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Eloquent Alogia: Animal Narrators in Ancient Greek Literature

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Eloquent Alogia: Animal Narrators in Ancient Greek Literature humanities Article Eloquent Alogia: Animal Narrators in Ancient Greek Literature Tom Hawkins Department of Classics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; [email protected] Academic Editor: Joela Jacobs Received: 21 January 2017; Accepted: 27 May 2017; Published: 3 June 2017 Abstract: Classical Greek literature presents a variety of speaking animals. These are not, of course, the actual voices of animals but human projections. In a culture that aligns verbal mastery with social standing, verbal animals present a conundrum that speaks to an anxiety about human communication. I argue that the earliest examples of speaking animals, in Homer, Hesiod and Archilochus, show a fundamental connection with Golden Age tales. Later authors, such as Plutarch and Lucian, look back on such cases from a perspective that does not easily accept notions of divine causation that would permit such fanciful modes of communication. I argue that Plutarch uses a talking pig to challenge philosophical categories, and that Lucian transforms a sham-philosopher of a talking-cock to undermine the very pretense of philosophical virtue. Keywords: animals; Achilles; Archilochus; fox; Gryllus; Hesiod; Homer; Lucian; pig; Plutarch; Pythagoras; rooster; Xanthus 1. Introduction Aristotle (Politics, 1.2) and Cicero (De inventione, 1.4) both maintained that language forms one of the critical distinctions between humans and beasts (Fögen 2003, 2007). This attitude can even be felt in the Greek adjective alogon (“without logos”), which means not only “irrational” and “without language” but also (as a noun) “animal”.1 Thus, as Gera and Heath have amply demonstrated, in early Greek culture verbal mastery was strongly correlated to social standing (Gera 2003; Heath 2005). Animals, since they lack altogether the capacity for language, demarcate one end of a spectrum that leads toward the masters of persuasive speech, and marginal figures like children, women, foreigners, the uneducated, and those with communicative disabilities are mapped somewhere between these extremes. Verbal animals, therefore, represent a category crisis that demands explanation (Fögen 2003, 2007), and by situating speaking animals in the wider range of classical attitudes we can hear a paradoxically eloquent alogia. The “animal turn” in contemporary literary studies seeks to take the role of animals in literature more seriously, based, in part, on the modern realization that animal (and even plant) communication is far more complicated than had previously been realized (McDonell 2014; DeMello 2013; Plec 2013; Karban 2015; Radick 2007; Diamond 1992; Herman 2016). Yet efforts to study animal narrators constantly bump up against the limits of this project.2 Speaking animals are presented in terms of a uniquely human trait, namely human language (Wolfe 2016), and thus they are constructed via a pathetic fallacy that offers us not a window into the bestial soul but a mirror that reflects how humans 1 In the story of Epimetheus’ botched distribution of animal capacities, for example, Plato says that the dim-witted Titan apportioned all available skill-sets and capabilities among the beasts (ta aloga) while forgetting to reserve any such benefit for humans (Protagoars, 321b–c). 2 See (DeMello 2013) and (Herman 2016) for creative efforts to overcome this problem. Humanities 2017, 6, 37; doi:10.3390/h6020037 www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities Humanities 2017, 6, 37 2 of 15 conceptualize (i.e., create and make knowable through our language) animals. Such an assertion need 3 not deny or even erode the possibility of animal languages or human–non-humanHumanities communication. 2017, 6, 37 2 of 15 Humanities 2017, 6, 37 HumanitiesI 2017 am, 6 confident, 37 that I and the dog, who keeps me company2 of 15 as I write this article,2 of communicate, 15 but as 3 soon as I “report” his words by means of my vocabulary, grammar and personal context,not deny I am or speakingeven erode the possibility of animal languages or human–non-human communication. not deny or even erode the notpossibility deny or of even anim erodeal languages the possibility or human– of animnon-humanal languages communication. or human–non-human3 communication.3 through or for him rather than hearing his voice.4 I am confident that I and the dog, who keeps me company as I write this article, communicate, but as I am confident that I and theI dog,am confident who keeps that me I andcompany the dog, as Iwho write keeps this article,me company communicate, as I write but this as article, communicate, butsoon as as I “report” his words by means of my vocabulary, grammar and personal context, I am Even if the idea of hearing what animals really want to “say” must remain a fantasy, in taking soon as I “report” his wordssoon by as means I “report” of my his vocabulary, words by grammarmeans of andmy vocabulary,personal context, grammar I am and personal context, I amspeaking through or for him rather than hearing his voice.4 speaking through or for himspeaking rather thanliterary through hearing depictions or forhis himvoice. ofrather4 verbal than animals hearing more his voice. seriously,4 we can hope to reach other goals. InEven the if following the idea of hearing what animals really want to “say” must remain a fantasy, in taking Even if the idea of hearing whatEvenpages animalsif the I idea build really of onhearing want the to workwhat “say” animals of must Gera, remain really Heath, wanta fantasy, and to Fögen“say” in taking must (Fögen remain 2003 a ,fantasy, 2007; Gera in taking 2003literary ; Heath depictions 2005 )of to verbal animals more seriously, we can hope to reach other goals. In the following literary depictions of verbal literaryanimals depictions suggestmore seriously, that of verbal speaking we cananimals hope animals more to reach seriously, from other ancient goals. we can Greek In hope the following literature to reach other often goals. engage In the with following Goldenpages AgeI build narratives. on the work of Gera, Heath, and Fögen (Fögen 2003, 2007; Gera 2003; Heath 2005) to suggest pages I build on the work of Gera,pages Heath, I buildI begin and on theFö withgen work (Fögen two of Gera, archaic 2003, Heath, 2007; case-studies: and Gera Fö 2003;gen (FögenHeath a horse, 2005)2003, whoto2007; suggest Gera speaks 2003; prophetic Heath 2005) Homeric to suggestthat hexameters, speaking animals and a from ancient Greek literature often engage with Golden Age narratives. I begin that speaking animals from ancientthat speaking Greekfabular animalsliterature fox, whosefrom often ancient engage voice Greek provideswith literatureGolden an Age ethicaloften narratives. engage example with I begin forGolden human Age narratives. conflict. In I begin thesewith earlytwo archaic examples, case-studies: a horse, who speaks prophetic Homeric hexameters, and a fabular fox, with two archaic case-studies:with a horse, twothe archaic who animals speaks case-studies: are prophetic fully a horse, animalHomeric who and hexameters, speaks their prophetic voices and a derive Homericfabular fromfox, hexameters, an earlier and world a fabular order fox,whose that voice is no provides longer an ethical example for human conflict. In these early examples, the animals are whose voice provides an ethicalwhose example voice provides for human an conflict. ethical example In these forearly human examples, conflict. the Inanimals these earlyare examples, the animals are directly accessible. These animal voices thus have another-worldly authority, andfully their animal speech and works their voices derive from an earlier world order that is no longer directly accessible. fully animal and their voicesfully derive animal from and an earliertheir voices world derive order fromthat isan no earlier longer world directly order accessible. that is no longer directly accessible.These animal voices thus have another-worldly authority, and their speech works differently from differently from the limited and fallible language of humans, thereby setting up a contrast between These animal voices thus haveThese another-worldly animal voices thusauthority, have another-worldlyand their speech auworksthority, differently and their from speech works differently fromthe limited and fallible language of humans, thereby setting up a contrast between the two systems the two systems of communication. I then turn to the later end of antiquity, where a pig and a rooster the limited and fallible languagethe limited of humans, and fallible thereby language setting upof humans,a contrast ther betweeneby setting the two up asystems contrast between the two systemsof communication. I then turn to the later end of antiquity, where a pig and a rooster speak, but only of communication. I then turnof communication.to thespeak, later end but of I onlythenantiquity, turn because to where the they later a pig usedend and of toa antiquity, rooster be human. speak, where The but a pig gimmickonly and a rooster of a talking speak, but animal onlybecause may they have used lost to its be human. The gimmick of a talking animal may have lost its attractions by this because they used to be human.because The attractions theygimmick used ofto byabe talking human. this era, animal The since gimmick may these have of animals lost a talking its attractions speak animal not may by from this have another lost its attractions world but by as thisera, overtly since humanizedthese animals speak not from another world but as overtly humanized voices that provide era, since these animals speakera, not since fromvoices these another animals that wo providerld speak but notas philosophical overtly from another humanized (pig) world voices and but satiricalas that overtly provide (rooster) humanized commentary voices that provide onphilosophical their contemporary (pig) and satirical (rooster) commentary on their contemporary world and earlier Greek philosophical (pig) and satiricalphilosophical (rooster)world commentary (pig) and and earlier satirical on Greek their (rooster) contemporary culture. commentary5 These world later on and their examples earlier contemporary Greek look back world to earlierand earlier models Greekculture.
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