The Knesset Research and Information Center
The Integration of Persons of
Ethiopian Origin into the Higher
Education System
Submitted to the Immigration, Absorption, and
Diaspora Affairs Committee
The Knesset, Research and Information Center Kiryat Ben-Gurion, Jerusalem 91950 Tel: 02-6408240/1
Fax: 02-6496103 Written by: Orly Almagor Lotan, Flora Koch Davidovich www.knesset.gov.il/mmm 18 July 2011
APPROVED BY: HODAYA KAIN, TEAM LEADER 17 Tammuz 5771
Summary
This paper was written at the request of the Immigration, Absorption and Diaspora Affairs Committee in preparation for a meeting to discuss “Integrating persons of Ethiopian origin into academia”. The first part of this document will present various data about students of Ethiopian origin in higher education institutions, as well as data for those of Ethiopian origin sitting psychometric examinations, and their achievements. In addition, we will survey the various aid programs operated by the relevant government ministries and higher education institutions for advancing the integration of persons of Ethiopian origin in the higher education system, as well as the policies of the various institutions for accepting students of Ethiopian origin for studies. In the second part of the document, we will present a comparative review, with examples of how different countries are attempting to increase the accessibility of higher education for various population sectors which are under-represented in this field.
The following principle findings emerge from the document:
. In the 2008/9 academic year around 1,921 students of Ethiopian origin were studying in institutions of higher education, comprising approximately 0.9% of all students then studying at such institutions, a lower rate than that of the population sector of Ethiopian origin within the general population in Israel (approximately 1.5%).
. Despite the rise between 2001-2007 in the number of students aged 20-29 of Ethiopian origin (excluding university preparatory programs) out of all those of Ethiopian origin of these ages, from 7.2% to 7.9% respectively, their percentage was significantly lower than that of students in the higher education system out of the general population of these ages (15.8% and 18.9% respectively).
. There are currently around 2,060 degree holders of Ethiopian origin, out of whom: around 1,810 (about 88%) have a bachelor’s degree and approximately 250 (about 12%) have a master’s. The vast majority of those who receive a degree were born in Ethiopia (93%), about 2.5% were born in Israel with both
parents born in Ethiopia, and about 4.5% are Israeli born with one parent born in Ethiopia.
. While the number of people of Ethiopian origin with a bachelor’s degree almost doubled between the 2004/5 and 2008/9 academic years, from 155 to 298, the rate of those of Ethiopian origin earning a bachelor’s degree is still minuscule, and stood at only 0.7% in 2008/9 – around half that of the percentage of the Ethiopian population sector within the general Israeli population. The rate of those of Ethiopian origin earning master’s degrees is even lower, and only 0.3% of those obtaining master’s degrees in 2008/9 originated from Ethiopia.
. Among students of Ethiopian origin, relatively common fields of study were the social sciences, education and teacher training, and management studies (similar to those common among students in general). There were almost no students of Ethiopian origin in the fields of sciences, medicine, agriculture, languages, literature and area studies.
. Regarding the distribution of students of Ethiopian origin who earned a bachelor’s degree among the institutions of higher education, we see that during the 2008/9 academic year, approximately 42% of those of Ethiopian origin obtaining a bachelor’s degree received their degree from universities, approximately 51% from academic colleges, and approximately 6.7% from colleges of education.
. It was also found that between 2004/5 and 2008/9 there was a noticeable increase in the number of students of Ethiopian origin earning degrees from the academic colleges, from 19% to 51%. This trend matches the existing trend among bachelor degree students in general in Israel.
. The University of Haifa has the highest percentage of students of Ethiopian origin out of all students studying for a bachelor’s or master’s degree (approximately 1.4%), whereas the lowest rate is at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (approximately 0.15%). The rate of students of Ethiopian
origin at the other universities ranges from 0.16% (the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology) to 0.6% (Bar-Ilan University).
. During the 2010/11 academic year, 997 students of Ethiopian origin studied in the 45 pre-academic preparatory programs, comprising 9% of all the students studying that year in these programs. According to the recently set targets in this context, recommended by the public committee for examining the operation of the pre-academic preparatory programs, headed by Mr. Yarom Ariav, the number of students of Ethiopian origin studying in the pre- academic preparatory programs must rise to 1,500 students within six years – a figure 1.5 times greater than today. Additionally, the pre-academic preparatory programs have been instructed to be more lenient when accepting students of Ethiopian origin even if they do not meet the prerequisites defined for a particular track.
. The psychometric examination grade greatly impacts the chances of acceptance to institutions of higher education. In 2007, the average general grade for examinees of Ethiopian origin was 424, as compared with the average grade for all those tested which was 532, and the average for all those tested in Hebrew which was 565. We can see from here that there is a gap of 108 points between the average score for examinees of Ethiopian origin and that of all those tested.
. The average general score during 2003-2007 for Ethiopian-born examinees was 395 – significantly lower than that of those of Ethiopian origin born in Israel, which was 479. Also, among Israeli-born examinees of Ethiopian origin, the average grade for those with two parents who had been born in Ethiopia – 471 – was significantly lower than that for those who had one parent born there – 562.
. Students of Ethiopian origin are entitled to help in funding tuition fees from the Israel Student Authority in the Ministry of Immigrant Absorption, as well as, as the document findings indicate, to academic and financial help from the institutions themselves and, in some cases, consideration regarding lower than the required psychometric grades, so as to advance the integration of students from this population sector within higher education institutions.
. Until a few years ago, the Jewish Agency was a major partner in funding the aid programs to students of Ethiopian origin, for up to 50% of the cost. However, over the past three years the Jewish Agency’s aid has been reduced to 20% of the programs’ costs, and currently there is uncertainty regarding whether it will continue to participate in helping new immigrant students, particularly those of Ethiopian origin, during 2012.
. The issue of advancing the integration rate of persons of Ethiopian origin in academic studies is on the agenda of the universities, and they are taking various steps to make it easier for those of Ethiopian origin to be accepted. Nevertheless, as can be seen from the document, in this context we need to consider not only someone’s actual acceptance for study in an institution of higher education, but also his or her long-term ability to meet the academic requirements.
. The designated aid program for those of Ethiopian origin in the academic colleges includes help with tuition fees, reinforcement lessons and individual support, help with integration in places of employment, and even unique study tracks (such as at the Ono Academic College and Ruppin Academic Center) intended for young people of Ethiopian origin with high academic and social potential. Regarding the conditions of acceptance to academic colleges, some place emphasis on a personal interview with the candidate and a matriculation certificate, rather than the grade in the psychometric examination.
. The comparative review findings indicate that, in different countries, there are different groups that are under-represented in the higher education system. In light of the strong link between acquiring an education and integration into the employment market, they are taking various steps to increase the integration of these groups in higher education institutions. Some of the steps taken are on a national level, including legislation addressing various aspects of accessibility to higher education, whereas others are voluntary projects of the higher education institutions themselves, like the programs at Israel’s academic colleges, as will be detailed.
. For example, in Australia there are federal scholarships intended for indigenous students, special funding for higher education institutions which operate programs for their advancement, and funding for private lessons for these students. In Victoria, one of the Australian states, there are unique acceptance tracks to
integrate indigenous students in higher education institutions, such as admission based on assessing each individual candidate, rather than his or her ranking in relation to others.
. In addition to increasing the accessibility of higher education for different groups in general, there are programs in various countries which focus on promoting accessibility of these groups to particular areas of study (where they are under-represented relative to other fields). Thus, for example, in Norway, the state has attempted to encourage linguistic minorities to study teaching, by changing the language requirements for studying. There are a number of programs in medical schools in Canada to increase the number of Aborigines applying for these studies. These programs address various facets related to studying, including admission requirements, tuition fees, and services to aid the Aboriginal students.
. Since meeting the prerequisites for educational institutions is a basic condition for acceptance, some of the programs in the various countries to increase accessibility to higher education focus on this. In this context, we can include programs aimed at reducing the high school dropout rate of various population sectors, improving their grades in the matriculation examinations, and exposing them to the higher education possibilities available to them.
1. Background
When examining the level of integration of persons of Ethiopian origin in the higher education system, we also need to look at their achievements in the education system, which affect their ability to meet the prerequisites determined by the universities. From earlier Knesset Research and Information Center documents, which reviewed the achievements of persons of Ethiopian origin in the education system, it would seem1 that despite the trend to close the gaps between the achievements of students of Ethiopian origin and the other students in the education system, significant gaps still exist in this field, expressed, among other areas, in the percentage eligible for a matriculation certificate. In 2010 the matriculation eligibility rate among students of Ethiopian origin was still significantly lower in comparison to this rate among all Jewish students (approximately 42% as against approximately 65%, respectively).
It is important to mention in this context that a matriculation certificate does not in itself assure a student the possibility of university study, and that he needs to meet the requirements of the universities2. A special analysis by the Central Bureau of Statistics, in response to the request of the Knesset Research and Information Center in 2010 indicated that only around a fifth (21%) of the pupils of Ethiopian origin were eligible for a matriculation certificate awarding eligibility for university studies, as opposed to around half (47%) among all Jewish pupils3.
Another factor, which can lessen the chances of acceptance for those of Ethiopian origin to higher education institutions, is the psychometric examination which, as argued by various elements, is not adapted to examinees who grew up in a non-Western culture. When discussing this claim during a session of the Knesset Committee for Immigration,
1 The Knesset Research and Information Center, “Integration of Persons of Ethiopian origin into the Education System – an update document”, 26 June 2011; “Absorption of Immigrant Pupils into the Education System”, 27 February 2011, written by: Flora Koch Davidovich. 2 As reported from the Israel Council for Higher Education, the authority for determining prerequisites for university acceptance is in the hands of the institutions as part of their academic freedom, and each institution decides the conditions for acceptance for the various subjects as it sees fit. Ms. Hagit Brants- Sabo, the Israel Council for Higher Education, letter, 10 July 2011. 3 The Knesset Research and Information Center, “Integration of Persons of Ethiopian origin into the Education System”, written by: Etti Weisblai, 12 August 2011.
Absorption and Diaspora Affairs on the topic of “Blocks against university entrance by people of Ethiopian origin” in October 2010, representatives of the National Center for Testing and Evaluation noted that the psychometric examination was aimed solely at testing academic abilities, and that it does not include components requiring those tested to be familiar with a particular culture4.
In regard to the aspirations of those of Ethiopian origin to study in the higher education system, findings from research conducted in 2009 by the Ministry of Immigrant Absorption and the Brookdale Institute indicate that, in comparison with immigrant youth from other countries, the percentage of persons of Ethiopian origin aspiring to study at an institution of higher education was low (59% among those born in Ethiopia and 43% of those of Ethiopian origin who are Israeli-born, as against 83% among immigrant youth from the former Soviet Union, 76% of those who are Spanish speaking, and 91% of English-speakers).According to the researchers, these findings are in line with the analysis of scores in the matriculation examinations, and indicate the need to improve the situation of this population sector in this field.5
We note in this context that the importance of advancing persons of Ethiopian origin in the field of education and higher education is expressed in government resolution No. 3116 from the 10 February 2008 concerning, “A Five Year Program to Improve the Absorption of the Ethiopian Community,” which notes that, “the Government of Israel sees as a target for 2008-2012, the improvement in the absorption of the Ethiopian community, while preparing to provide multi-disciplinary care in the areas of education, social welfare, employment, housing, and absorption.” The program includes reference to the following topics: adding career-oriented study frameworks as well as “summer semester” programs with the aim of significantly raising the rates of matriculation certificate eligibility; increasing the number of community members who receive help preparing for the psychometric examinations while in high school; encouragement, explanation, and direction to higher education; guidance and support for students and encouraging advanced degree studies. As part of the program
4 The Committee for Immigration, Absorption and Diaspora Affairs, Protocol No. 93 from the Committee for Immigration, Absorption and Diaspora Affairs meeting, “Blocks against university entrance by people of Ethiopian origin”, 12 October 2010. 5 The Ministry of Immigrant Absorption, Myers-JDC-Brookdale Institute, the Engelberg Center for Children and Youth, “Immigrant Youth in Israel – the Current Situation”, July 2010.
drafted by the government resolution, the Israel Student Authority has been organizing intensive activity over the past three years to encourage persons of Ethiopian origin to study in higher education, including two publicity tours (one held two years ago, and the second in May 2011); providing advice and guidance for students of Ethiopian origin in the pre-academic programs; funding aid programs, and supporting the students according to a program tailored to their requirements provided through the educational institutions and in partnership with them; attempting to increase the number of students in advanced degree courses, and additional steps.6
2. Data on the achievements of the population sector of Ethiopian
origin in the psychometric examination
In general, the admission requirements for Israeli universities are based on weighting matriculation examination and psychometric examination scores. The admission requirements for colleges are usually lower, but some of them also require the psychometric examination as an acceptance condition. We can therefore see that the psychometric examination grade greatly impacts the chances of acceptance to institutions of higher education.
According to the data of the National Center for Testing and Evaluation, which is responsible for the psychometric examination, during 2003-2007, a total of 2,565 examinees of Ethiopian origin sat the psychometric examination, out of a total of 260,329 examinees who sat the examination during those years.7 The percentage of examinees of Ethiopian origin out of the total number of examinees during 2003- 2007 is around one percent, as opposed to the percentage of the population sector of Ethiopian origin within the Israeli population, which is approximately 1.5%.8 Meaning, the rate of persons of Ethiopian origin sitting the examination is lower than their proportion in the population.
6 Opher Offen, Director of the Israel Student Authority, the Ministry of Immigrant Absorption, telephone conversation, 17 July 2011. 7 The data refer to the number of examinees. When an examinee took the examination more than once, the score given is the highest one he achieved. 8 The percentage of the population sector of Ethiopian origin among those aged 20-24 is similar to their percentage within the population of Israel.
We will now present several findings concerning examinees of Ethiopian origin, which emerge from the data of the National Center for Testing and Evaluation.9
Examinees’ background data:
. Most of the examinees of Ethiopian origin – approximately 84% – were born in Ethiopia, and the rest in Israel.
. From 2003 to 2007, the number of examinees of Ethiopian origin rose steadily, from 397 in 2003 to 618 in 2007, meaning a cumulative increase of 56%. We would note that there was also a trend of growth among all examinees during those years, apart from 2007 when there was a certain decrease in the number of examinees.10
. Women constitute around 68% of the examinees of Ethiopian origin.
. In 2007, the average age for examinees of Ethiopian origin was 22.1, as compared with the average age of all those tested in Hebrew which was 21.5.11 Meaning, on average, persons of Ethiopian origin sit the psychometric examination about half a year later than those tested in Hebrew.
Data for scores of those tested:
. In 2007, the average general grade for persons of Ethiopian origin was 424, as compared with the average grade for all those tested which was 532, and the average for all those tested in Hebrew which was 565. We can see from here, that there is a gap of 108 points between the average score for examinees of Ethiopian origin and that of all those tested. Such a gap in grades can have a significant effect on the chances to be accepted to a higher education institution in general and to certain tracks in particular. From 2003 to 2007, the average score for examinees of Ethiopian origin rose by 27 points, from 397 to 424, as noted.
9 The statistics are based on a special processing carried out by Yonatan Saar and Carmel Oren from the National Center for Testing and Evaluation, at the request of the Knesset Research and Information Center. 10 Test Takers of the Psychometric Exam 1991-2006: Three Different Perspectives, May 2009, on the Central Bureau of Statistics website http://www.cbs.gov.il/www/publications/tec23.pdf; the National Center for Testing and Evaluation, Data for psychometric entrance examinations to universities for 2007, Table 1, in: https://www.nite.org.il/files/statistics/graphs2007/07_a07.pdf, accessed: 13 July 2011. 11 The National Center for Testing and Evaluation, Data for psychometric entrance examinations to universities for 2007, Table 8.2A .https://www.nite.org.il/files/statistics/graphs2007/07_c02.pdf accessed: 13 July 2011.
. The average general score for Ethiopian-born examinees during 2003-2007 is 395 – significantly lower than that of natives of Israel of Ethiopian origin – 479. Also, among Israeli-born examinees of Ethiopian origin, the average grade for those with two parents who had been born in Ethiopia – 471 – was significantly lower than the average grade for those who had one parent born in Israel – 562. We would note in this context, that also among examinees originating from the CIS, the scores of those born in Israel are higher than those who emigrated from those countries.
. It emerges from the table below that the scores of those of Ethiopian origin in all sections of the test are lower than those of the examinees in general, and those tested in Hebrew. The gaps between the scores of those of Ethiopian origin and the examinees in general are similar in each section, and we cannot point to any particular field where the situation is different.
Table 1: Scores for examinees of Ethiopian origin in the psychometric
examination, for all examinees, and for examinees in Hebrew, by examination
sections, 2007.
Section Ethiopian origin All examinees Hebrew-speaking examinees Verbal reasoning 85 104 110 Quantitative 89 108 113 reasoning English 84 104 112 General score 424 532 565
. Among those of Ethiopian origin taking the psychometric examination, the scores of the male examinees were higher than those of the females, both for the general score and for each test section. The gap between the average scores for male and female examinees was 22 points. The average general score for examinees of Ethiopian origin drops as age increases; the average general score for examinees aged 14-18 was 441, while for examinees aged 30 and above it was 351. It should be noted, that among the general population of examinees, the scores for the males are higher than those of the females, with the gap among the general population higher, reaching 43 points in 2007. However, the distribution for
average score by examinee age is different, and it is specifically those aged 22-25 who achieve the highest average scores.
The National Center for Testing and Evaluation provides examinations in a number of foreign languages – Arabic, Russian, French, Spanish and also a combined/English test. The last is intended for those sitting the examination who are native English speakers, as well as for those whose native language is not English, but their mastery of English or Hebrew is better than their mastery of the other languages. In this version, the test is in English and Hebrew with difficult words translated into several foreign languages, including Amharic.12 The National Center for Testing and Evaluation’s data shows that the substantial majority of examinees of Ethiopian origin (96% of them) take the Hebrew test, and only a minority takes the combined one. In this context we would also note that the average general score for those who were tested using the Hebrew version was higher than those using the combined one – 410 as opposed to 377.
3. The Integration of the Ethiopian Community in Higher Education –
Policy on Assistance
The Israel Student Authority in the Ministry of Immigrant Absorption 13(henceforth: The Student Authority) gives assistance to new immigrant students and students of Ethiopian origin in particular, (those who immigrated to Israel after the 1 January 1980 and Israeli- born students of Ethiopian origin if both parents moved to Israel after that date), that includes the funding of tuition fees for higher education and post-high school institutions. As part of the Ministry of Immigrant Absorption’s policy to encourage the integration of those of Ethiopian origin in studies in higher education institutions, the Ministry set a target to increase the rate of students studying in such institutions among all those of Ethiopian origin (which is 7% as detailed above), so that it will at least be equal to the rate of students in the general population, currently 15%.14
12 https://www.nite.org.il/files/abroad/psychometric_abroad_reg_procedure_hebrew.pdf, accessed: 13 July 2011. 13 The Israel Student Authority is a department of the Ministry of Immigrant Absorption which works in partnership with the Jewish Agency and is responsible for helping and caring for new immigrant students and those of Ethiopian origin. 14 Opher Offen, Director of the Israel Student Authority, the Ministry of Immigrant Absorption, letter, 12 June 2011.
Student Authority aid for tuition fees is given to students in pre-academic programs, students in bachelor’s degree, certification and practical engineering studies, and is awarded according to the length of the regular study period in all institutions recognized by the Israel Council for Higher Education (excluding branches overseas) and for those studying post-high school studies in technological colleges of engineering; schools for health professions; art academies, and seminaries and colleges awarding teaching certificates.15 Tuition funding by the Student Authority is given at a fixed rate, with a sum no greater than university tuition fees. In cases when tuition is higher, the students have to pay the remaining cost, sometimes aided by tuition scholarships offered by some of the institutions.
The conditions entitling students to the aid provided by the Student Authority include: beginning studies for a bachelor’s degree by the age of 28, and beginning master’s degree studies or retraining studies after a degree by the age of 40; having a complete matriculation certificate or a certificate for having finished a university preparatory program or a technological pre-academic program for engineers; being accepted as a regular student; beginning studying within a year from finishing pre-academic program studies or within a year of completing military or national service.16
In addition to the help with funding tuition, the Student Authority awards a living allowance of NIS 600 a month for 9 months each academic year. It also advances the students scholastically through private lessons, mentoring, and scholastic reinforcement; counseling and guidance in choosing which subject to study; personal, social, and emotional help; social and cultural activities and more. Additionally, there are other bodies including: The Israel Council for Higher Education; youth centers throughout Israel; the IDF through the academic preparatory demobilization programs for soldiers of Ethiopian origin; the national service organizations; the absorption centers in the local authorities; the higher education institutions and other bodies, who distribute information
15 We would note that the Israel Student Authority does not participate in funding additional payments such as insurance, security and welfare, library fees, registration fees, student union dues, and others which vary from one institution to another and can reach around NIS 1,000 annually. 16 The Ministry of Immigrant Absorption, the Jewish Agency, “A breakthrough ramification – completing the university preparatory programs – advancing to academia,” PowerPoint presentation, 2011.
regarding the possibility to receive help and directing young people of Ethiopian origin to studies.17
Students who receive a scholarship from the Student Authority must participate in Shahak (community work) in which they help various population sectors. The amount of service depends on the size of the tuition help and is 120-240 hours annually.
The average cost of the help provided to a student of Ethiopian origin by the Student Authority until he completes his degree is NIS 65,000 to NIS 70,000, and it has an annual budget of around NIS 30 million. There are around 2,000 of students of Ethiopian origin annually who receive the aid through the various programs detailed above.
The Student Authority noted that until a few years ago, the Jewish Agency was a central partner in funding the aid programs to students of Ethiopian origin, for up to 50% of the cost. However, over the past three years the Jewish Agency’s aid has been reduced to 20% of the programs’ costs, and currently there is uncertainty regarding whether it will continue to participate in helping new immigrant students and particularly those of Ethiopian origin, during 2012.
4. The integration of persons of Ethiopian origin in higher education
institutions – data, admission requirements, and aid programs
According to the data of Central Bureau of Statistics (henceforth: CBS), during the 2008/9 academic year, 1,921 students of Ethiopian origin were studying for a bachelor’s or master’s degree in institutions of higher education (universities, academic colleges, and colleges of education), and comprised 0.9% of the students in these institutions (a lower rate than their percentage of the population which is around 1.5% as previously stated). In addition, according to Student Authority data, during the 2009/10 academic year, about 300 additional students studied in technological colleges supervised by MAHAT (National Institute for Technological Training) and non- academic tracks in nursing schools. All data below refer only to academic institutions.18
17 Opher Offen, Director of the Israel Student Authority, the Ministry of Immigrant Absorption, letter, 12 June 2011. 18 Ibid.
Despite the rise in the number of students of Ethiopian origin between 2001-2007 (excluding university preparatory programs) aged 20-29 studying in higher education institutions among all persons of Ethiopian origin of these ages, from 7.2% to 7.9% respectively, their rate was significantly lower than that of those studying in the higher education system among the general population (15.8% and 18.9% respectively).19
Among students of Ethiopian origin, relatively common fields of study were the social sciences, education and teacher training, and management studies (similar to those common among students in general). There were almost no students of Ethiopian origin in the fields of sciences, medicine, agriculture, languages, literature and area studies.
19 The Ministry of Immigrant Absorption, Myers-JDC-Brookdale Institute, “Follow-Up on Key Indicators of the Nationwide Situation of the Ethiopian-Israeli Population,” December 2010.
Table 2: Distribution of students of Ethiopian origin and all students for bachelor’s degree by study tracks, 2008/920
Field of study Ethiopian origin All students Rate among those of Ethiopian origin General humanities 180 12,070 1.5% Languages, literature, and area studies 8 3,978 0.2% Education and teacher training 308 26,609 1.2% Art 18 7,020 0.3% Social sciences 701 74,354 0.9% Business and management sciences 238 18,716 1.3% Law 134 15,538 0.9% Medicine 4 1,371 0.3% Paramedical professions 81 7,777 1.0% Exact sciences 27 11,521 0.2% Physics 10 4,774 0.2% Biology 23 5,363 0.4% Agriculture 3 795 0.4% Engineering and architecture 186 30,540 0.6% Total 1,921 220,426 0.9%
In the 2008/9 academic year, there were 180 master’s degree students of Ethiopian origin out of a total of 45,817 students for such a degree. The rate of students of Ethiopian origin studying for a master’s degree was only 0.3%, significantly lower than both their percentage among students studying for a bachelor’s degree, and their percentage in the population. The main fields of study for students of Ethiopian origin for a master’s degree were education (53 students), social sciences (48 students), and humanities (32 students).
According to CBS figures, there are around 2,060 graduates of Ethiopian origin with academic degrees21, of which 1,810 (around 88%) have a bachelor’s degree and the rest
20 The data refers to students for bachelor’s and master’s degrees. Aviel Kranzler, Head of Higher Education Division, the Central Bureau of Statistics, email exchange, 12 July 2011. 21 As reported by the CBS, these figures are based on information gathered from the universities, the Open University, the academic colleges, the academic colleges of education, and a Ministry of Education file for recognition of degrees. The information does not include complete data about those who received degrees from branches of overseas institutions (particularly foreign branches) and therefore the number of people holding an academic degree may be higher.
(around 12%) have a master’s.22 We would note that among the general population, the distribution between bachelor’s and master’s degrees is different, and is around two- thirds and one-third respectively.23
Table 3: Recipients of academic degrees, by degree, 2004/5-2008/9
Year Recipients of bachelor’s degree Recipients of master’s degree Total Ethiopian Rate among Total Ethiopian Rate among origin those of origin24 those of Ethiopian Ethiopian origin origin 2004/5 36,314 155 0.4% 11,608 19 0.2% 2005/6 38,066 181 0.5% 12,398 23 0.2% 2006/7 39,261 219 0.6% 13,351 35 0.3% 2007/8 39,351 275 0.7% 13,851 19 0.2% 2008/9 40,583 298 0.7% 13,860 29 0.3%
We can see from the table that the number of persons of Ethiopian origin with a bachelor’s degree almost doubled between the 2004/5 and 2008/9 academic years, from 155 to 298. However, the rate of bachelor’s degree recipients among those of Ethiopian origin is still tiny, and stood at only 0.7% in 2008/9, about half the rate of the Ethiopian population sector within the general Israeli population. The rate of persons of Ethiopian origin among recipients of a master’s degree is even lower, and in 2008/9 only 0.3% of those earning a master’s degree were of Ethiopian origin.
22 We would add that there were also those who had earned a doctorate, but due to their small number we cannot give details. The calculation of those within the population who graduated bachelor’s and master’s degrees is derived from the CBS figures, Table 3 1.“Recipients of degrees from institutions of higher education, by degree and type of institution,” see link: http://www.cbs.gov.il/publications10/m1388_haskhala_gvoha08/pdf/t3_01.pdf. 23 The Central Bureau of Statistics, Population aged 15 and over and civilian labor force, by highest diploma received, age and sex, Table 1.19, see link: http://www.cbs.gov.il/publications10/1417/pdf/t01_19.pdf 24 These numbers include Israelis whose parents were on government service in Ethiopia and were born there during the period of service. Due to the definition of being of Ethiopian origin they are included in this group. Since the entire group of recipients of a master’s degree of Ethiopian origin is small, including Israelis who were born in Ethiopia in the count may affect the rate of persons of Ethiopian origin among recipients of a master’s degree. We will therefore see that in actuality, the rate of those of Ethiopian origin who are not children of Israelis among master’s degree recipients is even lower.
Table 4: Distribution of recipients of bachelor’s degrees of Ethiopian origin by
type of academic institution, 2004/5 – 2008/9
Year Universities25 Academic Colleges of colleges education 2004/5 69.9% 19.4% 9.7% 2005/6 56.9% 31.5% 11.6% 2006/7 53% 32.9% 14.2% 2007/8 49.5% 37.5% 13.1% 2008/9 42% 51.3% 6.7%
We can see from the table, that during the 2008/9 academic year, 42% of the bachelor’s degree recipients of Ethiopian origin received their degree from universities (as compared with 57% among all students), about 51% received it from academic colleges (as compared with approximately 30%) and about 7% received it from colleges of education (as compared with 8.5%).26
It also emerges from the table, that from 2004/5 to 2008/9, there was an increase in the rate of students of Ethiopian origin who received degrees from academic colleges, as opposed to those receiving a degree from universities. So, for example, in the 2004/5 academic year, around 19% of the students of Ethiopian origin received a bachelor’s degree from academic colleges, whereas in 2008/9 the rate increased to 51%. We would note that this trend also exists among bachelor degree students in general in Israel.
In this context, we would note the findings of the Ministry of Immigrant Absorption and the Brookdale Institute in the study “Follow-Up on Key Indicators of the Nationwide Situation of the Ethiopian-Israeli Population,” mentioned above, from where it emerges that while from 2002-2007 we see a decline in the number of students of Ethiopian origin studying at universities, many persons of Ethiopian origin went to study at regional colleges and university branches. The researchers of the above study claim that this
25 Including the Open University 26 Calculation of the rate of degree holders with distribution by institution of study is derived from the CBS data published in “Israel in Numbers -2010”, see link: http://www.cbs.gov.il/www/publications/isr_in_n10h.pdf
trend indicates the difficulties faced by those of Ethiopian origin, since the admission requirements to colleges are usually lower than those of universities.27
The CBS figures also show that the vast majority of those who receive a degree were born in Ethiopia (93%), about 2.5% were born in Israel with both parents born in Ethiopia, and about 4.5% are Israeli born with one parent born in Ethiopia.28
To present a detailed picture of the rate of students of Ethiopian origin in institutions of higher education, with distribution by institution and degree, we asked the universities and 23 academic colleges for information. Up until the date of submitting this document, we received replies to our request for information from all the universities, except for Tel Aviv University which provided its reply after the discussion and is presented below, and also replies from 8 academic colleges. We would note that the manner of the presentation of the data and the partial information which we received from some of the elements, made it difficult to present a complete picture regarding each of the educational institutions, and we have therefore used additional sources of information in some cases, such as the Israel Student Authority in the Ministry of Immigrant Absorption and the CBS, to supplement the data. The main findings on this topic are presented below.
4.1. Integration of persons of Ethiopian origin in the universities
The information we received from the seven universities is concentrated in the table below, with the number of students of Ethiopian origin, and their percentage out of all the students in the institution, to the extent that we were given this data.
27The Ministry of Immigrant Absorption, Myers-JDC-Brookdale Institute, “Follow-Up on Key Indicators of the Nationwide Situation of the Ethiopian-Israeli Population,” December 2010. 28 Information supplied by Mr. Aviel Kranzler, Head of Higher Education Division, the Central Bureau of Statistics, letter, 17 July 2011.
Table 5: Number of students of Ethiopian origin and their percentage out of all students in the universities, with segmentation by degree, 2010/11 academic year29
Degree/ Hebrew Tel Haifa Bar- Ben- Technion Weizmann University Aviv Ilan Gurion Institute Number Number Number Number Number Number (Rate) (Rate) (Rate) (Rate) (Rate) (Rate) Bachelor’s 36 73 119 90 69 No bachelor degree (0.5%) (1.4%) (0.8%) degree tracks Master’s and 18 40 21 43 12 5 1* completing (0.4%) (0.3%) (0.6%) (0.16%) (1.6%) master’s Doctorate30 2 3 3 7 Currently no 2 (0.2%) (0.16%) students of (0.3%) Ethiopian origin* Post- 2 doctorate Teaching 1 certificate Special status 2 University 16 20 15 6 preparatory (2.5%) program Programs for 2 completing (1%) requirements Total 75 133** 160 136 96 5 3 *Refers to a master’s degree on a track for teachers (without a thesis), with only 60 students. **In addition, during the 2010/11 academic year, there were four high school students of Ethiopian origin at Tel Aviv University in the Science Oriented Youth program.
We can see from the table that the highest numbers of students of Ethiopian origin for a bachelor’s degree are at Haifa and Bar-Ilan universities. It also emerges that the
29 The following data were submitted to the Knesset Research and Information Center by the following sources: Yafit Sherer, aide to the Vice President and Director General, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, letter, 28 June 2011; Arye Arzi, Deputy Director General of Student Affairs, Bar-Ilan University, letter, 12 July 2011; Prof. Paul Feigin, Senior Executive Vice President, the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, 6 July 2011; Dr. Ami Shalit, Director and Academic Secretary, Feinberg Graduate School of Weizmann Institute of Science, letter, 14 July 2011; data from the University of Haifa were submitted through the Committee of University Heads on 20 June 2011;Tal Shafir, Acting Director of Unit for Student Welfare, Tel Aviv University, 26 July 2011. 30 In this context, see note 17 above.
rate of those of Ethiopian origin studying for advanced degrees is still extremely low in comparison to their proportion in the general population (apart from the track for teachers at the Weizmann Institute).
The graph below indicates the rate of students of Ethiopian origin studying for bachelor and master’s degrees out of all the students at each of the universities (according to Student Authority data).
Rate of students of Ethiopian origin out of all bachelor and master’s degree university students, 2009/1031
1.60% 1.40% 1.20% 1.00% 0.80% 0.60% 0.40% 0.20% 0.00% Haifa The Hebrew The Tel Aviv Bar-Ilan Ben-Gurion University University Technion, University University, University, of Jerusalem Haifa Ramat Gan Beersheba ,
The above graph demonstrates that the highest rate of students of Ethiopian origin out of all students is at the University of Haifa, and is approximately 1.4% – close to their percentage in the population, whereas the lowest rate of students of Ethiopian origin out of all students is at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Regarding students studying in the Open University, where students register for courses rather than study tracks, in 2010/11 there were 173 students of Ethiopian origin in the various departments, with around half in the Department of Sociology, Political Science and Communication, and the Department of Education and Psychology.
31 This graph is produced from Israel Student Authority data regarding distribution of students of Ethiopian origin by institutions and years of study, given to us by Mr. Opher Offen, Director of the Israel Student Authority, the Ministry of Immigrant Absorption, letter, 12 June 2011.
4.1.1. University policies
In general, we see from the universities who replied to our request for information that the issue of advancing the integration rate of persons of Ethiopian origin in academic studies is on their agenda, and that they are taking various steps, detailed below, to make acceptance easier for those of Ethiopian origin. Nevertheless, as can be seen from one institution’s reply, regarding setting lenient admission requirements for candidates of Ethiopian origin, we need to consider not only someone’s actual acceptance to an institution of higher education, but also his or her long-term ability to meet the academic requirements.
We bring here the replies of the various universities, regarding their policies for accepting students and providing help during their studies:
. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem: according to the policy up until now, students who were rejected by the university but who came close to the admission requirements were automatically referred to the appeals committee to try and accept them. From the 2011/12 academic year, 20 students of Ethiopian origin will be accepted to the university on the basis of the “Feuerstein method” which is intended to evaluate the study potential of the examinee, and is different from the accepted selection method, which is based, as mentioned above, on weighting matriculation examination scores and the psychometric examination; 32
. Tel Aviv University: the university enables three acceptance tracks for candidates of Ethiopian origin, which are: acceptance according to standard acceptance conditions for the various tracks; acceptance through an exceptions committee which enables acceptance of candidates whose score is lower than that required, at the recommendation of the Unit for Student Welfare (the Adams program), as well as admission through the Shaked program in partnership with the Caesarea Foundation, which enables university acceptance for students of Ethiopian origin on the basis of a weighted matriculation score
32 Yafit Sherer, aide to the Vice President and Director General, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 28 June 2011.
average of 95 and above33, without taking the psychometric examination results into account.34 The university also noted that this program does not replace the special admissions track for students of Ethiopian origin through the special committees, as described above.
Students in the Shaked program are eligible for a living expenses scholarship; help in payment of rent or student dormitories, and comprehensive scholastic and personal help while emphasizing acquisition of study skills, as well as continuous support by the program coordinator from the Unit for Student Welfare. The students also participate in study and employment guidance workshops, and workshops to cultivate personal skills.35
Starting from the 2011/12 academic year, every year 20 students of Ethiopian origin will be accepted to the Shaked program, and will be able to study in the fields of the sciences, medicine, engineering, economics, and other areas. In this way the program is expected to increase the number of students of Ethiopian origin studying at Tel Aviv University next academic year to 150, and to around 60 new students annually. 36
. Bar-Ilan University: according to university policy, each department discusses the candidacy of students of Ethiopian origin in accordance with the criteria it has set for affirmative action, with the main emphasis when examining the candidacy of applicants of Ethiopian origin being placed on their matriculation results, and less on their scores in the psychometric examination; 37
33 We would mention, that they will also examine the candidacy for the Shaked program of students with a weighted matriculation score of only 90, but with outstanding abilities in social or other areas, and a strong potential to succeed in academic study. Tal Shafir, Acting Director of Unit for Student Welfare, Tel Aviv University, 26 July 2011. 34 Those young people of Ethiopian origin (according to the university conditions, these are students who were born in Ethiopia or one of their parents was) who submit their candidacy for studies in the program must meet the following admission requirements which set that the candidate must be aged 18-25; with a weighted matriculation average of 95 or above, and with appropriate recommendations for academic studies. Ibid. 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 Esther Gerbi, Students’ Administration coordinator, Bar-Ilan University, letter, 5 July; 10 July 2011.
. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: the aid program intended for students of Ethiopian origin is given in the academic and financial fields and in personal and cultural empowerment. The new students participate in a “week of preparation for academia” as part of the program, where they take part in counseling sessions with the program coordinator and build a personal work program. Students of Ethiopian origin are also eligible for a private academic mentor; reinforcement lessons before tests; coupons to buy food for 20 meals monthly; reimbursement of travel expenses and the cost of textbooks etc.38
. The Open University: registration to the Open University is not conditional on a matriculation certificate, psychometric examination or any certificate. The university replied that it has operated a project in its Jerusalem study center since 2006, funded by the university, which provides individual guidance to 12 students of Ethiopian origin, including extra help in English and the courses studied; a Hebrew course; improving study skills and continuing to guide the student until completion of the degree. 39
In addition to the university policies described above, the Association for Advancement of Education operates the “Deserving of Advancement” project which is aimed at, among others, those of Ethiopian origin who do not meet the entrance conditions for university studies, and allows points to be allotted for affirmative action (similar to the enterprises existing in other countries as detailed below in the comparative review). In this framework, a candidate of Ethiopian origin, where he or one of his parents was born in Ethiopia, receives special points for that, which are included in his final point weighting. The general score is determined on the basis of the candidate’s personal background and events which took place during the entire time he was studying in high school, taking into account that the candidate’s achievements could have been harmed as a result of his or her complex personal or family situations. The Association for Advancement of Education noted that the institutions which allow acceptance for studies on this basis are the Hebrew University, Tel Aviv University, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, the University of Haifa, the Technion, and Bar-Ilan University,
38 The reply from the university was forwarded by Ms. Devorah Segel, secretary of the Committee of University Heads, 18 July 2011. 39 Dr. Relly Brickner, Director of Evaluation Department, The Open University, 28 June 2011.
and that each institute is autonomous when accepting candidates and deciding on the number of points given for affirmative action.40 We would add that the Association for Advancement of Education does not possess information on the number of candidates of Ethiopian origin who submitted a request to determine their points, nor how many were accepted for studies based on this affirmative action, indicating the lack of organized tracking of the topic.
4.2. Integration of Persons of Ethiopian Origin in Academic Colleges
According to data of the Israel Student Authority, in the 2009/10 academic year 1,159 students of Ethiopian origin attended non-university higher education institutions, comprising 52% of the total student population of Ethiopian origin in that year. As to the activity of these institutions for increasing the integration of persons of Ethiopian origin into the higher education system, the data provided to us thus far indicate that some colleges place greater emphasis on matriculation grades and take a more lenient approach to psychometric scores, sometimes even waiving this requirement. Moreover, it was found that the majority of the academic colleges that responded to our inquiry have special assistance programs for students of Ethiopian origin (in addition to the support provided by the Israel Student Authority), most notably the Ono Academic College, the Ruppin Academic Center, the Holon Institute of Technology and the Ariel University Center of Samaria, whose programs are described below.
. The Ono Academic College: The Ethiopian Israeli Students Program for the advancement of higher education and development of social leadership among students of Ethiopian origin, inaugurated at the Ono Academic College some ten years ago, facilitates studies towards a bachelor's degree in law, communication disorders and occupational therapy and towards the bachelor's and master's degrees in business administration. At present, approximately 140 students of Ethiopian origin are studying in this framework. In the past five years, the percentage of graduates of Ethiopian origin out of all the institution's graduates has stood at approximately 2%.
40 Liat Hazan, Coordinator for the Deserving of Advancement project, Association for Advancement of Education, 5 July 2011.
Those accepted to the program are Ethiopian Israelis between the ages of 21 and 28 with an average matriculation grade of 95 and up, who have done meaningful service in the IDF or National Service and show a high potential and social commitment to the community, and have also passed screening tests and a personal interview. The participants in the program pay tuition in the amount of NIS 2,000 per year, with the balance (NIS 17,000) funded by the college at a total cost of NIS 2 million per year. In addition, the participants are entitled to a university tuition scholarship from the Immigrant Absorption Ministry (NIS 9,600 per year) and to a subsistence stipend from the college.
The staff in the program provide personal guidance and support to the program's participants from when they have been accepted to the program until they complete their studies, even after they have officially graduated. The program includes individual and group tutoring lessons, enrichment courses and the teaching of skills and tools for optimizing the participants' academic knowledge. The participants are also given the opportunity to gain practical experience in their field of studies outside Israel during the summer break. In addition, the program finds internship positions that serve participants as a professional "springboard" and assists graduates in integrating in professional positions in the private and public sectors. As part of the curriculum at the Ono Academic College, students are obligated to contribute two weekly hours to the community during the first year of studies.
Out of 120 Ethiopian Israelis who have completed the program, 65 graduated from the law faculty. Of these, 40 found positions in the private and public sectors, while the rest went on to pursue advanced degrees at universities in Israel and abroad. Another 55 of the program's participants graduated from the business administration faculty. In addition, 35 IDF officers of Ethiopian origin are studying in the program.41
. Ruppin Academic Center: In 2006, a special program opened at the Ruppin Academic Center for youth of Ethiopian origin with high learning and social potential. Today, 46 students of Ethiopian origin are studying in the
41 Adv. Kaso, Director of the Ethiopian Israeli Students Program, Ono Academic College, letter, July 6, 2011.
program. The program includes a special preparatory program combining professional training in intercultural mediation (with certification by the Ministry of Industry, Trade and Labor), as well as an undergraduate business administration program with a specialization in immigration and social integration. In addition, in the last academic year the center began operating a special training program that prepares students for the world of employment, including the actual placement of graduates.
The conditions for acceptance to the preparatory program are full matriculation, service in the IDF or National Service, screening tests and a personal interview. Students who meet the requirements of the preparatory program can be accepted to most of the center's study tracks without having to take a psychometric examination. Moreover, meeting the requirements of the intercultural mediation course gives the students academic credit points towards a degree.
Participants in the program receive from the center a subsistence stipend for a full 12 months during each year of the period of studies (three years), apart from which the center covers the first degree tuition costs. Beyond this, the center operates a fund for helping students of Ethiopian origin with special needs or in difficult situations. Students of Ethiopian origin who do not participate in the program can receive assistance from funds which are available to the general student population at the center and can also apply for special outside scholarships through the Dean's Office.
Recruitment for the fifth cycle of the program was recently completed. This year the program has been expanded so that graduates of the preparatory program are able to join the different study programs conducted by the School of Economics and Business Administration and the School of Social and Community Sciences. In addition, the intercultural mediation training program will be expanded to include medical mediation, in view of the proven critical need for professional assistance of this kind among the members of the community.42
. Holon Institute of Technology: Over the last five years the Holon Institute of Technology has operated a program for the advancement of students of Ethiopian
42 Revital Poleg, Director of External Relations, Ruppin Academic Center, letter, July 12, 2011.
origin in cooperation with the Atidim Friends Society, within the framework of the Atidim Program for Industry and the Business Sector and with the support of the Israel Student Authority. Participants in the program receive financial support, including full funding of tuition, accommodation and English language studies, as well as personal support in both the social and academic spheres. In the course of their studies the participants integrate in the employment world in their field of studies, receiving assistance in finding a permanent position ahead of their graduation. The students also volunteer for activity within the community of 100-120 yearly hours.
Recognizing the existing gaps in psychometric scores between psychometric examinees in general and those of Ethiopian origin, it was decided by the institute's admissions committee to waive the required psychometric score (550) for candidates of Ethiopian origin in the Engineering Faculty, the Engineering Management Faculty and the Instructional Systems Technologies and Computer Sciences Department, but to maintain the threshold conditions with respect to matriculation grades and/or grades in the preparatory programs operated by the institute.43
. Ariel University Center of Samaria: The conditions for acceptance to the center's various departments follow the guidelines of the Council for Higher Education. Nevertheless, affirmative preference is given to students of Ethiopian origin within the framework of the council guidelines, which permit a deviation of up to 10% from the department quotas. Assistance to students of Ethiopian origin at the center includes a reduction of 20%-40% in the tuition for students whose eligibility for assistance from the Israel Student Authority has expired. Apart from this, the Office of the Dean, in cooperation with the Israel Student Authority, provides assistance in various areas, including: special English language courses; workshops for imparting learning skills; workshops for coping with text anxiety; individual guidance; employment
43 Dr. Michal Sela, Director of Student Welfare and Academic and Community Partnerships, Holon Institute of Technology, letter, July 10, 2011.
diagnostics and matching of the field of studies; student mentoring by absorption counselors, etc.44
Below are data on the academic colleges that responded to our inquiry regarding the rate of persons of Ethiopian origin studying in those institutions:
Table 6: Number of Students of Ethiopian Origin and Their Percentage out of the General Student Population at Academic Colleges, 2010-11 Academic Year45 College Type of Number of students of Ethiopian origin and degree percentage out of the general student population in the last three years 2008-2009 2009-10 2010-11 Western Bachelor's 7 3.0% 13 3.0% 13 3.0% Galilee Master's The college only offers studies towards a bachelor's Academic degree College Ruppin Bachelor's (for 2 Not 2 Not 5 Not Academic all students) available available available Center* Master's** 2 12% 0 13% 0 10.1% Peres Bachelor's in 1 3.5% 0 1% 1 1.7% Academic business Center administration Bachelor's in 0 0.0% 0 0.5% 7 0.1% behavioral sciences Master's in 0 0.0% 7 2.2% 7 0% business administration Ariel Bachelor's 215 Not 212 Not 211 Not University available available available Center of Master's 1 Not 0 Not Not Not Samaria available available advised available Sami Bachelor's in 02 1.0% 55 1.5% 53 1.5% Shamoon engineering College of Engineering
44 Prof. Shmuel Shaham, Dean of Students, Ariel University Center of Samaria, letter, July 14, 2011. 45 Based on data provided by the following: David Begleiter, Dean of Students, Sami Shamoon College of Engineering, letter, July 7, 2011; Revital Poleg, Director of External Relations, Ruppin Academic Center, letter, July 12, 2011; Dr. Michal Sela, Director of Student Welfare and Academic and Community Partnerships, Holon Institute of Technology, letter, July 10, 2011; Dr. Oranit Davidson, Dean of Students, Peres Academic Center, letter, July 6, 2011; Dr. Yehuda Ben Simon, Dean of Students, Western Galilee Academic College, letter, July 6, 2011; Shelly Dahan, Director of Students Administration, Sapir Academic College, letter, July 10, 2011; Prof. Shmuel Shaham, Dean of Students, Ariel University Center of Samaria, letter, July 14, 2011.
College Type of Number of students of Ethiopian origin and degree percentage out of the general student population in the last three years 2008-2009 2009-10 2010-11 Holon Bachelor's 11 3.5% 27 3.1% 02 1% Institute of Technology Sapir Not specified 52 1.0% 02 1.2% 50 1.15% Academic College * The data refer to students for a bachelor's degree other than in the "mediators" program. ** The data refer to those who completed a master's degree in immigration and social integration, a program to which only members of the community were accepted. The data in the above table show that over the past three years there has been a certain increase, in most of the academic colleges listed in the table, both in the number of students of Ethiopian origin and in their percentage out of all students in those institutions. Nevertheless, it should be noted that, as with the universities, the number of persons of Ethiopian origin studying for advanced degrees is still very low. As to the number of graduates in these institutions, the table below shows their percentage at several institutions. Table 7: Number and Percentage of Graduates of Ethiopian Origin out of All Degree Recipients at Academic Colleges, 2010-11 Academic Year46 College Degree 2008-2009 2009-10 2010-11 Number % Number % Number % Hadassah Bachelor's 1 3.5% 0 1.0% 2 3.7% Academic College Jerusalem Holon Institute Bachelor's 2 3.0% 0 3.5% Data not of Technology provided Sami Shamoon Bachelor's 0 1% 1 3.2% Data not College of provided Engineering
46 Based on data provided by the following: David Begleiter, Dean of Students, Sami Shamoon College of Engineering, letter, July 7, 2011; Revital Poleg, Director of External Relations, Ruppin Academic Center, letter, July 12, 2011; Dr. Michal Sela, Director of Student Welfare and Academic and Community Partnerships, Holon Institute of Technology, letter, July 10, 2011; Dr. Oranit Davidson, Dean of Students, Peres Academic Center, letter, July 6, 2011; Prof. Shmuel Shaham, Dean of Students, Ariel University Center of Samaria, letter, July 14, 2011; Shelly Dahan, Director of Students Administration, Sapir Academic College, letter, July 10, 2011; Yael Kimchi, Academic Assistant, Hadassah Academic College Jerusalem, letter, July 5, 2011..
College Degree 2008-2009 2009-10 2010-11 Number % Number % Number % Peres Bachelor's 3 3 2 0.2% 3 3 Academic Master's 3 3 1 3.0% 1 1.1% Center Ariel Not 52 0.2% 51 2.2% 55 2.5% University specified Center of Samaria Sapir Bachelor's In the past three years a total of 62 students of Ethiopian Academic origin received bachelor's degrees, comprising 2% of all College recipients of this degree. Ruppin Bachelor's Students of Ethiopian origin account for an average of Academic 0.15% of all recipients of bachelor's degrees Center Master's Only persons of Ethiopian origin were accepted to this track, thus no conclusion can be drawn regarding the percentage of recipients of master's degrees out of all the students at the center
The data presented in the table point to a variance in the percentage of persons of Ethiopian origin among the graduates of the different academic colleges. An especially high percentage of graduates of Ethiopian origin can be found in the past three years at the Ariel University Center of Samaria, amounting to 2.5% in the 2010-11 academic year.
5. Integration of Persons of Ethiopian Origin in Pre-Academic Preparatory Programs
Data of the Immigrant Absorption Ministry, presented at the meeting of the Knesset Committee for Immigration, Absorption and Diaspora Affairs held on October 12, 2010 on the subject of "Barriers to University Entry for Persons of Ethiopian Origin," indicate that the majority of students of Ethiopian origin in higher education institutions (approximately 90%) begin academic studies after completing their secondary education in pre-academic preparatory programs.47 According to data of the Education Ministry, there are currently 45 pre-academic programs, in which 997 persons of Ethiopian origin studied in the 2010-2011 academic year, comprising approximately 9% of all those attending pre-academic programs in that year (11,697). Out of this
47 Pre-academic preparatory programs operating within the framework of higher education institutions enable those interested to complete their matriculation examinations or improve their grades and prepare themselves for academic studies.
number, 186 were before military service and would be continuing their academic studies only after completing their service with the IDF, putting the number of persons of Ethiopian origin studying in preparatory programs and going on to academic studies in the 2011-12 academic year at 811. It should be noted that the dropout rate among those of Ethiopian origin stood in the first semester of the last academic year at about 9%.48
According to data of the Israel Student Administration, persons of Ethiopian origin are studying in various preparatory programs at all the universities (except for the Open University) and at some of the academic colleges and teacher colleges. According to these data, a majority of those taking preparatory programs study at the various colleges, and especially at three colleges (Sapir Academic College, Ashkelon Academic College and Yezreel Valley College), and a minority attend the university programs.
Persons of Ethiopian origin, apart from those defined as "new immigrants," are accepted to the different study tracks in the preparatory programs based on threshold qualifications, the same as other students. As a general rule, the preparatory programs accept candidates with at least ten years of schooling and those holding a full matriculation certificate. In addition, the candidates must pass the MEIMAD test (a knowledge-based screening test to select participants in the programs), an easier version of the psychometric examination administered under the responsibility of the National Institute for Testing and Evaluation, with a certain predetermined grade. Based on an awareness of their special needs, examinees of Ethiopian descent are entitled to 25% extra time, like other students whose mother tongue is not Hebrew. The preparatory programs have also been instructed to accept persons of Ethiopian origin even if they do not satisfy the threshold conditions defined for a given track.49
It should be noted that all students of Ethiopian origin studying in preparatory programs are entitled to assistance according to their needs, including funding of accommodation in student dormitories, professional and academic counseling, transportation, psychometric examination preparatory course, diagnosis of learning difficulties, tutoring and textbooks. The assistance may not exceed an annual NIS 6,100 per student, and it is
48 Riva Aviad, Acting Director of the Adult Education Department, letter, July 13, 2011. 49 Ibid.
only given to students who immigrated from Ethiopia or to students of Ethiopian origin with at least one Ethiopian-born parent.
Although the Education Ministry does not have information on the percentage of secondary students of Ethiopian origin who were accepted to higher education institutions after attending pre-academic preparatory programs, it nevertheless notes that, based on conversations with the directors of the preparatory programs, the preferred subjects for continued studies are teaching, engineering, law and business administration.50
As reported by the Education Ministry, the public committee for examining the operation of the pre-academic preparatory programs, headed by Mr. Yarom Ariav, which was appointed by Education Minister Gideon Saar on April 13, 2010 and recently submitted its conclusions to him, has recommended placing special emphasis on increasing the number of students in preparatory programs from among the population sector of Ethiopian origin (as well as the ultra-Orthodox and Arab population sectors), so that within six years their number stands at 1,500, i.e. 1.5 times the number of students of Ethiopian origin currently attending preparatory programs. The committee also recommended considering a series of measures to enable meeting this target, including raising the amount of the subsistence stipends and setting conditions for support that take into consideration the students' special characteristics; creating a suitable supporting environment; changing the community's image, informational activity and removal of barriers. The committee recommended that a professional team to be appointed by the Chairman of the Planning and Budgeting Committee of the Council for Higher Education chart out, within four months, the barriers specific to each of the relevant populations and propose ways of removing them. In addition, each preparatory program should appoint a person to be in charge of dealing with and guiding individuals from the special population sectors, especially the population of Ethiopian origin.
50 Ibid.
6. Programs for Increasing Accessibility to Higher Education – Comparative Review
In this part, examples are provided of ways in which different countries have attempted to increase the accessibility of higher education to population sectors which are underrepresented in this area. Naturally, the relevant population sectors differ in each of the countries, and thus also their characteristics and difficulties in integrating into the higher education system. Understanding the unique difficulties of each such sector is crucial for tailoring effective programs suited to its needs. Thus, for example, among some sectors the main problem preventing access to higher education is the low level of achievements in secondary education that reduces the chances of acceptance to higher education institutions. Among other sectors, language can pose an obstacle to acceptance to higher education studies, especially in those subjects that require a good command of the national language. Moreover, members of these sectors often come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, which makes it financially difficult for them to acquire a higher education because of their inability to pay tuition (in countries where tuition is charged) and to support themselves during the period of studies.
When examining the educational level of a certain population sector, it is necessary to relate not only to the acquisition of higher education in general, but also to the distribution of fields of study among members of the same sector. For example, in some countries the percentage of those studying teaching among minority groups is low, which impacts on the diversity of the teachers in the country and on the extent to which the composition of its population is reflected in the teaching cadre. Such countries may put in place programs or take measures to encourage members of the minority to enter fields of study in which it is underrepresented (with a resulting impact on fields of employment).
Below we bring examples of ways in which some countries encourage such sectors of their population to acquire higher education. In the countries reviewed this refers mostly to minority groups, such as linguistic minorities or indigenous minorities. It is important to note that we are not offering a comprehensive review of all the measures taken in each country but only examples from which ideas can be drawn for contending with the
problem. In this document we have focused as much as possible on state programs, but we have also brought some examples of narrower programs of a specific region or even a specific educational institution. As well, some countries have laws that establish a general operating framework with respect to the integration of minorities into higher education, which must be translated by the different institutions into concrete courses of action.
6.1. Canada
6.1.1. Program for Advancing Aboriginal Education in Ontario51
In Ontario there are programs tailored to the province's aboriginal population, which accounts for 3% of Canada's total population, although in certain areas it reaches 10% of the population.
The advancement of higher education among the aboriginal population is done by transferring budgets to post-secondary institutions that offer special programs and services for this population.
In 1992, the government of Ontario formulated a strategy for the education and training of the aboriginal population, in collaboration with organizations from this population that operate in the province. This strategy, described below, was implemented in the province until 2009.
The strategy was designed to achieve three goals:
. Increasing the number of aborigines enrolling for post-secondary education;
. Increasing the sensitivity of higher education institutions to the aboriginal culture, its characteristics and subjects associated with it.
. Increasing the participation of members of the aboriginal population in reaching decisions related to post-secondary education of the community's members.
Below we describe some of the tools that were used to achieve these goals:
. Development of special programs and services for the aboriginal population: Beyond the study programs taught in post-secondary institutions and intended for the general student population, special programs were developed specifically for the aboriginal population. As well, all the higher education institutions offer services to members of the aboriginal population, including at least a counselor employed on a full-time basis in helping aboriginal students studying at the institution. Other services provided by the institutions include counselors from among the aboriginal population; academic support programs; general administrative services; special events for members of the population sector. The academic institutions operating in the province vary in the nature of the programs run by them.
51 Ontario Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities. Aboriginal Postsecondary Education and Training Policy Framework, 2011.
. Learning centers and distance learning: In Northern Ontario, a distance learning network serving the residents of this region has been operating since 1986. Learning takes place at centers, some of which serve the indigenous population. In 2007, a network of distance learning centers was set up in other regions of the country. As well, 340 centers for learning reading and writing and basic skills are scattered throughout the province, out of which 30 are intended for the aboriginal population (some operated by organizations that serve this population).
. Funding: The Canadian federal government allocates resources for post- secondary studies of different aboriginal groups. However, since the resources allocated for this purpose are limited, not all members of the aboriginal population are able to receive this assistance.
In 2007, the earlier strategy was reviewed and it was decided that there was need of a new strategy that would place greater emphasis on the results of the post-secondary studies (i.e. placing greater emphasis on integration into employment). In addition to budgeting post-secondary institutions presenting multi-year programs for the advancement of higher education among aborigines, the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities will also promote every year special projects for furthering this goal.
In 2011, the government of Ontario announced a new operating framework for higher education and training of the aboriginal population. Below are some of the aspects addressed by the operating framework:
. Development of action plans within the different institutions: All academic institutions are obligated to report to the government of Ontario once a year on the investments they have made in the education of aborigines. The universities and colleges must develop an action plan in this regard, under the guidance and subject to the approval of aboriginal education councils which they are required to establish should they wish to receive earmarked budgets for the advancement of education among aborigines.
. Cooperation with the aboriginal community:
o Encouragement of academic institutions to develop ties with the aboriginal community and its organizations while formulating and evaluating the action plans.
o Recognition of the importance of integrating staff members from the community in all study areas in the higher education institutions, also due
to their ability to serve as mentors and role models for students from the community, as well as their ability to contribute to understanding the community, its difficulties and needs.
o Ensuring that within the government ministry responsible for dealing with the matter, the personnel engaged in the development of the plans are familiar with the community, its characteristics and needs, so that it is possible to provide better solutions in the framework of the different programs.
. Building educational and training systems:
o Multi-annual funding and support for universities and colleges that operate programs and services for aboriginal students, allowing them to make long-term plans and ensure the continuity of the services offered by them.
o Support for post-secondary institutions catering specifically to the aboriginal population, based on the recognition of their importance in promoting education among this population.
o Joint activity with the Ministry of Education for the purpose of increasing the percentage of both academic and non-academic aboriginal staff members in post-secondary institutions.
. Addressing the issue of accessibility of higher education to aborigines, taking into account the factors impacting it: Financial sources, academic preparedness, social and cultural values, advantages and drawbacks related to the physical location of the institutions and the availability of information and instruction.
o Use of distance learning tools, whether for e-learning or for learning at community centers scattered about the country, in order to increase the accessibility to higher education of populations residing in small towns that are relatively far removed from the post-secondary institutions (as had already been done in the framework of the earlier operating strategy).
o Support for students or interns from the community by means of special scholarships that ease the economic burden of studying. For this purpose, a special scholarship fund is maintained for this population.
o Support for initiatives to increase preparedness for post-secondary studies among secondary students and adults in the aboriginal population, including joint activity with the Ministry of Education among public schoolchildren.
o Financial support for post-secondary institutions to create physical areas reflecting the identity of members of the aboriginal population and their needs.
o Encouragement of post-secondary institutions to offer focused academic support and counseling to aboriginal students, in addition to the general services offered to them.
As noted, this program was published only this year, and therefore it is still too early to evaluate its implementation.
6.1.2. "Lateral" Programs Relating to Specific Fields of Study
Some of the programs for the encouragement of higher education among minorities, migrants or other groups relate to specific fields of study in which the members of these groups are underrepresented.
Canada has support programs that are tailored for indigenous medical students.52 The special arrangements relate to the acceptance of candidates to the study programs, special scholarships and various supportive programs. For example, the medical faculty at the University of Alberta has a special admissions policy for indigenous candidates and initiated recruitment of candidates from among these groups, among other things by means of employment fairs, summer camps, etc. In addition, in medical study programs five places are reserved for members of the community. Under another arrangement, in acceptance interviews for indigenous candidates, at least one of the interviewers must be an indigenous native. As to funding, the university offers two special scholarships for aboriginals. It also provides special services for indigenous medical students, including counseling by a special counselor who is assigned to these students (and with whom every student from the aboriginal population must meet at least twice a year), and a certain amount of funding for tutoring lessons for these students.
Another "lateral" program existing in Canada is a program for indigenous candidates for law studies (which is, in fact, a type of special preparatory program for law students
52 Indigenous Physicians Association Canada. Summary of Admissions and Support Programs for Indigenous Students at Canadian Faculties of Medicine. March 2008.
from among the indigenous population), which has been operating since 1973.53 The program operates in the University of Saskatchewan, but is intended for students from all over country. The program for law studies for aborigines includes the imparting of skills and an academic background in preparation for studies in this field. Apart from providing a preparatory framework for studies, the program also serves as an alternative channel for integrating aboriginal students into law studies, thus also serving as a tool for increasing their representation in the legal community. The program is also intended to teach the participants legal subjects which are specific to the aboriginal population. The study program extends over eight weeks, at the end of which the participants receive a grade from the lecturers based both on their test grades and on assignments given to them during the course as well as on the students' capabilities in legal analysis, writing and work habits. The final grades are sent to the participants and to the academic institutions at which they have applied.
The program is intended for aborigines who were accepted to law studies, under certain conditions or unconditionally. It should be noted that the candidates for law studies can be accepted in the regular track, based on their grads, or in another track that also takes into account their life circumstances. Studies in the preparatory program are for a fee which as o 2011 stood at 2,500 Canadian dollars, however it is possible to receive financial help. 6.2. Australia
This part brings examples of various measures taken in Australia to encourage the indigenous population to integrate into higher education. First, we present two Federal tools, followed by an example taken from the State of Victoria. In this context, it is noted that as of 2006, the percentage of the indigenous population in Australia is 2.5%, and its rate in the State of Victoria is 0.6%.54
6.2.1. Federal Tools: Scholarships and Tutoring Lessons
In light of the relatively poor socioeconomic situation of the native population in Australia, a key tool for encouraging its integration into higher education is financial assistance. Since 1969, there are special Federal scholarships for native students, which are intended to finance the cost of their studies and subsistence. The special scholarship, which is termed "ABSTUDY," is intended for native students in different stages of studies, including post-primary studies, post-secondary studies, vocational
53 www.usask.ca/nativelaw/programs/plsnp.php retrieved: June 21st, 2011. 54 http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/4705.0, retrived: July 12th, 2011.
training and academic studies.55 A study conducted in 2006 found that approximately 26% of native students in the country received these special scholarships (additional students received scholarships not specially designated for natives). It should be noted that in addition to the Federal scholarships, there are scholarships of various academic institutions and other organizations which are intended to support higher education among the indigenous population.56
In addition, by virtue of the Higher Education Support Act from 2003,57 the Australian government budgets support programs for indigenous students which operate at higher education institutions. This budgeting is provided to academic institutions that meet the following conditions: implementation of strategies to improve accessibility, participation, perseverance and success of indigenous students; improvement of participation of natives in the organization's decision-making processes; existence of program for the employment of natives.
Another Federal program operating in Australia provides support for indigenous students by subsidizing tutoring lessons and is intended to improve the academic achievements of indigenous students in higher education institutions (as well as in certain vocational training institutions). The funding is intended for tutoring in curricular courses towards the degree for which the student is studying, and not generally for courses that impart basic skills. It is meant to cover the costs of tutoring lessons on a scope of several weekly hours, some of which are individual and some group lessons.58 It should be noted that the Australian government finances tutoring and reinforcement lessons for indigenous students also in earlier study stages (starting from elementary school), in order to strengthen their command of basic skills. 6.3. State of Victoria: Special Arrangements for Acceptances of Indigenous Students in Higher Education Institutions59
The rate of eligibility for a Victorian certificate of education among the indigenous population in the State of Victoria is lower than among the non-indigenous population, which affects their chances of acceptance to higher education institutions through the
55 http://www.centrelink.gov.au/internet/internet.nsf/payments/abstudy.htm retrieved: July 4th, 2011. 56 Parliament of Victoria, Education and Training Committee Final Report. Inquiry into Geographical Differences on the Rate in which Vicotrian Students Participate in Higher Education, July 2009. 57 Higher Education Support Act 2003. 58 Australian Government, Department of Education, Employment and Workforce Relations. Indigenous Education (Targeted Assistance) Act 2000 Program Guidelines 2009-2012, Current as at 25.05.10. 59 Australian Government, Department of Education, Employment and Workforce Relations. Indigenous Education (Targeted Assistance) Act 2000 Program Guidelines 2009-2012, Current as at 25.05.10.
regular acceptance tracks. However, there are several alternative ways of being accepted into the state's higher education system that are open to those who did not complete high school education. Many universities offer special acceptance tracks for indigenous students (as well as other groups which the state wants to advance), with acceptance requirements that differ from those in the regular acceptance track. One possibility (which is not unique to natives) is the recommendation-based acceptance track, in which the candidates' grades are weighted together with recommendations from teachers or principals of the schools at which they studied. In this way, the candidate's grades are evaluated alongside other parameters which can improve his chances of acceptance.
Another possibility is to apply through a special acceptance track intended for candidates who are able to prove that their background has placed them in a position of long-term inferiority as regards education, or that their life circumstances preventing them from completing 12 years of schooling. These parameters can change the ranking of candidates and affect the chances of acceptance of candidates from weaker groups (including natives). Indigenous students can submit an application in this track either by virtue of being natives, or by virtue of other entitling parameters such as socioeconomic situation or residence in a rural area.
In addition to tracks designed for various groups which the state is interested in advancing (more general programs), some universities in the State of Victoria have special acceptance tracks for indigenous students. Thus, for example, at one university (Monash University), indigenous students who demonstrate adequate writing skill and a strong willingness to acquire higher education can be accepted to a special track for natives, in which they take various courses over two semesters. These courses do not entitle them to any academic credits, but if they complete them successfully they can be accepted to undergraduate studies. At other universities, both in Victoria and in other areas of Australia, indigenous candidates are accepted based on an individual evaluation of each candidate, rather than on the basis of ranking relative to other candidates. In these cases the selection is made based on the candidates' ability and their chances of success in studies, which are evaluated in various ways, including personal interviews and prior experience in relevant work. Counseling units for indigenous students operate within the different universities, which assist them in the process of acceptance to the institutions.
Another track of acceptance to higher education institutions in the State of Victoria is by transferring from non-academic vocational training studies. In the vocational training and technical study tracks in the state there is a significant proportion of students from
weak socioeconomic groups, including natives. Through academic recognition of some of the courses taken in these study frameworks, they can be encouraged to go on to academic studies. Nevertheless, the percentage of those with vocational training that have done so is still low, and the government of Victoria is addressing the need to improve this channel. Another avenue of entry to the higher education system is transferring from the employment market to academic studies. One university in Victoria operates an institution for educating the members of the Koori ethnic group (the native people of Victoria) that has developed academic tracks designed to help natives employed in the social welfare and healthcare systems to study for academic degrees in social work or public health. These programs include scholarships to help students with their subsistence expenses during the period of studies. As in Canada, also in Victoria an attempt has been made to develop more flexible study formats for the native population that are suited to their profile and do not entail separation from the community, whose members for the most part set up families at a relatively young age.
In addition to alternative acceptance tracks, there are various preparatory programs operating in Victoria in which indigenous students can complete their basic education. 6.4. United Kingdom
6.4.1. State Regulation
The rights of various groups in the United Kingdom, including minorities, are regulated in a series of Equality Acts, the most recent being the Equality Act of 2010.60 The Equality Act relates to those defined as "persons with protected characteristics," one of these characteristics being race. One of the aspects regulated by the Equality Act is education, and specifically higher education. In general, the Equality Acts of the United Kingdom establish general duties which apply to all the country's public bodies, as well as specific duties which apply to certain bodies, including higher education institutions. It is worth noting that in the United Kingdom the percentage of ethnic minorities among students in higher education institutions – 17.8% in the 2008-9 school year – is higher than the percentage of ethnic minorities in the population – 11.6%. In other words, ethnic minorities not only do not suffer from underrepresentation in the higher education system, but the contrary is true. This situation is not new, having existed in the United Kingdom already in the 1990s, although recent years have seen a further rise in the
60 The previous legislation in the United Kingdom related separately to each of the following groups: gender, race and the disabled. The Equality Act of 2010 consolidated all these groups in a single framework and expanded it to include additional groups.
percentage of ethnic minorities among the student population. However, just as in other countries, in the United Kingdom as well the distribution of fields of study among students belonging to ethnic groups differs from that of the general student population, and specifically – a lower percentage enrolls for pedagogic studies.61
A regulation from 2001 enacted pursuant to the Race Equality Act of 1976 imposes on higher education institutions specific obligations relating to equality of minorities. The regulation provides that higher education institutions must prepare a written declaration on their policy for advancement of equality between people belonging to different racial groups, and to see to the necessary means for complying with the equality obligations imposed on them by the act. The equality policy of institutions is meant to prevent racial discrimination and to promote equal opportunity and good relations between different races, in all areas. The equality policy must relate to various aspects of the activity of the higher education institution, including accessibility to and admission of students, as well as assistance to students. The obligation to equality requires higher education institutions to evaluate the effect of their policy on students and staff members from different racial groups. Furthermore, higher education institutions must follow up differences between different racial groups as regards acceptance of students to studies and the progress made by them, as well as the recruitment of staff members and the advancement of their career.62
The Equality Act of 2010 expanded the scope of the previous act with respect to affirmative action by higher education institutions towards people with protected characteristics (including race) who are underrepresented in certain fields, including meeting their special needs. The act provides that affirmative action must be taken proportionately to the need to achieve the goal and can include measures for increasing the representation of students from an underrepresented ethnic group.63 It should be noted that the regulations which are supposed to be promulgated pursuant to the Equality Act have still not been enacted, and they may contain additional provisions relating to the duty of academic institutions to act proactively to promote racial equality.
The Equality Acts, including equality on the basis of race, have given higher education institutions a general framework for achieving the goal of equality, as well as general guidelines on how they should act in order to do so. However, each academic institution
61 Equality Challenge Unit. Equality in Higher Education, Statistical Report 2010. 62 UK Commission for Racial Equality. Statutory Code of Practice on the duty to promote race equality, May 2002. 63 Equality Challenge Unit Briefing. Equality Act 2010; Implications for higher education institutions.
must determine its own modus operandi within the framework of the program published by it. An examination of the websites of some universities in the United Kingdom shows that they publish equality programs as well as data on their student body according to ethnic groups. The scope of the programs and degree of detailing varies between the different universities.
6.4.2. Aimhigher Program
In addition to the equality programs which the universities are required to publish, in recent years a national program has been operating in the United Kingdom for the integration into higher education of population sectors which currently are underrepresented. The program, called "Aimhigher," was operated by the Higher Education Funding Council in parts of England in the past several years, and was expanded in 2009 to all of the United Kingdom. The purpose of this state-fund program is to support schoolchildren in the 9 to 13 age bracket, by means of meetings with mentors who are first-degree students. The mentors offer the schoolchildren support and encouragement in coping with different stages in studies and life, which could affect their integration in the future into higher education. As described above, the program is based on mentoring meetings, with the mentoring students themselves belonging to one of the relevant ethnic groups, giving them an understanding of the difficulties experienced by the schoolchildren, while the schoolchildren, for their part, are able to identify with their mentors. The mentors meet with the schoolchildren around twenty times a year (once in two weeks), and they receive payment for the meetings (50 pounds sterling per meeting). Several schoolchildren participate in each meeting, which lasts several hours, with parts conducted jointly and other parts devoted to private talks of the mentor with the schoolchildren.
As noted earlier, the program is meant to help schoolchildren from groups which are underrepresented in higher education, including those belonging to low socioeconomic levels (according to definitions of the U.K. Office for National Statistics), those belonging to weak groups that reside in areas with a low participation rate in higher education, schoolchildren living in care frameworks and disabled schoolchildren.64
As noted, in the first years the project operated in several local/regional authorities in England. One such region was the city of Leeds, in which the program focused mainly on
64 Higher Education Funding Council for England, Aimhigher Associates Scheme, Guidance and planning for the national phase, 2009-2011.
the city's minority population.65 The average percentage of minorities in this city is 10%, but in certain areas of the city they reach 70% of the total population. The project is intended to reduce the dropout rate among schoolchildren in the city and to increase their integration into higher education. It targets youth with potential to integrate into higher education, who are at risk of dropping out from the education system due to low motivation or a lack of academic support. The program is operated in Leeds by the municipal education department, in collaboration with various organizations including, among others, the local coordinators of the Aimhigher program, the local universities from which the mentors were recruited and a local philanthropic organization which supports education. A majority of the schoolchildren participating in the program have shown an improvement in their scholastic achievements and grades.66 6.5. Norway 67
In Norway, the approach is to linguistic minorities. These mostly comprise migrants or people from an immigration background and account for 11.5% of the country's population.68 There are two noteworthy aspects as regards the accessibility of higher education to the members of this group:
First, among the members of linguistic minorities who completed high school education, the number of those continuing to higher education is not lower and is even higher than among the general population. Nevertheless, the percentage of linguistic minorities who complete high school education is lower than among the general population, and therefore the chances that a member of this group will enroll for higher education are lower. However, this is true mainly of first-generation immigrants, whereas among native Norwegians whose parents immigrated to Norway the enrollment percentages are actually high. The Norwegian government has taken various steps to address this problem, including changing the method of teaching the Norwegian language to linguistic minorities, but they will not be reviewed in this document. We would merely note in this context that the Norwegian Education Ministry has acted to disseminate
65 In this city the program was called "Aim Higher: The Leeds Black and Ethnic Minority Mentoring Programme." 66 Aim Higher: The Leeds Black and Ethnic Minority Mentoring Programme. In: http://www.idea.gov.uk/idk/core/page.do?pageId=8038754&aspect=full retrieved: June 14th, 2011. 67 Norway Ministry of Education and Research. Equal education in practice! Strategy for better learning and greater participation by language minorities in day-care centers, schools and education, 2004-2009; Equal education in practice! Strategy for better teaching and greater participation of linguistic minorities in kindergartens, schools and education 2007-2009, revised edition February 2007. 68 The Knesset Research and Information Center. Encouragement of Employment of Workers from Groups Characterized by Underrepresentation. Written by: Orly Almagor-Lotan and Adv. Dina Zadok, May 5, 2011.
among youth belonging to linguistic minorities, and their parents, leaflets which describe the possibilities available to them with respect to high school studies and vocational training.
Second, the distribution of the fields of study among linguistic minorities who enroll for higher education differs from the general population, with the linguistic minorities in Norway tending more to study the scientific and technical subjects and showing less interest in the social sciences and teaching.
Some universities in Norway have taken steps to increase the percentage of those enrolling for higher education among the minorities, but the country's main focus has been on encouraging minorities to enroll for pedagogic studies, so as to diversify the teaching personnel in the educational system in a manner that faithfully reflects the composition of the Norwegian population. In December 2003 the Norwegian government published a strategic program for equality in education, which also related to the issue of the accessibility of higher education, and specifically pedagogic studies, to minorities. Studies have shown that in Norway, one of the difficulties in recruiting teachers from among the minorities whose mother tongue is not Norwegian is related to language, and particularly the Norwegian language requirements connected with pedagogic studies. To overcome this difficulty, the Norwegian government decided to ease the (Norwegian) language requirements in connection with pedagogic studies, so as to enable more minority groups to take up studies in this field. We did not find any information on the extent of the influence this change has had on the percentage of linguistic minorities who enroll for pedagogic studies, since the latest data published relate to 2005 (in which the percentage of linguistic minorities who enrolled for studies in this field was still relatively low).
As noted, also in the field of social sciences the linguistic minorities have relatively low representation. In this respect, the state is acting by supporting programs which are operated by the universities, but we will not elaborate on this in the present document.