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2008:069 MASTER’S THESIS 2008:069 MASTER’S THESIS 2008:069 MASTER’S THESIS 2008:069 DetectionMASTE scenariosR’S forTHESIS Preon Stars Detection scenarios for Preon Stars Detection scenarios for Preon Stars Jan Karlsson Jan Karlsson PHYSICS Jan Karlsson Luleå University of Technology Department of Applied PhysicsPHYSICS and Mechanical Engineering Division of Physics Universitetstryckeriet, Luleå s)33. s)32.,45 $500 3%Luleå University of Technology PHYSICS Department of Applied Physics and Mechanical Engineering Division of Physics Universitetstryckeriet, Luleå Luleå University of Technology s)33. s)32.,45 $500 3% Department of Applied Physics and Mechanical Engineering Division of Physics Universitetstryckeriet, Luleå s)33. s)32.,45 $500 3% ABSTRACT If subconstituent particles, generically called preons, exist beyond the Standard Model of parti- cle physics (SM), then stable cosmic compact objects, preon stars, witha densityof1030 kg/m3 and above, can exist. This M.Sc. thesis is about finding ways to detect these preon stars, either directly or indirectly. Their eventual observation would be a direct confirmation of particles beyond the SM of today. This indirect detection can even be accomplished way above the energy scale of the soon-to-be started finished Large Hadron Collider (LHC), and in a more inexpensive way. Means of detecting preon stars as they collide with the Earth are discussed, mainly by seismic detection and gravitational effects. The analysis shows that the chances of a typical preon star colliding with the Earth are less than one in the lifetime of the solar system. Therefore detection of preon stars by means of seismic waves seems remote. The impact fre- quency is however strongly dependent on the preon star mass and size. It should, however, be possible to detect preon stars by means of their induced gravitational perturbations in the solar system, mainly beyond the orbit of Neptune, though it requires more detailed investigation. iii PREFACE It has been a pleasure to work with this highly interesting project. It is fun to work with some- thing as new as these preon stars. Personally I believein the idea that quarks are not the smallest constituents of matter. If one gazes up in the skies on the stars, there are a number of different kinds of stellar bodies. Among these are star remnants made up of these “fundamental” con- stituents, e.g. white dwarfs (atoms), neutron stars (neutrons) and quark stars (quarks). Then why could not preon stars exist? If smaller, even more “fundamental”, constituents (preons) exist, preon stars seem destined to exist. Also, the preon star model has quite recently attracted attention from some very esteemed journals and magazines (Physical Review Focus, Nature News and New Scientist-cover story), which has been very exciting and inspiring. My year as a Research Trainee (RT) has been worthwhile for me. I had the opportunity to work with others, in a group where everyone had varying projects from the institutions they were affiliated to. I got many contacts and all shared their knowledge with each other. The postgraduate (forskarf¨orberedande) courses and projects I took part in, besides my research project, have given me an insight into how scientists work. The stipend granted by RT has also been a nice plus. A trip was also financed by RT, and this year we went to the USA (first to the city of New York and later to the state of Florida). Among the things we did and experienced, the most spectacular event was the night-time launch of the space shuttle Endeavour headed for the International Space Station (ISS). Finally I wish to thank all companions from RT who made this year something to remember. My supervisor Johan Hansson (who, togheter with Fredrik Sandin, is the “inventor” of preon stars) has been there whenever I had trouble and came up with ideas. I also wish to thank my girlfriend Malin and our son Jakob, born in the beginning of the RT year, who have made me very happy. This document was created with LATEX2εusing the template for Masters theses on http://www.csee.ltu.se/ johanc/teaching.php. ∼ v CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 WhatisaPreonStar? ............................... 1 1.2 Detectionofinterstellarcompactobjects . .......... 11 1.3 Nuclearitedetection. ... 15 CHAPTER 2: PREON STAR DETECTION BY SEISMIC WAVES 19 2.1 Nuggetabundance ................................ 19 2.2 ApplicationtoPreonStars . ... 22 2.3 Equationsfor Strange Quark Nuggets and Preon Stars . .......... 23 2.4 Aspectsofseismicdetection-results. ........ 24 CHAPTER 3: TIDAL FORCES AND REDSHIFT 27 3.1 Gravitationaland tidalforces in thesolar system . ............ 27 3.2 Preon Stars causing gravitational perturbations? . ............. 28 3.3 Redshift...................................... 31 3.4 GravitationalredshiftproducedbyPreonStars . ........... 33 CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION 41 APPENDIX A: PUBLISHED ARTICLES ABOUT PREON STARS 45 APPENDIX B: THE STANDARD MODEL OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES 47 CHAPTER 1 Background and Introduction 1.1 What is a Preon Star? During the time of this project, the question “What are preon stars?” has frequently been asked. The short answer is that preon stars are extremely dense cosmic compact objects, with a mass comparable to the Earth and with a size roughly like a tennis ball. For a more accurate description, two topics need to be explained; preons and compact objects. Since my project is about finding ways to detect preon stars, I will also briefly tell about the discoveries of the other kinds of compact objects. 1.1.1 Preons Humanity has during the course of history wondered about the nature of matter. In the age of Classical Antiquity the general public believed in the teaching of the elements (earth, air, water and fire), while some few Greeks believed in the teaching of a smallest particle, the atom. The molecule was discovered in 1811 and labeled after the French word “mol´ecule”, which means “extremely small particle”. The atom was discovered in 1905 and labeled by the Greek word “atom” which means “indivisible”. Soon after the discovery of the atom, scientists discovered that the atom is divisible after all; it is made up of even smaller subconstituents. 1 2 BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION These subconstituents most people recognize today; proton1 , neutron2 and electron3. Several people also guessed that protons and neutrons in themselves have subconstituents known as quarks, which in turn where discovered in 1968. Today the Standard Model (SM) of particle physics (see appendix B) is a theoretical descrip- tion of the presently known particles and the interactions between them. The SM describes most of the experimental data at present. It consists of six types of leptons (electrons, muons, tauons and their neutrinos), three types of force-mediating particles (photons, gluons and weak bosons) and six different types of quarks. The quarks also come in three different “colours”, which is the name of the strong charge, and all particles also have associated antiparticles. This gives a total of 52 different particles [2]. A phenomenon that cannot satisfactorily be explained today is that heavier quarks and leptons quickly decay to their “ground level”. Also, gravitation is not at all included in the SM. In total there are over twenty free parameters in the SM that cannot be predicted but must be fitted to experimental data. It is completely unknown why the particles in the SM arrange in repeating “generations”, identical apart from the masses. In the past, that phenomenon has been a hint at a deeper more fundamental level of constituents. Haim Harari is an Israeli scientist who contributed in foreseeing the charm quark in 1975 [3]. Historically it has always, so far, been the case that when humanity thought they had found the smallest particles, something hidden at an even smaller level has been revealed. Harari thought that there must be subconstituents for quarks and leptons since he could not believe that nature’s fundamental building blocks would be as many as in the SM. He then constructed the Rishon model in 1979 [4], as subconstituent model for quarks and leptons. The goal was to collect all particles of matter into as few fundamental objects as possible. Today there are various ways of trying to resolve the problems that occur in the SM. The most common way today is to try to find a supersymmetric theory (e.g. string theory) for all particles and their interactions. This has not yet succeeded. Another way is more in line with Harari [4] and how history actually have played out, i.e. that quarks, leptons and weak bosons are composite particles [5] made up of hypothetical pre-quarks, preons. This new level of subconstituents, can be seen in Fig. 1.1. According to Harari [4], the similarities observed between quarks and leptons indicate that there exists a common underlying structure for both. The quantized electric charge is but one indication for this. This claim is strengthened by the fact that the hydrogen atom is electrically neutral, which would be a consequence if quarks and leptons have common subconstituents. A related empirical fact, which could be explained by a successful scheme, is the vanishing sum of electric charges of quarks and leptons in each “generation”, e.g νe,e−,u,d. In latter 1Ernest Rutherford is credited for the discovery of the proton in 1919. 2James Chadwick won the nobel prize in 1935 “for the discovery of the neutron” in 1932 [1]. 3J.J. Thomson won the Nobel Prize for his discovery of the elecron in 1897. The electron is regarded to be the first elementary particle ever detected [1]. 1.1. WHAT IS A PREON STAR? 3 Molecule Atom Nuclear core Proton Pre-quark Quark (Preon) 3000 B.C. 1811 (Adam & Eve) 1905 1911 1968 2008? Figure 1.1: Illustration of smaller and smaller subconstituents and the time line of their discovery.
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