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British Policy Towards Kenya, 1960-1980

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British Policy Towards Kenya, 1960-1980 Durham E-Theses `Kenya is no doubt a special case':British policy towards Kenya, 1960-1980 CULLEN, CATRIONA,POPPY How to cite: CULLEN, CATRIONA,POPPY (2015) `Kenya is no doubt a special case':British policy towards Kenya, 1960-1980, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11180/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 ‘Kenya is no doubt a special case’: British policy towards Kenya, 1960-1980 Poppy Cullen Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History Durham University 2015 Abstract ‘Kenya is no doubt a special case’: British policy towards Kenya, 1960-1980 Poppy Cullen This thesis examines the ways British policy towards Kenya was made from 1960 to 1980 – from the last years of British colonial rule and through the first two decades of Kenya’s existence as an independent state. Despite the late colonial traumas of Mau Mau, relationships between the British government and the new government of Kenya were very close. British officials actively pursued influence, and a combination of multiple and overlapping interests and a dense network of relationships encouraged British politicians, civil servants and diplomats to place a high value on this relationship, coming to describe it as ‘special’. The thesis examines how ‘policy’ was made, and argues that this emerged from numerous decisions taken by individuals at multiple levels, informed by ‘habits of thought’ as well as a general understanding of British interests which was shared – despite some rivalries and tensions between UK government departments. British attitudes were also shaped by misunderstandings and prejudices. Kenya, by contrast, was emerging as a neo-patrimonial state. This thesis examines how these systems interacted with one another and recognises the clear difference: British officials worked within a bureaucratic system in a way which gave their decisions a coherence and consistency; Kenya’s elite pursued personal and factional interests. Even so, the British reinforced Kenyan neo-patrimonialism by working with individuals rather than through official channels. The thesis argues that, despite the disparity in structure and form, this was a negotiated relationship. Leading Kenyans were often adept at using the British relationship to their particular advantage and were able to influence and shape British decisions in ways which complicate any simple neo-colonial analysis. The relationship remained close because British interests and those of leading Kenyans came to align on crucial issues, ensuring a continued mutual interest in the relationship. 1 The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without the author's prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. 2 Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank those who have given me the funding to enable me to pursue this research. This work was supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council [grant number AHU/AHRC2011/000180788]. I would especially like to thank the AHRC for awarding me this doctoral studentship. I would also like to thank the Royal Historical Society for a Research Expenses Award; and at Durham University the History Department, St Chad’s College, and the Arts and Humanities Faculty Research Fund. I am very grateful for all of their financial support. The material from the Malcolm MacDonald collection in Durham is reproduced by kind permission of the Trustees of the Malcolm MacDonald papers and of Durham University. My thanks also extend hugely to all of the people who have spoken to me, both informally and formally, about this research throughout the last few years. Some of them are mentioned by name within the thesis, but many more are not. I am extremely grateful for all of the ideas and suggestions they have provided and the interest they have shown in my research. I would also like to thank the staff in all of the archives I have consulted. Next, and I have to say most importantly, I owe a huge amount of thanks to my supervisor Justin Willis. He has challenged, questioned, and encouraged me; and improved this thesis and the experience of writing it immeasurably with all of his contributions. This thesis would not look close to how it does without his supervision. I have also been very lucky to have had Cherry Leonardi as my second supervisor, and she too has helped me immeasurably. I would also like to thank the History Department at Durham University, and the many members of staff and other PhD students who have provided encouragement, support and intellectual stimulation during my time here. Thanks also to my family and friends, in Durham and elsewhere, who have offered support and friendship throughout. And finally to my sister Harriet and my parents Jan and Mark for their unwavering love and support. 3 Contents List of Tables 6 Abbreviations 7 Introduction 8 Decolonisation 10 Britain and Post-Colonial Kenya 13 Kenya and Post-Colonial Britain 19 Defining ‘Policy’ 27 Sources and Structure 35 Chapter One: Making ‘Policy’ (1): British Institutions and Actors 39 Politicians and Civil Servants 41 Overseas Departments 43 Other Departments 47 East Africa Department 51 British High Commission, Nairobi 55 High Commissioners 60 Diplomatic Personnel 66 Conclusion 76 Chapter Two: Making ‘Policy’ (2): Kenyan Institutions and Actors 79 Kenyatta 81 Njonjo and McKenzie 85 ‘Moderates’ and ‘Radicals’ 92 Succession Candidates 99 Personal Forms of Policy-Making 107 Conclusion 114 Chapter Three: 1960-1964 117 Ideas in 1960 118 Kenyatta’s release 120 Mboya’s June 1963 Visit 126 Mutiny 130 The Memorandum of Intention and Understanding 134 Continuing Expatriates 141 Conclusion 147 4 Chapter Four: 1965-1969 149 African Socialism and investment 151 Operation Binnacle 155 Bamburi Understanding 164 Asian Immigration 172 Conclusion 179 Chapter Five: 1970-1973 182 The Bamburi Understanding Renewed 183 Aid Negotiations 186 1971 Coup Plot 196 Arms and Asians 201 General Relationship Talks 208 Conclusion 214 Chapter Six: 1974-July 1978 216 Military Policies 218 Aid Policies 221 J.M. Kariuki’s Assassination 226 Arms Supplies – Entebbe 230 The Moi-Njonjo-Kibaki-McKenzie Group 235 The Bamburi Understanding Reconsidered 239 Conclusion 242 Chapter Seven: August 1978-1980 244 Succession 246 State Visit 251 Conclusion 260 Conclusion 263 Appendix: British Diplomats and Civil Servants working in the East Africa Department and British High Commission, Nairobi, 1960-1980 271 Bibliography 279 5 List of Tables Table 1: Kenya's Place in the Overseas Offices 52 Table 2: Heads of East Africa Department (CO, CRO, FO, and FCO) 54 Table 3: Number of Diplomats in BHC 59 Table 4: Functional Analysis of BHC work, compiled by BHC in 1979 60 Table 5: High Commissioners in Nairobi 63 Table 6: Age of Civil Servants at Starting Role 68 Table 7: Background of Diplomats and Civil Servants in BHC and EAD 68 Table 8: BHC Overseas Postings 74 Table 9: African Experience 75 Table 10: Publicly Financed British Personnel in Kenya (excluding volunteers), 31 December 1965 to 1968 142 Table 11: Technical Assistance from Britain to Kenya (£m) 142 Table 12: British Investment in Kenya (£m) (excluding banking, insurance and oil) 155 Table 13: External Finance Raised for the Development Budget (K£m) 188 Table 14: The British Aid Programme and Kenya's Place in it (£m) 188 Table 15: British Aid to Kenya, 1964-80 (£m) 193 Table 16: Total Kenyan Aid by Sources, 1972-1976 (US$m) 223 Table 17: Kenyan Imports 225 Table 18: Kenyan Exports 226 Table 19: Military Allocations as Percentage of Central Government Budgets 253 Table 20: Size of Armed Forces (thousands) 254 Table 21: British Projections of Kenya’s Future Balance of Payments (US$m) 254 6 Abbreviations BDOHP British Diplomatic Oral History Project, Churchill Archives Centre, Churchill College, Cambridge BHC British High Commission in Nairobi CO Colonial Office CRO Commonwealth Relations Office DSL Diplomatic Service List EAD East Africa Department EEC European Economic Community FCO Foreign and Commonwealth Office FO Foreign Office GSU General Service Unit HMOCS Her Majesty’s Overseas Civil Service HMG Her Majesty’s Government KADU Kenya African Democratic Union KANU Kenya African National Union KNA Kenya National Archive, Nairobi KPU Kenya People’s Union MMA Malcolm MacDonald Archive, Durham MOD Ministry of Defence MOU Memorandum of Intention and Understanding, 1964 NKG New Kenya Group OAU Organisation of African Unity ODA Overseas Development Administration ODM Ministry of Overseas Development RAF Royal Air Force SAS Special Air Service TNA The National Archive, Kew UKPH United Kingdom Passport Holders UN United Nations 7 Introduction Introduction On the fiftieth anniversary of Kenya’s independence in 2013, UK Minister for Africa Mark Simmonds, Britain’s representative at the celebrations, issued a ‘Happy Birthday’ message in The Daily Nation. With the German Ambassador to Kenya the only other foreign commentator included, Simmonds was keen to highlight the Anglo-Kenyan connection: Today the UK/Kenya relationship is a modern one. The colonial era is past. We share the same goals: Prosperity, inclusive growth that benefits the poorest, and shared security.
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