for Chinese women. Theyover werewritten the course of a thousand yearsthe from

Han dynastyto the Ming dynasty. "TheNu chieh(Commandments for Women) was writtenby a female author namedChao Pan andwas concerned with women's virtues. She wroteit to meet the needs of thewomen of hertime. Her attemptto benefit womenironically the became fetter of

Chinese women. Pan Chao wrotespecific rules, as part of an unchangeable moralcode,to be practiced in everydaylife. She divided the book into sections basedrelationships on to others."[Guisso, Johannesen67]

"A woman should humble herselfand respect others, she shouldalways put others first and self last, she should do something good but not mentionit, ifshe should do something wrong, she should not deny it, and she should behave subservientlyand always appear faithful. She should go to bed late andget up early to work. She should perform househo1d tasks day or night, easy or difficult. Sheshould finishwhatever she did completely andtidily. She should control her facial expressions and her attitude inorder to serve her husband; she should purify herself mentally andph ysically, and she should not be addicted to joking or laughing; she should prepare the wine and food to worship the ancestors properly. When a woman follows all these rules, her name wouldbe honored."[Guisso, Johannesen 68]

Sense of shame seems to drive Chinese women. Their behavior islimited by custom. The rules are restrictive and the punishment fornonconformitywas devastating. It is no surprise that womendid not rebel. It is also no surprise that suicide rates for older women, especially widows are very high. They have lived isolated, lonely, tasks driven lives. As the pace of their livesslows widows find there is no one to care for and they findthat they themselves need caring for. They have no more use in tenns of what they have been indoctrinated to believe. They areto obeytheir sons but can be of little use so they feelworthless and their lives have no pleasure. In a culture where community welfare is most significant women take their own lives soastonot be a burden.

II,Criticisms/Change

The first real critic of the traditioncame inthe Ch'ing dynasty. Yu Cheng-hsieh(1175-

1840) severely criticized the concept of female chastity. He questioned the widower's right to remarry in viewthe of prohtoitionplaced on women. He openlydenounced the injustices suffered by women and asserted their equality withmen. His efforts had little effect upon the deeply­ rooted tradition itse� buthe did inspire other scholarsto take note of this problem. There were other critics over the next several centuries, but no significant changes seemed tohave come from their questioning and challenging of tradition.

Footbindina

1 During the 1890 s footbinding came under scrutiny of Western culture. Especially radical intellectuals who stated that footbinding was a tradition of the past which crippled halfthe population and caused China tobeviewed as culturally backward. Simultaneously it was recognized that women in Europe and the United States were aresource that increased productionand made countries more successful. Attackson footbinding became more and more

frequent. Two leaders who wrote protesting literature were Kang Yuwei and Liang Qichao.

Mainly upper class read these writings beganto think about change but were unwilling to risk the ridicule until they realized that others were thinking the same things. Reformers and foreign womenjoined together in Anti-footbinding societies. These provided the necessary support.

[Croll47]

In Shanghai in 1892 KangYuwei organized the first ''Unbound-Feet Society." Natural foot societies and the like began to come into existence inother cities and bordering towns.

These societies were both welcomed and ridiculed. Discussions began. Town gatherings were places of decision. To decide not to bind the feet could endanger their daughters' chances of marriage so having alarge group consent was imperative because it would be their sons would be potential spouses. A report from reported fiftyor sixtyen m founding a society then inviting all the women of the townto a feast, but only those who would unbind their feet would be allowed to sit and eat. The others had to watch. The report documents that only wives of chiefleaders sat down. [Croll 48]

Members of the natural foot societies were ridiculed and shunned among their upper class peers. Reformers enlistedhelp from influential people. They had meetings, circulated writings, imported and shoe patterns. Together societies petitioned the government to support their cause.

In 1902 Empress Dowager decreed that footbinding should end. She encouraged the gentry to set an example and a formal systemrewards of and punishments was established.

The tradition of footbinding waslaid to rest when large numbers of men joinedthese societies and pledged that neither they nor their sons would marry a small footed woman. Itwas a masculine boycott of tradition. The beliefthat bound feet were a prerequisite to agood marriage was challenged. This happened at atimewhen values were changing. The presence and influence Western culture was being felt. Somesocieties were actually headed by American women and later turned over to the leadership of Chinese women.

Education

The anti-footbinding movement is said to have grown out of the movement to educate women. The educationmovement provided both the impetus for initiation and support for the continuous efforts of the anti-footbinding movement. Inthe late eighteen-nineties Western influence began to be fehand the education movement began. It was motivated by male oriented nationalism. In order to serve the country well women needed to be able to aid in teaching their sons. This linethinking of did not break with tradition, butitresulted in schools for girls multiplying in number. Missionaries were finally ableto set up the schools they had been struggling for. Wealthy merchants opened other schools to provide an alternative to foreign education. Many of these schools, especiallythose sponsored by foreign aid, would not admit girls with bound feet. Education challenged traditional values and for sections of the upper classes, who were the most revolutionary, it won. Government controlled schools that previously made no provision for girls, beganto allow them into the primary grades.

There are many repercussions of these changes. Primarily women became more mobil('.

But further their isolation wasdecreased as their sense of community increased through participation in the anti-footbinding movement and ineducation. Women gained power and confidence fromcommunity bonds and heightened awareness. Their status began to change as a result. Education became a symbol of prestige. Since status is a driving force in China education became a priority. This change in priority and status represents a cultural paradigm shiftvalues. in

The change is demonstrated through one woman's story about a party. She purchased a new silk dress andattended the party where she found herselfignored. No attention was paid to her elaborate dress. The attentionwas focused on a quietly dressed women who was educated and speaking about the world. She was eclipsed by others interested in herwords and knowledge. [Croll 54] the With advent of this behavior, women of all ages tobegan pursue education. courseOf this privilege was restricted to women who had the monetary means to accord schooling andwhose families could forgo her labor. These changes that began as means of improving male children's education and had no goal to increase the status of women, leadto the development ofa woman's movement.

Economics Early t 990's

As this was happening, economic changes were occurring. In the cities industrializ.ation was taking place and women were assuming positionsthe in labor force that previouslyhad been unavailable to women. There was deviation from the ideal in rural areas too. Outof sustenance needs womenhad previously worked in the fields. So economic needs made women's participation in the labor force essential. Thebenefit to women for their work was againa reduction in isolation and an increased sense of community and selfworth.

Class plays a major role in how womenexperienced both oppression and reform. The upper class who thehad means to attend school often had the added experience of going abroad for further study. This not onlygotthem out of theirhome and homeJand but exposed themto revolutionary ideas. Theideasof feminism began tospreadthroughthe upper educated class.

Women were breaking away from tradition to become teachers and support themselves. These were the first activists. They wrote in attempt to enlighten theiruninformed sisters. Awareness wastheir priority. Oncethe womenwere aware of their oppressionthen they could beginto look at theiroptions and take public action, whichwas the writers' second goal.

AssemblY Many of the women who returned from studyingJapan in joined secret revolutionary societies. By 1911 they were serving as nurses,conveyingmessages and snuggling arms and ammunition. Some even put on unifonns and fought intherevolution that overthrewthe dynasty.

Women threatenedsuicide if they were not allowed to fight. They organizedthemselves into battalions and also served onas nurses the front lines. womenOther gavejewelry and valuables to support the cause. [Croll 64]

Afterthe war womenrights became a larger issue for China. Womennow knew they had value and were able to organize. They were seeking equal rightsliketheir sisters in other countries. Chinese Suffragette Society was formedPeking. in It was a revolutionary group who visionary ideals wereis forin constitution. "The constitutioncontained ten points: the education of women, abolition offootbinding, prolnbitionof concubinage, childmarriages and prostitution, provisionof social servicewomen for inindustry, encouragement of modest dress, better terms of marriage, establishment of political rights andoverall evaluation of the positionwithin the family."[Croll 70]

By the end of the firstphases of women's rights development womennew had experiences inpublic, social and economic life. They begantaking on symbolsof statusthat they saw on others. For example they cut theirhair to look like womenwhom they sawas having power.

These symbolsare significantthey because are physicala manifestation of their belief that they are equal and worthy. They signalcoming a demand forthe rightsthat are being withheld and that they are entitled to. The next phase of the movement focussed on gaining rights to and in the public domain.

This meanschallenging the sexual divisionof laborand pressuring the government to give women rightsto land, to vote, to hold public office, to education, to work andto free marriage. Hunan

Women'sAssociation began to coordinate these goals in 1921. Atthis juncture feminism.joined withpatriotist, nationalismand labor movements. The next twentyyears were spent continuing this struggleand making slow progress.

"During Republicanthe era the women's and children's labor were used in the fuctories. There was a growingawareness of the rights of the individual. There was increased emphasison theyoung, a decline in strict observance of the age-old ideal of andthe passingof new laws granting equal status to menand women. Therewas propaganda against

Confucian idealsand also strictsurveillance of each memberof the community."[Guisso,

Johannesenpage 177] Here is evidence that economic success andnecessity increase status and value ofwomen andchildren.

Economics 1949-1978 In 1949 the communist party took overChinaandthe CulturalRevolution began. Land was divided up and everyone was given a job subsistenceand a level sa1ary. Attime this the value of workchanged. Now a womanhad to work to supportthe fiunily. Nolonger wasone income sufficient. Even if the husband couldmake enoughto support thethere family was pressure for the women to work. Ling Yang, a recentto immigrant the united States from China, said that she can rememberas achild neighbors coming over and pressuring her mother to get a job. When she did not, more people came. A value shifthadoccurred. Previouslyit was prestigious to have never seenthe womanout of the house and now it was a cuhuralto violation stayat home.

Economics in China is inacycle that is increasing thewelfare of the majority. Butthis is a slow process so the majority of women arenot in a positionto become activists. Economicsalso influences education. Becauseeducation is government fundedthe number of studentswho receive education beyond high school depends on the education budget. It further affects educationand employment becausebefore a student is accepted into the universitythe government or institution hasalready determined theirjob aftergraduation. Ifno jobs are predicted to beavailable studentsdo no further theireducation. Education is the best way to raise consciousness so to restrict access to thisprivilege and informationwill keep the movement from gaining momentum.

Marriage.Labor and Land Laws With the CulturalRevolution came many new laws. Marriagelaw, Labor lawand Land legislationall came in the first fewyears. These laws gave women the rightto chooseher own marriagepartner, to access toland and equalrights to participate thein labor force. Legal protectionwas provided to protect those rights. These changes were widely publicized. The secondmajor change duringthe Communist regime was to expand opportunities for women in employment. This gave women the potentialfor economic independence. The third facet was to establish new ideology of equality. [Croll-SinceMao 2] There was anattempt to redefine women and replacethe male dominant model.

All-China Women's Federation, commonly calledthe Women's Federation set goals and worked withthe Communist government. Theyset up small organizations all overthecountry, their goal beingto have most everywoman to have access to one or at least information.

One-ChildPolicy

By the late ninety-seventiespopulation was bec oming reala concern for China. The One- Child Policy was implemented. Therewere rewards for abiding by the policy and punishments for violation. Rewards andpunishments were monetary aswell as social. The economic pain was not nearly so great as the social Birth control was emphasized andnearly mandated. For women in rural villages this was a problem because they needhildren, c especially male children, to work in the fields. Women in the cities were less bothered by the policy because their focus was work not children. If they took issue with the policy, it wasmore for the violation of their rights.

This policy was put in place forthe protection of the people. Protection from starvation was its aim. The policy therefore had the connnunity's interest in mind. It was also a defense for the government against revolution. InChinamost revolutions took place when people began to starve. So as time progressed thepotential for revolution increased. The population was growing and China had the same resource restrictions. The Great Leap Forward was an attempt to increase production, but its success was not great enough to meet the growing needs of the country.

Granted this policy is restrictive, but it has the country's best interest inmind. The two reasons for participation are coercion andvolunteering. The untold part of the story lies in how the government regulates this policy. The government decides on a birth rate, a number of births and then divides that number by region or province. Then thatprovince divides that number down and gives each institution a number of allowable births. Ling Yang explained that during the eighties while she was working for a university. Alleligiole women'snames would be placed on a list then the government official in charge of birth control would decide which women would be allowed to conceive that year. Each woman would be caJled in and told her fate. After discussion and the ineligiole unconsenting women are coerced to sign thatthey would not conceive that year.

The government not only controls the number of births but it controls who gives birth and when. This isthe part that Ling Yang rejects. That is violationa of privacy. It is humiliating. As much progress as womenhave made that are still oppressed by the two most powerful forces in their culture, the culture itself andthegovernment.

Education1978-1990 1s

Educationthrough high school is now standard forwomen. Then on one day across the country anyone wanting further educationtakes an exam. Ling Yangstatesthat about fifteen percent of students are allowed further education. (That statistic varies with the amount to money available for education in the givenyear.) These studentswill beoffered the opportunityto further theireducation but will be told where they will study andwhat they will study. The score on the examand the family's political background arethe factorsthe in decision. Because her scores were so high she could not bedenied the opportunitybut because her father was a capitalist her choices were very limited. In fact her onlyoption was to study history.

As economic necessity increases, economic independence increases which leads to an increase instatus. The causal relationship maynot always be that clear but economics isan important factor in the increases of status of women.

III. CurrentSituation Suicide

"Girls are frequently abandoned in train stations, busterminalsor the steps of cityhalls by disappointed parents. Becauseparents rarely want togive away a son unless he is severely disabled or ill, orphanages are crowded with girls. One signof the stress this causes isthe high suicide rate among ruralwomenbetween the ages of 17 and 27." [Mufson] Selling women is slavery. It stillhappens in China The message is the government is not adequatelyprotecting women there, or that there are stillpeople inChina who haveno respect forfemale life. It could be comparedto the KKK inthe United States. Thoughno t all citizens of the U.S. condone racismo r white supremacyviolent actsagainst African Americans still occur. The differenceis the emphasison justicein the United States. Here the headline wouldbe aboutthe punishment but this article was onlyabout the event.

The high suicide rate amongyoung women has many implications. One possibility isthey are internalizing the culture so completely thatthey arefeeling worthless. The messagesthey receive are female children are a burden andthat women haveprice tags andare valuableonly in relationship to men. Anotherpossibility is th ey areso fearful of not meetingthe ideals they would ratherdie thansuffer the shame that wouldbe brought uponthemselves and more importantly their families. A thirdpossibility is that they lack outlets and feelso suffocatedthat death seems to be the onlyoption.

Once pastthe initialhurdle of being brought intothe world, womenface remnantsof

China's Confuciantraditio� which teaches that a womanhas three obligations: to obeyher father beforeher marriage, to obeyher husband andto obeyher eldest son afterthe deathof her husband. Chinasays the positionof womenhas improved dramaticallyunder communist rule.

TheCommunist regimeassigned jobs to everyone, regardless of sex. For the first time,large numbers of women went to work outside the home. To some extent, communal living, identical

Mao suits, Communist rhetoric and homogenization of Chinese life covered up the traditional ways of thinkingthat continued after Communist rulebegan. With the loosenmg of social controls, manyof the underlyingbeliefs were laidbare. [Mufson] This exposure however does not seemto have caused great change in Chineseattitudes aboutwomen. Violence

"Two sisters fromrural Sichuan Province were ta1dng a trainto Guangdong earlier this year in search of work whenthey met a man fromtheir home village. He persuaded them to get offthe tra� and they were abducted and sold into marriage by a broker."[Mufson]epidemic "An of violenceaffects the lives ofhundreds of millions of Chinese women, while widespread discrimination in education and employment both reflects and reinforces social prejudices against women. Hundreds of thousandswomen of have beenabducted inthe revivalofa lucrative, and often violent, trade that meets growing demand for wives, slaves and prostitutes, saida report

compiled by the New York-based Human Rights in China (HRC). [Macartney]As China's move to a market economy puts greater stress on working men and breaks down a rigid social

surveillance system, women are becoming the victims of worsening . Some say this recent epidemic of violence is caused bywomen's increasing economic independence which threatens men's status as well as the status quo. As womenbecome independent, they become aware of their own capabilities and the injustices they suffer. Since men perceive their desire for

equal rights as areduction of men's rights, opportunities, and powers they are unsympathetic to

the cause in fact some are even hostile which results in . The message of the violence is to returnto their subservient role. Shame isno longer a successful motivator and when faced with anew threat people seem to regress to physical strength and threat of injury to motivate.

Extramaritaland affairs divorce

''Traditional views of female inferiority and growing numbers of extramarital aflairs by many newly richbusinessmen also cause problems, she said, adding that millions of women laid off by loss-making state firms had become more vulnerable aseconomic dependence on their husbands increased.'"' Chen said Sichuan, in China's southwest, was one of the regions with the highest incidence of abuse, along withneighboring Hubei, eastern Shandong andthe country's three northeasternfur provinces. [First all-women] "Feudal traditionsof male dominance are strong in these areas. Northeasternmen are verychauvinistic, while in Sichuanthey're famously bad tempered," she said, adding that the problem was also worsening in areas that had got rich quickly, like the Shenzhen specialeconomic zone inthe south." Filing fordivorce is oftenout of the question, not onlybecause manywomen still holdto the traditionthat wives must staywith their husbands, but aJso because China's housing systemmakes it hard for single femalesto securehome. a

"There are laws, butthe procedure is very costly andwomen many don't have the money, connectionsor knowledgeto protectthemselves," said Chen, adding that China'slegal systemhad failedto bridge the gap leftthe by breakdownof administrative socialcontrol systems in place

W1der state planning. [Firstall-woman] Though divorce can be costly 75%divorces of are filed forby women [Reluctant] The implications of this are that some womenhave bought into the new paradigm. Theybelieve womenhave value and thereforethe right to happiness and an identitybeyond a relationship to a man.

Assembly The creation of women's organizations such as the All-China Women's Federation and the

Associationfor the Advancement of Feminismdemonstrates a heightened awareness and commitment to women's rights by women. When faced with thistype of oppositionwomen are banding togetherfor strength. Theorganizations reflect the sentimentsof a portionof the populationand certainly represent a movement in progress. These organizations are calling for more policies to ensure their rights are upheld, for it is not enough for them to merely exist, though that is a step.

Employment

There was a job fair featuring 42 organizations under the State Council forwhich 2000 women crune to apply for 800 positions. Twenty-sevenof those forty-two organizations refused positions to women. ''The chiefof one state department told the newspaper that women were turned away for three reasons: they do not like to travei they cannot carry aheavyworkload and they wantto have children."[Chinese women spumed] �'Cannot carry some heavyworkload" sounds subjective. The article does not mention a test so how wastheir work capacity determined? The desire for children does not seem like a substantial reason for refusing employment. This demonstratesthat though there is a law guaranteeing women equal rights there is a gap between theory and practice.

Research

A survey done at the City University questioned 1,380 students from 42 schools in Central and Western Chinathe study demonstrated that "ahuge majority of children still believe that mothers should be housewives. Fortypercent believed their fatherswere more capable in every way." [Kwok] Childrenare not consistently getting messages that are empowering to females.

The same university did a study involving 235 women managers. Eightypercent of whom said a good wife always puts her children and family first. A majoritywould saidthey show submission to their spouse by giving him "face" although he would not do the same for her.

Ninety eightpercent of these same women said thatwomen should develop their owninterests and skills. They said that a marital relationship would be in danger ifthe women took a stronger role than her husband.percent Thirty said men should make all important choices. Ninety percentsaid that a womanshould be able to obtainan education in any field and enterfield any of work." [Yevng] Chinesewomen seem to believethat they should havethe right educationand work. But they seemto bewilling to allowthe manto maintain powerthe in home. Therewas consensus thatwomen silentlyand willingly put up with these burdensbecause they areconforming to social expectations. It seemsthat they arebecoming aware of the injusticebecause they are disproving of sexisthusbands. This appearsto be ashift in values. Women wantthe opportunities previouslydenied them. Theyalso want families and traditional values areassociated with that, so there is a struggleto integratetraditional values and the value/desirefor equal status. Women aretrying to integrate thetraditional paradigm of oppression withthe new paradigmof individual rights. isThis a struggleand represents a paradigmshift in progress. Manyof women whoparticipated in the study "expresseddesire a for better support services from theiremployers and felt it isnecessary for women's activiststo continue:fighting for women'srights inthe workplace and in societyas a whole." [Yeung] -whatdoes this mean? Women wantthose rights. Arethey willingto fightfor them? Do they havetime when working andraising children? Aretheir children learning of theirmothers' support forthe women'srights movementor arethey seeingtheir mothers behavesubmissively and learningthat submissiveness is a normto be upheld? It thatmeans women wantrights. Theyare trying to findto findthe safestway to findfor them. In this struggle childrenare receiving mixed messages.

Scholarship Scholarsare studyinghuman rights. This signis a of a movement. It appearsthat papers andresearch begin almost simultaneouslyas movements gainmomentum. "The Chinese society for the study of humanrights and other national academic bodies have been set up one after another," said the paper, "some institutions ofhigher learning and researchbodies have set up humanrights researchcenters andhuman rights teaching andresearch offices or research offices."[White Paper] �'Meanwhile, alarge numberof special human rights bodies forthe studyof the humanrights of women, children andthe disabled have emerged, the paper claimed.

According to incomplete statistics, since 1991 China hasheld overa dozen large-scale national theoretical symposiums on humanrights and over one htmdred discussions, forums andreports on humanrights."[China attacks] "The research achievements of the academic circles have benefited the fonnationof statepolicies on human rights and exerteda favorable influence in strengthening the people's sense of humanrights and promoting social_development," saidthe report. "China hastranslated and published a large number of books from other countrieson humanrights which not only collect, sort out and introduce variousancient andmodem, Chinese and foreign theories and ideologies on human rights, but also collect the declarations, conventions, agreements, resolutions andconstitutional documents on humanrights of countriesall and international

societies," said the whitepaper. "Tv stations, newspapers andmagazines have started special programs and columns, whichextensively propagateand heatedly discuss the issue of human rights, said the paper. Atpresent publicityand education on humanrights havebeen included in nationaleducation and vocational training. Almostallinstitutionsofhigher learning andtraining organizations have startedspeciallectures human on rights, and some universitieshave a human rights course to systematicallytheories teach on humanrights, according to the paper. "[White

Paper]

Government

"The Chinese government, belatedly realizing that by the end of the century they'll have a ''hoodlum armyof70 million single men"on theirhands, has let it be knownthat women have some value. But perhapsthis is only a pretense. The government is in fact achieving its objective.

What formof populationrestraint could be more effective than limitingthe number ofavailable wombs?'' [Ellmann] There is a trend inthis lineof questioning. It seems commonthat the government is questioned about the validityof its positions and about the motives behind its words.

China enforced legislationthis year to bandoctors fromtelling parents of the sex of a fetus to try to stop couples aborting girls to ensuretheir onlychild is a son, movea that underscores the extent of the problem. [Macartney] It is also another step inthe government'sefforts to assert the value of females without clearly enunciating the idea that it believes womenare of value.

Chinaseems to communicate more that it will uphold their rights because it mustnot because it believes in the innate worthof women.

Many laws have beenpublished in the last five years. The largest govememt document is the Women's Programme. It lays out government prioritiesto increasethe status of women throughreform efforts including education, employment, legal protection, and healthcare. China has already accomplished huge improvenments in increasing the economic level of its female population. It is establishing procedures to ensure further success. The legitimacyof the program and its objectives are distrusted. Behaviors like not hiring women, banning conferences, and spreading negative propagandamake the government's intentions suspect. Theh ypocrisy makes citizensand foreigners alike challenge the government'scommitment to these ideals.

Chinahas worked to reinforce the lawfulprotection of women's human rights. In 1992

Chinapromulgated and put into effect the law of the People's Republic of Chinaon the protection of woments rights andinterests. It stipulates inconcrete terms all aspectsof women's rights and interests, including rights and interests inpolitics, culture and education, labor, property, person, marriage and family. Chinahas now established a legal system with the constitution as its basis and the law of the People's Republic of China on the protectionof women's rights and interests as

its mainpart; it includes some l 0 legislations, more than 40 administrative laws and regulations and more than 80 local laws andregulations guaranteeing women's rights and interests. In August

1995 the Chinese government issued the program for Chinese women's development

(1995-2000), which makes clear that goalthe main for Chinese women's development is to raise the qualityof women in gene� and make sure that womenenjoy allthe rights they are entitled to

by law. [White Paper] Asexamples the number of female government employees, women in work force, and number of females enrolled in schools were cited. Other issues such as birth

control decisions, overallhealth care, reduction in female kidnappings and sellings, women's

rights organizations, discrimination against women and improved status were mentioned.

Women'sConference

The United Nations held its Fourth Conference on Women in September of1995 in

Beijing China. China wasto simultaneously hostthe Non-Governmental Organiz.ational Forum in

Beijing. The Chinese government banished the Non-Governmental Organiz.ational (NGO) forum

from its original site in central Beijing because it feared thepossible impactwomen's of

demonstrations on its own citizens, who have not been allowed to protest openly since the 1989

Tiananmen Square uprising. [Hartmann] Was this a smart government decision to protects it elf

against uprisings or was it an excuseto move the conferenceto a less public area and to restrict

interaction between Fourth United Nations Conference on Women participants and participants in the NGO forum?

Shiva suggests that people in China and those in the United States and other developed

countries have different perceptions of humanrights. She says that "meeting basichuman needs does not fit into theUS discourse on humanrights. The Beijing conference provides an opportunityto widen ourthinking about human rights to include issues of economicjustice, and political andenvironmental space to meet basic needs." "China, the world'smost populous country, has undertakenthe largest experiment inthis century in attempting to make good on the fundamental humanright to food, clothing, and shelter. Instead of focusing on this tremendous endeavor, the US andits lobbygroups have focused onlyon China's violationof relatively narrowly construed humanrights." [Shiva 18] This statement raisesthe questionof common definitions. Maybe what isneeded is some discussionof the ultimate goal and stepsto lead to its accomplishment, so that progress canbe acknowledged andnot criticized fornot meeting outsiders' higher expectations.

"The role playedby the NGO coordinating committee in excluding_NGOs and undermining theiractivities atthe forumhas not becomeknown, becausethe Chinese authorities were constantlyblamed foractions anddecisions taken by the NGO Committee, which seemedto do anythingbut fucilitate. Among the committee's arbitraryactions was the fixing of a $50 registrationfee, whichexcluded a largenumber of Third World delegates, and the denialof conference accessto thousands of women on the groundsthat their registrations were late. 'I was refused registrationfor the forum, althoughI was registered at the UN conference inBeijing. I finallymade it into the conference on the strengthof press accreditation, overwhich the NO

Connnittee had no control.' NGO facilitating Committee also overstepped its role byusurping the space fromwomen's movements and groups by monopolizing the space fortheir own use." [Shiva 18]

"It was the world's largest gathering of women, attractingmore than 15,000 to the non-govermnentalmeeting inHuairou and morethan 5,000 to the officialmeeting in Beijing. It compelled Chinese officials to circulaterumors priorto the event that participants would be prostitutes and lesbians running naked inthe streets." [Weinstein 1 lA] Considering that a seeming majority of Chinese women were unawarethat the conferencewas going to talce place this propaganda must not have beensuccessful. It also again brings into question the sincerity of the

Chinese government's connnitmentto women and raising their status. Propaganda likethis would seem to demeanthe effort. It wouldalso make it appear like a circus and cause crowding for gawking etc. Thiscould provide sufficient reasonto movethe locationof the conference since it would not benefit the citizens to see this and it would be difficult for thepolice to controlboth the participants and the onlookers.

"When Chinais deciding who can and who cannot attend the conference, it uses communist ideas to screenpeople's thoughts," saidL� convenerof the parliament'sForeign and

Overseas Chinese Affairs Committee." [Clintonwelcomes] There arealso manyreports of visas being held up. Some arrests andrestrictions on movementare said to be other tactics the Chinese are employing to keep people fromparticipating inthe UN Conference.

Trainedpolice womenpatrolled the conference. Five thousand women officers and one thousandtwo-hundred male officers. [First all-women] The government said that women were under-represented in the police force. It seems that the government gathered all its female officers and trainedat least sixty-sixmore forthe Conference. Thishiring act for appearances only.

IV,Anal,vsis o(Chanie Education

During the past centurythere has beena trend in which women's participationin economic productionand educationhas preceded change. So, economics and education are the fathers of change. Modern leadership has come from the economic and social elite. Their economic position has given them access to infonnation. As education increases dissatisfuction withthe status quo increases. Asstudents were exposed to new ideas and ways of life they found their ownwas criticized by others and they agreed with outsiders' opinions and to challenge their own assumptions. Historically the Chinese people havebeen isolated. The government controls what they see, read and have access to. The government also controls their communication and opportunities for communication. In this was the entire population was isolated and women even more acutely because they were denied education and then restricted to the home. Students found freedom in behaviorthought. andin With their information and enthusiasm they began social movements by providing information and by offering options where there previously had beennone. Women who had been intheworking world were ready to embrace these new ideas.

They were oftenmore middleclass women. The poorest women did not receive information and were to busy subsisting to participate insocialchange.

Economics

Women's participation in the labor force made them ready for new ideas inse veral ways.

First broke their isolation and gave them a community. It built their confidence and it provided exposure to new ideas. Those who embraced the new ideas saw newpossibilities. Consensus built aroundthe desire for improvement. Their source of power and strength came from their numbers andcommitment to their vision. Thisis the birth of the women's feminist movement.

Socialmovements are a primary way of bringing about change in China during this century.

Social movements overthrew the dynastic government, ended footbinding and increased women's education.

It has been shown that these two factors, increased education and participation in the labor force, increasewomen's self esteem, build community, broaden ideas, and allow women to be independent. This independence istwo pronged. Women have become selfsufficient andthey have developed identitiesdistinct fromrelationships with others. Women have proven theirworth to themselves and to the men of China.

Paradigm,Shift

One outsider noticed the naturalfeet andthe bobbed headthe of girls, the free mixing of

the sexes, and the freedom easeand with which women public.appear in These are outward signs

of inward changes thein mentalityof womenthemselves and society at large."[Yu-ning 80]

"Moralcodes have undergone a metamorphosis.piety Filial is stillconsidered the highest

virtue, but blind obedience isno longer upheld."[Yu-ning 80] More valueis beingplaced on free

thought and on individualism.further Thatis demonstrated by love being taken into account in

maritalarrangements. Moral standards involving intimate relationships are changing. Womenare

demandingthat standardsbe the same menfor andwomen. Monogamyrecognized is asthe

proper formof marriage. This is a symbolthat womenare being viewed more asequals one to

one demonstrates equality. Violations of fidelity are no longertolerable foreither partner. In the

unionwomen no longer lose their identity. So it is truly a relationship basedon mutualrespect.

Thesecond major change iswomen's outlook on life. Women are no longer content to

stayat home. Theytoo, feelobligated to make a contn'bution. Housework and motherhood

continueto be priorities, but no longerare they consumingall priorities. The value of women's

work has experienced a change. The third change isthat of social status. Women are

contributingto production in societyand therefore are being consideredmore valuable by men so

their status is increasing. All of these changes together represent a paradigm shift in Chinese values. The shift is away fromtraditional obedience toward individual infonned decision making. To title the previous state would be to call it the paradigm ofoppression. The new state is one of individual respect. It is ashiftbecause one furm has notbeen outright rejected and replaced by a new one throughout the culture. The changes are happeningslowly and progressively. Integration of old

and new create theshift. Values and beliefs are changing and with that behavior to demonstrate

true change.

The shift happens in four stages. Patterned behaviorchanges, which leads to a change in

thoughts, which leads to a change in value, whichultimately leadsto a change inperception.

Change in perception demonstrates true change because it represents adifferentworld view.

Unrecogniz.ed assumptions of old are apparent. The new perception is more aware. People see

the deepermeaning and consequences of past oppressive conditions. New options are available

and strived for.

SocialMovement

Like other major changes this century the shift in the paradigmof the value of women has

taken the formof a social movement. Similar toother social movements it began with those who

had information and resources. With information come options and options are freedom. This

change is slow formany reasons. Some basic ones are China isenormous and it takes time for

informationto fiher through it. Those who initially reject the idea will need time to get usedto it

beforethey are ready to embrace it. Not all have theresources or the desire to

work for change. The government andtraditionhinder progress.

Unlike some social movementsthere was no critical moment orincident. There were

trends, which brought about changes in behaviorthat sparked change. China's women's movement hadno charismatic leader. In fact most wouldno agreeChina one charismatic leader couldbe successful. Traditionand government are simplytoo powerful. It would also be difficuh to appeal to a majorityof the populationbecause the needsand values are vastly different.

Y, FutureImplications Hinderance to Women'sMovement

Tradition

Whilethere are two trendsthat brought about change there aretwo major institutionsthat hinder change. The first is tradition. It isthe most powerful force China in and the women's movement opposes its values. Challenging andrisking are not valued in Chinese society, infact theyare threatening, offensive, and disrespectful. Therefore gaining andmaintaining support is difficult and oppositioncan be intense. Womenare socializ.edto make decisionsbased on community, superio� work and fumily priorities. So the average women does not become active inthe women's movement. The Chinese culture emphasizes emotionnot reason. Socialpressure is the highest ofform socialcontrol and it ispure emotion. Chinese saythat the pressure is unbearable and incomprehensible to Westerners. Because the Chinese operate on an emotion and the women's movement ison based reason, it is difficuh to integrate the feministmovement mto traditional behavior.

Government

The other institutionalobstacle is the government. Government restricts freedom in many ways. The first is, mobility inChinais severelyrestricted. Peoplemay not move unless the government approves the relocation Travel is difficult. Most people do not have the meansto travel. Second government controlseducation and job placement. Women arediscriminated against by the institution Third, it is a severe violation of the normto challenge the government.

It can also be disastrous. The connnunitywill benotified immediately. Theywill pressurethe individual. The offensewill bedocumented and put in the offender's file and that file follows the personeverywhere theygo forthe rest of their lives, so it is nearly impossible to escape it.

Fourth, government does not provide the channels or support for change.

Logistics

The third obstacle is a host oflogistic problems. China is an enormous country.

Communication and collaborationare difficult. Aslarge as the country is there are equally as manyperspectives, differing levelsof education, and differing needs. The women'smovement is one of the upperclass and will continue to be. Untilbasic needs are met, rights are insignificant.

Geography and class are contn'buting factorsto the lack of consensus in China.

Lack of Necessity

The final obstacle that may be the most significant is that change inwomen's rights are not necessary. Gihnartin, Hershatter, RafelandWhite say that "everyclass of womenhas its own pressing issuesthat are not mutually reinforcing and may even be contradictory. But there is one thingthey do have incommon: none of these women's problems endangers social existence or creates detrimental effects to society." [371] It could be argued that the lack ofwomen's rights has detrimentaleffects on society, that the country could be more productive, that quality of life would increase, and that China would be more competitive inthe world market. But arguing those points would come full circleto the fact that China hasothermore pressing needs and that there is not absolutean need for change inthis sphere now. Results ofHinderance

It is ironic that in aperiod of economic reform and development of societythat development of women has come into conflict especiallywhen logicallywomen's development and social development are congruent. [Gilmartin, Hershatter, Rofel and White 371] Here again

China's culture demonstratesjust how powerful it is. When female is associated with power, both men and women in China show contempt. Certainly thisnot true across the board or no movement would exist, but it is the remnant of traditional value that controls alarge portion of the population.

Withthe movement there is not unity. The Women's Federation, which is supposed to be the leading organi7.ation forchange for women, is disliked. Itdoes not represent all women's views. It is a politicalstructure that constantly challenges. This does not sit well with the traditional Chinese. The majority of women are not talcing active roles. But both their inactivity and seeming contempt and at a less extreme indifference, are coming from invisible social pressure thatarises out of instability. [Gilmartin,Hershatter, Rafel and White 368] Women's development is in a low point in the ebb and flow of change.

"To eat froman 'ironrice bowl' means to have a permanentjob in the state sector of the economy. The idea is that suchjobs have the guarantee of security, unlikecontemporaryjobs."

[China for Women329] Instability is coming from the breaking of the 'ironrice bowl'. This causes political stress which causes the invisible socialpressure to abandonpursuit of rights because it simply increases political tension. "A new phenomenonattracting economists attention and women's panic is the phenomenon of women returning tothe home in apparent conformity with economic reform (and social pressure): it caters to a male need to participate in high level competition. This symbolizes the returnto the traditional role for contemporary women and a suffocation ofwomen's selfworth." [Gilmartin, Hershatter, Rofeland White 364] It is also a response to the backlashthey are experiencing inthe workforce. Women are not being hired because hiring happens at the sametime that womentend to get pregnant.

Employers do not want to bother withwomen who might leave the workforce. Women who are hired find that theyare fired if they conceive.

Reactionof Feminists

The counter trend is that women who are employed are tendingto abstain frombeginning families. These women arethe ones who have more educated andhave decidedthat work is a priority. All of themhave different reasons fornot beginning a family. The most common reason is thatwork ismore important. That reflects an internaliz.ation of the feminist needto beself

sufficient. It also represents a change invalues. Family is less of a priority. This is significant because as womenspend more andmore time out of the home andin the workforceand as their rights increase, the family, the primary structure of Chinese society, is effected. One important wayis as educationand self-sufficiencyincreased the choice of a husband became more

hnportant. This choice encompassesnot onlythe right to choose a mate but the right to unchoose or divorce a mate. Thisbrought therevolution into every home. If more andmore priorityis placed on educationand careers, the family may become a less persuasive force inChina which would remove one hurdle on the road of the feminist movement.

Conclusion

Great change has taken place inChina inthe last century. The image of womenhas changed fromthat of a commoditythat isnot to be seento a personwho hasthe right to work, ownproperty and choose her marriage partner. The Chinese have experienced revolution, differing fonns of government, multiple social movements and a culturalparadigm shift. The

change is felt differentlydepending on geographic location and socialclass. The upperclass has

set the standardthroughout historybeginning with footbinding through its abolition. In doing so

they are leaders.

Twotrends, increased economic necessityand increased education, are leadership

initiators forthe Chinese because they expanding the idea of "can." When women entered the

work force and received increased education their confidence, abilityto be self-sufficient, sense of

community, andnumber of options increased. Womenmohbilized and a feministmovement

began. This movementhas made greatprogress by dramatically increasig women's rights during

this century. The feminist movement has caused a paradigm shift inthe way that Chinese view

andvalue women.

As the 'ironrice bowl' broke the movement has and is experiencing a backlash. Women

are beingpressured back into the home bytraditional Chinese social control. At the sametime,

across the Chinaeducation is increasing, access to informationis increasing, and overall economic

level of thepopulation is improving. Though presently themovement appears to bein a slump, all the forces that initiated the movement to beginwith are on therise. In additionthe re arepe ople

inChina who are acting as leaders by establishing new patterns inboth the public and private

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