Big Data and Urban Analytics: City Science in Developing Economies Mayra Gamboa Gonzáleza e Juan Ángel Demerutis Arenasb a University of Guadalajara, College of Art, Architecture and Design Planning and Urbanism Department, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. Email: [email protected] b University of Guadalajara, College of Art, Architecture and Design Planning and Urbanism Department, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. Email: [email protected] https://doi.org/10.47235/rmu.v8i1.171

Technology as an Inseparable Element of environment. From this analysis we turn out the Cognitive Being and the as looking not so well in relation to the level of its Expression on the Territory development and power that we have reached, which, according to the author, Technological development is a characteristic makes us akin to gods, with similar powers that has accompanied humanity throughout of creation and destruction, but with little its history. Its origin could be located from understanding of what to do with that power, the evolution of man as a cognitive being in addition to an awfully bad relationship (Homo sapiens), interpreting technology in with our habitat and natural environment. accordance with the definition of the Real The technological advances which we are Spanish Academy (Spanish: Real Academia witnessing are not equally distributed, and Española or RAE), as the set of theories and this fact does not assert us as a better species; techniques that allow the practical use of on the contrary, according to Harari (2018) scientific knowledge, as well as the set of there is great uncertainty regarding the future industrial instruments and procedures of a of the H. Sapiens, our species, since it is not given sector or product (Royal Spanish clear if we will be able to evolve towards Academy, RAE 2019). becoming gifted beings with different In his transcendental work From Animals consciences and feelings, in comparison with into Gods: A Brief History of Humankind, the way in which we currently know and Harari (2018) distinguishes three important understand them or if, by contrast, the use of revolutions in the history of humanity: the technology will fragment us into increasingly cognitive revolution that marks the beginning unequal societies, with the predominance of of history approximately 70,000 years ago; some groups over others. this is located at the beginning of the era of This technological, economic, and cultural the H. sapiens species, when human cultures development transferred to the physical emerged. The second is the agricultural expression of the territory has generated a revolution, between 12,000 and 5,000 years current growth model for the city that is one ago, when some authors place the origin of of accelerated, disconnected, and dispersed the first human settlements as villages and urbanization. It is a model where the use of towns in Neolithic societies that lived closely private vehicles prevails, and where public with the Nature-Mother Goddess (Eisler, transport expenses are high due to the great 1998, Mumford, 1961). And the third is the distances traveled to access sources of scientific revolution that began only 500 employment, education, and other basic and years ago, which gave rise to the Age of recreational services. There is a poor Enlightenment and the industrial revolutions distribution and coverage of infrastructure of the 18th century to the present day. and equipment services, as well as a These three revolutions have brought proclivity towards a horizontal housing significant changes in the way we humans model which does not help to generate have developed as a species, and to our sustainable living conditions. This translates relationship with other organisms and the into a state of inequality, as there is a lack of

Revista de Morfologia Urbana (2020) 8(1): e00171en Rede Lusófona de Morfologia Urbana ISSN 2182-7214 Perspetivas 2 / 10 access to opportunities; a situation whose polluted environments as premises of care to underlying problem is on the rise and that improve the quality of life (Batty et.al, 2012, mainly affects the lower-income population, p. 483). who are typically excluded and pushed Smart cities are typically defined as those towards the outskirts of the cities where land which rely on the use of information tools for housing is affordable. and communication technologies (ICTs) for Castells (2010) establishes among the smarter, and therefore, more efficient characteristics that delineate the causes of performance of resources, which translates spatial dynamics and, therefore, the urban into energy savings, and improvements in form of the global network society, the close services and in the overall quality of life, interaction between the technological while reducing adverse impacts on the transformation of society and the evolution of environment (Shaheen & Cohen, 2017). its spatial form. In other words, technology Albino, Berardi and Dangelico (2015) trace not as a determining factor, but rather as a the use of the term smart city for the first facilitator of new social structures. So, what time in the 90s, related to the employment of should be the form in the future? One that new ICTs. This concept has become popular reflects a more democratic society, in Scott's in scientific literature and in international terms (2014). politics, where it is recognized that cities are Mostly in the last decade, the rise of key elements for the future, due to their role information and communication technologies in social and economic aspects, but the (ICTs) has permeated all the scenarios of serious impact that they have generated on daily life in order to make the city more the environment is also acknowledged. This efficient, to the point that now there is an poor environmental performance is one of the “abuse” of the term ‘Smart City’. pillars that support the arguments for smart growth, so that cities develop new ways to The connotation of the intelligent city is not meet these challenges. In this sense, the new. In the past, there have been different concept of smart city is not limited only to approaches that address the study of the city the application of technologies in the cities, as an organic entity, which is structured from but it takes it to other areas, which has networks and flows (Batty, 2013). According created confusion among public policy to Mitchell (2007), at the beginning of the makers seeking to make their cities smarter. 21st century and derived from a series of technological and communication advances, According to Peter Hall and Kathy Pain cities have been made up of a series of (cited in Castells, 2010), in the knowledge subsystems similar to living organisms that economy “advanced or specialized” services allow them to respond as such, in an are the dynamo of urban growth, wealth and intelligently coordinated manner. According power, and it is one of the reasons that to the author, the intelligence in the cities explain the phenomenon of metropolitan resides in the effective combination of digital concentration. These types of services are telecommunications and transport mainly concentrated in the urban centrality infrastructure (nervous system), the and in well-connected areas. In other words, embedded intelligence which is present the phenomenon of intra-urban inequality is everywhere (brains), the sensors (sensory present in both developed and developing organs), and the software (knowledge and economies, this regarding who can take cognitive competence). advantage of the services and the knowledge economy. However, the concept of the smart city surfaced just at the beginning of the A New Transdisciplinary Urban Science millennium as a merging of ideas about how information and communication technologies After a literature review on smart cities, other could improve the functioning of cities, to apparently related concepts and disciplines make them more efficient and competitive, appear, such as city science, urban science, and to provide new ways to address the or urban analytics, among issues of poverty, social deprivation and others. This is noteworthy, as it indicates that

Revista de Morfologia Urbana (2020) 8(1): e00171en Rede Lusófona de Morfologia Urbana ISSN 2182-7214 Perspetivas 3 / 10 there is no consensus in the definition of approach of the socio-eco-technological smart cities, and neither is there a conceptual systems (SETs) (McPhearson et al, 2016; framework for these new meanings. Van der Leer et al, 2019, cited in Gómez However, the following examination will et.al, 2019). In this approach, the social attempt to make an initial approach and to subsystem encompasses the economic, establish distinctions with respect to what is political, cultural, and biosocial socio- referred to as the smart city. systems, whose components are fundamentally individuals or human In the City Science perspective, cities are organizations related to each other and to the considered as complex systems of systems other subsystems through actions, which are not predictable and which are interactions, and transactions. The based on the understanding of these systems ecological-territorial subsystem, in turn, of networks and flows that interact with the includes natural systems that act in two ways, objects within them (Siller, 2015). To study since they function as a territorial support or the city, other sciences are required, such as hinterland of the other subsystems, enabling social physics, urban economics, transport conditions for their production and theory, and urban geography. Additionally, reproduction, and at the same time they are the analysis relies on technological tools such intervened by social agents. And the third, as simulation methods to predict interactions the techno-infrastructural subsystem, or the between variables and flows, and thereby collection of systems made up of human help in future decision-making concerning agents and devices (transport systems, energy the cities (Batty, 2013). generation and distribution, urban One of the distinctions made by the management and governance, equipment, proponents of city science with respect to the etc.) that mediates between the previous conceptualization of the smart city, is that in subsystems in terms of transformation the use of technological and information (production, manufacturing or execution of tools it is attempted to understand the needs processes) or control, such as organization, and habitual dynamics of the population, management and regulation of processes and thereby identifying urban issues to generate systems. impact simulation instruments that help Consequently, the city science promotes the consensus decision-making, involving more scientific destined to the actors (e.g., citizens), and contributing to generation and application of knowledge achieve more humane cities. along with the technological The science of the city is proposed as a interdisciplinarity destined for cognitive structural construction towards the interventions; that is, it involves both the transdisciplinary vision to understand urban hybridization of disciplines directed to basic phenomena as a complex object, as is the and applied research, and the fusion of case of the city (Gómez et.al, 2019). It is technological disciplines oriented to the about shifting from an interdisciplinary design of systems and processes, among quality, in which a group of disciplines or which urban administration stands out disciplinary approaches participate, towards a (Gómez, et al. 2019). trans-disciplinary fusion, due to the hybrid Although some similarities and differences character of the disciplinary framework that are perceived in the different definitions of makes up the science of cities (Wilson 2012, concepts, the proponents of the new city Batty, 2013, cited in Gómez et.al, 2019). This science make some distinctions with respect encompasses from the theories that build the to smart cities, to direct this approach complexity paradigm (chaos theory, systems towards the study of urban issues as network theory, among others) to recognized systems and interconnected flows (Batty, disciplines such as social physics, urban 2013). However, what the proponents of economics, urban sociology, among others smart cities and the city science agree on, is (Batty, 2013). that both approaches seek to improve the This conception of the city as a complex conditions of habitability in the city in a more system is consistent with the interdisciplinary efficient way. That is, improvements in

Revista de Morfologia Urbana (2020) 8(1): e00171en Rede Lusófona de Morfologia Urbana ISSN 2182-7214 Perspetivas 4 / 10 infrastructure, provision of services,  New York University’s Center for mobility, even the production of more Urban Science and Progress (CUSP). inclusive societies. Established in 2012, CUSP is an Among the applied research centers in the interdisciplinary research center city science field (also called urban science which applies the STEM approach in or smart city science) where new the service of urban communities by technologies for spatial and urban analysis employing data-driven solutions and are being developed, the following stand out: technology for complex urban problems. It is an academic  The City Science research group of collaboration with New York City the Massachusetts Institute of that seeks to improve urban services, Technology (City Science-MIT optimize local government decision- Media Lab, formerly called making processes, create smart urban Changing Places Group and infrastructures, as well as address successor to the extinct Smart Cities challenges such as crime, group that operated from 2003- environmental pollution, and public 2010). This center is geared towards health. The center collects, the research of new models of urban integrates, and analyzes information architecture (flexible spaces to live (data) from different agencies to and work) along with the design of understand and improve urban personal and autonomous vehicles systems and quality of life. CUSP that better respond to unique asserts the objective of helping the individual needs through intelligent cities of the world to be more personalization. They develop productive, more livable, more technology intended to understand equitable and resilient; it also states and respond to human, to oversee the research agenda for environmental, and market the science of cities. The center dynamics. They also work on the combines specialists from various development of autonomous and disciplines in the areas of physics real-time information systems for and natural sciences; and personal decision-making, as well as data science; social sciences, interfaces to persuade people to engineering, and other professional adopt sustainable behaviors. The fields such as politics, design, and lines of research address three areas: finance (Center for Urban Science places to live and work (Changing and Progress, 2019). Places), urban modeling, simulation, and prediction (City Scope) and  The Bartlett Centre for Advanced mobility on demand (PEV- Spatial Analysis (CASA) of the Persuasive Electric Vehicle). This University College of London. research group has created an Established in 1995 to lead the international network of development of smart city science, it collaborations with cities where City focuses on the application of Science laboratories have been computational models, data installed, including, but not limited visualization techniques, innovative to: Andorra, Toronto, Hamburg, sensor technologies, mobile Shanghai, Taipei, and Aalto. The applications, and urban theory linked perspective of this group is to to urban systems. The researchers of develop collaborations in rapidly the center carry out spatial analysis, growing cities in Latin America, using geographic information Africa and India in the coming years, systems and other forms of where the greatest challenges and representation of space and time impacts of urbanization are expected data. They employ a wide range of to occur in the future (City Science, methods: from social physics to Media Lab, 2019). econometrics; along with statistical

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models, which go from augmented  The Urban Analytics Lab at the reality and hyper-local sensing, to National University of Singapore is crowdsourced data collection. The an interdepartmental and approach is multidisciplinary, multidisciplinary research group that applied to create constructive was established in 2019. They focus models, visualize big data, and on urban analytics, geographic data develop new methods for collecting, science, and 3D city modeling. Their analyzing, and communicating projects are linked to the disciplines information. At CASA, systems of architecture, , and theory and complexity sciences real estate development. For the constitute the theoretical framework development of their studies they use for their investigations; visualization infrastructure, geospatial and urban technologies, computational human computing technology (geomatics, interaction and data analysis are data standardization, data quality, employed for the development of machine learning and geographic projects. This center offers solutions information systems) (Urban to the problems of resource Analytics Lab, 2019). efficiency, planning and effective governance in cities to make them  The Center for Spatial Planning better places to live. CASA involves Analytics and Visualization of the researchers from different training Georgia Institute of Technology. backgrounds such as architects, This Center, previously called the geographers, mathematicians, Center for Geographic Information physicists, archaeologists, and Systems, has been dedicated to the computer scientists (The Bartlett development of geospatial Center for Advanced Spatial technologies for nearly 20 years. In Analysis, CASA, 2019). it, the researchers seek to create a symbiosis between technology and  The group in the data management so that public Queensland University of policies build arguments in the Technology was founded in 2006. In decision-making phase to carry it out their work they apply various in an informed way. Their work established and novel methods of revolves around various disciplines research with the purpose of such as: transportation, urban identifying challenges and planning, conservation (land and opportunities in urban environments. animals), renewable energy, green They are based on sociocultural, areas, and the environment. economic, ecological, and technological spheres. The group  The UN Technology Innovation Labs collaborates with different individual (UNTILs). They focus on the use of actors, communities and innovative technology to solve some organizations from the public, of humanity's most pressing needs, private and social sectors. The and because they belong to the objective of their research projects is United Nations, their analyzes are to study and co-create urban futures always aligned with the Sustainable that are more livable and equitable, Development Goals (SDGs). Each ensuring that the results have an laboratory is based on different impact on the community. The humanitarian themes that are central researchers of the group come from according to the specific location. different areas: humanities and social Currently there are four: Egypt, sciences; design, planning and India, Finland, and Malaysia. Unlike architecture; human-computer the other research centers of interaction, information technology academic constitution listed in this and computer science. section, these laboratories have been created with the auspices of the

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national governments of each internet service. For this purpose, headquarters, which must regulate telecommunication networks were the participation and collaboration of established in public places and spaces such other actors, such as research centers as schools, health centers, libraries, and private sector entities (some are community centers or parks at the federal located in technology and / or state and municipal levels. In that business hubs) or startups (United administration, 101 thousand sites were Nations Technology Innovation labs, connected, and in the current government the 2019). name of the program is expected to be Internet for All (Government of Mexico, These research centers have in common, to a 2019). greater or lesser degree, the development of basic and applied science to urban problems; Nevertheless, the right of access to the synergy with other sectors or local actors internet is not exercised in an equitable way; such as governments, civil society, and access inequality responds to issues of industry; as well as interdisciplinarity. education, income, age, and gender, with Among their objectives is the search for these differences being more accentuated in efficiency and equity in cities. However, marginalized groups (Merino, 2017). except for the recent UN laboratories Although there are no data or studies that (UNTILs), most of them are located in cities allow evaluating the strategy of Connected of developed economies where these issues Mexico that sought to reduce the digital are not comparable to those of the Global divide, the National Survey on Availability South and Latin America in particular. and Use of Information Technologies in Households (INEGI, 2019) provides certain A Science for Rich Cities or to Alleviate guidelines which indicate that these digital Poverty and Inequality? inequalities are still considerable, although One of the arguments that the city science progress has been made towards reducing promoters establish is that not only do new them. technologies and applications revolutionize In recent years, the world average of people the way of doing things, facilitate activities with internet access went from 10% in 2000 and improve the productivity of companies, to 50% in 2015, and Mexico was below the but they also provide greater social inclusion world average until 2013, when it reached a (Prince & Jolías, 2017). However, are these 43.5% user penetration rate. Merino (2017) advantages possible for emerging economies concludes that between 2010 and 2015 there in contexts of scarcity of resources, low was an increase in users and connected educational level of the population, unmet homes; however, places with less internet basic needs, insecurity, lack of information, access have yet to see this situation among other concerns? improved. There continues to be great There is a great digital divide in Mexico, and inequity in internet access and therefore to bridge it not only are economic resources knowledge, reflecting the country's economic required, but changes in our institutions are inequality (Merino, 2017). also necessary. These changes seem This condition of inequality is related to the particularly out of date with the rapid urban change that is intertwined with technological transformations taking place neoliberal, cognitive, and cultural change worldwide. (Scott, 2011). In the global, neoliberal city, In the Mexican Constitution, internet access there is a re-stratification of the working is established as a right so that all citizens are classes: on the one hand, a pole integrated by well informed. In 2013, during the last the analytical and creative class, and on the federal administration, the Connected other, a pole made up of a subclass of low- Mexico government project (in Spanish: wage service workers who perform informal México Conectado) was launched and often undervalued activities, such as specifically to address this constitutional maintenance and housework; the number of right and guarantee access to broadband the latter is increasing. Therefore, there is a contradiction in what the creative city theory

Revista de Morfologia Urbana (2020) 8(1): e00171en Rede Lusófona de Morfologia Urbana ISSN 2182-7214 Perspetivas 7 / 10 pursues: tolerance and redistribution of types of surveys depend on active user income, which in practice does not occur participation, and therefore are limited, (Scott, 2014). On the contrary, there are expensive, and with relatively small samples authors who affirm that there is a risk that, (Chen, et al. 2016). The rapid development of since there are no mechanisms for mobility technologies and mobile devices has governments to invest in advanced generated a large amount of ‘passive’ technology that meets the needs of urban information, since the user generates it growth and its socioeconomic aspects at the involuntarily, simply by means of their cell city scale, then technology would be a phone, or without intending to use it for intensifier of social inequalities, remaining utilitarian purposes of inquiry. This accessible only to the most advantaged information called big data is collected sectors of the population (Thakuriah et al. through social networks input (Facebook, 2017: 7). Twitter, WhatsApp); cell phones; smart cards for public transportation; route planners, and Technological Tools for Urban Analysis traffic data such as Google Maps, TomTom, As mentioned before, ICT and the Internet of My Drive or Waze. These applications allow Things (IoT) have been incorporated in all users to calculate travel times and routes areas of daily life in recent decades, and they through a Global Positioning System. Often, are present in a large part of economic and to describe mobility, data from bank cards social activities. In some contexts, not only and other sensors and devices are also have processes or user experience been employed. There are some applications with improved, but activities themselves have greater contribution potential due to the type been completely modified. Artificial of information they collect; for example, the intelligence, robotics and big data also have information from taxis show patterns of several applications in the areas of medicine, drivers, rather than of users; smart cards yield mobility (e.g., electric and autonomous data on the use of transport modes, and the vehicles), education, agriculture, and 3D use of cell phones provides greater precision printing. This has been called the 4th of spatial and temporal information than that Revolution or the Exponential Era, and many of the social networks (Chen, et al, 2016; industries are expected to be transformed or IDB, 2019). to disappear in the next 5-10 years, due to the Big data provides information for better speed and magnitude of the changes planning, and therefore represents a generated and to come -among the dissolved particularly important input to improve companies is Kodak, as a consequence of the transportation infrastructure and services. It emergence of digital cameras. Furthermore, can help analyze different travel behaviors, new business models have appeared, such as among which gender issues stand out (e.g., Uber and Airbnb, which are developed from how women move in transport, issues of a software which unites all the processes of insecurity, harassment, lack of access) which the activity, but the company that controls are identified and can be improved. The them does not invest in vehicles or properties availability of the data helps understand how (Gollub, 2016). users move and thus assists in making In the area of mobility and transportation, conscious decisions on more efficient research on human behavior, and the mobility systems (IDB, 2019). relationship between these behaviors or Digital intelligence provides real-time patterns are affected by individual conditions. information for decision-making, which This research has been carried out in the last saves time and costs. It has recently started to four decades, due to the interest in predicting be applied to informal settlements, where the future demand of large investment official institutions do not collect projects in transportation. For that purpose, information. Consequently, digital instruments have been used to collect intelligence is an innovative tool of which information, such as travel surveys (Origin- users are a central part of the system, as they Destination surveys or O-D) that can be are the generators of information inputs accompanied by GPS applications. These (IDB, 2019). The lack of data on informal

Revista de Morfologia Urbana (2020) 8(1): e00171en Rede Lusófona de Morfologia Urbana ISSN 2182-7214 Perspetivas 8 / 10 settlements has been a problem in Mexico for Concluding remarks many years, since the Institute of Statistics, City science as a new discipline needs to Geography and Informatics (INEGI, in its establish a common theoretical framework at Spanish acronym) does not record the an international level which avoids housing and land uses that take place on generating different interpretations and uneven ground, which is incomprehensible misunderstandings in its conception as a for a country in which it is considered that socio-ecological-technological about 50% of the urban area of the country transdiscipline. It must be distinguished from has been developed from irregular other concepts and fields with which it is settlements. related: smart cities, urban science, urban Hence, technological trends focus on the use analytics, and urban computing. of artificial intelligence; robotics is used in The most influential schools of thought are manufacturing processes and other activities situated in cities of developed countries, and such as agriculture or housework; big data although they have produced studies about allows to assume trends, make decisions or their developing counterparts, their work is develop policies in the public and private focused on their countries of origin. The MIT sectors; the IoT is present in everything we City Science research group and CASA stand do, because objects can be interconnected out for their achievements, under the with each other through sensors and leadership of Kent Larson (formerly of machines that generate all kinds of William Mitchell) and of Michael Batty, information to measure, monitor or operate respectively. devices remotely, as it is happening with autonomous vehicles, which will play a In the research centers reviewed in this study, leading role in the transport of individuals the discourse on the use of technology to and goods, as well as in the occupation of achieve more equitable cities is observed as a public space. Among the expected impacts of constant. Nevertheless, there is scarce their use is the decrease in accidents and the evidence on concrete applications to address consequent transformation of insurance the most pressing problems of urbanization in businesses. Another substantial change is Mexican cities, this, in part, because these taking place in energy systems, which will centers are located in countries with allow, for example, the desalination of water developed economies which feature different at significantly low costs and the issues from the ones afflicting cities of virtualization of many services such as emerging economies. education, commerce and even currency. In Latin America and the Global South in These technological changes can transform general, there are still few examples of public the economic and social models of today policy programs that apply technology for the (Prince and Jolías, 2017). analysis and resolution of population issues; The evolution of technology is manifested in for the most part they focus on surveillance the activities of people's daily lives, with (cameras in public spaces) and on obtaining alterations that generate welfare. However, biometric data for the registration of people these changes -certainly increasingly rapid, (e.g., voter credentials from the National are not assimilated by vulnerable groups Electoral Institute in Mexico), but there are because, since they have limited resources, few palpable efforts to improve the quality of they cannot adapt to and benefit from them; life of the communities. The latter should be which means that far from improving the the orientation of city science research comprehensive situation of a community, projects in the region. they intensify existing inequalities. In summary, the challenge of technological Consequently, it is necessary to build public change in the context of developing policies that allow these vulnerable groups to economies is linked to regulatory and improve their conditions and thus move to institutional transformations. It involves new the next phases, reducing the prevailing business models and public policies that inequality gaps. generate incentives for technological development and its equitable access by the

Revista de Morfologia Urbana (2020) 8(1): e00171en Rede Lusófona de Morfologia Urbana ISSN 2182-7214 Perspetivas 9 / 10 different population groups. In this regard, at risk in health and financial matters three challenges are presented for the (Bergamini, 2020). development of a city science in Latin We have approximately 70 thousand years of American cities: to generate a theoretical inhabiting the earth and of conceiving framework of reference for city science in the ourselves as cognitive beings, but this quality region, to utilize the limited resources does not make us better than our primate existing in the cities in an efficient manner, ancestors; we have reached exponential and to dedicate technology to a different use degrees of technological development, which from that which the state has destined it to: leave us one step away from creating beings surveillance and control of the citizens. that are potentially more intelligent than us; The current pandemic caused by COVID-19 however, we have not helped ourselves is demonstrating how adaptation to new ways towards achieving a society that is more of life and work through the use of equitable and more respectful of our technology is relatively easier for certain environment. It is time that we accomplish it socioeconomic groups in the population, and through technology, through the science of how, in contrast, it is affecting more the city. vulnerable groups that are intrinsically more

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