The Coordinated Action for the implementation of the Memorandum of Understanding for the Management of the Extended Transboundary Basin (Drin CORDA) is supported by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) Drin Project. The latter is implemented by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and executed by the Global Water Partnership (GWP) through GWP-Mediterranean (GWP-Med). United Nations Economic Commission (UNECE) is a partner in this process. GWP-Med serves as the Secretariat of the Drin Core Group, the multilateral body responsible for the implementation of the Drin Memorandum of Understanding.

Author: Peter Whalley

Editor and co-author: Dimitris Faloutsos, GWP-Med

Contributors: • Section 3.1. Priority problem 1: deterioration of water quality – Novak Cadjenovic, GWP-Med; Fotini Botsou, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens • Section 3.3. Priority problem 3: biodiversity degradation – Erjola Keci, GWP-Med • Section 4. Socio-economic aspects – Danco Uzunov, PointPro • Section 6. Pollution assessment, water, sediment and biological quality • Section 6.1. Pollution pressure analysis – Novak Cadjenovic, GWP-Med • Section 6.2. Chemical assessments of water and sediment quality – Fotini Botsou, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens • Section 6.3. Biological quality assessment – Erjola Keci, GWP-Med • Section 7. Biodiversity, ZaVita d.o.o. • Section 8. The water–food–energy–ecosystem nexus – Lucia de Strasser, UNECE

Acknowledgment: For more information, please contact A warm thank you to Ms. Thomais Vlachogianni (MIO-ECSDE) for the kind provision of photographs.

Disclaimer: The document adheres to the United Nations rules and policies regarding the names and international status of countries and/or other geographical areas. Web: www.gwpmed.org The use of characterizations, names, maps or other geographical statements in this document in no way implies any political view or positions of the Parties that are Head Office: executing and implementing the project. 12, Kyrristou str. 10556 Athens T: +30 210 32 47 490, +30 210 32 47 267 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS List of figures

TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES

ABBREVIATIONS 8 Figure 1. Map of the Drin Basin 16 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 9 Figure 2. Land uses in the Drin Basin 17

BASIN OVERVIEW AND TRANSBOUNDARY PROBLEMS 12 Figure 3. Sub-basins in the Drin Basin 27

1. INTRODUCTION 13 Figure 4. Map of the Prespa sub-basin 28

1.1 Drin Basin 15 Figure 5. Map of the Lake sub-basin 30

1.2 Drin Coordinated Action 18 Figure 6. Map of the sub-basin 32

1.3 GEF Drin Project 18 Figure 7. Map of the River sub-basin 34

1.4 Methodology for the development of the TDA 19 Figure 8. Map of the /Shkodër sub-basin 36

2. BASELINE INFORMATION ON THE DRIN BASIN 24 Figure 9. Map of the Buna/ River sub-basin and adjacent marine area 38

2.1 Geographical scope 24 Figure 10. Causes and impacts of deterioration of water quality 42

2.2 Sub-basins in the Drin Basin – hydrology and interaction with marine waters 27 Figure 11. Causes and impacts of the variability of the hydrological regime 48

3. PRIORITY TRANSBOUNDARY PROBLEMS 40 Figure 12. Causes and impacts of biodiversity degradation 54

3.1 Priority problem 1: deterioration of water quality 40 Figure 13. Causes and impacts of the variability of sediment transport regime 60 3.2 Priority problem 2: variability of the hydrological regime 46

3.3 Priority problem 3: biodiversity degradation 53 3.4 Priority problem 4: variability of the sediment transport regime 58 LIST OF TABLES 3.5 Overall recommendations to guide SAP development 64

Table 1. Stakeholder meetings towards the development of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis 21

Table 2. Main water bodies of the Drin Basin and their catchments 24

Table 3. Causal chain analysis for the deterioration of the water quality in the Drin Basin 44

Table 4. Causal chain analysis for the variability of the hydrological regime 50

Table 5. Causal chain analysis for biodiversity degradation 56

Table 6. Causal chain analysis for the variability of sediment transport regime 62

4 5 © 2S Studio DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Executive summary

ABBREVIATIONS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

a.s.l. above sea level Action at the Drin Basin level was affecting the basin’s water and ALB uncoordinated until the development environment, and a Strategic Action APSFR areas of potential significant flood risk of the Shared Vision for the Sustainable Programme (SAP), which presents the AQC analytical quality control Management of the Drin Basin and agreed strategy and actions to address BOD biological oxygen demand (five days) the signing of a related Memorandum the transboundary problems. BQE biological quality elements of Understanding (Drin MoU – CCA causal chain analysis 25 November 2011, Tirana) by water and The main technical role of the TDA is COD chemical oxygen demand environment ministers and high-level to identify, quantify and set priorities DCG Drin Core Group officials of the Drin Riparians (Albania, for environmental problems that are EEA European Environment Agency Greece, ,1 and transboundary in nature. Consequently, EQS environmental quality standards ). The objective of the TDA provides the factual basis for EU European Union the MoU is to deliver the agreed shared the formulation of an SAP. In the case EWG Expert Working Group vision, to “promote joint action for the of the Drin, further to the above, the GDP gross domestic product coordinated integrated management TDA assists in enhancing the knowledge GEF Global Environment Fund of the shared water resources in the basis of the Riparians regarding the GIZ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit Drin Basin, as a means to safeguard state of the natural and anthropogenic GWP-Med Global Water Partnership – Mediterranean and restore to the extent possible the environment in the basin, developing ha hectares ecosystems and the services they the building blocks of a Drin Basin HPP hydropower plant provide, and to promote sustainable management plan in accordance IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature development across the Drin Basin”. with the European Union (EU) Water KOS Kosovo Framework Directive, should the LME large marine ecosystem Under the Drin CORDA (Drin Riparians decide to develop such a MNE Montenegro Coordinated Action for the plan in the future. MoU Memorandum of Understanding implementation of the Drin MoU) MW mega watts process, Global Water Partnership The GEF Drin Project developed the TDA N Nitrogen – Mediterranean (GWP-Med), the through wide stakeholder engagement. NAP National Action Plan United Nations Economic Commission To analyse the system, the Source-to- NEAP National Environmental Action Plans for (UNECE), and the United Sea approach was adopted, to the NMK North Macedonia Nations Development Programme extent allowed by the information P phosphorus (UNDP) initiated the Global Environment available on transitional waters and p.e. population equivalent Facility (GEF) financed project the marine area. PBT persistent bioaccumulative toxic compounds “Enabling transboundary cooperation RBMP River Basin Management Plan and integrated water resources The “Situation Analysis: Management SAP Strategic Action Programme management in the Extended Drin River of the Extended Drin Basin” (Drin SDGs Sustainable Development Goals Basin” (GEF Drin Project) to facilitate the Situation Analysis) served as a starting TDA Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis implementation of the MoU. This point for the Drin TDA. The TDA is the TN (Nt) total nitrogen been undertaken through the GEF- core document that synthesizes the TP total phosphorus inspired TDA/SAP process, which involves findings of basin-wide thematic reports, UNDP United Nations Development Fund developing a Transboundary Diagnostic undertaken at three levels: sub-basin; UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Analysis (TDA), which provides Drin Riparian within each sub-basin; UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change information on transboundary problems and the Drin Basin: UNWTO United Nations World Tourism Organization WISE Water Information System for Europe

1 This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244/1999 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence.

8 9 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Executive summary

• Thematic Report on the presence of excess nutrients Socio-economics (from domestic wastewater and agriculture) pollution, leading • Thematic Report on Institutional to excess demand on the and Legal Setting water’s oxygen content (with consequences for ecologically • Thematic Report on important species), as well as Biodiversity and Ecosystems industrial and municipal solid waste from mining and settlements. • Thematic Report on the Hydrology and Hydrogeology • Natural and regulated variability of the hydrological regime as a • Thematic Report on Pollution result of climate variability, and, in and Water Quality some sub-basins, seasonal over- abstraction of water resources • Thematic Report on the Nexus and hydropower generation, (water-food-energy-ecosystems). impacting the quantity of water available for the ecosystem and The TDA focuses mainly on the socio-economic development. issues that are affecting the basin Furthermore, it exacerbates Vipera ammodytes © Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO-ECSDE at the transboundary level, with the naturally occurring extreme information presented in the thematic phenomena, such as floods and reports providing additional details at droughts. Agriculture is a key user of the sub-basin level. water for irrigation – under certain conditions, this may be affected by • Variability of the sediment transport Through analysing the observations Based on the extensive assessment water shortages during the summer regime, which is affected by from the thematic reports, results from developed through the thematic period from June to August. natural events (for example, stakeholder meetings and the initial reports and previous studies (including rainfall), climate variability and assessments made by the Drin Project, TDA/SAP activities undertaken through • Biodiversity degradation. The change (such as the increase a causal chain analysis (CCA) was the GEF-supported projects on the importance of the biodiversity of of extreme weather, rainfall and undertaken to identify the immediate, Prespa and Skadar/Shkodër ), the Drin Basin at the European drought) and anthropogenic underlying and root causes of the the following four key priority and level is significant, though it is impacts from gravel extraction, transboundary problems. crosscutting transboundary issues have under pressure due to multiple deforestation, poor land-use been identified and confirmed by the threats to the basin’s ecosystems management and hydropower The TDA and the CCA included therein Drin Core Group (DCG):2 from pollution, changes in generation, among others. provide the necessary information that water quantity, alien species, These changes are having enabled Drin Riparians to agree on the • Deterioration of water quality, loss of wetland, illegal activities impacts on both freshwater and priority actions to be included in the which affects – at different levels – and climate variability and coastal ecosystems. SAP. The SAP will provide the framework all parts of the Drin Basin (surface change, among others. for a new era under the Drin MoU, water, groundwater and coastal Climate variability and change was regarding the Riparian cooperation in water). Of particular concern is also recognized as a significant factor managing the Drin Basin. that is likely to be influencing the four key transboundary problems impacting The TDA document and the associated the Drin Basin’s ecosystems and socio- thematic reports are ‘living’ documents economic status. that will be periodically revised and are intended to serve as a baseline against which future progress is measured.

2 The joint body established under the Drin Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) in November 2011, which is mandated to coordinate action for the implementation of the MoU.

10 11 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION

The Transboundary Diagnostic The boundaries of the Drin Basin area Analysis (TDA) has been prepared are defined considering the natural through the Global Environment characteristics of the area and its local Facility (GEF)-supported project conditions, with the area comprising “Enabling transboundary cooperation natural elements, including catchments, and integrated water resources aquifers, transitional waters, coastal management in the extended Drin waters and the coastal zone. Basin” (GEF Drin Project). The project aims to support the Drin Riparians The land boundary of the Drin Basin (Albania, Greece, Kosovo, Montenegro area was defined using the physical and North Macedonia) to enhance boundary of the Drin watershed. In the cooperative management of the case of Montenegro, this boundary shared water bodies within the Drin conforms to the administrative Basin using a wide range of means, boundary of the river basin district, including institutional capacity-building, while for Albania, Kosovo and North testing novel basin management Macedonia, the (watershed) boundary approaches, developing the means does not always conform to such to enhance trust-building through districts’ administrative boundaries. information exchanges, etc. The core action of the project is to develop a Underlying aquifers extend beyond TDA and a Strategic Action Programme the watershed’s boundaries and were (SAP). Problems in the natural and therefore not included, as any measures anthropogenic environment are later defined as part of the SAP would assessed through the TDA, providing fall outside the sub-basins of each the factual basis for an agreed set Drin Riparian. of interventions included in the SAP to address the problems. The GEF The marine boundary and the coastal approach of using a TDA and an SAP zone were estimated taking into to deliver transformational change has consideration the primary influence been applied in over 35 international of the surface-water flows on marine , groundwaters, lakes and large waters, as indicated by the levels of marine ecosystems (LMEs). salinity, as a proxy measure of the main influences of land-based activities. To analyse the system, the Source-to- Sea approach3 was used to the extent The Drin Riparians are either Member allowed by the information available on States of the European Union (EU) or in transitional waters and the marine area. the process of seeking EU membership. A significant and relevant part of the

3 A Source-to-Sea approach consolidates analysis, planning, policymaking and decision-making across sectors and scales. It considers the entire social, ecological and economic system from the land area that is drained by a river system to the coastal area and even the open ocean it flows into (http://stapgef.org/sites/default/files/publications/S2SBrief.pdf). A source-to-sea system includes the land area that is drained by a river system or systems, its lakes and tributaries (the river basin), connected aquifers and downstream recipients, including deltas and estuaries, coastlines and nearshore waters, the adjoining sea and continental shelf, as well as the open ocean. Water, sediment, pollutants, biota, materials and ecosystem services key flows connect the subsystems in the source-to-sea continuum and their geographies.

© 2S Studio 12 13 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Introduction

has previously participated in the Lake Flowing westward through Albania, Prespa TDA/SAP, which is the only part of one branch of the Drin River joins the the Drin Basin involving Greece. Buna/Bojana River approximately 1 km from where it flows from Lake Skadar/ 1.1 Drin Basin Shkodër near the city of Shkodra in Albania. Shared by Albania and The Drin Basin (Figure 1) sits in the south- Montenegro, Lake Skadar/Shkodër is east of the Balkan Peninsula with water the largest lake in terms of surface area bodies and watersheds spread across in South-East Europe. The largest river Albania, Greece, Kosovo, Montenegro flowing into the lake is the Morača River, and North Macedonia. It comprises which passes through , the the sub-basins of the Black Drin,6 White capital of Montenegro. Drin,7 Drin and Buna/Bojana8 rivers, of the Prespa, Ohrid and Skadar/Shkodër9 The Buna/Bojana River drains Lake lakes, the underlying aquifers, and the Skadar/Shkodër and flows into the adjacent coastal and marine area. . Its lower part (23 km) forms part of the Albania–Montenegro border. is the starting point of the The other branch of the Drin River, water flow towards the Adriatic Sea, which is the older branch, discharges comprising two lakes (Micro and Macro its limited flow directly into the Adriatic © 2S Studio Prespa) linked by a small channel, with Sea, south of the city of Shkodra, near regulated water flow, which traverses the city of Lezhë. the alluvial isthmus that separates them. Micro Prespa is shared by Albania A number of aquifers exist, often with EU acquis relates to the environment, TDA was developed in such a way and Greece, while Macro Prespa complex groundwater–surface water especially water. Compliance with two to enable the Riparians to enhance is shared by Albania, Greece and interaction and interdependency. water-related directives – the EU Water environmental management.5 North Macedonia. There are five large reservoirs used for Framework Directive and Flood Risk hydropower production and more than Directive – requires a detailed analysis The Drin Project also builds on a Water also flows through underground 110 irrigation reservoirs. of river basins. The approach adopted significant history of collaborative karst cavities from Lake Prespa to Lake by the GEF Drin Project has led to the action in the region through the Ohrid. Shared by Albania and North With its extensive water resources (the development of detailed thematic development of specific TDA/SAP Macedonia, is the largest third greatest river discharge into the reports that analyse a range of the activities for key sub-basin lakes (Lake lake in terms of water volume in South- European Mediterranean, after the Po basin’s characteristics, addressing Prespa and Lake Skadar/Shkodër). While East Europe. As the only surface outflow and Rhone rivers), this complex system the needs of the TDA and assisting the Drin Project is assisting GEF-eligible of Lake Ohrid, the Black Drin River flows provides a wealth of services to the Drin the Riparians in the implementation Riparians, Greece, as a member of the north through North Macedonia. It Riparians that share the basin: energy of the Water Framework Directive4 EU, complies with the requirements of forms the border with Albania for some supply, recreation and tourism, fisheries, and the Flood Risk Directive. The Drin the Water Framework Directive and kilometres, before entering the country water supply for irrigation and domestic between the cities of and uses, sustenance of unique endemic . The White Drin River rises in biodiversity, and livelihoods. The basin is

4 The thematic reports were prepared in a manner that enabled also the development of necessary elements to be used as building Kosovo and flows into Albania, where it home to over 1.61 million people, living blocks for a river basin management plan (RBMP) at the Drin Basin level, should the Riparians decide to develop one (including meets the Black Drin River, near the city in over 1,450 settlements. an initial proposal for delineating water bodies in accordance with the Water Framework Directive, calculation of a water budget under different scenarios, analysis of pollution pressures, assessment of generated pollution loads, assessment of chemical of Kukës, to form the Drin River. pollution, identification of protected areas, analysis of the governance of water and environment in the basin and an initial assessment of the condition of and the pressures on biodiversity, among others). 5 The two (first ever) monitoring campaigns across the Drin Basin in 2016 and 2017 were implemented to fill in knowledge gaps. The monitoring network used was defined in cooperation with national institutions to: (i) cover the entire Drin Basin; and (ii) 6 The river is called Drin i Zi in Albania and Crn Drim in North Macedonia. include routine sampling stations used by the Drin Riparians for their annual surface and underground water quality monitoring, 7 The river is called Drini i Bardhë in Albania and Kosovo. as well as additional monitoring stations for which routine sampling is not performed. All information gathered or generated through the TDA development is stored in an online geographic database that enables institutions to use related information in 8 The river is called Buna in Albania and Bojana in Montenegro. their everyday conduct of business. 9 The lake is called Skadar in Montenegro and Shkodër in Albania.

14 15 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Introduction

Figure 1. Map of the Drin Basin Figure 2. Land uses in the Drin Basin

16 17 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Introduction

1.2 Drin Coordinated Action > Water Framework Directive Component 4: Demonstration of The thematic reports were developed Implementation EWG technologies and practices for IWRM with guidance from the GEF TDA/SAP Action at the Drin Basin level was and ecosystem management as well as the EU Water Framework uncoordinated until the development > Monitoring and Directive. The thematic reports were of the Strategic Shared Vision for the Information Exchange EWG Component 5: Stakeholder elaborated at three levels: sustainable development of the Drin involvement, gender mainstreaming Basin and the signing of a related MoU > Biodiversity and communication strategies. • the sub-basin level i.e. Lake Prespa, (25 November 2011, Tirana) by ministers and Ecosystems EWG Lake Ohrid, the Black Drin River, and high-level representatives of the The project is implemented by UNDP the White Drin River, the Drin River, water and environment ministries of > Floods EWG. and executed by GWP, through Lake Skadar/Shkodër and the the Drin Riparians (Albania, Greece, GWP-Med. UNECE is a partner to this Buna/Bojana River Kosovo, North Macedonia and The DCG Secretariat provides technical process. The DCG acts as the project’s Montenegro). This was an outcome of and administrative support to the Steering Committee. • the Riparian level the Drin Dialogue, coordinated by the DCG. By appointment of the Parties within each sub-basin Drin Riparians with the support of GWP- through the MoU, GWP-Med serves as 1.4 Methodology for the Med and the United Nations Economic the Secretariat. development of the TDA • the overall Drin Basin level. Commission for Europe (UNECE). 1.3 GEF Drin Project The Drin Project has followed the GEF A summary of these thematic reports The ultimate goal of the work in the Drin TDA/SAP guidance.10 The TDA builds presented in the TDA focuses on the Basin is to reach a point in the future The aims, objectives and content upon (i) the formative work undertaken main transboundary problems with where the scale of management lifts of the GEF Drin Project are aligned in 2014 by GWP-Med that led to the specific references to the details in the from single water bodies to the basin’s with the Drin MoU. “Drin Situation Analysis” and (ii) six reports, particularly those regarding interconnected hydrological system, basin-wide thematic reports, which sub-basins and national specific issues. eventually leading from the sharing of The objective of the project is to provide a detailed assessment and The thematic reports will also provide a waters among Riparians and conflicting “promote joint management of characterization of the Drin Basin: substantive input to the development uses, to the sharing of benefits the shared water resources of the of Riparian river basin management among stakeholders. transboundary Drin Basin, including • Thematic Report on plans (RBMPs) to meet the needs of coordination mechanisms among the Socio-economics the EU Water Framework Directive A process referred to as the various sub-basin joint commissions and the Flood Risk Directive, acting Drin Coordinated Action for the and committees”. Albania, Kosovo, • Thematic Report on Institutional as a baseline for monitoring the future implementation of the Drin MoU (Drin Montenegro and North Macedonia are and Legal Setting implementation of the SAP. CORDA) was established. Following the project beneficiaries. Greece, as the provisions of the Drin MoU an an EU Member State does not receive • Thematic Report on 1.4.1 Stakeholder involvement in institutional structure was established, support from the GEF. Biodiversity and Ecosystems the development of the TDA which includes: The GEF Drin Project has • Thematic Report on the Hydrology The GEF Drin Project has had significant • the Meeting of the Parties five components: and Hydrogeology stakeholder involvement in identifying priority transboundary problems and • the Drin Core Group (DCG), Component 1: Consolidating a • Thematic Report on Pollution developing an agreed causal chain comprising officially appointed common knowledge base and Water Quality analysis (CCA) to understand the root, representatives of the Drin underlying and immediate causes Riparians’ line ministries and Component 2: Building the foundation • Thematic Report on the Nexus.11 of the problems. A summary of the mandated to coordinate actions for multi-riparian cooperation processes that lead to the development for the implementation of the MoU of the Drin TDA is summarized in Table 1. Component 3: Institutional • four Expert Working Groups (EWGs) strengthening for integrated river to assist the DCG in its work: basin management 10 https://www.iwlearn.net/manuals/tda-sap-methodology. 11 The nexus report supplements information collected in the other thematic reports by assessing the linkages between water, food and energy security with the integrity of the ecosystem.

18 19 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Introduction

Table 1. Stakeholder meetings towards the development of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis

Time Location Meeting Topic

Project All Drin DCG and EWG The TDA table of contents was adopted. At each life Riparians meetings/twice consecutive meeting, TDA development progress per year was discussed, specific thematic reports were presented to the DCG/EWG members, and the reports were reviewed/approved. The TDA was presented and approved.

Project All Drin Individual Introduction of the project (the TDA was life Riparians meetings with part of the introduction), investigation of representatives opportunities for cooperation, presentation of of the relevant developments, receiving of guidance on issues Institutions: related to the development of the TDA ensuring ministers, compatibility with national priorities, especially directors of the implementation of the EU Water Framework departments, Directive. heads of agencies, etc.

Oct– Six cities Focus Group Among others: identified the perceived key Nov covering meetings in management issues and problems at the sub- 2016 all Drin Tirana, Shkodra, basin and basin levels, as well as their causes sub-basins Pogradec, and impacts from the stakeholders’ perspective. Ohrid, Podgorica and

Mar Tirana Meeting with Coordination for the preparation of the thematic 2017 riparian experts reports. from all Drin Riparians

Nov Podgorica Stakeholders The stakeholders were presented with key 2017 conference findings from the process of developing the TDA thematic reports and provided input. Focus was placed on socio-economic, biodiversity and institutional and legal setting thematic reports, as well as on the main findings of the TDA and the causal chain analysis (CCA).

Nov Ohrid Stakeholders The stakeholders were presented with key 2018 findings from the process of developing the © 2S Studio conference TDA and provided input. Focus was placed on the pollution and water quality, and hydrology and hydrogeology thematic reports, as well as the main findings of the TDA and the CCA.

Dec Athens CCA-SAP Local and international experts participated in A total of fifteen national experts, four (PMU) worked to collect data and 2018 workshop the preparation of the thematic reports reviewed international experts, three companies develop the TDA thematic reports and the CCA analysis and prepared a first set of interventions to address the transboundary issues and the Project Management Unit synthesis report. identified.

Jan Tirana Stakeholders The TDA was presented to the stakeholders. 2020 conference

20 21 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Introduction

A detailed stakeholder analysis was • climate variability and change and 1.4.2 Situation analysis The situation analysis identified undertaken to understand: (i) the related phenomena in the basin the key causes as: stakeholders’ perception regarding the A situation analysis, which was carried transboundary issues and problems; • floods out by GWP-Med in 2014, has guided • insufficient management of the and (ii) the multilevel non-linear linkages the development of the current GEF sub-basins at the national level among the groups of stakeholders • a lack of coordination between Drin Project, providing an important (including legal frameworks, that are by default engaged in the Riparians on how to manage assessment of the basin. The TDA has institutional capacity, management of the Basin and that the hydropower infrastructure in also been guided by this situation monitoring and research) project activities concern. order to regulate flows, which has analysis, which identifies the major reportedly intensified flooding issues and problems as relating to: • insufficient management The stakeholder analysis and the six Sub- problems in the past of the sub-basins at the basin Focus Group meetings in Tirana, • water balance transboundary level. Shkodra, Pogradec, Ohrid, Podgorica • agrochemicals and excessive use and Pristina cited the following issues of of water in intensive agriculture • sediment balance transboundary importance: • preserving ecosystems and • water quality • the unsustainable management of protecting biodiversity. wastewater and solid waste • unsustainable forestry The stakeholder analysis and management and deforestation • industrial, mining and quarrying involvement has guided the final activities in the basin, which selection of developing CCA priority • unsustainable fishing practices and are linked to an increase in transboundary problems. the introduction of alien species pollution loads, especially of toxic substances • urbanization and unsustainable tourism • hydropower production and infrastructure, which reduce • hunting downstream water flows to less than the ecological minimum • sand and gravel extraction

• climate variability.

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO ECSDE

22 23 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Baseline information on the Drin Basin

Shared by/areal extent of each Riparian River length (km) Area – (km2) Sub- Drin core sub- Area cumulative 2. BASELINE INFORMATION ON THE basin catchments13 (km2) (km2) North Albania Greece Kosovo Montenegro Macedonia

DRIN BASIN Tresonecka 97.20 12.00

Black Drin 3 134.20 127.61 6.59 79.20 2.1 Geographical scope Dinaric Alps12 at over 2,500 m above Zalli i Bulqizes 455.60 455.60 17.5 0 sea level, as well as flat land around the Black Drin 4 542.50 542.50

The total geographical area of the basin’s coastal area in Albania. The Drin Seta r. 91.50 91.50 7.4 0 Drin Basin is 20,361 km2. The basin is Basin comprises parts of five Riparians, Black Drin 5 83.20 83.20 characterized mainly by mountainous with their respective share of the basin relief, the highest peaks of which are the shown in Table 2. Veleshnica 107.20 90.74 16.40 10.50 Black Drin 6 62.40 24.97 35.68 1.74

Table 2. Main water bodies of the Drin Basin and their catchments Molla e Lures r. 149.50 21.50

Bushtrice r. 176.90 6.74 170.16 12.50 Shared by/areal extent of each Riparian River length (km) Area – (km2) Sub- Drin core sub- Area Black Drin 7 51.50 51.50 cumulative basin catchments13 (km2) (km2) North Albania Greece Kosovo Montenegro Black Drin 8 102.60 102.60 Macedonia 3,412.30 Lake Micro Prespa 249.50 40.44 209.06 Prespa White White Drin 1,121.40 1,121.40 Macro Prespa 790.30 246.44 47.68 496.18 Drin Istogut 448.60 448.60 20.00 Golema River 178.40 178.40 22.60 River Kline 425.40 425.40 71.90 Brajčinska 77.8 0 77.8 0 16.20 Lumbardie e 487.5 0 487.5 0 37.5 0 Kranska 30.00 30.00 11.4 0 Pejës r. Agios 65.60 65.60 14.50 Mirusha 335.90 335.90 38.10 Germanos Lumbardhie I 253.90 253.90 46.90 1,391.60 Deqanit r. Lake Lake Ohrid 685.60 208.46 477.14 Ereniku 519.60 519.60 52.30 Ohrid Cherava 71.00 71.00 10.10 Toplluhes 312.20 14.50 Koselska 190.40 190.40 21.20 Lumbardhiee 283.30 283.30 34.50 Prizrenit Sateska 453.70 453.70 23.00 Lumi i Thate 86.20 86.20 7.5 0 1,400.70 Semetishta 110.10 110.10 Black Black Drin 1 159.10 159.10 11.6 0 Drin 4,384.10 Globočica 146.90 146.90 10.60 River reservoir Drin Lake 988.50 988.50 River Black Drin 2 124.80 124.80 8.70 r. 5 57.5 0 5 57.5 0 19.80

Spillje 189.70 34.00 155.70 20.60 Kruma r. 51.10 51.10 7.4 0 Reservoir/Lake Vlahina r. 77.4 0 77.4 0 15.50 Debar Lake Komani 399.00 399.00 635.90 113.0 0 523.00 41.50 661.20 661.20 46.50 Rosocka 101.60 101.60 9.20 Curraj r. 154.20 154.20 7.20

Shala 273.60 273.60 20.40

Vau i Dejës 159.70 159.70 12 Prokletije/Bjeshkët e Nemuna Mountain. reservoir 13 The listed sub-catchments are identified as part of the work for the preliminary delineation of the surface-water bodies at the Drin Basin level, done to calculate the water balance in the Basin. The Drin Core sub-catchments are depicted in Figure 21 – Preliminary identification of surface-water bodies in the Drin Basin.

24 25 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Baseline information on the Drin Basin

Shared by/areal extent of each Riparian River length (km) 2.2 Sub-basins in the Drin Basin Area – (km2) Sub- Drin core sub- Area cumulative – hydrology and interaction with basin catchments13 (km2) (km2) North Albania Greece Kosovo Montenegro Macedonia marine waters

Perroii 146.70 19.60 Gomsiqes Figure 3. Sub-basins in the Drin Basin

Drin 1 49.50

Gjadri r. 208.70 208.70 33.30

Kiri 271.40

Drin 2 68.70 68.70

4,0 67.20

Lake Morača 814.50 814.50 Skadar/ Mala Rijeka 142.70 80.87 61.79 18.50 Shkodër Zeta 1,655.90 1,655.90 50.90

Cijevna 440.80 440.80 31.20

Sitnica 252.10 252.10 11.4 0

Lake Skadar/ 2,036.50 1,692.17 344.33 Shkodër

5,342.50

Buna/ Buna/Bojana 362.10 362.10 Bojana River

26 27 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Baseline information on the Drin Basin

The Drin Basin comprises the following main characteristics as summarized interconnecting sub-basins with their above in Table 2.

LAKE PRESPA

Figure 4. Map of the Lake Prespa sub-basin

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO ECSDE

In the Lake Prespa sub-basin there Water shortages in the watershed are two lakes – Micro Prespa and usually occur from May to September Macro Prespa – which are connected due to increased water demands through an artificial canal. Lake and decreased precipitation, while Prespa is a tectonic lake with an at other times of the year there is average depth of 16–18 m and an no water deficit. average water residence time of 11–20 years (depending on the source Under normal hydrological conditions, of information). The karst geology of the there are no surface outflows. area between the Prespa and Ohrid lakes makes it difficult to define the Water level oscillation causes the hydrogeological boundary, resulting in Macro Prespa surface area to vary variations among studies of the Lake from 259.4 to 280.0 km2. The level of the Prespa catchment’s dimensions. water has fallen by more than 9 m in the last 60 years. The water level peaked The total distribution of water inflows in during the 1963 flood at 853 m above the Macro Prespa Lake is estimated as sea level, falling in the years after, with follows: 56 percent from surface run-off, the sharpest decline occurring between 35 percent from direct precipitation 1986 and 1991. and 9 percent from Micro Prespa Lake. From 1976 to 2004, irrigation accounted Even though the reasons for the decline for approximately 20 percent of the in water level are not fully understood, outflow, with 17 percent of total water they are believed to be predominantly losses for the same period comprising related to natural variations in rainfall undefined outflows. combined with human extraction and variations in the ‘karstic outflow’ regime.

28 29 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Baseline information on the Drin Basin

LAKE OHRID Lake Ohrid is a tectonic lake with 1962, the river was diverted from its an average depth of 155 m and a natural confluence with the Black Drin Figure 5. Map of the Lake Ohrid sub-basin maximum depth of 289 m. The average River into Lake Ohrid. The diversion water residence time is 70–85 years. almost doubled the size of the lake watershed and greatly increased its Lake Ohrid is hydrogeologically siltation (the mean annual sediment connected to Lake Prespa, which sits yield is over 100,000 m3). As a result, the around 150 m higher than Lake Ohrid pollution levels of the lake, especially (depending on water level variations). with respect to phosphorus, have The hydraulic connection between significantly increased. There is ongoing Lake Prespa and Lake Ohrid, through work to redivert the Sateska River to its the karstic massif, makes Lake Prespa natural riverbed. its most important source of water, contributing over 40 percent of its water. About two thirds of Lake Ohrid’s water It only takes six hours for the water to outflows pass into the Black Drin River travel through the karstic system from (the only outflow of Lake Ohrid), while Zavir/Zaveri to Tushemisht, which means the remaining third either evaporates that any change in the quality of Lake or is consumed. Since 1962, the outflow Prespa’s waters would also affect – to the Black Drin River has been almost immediately – Lake Ohrid. controlled with a weir that regulates the lake’s water level. This limits The Sateska River in North Macedonia water level fluctuation to within the is the lake’s main surface tributary. In range of about 1 m.

Note: The Lake Ohrid sub-basin is Ohridsko Ezero in North Macedonia and Liqeni i Ohrit in Albania. © 2S Studio

30 31 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Baseline information on the Drin Basin

BLACK DRIN RIVER Apart from Lake Ohrid, the main There are two large dams constructed tributary of the Black Drin River is on the Black Drin River in North Figure 6. Map of the Black Drin River sub-basin the transboundary Radika River, Macedonia: Globočica (92 m high) which is shared by Kosovo and North and Špilje (112 m high) close to the Macedonia. The upper part of this point before the river enters Albania. river enters the artificial Mavrovo There are plans for the construction of reservoir, which diverts its flow through two large-scale hydropower plants – a hydroelectric power plant into the Boskov Most and Lukovo Pole – and over River watershed (out of the Drin 60 small plants in the Black Drin River Basin), as an ‘inter-basin transfer’ of watershed in North Macedonia. water. Due to this, the upper part of Radika River watershed is classified as an artificial and highly modified water body and is therefore not included in the hydrological and water balance analysis carried out for the needs of the present TDA.

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO ECSDE

32 33 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Baseline information on the Drin Basin

WHITE DRIN RIVER The White Drin River rises in Kosovo in the increases to the maximum operating foothills of the large mountainous area level. This provides maximum flood Figure 7. Map of the White Drin River sub-basin north of the town of . Its basin is the protection in winter when most floods largest of the country’s four sub-basins, occur, with the accumulated run-off and drains almost half of Kosovo. Only from the last month of snow melt in a small part of the sub-basin extends spring maximizing available storage into Albania. The only existing dam for summer. The total volume of all in the White Drin River is in Radoniqi, three reservoirs on the Drin River equals which is 58 m high. 3.76 x 109 m3, which is greater than the average volume of Lake Skadar. Altogether, the river discharge represents less than half of the inflow An analysis carried out for the needs of from natural springs and precipitation. the TDA indicated that the operation Springs make up about 5 percent of of the dams in the Drin cascade is the total inflow, but contribute around an important factor influencing the 9.5 percent to river discharge. flow regime downstream of the Drin River and the Buna/Bojana River, and DRIN RIVER therefore influences the hydrological conditions in Lake Skadar/Shkodër. The After the floods of 1848–1858 and 1896, functioning of the three dams alters the the Drin River14 in Albania was split natural intra-annual flow distribution into two branches: one flowing via its downstream of the dams, reducing original channel (old Drin) and a new some of the peak discharges during one flowing towards the Buna/Bojana the wet season and increasing average River, which it joins roughly 1.5 km from discharges during the dry season. the outlet of Lake Skadar/Shkodër. At Because of the volume of its reservoir, present, the ‘old’ Drin communicates the operation of the Fierza dam can – with the Drin River through groundwater under specific conditions – affect the discharges in the Gjader fields and also multiannual discharge distribution and the Gjader River itself. eventual flooding events (see extreme observed values of the water level in There are three major dams and Lake Skadar/Shkodër on page 37). Data associated reservoirs built on the Drin from the Albanian Power Corporation River. Of these, the Fierza reservoir (KESH) would allow more precise results has by far the largest storage. From and conclusions. October to March, the winter level is not exceeded, though during April, it

Note: The White Drin River is Drini i Bardhë in Albania.

14 Drini i Bardhë (in Albania).

34 35 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Baseline information on the Drin Basin

LAKE SKADAR/SHKODËR Lake Skadar/Shkodër is a relatively 60 percent of the lake’s water. The shallow tectonic lake, which has a lake also receives water from springs Figure 8. Map of the Lake Skadar/Shkodër sub-basin maximum depth of 9 m. The lake’s and groundwater bodies. The Syri i water level varies widely, with extreme Sheganit15 and Syri i Zi (in Albania) and observed values recorded as 4.97 m Bolje sestre16 and Karuč (in Montenegro) and 10.31 m (2010 flood). Respective are the most important perennial springs water volumes are 1.8 x 109 m3 and in this region. They appear as small 4.25 x 109 m3. The lake’s surface round lakes with a diameter of 15–20 m area at the mean water level of and have an estimated discharge 6.52 m is 475 km2. of 0.15–10 m3 s-1. Several temporary springs also appear on the shore of the The main tributary of Lake Skadar/ lake after intense rainfall or during the Shkodër is the Morača River, which snow melt period. drains about 32 percent of the territory of Montenegro and contributes around

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO ECSDE

15 The annual average discharge is 1,400 lt-1. While discharge varies, the flow is equivalent to that of a river in winter. Note: Lake Skadar/Shkodër is Skadarsko jezero in Montenegro and Liqeni i Shkodrës in Albania. 16 The minimal capacity of the source (in September–October) is higher than 2 m3/s, of which a maximum 1,200 l/s is used for the regional water supply of the Montenegrin coast.

36 37 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Baseline information on the Drin Basin

BUNA/BOJANA RIVER sediment, thereby further obstructing In the marine area, the predominant the flow in the Buna River and the currents are northward during autumn Figure 9. Map of the Buna/Bojana River sub-basin and adjacent marine area outflow from the lake. and winter and reverse during summer. Four main external forces drive Land-use changes adjacent to the river marine currents in the area: inflow of channel have reduced the area of the Ionian waters from the south; local floodplain, altering ecosystem structures winds; air–sea heat and water fluxes and the hydrological functioning of (collectively termed buoyancy forcing); the river. Before the intensive drainage and freshwater run-off from the Buna/ and melioration of the area, almost Bojana River. Different factors dominate 50 percent of the whole Buna/ depending on the season. Freshwater Bojana River and Delta region was river run-off and the influx of Ionian regularly flooded. waters seem to be the main forcing factors for circulation in early spring. COASTAL ZONE AND THE ADJACENT ADRIATIC SEA (AREA INFLUENCED BY Tides occur in this water system. As the THE DRIN FRESHWATER SYSTEM) bottom slope of the Buna/Bojana River is quite flat, tides can travel upstream The Buna/Bojana Delta area comprises of the river for several kilometres, with a recently developed small delta, sea water potentially reach Reč or several different lagoon complexes locations even further upstream. This and freshwater lakes, as well as typical phenomenon can be observed during riverine and coastal landscapes. The dry periods, when the flow of fresh growth of the delta by 1.0–1.5 km in water is reduced. River fluxes influence the last 100 years is relatively slow a number of parameters, including sea compared with other Mediterranean surface salinity. Salinity levels are lowest deltas, such as the Rhone and Po between the Buna/Bojana River and the (about 4 km in 100 years). Ulcinj Salina wetland.

Lake Šaško and Viluni Lagoon are The coastal aquifers interact with important wetlands in terms of the sea, including as submarine biodiversity. Lake Šaško is situated groundwater discharges, which within the Montenegrin part of the contribute to the creation of brackish Buna/Bojana Basin (Ulcinj Field) and water habitats in the coastal zone. The is fed by the Buna/Bojana River under submarine groundwater discharges The Buna/Bojana River – which is 44 km December to February, but may also favourable hydrological conditions. to the Adriatic Sea in the Albanian long with a depth that varies from 2 m occur throughout the rest of the year, The lake is approximately 3 km long portion of the study area are estimated to 4 m – is the only outflow from Lake depending on the water released from and 1.5 km wide. Viluni Lagoon, which to be 0.29 mm2 yr-1; no estimates exist Skadar/Shkodër. Discharges from Lake the three hydropower dams upstream is 3 km long and 0.9 km wide, lies in the for Montenegro. Skadar/Shkodër combine with flows of the Drin River. The management Albanian part of the delta and is one from the Drin River about 1.5 km from of the dams depends on rainfall and of the most important lagoons in terms the lake to produce a mean annual electricity demand. The restriction to of biodiversity. discharge of over 20 km3 yr-1. out-flowing water in the Buna/Bojana River significantly increases the lake’s Sometimes the outflow from the lake water level. With high Drin River water into the Buna/Bojana River is impeded levels and low Buna/Bojana River due to an increase in the flow of the water levels, Drin River water can enter Drin River. This occurs mostly from the lake. The Drin River also deposits

38 39 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Priority transboundary problems

All Riparians are either meeting the • Industrial, mining and solid waste 3. PRIORITY TRANSBOUNDARY requirements of the EU Water Framework sources are having detectable Directive (as in the case of Greece) impacts in the form of chemical PROBLEMS or are in the process of meeting these oxygen demand (COD), heavy requirements through the development metals (although there is a of RBMPs that will address the issues need to better understand The TDA identified four key • description of problem: resulting in the failure to reach good anthropogenic and natural transboundary problems that affect presenting a short summary of ecological status (or potential). sources) and in some locations, the Drin Basin: the transboundary problem, priority substances. Heavy metals reference to the relevant The analysis highlighted the following and priority substances are also • deterioration of water quality thematic reports, etc. water quality issues that are of an issue in groundwaters (for transboundary concern: example, the White Drin River) and • natural and regulated variability of • CCA: presenting a summary in sediments (for example, Lake the hydrological regime of the goods and services at • Excess nutrients (nitrogen and Skadar/Shkodër). risk, ecosystem and socio- phosphorus) are considered a • biodiversity degradation economic impacts, the relevant problem across most of the Drin 3.1.2 Causal chain analysis for sectors involved and the Basin. About 50 percent of the deterioration of water quality • variability of the sediment immediate, underlying and root total nutrient load derives from transport regime. causes of the problem agricultural diffuse sources, Figure 10 indicates the main links with 30 percent deriving from between the causes of pollution for Climate variability and change has • linkages with other inadequate or insufficient nutrients, BOD/COD and heavy metals/ also been recognized as a significant transboundary problems wastewater treatment from priority substances in the Drin Basin. This regional (and global) problem domestic sources. Although is further elaborated in the summary that influences the four priority • significant knowledge gaps nitrogen pollution is considered presented in Table 3, which shows the transboundary problems. Details of the low compared with Europe, within main goods and services at risk, the potential impacts from climate change 3.1 Priority problem 1: the basin there is evidence of high main ecosystem and socio-economic scenarios are outlined in the Thematic deterioration of water quality levels in Lake Ohrid, the White Drin impacts, sectors causing and impacted Reports on Biodiversity and Ecosystems, River, tributaries of Lake Skadar/ by the problem of pollution and the Hydrology and Hydrogeology, and 3.1.1 Description of the Shkodër and especially the Morača immediate, underlying and root causes Socio-economics and summarized transboundary problem River. Phosphorus (a significant part of the deterioration of the water quality. in the following related sections of of which derives from wastewater the TDA. In addressing the causes of The deterioration of water quality effluents) was considered a major the priority transboundary problems, (in all or part of the following in the issue across the basin. Coastal climate change was recognized as case of each of the Riparians: rivers, waters are considered to be at risk a root cause of each problem, with lakes, groundwaters and coastal and from receiving excess nutrients. the impacts of climate variability transitional waters) is a problem that and change for each problem affects all Riparians in the Drin Basin. • Excess biochemical oxygen considered in the CCA. All kind of diffuse (agriculture and demand (BOD) is an issue across agglomerations) and point sources of the Drin Basin, particularly in the These CCA present these problems pollution (towns and villages, industrial White Drin River and Lake Skadar/ following the approach outlined in activities, etc.) exist in the Drin Basin. Shkodër sub-basins. the GEF guidance. Different sources and pollution pressures of varying intensity are found in The following section presents different sub-basins. a summary of the analysis of the four problems in a simple and common format:

40 41 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Priority transboundary problems

Figure 10. Causes and impacts of deterioration of water quality

ROOT CAUSES

• Pressure from increasing urban populations and intensification of agriculture UNDERLYING CAUSES • Low level of financial resources for environmental protection • Insufficient/inadequate • Climate variability and policies for agriculture IMMEDIATE CAUSES change • Insufficient/inadequate • Increasing demand for food policies for solid waste production • Insufficient monitoring • Excess nutrients from diffuse sources • Low political will • Low level of enforcement IMPACTS • Excess nutrients (and BOD) • Low capacity from wastewater • Low awareness of polluting • Phosphates-containing • Deterioration of biodiversity activities detergents • Drinking water quality

• Inappropriate use of • Eutrophication agrochemicals (herbicides, • Reduced food production pesticides and fertilizers) • Reduced amenity value • Industrial wastewater

discharges (priority substances and heavy metals) • Heavy metals from mining activities • Insufficient/inadequate wastewater treatment • Inadequate management including collection/disposal of solid waste

42 43 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Priority transboundary problems

Table 3. Causal chain analysis for the deterioration of the water quality in the Drin Basin

Deterioration of water quality

Goods and • Drinking water supply services at risk • Ecological requirements/services • Tourism • Freshwater and marine fisheries • Agricultural/industrial water supply

Impacts (resulting • Deterioration of biodiversity from deterioration • Drinking water quality of water quality) • Eutrophication on: ecosystems and socio-economics • Reduced food production (agriculture, fish) • Reduced amenity value

Sectors • Agriculture • Urban > urban development > water supply > solid waste management • Industry (including solid waste management) • Mining

Immediate causes • Excess nutrients from diffuse sources • Excess nutrients (and BOD) from wastewater • Phosphates-containing detergents • Inappropriate use of agrochemicals (herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers) • Industrial wastewater discharges (priority substances and heavy metals) • Heavy metals from mining activities • Insufficient/inadequate wastewater treatment • Inadequate management including collection/disposal of solid waste

Underlying causes • Insufficient/inadequate policies for agriculture • Insufficient/inadequate policies for solid waste • Insufficient monitoring • Low level of enforcement • Low capacity • Low awareness of polluting activities

Root causes • Pressure from increasing urban populations and intensification of agriculture • Low level of financial resources for environmental protection • Climate variability and change • Increasing demand for food production • Low political will

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO ECSDE 44 45 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Priority transboundary problems

3.1.3 Linkages with other key can have an adverse effect during • The White Drin River and Drin River 3.2.2 Causal chain analysis for transboundary problems the summer period in agriculture sub-basins are characterized the variability of the hydrological and industry. Drought impacts as having relatively high water regime Water quality is impacted by the can be worsened by additional stress (consumption is more than variability of the hydrological and impacts from hydromorphological 70 percent of the available Figure 11 presents the main links sediment transport regime (for modifications (as a result of water) during the summer between the causes of the variability of example, increased rainfall can cause hydropower dams and flood months of dry years. the hydrological regime. This is further additional surface erosion of soils and defences) that can, for example, elaborated in the summary presented the release of pollutants), including reduce groundwater recharge. • Preliminary modelling indicated in Table 4, which shows the main goods from the impacts of climate variability that the water resources in the and services at risk, the main ecosystem and change, which affect the water • The variability of the hydrological main sub-basins and entire Drin and socio-economic impacts, sectors quantity or concentration of dissolved regime is affected by the Basin are adequate to cover causing and impacted by the problem oxygen in water. Pollution also has management of the dams to the current water demands for and the immediate, underlying and significant effects on the key problem of maximize energy production anthropogenic purposes, though root causes of the variability of the biodiversity degradation. as well as the uncoordinated further modelling is required to hydrological regime. management of the cascade improve understanding of the 3.2 Priority problem 2: variability of dams between countries; this water demand under various of the hydrological regime can further exacerbate extreme development and climate events (floods). change scenarios and to assess 3.2.1 Description of the possible water stress. transboundary problem • Water level fluctuations in the Lake Prespa sub-basin are of concern • Mitigation measures are necessary The TDA has identified several issues regarding the ecosystems. to minimize water losses and apply that either result in or are influenced water-saving measures (especially by the variability of the hydrological • Linkages between surface water in agriculture). regime as a key transboundary and groundwater are significant, problem, including: especially between the Prespa and • A lack of adequate hydrological Ohrid lakes via karst structures – the monitoring and data management • Increasing frequency of droughts, karstic connections within the basin at the Riparian and regional as a result of climate variability/ need further investigation. levels prevent the Riparians change or extreme weather events, from identifying and applying management solutions.

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO ECSDE

46 47 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Priority transboundary problems

Figure 11. Causes and impacts of the variability of the hydrological regime

ROOT CAUSES

• Climate variability and change UNDERLYING CAUSES • Increasing water demand from increasing urban populations and intensification • Lack of integration between of agriculture sectors/ministries IMMEDIATE CAUSES • Lack of financial resources • Lack of cooperation between • Low political will hydropower plant operators • Low enforcement of existing • Exacerbation from extreme

policies weather events (floods and droughts) IMPACTS • Low integration between Riparians on water • Increased pressure on management resources (water demand) • Economic loss (farming, locally or in sub-basins fisheries, industry) • Low awareness/capacity • Hydromorphological • Loss of food production • Low application of climate alterations change adaptation measures • Hydropower generation losses • Hydropower plant operations • Flood damage (urban and • Lack of water protection of dams in the Drin River rural) measures cascade (aiming to maximize • Low/lack of emergency energy production) • Fluctuations in lake water planning levels

• Wetland losses (and of services

provided) • Biodiversity loss/changes in geographic distribution of biological communities • Increased erosion from deforested and agricultural land • Increased sedimentation • Coastal erosion • Impacts on water quality

48 49 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Priority transboundary problems

Table 4. Causal chain analysis for the variability of the hydrological regime

Natural and regulated variability of the hydrological regime

Goods and • Aquatic and land-based ecosystems and associated services services • Groundwater recharge at risk • Water supply (drinking, irrigation, industrial, hydropower) • Tourism • Freshwater fisheries • Marine fisheries

Impacts • Economic loss (farming, fisheries, industry) (resulting from • Loss of food production variability of the • Hydropower generation losses hydrological • Flood damage (urban and rural) regime) on: • Fluctuations in lake water levels ecosystems and socio- • Wetlands losses (and of services provided) economics • Biodiversity loss/changes in geographic distribution of biological communities • Increased erosion from deforested and agricultural land • Increased sedimentation • Coastal erosion • Impacts on water quality

Sectors • Agriculture • Industry/power • Urban planning • Tourism

Immediate • Exacerbation from extreme weather events (floods and droughts) causes • Increased pressure on resources (water demand) locally or in sub- basins • Hydromorphological alterations • Hydropower plant operations of dams in the Drin River cascade (aiming to maximize energy production)

Underlying • Lack of integration between sectors/ministries causes • Lack of cooperation between hydropower plant operators • Low enforcement of existing policies • Low integration between Riparians on water management • Low awareness/capacity • Low application of climate change adaptation measures • Lack of water protection measures • Low/lack of emergency planning

Root causes • Climate variability and change • Increasing water demand from increasing urban populations and intensification of agriculture • Lack of financial resources • Low political will

© 2S Studio 50 51 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Priority transboundary problems

themselves, which in the absence of • deforestation and inappropriate adequate maintenance will eventually use of and/or poorly managed lead to reduced generation capacity forest resources and changes in sediment transport. Changes in the hydrological regime • inappropriate cultivation can influence pollutant concentrations practices leading to destruction throughout the Drin Basin, particularly in of soil structures or exposing soil to karstic regions (for example, the Prespa excessive erosion and Ohrid lakes). • overfishing and inappropriate 3.3 Priority problem 3: biodiversity fishing practices degradation • illegal hunting 3.3.1 Description of the transboundary problem • invasive and alien species17 putting pressure on local species Biodiversity in the Drin Basin is of significant importance at the • a lack of recent information on fish European level. The Thematic Report stocks and other aquatic taxa on Biodiversity and Ecosystems identified multiple threats to the • unmapped or unidentified ecosystems as well as issues that marine habitats. impede their sustainable management. These include: 3.3.2 Causal chain analysis for biodiversity degradation • use of agrochemicals Figure 12 indicates the main links • pollution, gravel activities, between the causes of biodiversity intensification of agriculture and degradation. This is further elaborated urbanization leading to habitat in the summary presented in degradation in rivers Table 5, which shows the main goods and services at risk, the main ecosystem • fluctuations of lake water levels and socio-economic impacts, sectors impacting or resulting in the shifting causing and impacted by the problem © 2S Studio of habitats in littoral zones and the immediate, underlying and root causes of biodiversity degradation. • hydromorphological alterations from flood and hydropower constructions resulting in lateral 3.2.3 Linkages with other key hydropower generation is a non- and longitudinal disruptions as well transboundary problems consumptive use of water, it influences as the loss of wetlands water flows (leading to hydropeaking, Variability of the hydrological regime among others) and sediment transport, is most closely aligned with climate which have consequential impacts variability and change, especially with on the state of ecosystems and the the likely increase in extreme events, services they provide. The retaining and also to socio-economic activity dams for hydropower generation can demand, such as for irrigation. While also lead to sedimentation in the dams 17 Including 12 fish species in Lake Prespa, 7 fish species in Lake Ohrid, 13 fish species in Lake Skadar/Shkodër.

52 53 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Priority transboundary problems

Figure 12. Causes and impacts of biodiversity degradation

ROOT CAUSES

• Pressure from increasing urban populations UNDERLYING CAUSES • Intensification of agriculture • Climate variability and change • Inadequate/insufficient policies and low enforcement • Low level of financial resources of existing policies IMMEDIATE CAUSES for environmental protection • Lack of integrated water • Low political will management/natural • Pollution (from basin activities resources management involving agriculture, urban (including wetlands and pollution, etc.) IMPACTS forestry) • Gravel activities • Insufficient technical capacity • Insufficient water quantity and • Loss of fish and other aquatic • Insufficient coordination variability in water level/flow as species between ministries/sectors a result of hydropower plants • Loss of grasslands • Low awareness • Hydromorphological • Soil fertility loss alterations • Increased erosion • Deforestation/poorly • Sediment impacts on managed forest resources hydropower generation • Overfishing and inappropriate • Loss of forests fishing practices • Loss of diversity and • Illegal hunting abundance (aquatic, land- • Invasive and alien species based and birds)

54 55 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Priority transboundary problems

Table 5. Causal chain analysis for biodiversity degradation

Biodiversity degradation

Goods and • Food from fishing and agriculture services at risk • Wild foods/herbs • Tourism (including hunting and fishing)

Impacts (resulting • Loss of fish and other aquatic species from biodiversity • Loss of grasslands degradation) on: ecosystems and • Soil fertility loss socio-economics • Increased erosion • Sediment impacts on hydropower generation • Loss of forests • Loss of diversity and abundance (aquatic, land-based and birds)

Sectors • Agriculture • Fisheries • Forestry • Tourism • Industry (power generation) • Cultural activities (hunting, wild foods, etc.)

Immediate causes • Pollution (from basin activities involving agriculture, urban pollution, etc.) • Gravel activities • Insufficient water quantity and variability in water level/flow as a result of hydropower plants • Hydromorphological alterations • Deforestation/poorly managed forest resources • Overfishing and inappropriate fishing practices • Illegal hunting • Invasive and alien species

Underlying causes • Inadequate/insufficient policies and low enforcement of existing policies • Lack of integrated water management/natural resources management (including wetlands and forestry) • Insufficient technical capacity • Insufficient coordination between ministries/sectors • Low awareness

Root causes • Pressure from increasing urban populations • Intensification of agriculture • Climate variability and change • Low level of financial resources for environmental protection • Low political will

Podarcis tauricus 56 © Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO-ECSDE57 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Priority transboundary problems

3.3.3 Linkages with other key environments. The Thematic Report on 3.4.2 Causal chain analysis transboundary problems Hydrology and Hydrogeology identified for the variability of sediment the impacts and causes of excessive transport regime Biodiversity is subject to impacts from and insufficient sediment transport as: the other three key transboundary Figure 13 indicates the main linkages problems and the crosscutting problem • hydromorphological alterations between the causes and impacts of of climate variability and change. the variability of sediment transport. This • reduced hydrostatic head for is further elaborated in the summary 3.4 Priority problem 4: variability hydropower production due to the presented in Table 6, which shows the of the sediment transport regime sedimentation in the dams main goods and services at risk, the main ecosystem and socio-economic 3.4.1 Description of the • decreased sediment loads impacts, sectors causing and impacted transboundary problem and increased erosion from the by the problem and the immediate, operation of hydropower plants underlying and root causes of changes Sediment transport is affected by downstream of discharge locations to sediment transport. both natural events, climate variability and change (such as extreme • Buna/Bojana River weather events) and anthropogenic deposition and erosion impacts (such as gravel extraction, deforestation, poor land use, dams and • coastal changes from changing other hydromorphological alterations), sediment processes and resulting in sediment transport interaction with the sea variability – both excess and reduced sediment transport – with consequential • loss of habitats from changes of impacts on ecosystems and coastal sediment deposition.

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO ECSDE

58 59 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Priority transboundary problems

Figure 13. Causes and impacts of the variability of sediment transport regime

ROOT CAUSES

• Climate variability and change UNDERLYING CAUSES • Low level of financial resources for environmental protection • Low political will • Lack of enforcement • Lack of capacity (identify IMMEDIATE CAUSES and assess problems) and mitigation measures (nature- based solutions) • Unsustainable agricultural • Lack of monitoring practices IMPACTS • Insufficient national and • Deforestation international coordination • Extreme weather events • Hydropower plant operations • Lack of awareness (floods and droughts) • Hydromorphological • Gravel extraction

alterations • Changes in sedimentation in • Hydropower plant operations rivers and coasts • Gravel extraction • Coastal erosion • Tourism

• Fisheries (freshwater and coastal/marine) • Biodiversity

60 61 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Priority transboundary problems

Table 6. Causal chain analysis for the variability of sediment transport regime

Variability of sediment transport

Goods and services at risk • Hydropower plant generation • Flood protection • Navigation/tourism (Buna/Bojana River) • Tourism • Fisheries (freshwater and coastal/marine) • Biodiversity in lakes, rivers, coastal waters

Impacts (resulting • Hydropower plant operations from variability of the • Gravel extraction sediment transport regime) on: ecosystems • Changes in sedimentation in rivers and coasts and socio-economics • Coastal erosion • Tourism • Fisheries (freshwater and coastal/marine) • Biodiversity

Sectors • Forestry • Agriculture • Tourism • Industry (power production, gravel extraction)

Immediate causes • Unsustainable agricultural practices • Deforestation • Extreme weather events (floods and droughts) • Hydromorphological alterations • Hydropower plant operations • Gravel extraction

Underlying causes • Lack of enforcement • Lack of capacity (identify and assess problems) and mitigation measures (nature-based solutions) • Lack of monitoring • Insufficient national and international coordination • Lack of awareness

Root causes • Climate variability and change • Low level of financial resources for environmental protection • Low political will

62 © Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO-ECSDE63 DRIN BASIN : TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS Priority transboundary problems

3.4.3 Linkages with other key will assist in addressing groups of or all of transboundary problems that could transboundary problems the key issues, some of which include: be upscaled across the basin

Changes in sediment transport • improving intersectoral and • awareness-raising at all levels are linked to the variability of the regional coordination (including of society, from community hydrological regime as well as consideration to establishing a to the Government climate variability and change. regional body/commission for Changes in the water flow as a result the Drin Basin) for water and • procedural enhancements (for of socio-economic activities (such as ecosystem management example, how hydropower plant hydropower production) also impact cascades operate) this problem. Sediment transport • regional harmonization variability has an effect on habitats and of approaches to water • infrastructure upgrades therefore ecosystems. management, monitoring and (wastewater treatment works, data/information approaches, municipal solid waste, etc.) in 3.5 Overall recommendations to reporting, etc. accordance with EU Association guide SAP development Agreement commitments • regional policy strengthening, of the Riparians The key issues raised in the thematic for example, on best available reports are summarized throughout practices in agriculture or • updating and implementing the TDA and together with the CCA on the use of phosphates- national action plans (NAPs) and/ will guide the development of SAP containing detergents, or strategies to reflect the ambition actions. Furthermore, the CCA is through testing approaches in and objectives of the SAP at the supplemented by the results of an targeted projects Riparian/sub-basin level. expert workshop (December 2018, Athens), which examined in more detail • capacity development (technical, the specific problems, causes, impacts policy, enforcement, etc.) and potential actions to address the problems. The TDA identifies key/overall • practical demonstrations to coordinated management actions that highlight common solutions to the

© Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO ECSDE

64 65 Orthetrum cancellatum © Thomais Vlachogianni/MIO-ECSDE