Thermal-Hydraulic Analysis of Nuclear Reactors

Bahman Zohuri

Thermal-Hydraulic Analysis of Nuclear Reactors

Second Edition Bahman Zohuri Department of University of New Mexico Albuquerque, NM, USA

ISBN 978-3-319-53828-0 ISBN 978-3-319-53829-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-53829-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017932078

© Springer International Publishing AG 2015, 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland This book is dedicated to my Parents and Children Bahman Zohuri Preface to the Second Edition

This text covers the fundamentals of required to understand electrical power generation systems and the application of these principles to nuclear reactor power plant systems. It is not a traditional general thermodynamics text, per se, but a practical thermodynamics volume intended to explain the fundamentals and apply them to the challenges facing actual nuclear power plants systems, where thermal hydraulics comes to play. Written in a lucid, straightfor- ward style while retaining scientific rigor, the content is accessible to upper division undergraduate students and aimed at practicing engineers in nuclear power facilities and engineering scientists and technicians in industry, academic research groups, and national laboratories. The book is also a valuable resource for students and faculty in various engineering programs concerned with nuclear reactors. The book also: • Provides extensive coverage of thermal hydraulics with thermodynamics in nuclear reactors, beginning with fundamental definitions of units and dimen- sions, thermodynamic variables, and the Laws of Thermodynamics progressing to sections on specific applications of the Brayton and Rankine cycles for power generation and projected reactor systems design issues. • Reinforces fundamentals of fluid dynamics and transfer; thermal and hydraulic analysis of nuclear reactors, two-phase flow and boiling, compressible flow, stress analysis, and energy conversion methods. • Includes detailed appendices that cover metric and English system units and conversions, detailed and gas tables, properties, and nuclear reactor system descriptions. The following is implemented in the second edition of the book: 1. The first edition has a minor error in one of the steam tables near the critical point. This is not likely to affect any engineered system, but it would be better to have the correct data in the table.

vii viii Preface to the Second Edition

2. Significant new results have become available for intercooled systems, since the first edition was published. 3. Technology plans can now be described for using a Nuclear Air-Brayton as an online storage system for a Low Carbon Grid. The book starts with basic principles of thermodynamics as applied to power plant systems. It then describes Thermal Hydraulic that is required for understating how Nuclear Power Plant systems will work. It documents how they can be designed and the expected ultimate performance. The additional new Chap. 16 describes several types of Nuclear Air-Brayton systems that can be employed to meet different requirements. It estimates component sizes and performance criteria for Small Modular Reactors (SMR) based on the Air-Brayton concept. It is very nearly a complete design manual. This text will expose the reader to the multiple advantages of Air-Brayton systems in Chap. 16 that is newly added and presents the top-level approach. More details can be found in another textbook by this author and his coauthor in its second edition that will be published by Springer, under the title: Combined Cycle Driven Efficiency for Next Generation Nuclear Power Plants: An Innovative Design Approach, 2nd Edition It will demonstrate that the power conversion system for a nuclear reactor does not forever have to be trapped under the vapor dome. It provides estimated system performance and system size for Small Modular Air-Brayton systems. Since Chap. 16 has been added to this edition, old Chap. 16 and the subsequent chapters after are renumbered in order to reflect the new chapter. More additional information has been added to Chap. 2, Sect. 2.8.4 where in First Edition was covering the subject Water Feedback and as result this section is expanded to discuss further details of Water Feedback and some example problems are also included to have a better understanding of the subject. In addition, Section B.6 of Appendix B on Steam Table will be updated since at a certain certain values got corrected in particular where combined cycles will be implemented for Generation IV nuclear power plant where they operate at these temperature; thus they will provide better thermal output efficiency. Among these reactors a total of six types are proposed; at least three of them are good candidates for combined cycle due to operational temperature and they are: 1. VHTR: Very High Temperature Reactor 2. LFR: Lead—cooled Fast Reactor 3. GFR: Gas—cooled Fast Reactor Chapter 18 in the first edition under the topic Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA) will be Chap. 19 in the second edition. What was missing in this chapter is the utilization of Fuzzy Logic Analysis in PRA and now is added to the second edition. However, I have retained most of the contents of the first edition and added approximately 50 pages of text to this edition. This book is very unique on its own merit and everything that nuclear engineer- ing student need to learn in one semester has been adopted in this text. Preface to the Second Edition ix

This book, in its first edition, has been adopted as an official textbook for graduate level courses by many universities for their nuclear engineering program. The first edition was a pathfinder. This one will build on that and generate its own competitors.

Albuquerque, NM, USA Bahman Zohuri 2016 Preface to the First Edition

The demand for clean, non-fossil-based electricity is growing; therefore, the world needs to develop new nuclear reactors with higher thermal efficiency in order to increase electricity generation and decrease the detrimental effects of fossil-based energy on the environment. The current fleet of nuclear power plants is classified as Generation III or lower. However, these models are not as energy efficient as they should be because the operating are relatively low. Currently, groups of countries have initiated a program of international collaboration to develop the next generation of nuclear reactors called Generation IV. The ultimate goal of developing such reactors is to increase the thermal efficiency from the current range of 30–35 to 45–50%. This increase in thermal efficiency would result in a higher production of electricity compared to current pressurized water reactor (PWR) or (BWR) technologies. The Generation IV International Forum (GIF) Program has narrowed design options of the nuclear reactors to six concepts. These concepts are gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR), very high temperature reactor (VHTR), sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR), lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR), molten salt reactor (MSR), and super critical water-cooled reactor (SCWR). These nuclear reactor concepts differ in their design in aspects such as the neutron spectrum, coolant, moderator, and operating temper- ature and pressure. There are many different types of power reactors. What is common to them all is that they produce thermal energy that can be used for its own sake or converted into mechanical energy and ultimately, in the vast majority of cases, into electrical energy. Thermal-hydraulic issues related to both operating and advanced reactors are presented. Further thermal-hydraulics research and development is continuing in both experimental and computational areas for operating reactors, reactors under construction or ready for near-term deployment, and advanced Generation-IV reactors. As the computing power increases, the fine-scale multiphysics computa-

xi xii Preface to the First Edition tional models, coupled with the systems analysis code, are expected to provide answers to many challenging problems in both operating and advanced reactor designs. Those that practice the art of nuclear engineering must have a physical and intuitive understanding of the mechanisms and balances of forces, which control the transport of heat and mass in all physical systems. This understanding starts at the molecular level, with intermolecular forces and the motion of molecules, and continues to the macroscopic level where gradients of velocity, temperature, and concentration drive the diffusion of momentum, heat, and mass, and the forces of pressure, inertia, and buoyancy balance to drive fluid . All professors believe that there is no ideal textbook for the courses, which he or she teaches. In the case of any related course to this subject, this is actually true. Traditionally, during the years in which Professors taught the similar course, the text is Transport Phenomenon by Bird, Stewart, and Lightfoot. Though this is an excellent text on the fundamentals of transport phenomena, it lacks specific exam- ples in nuclear engineering, as well as information on two-phase flows, boiling, condensation, and forced and . In writing this book, this author heavily draws materials from Convective Heat and Mass Transfer by Kays and Crawford, Convective Boiling and Condensation by Collier, and Nuclear Systems by Todreas and Kazimi. This text covers the fundamentals of thermodynamics required to understand electrical power generation systems. It then covers the application of these princi- ples to nuclear reactor power systems. It is not a general thermodynamics text, but is a thermodynamics text aimed at explaining the fundamentals and applying them to the challenges facing actual nuclear power systems. It is written at an undergraduate level, but should also be useful to practicing engineers. The book also concentrates on the fundamentals of fluid dynamics and heat transfer; thermal and hydraulic analysis of nuclear reactors; two-phase flow and boiling; compressible flow; stress analysis; and energy conversion methods. It starts with the fundamental definitions of units and dimensions, then moves on to thermodynamic variables such as temperature, pressure, and specific volume. It then goes into thermal hydraulic analysis with topics from that field covered in Chaps. 2 through 16, where it finishes off with the design of a and shell and tube using various techniques of verification and validation (V&V) in computational mechanics and their applications of the fundamentals to Brayton and Rankine cycles for power generation. , turbines, and recuperators are covered in general, along with the fundamentals of heat exchanger design. Rankine steam generators, turbines, condensers, and pumps are discussed. Reheaters and feed water heaters are also covered. Ultimate heat rejection by circulating water systems is also discussed. Chapter 17 covers the analysis of reactor accidents, which is independent from other chapters and can be assigned as a standalone reading chapter for student or can independently be taught. The third part of the book covers current and projected reactor systems and how the thermodynamic principles are applied to their design, operation, and safety analyses. Preface to the First Edition xiii

Detailed appendices cover metric and English system units and conversions, detailed steam and gas tables, heat transfer properties, and nuclear reactor system descriptions.

Albuquerque, NM, USA Bahman Zohuri 2014 Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge all the individuals for their help, encour- agement, and support. We have decided not to name them all since some of them may not be around to see the end result of their encouragement, but we hope they can at least read this acknowledgment wherever they may be. Last but not least, special thanks to our parents, wives, children, and friends for providing constant encouragement, without which this book could not have been written. We especially appreciate their patience with our frequent absence from home and long hours in front of the computer during the preparation of this book.

xv Contents

1 An Introduction to Thermal-Hydraulic Aspects of Nuclear Power Reactors ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Basics Understanding of Thermal-Hydraulic Aspects ...... 3 1.3 Units ...... 5 1.3.1 Fundamental Units ...... 5 1.3.2 Thermal Energy Units ...... 6 1.3.3 Unit Conversion ...... 7 1.4 System Properties ...... 8 1.4.1 Density ...... 8 1.4.2 Pressure ...... 9 1.4.3 Temperature ...... 11 1.5 Properties of the Atmosphere ...... 12 1.6 The Structure of Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transport . . . . . 13 1.7 Common Dimensionless Parameters ...... 14 1.8 Computer Codes ...... 14 1.8.1 Probabilistic Risk Assessment Codes ...... 16 1.8.2 Fuel Behavior Codes ...... 16 1.8.3 Reactor Kinetics Codes ...... 16 1.8.4 Thermal-Hydraulic Codes ...... 16 1.8.5 Severe Accident Codes ...... 18 1.8.6 Design-Basis Accident Codes ...... 18 1.8.7 Emergency Preparedness and Response Codes . . . . . 19 1.8.8 Health Effects/Dose Calculation Codes ...... 19 1.8.9 Radionuclide Transport Codes ...... 20 1.9 Problems ...... 20 References ...... 28

xvii xviii Contents

2 Thermodynamics ...... 29 2.1 Introduction ...... 29 2.2 Work ...... 29 2.3 First Law of Thermodynamics ...... 33 2.4 Enthalpy ...... 36 2.5 Energy Equation ...... 38 2.6 The ...... 40 2.7 Entropy ...... 44 2.8 Waste Heat Recovery ...... 46 2.8.1 Recuperator ...... 46 2.8.2 Heat Recovery Steam Generator ...... 47 2.8.3 Reheater ...... 48 2.8.4 Feed Water Heaters ...... 49 2.9 Power Plant and Thermal Cycle ...... 62 2.9.1 for Power Plant ...... 65 2.9.2 Brayton Cycle for Power Plant ...... 66 2.9.3 The Combined Brayton–Rankine Cycle ...... 67 2.10 Raising Boiler Pressure ...... 68 2.11 Superheat ...... 69 2.12 Regeneration ...... 70 2.13 Conclusion ...... 71 2.14 Problems ...... 71 References ...... 76 3 Transport Properties ...... 77 3.1 Introduction ...... 77 3.2 Theory of , Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids ...... 79 3.3 Gas Viscosity at Low Density ...... 81 3.4 Liquid Viscosity (Newtonian) ...... 90 3.5 Liquid Viscosity (Non-Newtonian) ...... 91 3.6 Theory ...... 92 3.7 Fundamental Modes of Heat Transfer ...... 95 3.7.1 Conduction ...... 95 3.7.2 Convection ...... 96 3.7.3 Radiation ...... 96 3.8 Theory of Thermal Conductivity of Gases at Low Density . . . 99 3.9 Theory of Thermal Conductivity of Liquids ...... 102 3.10 Theory of Mass Diffusion ...... 102 3.11 Problems ...... 105 References ...... 114 4 General Conservation Equations ...... 115 4.1 Introduction ...... 115 4.2 Conservation of Mass ...... 116 4.3 Conservation of Momentum ...... 123 Contents xix

4.4 Momentum Flux Expression ...... 125 4.5 Dimensionless Formulation for Momentum Equation ...... 127 4.6 The Equation of Mechanical Energy ...... 132 4.7 Conservation of Energy ...... 134 4.8 Dimensionless Formulation for Energy Equation ...... 135 4.9 Control Volume Analysis ...... 136 4.10 Problems ...... 144 References ...... 146 5 Laminar Incompressible ...... 147 5.1 Introduction ...... 147 5.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow ...... 148 5.3 Transient Laminar Forced Convection in Ducts ...... 150 5.4 Fully Developed Laminar Flow in Other Cross-Sectional Shape Tubes ...... 159 5.5 Non-Newtonian Tube Flow ...... 165 5.6 Counter-Current Liquid Vapor Flow in a Tube ...... 166 5.7 Sudden Motion of Flow at a Wall ...... 168 5.8 Stagnation Point Flow ...... 171 5.9 Boundary-Layer Theory ...... 177 5.10 Similarity Solutions for Boundary Layers ...... 185 5.11 Integral Solutions for Boundary Layers ...... 194 5.12 Creeping and Potential Flow ...... 195 5.12.1 Creeping Flow or Stokes Flow Theory ...... 197 5.12.2 Potential Flow Theory ...... 204 5.13 Flow in Porous Media ...... 207 5.14 Problems ...... 217 References ...... 220 6 Turbulent Forced Convection ...... 223 6.1 Introduction ...... 223 6.2 Time-Averaged Conservation Equations for Turbulent Flow in Duct ...... 228 6.2.1 Time Averaging of the Equation of Motion ...... 229 6.3 The Laminar Sublayer and Outer Turbulent Region ...... 232 6.4 The Turbulent Boundary Layer ...... 233 6.5 Fully Developed Turbulent Flow in a Pipe ...... 239 6.6 Turbulent Flow in Other Cross-Sectional Shape ...... 242 6.7 Effects of Surface Roughness ...... 245 6.8 Numerical Modeling of ...... 248 6.9 Friction Factors ...... 249 6.10 Flow in Conduits ...... 250 6.11 Flow Around Submerged Objects ...... 251 6.12 Turbulent Flow in Noncircular Tubes ...... 253 6.13 Flow in Pipes and Ducts ...... 253 xx Contents

6.14 Flow in Rod Bundles ...... 262 6.15 Flow Parallel to Rod Bundles ...... 264 6.16 Pressure Drop Across Spacers ...... 264 6.17 Flow Across Rod Bundles ...... 268 6.18 Problems ...... 271 References ...... 276 7 Compressible Flow ...... 279 7.1 Introduction ...... 279 7.2 Gas Dynamics ...... 280 7.3 Speed of Sound in a Compressible Fluid ...... 284 7.4 Critical Flow in a Compressible Fluid ...... 288 7.5 Ideal Gas Relationships for Adiabatic Compressible Flow . . . . 291 7.6 Rayleigh and Fanno Process for Compressible Flow ...... 292 7.7 Water Hammer (Hydraulic Shock) ...... 294 7.7.1 Instantaneous Valve Closure ...... 296 7.7.2 Valve Closure over Finite Time Periods ...... 299 7.8 Problems ...... 300 References ...... 305 8 Conduction Heat Transfer ...... 307 8.1 Introduction ...... 307 8.2 Basic Heat Conduction Equations ...... 308 8.2.1 A Compact Form of Basic Heat Conduction Equations ...... 309 8.2.2 Special Cases of Heat Conduction Equations ...... 310 8.3 Heat Conduction in a Cylinder with a Uniform Heat Flux . . . . 311 8.3.1 Heat Conduction in a Cylinder with a Uniform Heat Flux (with Cladding) ...... 313 8.4 Composite Walls: Summed Resistance ...... 314 8.5 Conduction in Complex Systems: Fuel Elements ...... 316 8.5.1 Thermal Properties of Fuels ...... 316 8.6 Other Problem in Heat Conduction ...... 318 8.7 Problems ...... 319 References ...... 321 9 Forced Convection Heat Transfer ...... 323 9.1 Introduction ...... 323 9.2 Heat Transfer in Laminar Tube Flow ...... 326 9.3 Heat Transfer in Laminar Boundary Layers ...... 329 9.4 Heat Transfer in Turbulent Tube Flow ...... 334 9.5 Heat Transfer in High-Speed Laminar Boundary-Layer Flow along a Flat Plate ...... 339 9.6 Problems ...... 343 References ...... 345 Contents xxi

10 Natural or Free Convection ...... 347 10.1 Introduction ...... 347 10.1.1 Free Convection from a Vertical Plate ...... 350 10.2 Similarity Solution for the Convection Boundary Layers ..... 354 10.3 Empirical Relationships for Free Convection ...... 356 10.4 Natural Convection in Enclosure ...... 360 10.4.1 Enclosure Heated from the Side ...... 361 10.5 Natural Circulation ...... 362 10.6 Laminar Film Condensation ...... 364 10.7 Characteristic Free-Convection Velocity ...... 367 10.8 Problems ...... 370 References ...... 375 11 Mass Transfer ...... 377 11.1 Introduction ...... 377 11.2 Theory of Mass Diffusion ...... 378 11.3 Noncondensables Gases and Evaporation ...... 380 11.4 Noncondensables Gases and Condensation ...... 382 11.5 Problems ...... 388 References ...... 393 12 ...... 395 12.1 Introduction ...... 395 12.2 Radiation Absorption and Emission at Solid Surfaces ...... 396 12.3 Radiation Between Black Bodies ...... 400 12.4 Radiation Between Nonblack Bodies ...... 404 12.5 Radiation Energy Transport in Absorbing Media ...... 406 12.6 Increasing Heat Using Fins as Extension of Surface Area .... 408 12.7 Problems ...... 415 References ...... 421 13 Multiphase Flow Dynamics ...... 423 13.1 Introduction ...... 423 13.1.1 Flow Patterns for Vertical Channels, Upward Cocurrent Flow ...... 424 13.1.2 Flow Patterns for Horizontal Channels ...... 426 13.2 Standard Notation for Two-Phase Flow ...... 429 13.3 Governing Equations for Two-Phase Flow ...... 430 13.4 Homogeneous Equilibrium Model ...... 431 13.5 Homogeneous Flow Friction Pressure Drop ...... 435 13.6 Separated Flow Model ...... 437 13.7 Separated Flow Friction Pressure Drop ...... 438 13.8 Sound Speed and Choking for Isentropic Homogeneous Equilibrium Flows ...... 443 xxii Contents

13.9 One-Dimensional Separated Internal Phases Flows ...... 444 13.10 Flow with Phase Change ...... 448 13.11 Problems ...... 451 References ...... 454 14 Convective Boiling ...... 455 14.1 Introduction ...... 455 14.1.1 Flow Patterns for Vertical Convective Boiling . .... 457 14.1.2 Flow Patterns for Horizontal Convective Boiling ...... 458 14.2 Vapor Bubble Equilibrium ...... 459 14.3 Homogeneous Bubble Nucleation ...... 462 14.4 Bubble Growth Dynamics ...... 463 14.5 Nucleate Pool Boiling from Surfaces ...... 465 14.6 Subcooled Convective Boiling Heat Transfer ...... 468 14.6.1 Onset of Nucleation ...... 469 14.6.2 Heat Transfer in Partial Subcooled ...... 475 14.7 Discussion ...... 478 14.8 Fully Developed Subcooled Nucleate Boiling ...... 479 14.9 Saturated Convective Boiling Heat Transfer ...... 480 14.10 Flow Instability ...... 482 14.10.1 Static Flow Instability ...... 482 14.10.2 Dynamic Flow Instability ...... 484 14.11 Problems ...... 485 References ...... 498 15 Thermal Stress ...... 501 15.1 Introduction ...... 501 15.1.1 Materials for Reactor Construction ...... 502 15.2 An Introduction to Stress ...... 503 15.3 Stresses in Two Dimensions ...... 506 15.4 Stresses in Three Dimensions ...... 509 15.5 An Introduction to Strain ...... 509 15.6 The Relationship Between Stress and Strain ...... 512 15.7 Plane Strain Problems ...... 514 15.8 Plane Stress Problems ...... 517 15.9 Discussion ...... 519 15.10 Problems ...... 519 References ...... 522 16 Combined Cycle-Driven Efficiency in Nuclear Power Plant ...... 523 16.1 Introduction ...... 523 16.2 Principle of Combined Cycle in Gas Turbine ...... 526 16.3 Combined Cycle Power Conversion for New Generation Reactor Systems ...... 530 Contents xxiii

16.4 System Efficiency and Turbine Cycles ...... 533 16.5 Modeling the Brayton Cycle ...... 534 16.6 Modeling the Rankine Cycle ...... 535 16.7 The Combined Brayton–Rankine Cycle ...... 535 16.8 Single- and Multi-shaft Design ...... 537 16.9 Working Principle of Combined Cycle Gas Turbine ...... 543 16.10 Gas Turbine Technology and Thermodynamics ...... 546 16.11 Nominal Analysis Parameter ...... 551 References ...... 552 17 Heat Exchangers ...... 553 17.1 Heat Exchanger Types ...... 553 17.2 Classification of Heat Exchanger by Construction Type ..... 556 17.3 Tubular Heat Exchangers ...... 556 17.4 Plate Heat Exchangers ...... 558 17.5 Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers ...... 558 17.6 Tube-Fin Heat Exchangers ...... 559 17.7 Regenerative Heat Exchangers ...... 559 17.8 Condensers ...... 560 17.9 Boilers ...... 561 17.10 Classification According to Compactness ...... 561 17.11 Types of Applications ...... 561 17.12 Cooling Towers ...... 562 17.13 Regenerators and Recuperators ...... 562 17.14 Heat Exchanger Analysis: Use of the LMTD ...... 569 17.15 Effectiveness-NTU Method for Heat Exchanger Design ..... 576 17.15.1 Parallel Flow ...... 577 17.15.2 Counterflow ...... 577 17.15.3 Crossflow ...... 577 17.16 Special Operating Conditions ...... 582 17.17 Compact Heat Exchangers ...... 583 17.18 Problems ...... 586 References ...... 588 18 Analysis of Reactor Accident ...... 591 18.1 Introduction ...... 591 18.2 Thermal Design Margin ...... 592 18.3 Steady-State Heat Generation in Reactor Fuel ...... 595 18.4 Homogeneous Unreflected Core ...... 599 18.5 Reflectors and Heterogeneous Cores ...... 601 18.6 Heat Generation Following Shutdown ...... 602 18.7 Loss of Coolant Accidents: Containment Pressurization ..... 603 18.8 Problems ...... 605 References ...... 606 xxiv Contents

19 Probabilistic Risk Assessment ...... 607 19.1 Introduction ...... 607 19.2 What Is the Risk ...... 608 19.3 Risk Assessment Methods ...... 609 19.4 Types of Risk Assessments ...... 611 19.5 What Are the Benefits of PRA? ...... 614 19.6 Abbreviation Used in PRA ...... 617 19.7 Fuzzy Logic Description and Applications ...... 618 19.7.1 Fuzzy Logic and Fuzzy Sets ...... 622 19.7.2 The Fuzzy Logic Method ...... 626 19.7.3 The Fuzzy Perception ...... 626 19.8 Fuzzy Logic Applications in Nuclear Industry ...... 627 19.9 Safety Regulations and Fuzzy Logic Control to Nuclear Reactors ...... 628 19.10 Problems ...... 646 References ...... 648 20 Nuclear Power Plants ...... 649 20.1 Fission Energy Generation ...... 649 20.2 The First Chain Reaction ...... 650 20.3 Concepts in Nuclear Criticality ...... 653 20.4 Fundamental of Fission Nuclear Reactors ...... 653 20.5 Reactor Fundamentals ...... 656 20.6 Thermal Reactors ...... 657 20.7 Nuclear Power Plants and Their Classifications ...... 657 20.8 Classified by Moderator Material ...... 658 20.8.1 Light Water Reactors ...... 658 20.8.2 Graphite-Moderated Reactors ...... 659 20.8.3 Heavy Water Reactors ...... 659 20.9 Classified by Coolant Material ...... 661 20.9.1 Pressurized Water Reactors ...... 661 20.9.2 Boiling Water Reactor ...... 664 20.9.3 Gas-Cooled Reactors ...... 666 20.10 Classified by Reaction Type ...... 667 20.10.1 Fast Neutron Reactor ...... 667 20.10.2 Thermal Neutron Reactor ...... 669 20.10.3 Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactors ...... 670 20.11 Nuclear Fission Power Generation ...... 673 20.12 Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems ...... 674 20.13 Technological State of the Art and Anticipated Developments ...... 676 20.14 Next Generation Nuclear Plant ...... 679 20.15 Why We Need to Consider the Future Role of Nuclear Power now ...... 680 20.16 The Generation IV Roadmap Project ...... 683 Contents xxv

20.17 Licensing Strategy Components ...... 684 20.18 Market and Industry Status and Potentials ...... 685 20.19 Barriers ...... 686 20.20 Needs ...... 687 20.21 Synergies with Other Sectors ...... 688 References ...... 689 21 Nuclear Fuel Cycle ...... 691 21.1 The Nuclear Fuel Cycle ...... 691 21.2 Fuel Cycle Choices ...... 695 21.3 In-Core Fuel Management ...... 698 21.4 Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management ...... 699 21.4.1 Managing HLW from Used Fuel ...... 700 21.4.2 Recycling Used Fuel ...... 703 21.4.3 Storage and Disposal of Used Fuel andOtherHLW...... 704 21.4.4 Regulation of Disposal ...... 708 21.5 Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel ...... 709 21.5.1 Reprocessing Policies ...... 710 21.6 Back End of Fuel Cycle ...... 711 References ...... 712 22 The Economic Future of Nuclear Power ...... 713 22.1 Introduction ...... 713 22.2 Overall Costs: Fuel, Operation, and Waste Disposal ...... 714 22.2.1 Fuel Costs ...... 715 22.2.2 Future Cost Competitiveness ...... 719 22.2.3 Major Studies on Future Cost Competitiveness . . . . 720 22.2.4 Operations and Maintenance (O&M) Costs ...... 726 22.2.5 Production Costs ...... 726 22.2.6 Costs Related to Waste Management ...... 727 22.2.7 Life Cycle Costs (US Figures) ...... 732 22.2.8 Construction Costs ...... 732 22.3 Comparing the Economics of Different Forms of Electricity Generation ...... 733 22.4 System Cost ...... 734 22.5 External Costs ...... 734 23 Safety, Waste Disposal, Containment, and Accidents ...... 739 23.1 Safety ...... 739 23.2 Nuclear Waste Disposal ...... 740 23.3 Contamination ...... 742 23.4 Accidents ...... 744 References ...... 746 xxvi Contents

Appendix A Table and Graphs Compilations ...... 747

Appendix B Physical Property Tables ...... 753

Appendix C Units, Dimensions, and Conversion Factors ...... 783

Appendix D Physical Properties ...... 809

Appendix E Fluid Property Data ...... 817

Appendix F Basic Equations ...... 823

Index ...... 831 Author Biography

Dr. Bahman Zohuri is currently at the Galaxy Advanced Engineering, Inc., a consulting company that he stared himself in 1991 when he left both semiconductor and defense industries after many years working as a chief scientist. After gradu- ating from the University of Illinois in the field of Physics and Applied Mathemat- ics, he joined Westinghouse Electric Corporation where he performed thermal hydraulic analysis and natural circulation for Inherent Shutdown Heat Removal System (ISHRS) in the core of a Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR) as a secondary fully inherent shut system for secondary loop heat exchange. All these designs were used for Nuclear Safety and Reliability Engineering for Self-Actuated Shutdown System. Around 1978, he designed the Mercury Heat Pipe and Electro- magnetic Pumps for Large Pool Concepts of LMFBR for heat rejection purpose in such reactors for which he received a patent. He later on was transferred to defense division of Westinghouse where he was responsible for the dynamic analysis and method of launch and handling of an MX missile out of canister. The results are applied to MX launch seal performance and muzzle blast phenomena analysis (i.e., missile vibration and hydrodynamic shock formation). He also was involved in analytical calculation and computation in the study of Nonlinear Ion Wave in Rarefying Plasma. The results are applied to the propagation of “Soliton Wave” and the resulting charge collector traces, in the rarefactions characteristic of the corona of a laser irradiated target pellet. As part of his graduate research work at Argonne National Laboratory, he performed computation and programming of multi-exchange integral in surface physics and solid-state physics. He holds patents in areas such as diffusion processes and design of diffusion furnace while he was a senior process engineer working for different semiconductor industries such as Intel, Varian, and National Semiconductor corporations. Later on he joined Lockheed Missile and Aerospace Corporation as Senior Chief Scientist and was responsible for research and development (R&D) and the study of vulnerability, survivability, and both radiation and laser hardening of different components of the Strategic Defense Initiative, also known as Star Wars. This is comprised of a payload (i.e., IR Sensor) for Defense Support Program (DSP), Boost Surveillance

xxvii xxviii Author Biography and Tracking Satellite (BSTS), and Space Surveillance and Tracking Satellite (SSTS) against laser or nuclear threat. While there, he also studied and performed the analysis of characteristics of laser beam and nuclear radiation interaction with materials, transient radiation effects in electronics (TREE), electromagnetic pulse (EMP), system generated electromagnetic pulse (SGEMP), single-event upset (SEU), blast, and thermo-mechanical, hardness assurance, maintenance, and device technology. He spent a few years of consulting under his company Galaxy Advanced Engineering with Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), where he was supporting the development of operational hazard assessments for the Air Force Safety Center (AFSC) in collaboration with other interested parties. The intended use of the results was their eventual inclusion in Air Force Instructions (AFIs) specifically issued for Directed Energy Weapons (DEW) operational safety. He completed the first version of a comprehensive library of detailed laser tools for Airborne Laser (ABL), Advanced Tactical Laser (ATL), Tactical High Energy Laser (THEL), Mobile/Tactical High Energy Laser (M-THEL), etc. He also was responsible for SDI computer programs involved with Battle Management C3 and artificial intelligence and autonomous system. He is the author of few publications and holds various patents such as Laser Activated Radioactive Decay and Results of Thru-Bulkhead Initiation. Recently he has published over 24 other books with Springer Publishing Com- pany, CRC, and Francis Taylor on different subjects that they can be found on Amazon.