University of Tennessee, Knoxville TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange
Masters Theses Graduate School
5-1991
Nailing Down the Pattern in Historical Archaeology
Amy L. Young University of Tennessee - Knoxville
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Recommended Citation Young, Amy L., "Nailing Down the Pattern in Historical Archaeology. " Master's Thesis, University of Tennessee, 1991. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes/1240
This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters Theses by an authorized administrator of TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. For more information, please contact [email protected]. To the Graduate Council:
I am submitting herewith a thesis written by Amy L. Young entitled "Nailing Down the Pattern in Historical Archaeology." I have examined the final electronic copy of this thesis for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the equirr ements for the degree of Master of Arts, with a major in Anthropology.
Charles H. Faulkner, Major Professor
We have read this thesis and recommend its acceptance:
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(Original signatures are on file with official studentecor r ds.) To the G�aduate Council:
I am submitting he�ewlth a thesis w�ltten by Amy L. Young entitled "Nailing Down the Patte�n in Histo�lcal A�chaeo 1 ogy. •• I have examined the fina 1 copy of this thesis fo� fo�m and content and �ecommend that lt be accepted in pa�tlal fulfillment of the �equl�ements fo� the deg�ee Maste� of A�ts. with a maJo� ln Anth�opology.
Cha�les H. Faulkne�. Majo� P�ofesso�
We have �ead this thesis and �ecommend lts acceptance:
Accepted fo� the Council:
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NAILING DOWN THE PATT ERN IN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY
A Thesis
Presented for the
Master of Arts
Degree
The Un l verslty of Tennessee , Knoxv ille
Amy L. Young
May 1991 ACKNOWLEDGEM ENTS
I would like to thank my maJor professor , Dr . Char les H. Faulkner
for hls guidance and pat ience . I wou ld also like to thank the other members of the commi ttee , Dr . Gerald Schroedl, Dr. Wal ter Kl ippel , and
Dr . Ly le Kon i gsberg for the ir thoughtful suggest ions. I wou ld like to
express my grat i tude to Ph i l, for help and good humor In the field, and
for reading and re-read ing this manuscr ipt. My grati tude also goes to my
sons, Chr istopher and Nichol as for the ir cheers on encouragemen t, and to
Hank McKe lway for cr itical comments and he lp with the figures In the
text . I also thank Spence Meyers for his carpentry sk ills. I wou ld like
to thank Dr . Robert L. Ke l ly for hls Invaluable advice. The Ol iver nai ls used ln th ls thesis were recovered dur ing excavations of three sites on
the Pe l lissippi Parkway Ex tension, Knox County, Tennessee . The Ol iver slte Invest igat ions were funded by the Federal Highway Admln lstratlon and
Tennessee Department of Transpor tat ion
il ABSTRACT
Th is study suggests that middl e-range research has an Impor tant rol e to play In historical archaeology . Th ree mode ls are devel oped for interpreting nai l assemb lages from 19th and 20 th century contexts. Al l models are based upon ethnoarchaeology , experimental archaeology, and direct observations of nai ls operat ing ln the ir systemic contexts. Th e first mode l al lows for discriminat ing between a nai l assemb lage from an ephemeral structure slte and an assemb lage from a dump si te. Th e second mode l enables the archaeologist to ident ify wh ether a bu ilding was Jog, timber frame , or bal loon frame construction. The th ird mode l Is designed to discr iminate between nai l assemb lages wh ere structures were torn down to recycle the lumber and structures dismantled and materials discarded.
These mode ls are used to interpret nai ls from two East Tennessee archaeological si tes. It is concl uded that such middle-range research ls an effect ive aid for Interpret ing historic site format ion processes .
111 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
I. Middle-range Theory ln Historical Archaeol ogy 1
II. Dump Sites and Bu lldlng Si tes 16
III. Log, Timber Frame , and Bal loon Frame Structures 26
IV. Recyc ling and Discarding Behav ior 51
V. Two Archaeological Examp les: The Glbbs House Slte and the Ol iver Si te 61
VI . Conc lusions 78
References Ci ted 82
VIta 89
lv LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1 Observed and Expected Frequencies of Unaltered . Pu tted
, and Cl inched
2.2 Observed and Expected Frequenc ies of Una l tered . Pu lled (p), and Cl i nched
2.3 Observed and Expected Frequenc ies of Unal tered , Pu tt ed
. and Cl inched
3.1 Nal ls from the Log Bu ildings 32
3.2 Na l ls from the Timber Frame Structures 34
3.3 Na l ls from the Ba l loon Frame Structures 36
3.4 Summary of Percentages of Nai l Lengths From Al l Bu ildings Surveyed 37
3.5 Conversions to Na l ls Per Square Foot For Each Functional Category For Eight Bu ildings Surveyed 41
3.6 Na l ls from the Garner Si te Outbui lding 44
3.7 Frequencies of Garner Na l ls ln Functional Categor ies Compared to Log , Timber , and Bal loon Frame Models 47
3.8 Nal ls from Locust Grove Cabi n 48
3.9 Frequenc ies of Locust Grove Na l ls ln Functional Categor ies 48
4.1 Mean He ights for Slx. Eight , and Ten Penny Nal ls 54
4.2 Mean Curve He ights for 1/2 and 1 Inch Board Th i ckness 55
v 4.3 Mean Curve Heights for Pul ling Method 55
4.4 General Linear Models Procedures 56
4.5 Mean He ights for Pennywe ight by Board Th ickness 57
4.6 Dlstrlbutlon of Na l ls ln AdJ usted Curve Height Categor ies for the Recycled and Discard Sites 59
5.1 Gibbs Nal ls versus Construction Sites 66
5.2 Gibbs Nal ls versus Dump Sltes 66
5.3 Frequencies of Na l ls In AdJ usted Curve He ight Categor ies for the Gibbs Assemb lage and for a Recycled Assemb lage 69
5.4 Frequencies of Unal tered , Pulled (p), and Cl i nched
5.5 Frequenc ies In Funct iona l Categor ies for Ol iver Nail Assemb lage and Log , Timber Frame , and Bal loon Frame Mode ls with Tin Roof 72
5.6 Fr equencies In Funct iona l Categor ies for Ol iver Na il Assemb lage and Timber Frame and Bal loon Frame Mode ls without Roof ing Na l ls 74
5.7 Frequenc ies of Nal ls In AdJ usted Curve He ight Categor ies for the Ol iver Assemb lage and for a Recyc led Assemb lage 75
vl LIST OF FIGURES
Figures Page
3.1 Mode l for a 16 x 16 Foot Log Structure wl th Shake or Tln Roof 38
3.2 Mode l for a 16 x 16 Foot Timber Frame Structure wl th Shake or Tln Roof 39
3.3 Mode l for a 16 x 16 Foot Bal l oon Frame Structure wlth Shake or Tin Roof 40
3.4 Dlstrlbutlon of Nal ls ln Length Categor ies for the Garner Assemblage 45
3.5 Distribution of Nal ls ln Length Categor ies for the Garner Assemb lage Compared wi th Dlstrlbutlon for a Timber Frame Mode l 46
3.6 Distribution of Na lls In Length Categor ies for the Locust Grove Assemblage Compared wi th Dlstrlbutlon for a Log Structure Mode l 50
5.1 Dlstrlbutlon of Na lls In Un its ln Area D at the Gibbs House Slte 64
5.2 Frequencies of Nail Lengths from the Gibbs House Nal ls Compared with Al l Mode ls 68
5.3 Distribution of Na l ls ln Length Categor ies of Ol iver Nal ls and Log, Timber Frame , and Ba l loon Frame Mode ls wi th Tln Roof 73
vll CHAPTER I
MIDDLE-RANGE TH EORY IN HISTOR ICAL ARCHAEOLOGY
Introduct ion
Binford descr ibed the archaeological record as a static document of events of the past ex isting in the present (Binford 1981 , 1983 ,
1989 ). Th e goa l of middl e-range research Is to link the stat ic archaeological record wi th the dynamic processes that formed It. In this thesis, dynamics wh ich produce archaeological nail assemblages are Invest igated and descr ibed, and rel evant attributes uncovered In these Invest igat ions are used to make Inferences about the past .
Three methods have been devel oped to do this. First , using nai ls recovered from ethnoarchaeologlcal si tes, di fferences between assemblages from per ipheral dump sites and from ephemeral structure sites are ascertained, so that these two types of si tes, both characteri zed by high frequenc ies of nai ls, can be Identified.
Second, nail length frequencies In standing structures are emp loyed to develop models to Identify archaeological na il assemblages from log, timber frame , or bal loon frame bu ildings . Th ird, data from exper iments and archaeological sites are used to Ident ify pattern ing
In nai l assemb lages characterist ic of structures torn down to recyc le wood or structures dismant led and materials discarded. Final ly usi ng these techniques, nai ls recovered from two archaeological si tes In
Knox County, Tennessee, the Gibbs House si te and the Ol iver si te , are analyzed and Interpreted .
1 Middle-range research Is general ly poorl y developed In historical archaeology , and as a result, It Is di fficult to re late •Quest ions that Count• CHonerkamp 1988; Deagan 1988; Cleland 1988; Sou th 1988a;
Leone 1988> Ce.g. slavery, impe rial ism, class format ion, cul tural syncret ism, consumer choice behavior, acculturation, envi ronmental degradat ion, and others> to the stat ic archaeological record.
Histori cal archaeologists lack the coherent general and middl e-range theory to do it. As desc ri bed by Honerkamp <1988:5> , historical archaeology seems prematurely 1to have entered a 'norma l sc ience' ph ase• , mean ing that research has become highly routinized. Cleland
<1988:14> agrees that historical archaeologists need to develop
•organ ized and coherent theory• so that we can move beyond •s tack ing fact upon facta and begin to synthesize by flttlng fact to fact . If middl e-range research Is to enable archaeol ogists to link the stat ic archaeological re cord to the dynamics that formed It, then middle-range theory must be deve l oped to synthesize the dynamics under an overarch lng theoret ical pe rs pect ive. Th is pe rspect ive, In keepi ng wi th the goals of archaeo l ogy by devot ing time to middle-range research . Then we can begin to adequately answer those •Quest ions that Count•. There have been substantial advances ln theory bu ilding In historical archaeology , most notab ly In the late 1970s by South <1977> , Ferguson <1977> , Sch iffer <1976 , 1977> , and Otto <1977> , aimed at ga ining a better understanding of how cu l tural systems work . These studies attempted to step beyond site or artifact specific level anal yses to assign mean ing to patterning In the archaeological record. Except for Sch iffer <1976 , 1977 , 1987> , wh ose wr ltlngs and research have not been specifical ly directed at historical archaeology , none of these works can be characteri zed as middl e-range research . Lately, however, Deetz <1988> and Leone <1988 ) , wi th others 1988 ; Leone and Crosby 1987 > have been cal ling for a spec ial form of middle-range research wh ich uses historical Leone 1987>. According to Leone <1988), this Is di f ferent from using the documen tary record to refute or re inforce the archaeological record because mean ing is assi gned through analysis and Interpretati on of the amb lgul t les archaeologi cal record wlth ethnoarchaeologlcal and experimental studies In historical archaeology , something thls research attempts to do . In order to better Interpret the archaeological record, archaeologists need to observe mater ial cul ture operat ing in systemic contexts and envision It as a po tential archaeological assemb lage . Houses and outbui ldings , wi th nai ls, stones, bricks , mortar , and wi ndow glass, po tential archaeological assemblages , are st i ll standing and funct ioning as they were in the past . Act ive dumps with arch itectural artifacts are sti ll becoming part of the archaeological record. Peopl e are constructing and tear ing down bu ildings like their fathers and grandfathers before them . These dynamics are observable and measurable. Nall s, sometimes the most common artifacts recovered from histor ic si tes, have been largely over l ooked as a source of Informat ion about site formation processes. Nal ls can be especial ly we ll suited to answer ing quest ions concern ing construction, repair and remode ling, abandonment , and destruction of bui ldings , If pa tterns ln nai l assemb lages can be de tected and correctly Interpreted. In this research, standing outbui l dings, active dumps , ethnoarchaeologlcal data, and control led experiments are used to record dynamics wh ich create and pa ttern nai l assemb lages . Outbuil dings, rather than houses , are empl oyed to observe the systemic context of nai ls. The reasons are as fol lows : 1) ou tbui l di ngs are 4 basical ly of simpl er construction, usual ly single pe ns A bu ilding can be conceptualized as hav ing a life history Most research on nai ls used by historical archaeologi sts has been carr ied ou t pr imarily ou tside the discipl ine, directed towards deve lopi ng a nail chronol ogy Smi th 1975; and Loveday 1983) . Ty pi cal ly, historica l archaeologists sort nai ls Into their gross manufacturing types Chand wr ought, cut , and wlre > and count them . Prev l 9us research Indicates that lt ls possible to Identify agents responsible for creating pa tterns ln an archaeological nal l assemb lage <1971 > used the frequencies of different nal l pe nnyweights for reconstruct ing the appe arance and structural features of the Arkansas Post Branch Bank . Simi larly, Young and Carr (1989 > we re ab l e to est ablish corre lations between pennywe ight types and their function wi th nai ls recovered from standing historic structures ln East Tennessee . Fau lkner <1984 ) used cl inched The research In this thesis bui lds on the work of Wa lker <1971 ), Fau lkner <1984) , and others , to Ident ify the forces wh ich alter nai ls and create pa tterns ln nail assemb lages . Ex per imental and ethnoarchaeologlcal methods are empl oyed In addressing three basic pr ob lems : 1> Determining the di f ferences between archaeological nal l assemb lages from bu ilding sites and secondary per ipheral dumps ; 2) Reconstructing the structural features of bu ildings 3> Reconstruct ing how bu ildings were disman t led 6 Since construction techn iques are close ly assoc iated with technol ogy and avai lability of nai ls, and assuming that recycling behavior may be highly correlated wi th cost of nai ls, a br ief history of nai l manufacturing technol ogy in America is presented. This serves to pl ace this re search in tempora l and economic perspect ive. History of Nai l Manufactur ing Technol ogy Na il making began before the th ird century A.D. In western Eu ro pe . In fact , hand wrough t nai l technol ogy was we ll devel oped and had rema ined unchanged for centuri es. For exampl e, tool s for making nai ls recovered from British Roman archaeological sites are essential ly the same as colonial Ame rican nai l mak ing tool s 1970>. Innovat ions did occur, such as size standardizat ion and be tter methods of mak ing nai l rod from wh ich nai ls are cut . An earl y Innovat ion Introduced In 15th century England was the sl itting mi ll. Th is dev ice cut wrough t Iron pl ates Into nai l rods wh ich In turn were cu t Into nai ls. It wa s also at abou t thi s time that the •penny• pricing system began to be used . Under this pricing system, eight penny 1000 na i ls and corre sponded rough ly to the length of the nai ls 1970>. Th is was essential ly the first step towards standardization of nai l sizes. Hand wrought nai l manufacturi ng was a two step process 1963) . First , wrought Iron pl ates we re produced by ro lling mi lls 7 Into thln rods correspondi ng to the thi ckness of the na il shank . The second step could be pe rformed at the sl itting mi ll. Since It was common and less expensive, however , to sh ip the nai l rod, consumers usual ly compl eted the nal l-mak lng process. The second step, converting nai l rod Into nai ls, deve loped Into a cottage Industry ln colonial Amer ica. It did not requ ire a large capi tal Investment or highly sk illed craftsmen , usual ly slaves and even ch ildren made nai ls Final ly the nai ler headed the nail . Heading requ ired an addi tional simpl e tool for securely hol ding the nai l blank wh ile flattening the prox imal end Into a head. Al though the process varied somewhat, lt was usual for a nai l blank to be pl aced In a wrought Iron tube with a tapered hole large enough to hold the nai l bu t narrow enough to pr event the nai l from fal l ing through . A rosehead was produced by flaring the metal around the shank , produc ing several facets. A t-head was fash ioned by spl itting the upper portion of the shan k and 6 flattening It Manufacturing hand wrough t nai ls was labor- Intensive; hence , nai ls were expensive and scarce , from the colonial per iod until we ll Into the 18th century . Documentary ev i dence suggests that nai ls were so scarce that old bu ildings were burned to retrieve the nai ls Par liament had outlawed the colonial manufacture of nai l rod. Although a sizable Industry had developed, nai ls continued to be expensive . For Instance , nai ls so ld for ten to fourteen cents a pound ln 1800 along the eastern seaboard, and even more Inland, as opposed to 2 cents pe r pound ln 1890 A dev ice for turning out •pre-cut• wrought nai ls was deve l oped at the end of the 18th century . Th is dev ice simpl y cut a ser ies of nai l rods Into blanks that wou ld later be po inted and headed . There were some disadvantages of this mach ine over the contemporaneous cu t nai l mach ine. One was that the dle wh ich produced a certain nai l length had to be changed as different nai l lengths were produced. Wh ile this wrought nai l cutter could have he l ped to standardize nall lengths, lt was not widely used. However, this mach ine, along with me thods for pr oducing cast nai ls The technol ogy for manufactur ing hand wrough t nai ls remained basical ly unchanged dur ing the pe riod of colonial settlement In Nor th Amer ica by Europeans. Differences ln shape and size are largely attributable to differing funct ions and perhaps Idiosyncratic behavior of the individual nai lers . There are no def inable ways In wh ich to different iate hand wrought nai ls made between 1620 and 1780 . Attributes used In th is study to dlstlngulsh hand wrought na ils from other nal l types Include the square shank shape and the configurat ion of the po int. Exact ly when mach ine cut nai ls entered the scene In the Un ited States Is undetermined. It is known that mach ine cut tacks, used pr imarily for text ile cards , were used In Europe In the mid-18th century Invention. Numerous machines for cutting nai ls were patented in the Un ited States In the 1780s and 1790 s. Wh ile the begi nning of the machi ne cut nai l Indu stry was not a ser i ous threat to the hand wrought Industry , the Idea of cutting nai ls from pl ates rather than rods was revolutionary and the mach ine cut nai l largely repl aced hand wrought nai ls by around 1830. Improvements ln mach in ery and locat ing nal leries close to domest ic Iron sources 10 made It possible for cut nail manufacturers not on ly to me et the needs of the expanding domestic market , but also export large quantities of nai ls Mach ines for produc ing cut nai ls were si mply cutters wh ich sheared nai ls from wrought Iron plates. The mach ines could be powered by hand, water , and later by steam. The plates were cut Into widths which correspond to nail lengths. Nal ls were produced In two steps. Plates were Inserted Into the cutter by workers and the blade wou ld strike a sma ll si lver of me tal from the plate The plate was either flipped or wiggled after each strike. Heading was the second step. Ear ly mach ine cu t na i ls were hand headed in mu ch the same way as hand wrough t nal ls. However , from the beginning of the cut nail Industry , Inventors sough t to improve mach ines wh ich could head nails. These automatic heading devices were not perfected and used widely unt il the 1830s Innovat ion In heading occurred ls uncertain. Ne l son <1968> and Loveday <1983 > agree that by the late 1830s nails were headed after turn ing the na ll ninety degrees . Smi th <1975 > suggests that the 11 technique was Introduced In the 1820s. A de termination of exact ly when al l nai ls were turned and headed requires addit ional samp les from known contexts. Another Innovat ion occurr ing In 1836 for mach ine cut nai ls was the rotary squeezer . The rotary squeezer was used to make the wrought iron plate In such a way as to make It possible to make nai ls with the grain of the me tal runn ing lengthwise rather than across the shank . Nal ls produced ln this way were more easi ly cl inched than earl ier nails wh ich tended to break when cl inched. By the mid-19th century , nai l technology had ou tgrown Its cottage Industry roots and had become Indu strial ized. Nal ls were mass-produced and the Industry had reached a technol ogical plateau. Nail makers that located their factories near rol ling mills and ore sources could produce nai ls cheaply. A rather large Indu stry deve l oped In the Upper Oh io Va l ley 1825 nai l prices rema ined constant at around 9.5 cents per pound. By 1835 pr ices reached an average of 5 cents per pound . Between 1850 and 1870 , product ion more than doubled, most of this due to more manufacturers rather than to Increased levels of product ion. By the time the Industry was ful ly mature , nai ls were relative ly Inexpensive and avai lable to a large portion of the popu lace . Because of this, nails were probably not often conserved by consumers. Th is Is an Important fact to consider In the anal ysts of nai ls recovered archaeol oglca lly. Recyc ling of older nai ls may introduce a temporal bias Into the sample. 12 Wi re na11s are characteri zed by a round shank and a regular round stamped head. Nel son C1968> assigns an Inception date of 1850s to wire nai ls ln his publ icat ion 1N a ll Chronology as an Aid to Dat ing Old Bu ildi ngs• wh ich ls the most widely cited reference for nai l chronol ogy used by historic archaeo logists. Unfor tunately, the date Is Inaccurate. The early wire nai ls were made of Iron . These nai ls were not strong enough for bu ilding purposes , but were used for crates. The Uni ted States Patent Of fice granted the first patent for wire nai ls strong enough for heavy construction in 1877 1983> . After 1880 steel nai ls became common . By about 1890 , wire nail production had overtaken cu t nail production 1983). By 1913 cut nai l product ion accounted for less than ten percent of the total nai ls produced In the Un i ted States 1983> . It was dur ing th is cr itical transi tion from cut to wire nai ls that the cut nai l Indu stry badl y overex tended Itse lf by invest ing ln cut nai l technology . As a result of th is, and ln order to compete wi th cheaper wire na i ls, cut nai ls manu facturers were forced to se ll be low cost States . ·� Wi re nai ls had several advantages over mach ine cut nai ls. The wire nai l was cheaper to manufacture because less metal was used and the technol ogy more automated. A spoo l of wire repl aced the nai l plate and the attendant who fed the cutter was no longer needed. Wi re was fed Into the mach ine conti nuously wh ich el iminated the necessity of fllpplng the plate and Increased the rate of production. The wire nai l was also easier to use . It did less damage to the wood and could be pu l led eas i ly. Wire nai ls were advertised as easier to straighten if bent Before the last two decades of the 19th century , wire na i ls were used primarily for construction of pack ing cases . It took Improvement In technol ogy Bu ilding technol ogy ln Amer ica was closely tied to nail manufacturing technology , the exhaust ion of large size hardwood timber suppl ies in eastern North Amer ica, and the aval labl llty of mi lled lumber The 19 th century timber frame also requ ired na l ls for attach ing i4 shakes, sidi ng, and floor ing. A combinat ion of hewn timbers and mi lled lumber was used In the early decades of the 19th century for timber frame structures. These same economic and technol ogical factors affected vernacu lar carpenters' choices of construction techn iques, and whether or not arch itectural ma ter ials were conserved and recyc led. Th is, In turn , affected howna i ls moved through their systemic contexts and entered the archaeological record, the subJect of th is thesis. Conclusions Binford <1983:20> states that middl e-range research In archaeol ogy Is •a means of deve loping secure and Intel lectual ly Independent Interpret ive principles and of expanding our knowledge of re l evance to our Interpretive task• . One of our Jobs as archaeologists Is to study linkages between ma terials observed In the archaeological record and the behav ior wh ich results In the procure men t, modificat ion, and disposal of these ma terials. A large component In historical archaeol ogy are arch itectural artifacts. In South's artifact patterns , even the Carol ina pattern , a substantial rat io of artifacts are classi fied as arch itectural . Yet histor ical archaeologists pay very little attention to this class of art i facts beyond Interest In them as chronological markers . Clearly, though , for understanding something as Important and basic as she lter and the use of space , archaeol ogists mu st trai n themse lves to pay attention to ways behav ior creates pat terns In architectural art i facts. CHAPTER II DUMP SITES AND BU ILDING SITES Introduction The household, wh ich has been var iouslY de fined and redef ined emlcal ly ln Amer ican society McMurry 1988), ls a baste an alytic un it for understandi ng llfeways an d cu l ture process , Important Issues In Amer ican an thropol ogy . The house lot was the ar ena for much day-to-day llvlng ln the past , as lt ls today . The house lot was somet imes the center of household production, sometimes the center of household consumption, but usual ly some combination of both Th is ch apter Is a smal l step In this direct ion, bu ilding on the work of South <1979> and others on historic site content and functton , bu t 1� di ffering by taking an ethnoarchaeologlcal approach in Identifying signature patterns of nai l assemb lages from house lots. The archaeological remains of house lot use-areas are sometimes a pal impsest of postholes, clusters of Kitchen group and Architectural group art i facts, and oftentimes ambiguous deposits and assoc iations. Locating ou tbuil dings and Identifying their functions can be probl emat ic since of ten bu ildings such as sheds and smokehouses were ephemeral structures bu ilt on pier supports. Additional ly, house lots, especial ly 19th and 20 th century house lots , are characteri zed by very high frequenc ies of nails, de scr ibed by Jurney <1987:83> as •nail ralnu. Ex t reme ly dense concentrations of nai ls can indicate the presence of a structure . Caut ion must be taken in equat ing nai l concentrat ions with bu i ldings , however. Arch itectural dumps, where lumber from one or more razed/remode led structures is piled up ln an area , are also character ized by extremely dense concentrat ions of nai ls. Th is chapter presents a method by wh ich assemb lages of nai ls from dump areas can be distinguished from assemb lages of natl s from construct ion si tes, based upon the frequenc ies of unal tered, bent Methods Five carpenters were Interviewed to de termine whether It mi ght be possible to correct ly Identify past act ivities such as construction and raz ing of bu ildings , by examining nai ls. The carpenters described pu lled and cl inched nai ls, then examined some nai ls recovered 1? archaeologlcal ly and suggested that It may be feasible to distinguish nai ls of bu ilding sites from nai ls of dump sites based on the frequencies of unaltered, pul led, and cl inched nai ls. Unal tered nal ls are straight, often unused nai ls. Pul led nai ls are characteri zed as bent in gentle arcs . Cl inched nai ls are bent at an approx imate 90 degree angl e. Na lls, like other artifacts, are moved through a cycle of acquisi t ion, use , and discard or loss , and so me final ly enter the archaeological record. Determinat ion of when nai ls were deposited ln this cycle Is possible through the ldent lflcat lon of the physical forces wh ich al ter or damage nai ls. On do mestic sites, nai ls are most like ly deposited dur ing construct ion or raz ing of a structure , or through the decay ing of a structure or a wood pi le In a domest ic dumping area. Du ring the process of construction, same nai ls are like ly lost at the site. For example, 40 unal tered nai ls were col l ected Immediately adJacent to a structure Just after lt was bu ilt In west Knox County, Tennessee . The structure contains 5472 nai ls. Just after construction, some lost nai ls may be cleared from the area, others enter the archaeo logical record as unal tered nails as In the modern construction si te. Also dur ing construction, some nai ls are discarded at the construct ion site as damaged nai ls remainder of the nai ls would enter the ir systemi c context , that Is as wood fasteners In a bu ilding. Some of these nai ls wou ld be cl inched to increase their holding power . If a structure was al lowed to de teriorate at Its original site, nal ls would drop to the ground as the wood rotted and the structure col lapsed. When a building is destroyed, nai ls are either pulled with a crowbar or claw hammer , or ent ire boards are pu lled from the bu ilding. Some pulled nal ls enter the archaeologi cal record at the bulldlng site. Often, large port ions of wa l ls or roofs are removed from a bu ilding and are carr ied to a dump site. At the dump site, nal ls or boards could be removed from the sect ions to better stack the lumber . At th is point, pul led nai ls enter the archaeologi cal record at the dump site. As the wood rots, nal ls left in the wood , both pu l led and cl inched, also enter archaeologi cal context. At a dump site, a large number of pu lled and cl inched nai ls are expected. At a bu ilding site where the structure was razed, the nai l assemb lage should be characteri zed by a significant proportion of pu lled and unal tered nai ls, wi th relative ly few cl inched nai ls. At a site where the structure was al lowed to rot , the assemblage shou ld be character i zed by significant numbers of cl inched and unal tered nai ls wi th relatively fewer pu lled nai ls. Because nai ls were ge neral ly affordable dur ing most of the 19th century Interv iewed suggested that lt was more common to recyc le lumber than nai ls because the damage Incurred on nal ls dur ing pu l ling left them re latively useless. 19 Al terat ion of Nal ls from Dump Sites As stated, an assemblage of na i ls from a du mp site Is expected to contain few unal tered nai ls as compared to bu ilding sites. Samp les of nai ls from three modern du mp si tes were analyzed and compared to na ils from two late 19th century bu ilding sites . The moder n dump sites are a du mp on the Truan farm In Knox County Tennessee , and two du mps on the Kl ippel farm in Blount County, Tennessee . These three du mps were made up ma inly of boards from razed structures or boards rep l aced dur ing repair of structures, fence posts, and other materials such as brush , gas cans, and un identified me tal . The archaeological bu ilding sites are Cavett's Statton <40KN67> , and the Hatt Russe ll site <40KN127> . The Cavett's Statton structure Is shown on a 1895 Knox County, Tennessee map . The Hatt Russel l nai ls were recovered from units Immediately adJacent to a standi ng br ick 1-house wh ich showed architectural evidence of a porch Observed and expected frequencies of unaltered , pul led, and cl inched na i ls from the three ethnoarchaeologlcal dumps are presented In Table 2. 1. Wh ile the samples are sma l l, it is possible to discern patterns. It ts·tnterest lng to note , as expected , the frequency of unal tered nai ls compared to pu l led and cl inched nai ls, Is relatively low. Averages suggest for every unal tered nail, there are approx imately three pu lled nai ls and one cl inched nail. Variability between dump sites may be ref l ected in percentages of pu lled and cl inched nai ls because of how nai ls enter the 20 Table 2.1: Observed and Expected Frequencies of Unal tered , Pu lled , and Cl inched u p c (38.1) <196. 2) (60.7) Blount Co . 1 37 206 52 295 (24.8> <127.7) (39.5) Blount Co . 2 25 125 42 192 (20.1) (103. 1) (31 .8) Truan dump 21 96 38 155 TOTALS 83 427 132 642 ch i square = 4.0859 df = 4 p = .3945 archaeological record. Nal ls ln pul led boards Alteration of Na l ls from Bu ilding Sltes An assemblage of nai ls from a structure site would be expected to contain a relatively hlgh difficult (if not impossible> to remove from wood without first straighten ing the na l l, wou ld be rare , un l ess the structure Itself was allowed to rot. A sample of archaeologlcal ly der ived nai ls taken from known bu ilding areas Is presented In Table 2.2. Unaltered and pulled nai ls are frequent and cl inched nai ls are rare. A <3 - 3- 1> relationsh ip ls Indicated between unal tered, pu lled, and cl inched nai ls. A ch i square test Indicates no slgnlflcant difference at the 0.05 level between the two assemblages. Table 2.2: Observed and Expected Frequencies of Unaltered , Pu lled (p), and Cl inched u p c I TOT ------1------(53.9) <63.9> C18.2) I Russe ll construction 59 58 19 I 136 ------l ------<44. 1) <52. 1> <14.8> I Cavett's construct ion 39 58 14 I 111 ------1------TOTALS 98 116 33 I 247 ch i square = 2.3626 df = 2 p = .3069 Results The ch l square tests have show n no significant dif ferences between the dump si tes, and no significan t di fferences between the 22 construct ion sites used In th is study . A ch i square test of the frequenc ies of unal tered, pu lled, and cl inched nai ls from bu lldlng and dump sites shows a significan t difference at alpha= .OS. Table 2.3 shows the observed and expected frequencies of unal tered, pu l led, and cl inched nai ls for the total construction si tes and total dump sites. Table 2.3: Observed and Expected Frequenc ies of Unal tered . Pu lled Cp >, and Cl inched u p c I TOT ------1------(50.3) <150 .9) (45.8) 1 Total construction 98 116 33 I 247 ------l ------(130 .7)(392.1)(119.2) 1 Total du mp 83 427 132 I 642 ------1 ------TOT 181 543 165 I 889 ch i square = 78 . 7727 df = 2 p < .0001 As can be seen , particularly In Table 2.3, signature patterns emerge , wh ich are character istic of du mp areas and bu ilding sites. As expected, construction areas are characteri zed by high frequenc ies of unal tered nai ls and low frequencies of cl inched nai ls, when compared to du mp areas . Use of the me thod of analysis developed here can al low the archaeologist to ident ify sites of short-term arch itectural du1nps where old lumbe r was plied after a bu ilding was razed, and sites of epheme ral structures. Both of these areas are character i zed by den se concentrat ions of nai ls, and often, nothing else pier support> ex ists in the archaeological record to identify an area as the site of a bu ilding. Conclusions Compar isons of data from archaeological and ethnoarcheologlcal dump sites and archaeological bu ilding sites show that frequencies of unal tered , pu lled, and cl inched nai ls exhibit patterns which can be used by archaeologi sts to identify a site as an ephemeral structure or a peri pheral dump . Both of these site types are character i zed by high frequencies of nai ls. Bu ilding sites exhibi t a pattern of higher numbers of unal tered nai ls and low frequencies of cl inched nai ls. Dump sites are characterized by low frequenc ies of una l tered nai ls, wi th higher frequenc ies of cl inched nai ls. Wh ile art ifact patterning Th is study has shown that the search for signature patterns beyond those proposed by Sou th and Bal l is productive. Focusing on a particular art i fact class wi thin the Arch itectural group Al though the archaeological rema ins of house lots are sometimes confusing assoc iat ions of artifact concentrat ions and features , middle-range theory can place the archaeologist ln a posi tion of 24 , assigning mean ing to the archaeological record of the house lot, or tn Binford's words <1980 : 5> •accurately diagnosing patterned var iabi lity• . By ethnoarchaeol oglcal Invest igations of bu ilding sites and active dump areas, It has been possible to Ident ify signature patterns of nai l assemblages assoc iated wi th each of these two site types. Correctly ldentlfylng house lot funct ional areas Is a necessary first step ln understanding how house lots were adapted to part icular envi ronments or to technological change . 25 CHAPTER III LOG , TIMBER FRAME , AND BALLOON FRAME STRUCTURES Introduct ion Th is chapter Introduces a way In wh ich data gleaned from historic standing structures can be used to make rel iable Inferences about arch aeo logical nal l assemb lages and the structures they represent. Eight extant structures , most ly outbui ldings , were carefully me asured, and nal ls of different funct ions were counted. From these data, mode ls were generated whereby structure type ls predicted from archaeological nal l assemb lages. In other words , the mode ls al low for ldent lflcat lon of the klnd of bu ilding frame ) that stood at a slte. Wl th the models, reconstructions based on Informant an d docu mentary dat a can be tested. The types of structures represented by the nai ls from two arch aeo logical sites, the Garner site located In Blount County, Tennessee , an d the Locust Grove site in Jefferson County, Kentucky, are ldentlfled based on mode ls devel oped here . Arch itecture and Archaeol ogy From the works of such schol ar s as Gl ass le <1963 , 1975>, Kn iffen <1965> , Vl ach <1976>, Deetz <1977> , an d others , historical archaeologists can examine how ar ch itecture has changed over time , how bu ildings differ between ethn ic grou ps an d be tween social and economic classes of people. By studying ex tant structures and the documents 26 that descr ibe them, schol ar s can develop Ideas concernLng past bu ilding construction, how people divided their living and working ap ace , and howet hnlclty and class af fected their concepts of the bu i lt envi ronment. But can the Informat ion from these studies be usod to Interpret the archaeological record? At present , on ly a broad picture can be presented of how an d why people constructed their bu ildings the way they did, and of how such thi ngs as technological adv ances and the distribution of resources an d capi tal af fected peop les' dec isions of how and where to bu ild, and what they needed to surv ive and thrive. What data are av ai labl e prov ide Interest ing an d provocat ive, If fuzzy , pictures of bu ildings of the past . For Instance , from reading Southern an tebe llum-period agricultural Journal s It Is ap parent that same planters , at least , were aw are of the need to prov ide adequate she lter for the ir sl aves . Ideal ly, according to these planters, housing was supposed to be wel l vent ilated, we ll heated, and su fficiently large <•commodious• ) for sl ave fami lies . But rememberances of former sl aves of fer a contrasting picture . Here ls a fairly typical descr iption: The cabins we lived In was bu i lt of logs spil t open and pegged together . The fire plac es was blg that held logs ••••These ch imneys was made of st icks , dirt , an d straw. The cabins didn't have but abou t one window and two doors Based on descr iptions by former sl av es , Orser <1988:93> states that sl ave houses usual ly consisted of a singl e pen and that windows were not 27 glazed bu t rather wood shuttered. Some had dirt floors, some had wooden floors. These memor ies of former slaves , and the Ideal housing publ ished by planters , paint provocat ive and contrast ing pictures of slave houses . Bu t they do not prov ide us with the physical detail to Interpret archaeological rema ins of sl ave and tenant houses, and do not al low for rel iable Inferences about the past bu i lt env i ronment. Here Is another interesting picture of the past . Mr . C. Butler Rider designed and bu ilt a new farm house In western New York . He sent his design, and his comments to Moore's Ryral New Yorker In January 1860 , stating that : a we l l -made bal loon frame Is much cheaper and better for al l houses of moderate height than a timber frame . It adapts Itse lf better to circumstances. It Is more plastic, so to speak McMurry (1988:12> descr ibes the ba l loon frame: The ba l loon frame , first devel oped ln Ch icago in the 1830s and 1840s, repl aced the cumbersome timber-framing system of massive beams held together with wooden pins. Instead, the bal loon frame consisted of many ligh t, un i formly sized and spaced studs nai led together. A few people could erect the frame using such simple tools as a hammer, saw , and nai ls. Th is Innovat ion, wh ich the agricultural press publ icized extenslvely •••al lowed for spat ial var iety and did not requ ire soph isticated bu ilding sk i ll. If the ba l loon frame was so cheap and easy to bu ild, plastic, and widely publ icized, why did some bu lldlers choose timber-framing? How frequently and where did the preference of timber-framing over 28 ba l loon-framing occur after the latter was In troduced as a construction techni que? If historical archaeol ogi sts depend upon examining surviving 19th century structures to answer these quest ions, the results may be unrel iable because of the biased nature of the sample of surviving bu lldlngs . Similarly, using data on ly from standing slave •cab lnsu cannot answer the quest ion of adequacy of sl ave housing. Data are needed from the archaeological record to address these problems. But before th is can be accompl ished, historical archaeologists must accurately Interpret al l types of arch itectural rema ins: foundat ions and other features; window gl ass ; masonry ; and nai ls. Developing Reliab le Inferences Abou t the Archaeological Record In order to deve lop a methodol ogy that can al low for rel iable Inferences abou t architecture from the archaeological record, standing ou tbuildings and houses in East Tennessee were surveyed. Th is was accompl ished In order to detect and Interpret patterning in nai l asse mbl ages. Based on wh at is known abou t the manner bu ildings are constructed, it seems logical that the frequenc ies of na il lengths would vary between bu ildings of log, timber frame and ba l loon frame . Each of these bu ilding types shou ld have a nai l signature pattern that might be recogn izable in the archaeological record . The goa l here Is to analyze an archaeological nai l assembl age , and based on the nail length frequenc ies, re liab ly de termi ne If the structure was log, timber frame , or bal loon frame . 29 Field Methods Eight outbui l dings were surveyed; three Jog, two timber frame , and three bal loon frame bu ildings . None of these structures was extensively modi fied. Each structure was measured and photographed, and the number of nai ls In each of the fol lowing functional categor ies was recorded: 1> floor i ng: 2> roof ing: 3> siding; 4> heavy framing Jo ists, door frames and window frames> ; 5> light framing The Eight Extant Structures Log Bu ildings Bu ilding a log structure requires little spec ial ized sk i ll, a minimum number of tools, and few ma terials not available at or near the site of construction. A log structure can be bu i lt wi thout using nai ls, bu t most bu ilders managed to purchase or produce enough nai ls to make doors, window frames , and shutters (Loveday 1983:27> . For resl denttal bu ildings , nails were also used for Interior woodwork. 30 Ramsev Jogshed . The Ramsey shed ls a log outbuilding of undetermined or iginal function, currently used as a storage shed at the historic Ramsey House ln East Knox County . It measures 15 by 17 feet , Is a single story , and contains a door at a gable end. The roof Is covered wl th wood shakes nai led to spaced sheath ing. There are no windows. The door Is board and batten , and the eaves are clapboarded. Most of the nai ls assoc iated with th is structure are used ln roof ing, the rest In the roof superstructure , door and door frame , and clapboards . Table 3.1 presents the structure's nai ls by size and funct ion. McCorkle •sJavea bouse . The McCork le •sJave• structure is a 1 1/2 story single pen V-notched Jog bu ilding measuring 17 feet 7 Inches by 15 feet 9 Inches . It ls located in Greene County ln East Tennessee . Based on the limestone firep l ace base at one gable end, it was most like ly a dwel ling. An Informant suggested that it was or lglnaJ Jy a sl ave house . Opposite the ch imney is a window . There are two doors. The floor is wood , and the roof is tln. The structure was bu i lt on a continuous limestone foundat ion. Table 3.1 presents the frequencies and sizes of nai ls by funct ion. McCul Jomsmokehouse . The McCul lom smokehouse ls a singl e story V-notched log structure measur ing 12 feet by 14 feet 7 Inches , standing wlthln a cluster of outbuil dings at the McCul lom farm In Blount County , Tennessee . An informant who lived and worked on the McCul lom farm remembers the structure used ln the 1930s to smoke pork . It is currently used for general storage . The structure Is set on limestone piers. The 31 roof ls cant ilevered and covered wlth tln, and a door ls set lnto a gable end. There are no windows and the floor is earth . The intersti ces between the logs are not ch i nked, but rather boards have been nailed on to cover the spaces . The door of the structure ls board and batten . Or iginal ly the boards had been fastened to the battens by pegs , bu t later battens were nai led. The gab les are sided wl th clapboarding. The structure contains a total of 1059 nal ls in sizes ranging from 1.75 to 3.0 Inches <5d - 10d> Table 3.1: Nal ls from the Log Bu ildings Ramsey McCork le McCullom Nai l Length Function N N N In Inches ------flooring 0 360 0 3.0 <10d) siding * 118 264 479 2.5 <8d> roof ing 3840 225 118 1.5 C4d) light framing 208 128 216 2.0 (6d) heavy framing 323 218 210 3.0+ <10d+ ) trim 0 0 36 2.5 <8d> ------TOTALS 4489 1195 1059 *includes nails used to at tach boards covering spaces between logs on the McCul lom log house Timber Frame Structures In timber frame structures , large timbers are Inter l ocked by mortise and tenon Joinery to form a framework that supports the roof and Is covered by wood sldlng. Such construct ion requ ires a supp ly of nai ls for 32 wood siding, roof ing, windows , doors, Interior woodwork, and floors . Even wi th this type of construct ion, nai ls can be repl aced with wooden pegs. Braced frame technol ogy is a form of timber framing common ln the 19th century . In a braced frame structure , heavy framing is done wlth mortise and tenon Joinery, and some light framing is attached with nai ls McCorkle •wash housea . The McCork le •wash house• ln Greene County , Tennessee , ls a timber frame structure measur ing 10 feet 4 Inches by 12 feet 2 inches . The siding is board and batten . It has a cant ilevered roof covered wi th tin. A door ls in the gable end, and there are three louvered windows . Table 3.2 shows the distr ibut ion of nai ls by funct ion and size . McCorkle •grain house• . The McCork le grain house Is an 18 by 20 foot timber frame bu ilding wi th board and batten sldlng, located next to the wash house on the McCork le farm ln Greene County, Tennessee . The roof ls a tin-covered cant ilevered structure. A door is set In a gable end, and there are three louvered windows , one In each of the other three sides. The floor ls wood and the Interior wa l ls are partial ly panel led wi th tongue- In-groove boards about half-way up the wa l ls from the floor . Table 3.2 presents a breakdown of nal l lengths by function. 33 Table 3.2: Nal ls from the Timber Frame Structures floor ing * 924 3.0 (10d) siding 740 1266 2.5 (8d> roof ing 240 408 L 7 TOTALS 1474 3569 *undetermined number of floor ing nai ls for the McCork le wash house and Inside panel l ing In the gra in house Bal loon Frame Structures In the bal loon frame , mortise and tenon Joinery Is rep l aced with the use of nai ls at the Joints. Instead of heavy posts and beams , corner posts and somet imes plates and si lls are bu ilt-up 2x4s 1984:1 36-137J McAlester and McAlester 1984 : 36-37> . It was est imated In 1869 that a bal loon frame could be constructed for •forty percent less money than mortise and tenon frame• Tryan smokehouse . The Truan smokehouse ls a 12 feet 3 Inches by 14 feet 2 Inches bal loon frame structure with vertical sldlng and a concrete floor . It Is located ln northeast Knox Coun ty , Tennessee . The structure ls a story-and-a-half, with the main floor and loft currently be ing used for general storage . An Informan t wh o grew up and st i ll lives on the farm remembers Its use as a smokehouse . A wash house was bu ilt onto the back , and a woodshed was bu ilt onto one side. The door to the smokehouse 34 Is In a gable end. and the entrance to the loft ls above the door . requiring a ladder to ga in entrance . The roof is tin. bu t was orlglnal ly covered wl th wood shakes. Table 3.3 sh ows the nal l pennyweights by funct ion. Truan wash house . The Truan wash house is a single story frame structure measur ing 13 feet by 12 feet 3 Inches. It has a wood floor . two doors . and two windows . The roof ls tln. The bu ilding Is slded wlth vert ical boards . A furnace for heat ing water occup ies a corner of the bu ilding. It was bu ilt about 20 years af ter the Truan smokehouse and shares a wa ll with the smokehouse . Table 3.3 shows the number of nai ls for each function for the Truan wash house . Brabson smokehouse . The Brabson smokehouse . located in Sevier County, Tennessee . Is a 1 1/2 story frame bu ilding measur ing 16 feet 4 inches by 20 feet 2 inches . It has a cant ilevered tin roof and a dirt floor . There are no windows and a door is in the gable end . The bu ilding ls clapboarded. Table 3.3 shows the frequenc ies of nails by thelr functi ons for the Brabson smokehouse . Table 3.4 presents a summary of the percentages of nai l lengths for each of the structures surveyed . 35 Table 3.3: Nal ls from the Ba l loon Frame Structures Truan Truan Brabson smokehouse wash smokehouse Na il Length Function N N N in Inches floor ing 0 252 0 siding 811 434 1392 3.0 <10d> roof ing 162 130 684 1.7 (5d) light framing 144 112 374 2.5 <8d> heavy framing 483 40 1 673 3.0+ <10d+) trim 0 0 60 2.5 (8d) ------TOTALS 1600 1329 3183 As seen ln Table 3.4, the frequencies of nal l·sizes for the bu ildings show a great deal of variabi lity. No signature patterns are immediately apparent. The reasons are that the structures are var ious sizes and have different features. Same had floors, some did not . One has a shake roof , the rest have tln roofs. Some sldlng nai ls are 2.5 inches, some 3.0 Inches. Some floors have 10 inch floor boards , some 4 inch floor boards . Wh ile each of the bu ildi ngs is unique , some share common features like siding, roof ing, and floor ing. Mode ls One maJ or factor contribut ing to the var iabi lity of pennyweight frequencies Is bu ilding size. Resolution of th is problem comes through generat ing simulation mode ls so that size can be control led. To do th is, frequencies of nai l lengths were converted to number of nai ls of each functional category per square foot 36 est imates can be made of the number of nail functi ons and lengths for any slze bu l ldlng, and log, timber frame , and bal loon frame structures can be compared. Table 3.4: Summary of Percentages of Na l l Lengths From Al l Bu ildings Surveyed Nai l lengths In Inches Structure 1.5- 1 . 7 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.0+ ------Ramsey Clog) 85 .5 4.6 2.6 7.2 McCork le Clog> 18.8 10.7 22 .1 30 .1 18.2 McCul lom Clog) 11 .1 20 .4 3.4 65 .1 McCork le Ctlmber> 16.3 73 .0 10 .7 McCork le Ctlmber> 11.4 58 .1 25 .8 4.6 Truan (frame> 10.1 9.0 50 .7 30 .2 Truan (frame> 9.8 8.4 51 .6 30 .1 Brabson (frame> 21 .5 57.4 21 .1 With these data, mode ls have been constructed to simulate structures of dif ferent construction types measur ing 16X16 feet , wlth vary ing roof type. Sixteen by sixteen feet is a common pen size and ls used for compari son of archaeological data from two sites wh ich had structures of this size . Figures 3. 1 through 3.3 present a ser ies of charts, or mode ls, for log, timber frame , and bal loon frame structures with tin and shake roof ing. Floor board widths were held constant at 10 Inches. 16x16 Log Wood Floor Percent 100 82.4 80 eo 40 29.7 23.8 19.8 20 6.7 4.8 0 1 2 3 4 Nail Length Category g Shake Roof tgH:lJTin Roof Key : Nai l length category 1 =roof ing Nail length category 2 =siding and light framing Nail length category 3 = floor ing Nail length category 4 =heavy frami ng Figure 3.1: Mode l for a 16x16 Foot Log Structure wlth Shake or Tln Roof 16x16 Timber Frame Wood Floor Percent 100 80 60 40 20 6.4 2 0 1 2 3 4 Nail Length Category B Shake Roof EElTin Roof Key: Nail length category 1 =roof ing Nall length category 2 = siding and tigh t framing Nall length category 3 = floor ing Nai l length category 4 =heavy framing Figure 3.2: Hode l for a 16x16 Foot Timber Frame Structure wi th Shake or Tin Roof 39 16x16 Balloon Frame Wo od Floor Percent 100 .------� 80 �-�fi -· ·----·------·------� eot-1- --�------i 1 2 3 4 Nail Length Category B Shake Roof f!:?::::.:::l Tin Roof Key : Nail length category 1 =roof ing Nai l length category 2 = siding and light framing Nail length category 3 = flooring Nail length category 4 =heavy frami ng Figure 3.3: Mode l for a 16x16 Foot Ba l loon Frame Structure with Shake or Tln Roof 40 Table 3.5: Conversions to Nal ls Per Square Foot For Each Functional Category For Eight Bu ildi ngs Surveyed ------Extant Structures category 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ------floor ing 0 1.3 0 2.6 0 1.6 0 sldlng 2.6 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.3 roof ing .8 .8 1.1 .9 .8 .8 1.7 It frame .8 .5 .9 1.0 .9 .7 .7 .9 hvy frame .4 .2 .3 .2 .1 .7 .6 .5 ------ Ex tant structure 1 = Ramsey Jog 2 = McCork le Jog 3 = McCu llom log 4 = McCork le timber frame wash house 5 = McCorkle timber frame grain house 6 = Truan frame smokehouse 7 = Truan frame wash house 8 = Brabson frame These mode ls predict how an archaeological nai l assemblage shou ld look , given certain parameters , and can be used to Interpret archaeological nai l assemb lages . The accuracy of the mode ls depends upon the assumption that al l nai ls from a structure have an equal chance of enter ing the archaeological record. At this point ln the research , because of the sma ll sample size . stat ist ical ly significant dif ferences or simi larities are Inappropr iate. Instead, the closest fit between a mode l and the archaeological assemblage Is used to predict the type of bu ilding that stood at a site. When a larger sample of ou tbuildings ls examined and a larger data base with which to construct mode ls is avai lable, then stat istical test ing would be warranted. 41 Judi th McKel lar, ci ted In Sch iffer <1976>, South <1979>, and RathJe and Schiffer (1980), proposed that sma ll obJ ects, under three or four Inches ln overall dimension, are most like ly to rema in beh ind as primary refuse to thls phenomenon as the McKel l ar hypothesis. Th is cu l tural sort ing may be at work on a nal l assemb lage at the site of a razed structure . Large nai ls, greater than 3 inches <10d> may be transported from the site of a structure In two ways : first , since very large nai ls are extremely difficult to remove from wood , they cou ld be transported from the slte In wood discarded elsewhere nai ls not in wood are more visible, and may be removed during clean-up activities at the site of a razed structure . The frequencies of large nai ls used for heavy framing are most Important when trying to distinguish ba l loon frame from timber frame structures. For the purposes of these models, it is assumed that the •McKel lar prlncipte• works equal ly on an assemb lage from timber frame and ba lloon frame structure sites so that their frequencies relative to each other remain constant . However , no adJustment can be made to the mode ls until more data are avai lable concerning the relative frequency In wh ich large nai ls (greater than 10d> are transported from a structure si te as compared to sma ll nai ls. 42 Archaeological Sites Garner Si te The Garner site Is located In Blount County, Tennessee . The site consists of a standing farm house , var i ous standing ou tbui ldings , cisterns, and the archaeological remains of at least one ou tbuilding. Ear ly in 1990 , the area of an ou tbuilding located beh ind the house was tested by open ing 70 1x1 foot test un its spaced every three feet . Six pier supports, and the base of a br ick firep l ace were located In the testing . An early 20 th century photograph shows that the structure was a double-pen bu ilding wi th two doors and a wood shake roof . The bu ilding was sided with board and batten . A tln roof later rep l aced the wood shake roof . From the spac ing of the pier supports, each pen measured approx imately 16X16 feet . A total of 175 comp lete nai ls was recovered In the test ing Many of the nails measuring 1.75 Inches <5d> st ilt had lead seals on the heads , Indicat ing their use as tln roof ing nails. Wi th this In mind, the assemblage was divided Into roof ing, sidi ng and light framing, floor ing, and heavy framing nai ls, as seen In Figure 3.4. The closest flt between a mode l and the archaeological assemblage Is computed by summ ing the dif ferences of each category 43 Table 3.6: Na l ls from the Garner Site Outbuilding Nail Length N 1.25 (3d) 4 2.3 1.50 (4d> 4 2.3 1.75 <5d> 25 14.3 2.00 <6d) 40 22 .9 2.25 <7d> 2 1.1 2.50 TOTAL 175 The largest di fference between the mode l and the Garner assemb lage is In the nai l length category of heavy frame . Th is leaves some doubt as to whether the structure was timber or bal loon frame . The samp le size 44 Garner Wood Floor Percent 60 60 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 Nail Length Category B Nail Frequency Key : Nai l length category 1 =roof ing Na i l length category 2 = siding and light framing Nail length category 3 = floor ing Nai l length category 4 = heavy framing Figure 3.4: Distribution of Nal ls In Length Categor ies for the Garner Assemblage 45 Timber Frame vs. Garner Wo od Floor Percent 80 60 <40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 Nail Length Category B Timber Frame IZilllGarner Tin Roof Key : Nail length category 1 =roof ing Nai l length category 2 = siding and ligh t framing Nail length category 3 = floor ing Nail length category 4 =heavy framing Figure 3.5: Dlstrlbutlon of Nal ls In Length Categor ies for the Garner Assemb lage Compared wi th Dlstrlbutlon for a Timber Frame Mode l 46 Table 3.7: Frequencies of Garner Na l ls In Functional Categor ies Compared to Log , Timber , and Ba l loon Frame Mode ls ------Garner Log Timber Bal loon Category N % % D % D % D ------1 29 16.6 26 .7 10.1 18.7 2.1 19.0 2.4 2 94 53 .7 23 .8 29.9 54 .2 0.5 46 .4 7.3 3 30 17.1 29 .7 12.6 20 .8 3.7 21 .1 4.0 4 18 10 .3 19.8 9.5 6.4 3.9 13.5 3.2 Totals 62 .1 10.2 16.9 Category 1 = roof ing Category 2 = siding and light framing Category 3 = floor ing Category 4 = heavy framing Locust Grove Locust Grove is a late 18th century plantat ion/farm site located near Louisvil le, Kentucky . In 1987 , the si te of a structure was excavated, reveal ing a conti nuous limestone foundat ion measur ing about 16 by 16 feet , and a hearth and firep l ace base . A late 18th or early 19th century construction date has been proposed CYoung 1988) . A total of 645 complete nai ls was recovered in the excavat ions. Table 3.8 shows the frequencies of the dif ferent nai l lengths and Table 3.9 shows the frequencies of roof ing, light framing and siding, floor ing, and heavy framing nai ls. Th is does not seem to compare we ll with any of the mode ls 47 Table 3.8: Nal ls from Locust Grove Cab in Nai l Length N 1.00 <2d) 13 2.0 1.25 (3d) 71 11 .0 1.50 (4d) 206 31 .9 1.75 <5d) 105 16.3 2.00 (6d) 42 6.5 2.25 (7d> 33 5.1 2.50 (8d) 31 4.8 2.75 (9d) 58 9.0 3.00 <10d) 32 5.0 3.25 <12d) 38 6.0 3.50 (16d) 7 1.1 >3.50 (16d+ ) 9 1.4 TOTAL 645 Table 3.9: Frequencies of Locust Grove Nal ls in Funct ional Categor ies Category Length range N roof ing 1.50-1.75 382 59.0 siding & light framing 2.00-2.50 106 16.4 floor ing 2.75-3.00 90 13.9 heavy framing 3.25+ 54 8.3 48 devel op ed, possibly because of the overwhe lming number of roof ing nai ls. If roof ing nai ls are removed, the Locust Grove sample shows the least difference with the log model . It appears , then , that a log structure wi th a shake roof Is the closest fit for the Locust Grove nai l assemblage Conclusions Wh ile prel iminary , this research has shown that it is possible for researchers to identify Jog, timber frame , and bal loon frame structures from archaeological nai l assemb lages . The mode ls are extremely simple, and have been bu i lt from a data base of the most simple structures that could be located, ou tbui l dings and single pen dwe l lings . Al l possible permutations, such as a clapboarded Jog structure , have not been considered here . More data are necessary before more comp lex Binford <1983> has stated that archaeologists need to train themse lves to pay attention to the ways In wh ich behav ior modifies material surroundings. In historical archaeology , there are numerous opportunities to do this, so that It shou ld be possible to accurately Interpret the historical archaeological record. Thus far, historical archaeologists have re lied too heavily upon using documents as anal ogue mode ls for interpret ing past behav ior. It Is necessary to study more direct linkages between the obJ ects found In the archaeological record and the various behav iors and circumstances that resulted ln the manufacture , modi ficat ion, and eventual disposa l of those obJects. 49 Log vs Locust Grove Wood Floor Percent 50 �------. 42.4 · 40 �------ 30 -+------ 10 +------ 0 -'-----,....------" 2 3 Nail Length Category � B Locust Grove � Log No Roof Key : Nall length category 1 =roof ing Nal l length category 2 = sldlng and light framing Nai l length category 3 = floor ing Nai l length category 4 = heavy framing Figure 3.6: Distribution of Nal ls ln Length Categor ies for the Locust Grove Assemblage Compared wi th Distribution for a Log Structure Mode l 50 CHAPTER IV RECYCLING AND DISCARDING BEHAV IOR Introduction Th is chapter Introduces a way middl e-range research , specifical ly experiments and ethnoarchaeology , can be used ln historical archaeol ogy to Identify how a nail assemblage Is transformed and patterned as nai ls are bent when a structure is dismant led to recycle wood and when a structure Is torn down and materials discarded. The exper iments and ethnoarchaeological nai l assemb lages descr ibed here focus on Ident ifying the pattern produced when a structure Is torn down to recyc le the wood . The purpose of the experiment Is simple: to de termi ne what effect nai l length (pennyweight ), the method used to remove the nai ls, and board thi ckness have on how nai ls are altered dur ing the raz ing of a structure . Ethnoarchaeologlcal assemb lages are then used to Identify recycl ing and discard patterns In archaeological nai l assemb lages. Me thods Vernacu lar carpenters were emp l oyed to bu ild and tear down a simulated section of a simple outbui lding In order to adequately represent construction and raz ing activit ies. A four by four foot structural frame was bu i lt of 2x4 Inch pine, with 2x4s placed on 16 Inch centers to represent wa ll studs or floor Joists. 51 Fo� the fl�st part of the exper iment , 1x8 Inch pine boards were placed on the f�ame perpendicular to the studs . Slx penny common wl�e nai ls we�e used to fasten the boards to the frame . Then using a crowbar , boards were loosened and final ly removed f�om the frame . Some na ils were straightened and dr iven back through the wood and removed, wh ile others were pu l led direct ly from the frame and board structure with a claw hamme� . The experiment was then repeated, first using eight and then ten penny nai ls. The second exper iment fastened one-half by slx inch beve led pine siding and beve led cedar siding of the same size, first with six penny , then with eight penny nai ls. As in the first experiment, a crowbar and claw hammer were used to remove the siding and/or nai ls. Ten penny nai ls were not used on the sidi ng since the eight penny nai ls tended to sp l it the wood . Generally the pu l led na ils were bent in single gentle arcs, al though a few s-shaped Other na ils were left visibl y unal tered. A method was dev i sed to measure how much each nai l was bent, so that the effects of nai l length, board thi ckness , and pu l ling method on altering a nail could be determined (pull ing method be ing either the board was removed from the frame and nai ls hammered out the back or a claw hammer was used to pu ll the nails direct ly from the structure >. It was decided that 52 measur ing the max imum height of the curve of bent nai ls adequately represents the degree of al teration. In cases of s-shaped curves , both curve heights were added together . The experiments were designed to test two hypotheses. First , It was hypothesized that the shorter six penny nai ls wou ld be less al tered than longer eight and ten penny na i ls and that this effect would be exaggerated with th icker wood . It was also hypothesized that the method of pu l ling wou ld have a slgnlflcant effect on nai l alterat ion, with pu lling boards from the structure then remov ing nai ls from boards simulating recycling behav ior, and pu l ling nai ls direct ly from the structure close ly approximat ing discard behav ior. Compar i sons of raw means and a two-factor ial analysis of variance were emp loyed to de termine if the amount of al terat ion of the nai ls (curve height) Is a function of nai l length , board th i ckness , and method of pu lling. So for each nail, max imum curve height, pennywe ight , board th ickness , and pu l ling techn i que were recorded, with a total samp le size of 143 nai ls. Analysis and Results Table 4.1 presents the means , minimum , and max imum heights of curves , and standard dev iations for slx, eight, and ten penny nai ls. It Is obvious that the longer nai ls were bent more severely than the shorter six penny nai ls. Al l pairwise compar isons further support that there are significant differences In curve height at the .05 leve l between the three nai l sizes. Tabl e 4.2 shows the mean height 53 of the cu�ves fo� one Inch and half inch thick wood . along with the ranges and standard dev iat ions. A T-test also shows these to be significantly diffe�ent at alpha = .05. These tests are taken as support for the fi�st hypothesis that pennywe ight and board thi ckness have an effect on nai l al teration. Final ly, Table 4.3 displays the means , ranges, and standa�d deviations fo� the two pu lling techn iques. Th is appea�s to suggest that how the nai ls were pu lled does affect the amount of nai l al terat ion. A two-way ana lysis of var i ance was used to test the effect of nai l length and boa�d thi ckness . Table 4.4 shows that pennyweight, and the combination of pennywe ight and board thi ckness significan tly affect how nai ls a�e bent . Th is Is shown by the F stat ist ic and low probabi l ity val ues (p = .0143, p = .0293> Table 4.1: Mean Heights for Slx, Eight , and Ten Penny Nal ls Pennywe ight N Mean He ight Min Max Standard Dev iat ion 6d 48 0.8 0 6.1 1.497 8d 64 1.7 0 6.3 1.438 10d 31 2.4 0 8.2 1.672 54 Table 4.2: Mean Curve He ights for 1/2 and 1 Inch Board Th i ckness Th i ckness N Mean He ight Min Max Standard Dev iation 1/2 64 1.1 0 6.2 1.407 1 79 1.9 0 8.2 1.677 Table 4.3: Mean Curve He ights for Pu l ling Method Method N Mean He ight Min Max Standard Dev iation board 48 0.9 0 6.1 1.592 na il 95 1.9 0 8.2 1.536 55 standard dev iat ion and range for six penny nai ls board th i ckness of one-ha lf lnch . Most of these nai ls, 21 out of 32 , exh ibited no bending at al l, as contrasted with the ten penny nai ls where on ly three out of 31 nai ls were left unal tered dur ing raz ing of the simulated structure . Table 4.4: General Linear Mode ls Procedures ------Dependent Variable: HT Source df Sum of Squares Mean Squares Mode l 4 63 . 2379 15.8095 Error 138 304.7729 2.2085 Total 142 368.0109 Mode l F = 7.14 PR > F = .0001 R-Square c.v. Root MSE HT Mean .1718 95 .0414 1.4861 1.5636 Source df Type III SS F value p > F LEN 2 19.3603 4.38 .0143 THK 1 7.0560 3.19 .0771 LEN*THK 1 10.7123 4.85 .0293 Ethnoarchaeol oglcal Samples Dur ing the experiments, nai ls pu lled by remov ing boards from the structure frame were hammered from the back of the wood . If nai ls were bent after boards removed, then the nai ls were straightened 56 Table 4.5: Mean Heights for Pennywe ight by Board Th i ckness ------LEN THK N Mean He ight Min Max Standard Dev iation ------6d 1/2 32 0.4 0 3.1 0.836 6d 1 16 1.6 0 6. 1 2. 146 8d 1/2 32 1.8 0 6.2 1.545 8d 1 32 1.7 0 6.3 1.346 10d 1 31 2.4 0 8.2 1.673 before be ing hammered out the back . When the exper imental structure was torn down to recyc le thewood , more care was taken In remov ing boards from the structural frame . The vernacu lar carpenter pu l led nai ls directly from the structure dur ing raz ing to discard the materials. With adequate samples with comparab le ranges of nai l sizes, each of these two methods of remov ing na ils shou ld result In distinct , identifiable patterns. Two ethnoarchaeoJoglcaJ assemblages from known contexts are used to illustrate how nai ls from sites where wood was recycled differ from nai ls from sites where a structure was torn down and materials discarded. The first assemblage ls from the Garner site In Blount County, Tennessee. The area of an outbui lding constructed around 1905 and torn down In the 1960s was tested. When the structure was dismantled, the wood was recyc led to bu ild a ch i cken house . From this outbuilding site, a total of 195 complete nai ls was col lected. Of these , 186 were In adequate shape to measure al terat ion. For each of these nai ls, length and curve he ight were recorded. 57 The second archaeological assemb lage Is from the Gibbs House site located In Knox County , Tennessee. The area beneath the front porch was systemat ical ly surface co l lected. The porch has been rebui lt twice , and both times the wood was discarded. A total of 283 complete anal yzable nai ls was recovered from beneath the porch . For each , nai l length and curve height were recorded. Since the experiments show that nai l length affects curve height, adJusted alterat ion was computed by dlvldlng curve height by nai l length for both ethnoarchaeologlcal assemb lages. Table 4.6 shows the dlstrlbulton of nai ls In the adJ usted curve height categor ies from the two sites. A Kol mogorov-Smlrnov test shows that the two assemblages are significantly di f ferent Na l ls from structures torn down to recyc le wood exhibit a pattern which Is dif ferent than nai ls from structures that were destroyed and the materials discarded. Both ethnoarchaeologlcal sites yielded a relatively large samp le of na ils, residues which exhlblt patterns wh ich resulted from radical ly di f ferent act ivities. 58 Table 4.6: Dlstrlbutlon of Na l ls ln AdJusted Curve He ight Categor ies for the Recyc led and Discard Sites ------AdJ usted Recyc led Discarded Curve He ight f cum f cum D ------0 81 .435 45 .159 .276 .01- .05 56 .736 76 .428 .308 .06-.10 28 .887 74 .689 .198 .11-.15 13 .957 62 .908 .049 .16-.20 6 .989 26 1.0 -.011 .21-.25 2 1.0 0 186 283 alpha = .05 D = .1284 Conc lusions The exper iments and the examinat ion of archaeological and ethnoarchaeol ogi cal assemb lages were de signed to answer quest ions concern ing the format ion of the archaeological record with respect to nai ls. Addi tional ly, It has been documented that such middl e-range studies in hlstor lcal archaeol ogy are both possible and product ive. Careful analyses of nai l assemblages can yield Important informat ion concern ing act ivities wh ich took place on a site. This study has shown that a particular pattern in nai l assemblages wl ll result from situat ions where structures were torn down In order to reuse the wood and/or nai ls to bu ild other structures, and that one must carefully consider the factor of nai l length when analyzing nai l alteration. Th is study Is a step in understanding the formation 59 processes affecting a nai l assemb lage , and ldent lflng the ac t ivities that produce part icular nai l patterns . Al l factors affect ing nai l assemb lages have not been considered here . Further exper imental and ethnoarchaeologlcal work Is necessary before we can nai l down the pattern , and br ing historical archaeol ogy to the forefront of theory bu ilding. 60 ��� v TWO ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXAMPLES : THE GIBBS HOUSE SITE AND THE OLI VER SITE Introduction Using the methods deve l oped ln this research , two archaeological nai l assemb lages are ana l yzed and interpreted. The first assembl age ls from the Gibbs House site, and the second ls from the Ol iver site. Both si tes are located in Knox County , Tennessee and both date to the early 20 th century addressed through the nai l analysis. First , the si tes are identified as either the remains of structures or dumps. Second, if the rema ins are from structures, the type of structure (Jog, timber frame , or frame> ls Ident ified. Final ly, what happened to the structure , whether the wood was recycled when the bu ilding was razed, Is Invest igated. The Gibbs House Site The Gibbs House site <40KN124> is located In northeast Knox County , Tennessee. Currently, the Nicholas Gibbs Historical Society owns and maintains the property. The tract was first settled by Nicholas Gibbs According to fami ly tradi tion, he bu ilt a log house on the site abou t 1792 . Th is date is supported by the archaeol ogy and the arch itectural study . Th is Jog house still stands on the property . A frame pen was added on the east side of the Jog house at a fairly early date and a 61 kitchen ell was added around the middl e of the 19th century . The kitchen el l and frame pen were torn down in 1959 and new rooms added. On ly one outbuilding Is extant ; however , th is bu ilding has been moved from its or iginal locat ion that Is currently used as a storage shed. The Gibbs descendan ts be l ieve that this structure ls the or iginal Jog smokehouse bu ilt by Nichol as Gibbs. The Gibbs farm remained In the fami ly until 1971 . Mrs. Ethel Gibbs Brown , a descendant of Nicholas Gibbs , was born on the property and lived there unti l she was nine years ol d. She drew a map of the property as she remembered it from her ch ildhood is th is map , and informat ion from other 20 th century residents of the property that has hel ped to direct the test ing strategy of the Gibbs si te house lot. The Un iversity of Tennessee has conducted four seasons of test excavat ions at the Gibbs House site in 1987 , 1988 , 1989 and 1990 . Th is research has been carr ied ou t under the direction of Dr . Char les H. Fau lkner. A maJor focus in the research was to locate and identify the outbui l dings and house lot act ivity areas associated wi th the early log dwe lling In 1989 , 15 3 by 3 foot test un its were excavated In the area reported to have been the locat ion of the or iginal log smokehouse bu i lt by Nicholas Gibbs, and a later frame smokehouse bu ilt by John Gibbs around 1900 62 lenses with heavy concentrations of cinders and ashes, indicat ing that dump ing took place in the area . Add i tional ly, two large limestone blocks for the frame smokehouse . Very heavy concentrat ions of coal and cinders were found ln the units west of the footers ln a gu l ly cut by an early path , and in a depression tested as the locat ion of a structure , but evidence also suggests that the area was used as a dump . Nai l Analysis and Results From the 15 test units, a total of 680 nails ident ifiable as to length and al terat ion state 63 AREA D GIBBS HOUSE SITE 35 GRID NORTH Feature 16 t 8 teet 28 38 25 29 n=l6 e = pier stones 32 27 n=l3 34 37 Figure 5.1: Distribution of Nalls ln Un its ln Area D at the Gibbs House Site 64 Of the comp lete nai ls ident ified as to alteration state, 330 are pul led, 222 are unal tered, and 128 are cl inched. Tables 5.1 and 5.2 compare the Gibbs nai ls to nal ls from bu lldlng and dump sites. As the tables show , nai ls from the 1989 field season test units at the Gibbs House site were most likely deposited dur ing the construct ion and raz ing of a bu lldlng, as we ll as dur ing some dump ing wi th coa l and cinders around the structure . The area around the early path became a receptac le for refuse , especial lY coal and cinders obv iously used to dispose of refuse was a depression to the north of the excavat ion block ln the areas of un its 26 and 31 . Nal ls from the un its wi th the path and the feature 38> , as wel l as nai ls from un lt 35 , to the north of the block of units, were removed from the sample, as these nai ls were most likel y deposited both du ring construct ion and raz ing of the structure and dur ing dump ing around the structure . The remainder of the nai ls, lnslde the area of the pler supports, was analyzed to Identify what kind of structure occup ied the area . Informant data suggest that both smokehouses been bu ilt over the site of the earl ier log smokehouse after the log structure was moved circa 1900 . The pauc ity of cut and handwrought nai ls Mode ls showing the frequenc ies of nai l lengths were generated for 9 by 9 foot structures approx imately 7 feet hlgh. The dimensions are 65 Table 5.1: Gibbs Nal ls versus Construction Sites ------u p c ------l ------(85.3) (118.8> (49.2)1 Construction sites 98 116 33 I 247 ------l ------(234.7) (327.2) <118 .1)1 Gibbs assemb lage 222 330 128 I 680 ------1 ------totals 320 446 161 I 927 ch i square = �.7826 df = 2 p = .0555 Table 5.2: Gibbs Nal ls versus Dump Sites u p c ------l ------<148 . 1) <367.6) (126 .3)1 Dump sites 83 127 132 I 642 ------l ------(156 .9) <389.4) (133 .7) 1 Gibbs assemblage 222 330 128 I 680 ------1 ------totals 305 757 260 I 1322 ch i square = 74 . 7864 df = 2 p < .0001 66 based on Informat ion from a former resident of the Gibbs house . These mode ls are then compared to the nai ls from the excavat ion units. Figure 5.2 displays the frequencies in the four nai l-length groups for the Gibbs nai ls and for 9 by 9 foot timber frame and bal loon frame mode ls wlth tin roofs The final quest ion concern ing the Gibbs structure Is If the wood from the bu ilding was Intended to be recyc led after the bu ilding was dismantled. To do this, the complete nai ls 233 complete unal tered and pu lled nai ls was recovered from un its 25 , 27 , 29 , 32 , 34 , 36 , 37 , and 39 . The max imum height of the curve of these nai ls was recorded. Because nai l length affects al teration, al teration was converted to curve height divided by nai l length . Table 5.3 shows the percentages of nai ls In the di f ferent adJusted curve height categor ies for the Gibbs assemblage and for the recycled ethnoarchaeologlcal assemb lage . A Kol mogorov-Smlrnov test shows that the two assemb lages are not from di f ferent popu lations 67 Gibbs Structure vs Models Wood Floor Percent 70 .------� eo 1------, 50 1------, 40 1------i 30 1------i 20 10 0 2 3 Nail Length Category - Glbba R Timber Frame wWHBalloon Frame Tin Roof Key : Nail length category 1 =roof ing Na i l length category 2 = siding and ligh t framing Nai l length category 3 = floor ing Nai l length category 4 =heavy frami ng Figure 5.2: Frequenc ies of Nai l Lengths from the Glbbs House Na lls Compared wi th Al l Mode ls 66 Table 5.3: Frequencies of Nal ls ln AdJusted Curve He ight Categor ies for the Gibbs Assemb lage and for a Recycled Assemb lage AdJusted Recycled Gibbs CUrve Height f cum f cum D 0 81 .435 104 .446 -.001 .01-.05 56 .735 34 . 592 .144 .06-.10 28 .887 37 .751 . 136 .11-.15 13 .957 22 .845 .112 .16-.20 6 .989 25 .952 .037 .21 - .25 2 1.0 10 . 995 .005 .26+ 0 1.0 1 1.0 186 233 D = .1337 not significant at alpha = .01 marginal ly significant at alpha = .05 The Ol iver Si te The Ol iver site C40KN103> Is located ln southern Knox County, Tennessee . A house mound containing rubble from a ch imney fal l was excavated In 1989 and 1990 as part of the Tennessee Department of Transportation Pe lllsslppl Parkway proJect . According to historical documents and Interv iews with Informants, the Ol iver site represents the remains of a tenant house bu ilt around the turn of the century . It was described as be ing a hal l -and-par lor type house with board and batten weatherboarding and a central ch imney . The structure was probably razed ln the 1930s. 69 Nai l Analysis and Results A total of 25 one by one me ter and one 1/2 by 1 meter test units excavated in the house mound in 5 centimete� levels yielded 611 nai ls and nai l f�agments. No In situ pier supports we�e found. The exact size of the structu�e is undete�mlned. A nea�by extant tenant house , measu�lng app�ox imately 30x9 feet Is used as a mode l for the dimensi ons of the Ol iver structu�e because of the appa�ent simi la�ity of this st�uctu�e and the desc� iptlons of the Ol ive� house . A total of 372 <95.6%> of the comp lete nai ls a�e wire , 16 <4.1%> a�e cut , and one ls unidentified. Of the na i l f�agments, 131 (59%> a�e wl�e. 21 (9.5%> a�e cut, and 70 <31 .5%> a�e unidentified f�agments. None of the cut nai ls exh ibited squeez ing of the shank be low the head indicat ive of ea�ly mach ine-headed nai ls. Al l of these nai ls fit well within the date �ange of circa 1900 to 1940 . The si te is clea� ly Identified as the �emains of a st�uctu�e . and the f�equenc les of unal te�ed, pu l led, and cl inched nai ls exhibit the patte�n assoc iated wi th const�uctlon act ivities. Table 5.4 compares the f�equenc ies of unal te�ed , pul led, and cl inched nai ls f�om Ol ive� wi th na i ls f�om const�uctlon si tes. A ch l squa�e test shows no slgnlflcant dlf fe�ence at alpha = .05 be tween the Ol iver nai ls and const�uctlon sample nai ls 70 Table 5.4: Frequenc ies of Unal tered , Pu lled (p) , and Cl inched ------u p c ------l ------Ol iver nai ls 164 169 55 I 388 ------1 ------Constructlon sites 98 116 33 247 ------262 285 88 635 ------chi square = .6971 df = 2 p = .7057 The most Interest ing quest ion concern ing the Ol iver nai l assemb lage Is the type of structure It might represent . Several Informan ts descr ibed the structure In de tai l, as they remembered it. The informants were able to descr ibe the placement of windows and doors, the type of weatherboarding, and addi tions . None were ab le to tel l if the structure was timber frame , bal loon frame , or log. The mode ls deve l oped In this study are not ab le to Identify spec ific architectural features such as number of windows and doors , or siding type , bu t can ident ify whether the structure was log or frame . Figure 5.3 shows the distribution of nail lengths for the Ol iver nails and for log, timber-frame , and ba l loon frame mode ls measuring 30 by 9 feet . Table 5.5 presents the Ol iver nai l and mode l nai l length frequenc ies for timber frame and ba l loon frame structures with tin roofs. The closest fit 71 Table 5.5: Frequencies in Functional Categor ies for Ol iver Nai l Assemb lage and Log, Timber Frame , and Ba l loon Frame Mode ls with Tln Roof ------timber bal loon 01 1 ver log frame frame function N % % % % ------roof ing 108 28 .4 22 .5 9.2 6.0 siding & light frame 175 46 .1 29 .2 70 .0 67.2 flooring 75 19.7 39.9 13.9 9.0 heavy frame 22 5.8 8.4 6.9 17.8 As seen ln Table 5.5, a great deal of dispar ity ex ists ln the category of roof ing nai ls <1.5 - 1.75 inches , 4d and 5d nai ls> . It ls likely that the Ol iver house had a shake roof wh ich was removed in large sections and carried away from the site either when a new roof was appl ied, or when the structure was dismantled. If this occurred , relatively few shake roof ing nai ls would enter the archaeological record at the site of the structure . Table 5.6 compares the Ol iver nails with mode ls without roof ing nai ls for timber frame and bal loon frame structures . Again, the timber frame mode l Is closest to the Ol iver assemb lage . From historical documents and Interviews , and from the ana lysts of the nai l assemblage , it appears that the Ol iver house was constructed around 1900 . From historical documents, what happened to the bu ilding after 1930 ls unclear . Analysis of the degree of alteration exh ibi ted by the Ol iver nai ls Indicates what happened to the structure . 72 Oliver vs Models Wood Floor Percent 80 70 60 60 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 Nail Length Category - Oliver B Log [t�:M Timber Frame B Balloon Frame Tin Roof Key : Na il length category 1 =roof ing Na il length category 2 =siding & light frame Nail length category 3 = floor ing Nail length category 4 =heavy frame Figure 5.3: Distribut ion of Nalls ln Length Categor ies of Ol iver Na lls and Log, Timber Frame , and Bal loon Frame Mode ls wl th Tin Roof 73 Table 5.6: Frequencies In Functional Categor ies for Ol iver Nai l Assemb lage and Timber Frame and Ba l loon Frame Models without Roof ing Nal ls timber bal loon Ol iver frame frame function N % % % sldlng & light frame 175 64 .3 77.9 70 .8 floor ing 75 27 .6 15.4 9.5 heavy frame 22 8.1 6.7 18.8 A large portion of the nal ls recovered from the excavation Is vlslbly unal tered Conc lusions Three quest ions concern ing nai l assemb lages from the Gibbs House slte and the Ol iver site have been addressed through the methods deve l oped ln th ls study . Nal ls from the 1989 test excavations at the Gibbs House site <40KN124) have been analyzed to ascertain wh ether the area tested was used as a dump or lf a structure stood at the location. The analysis of the nai ls clear ly shows that a frame type 74 Table 5.7: Frequencies of Na l ls In AdJusted Curve He ight Categor ies for the Ol iver Assemb lage and for a Recycled Assembl age AdJ usted Recyc led Ol iver Curve Height f c� f c� D ------0 81 .435 165 .495 -.006 .01-.05 56 .735 41 .618 .118 .06-.10 28 .887 65 .813 .074 .11-.15 13 .957 29 .900 .057 .16-.20 6 .989 23 .969 .020 .21-.25 2 1.0 10 1.0 186 333 D = .1245 not significant at alpha = .05 the excavat ion uni ts were depos ited when the structure was bu ilt and torn down , and dur ing dump ing act ivities that occurred around the structure . Nai l analysts also Indicates that when the structure was final ly dismantled, the wood was Intended to be recyc led. Additional ly, almost al l of the nai ls were wire nai ls dat ing after 1880 like ly, the or iginal log smokehouse did not sit In the locat ion of the 1989 test area. These flndlngs corroborate most of the informan ts' informat ion, i.e. that an early 20 th century structure occup ied the area , and support Faulkner's <1991b> conc lusions concern ing act ivities wh ich occurred In th ls tested area of the Gibbs houselot. The anal ysis of the nai ls recovered from the excavat ion uni ts at the Ol iver tenant house supports da ta from informants and from the 75 documenta�y �eco�d about house type and date and const�uctlon. In addi tion, based on the nai l analysis, lnfe�ences can be made about the �az lng act ivities which occu��ed at the site, and about the occupantslbu ilde�s of the Ol iver tenant house . The fact that a hal l -and-pa� lo� style tenant house appea�s to have been bu i lt wi th a combinat ion of Joinery techniques 1984:127) , vernacu la� a�ch ltectu�e was st ill practiced. Most likely, tenants who lived at the Ol ive� fa�m either aided in the construction o� const�ucted thel� own homes . Tlmbe� f�ame One posslblllty not researched here Is that the Ol iver tenant house was of •box • const�uctlon Morgan <1990 ) suggest that ba l loon frami ng did not ga in wide acceptance In �ural areas ln East Tennessee unt il after the Civi l War . Addi tional ly, Mo�gan <1990 > be lieves that in the 1890s- 1900 box construction became common for tenant houses . Box construction is flimsier than bal loon o� platform framing, and requl�es fewer heavy 76 structural nai ls since few or no wa l l studs are used. Unfortunately, because of the fllmsler construct ion, few box houses surv ive for study today . Th ls makes test ing whether the Ol iver assemblage represents the remains of a box house probl emat ic. At best , lt can be Inferred that the Ol iver house was not bal loon frame , but either timber frame or box construction. 77 CHAPTER VI CONCLUSIONS Until very recently, middle-range research has been general ly lack ing in histor ical archaeology 1990 ; Sanford 1991>. With middle-range research , progress can be made toward understanding and explaining the past . Binford has stated that he: was led to the inescapable conc lusion that there ex i sted no way to deve lop archaeological methods of inference , except via the study of contemporary liv ing peop les, or by control led exper iments under laboratory condit ions, or by do ing archaeol ogy In situat ions whose dynamic component is historical ly documented Methods devel oped in th is research used ethnoarchaeologlcal and exper imental data, along wi th observat ions made on standing structures, to Ident ify dynamics wh ich create and pattern archaeological na i l assemb lages . Arch itectura l mater ials such as br icks, mortar , window glass , and nai ls, often occur in very high frequenc ies on historical sites. For Instance , even In South's <1977 > Carol ina Artifact Pattern , arch itectural artifact frequenc ies range from about 12 to 35 percent of the total assemblage . Host research has been aimed at determining manufactur ing dates of artifacts ln th is group . Unfortunately, very little research has been carried out to reconstruct how these mater ials move through the ir systemic context and enter the archaeological record. 78 Three methods for analyzing archaeological nai l assemblages have been devel oped in this research . Two of the methods are designed to make it possible to Identify the three arch itectural act ivit ies: raz ing structures; recyc ling wood ; and discarding arch itectural materials. Another method al lows for reconstruct ing the kind of building archaeological site. These methods have been successfully emp l oyed to analyze and Interpret two archaeological nail assembl ages, one from the Gibbs House site <40KN124> and the other from the Ol iver site <40KN103> , both in Knox County , Tennessee . The first probl em addressed in thls research was to distinguish dump sites from sites of ephemeral structures, both of wh ich are characterized by high frequencies of nai ls. To do this, nai ls from ex isting dumps were col l ected and analyzed, and nai ls from known bu ilding sites were examined. The frequenc ies of unal tered, pu l led, and cl inched nai ls were compared between the two types of sites. Dump sites were found to be character ized by relatively lowpercen tages of unal tered nai ls and relatively high percentages of cl inched nai ls. Converse ly, bu lldlng sites were found to have high frequenc ies of unal tered nai ls and low frequencies of cl inched na i ls. The method of analysis is simple and does not require much time to perform. Us ing the method becomes probl emat ic wh en a site was used for both types of act ivities structure >. For the second me thod , nai ls of di f ferent funct i ons siding and ligh t framing, flooring, and heavy framing> were counted ln ·="' 79 standing log, timber frame , and bal loon frame structures. The di f ferent nai l functions corre late with nai l lengths. These data were used to generate mode l� where size of the structure, roof cover ing, and floor ing could be varied. It was found that log, timber frame , and bal loon frame structures of the same parameters each exhibit dist inctive patterns in proportions of nail lengths . The models, hav ing been devel oped with a sma l l data base consisting of eight standing structures, are coarse-grained and ln need of refinement . Nevertheless , they have proved moderate ly successful In reconstruct ing wh ether an archaeological nai l assemb lage represents a log, timber frame , or bal loon frame structure . The last method used data from ethnoarchaeologlcal sltes to ident ify patterning In nai l assemblages characteristic of structures torn down to recyc le wood or structures dismantled and mater ials discarded. Based on observations made dur ing experiments on a simu l ated portion of a structure be ing di smant led, it was thought that the amount of bending, or degree of alterat ion exh ibited by nai ls might help identify these patterns . First , exper iments were conducted to de termine what effect nail length has on degree of alterat ion. It \ was found that nai l length has a posi tive effect on nai l al terat ion. To compensate for this effect , nall alterat ion was measured by the height of the curve of a bent nai l, di vided by its length . Na lls from ethnoarchaeological si tes were co l lected and adJ usted al terat ion compared. Nal ls from si tes where bu ildi ngs were razed and wood recycled were altered dif ferent ly than nai ls from bu ild ing si tes where the structure was torn down and materials discarded. Since on ly eo complete nai ls were analyzed, future work might Include exper imental and ethnoarchaeological research to determine how frequently nai ls break when structures are dismantled In dif ferent ways. Most of the research presented here centered on wire nai ls and late 19th and 20th century structures, bu t previ ous research 1983) suggests that at least ear ly cut nai ls are more br ittle than later cut and wire nai ls. Consequently, more research Is necessary before the patterns of nail assemblages Identified here can be extended to Interpret early 19th century archaeological nai l assemb lages . The me thods presented here are effect ive for Interpreting archaeological assemb lage s that date later than circa 1830 . It has been demonstrated that middl e-range research can be an effect ive aid for interpreting historic site format ion processes . Strong Inferences can be made when developed and tested through exper imental archaeol ogy and ethnoarchaeology . Historic archaeologists must devote greater time to bu ilding middl e-range theory or answers to nauest i ons that CountD wi ll remain Just-so stor ies. 81 REFERENCES CITED REFERENCES CITED Anomymous 1888 Bui lders' Hardware . Ameri can Arch itect and Byll dlng tim§ 24 : 72-74 . Ba l l, Donald 1984 Historic Arti fact Pattern ing In the Oh io Val ley. Proceedings of the Symposium on Ohio Va lley Urban and Historic Archaeology 2:24-36 , Louisville, Kentucky . Binford, Lewis R. 1977 Historical Archaeology : Is It Historical or Archaeological? In Work ing at Archaeology, pp 169-178. Academic Press, New York. 1978 Nunarnlut Ethnoarchaeology. Academic Press, New York . 1980 Wi llow Smoke and Dogs' Tal is: Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems and Archaeological Site Format ion. american Ant lqyity 45 : 4-20 . 1981 Bones: Ancient Men and Modern Myths. Academic Press, New York . 1983 In Pursuit of the Past : Decoding the Archaeological Record . Thames and Hudson , London . 1989 Debat ing Archaeol ogy. Academic Press, San Diego. Breeden , James 0. , edi tor 1980 Adv ice Among Masters: The Ideal ln Slave Management In the Old Soyth . Greenwood Press , Westport , Connecticut . Cleland, Char les 1988 Questions of Substance , Quest ions that Count. Historical Archaeology 22 :13-17. Deagan , Kath leen A. 1988 Ne i ther History nor Preh istory : Quest ions that Count ln Historical Archaeo logy . Historical Archaeology 22 :7-12. Deetz , James 1977 I n 9ma ll Th ings Forgotten : The Archaeologyof Early Affier ican Life . Doub leday , Garden City, New York. 1988 Ameri can Historical Archaeology : Methods and Results. Science 239 : 372-367 . 83 Faulkner , Char les H. 1984 An Archaeological and Historical Study of the James White Second Home Site. Un i versity of Tennessee , Department of Anthropology Report of Investlqat lons No . 28, Knoxvi l le. 1988 Archaeological Test ing at the Nicholas Gibbs House : Season I. Prepared for the Nicholas Gibbs Historical Society , Knoxvi l le. 1989 Archaeological Test ing at the Nicholas Gibbs House : Season II. Prepared for the Nichol as Gibbs Histor ical Society, Knoxvil le. 1991a Cu ltural Transformat ions of Historic Dwe llings : Research at the Matt Russe ll House . Paper presented at the Symposium on Oh io Val ley Urban and Historic Archaeology , March 1991 . 1991b Archaeologi cal Test ing at the Nicholas Gibbs House : Season III. Prepared for the Nicholas Gibbs Historical Society , Knoxvil le. Ferguson , Lel and G. 1977 An Archaeologi cal-Historical Analysis of Fort Watson : December 1780-Apr ll 1781 . In Research Strategies in Historical Archaeology, edi ted by Stanley South , pp 41-72. Academic Press , New York . Field, Walker 1942 A Reexamination Into the Invention of the Ba l loon Frame . Journal of the American Society of Arch itectural Histor ians 2:7-8. Fontana, Bernard L. 1965 Ta le of a Nai l: On the Ethnologi cal Interpretation of Histor ic Ar tifacts. Florida Anthropologist 18(3) :85-101 . Fox-Genovese , El i zabeth 1988 Wlthln the Plantat ion Household: Black and White Women of the Old Soyth . Un i versity of North Carol ina Press , Chapel Hi ll. Glassi e, Henry 1963 The Appalach ian Log Cabin. Moyntaln Life and Work XXXIXC 4) :5-14. 1975 Folk Housing In Middle Virginia. Un iversity of Tennessee Press, Knoxvi lle. 84 Hol land, Claudia C. 1990 Tenant Farms of the Past , Present , and Future: An Ethnoarchaeologlcal View. Historical Archaeology 24 :60-69 . Honerkamp , Nicholas 1988 Preface to Quest ions that Count ln Historical Archaeology . Historical Archaeo l ogy 22 :5-6. Jurney , Dav id 1987 Cut and Wlre Na lls: Functional and Temporal Interpretat ions . In Historic Bu ildings. Material Cu l ture . and People of the Prairie Margin, edi ted by Dav id H. Jurney and Randal l W. Molr, pp 83-96 . Richland Creek Technical Ser ies, Vol ume V, Archaeol ogy Research Program, Da l las, Texas . Kn iffen, Fred 1965 Fo lk Housing: Key to Diffusion. Annals of the Assoc iat ion of Amer ican Geographers 55( 4) : 549-577 . Leone , Mark 1987 Ru le by Ostentation: The Re lationship Between Space and Sight In 18th Century-Ameri can Landscape Arch itecture In the Chesapeake Region of Mary land. In Method and Theorv for Act lylty Area Research , edited by Susan Kent , pp 604-633 , Co lumbia Uni versity Press , New York . 1988 The Re lationsh ip Be tween Archaeological Data and the Documentary Record: 18th Century Gardens In Annapol is, Mary land. Historical Archaeology 22 : 29-35 . Leone , Mark P. and Constance Crosby 1987 Ep ilogue : Middl e-Range Theory in Hlstor lcal Archaeology . In Consumer Choice In Historical Archaeology, edi ted by Suzanne M. Spencer-Wood , pp 397-410, Pl enum Press , New York . Leone , Mark P. and Parker B. Potter , Jr . 1988 Introduct ion: Issues In Historical Archaeology . In The Recovery of Mean ing, edi ted by Mark P. Leone and Packer B. Pot ter , Jr . pp 1-12, Smithson ian Inst itution Press, Wash ington . Loveday , Amos J. 1983 The Rise and Decl ine of the American Cut Nail Industry. Greenwood Press , Westport , Connecticut. 85 McAlester , Virginia and Lee McAlester 1984 A Field Gylde to american Houses. Alfred Knopf, New York. McMurry , Sal ly 1988 Fami lies and Farmhouses ln Nlneteenth-Centurv Amer ica. Oxford Un i versity Press , New York. Mercer , Henry C. 1970 Tools for Fasten ing and Unfastening. In Ancient Carpenter's Tools, pp 235-265 , Hor izon Press, Cincinnati. Morgan , John 1990 The Log House In East Tennessee . Un i versi ty of Tennessee Press , Knoxvil le. Ne l son , Lee H. 1968 Nail Chronol ogy as an Aid to Dat ing Old Bu ildings . Technical Leaf let 15, and Hlstorv News Vo l . 24, No. 11, Nashville. Noble, Al len G. 1984 WoOd. Br ick. and Stone : The North American Settlement LandscaPe . Vo l ume I. Un i versity of Massachusetts Press , Amherst . Orser , Char les 1988 The Material Basis of the PostbeJ Jum Tenant Plantat ion: Historical Archaeology in the South Carol ina Piedmont . Un i versi ty of Georgia Press , Athens, Georgia. Otto, John So l omon 1977 Arti facts and Status Di fferences - A Compar ison of Ceramics from Planter , Overseer , and Slave Sites on an Antebel lum Pl antat ion. In Research Strategies in Historical Archaeology, edi ted by Stan ley South , pp 91-118, Academic Press , New York . Patrick, James 1981 Arch itecture In Tennessee . 1768- 1897. Un i versity of Tennessee Press , Knoxvil le. Pr i ess , Peter 1973 Wire Nal ls In North Amer ica. Association for Preservat ion Technology Bu lletin 5:87-92 . RathJe, Wi lliam L. and Michae l B. Schiffer 1980 Archaeology. Harcourt Brace Jovanov ich, New York . 86 Rawick , George L. , edi tor 1977-79 The American Slave: A Composite AutobiographY. Greenwood Press, Westport , Conn . Re igel , Veron ica 1990 The Ol iver Si te: Artifact Distribution and Interpretations from a Turn-Of-The-Century Tenant Farmers House . Paper presented at the Southeastern Archaeological Conference, November 1990 , Mobi le, Alabama . Sanford, Dougl ass W. 1991 The Archaeol ogy of Plantation Slavery In Virginia: Archaeology of a Place, And of a Time? Paper presented at the Conference on Histor ical and Underwater Archaeol ogy , January 1991 , Richmond , Virginia. Schiffer, Michael 1976 Behav ioral Archaeology. Academ ic Press , New York . 1977 Toward a Unified Sc i ence of the Cu l tural Past . In Research Strategies in Historical Archaeology, edi ted by Stanley South , pp 13-40 , Academic Press, New York . 1987 Format i on Processes of the Archaeological Record . Un i versity of New Mex ico Press, Albuquerque . Smi th, H. R. Bradley 1975 Chronological Devel opment of Nal ls. In Supp lement to Blacksmi ths' and Farriers' Tools at Shelburne Museum, Museum Pamph let Series, No. 7, Shelburne Museum , Shelburne , Vermont . South, Stanley 1977 Method and Theory In Historical Archaeology. Academic Press , New York . 1978 Pattern Recogn ition In Historical Archaeology . American Antiquity 43<2> :223-230 . 1979 Historic Si te Con tent, Structure , and Funct ion. American Ant iquity 44 :213-237 . 1988a Whither Pattern? Historical Archaeology 22 : 25-28. 1988b San ta Elena : Thresho ld of Conquest. In The Recovery of Mean ing, edi ted by Mark P. Leone and Parker B. Potter , Jr . pp 27-71 Smi sonth ian Inst itution Press , Wash ington . 87 Swank , James M. 1892 History of the Manufacture of Iron In All Ages and Part icularly in the Un i ted States from Colonial Times to 1891 . Amer ican Iron and Stee l Association, Ph ilade lphia. Thomas, Dav id Hurst 1989 Archaeology. Second Edi tion. Hol t, Rinehart and Winston , Fort Worth . Wa lker , John W. 1971 Excavat ion of the Arkansas Post Branch of the Bank of the State of Arkansas . Sou theast Archeological Center, Division of Archeol ogy and Historic Preservat ion, Macon , Georgia. Vlach , John 1976 The Shotgun House : An Afr i can Arch itectural Legacy . Pioneer America . pt . 1, Vo l. 8, No . 1, pp 47-56 ; pt. 2, Vol 8, No . 2, pp . 57-70 . Young, Amy L. 1988 Management Plan for Locust Grove C15JF547 >. Paper presented at the Sympos ium on Oh io Valley Urban and Historic Archaeology , March 1988 , Char leston , West Virginia. Young, Amy L. and Ph ilip J. Carr 1989 Bu ilding Middle Range Theory In Historical Archaeology wl th Nal ls. Paper presented at the Symposi um on Oh io Val ley Urban and Historic Archaeology , March 1989 , Cincinnat i, Oh io. 88 VITA Amy Lambeck Young was born In Jacksonv ille, Florida on March 7, 1956 . She attended pub l ic schools In Jacksonvi lle, Birmingham, Alabama , and Lou isvi lle, Kentucky and graduated from Waggoner High School In February 1972. She earned a Bache lor of Arts ln Anthropol ogy at the Un i versity of Louisville ln May , 1988 . In August , 1988 she entered The Un i versity of Tennessee , Knoxville and ln May 1991 rece ived a Master of Arts degree ln Anthropology . 89 .
. In this way , re l iable
.
. A look at the means , �anges , and standa�d dev iations for each of these t�eatments on nai ls further illustrates th is poi nt. Note the sma ll
wi th
at alpha = .05 (i.e. the two samp les come from dif ferent populations>.