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Personal Knowledge Techniques PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE TECHNIQUES by Nicholas Ross Milton, BSc BA Thesis submitted to The University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, May 2003 Abstract Work towards the development of a new computer-assisted methodology for psychological study and intervention is described. This is referred to as the Personal Knowledge Methodology since it focuses on the elicitation and presentation of personal knowledge. Personal knowledge includes the knowledge individuals have of their life history, their behaviours, their moods, their relationships, their ambitions, and so on. Principles and techniques used in Knowledge Engineering form the basis of the design of the Personal Knowledge Methodology. At the heart of the methodology is the use of a suite of knowledge acquisition and modelling techniques. These are referred to as Personal Knowledge Techniques. Based on a review of a wide-range of literature, eight techniques were selected to be assessed for their possible use as Personal Knowledge Techniques. These included interview-based techniques, repertory grid techniques and diagram-based techniques. Two in-depth studies took place involving 18 participants and a total of 100 knowledge acquisition sessions. The results revealed that each of the eight techniques showed promise at efficiently capturing and structuring aspects of an individual’s personal knowledge. In addition, the techniques showed potential for providing help in allowing reflection and revealing insights. In particular, a technique based on the construction and use of a state transition network was found to be the most highly rated by the participants. A content analysis of the knowledge acquired formed the basis of an ontology of personal knowledge that would underpin many uses of the Personal Knowledge Methodology. The empirical work and analysis led to a number of ideas for future developments of the methodology and uses for the Personal Knowledge Techniques. ii Acknowledgements I give many thanks to all those people who have helped me with this research. In particular, I would like to thank the following: my supervisors, Prof. David Clarke and Prof. Nigel Shadbolt, for their inspiration and guidance; the anonymous participants involved in the studies, for their honesty, openness and ideas; those people at Rolls- Royce plc, especially Paul Riley, who helped me organise the main study; the directors of Epistemics who kindly allowed me to use PCPACK and other resources; my parents, Joyce and Maurice, for their help and encouragement; and my wife, Natasha, and daughter, Margarita, for putting up with me and making me happy. This thesis is dedicated to my parents. iii Contents 1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE .................................................... 2 1.3 THE PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE METHODOLOGY ............................................................................. 4 1.4 RESEARCH AIMS .......................................................................................................................... 9 1.5 THESIS STRUCTURE .................................................................................................................... 11 2 DIRECT ROUTES TO HELP .................................................................................................... 13 2.1 THERAPIST -ASSISTED HELP ....................................................................................................... 14 2.2 METHODS OF SELF -HELP ........................................................................................................... 20 2.3 COMPUTERS IN PSYCHOTHERAPY ............................................................................................... 26 2.4 HELP IN NON -CLINICAL CONTEXTS ............................................................................................ 29 2.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................... 38 3 ACQUISITION AND ANALYSIS OF KNOWLEDGE............................................................ 45 3.1 KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION WITHIN KNOWLEDGE ENGINEERING ................................................ 45 3.2 ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY .................................................................... 62 3.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................... 73 4 RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................................................................. 81 4.1 CREATING THE RESEARCH DESIGN ............................................................................................ 81 4.2 DESIGN FOR THE MAIN STUDY ................................................................................................... 99 4.3 SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN ..................................................................................... 104 5 INTERVIEW-BASED TECHNIQUES.................................................................................... 105 5.1 SEMI - S TRUCTURED INTERVIEW .............................................................................................. 105 5.2 INTERVIEW REVIEW TECHNIQUE .............................................................................................. 123 6 CATEGORY-BASED TECHNIQUES..................................................................................... 132 6.1 PEOPLE GRID TECHNIQUE ........................................................................................................ 132 6.2 EVENTS /P ERIODS GRID TECHNIQUE ......................................................................................... 147 6.3 KEIRSEY TEMPERAMENT TECHNIQUE ...................................................................................... 159 7 NETWORK-BASED TECHNIQUES ...................................................................................... 174 7.1 EVENT DIAGRAM TECHNIQUE .................................................................................................. 174 7.2 STATE DIAGRAM TECHNIQUE ................................................................................................... 190 7.3 ASPIRATIONS TECHNIQUE ........................................................................................................ 204 8 COMPARISON OF TECHNIQUES AND ONTOLOGY...................................................... 220 8.1 COMPARISON OF THE TECHNIQUES .......................................................................................... 220 8.2 PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE ONTOLOGY ....................................................................................... 230 9 DISCUSSION AND FUTURE WORK .................................................................................... 238 9.1 SUMMARY , C ONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................ 238 9.2 FUTURE WORK ......................................................................................................................... 259 iv 1 INTRODUCTION Know thyself (Inscription on a Greek temple, circa 600 BC) 1.1 Overview The focus of this thesis is on the knowledge that individuals possess of themselves; of their life history, their behaviours, their moods, their attitudes, their relationships, their ambitions, and so on. Such knowledge will be referred to as personal knowledge. Personal knowledge can be distinguished from two other major types of knowledge ∗ that people possess. One of these is the common knowledge that people use to operate in the everyday world. This includes knowledge in terms of physical activities, facts and basic understanding. The other type of knowledge is of specific domains, typically the knowledge and expertise required to perform expert roles in organisational contexts. To illustrate these three types of knowledge with an example, one can say that a doctor knows why she became a doctor ( personal knowledge) , knows how to get to the hospital ( common knowledge ), and knows how to diagnose various illnesses ( expert knowledge ). This segregation of knowledge into three categories is mirrored in the academic fields that study each type of knowledge. The study of personal knowledge is usually the preserve of social psychologists, psychoanalysts and psychiatrists; the study of common knowledge is most associated with cognitive and behavioural scientists; and the study of expert knowledge is undertaken in a branch of artificial intelligence, called knowledge engineering. Principles and techniques have been established within each of these disciplines to study and apply the particular type of knowledge under scrutiny. In general, the principles and techniques used in one discipline are very different from those used in other disciplines. Unfortunately, very little collaboration or cross-use of methodologies is carried out from discipline to discipline, even though this can often lead to interesting new directions and beneficial developments. ∗ The term ‘knowledge’ is used in this thesis as it is in Knowledge Engineering (i.e. as a structured and contextualised form of information), rather than the Epistemological notion of true justified belief. This thesis follows
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