DOCSLIB.ORG

Child Prostitution in Asia: Perspectives of the Actors Involved

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Child Prostitution in Asia: Perspectives of the Actors Involved Bachelor thesis International Development Studies Child prostitution in Asia: perspectives of the actors involved By Laura Broekman Supervisor: Gerard Verschoor August 2014 Wageningen University 2 Contents 1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 4 2. Who are all the actors involved, and what role do they play?........................................................ 8 2.1 The children ............................................................................................................................. 8 2.2 The role of family and community ........................................................................................ 10 2.3 Media, NGO’s, and governments .......................................................................................... 11 2.4 Clients of the children and those profiting from prostitution and sex tourism .................... 13 3. What are the perspectives of the different actors involved in child prostitution? ....................... 17 3.1 Perspectives of the children .................................................................................................. 17 3.2 Perspective of family and community ................................................................................... 21 3.3 Perspectives of governments, media, and NGOs .................................................................. 23 3.4 Perspective of clients............................................................................................................. 24 4. How can one understand these different perspectives? .............................................................. 27 4.1 How can child prostitution be understood? .......................................................................... 27 4.2 Coexisting perspectives in practice ....................................................................................... 28 5. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 30 References ......................................................................................................................................... 32 3 1. Introduction This thesis addresses and discusses the topic of child prostitution. Precise numbers are unknown but it is estimated that worldwide up to 10 million children engage themselves in prostitution. Because these children are to be found in different settings that vary from ‘simply on the street’ to brothels, bars and hotels, it can be hard to locate them as often they are hidden. Existing data is fragmentary as it is primarily based on voluntary organisations and local research projects that have been conducted (Walker, 2002). These children, both boys and girls, are subject to a high risk of diseases, drug abuse, mental illness, violence, and other dangers (Willis & Levy, 2002). The existence of prostitution dates back thousands of years, but the use of young children has been a more recent trend (Miles, 2000). The abuse of children on the other hand has been present throughout history; from the earliest account of time children have been killed, deserted, beaten and sexually harassed and abused. In ancient Rome and Greece the sexual abuse of children by adult men in brothels took place (Silbert & Pines, 1981). Over the last few decades the sexual exploitation of children has become a serious and complicated issue that has to be considered internationally rather than nationally (Broughton, 2009). In this literature research I would like to focus on the Asian continent as there the scale of child prostitution has increased sharply in the last decades. Throughout this thesis I will make use of case studies conducted in Asian countries to get a hold of the practices of child prostitution there. Thailand will play a prominent role as there the problem is most prolific. Varying statistics estimate that between 30.000 and 75.000 Thai children under age 16 are working in bars, nightclubs and brothels (Blackburn, Taylor, & Davis, 2010). Prostitution in general has turned into a large business and as a consequence the commercial sex sector of several countries keeps growing in scale. Every year the sex industry which does not include just children is believed to add 22 billion dollar to Thailand´s gross domestic product (Blackburn et al., 2010). Prostitution as a commercial sex sector is now integrated into the economic, social and political of life of many countries (Lim, 1998). Children can enter the prostitution industry for a variety of reasons and always there are several actors involved in this process. With the adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989 children are to be safeguarded under article 34 which states that ‘State parties will undertake to protect children from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse’; moreover, article 12 asserts that children have a right to be involved in decisions made on their behalf (Miles, 2000). However it has been shown that tackling child prostitution is hard. Although national and international action has been initiated against this form of child exploitation, the enforcement of laws remains a difficult issue. Young boys and girls are desired for multiple reasons; together with other factors this is contributing to the growing sex tourism industry in Asia. The image of Western men travelling to the continent having sex as their main purpose of the trip is not uncommon. 4 These men are often considered as the perpetuators whereas the young child is being severely victimized. A prostitute is often stereotyped and characterized as a vulnerable woman being forced into prostitution and exploited by the pimp. Most research regarding prostitution is conducted on women, less on children and only a small amount of research has been done on male prostitutes. There is little comprehensive data about the extent, mechanisms or root causes of child prostitution (Children, 2014). More research has to be carried out in order to generate greater knowledge on the nature and magnitude of child prostitution. A better understanding of the social, economic and cultural contexts in which prostitution among children takes place can help identifying the problem, its conditions and effects that it entails. Moreover, this knowledge can generate conceptual frameworks and methods of research and can furthermore be useful in the formulation of policy (Children, 2014). In short, child prostitution has become a global and increasing problem, comprehensive data is lacking and therefore there is a need for new and more comprehensive research. Another issue at stake is the stereotype image that prevails of the actors involved. The media portrays a male perpetuator and a vulnerable woman as his client, however there might be more to prostitution than just this image. In particular children are seen as the most victimized, pitiful and suffering kind of sex worker. According to the media they are the ones who did not have a choice and whose childhood is being deprived, forever damaged by their experiences. As a result of this, aspects of life other than the abuse and sexual degradation of the child are concealed, whereas familial and social relationships are often more important than the intermittent sex work they perform (H. Montgomery, 2010). Thus, data regarding the context of the problem has often been overlooked. This paper is a literature study as I did not do fieldwork in Asia myself. The methodology of this paper consists of primarily information obtained from scientific articles and books, yet occasionally I have used Internet sources, too. After I formulated my topic, I started searching for information by means of search engines such as Google Scholar, JSTOR, ScienceDirect, and WUR online library. The first articles I read were written by Heather Montgomery and were about her fieldwork on child prostitution in Thailand. My first supervisor recommended me this author and I was happy to read her articles as they gave me a great first insight into the subject. In my search for useful sources I tried to be efficient by making use of different key words for having the best results. Search engines like ScienceDirect are very convenient as they are presenting a list of related and recommended articles, in this way lots of information can be obtained without putting much effort. After I succeeded in searching sufficient information I could start reading the articles and organizing the information in order to eventually start writing. Prostitution can be studied from several conceptual frameworks. Victim perspectives like I just have described can be found in traditional feminist theory (Zigman, 1999). According to this theory prostitution entails domination of men over women and gender inequality. Within this theory there are several forms of feminism therefore feminist beliefs vary widely (Scoular, 2008). Radical feminists see prostitution as a practice in which women are being degraded and oppressed by men. Liberal feminists, however, consider prostitution a private business transaction in which the woman is free to enter the business; they view prostitution 5 as a civil right to any individual. A second theory is the labelling theory which is based on the idea that behaviour is being influenced or even determined by the terms used to describe the behaviour. Behaviours, then, are only deviant when society
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Monogamy's Law: Compulsory Monogamy and Polyamorous Existence
    Columbia Law School Scholarship Archive Faculty Scholarship Faculty Publications 2004 Monogamy's Law: Compulsory Monogamy and Polyamorous Existence Elizabeth F. Emens Columbia Law School, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/faculty_scholarship Part of the Family Law Commons, Law and Gender Commons, Law and Society Commons, Legal History Commons, Sexuality and the Law Commons, and the Supreme Court of the United States Commons Recommended Citation Elizabeth F. Emens, Monogamy's Law: Compulsory Monogamy and Polyamorous Existence, 29 N.Y.U. REV. L. & SOC. CHANGE 277 (2004). Available at: https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/faculty_scholarship/410 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty Publications at Scholarship Archive. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Scholarship by an authorized administrator of Scholarship Archive. For more information, please contact [email protected]. MONOGAMY'S LAW: COMPULSORY MONOGAMY AND POLYAMOROUS EXISTENCE' ELIZABETH F. EMENSt I. Introdu ction .................................................................................................. 2 78 II. Com pulsory M onogam y ............................................................................... 287 A . M onogam y's M andate ....................................................................... 287 1. The Western Romance Tradition ................................................. 288 2. Stories from Biological Anthropology .......................................
    [Show full text]
  • Child Prostitution in 12 Countries: an Exploratory Study of Predictors
    Child Prostitution in 12 Countries: An Exploratory Study of Predictors Tuyen N. Huynh, McNair Scholar The Pennsylvania State University McNair Faculty Research Advisor: Dr. Laurie Scheuble, Ph.D Senior Lecturer in Sociology College of Liberal Arts The Pennsylvania State University McNair Faculty Research Advisor: Dr. Vanitha Dayananda Senior Lecturer in Sociology College of Liberal Arts The Pennsylvania State University Abstract Few empirical studies have focused on examining the predictors of childhood prostitution across countries. In this exploratory research article, I examine the predictor variables of child prostitution in 12 countries. These variables include literacy rates for women aged 15 to 24, total population literacy, Per Capita Gross Domestic Product, dominant religion, HIV/AIDS infection, life expectancy, and percent of young women who are economically active, total fertility rate, and age population structure. Thailand has the highest rate of child prostitution among the 12 countries included in the analysis. Findings show that as literacy rates for women, life expectancy and percent of women who are economically active increase, rates of child prostitution decrease. Additionally, as fertility rates decline so does child prostitution. Keywords: child prostitution, country, predictors. Introduction Child prostitution has received considerable attention in the academic literature. Very few studies, however, have focused on predictors of child prostitution by country. The current study focuses on predictors of child prostitution by examining macro-level variables including female literacy, abortion, gross domestic product, poverty levels, and laws to protect the women and children as well as the relationship of these predictors to child prostitution rates within a country. Twelve countries chosen for the availability of 135 data estimates of child prostitution are included in the analysis.
    [Show full text]
  • Analysing Prostitution Through Dissident Sexualities in Brazil
    Contexto Internacional vol. 40(3) Sep/Dec 2018 http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0102-8529.2018400300006 Queering the Debate: Analysing Prostitution Through Dissident Pereira & Freitas Sexualities in Brazil Amanda Álvares Ferreira* Abstract: The aim of this article is to contrast prominent discourses on prostitution and human trafficking to the context of prostitution in Brazil and local feminist discourses on this matter, un- derstanding their contradictions and limitations. I look at Brazilian transgender prostitutes’ experi- ences to address an agency-related question that underlies feminist theorizations of prostitution: can prostitution be freely chosen? Is it necessarily exploitative? My argument is that discourses on sex work, departing from sex trafficking debates, are heavily engaged in a heteronormative logic that might be unable to approach the complexity and ambiguity of experiences of transgender prostitutes and, therefore, cannot theorize their possibilities of agency. To do so, I will conduct a critique of the naturalization of gender norms that hinders an understanding of experiences that exceed the binary ‘prostitute versus victim.’ I argue how both an abolitionist as well as a legalising solution to the is- sues involved in the sex market, when relying on the state as the guarantor of rights to sex workers, cannot account for the complexities of a context such as the Brazilian one, in which specific concep- tions of citizenship permit violence against sexually and racially marked groups to occur on such a large scale. Keywords: Gender; Prostitution; Sex Trafficking; Queer Theory; Feminism; Travestis. Introduction ‘Prostitution’ as an object of study can be approached through different perspectives that try to pin down exactly what are the social and political problems involved in it, and therefore how it can be dealt with by the State.
    [Show full text]
  • Globalizing Sexual Exploitation: Sex Tourism and the Traffic in Women
    Leisure Studies ISSN: 0261-4367 (Print) 1466-4496 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rlst20 Globalizing sexual exploitation: sex tourism and the traffic in women Sheila Jeffreys To cite this article: Sheila Jeffreys (1999) Globalizing sexual exploitation: sex tourism and the traffic in women, Leisure Studies, 18:3, 179-196, DOI: 10.1080/026143699374916 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/026143699374916 Published online: 01 Dec 2010. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 5017 View related articles Citing articles: 60 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rlst20 Globalizing sexual exploitation: sex tourism and the trafc in women SHEILA JEFFREYS Department of Politics and Science, University of Melbourne Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia Introduction Today there are many forces at work in the normalization of the international sex industry (Jeffreys, 1997). The sex industry has become immensely protable, providing considerable resources, not just to individuals and networks involved in trafcking women but to governments who have come to depend on sex industry revenue. One aspect of the industry in particular that governments have come to depend upon for revenue is sex tourism (Bishop and Robinson, 1998). It is the concern of this paper to present a critical analysis of the arguments of the normalizers, whether sex in- dustrialists or their spokespersons, that sex tourism or other forms of prostitution should come to be seen as a legitimate leisure industry, one in which women and children are literally ‘men’s leisure’.
    [Show full text]
  • Incestuous Abuse: Its Long-Term Effects
    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 390 010 CG 026 765 AUTHOR Russell, Diana E. H. TITLE Incestuous Abuse: Its Long-Term Effects. SPONS AGENCY Human Sciences Research Council, Pretoria (South Africa). REPORT NO ISBN-0-7969-1651-9 PUB DATE 95 NOTE 111p. PUB TYPE Books (010) Reports Research/Technical (143) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Adult Children; *Child Abuse; *Family Violence; Females; Foreign Countries; *Incidence; Interviews; Parent Child Relationship; Qualitative Research; *Sexual Abuse; *Victims of Crime; Violence IDENTIFIERS South Africa ABSTRACT Despite the growing recognition of the prevalence of incest which is challenging-traditional views about the family as a safe haven for children, there is a serious paucity of scientific research on incest in South Africa in the new field of family violence. Almost a century after Sigmund Freud dismissed most women's reports of incest victimization as wishful fantasy, the extent of the damage done by this form of abuse remains controversial in South Africa, with some researchers maintaining that incest victims often suffer no severe effects. This report presents the findings of a qualitative study designed to explore the short- and long-term effects of incestuous abuse experienced by 20 adult women ince:-.t survivors. Although all but one of the in-depth interviews were conducted with women who at the time were residing in Cape Town, the places in which the incestuous abuse had occurred are dispersed throughout South Africa. The purpose of this study is to inform policy discussions on incestuous abuse, violence in South Africa, and violence against women in general. Includes information on prevalence of incestuous abuse, study methodology, characteristics of incestuous abuse, initial effects abuse; and long-terms effects.
    [Show full text]
  • Child and Youth Sexual Exploitation in the San Diego Region: a Community Assessment for the ACTION Network
    bulletin CJ Criminal Justice Research Division, SANDAG Child and Youth Sexual Exploitation in the San Diego Region: A Community Assessment for the ACTION Network May 2007 Cynthia Burke, Ph.D. Debbie Correia Sylvia J. Sievers, Ph.D. Sandy Keaton, M.A. 401 B Street Suite 800 San Diego, CA 92101 (619) 699-1900 A SANDAG CJ BULLETIN The information presented here was compiled with funding from The California Endowment. Their support is gratefully acknowledged. Conclusions presented here are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official policy or position of the funders, SANDAG, or its Board of Directors. CHILD AND YOUTH SEXUAL EXPLOITATION IN THE SAN DIEGO REGION: A COMMUNITY ASSESSMENT FOR THE ACTION NETWORK INTRODUCTION conclusions and recommendations based on the information that was compiled. In 2006, the ACTION Network (Against Child FINDING HIGHLIGHTS Trafficking and The Prostitution of Teens In Our Neighborhoods) received funding from The California Endowment to build their capacity, ¾ One in three surveyed youth reported complete a community assessment to determine being sexually exploited and another one which areas are disproportionately impacted by in five had been approached in the past human trafficking and child and youth sexual and asked to engage in acts of exploitation, and develop a five-year community prostitution. 1 action plan . The ACTION Network is a ¾ Sexually exploited youth who reported coordinating body that brings together a primarily trading sex and sexual favors multidisciplinary group of governmental and for basic necessities and alcohol/drugs nongovernmental organizations to address child were less likely to report using condoms trafficking and the commercial sexual than those who traded primarily for exploitation of children and youth in San Diego money.
    [Show full text]
  • CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE FACTS Child Sexual Abuse Is a Crime That Happens Across Race, Religion and Class and Has Lifetime Effects
    CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE FACTS Child sexual abuse is a crime that happens across race, religion and class and has lifetime effects. It includes any interaction between a child and an adult (or another child) in which the child is used for the sexual stimulation of the perpetrator or an observeri. Child sexual abuse is often predicated on silencing the victim, and as a result, reporting and disclosure is low. Even without knowing the full scope of child sexual abuse instances, most experts will agree that 500,000 children will be impacted by child sexual abuse per yearii. Annually, YWCA associations provide nearly 980,000 women and children with gender based violence services. At YWCA, we know that not all violence is acknowledged or responded to equally and that some victims go unrecognized altogether. Child sexual abuse survivors are often left out of the mainstream dialogue about gender-based violence altogether despite their heightened risk. YWCA is the largest network of domestic violence service providers in the country and is also dedicated to promoting women’s and children’s health and safety through a variety of local programs, legislative advocacy, and issue education. FACTS • A common myth is that child sexual abuse is perpetrated by strangers and pedophiles. But most people who sexually abuse children are our friends, partners, family members, and community members. About 93 percent of children who are victims of sexual abuse know their abuseriii. Less than 10 percent of sexually abused children are abused by a stranger. • Children are at heightened risk for sexual violence. Nearly 70 percent of all reported sexual assaults occur to children ages 17 and underiv.
    [Show full text]
  • The Human Rights Argument for Ending Prostitution in India, 28 B.C
    Boston College Third World Law Journal Volume 28 | Issue 2 Article 7 4-1-2008 Recognizing Women's Worth: The umH an Rights Argument for Ending Prostitution in India Nicole J. Karlebach Follow this and additional works at: http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/twlj Part of the Human Rights Law Commons, and the Women Commons Recommended Citation Nicole J. Karlebach, Recognizing Women's Worth: The Human Rights Argument for Ending Prostitution in India, 28 B.C. Third World L.J. 483 (2008), http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/twlj/vol28/iss2/7 This Book Review is brought to you for free and open access by the Law Journals at Digital Commons @ Boston College Law School. It has been accepted for inclusion in Boston College Third World Law Journal by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Boston College Law School. For more information, please contact [email protected]. RECOGNIZING WOMEN’S WORTH: THE HUMAN RIGHTS ARGUMENT FOR ENDING PROSTITUTION IN INDIA Nicole J. Karlebach* INDIAN FEMINISMS: LAW, PATRIARCHIES AND VIOLENCE IN IN- DIA. By Geetanjali Gangoli. Hampshire, England: Ashgate Publishing Company. 2007. Pp. 149. Abstract: In Indian Feminisms: Law, Patriarchies and Violence in India, Geetan- jali Gangoli recounts how the Indian feminist movement, identifiable for its uniquely Indian concepts of womanhood and equal rights, has been effec- tive in promoting equality for women. Gangoli attributes this success to the fact that Indian feminists have influenced legislation and dialogue within the country, while also recognizing the reality of intense divides among castes and religions. This book review examines the vague nature of Indian law in regard to prostitution, a topic that has been the source of extensive feminist debate.
    [Show full text]
  • Trafficking of Women and Children for Sexual Exploitation in the Americas
    Trafficking of Women and Children for Sexual Exploitation in the Americas Women, Health and Development Program Pan-American Health Organization Women, Health and Development Program Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation TRAFFICKING OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN FOR SEXUAL EXPLOITATION IN THE AMERICAS prepared by Alison Phinney for the Inter-American Commission of Women (Organization of American States) and the Women, Health and Development Program (Pan American Health Organization) CONTENTS INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………........... 1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK…………………………………………………………............ 1 TRAFFICKING IN THE AMERICAS........................................................................................... 3 TRAFFIKCING AND HUMAN RIGHTS............................................................................... 4 TRAFFICKING AND HEALTH.................................................................................................. 4 THE LEGAL CONTEXT........................................................................................................ 6 WHAT IS BEING DONE?..................................................................................................... 7 REFERENCES..................................................................................................................... 9 Women, Health and Development Program Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation “We came to the United States to find a better future, not to be prostitutes. No woman or child would want to be a sex slave and endure the evil that I have
    [Show full text]
  • Contrasting the Conceptualisation of Victims of Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation: a Case Study of Brazilians in Spain and Portugal
    Contrasting the conceptualisation of victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation: a case study of Brazilians in Spain and Portugal Abstract Despite the significant emphasis given to the trafficking of Brazilians to the sex industry of the Iberian Peninsula, the concepts of “victim of trafficking for sexual exploitation” used in these three countries vary. This article analyses the positions of Brazil, Spain and Portugal regarding the conceptualisation of “trafficking victim,” focusing on their legislation and policies, as well as on relevant narratives which show how these policies are being applied. It showcases how the incompatible definitions being used compromise genuine anti-trafficking actions and may be an indicator that stopping trafficking may not be the primary concern of the policies developed by these governments. Keywords Brazil; Human trafficking; Portugal; Spain; Trafficking victim; Trafficking policy Pérez, J.L. (2014). Contrasting the conceptualisation of victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation: a case study of Brazilians in Spain and Portugal. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research. doi: 10.1007/s10610-014-9265-3 This is a pre-print version of the published article. The final publication is available at Springer via http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10610-014-9265-3. Contrasting the conceptualisation of victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation: a case study of Brazilians in Spain and Portugal Introduction Brazil is considered one of the major source countries of women who are trafficked to the European Union (EU) for sexual exploitation. Among the receiving states, Portugal and Spain, countries with which it has strong historical and cultural ties, have held at times some of the largest declared numbers and percentages of its victims (Ministério da Justiça 2011).
    [Show full text]
  • Incest Statutes
    Statutory Compilation Regarding Incest Statutes March 2013 Scope This document is a comprehensive compilation of incest statutes from U.S. state, territorial, and the federal jurisdictions. It is up-to-date as of March 2013. For further assistance, consult the National District Attorneys Association’s National Center for Prosecution of Child Abuse at 703.549.9222, or via the free online prosecution assistance service http://www.ndaa.org/ta_form.php. *The statutes in this compilation are current as of March 2013. Please be advised that these statutes are subject to change in forthcoming legislation and Shepardizing is recommended. 1 National Center for Prosecution of Child Abuse National District Attorneys Association Table of Contents ALABAMA .................................................................................................................................................................. 8 ALA. CODE § 13A-13-3 (2013). INCEST .................................................................................................................... 8 ALA. CODE § 30-1-3 (2013). LEGITIMACY OF ISSUE OF INCESTUOUS MARRIAGES ...................................................... 8 ALASKA ...................................................................................................................................................................... 8 ALASKA STAT. § 11.41.450 (2013). INCEST .............................................................................................................. 8 ALASKA R. EVID. RULE 505 (2013)
    [Show full text]
  • IDL-56493.Pdf
    Changes, Continuities, Contestations:Tracing the contours of the Kamathipura's precarious durability through livelihood practices and redevelopment efforts People, Places and Infrastructure: Countering urban violence and promoting justice in Mumbai, Rio, and Durban Ratoola Kundu Shivani Satija Maps: Nisha Kundar March 25, 2016 Centre for Urban Policy and Governance School of Habitat Studies Tata Institute of Social Sciences This work was carried out with financial support from the UK Government's Department for International Development and the International Development Research Centre, Canada. The opinions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect those of DFID or IDRC. iv Acknowledgments We are grateful for the support and guidance of many people and the resources of different institutions, and in particular our respondents from the field, whose patience, encouragement and valuable insights were critical to our case study, both at the level of the research as well as analysis. Ms. Preeti Patkar and Mr. Prakash Reddy offered important information on the local and political history of Kamathipura that was critical in understanding the context of our site. Their deep knowledge of the neighbourhood and the rest of the city helped locate Kamathipura. We appreciate their insights of Mr. Sanjay Kadam, a long term resident of Siddharth Nagar, who provided rich history of the livelihoods and use of space, as well as the local political history of the neighbourhood. Ms. Nirmala Thakur, who has been working on building awareness among sex workers around sexual health and empowerment for over 15 years played a pivotal role in the research by facilitating entry inside brothels and arranging meetings with sex workers, managers and madams.
    [Show full text]