Impact of Mechanotransduction in the Context of Central Nervous System Diseases

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Impact of Mechanotransduction in the Context of Central Nervous System Diseases DANIELA NOGUEIRA DA ROCHA MAR PhD Thesis Impact of Mechanotransduction in the Context of Central Nervous System Diseases Dissertação submetida à Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto para obtenção do grau de Doutora em Engenharia Biomédica Faculdade de Engenharia Universidade do Porto 2015 This thesis was supervised by: Doutora Ana Paula Gomes Moreira Pêgo (supervisor) INEB – Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica I3S – Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde FEUP – Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto ICBAS – Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar Doutor João Bettencourt Relvas (co-supervisor) IBMC – Instituto de Biologia Celular e Molecular I3S – Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde ICBAS – Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar The work was performed at: INEB – Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica IBMC – Instituto de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Divisão de Neurociências, Glial Cell Biology Laboratory This work was financially supported by: FCT through the PhD grant SFRH/BD/64079/ 2009. European Commission FP6 NEST Program (Contract 028473) FEDER funds through the Programa Operacional Factores de Competitividade – COMPETE Portuguese funds through the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) (PEst-C/SAU/LA0002/2011 and PEst-C/SAU/LA0002/2013-14) PTDC/SAU-NMC/119937/2010 - FCT — R&D Devagar se vai ao longe. (Provérbio popular Português) Agradecimentos Aos meus orientadores Ana Paula e João que me apoiaram durante estes anos, e com quem aprendi muito. Obrigada à Cristina Barrias pelo apoio, pela ajuda e input valioso no que toca à matrizes de alginato. Neste contexto, tenho ainda que agradecer à Keila Fonseca e à Raquel Maia pela ajuda preciosa nesta temática. Claro está que, no caso da Raquelita o meu muito obrigado vai bem para além do alginato. Obrigada pela amizade, que espero preservar por muitos e muitos anos. E claro não podia deixar de agradecer pela ajuda e companhia na hora de escolher o meu vestido de noiva. Liliana Pires, obrigada pelas fibras de P(TMC-CL), pela camaradagem, pela amizade e pelas nossas longas conversas que ainda hoje temos, embora mais curtas e menos frequentes. Foi um prazer fazer ciência contigo! À Isabel Carvalho com quem aprendi muito (senão quase tudo) do que sei de animais de laboratório, e experimentação animal. Apesar de já não estares no IBMC-ONEH há alguns anos, foste quem me introduziu neste mundo da experimentação animal e não poderia ter aprendido com melhor pessoa. Obrigada pela partilha de conhecimento. Um obrigada muito especial também à Márcia Liz com quem tive o prazer de explorar o mundo dos western blots e da GSK3β. O P(TMC-CL) e os neurónios corticais deram-nos muitos desafios mas valeu a pena e, acima de tudo, foste uma excelente professora. Obrigada Mónica pela disponibilade e ajuda na exploração da via da GSK3β. Obrigada às minhas companheiras de viagem científica, amizades fabulosas que o INEB me deu: Nilza, Fabíola e Daniela muito obrigada pela vossa amizade! Foi bom partilhar este percurso convosco. Nilza e Fabíola obrigada ainda pela partilha e pelo convívio extra- INEB, pelos jantares, pelos lanches e pelas viagens à retrosaria do Sr. Simpático que fala pelos cotovelos. Pelas nossas conversas sobre trabalhos manuais e costuras, que espero que continuem a existir no futuro. Ao GCB ou melhor, aos elmentos do GCB – Joana, Maria, Ana, Sofias e Nuno - que tão bem me receberam no seu laboratório, fazendo a integração super fácil. Gostei imenso de trabalhar convosco e de partilhar esta viagem científica. Obrigapa pela vossa paciência sempre que monopolizava o agitador orbital com as minhas mega membranas. Obrigada por me introduzirem ao maravilhoso mundo das culturas de OPCs e, Maria, obrigada por todas as vezes que nos últimos tempos me cedeste OPCs. Obrigada Claúdia e Manuel pela ajuda com os meus géis grandes de western blot, e pelos conselhos tão úteis. Obrigada Prof. Jorge Azevedo por me deixar usar os seus sistemas para correr os meus géis. Obrigada Maria Oliveira pelo input valioso no meu artigo de revisão, ficou seguramente mais valioso depois do teu contributo. i Obrigada Tiago pela ajuda preciosa no Huygens para a edição das imagens de confocal das fibras de P(TMC-CL), finalmente dá para ver que estão mielinizadas. Tenho ainda que agradecer aos meu colegas de turma do MBA que foram a minha companhia neste último ano tão desafiante. Obrigada pela camaradagem, obrigada pelas amizades (seguramente para a vida), pelo apoio e carinho a esta Bioquímica/ R&D investigator que decidiu ir para o meio dos economistas e engenheiros. Obrigada às minhas “pulguinhas” de quem gosto tanto e que me dão tantas alegrias de cada vez que vejo os seus sorrisos, que me pedem fatos de carnaval e halloween ou abracinhos apertadinhos. Um obrigada gigante aos meus pais. Meus fãs, que me apoiam e apoiaram sempre, incondicionalmente. Obrigada por acreditarem em mim, por me desafiarem a ir sempre um bocadinho mais longe. O vosso apoio e carinho foi crucial neste processo. A ti Fernando obrigada por tudo e mais alguma coisa. Obrigada pelo carinho, pela partilha, pela paciência e resiliência. Obrigada por acreditares em mim por me estimulares a ser sempre melhor. Obrigada por partilhares a vida comigo. ii iii iv Table of Contents Abbreviation List . vii Abstract . .. xi Resumo . .. xiii Chapter I – General Introduction and Motivations . 1 Chapter II – Mechanotransduction: exploring new therapeutic avenues in CNS Pathology . 21 Chapter III – Extracellular Environment Contribution to Astrogliosis – Lessons Learned from a Tissue Engineered 3D Model of the Glial Scar 61 Chapter IV – Poly (Trimethylene Carbonate-co-ε-Caprolactone) Pomotes Axonal Growth . 93 Chapter V – Astrocytes Affect Oligodendrocyte Precursor Cell Differentiation . 125 Chapter VI – Concluding Remarks . 145 APPENDIX v vi Abbreviation list AFM Atomic force microscopy Alg Alginate ATP Adenosine 5´- triphosphate BBB Blood-brain-barrier BIO 6-bromoindirubin-3’-acetoxime BSA Bovine serum albumin CM Conditioned medium CNS Central Nervous System Col IV Collagen IV CRMP4 Collapsin response mediator protein 4 CSF Cerebrospinal fluid CSPG Chondroitin sulphate proteoglycans C4S Chondroitin 4 sulphate DMEM Dulbecco’s modified eagle medium DMSO Dimethyl sulfoxide DNA Deoxiribonucleic acid DTT DL-dithiothreitol ECM Extracellular matrix EDTA Ethylenediaminetretaacetic acid EGTA Ethylene glycol tretaacetic acid FAK Focal adhesion kinase FBS Fetal bovine serum FITC Fluorescein isothiocyanate FRET Foster Resonance Energy Transfer G’ Elastic modulus vii G’’ Viscous modulus GAPDH Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase GBM Glioblastoma multiforme GFAP Glial fibrillary protein GPC Gel permeation chromatography GSK Glycogen synthase kinase GSK3β Glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta GTPases Rho family guanosine-5-triphosphatases HBSS Hank’s balanced salt solution HMW High molecular weight HPRT Hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase HRP Horseradish peroxidase IBU Ibuprofen iNPH Idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus IOP Intraocular pressure KD Knockdown LMW Low molecular weight LPA Lysophosphatidic acid MAIs Myelin associated inhibitors MAPK Mitogen activated protein kinase MBP Myelin basic protein MMPs Matrix metalloproteinases MMP-2 Matrix metalloproteinase 2 MMP-9 Matrix metalloproteinase 9 MOPS 3-(n-morpholino) propanesulfonic acid MRE Magnetic resonance elastography MRI Magnetic resonance imaging MS Multiple Sclerosis viii NG2 Neural/glial antigen 2 NGS Normal goat serum NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance NSCs Neural stem cells OLs Oligodendrocytes OPCs Oligodendrocyte precursor cells PBS Phosphate buffered saline PKC Protein kinase C PLA2 Phospholipase A2 PN Perineuronal net RMS Root mean square RPE Retinal pigment epithelium RT Room temperature RT-PCR Real-time polymerase chain reaction P(CL) Poly(-caprolactone) PLL Poly(L-lysine) PMSF Phenyl-methanesulfonyl fluoride PNS Peripheral nervous system P(TMC) Poly(trimethylene carbonate) P(TMC-CL) Poly(trimethylene-carbonate-co-ε-caprolactone) qPCR Quantitative real- time polymerase chain reaction RNA Ribonucleic acid ROCK Rho-associated kinase RPE Retinal pigment epithelium SCI Spinal cord injury Ser Serine shRNA Small/Short hairpin ribonucleic acid SRC Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase SRC ix TBS Tris-buffered saline Tyr Tyrosine VIM Vimentin VSVG Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Glycoprotein YAP Yes-associated protein x Abstract To understand the chain of alterations that occur in the aftermath of a central nervous system (CNS) lesion and how these condition the progress of the tissue response and ultimately of the disease, requires a systematic approach, as scar formation results from a plethora of events. Cells within tissues are continuously exposed to physical forces and the CNS is no exception. Several CNS disorders have now been intimately correlated with mechanotransduction issues. As such, this thesis aimed at exploring the impact of mechanotransduction in the CNS, specifically in pathological conditions, envisaging its modulation towards the design of new complementary CNS regenerative therapies. In particular, the work here presented explores the impact of mechanotransduction on CNS key cellular players and subsequent signaling activation pathways. Due to the lack of a screening platform, which could allow in vitro testing of mechanotransduction in CNS cells, up to now no comprehensive study has addressed and clarified this subject. Consequently, the first challenge was the development of a tissue-engineered platform, which lead to the
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