DOCSLIB.ORG

Canadian Guidelines on Auditory Processing Disorder in Children and Adults: Assessment and Intervention

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Canadian Guidelines on Auditory Processing Disorder in Children and Adults: Assessment and Intervention CANADIAN GUIDELINES ON AUDITORY PROCESSING DISORDER IN CHILDREN AND ADULTS: ASSESSMENT AND INTERVENTION December 2012 Canadian Association of Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists www.cisg-gdci.ca [email protected] Table of Contents Table of Contents ................................................................................................................... 2 Disclaimer .............................................................................................................................. 4 Interorganizational Steering Group for Speech Language Pathology and Audiology ................ 4 Update and review ................................................................................................................. 4 Changes to web links .............................................................................................................. 4 Author sub-committee ........................................................................................................... 4 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ 4 Executive Summary ................................................................................................................ 5 CHAPTER 1 .............................................................................................................................. 6 INTRODUCTION AND FRAMEWORK .................................................................................................. 6 1.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 6 1.2. Moving to a 21st century perspective ..................................................................................... 6 1.3. Working within a theoretical framework for the Canadian context ........................................ 7 1.4. Guideline consumers ............................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................ 10 GUIDING PRINCIPLES, DEFINITIONS AND COMPETENCIES ............................................................... 10 2.1. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health .................................. 10 2.2. Body functions and structures ............................................................................................... 10 2.3. Activity and participation ....................................................................................................... 11 2.4. Contextual factors .................................................................................................................. 11 2.4.1. Environmental factors ...................................................................................................................... 11 2.4.2. Personal factors ............................................................................................................................... 11 2.5. Professionals involved in assessment and management of auditory processing disorder .... 13 2.6. Definition of auditory processing disorder ............................................................................ 13 2.7. Prevalence of auditory processing disorder ........................................................................... 14 2.8. Clinical competencies ............................................................................................................ 15 2.8.1. Clinical knowledge base ................................................................................................................... 15 2.8.2. Knowledge of community resources ............................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................ 17 ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF CHILDREN WITH AUDITORY PROCESSING DISORDER ........... 17 3.1. Indications for referral ........................................................................................................... 17 3.2. Personal factors ..................................................................................................................... 18 3.2.1. Age ................................................................................................................................................... 18 3.2.2. Cognitive, developmental, personality and learning disorders ....................................................... 18 3.2.3. Peripheral hearing loss ..................................................................................................................... 19 3.3. Screening ............................................................................................................................... 20 3.4. Assessment of auditory capacities ......................................................................................... 20 3.5. Pre-assessment information gathering and case history ....................................................... 21 3.6. Tools for assessment of auditory capacity ............................................................................. 21 3.7. Interpretation of auditory capacity test assessment ............................................................. 23 3.7.1. Delay vs. disorder ............................................................................................................................. 25 3.7.2. Re-evaluation ................................................................................................................................... 25 3.8. Intervention to improve participation ................................................................................... 25 3.9. Environmental factors to improve participation .................................................................... 27 3.9.1. Physical environmental factors ........................................................................................................ 27 Canadian Guidelines on Auditory Processing Disorder in Children and Adults: Assessment and Intervention 2 3.9.2. Partnership with the classroom teacher and school staff ............................................................... 27 3.9.3. Acoustics of the environment .......................................................................................................... 28 3.9.4. Assistive listening devices ................................................................................................................ 28 3.9.5. Social environmental factors ........................................................................................................... 30 3.9.6. Support, relationships and attitudes ............................................................................................... 30 3.9.7. Services, systems and policies ......................................................................................................... 30 3.10. Personal factors to improve participation ......................................................................... 31 3.10.1. Improving auditory capacities by direct intervention ...................................................................... 31 3.10.2. Improving the child’s ability to be active in communication and learning ...................................... 32 CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................ 34 ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF AUDITORY PROCESSING DISORDER ..................................... 34 IN ADULTS ...................................................................................................................................... 34 4.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 34 4.2. Indications for referral ........................................................................................................... 35 4.3. Personal factors ..................................................................................................................... 35 4.3.1. Age ................................................................................................................................................... 35 4.3.2. Cognition .......................................................................................................................................... 36 4.3.3. Tumours ........................................................................................................................................... 37 4.3.4. Cerebrovascular disorders or stroke ................................................................................................ 38 4.3.5. Traumatic brain injury ...................................................................................................................... 38 4.3.6. Epilepsy ............................................................................................................................................ 39 4.3.7. Solvent exposure .............................................................................................................................. 40 4.3.8. Demyelinating disorders and neurodegenerative diseases ............................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Book of Abstracts
    IERASG 2015 XX IV Biennial Symposium International Evoked Response Audiometry Study Group Biennial Symposium International Evoked Response XXIV Biennial Symposium of International Evoked Response Audiometry Study Group PROGRAM & ABSTRACTS XXIV Biennial Symposium of International Evoked Response Audiometry Study Group May 10-14 (Sun-Thu), 2015 www.ierasg2015.org Busan, Korea XXIV Biennial Symposium of International Evoked Response Audiometry Study Group PROGRAM & ABSTRACTS May 10-14 (Sun-Thu), 2015 Busan, Korea EDITOR’S NOTE The abstracts in this book have been edited and re-set to a standard format. Every effort has been made to interpret and respect the intended meaning of the original submission. Apologies are offered for any inadvertent misinterpretation herein. CONTENTS Welcome Messages ··············································································· 3 Organizing Committee ······································································ 6 IERASG Council ··························································································· 7 Meeting Overview ······················································································ 8 Program at a Glance ············································································· 8 General Information ··············································································· 9 Program ················································································································· 14 Authors’ Index ·························································································
    [Show full text]
  • Electrophysiological Responses to Speech Stimuli in Children
    © J Hear Sci, 2017; 7(4): 9–19 DOI: 10.17430/1002726 ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO SPEECH STIMULI IN CHILDREN Contributions: WITH OTITIS MEDIA A Study design/planning B Data collection/entry 1ABCDEF 1B C Data analysis/statistics Milaine Dominici Sanfins , Leticia Reis Borges , Caroline D Data interpretation 1BC 2FG 3,4,5FG E Preparation of manuscript Donadon , Stavros Hatzopoulos , Piotr H. Skarzynski , F Literature analysis/search 1ACDEF G Funds collection Maria Francisca Colella-Santos 1 Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil 2 Clinic of Audiology and ENT, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy 3 Institute of Physiology and Pathology of Hearing, Warsaw, Poland 4 Medical University of Warsaw, Dept. of Heart Failure and Cardiac Rehabilitation, Poland. 5 Institute of Sensory Organs, Kajetany, Poland Corresponding author : Milaine Dominici Sanfins, Faculty Medical Science, UNICAMP Rua Tessália Vieira de Camargo, 185., CEP: 13083-887, Campinas/SP. Brazil, Email: [email protected] or [email protected], Phone: +55 11 97060-3838 Abstract Background: Otitis media in childhood may result in changes in auditory information processing and speech perception. Once a failure in decoding information has been detected, an evaluation can be performed by auditory evoked potential as FFR. Material and Methods: 60 children and adolescents aged 8 to 14 years were included in the study. The subjects were assigned into two groups: a control group (CG) consisted of 30 typically developing children with normal hearing; and an experimental group (EG) of 30 children, also with normal hearing at the time of assessment, but who had a history of secretory otitis media in their first 6 years of life and who had under- gone myringotomy with placement of bilateral ventilation tubes.
    [Show full text]
  • Response to the Letter from Dr. Vermiglio Regarding Iliadou And
    J Am Acad Audiol 29:264–265 (2018) Letters to the Editor DOI: 10.3766/jaaa.17022 Response to the Letter from Dr. Vermiglio thology and Audiology, 2012; Sapere Research Group, Regarding Iliadou and Eleftheriadis (2017): 2014; NAL, 2015) and is included in the International CAPD is Classified in ICD-10 as H93.25 Classification Diseases, 10th edition (ICD-10) under the code H93.25. ICD-10 defines it as ‘‘a disorder char- We thank Dr. Vermiglio for commenting on our pub- acterized by impairment of the auditory processing, lished article ‘‘Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) as resulting in deficiencies in the recognition and interpre- the Sole Manifestation of a Cerebellopontine and Inter- tation of sounds by the brain. Causes include brain mat- nal Auditory Canal Lesion.’’ Following his acknowledg- uration delays and brain traumas or tumors.’’ CAPD is a ment of the merits of behavioral/psychoacoustic tests disorder of the central auditory nervous system with beyond the standard audiometric test battery, he states auditory perceptual deficits in the underlying neurobi- that our case report does not ‘‘provide clarity for the ological activity giving rise to the electrophysiological highly controversial construct of APD.’’ His main objec- auditory potentials (Chermak et al, 2017). Heterogene- tion seems to be our conclusion that ‘‘This clinical case ity is inherent to disorders and if one was to define a stresses the importance of testing for APD with a psy- clinical entity based on representation of a homoge- choacoustical test battery despite current debate of lack neous patient group then we should not accept diagno- of a gold standard diagnostic approach to APD.’’ It is not ses such as dyslexia, autism spectrum disorder, or even clear why he thinks that this statement is not true, as auditory neuropathy/auditory dyssynchrony disorder.
    [Show full text]
  • Illusion Free Download
    ILLUSION FREE DOWNLOAD Sherrilyn Kenyon | 464 pages | 05 Feb 2015 | Little, Brown Book Group | 9781907411564 | English | London, United Kingdom Illusion (Ability) Visually perceived images that differ from objective reality. This urge to see depth is probably so strong because our ability to use two-dimensional information to infer a three dimensional world is essential Illusion allowing us to operate in the world. The exact height of the bars is Illusion important here, but the relative heights should look something like this:. A hallucination is a perception Illusion a thing or quality Illusion has no physical counterpart: Under the influence of LSD, Terry had hallucinations that the living-room floor was rippling. MD GtI. Name that government! Water-color illusions consist of object-hole effects and coloration. Then, using some impressive mental geometry, our brain adjusts the experienced length of the top line to be consistent with the size it would have if it were that far away: Illusion two lines are the same length on my retina, but different distances from me, the more distant line must be in Illusion longer. Choose the Right Synonym for illusion delusionillusionhallucinationmirage mean something that is believed to be true or real Illusion that is actually false or unreal. ISSN Illusion Ponzo illusion is an example of an illusion which uses monocular cues of depth perception to fool the eye. The phi phenomenon is yet another example of how the brain perceives motion, which is most often created by blinking lights in close succession. The cubic texture induces a Necker-cube -like optical illusion.
    [Show full text]
  • Developmental Plasticity of Spatial Hearing Following Asymmetric Hearing Loss: Context-Dependent Cue Integration and Its Clinical Implications
    REVIEW ARTICLE published: 27 December 2013 SYSTEMS NEUROSCIENCE doi: 10.3389/fnsys.2013.00123 Developmental plasticity of spatial hearing following asymmetric hearing loss: context-dependent cue integration and its clinical implications Peter Keating* and Andrew J. King* Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Edited by: Under normal hearing conditions, comparisons of the sounds reaching each ear are critical Jonathan E. Peelle, Washington for accurate sound localization. Asymmetric hearing loss should therefore degrade spatial University in St. Louis, USA hearing and has become an important experimental tool for probing the plasticity of the Reviewed by: auditory system, both during development and adulthood. In clinical populations, hearing Michael Pecka, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Germany loss affecting one ear more than the other is commonly associated with otitis media Daniel B. Polley, Massachusetts Eye with effusion, a disorder experienced by approximately 80% of children before the age of and Ear Infirmary, Ashmore and two. Asymmetric hearing may also arise in other clinical situations, such as after unilateral Cartier Islands cochlear implantation. Here, we consider the role played by spatial cue integration in sound *Correspondence: localization under normal acoustical conditions. We then review evidence for adaptive Peter Keating and Andrew J. King, Department of Physiology, Anatomy changes in spatial hearing following a developmental hearing loss in one ear, and show and Genetics, University of Oxford, that adaptation may be achieved either by learning a new relationship between the altered Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PT, UK cues and directions in space or by changing the way different cues are integrated in the e-mail: [email protected]; brain.
    [Show full text]
  • Dichotic Listening Deficits in Amblyaudia Are Characterized by Aberrant Neural Oscillations in Auditory Cortex
    Clinical Neurophysiology 132 (2021) 2152–2162 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Clinical Neurophysiology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/clinph Dichotic listening deficits in amblyaudia are characterized by aberrant neural oscillations in auditory cortex ⇑ Sara Momtaz a, , Deborah Moncrieff a, Gavin M. Bidelman a,b,c a School of Communication Sciences & Disorders, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA b Institute for Intelligent Systems, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA c University of Tennessee Health Sciences Center, Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Memphis, TN, USA article info highlights Article history: Amblyaudia is characterized by a stark interaural asymmetry in dichotic listening performance. Accepted 29 April 2021 Stronger phase-locked b/c oscillations within the bilateral auditory cortex for stimuli presented to the Available online 4 June 2021 right ear in amblyaudia. Weaker functional connectivity in amblyaudia from right to left auditory cortex, despite overall stron- Keywords: Auditory processing disorders (APD) ger neural responses. Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) Gamma/beta band response Hemispheric asymmetries abstract Phase-locking Time-frequency analysis Objective: Children diagnosed with auditory processing disorder (APD) show deficits in processing com- plex sounds that are associated with difficulties in higher-order language, learning, cognitive, and com- municative functions. Amblyaudia (AMB) is a subcategory of APD characterized by abnormally large ear asymmetries in dichotic listening tasks. Methods: Here, we examined frequency-specific neural oscillations and functional connectivity via high- density electroencephalography (EEG) in children with and without AMB during passive listening of non- speech stimuli. Results: Time-frequency maps of these ‘‘brain rhythms” revealed stronger phase-locked beta-gamma (~35 Hz) oscillations in AMB participants within bilateral auditory cortex for sounds presented to the right ear, suggesting a hypersynchronization and imbalance of auditory neural activity.
    [Show full text]
  • The Effect of Higher Order Listening Function and Hearing Loss on Cognition
    THE EFFECT OF HIGHER ORDER LISTENING FUNCTION AND HEARING LOSS ON COGNITION IN OLDER ADULTS GRACE KELLEE NIXON ORCID 0000-0002-4106-6554 Submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy January 2020 Department of Audiology and Speech Pathology The University of Melbourne i ii © 2020 GRACE KELLEE NIXON ALL RIGHTS RESERVED iii iv ABSTRACT Grace Kellee Nixon: The Effect of Higher Order Listening Function and Hearing Loss on Cognition in Older Adults INTRODUCTION: Previous research has identified a relationship between hearing loss and cognitive impairment/dementia in older adults, however this research has primarily focused on measures of sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). Central Auditory Processing (CAP), an ability which decreases with increasing age, is recognised as important for understanding speech in background noise, but is not routinely considered in audiological assessment or hearing-cognition research. Yet, some studies have provided evidence that poorer performance on some measures of CAP ability significantly relate to reduced cognitive function and/or increased likelihood of dementia diagnosis. Although there is no known treatment for cognitive impairment, hearing impairment is to some extent treatable with hearing aids (HAs). OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to examine the relationship between hearing impairment and cognitive impairment by assessing both peripheral hearing loss and CAP ability. Additionally, this research aimed to investigate how hearing, cognition and personal factors influence HA outcomes (uptake/use/benefit) in older adults. DESIGN: Experimental study design with 85 older adults between the ages of 60.33 and 80.08 (m =70.23, SD = 5.17). SNHL was assessed using Pure Tone Audiometry (PTA), the Listening in Spatialised noise-Sentences (LiSN-S) test and Dichotic Digits Test.
    [Show full text]
  • Gidado Jennifer Busayo 18/Mhs01/166 Nursing Physiology
    GIDADO JENNIFER BUSAYO 18/MHS01/166 NURSING PHYSIOLOGY Discuss the physiology of balance The vestibular system is the sensory apparatus of the inner ear that helps the body maintain its postural equilibrium. The information furnished by the vestibular system is also essential for coordinating the position of the head and the movement of the eyes. There are two sets of end organs in the inner ear, or labyrinth: the semicircular canals, which respond to rotational movements (angular acceleration); and the utricle and saccule within the vestibule, which respond to changes in the position of the head with respect to gravity (linear acceleration). The information these organs deliver is proprioceptive in character, dealing with events within the body itself, rather than exteroceptive, dealing with events outside the body, as in the case of the responses of the cochlea to sound. Functionally these organs are closely related to the cerebellum and to the reflex centres of the spinal cord and brainstem that govern the movements of the eyes, neck, and limbs. Although the vestibular organs and the cochlea are derived embryologically from the same formation, the otic vesicle, their association in the inner ear seems to be a matter more of convenience than of necessity. From both the developmental and the structural point of view, the kinship of the vestibular organs with the lateral line system of the fish is readily apparent. The lateral line system is made up of a series of small sense organs located in the skin of the head and along the sides of the body of fishes.
    [Show full text]
  • Comparison of Persian Staggered Spondaic Word Test's Scores Before and After Rehabilitation in Children with Amblyaudia
    Aud Vestib Res (2020);29(3):165-171. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18502/avr.v29i3.3849 RESEARCH ARTICLE Comparison of Persian staggered spondaic word test’s scores before and after rehabilitation in children with amblyaudia Ahmadreza Nazeri1, Houra Bagheri1*, Alireza Akbarzadeh Baghban2,3, Ehsan Negin4 1- Department of Audiology, School of Rehabilitation, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran 2- Proteomics Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran 3- Department of Biostatistics, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran 4- Department of Audiology, School of Rehabilitation, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Received: 23 Mar 2020, Revised: 18 May 2020, Accepted: 5 Jun 2020, Published: 15 Jul 2020 Abstract Background and Aim: Amblyaudia is a diag- (p < 0.004) categories as well as the total mean nostic issue in central auditory processing disor- score of P-SSW test after training. The Wilcoxon der (CAPD), which is characterized by asymme- test also showed the effect of this training on the try in dichotic listening performance. This disor- integration category (p < 0.025). The McNemar der negatively affects the academic performance test, however, showed no statistically significant of children by influencing their information pro- effect of the DIID training on the organization cessing, reading, attention, etc. The present study category. aimed to investigate the effect of the dichotic Conclusion: The DIID training causes signifi- interaural intensity difference (DIID) training on cant improvement in some central auditory pro- all auditory processing categories of the Buffalo cessing categories of the Buffalo Model, inclu- Model using the Persian staggered spondaic ding decoding, tolerance fading memory and word (P-SSW) test.
    [Show full text]
  • American Auditory Society Scientific and Technology Meeting March 4 - 6, 2021
    American Auditory Society Scientific and Technology Meeting March 4 - 6, 2021 POSTER ABSTRACTS Topic areas and poster numbers: Topic Area Poster Numbers POSTER SESSION – Friday, March 5, 2021, 1:30 p.m. – 4:00 p.m. MST Anatomy and Physiology Poster #1-4 Audiology / Otology Poster #5-20 Auditory Processing Poster #21-25 Cochlear Implants Poster #26-33 Electrophysiological Responses Poster #34-36 Hearing Loss / Rehabilitation Poster #37-45 Hearing Science / Psychoacoustics Poster #46-49 Hearing Technology / Amplification Poster #50-62 Pediatric Audiology / Otology Poster #63-66 Speech Perception Poster #67-82 Tinnitus Poster #83-87 Electrophysiological Responses Poster #88 ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY Poster #: 01 Evidence for a Shared Generation Mechanism of Reflection-Type OAEs Mark Rinaolo; Courtney Glavin; Sumitrajit Dhar, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL Objectives: Otoacoustic emissions (OAEs) are low-level sounds measured in the ear canal that originate in the cochlea. OAE types have traditionally been categorized by the stimulus/stimuli used to evoke them. However, more recent work suggests that there are two distinct classes of OAEs – distortion (nonlinear) and reflection (linear). It is theorized that emissions within a respective class share a common generation mechanism. While distortion emissions are thought to arise from nonlinear processes associated with outer hair cell transduction, reflection emissions are thought to arise from the back-scattering of energy due to irregularities, or “roughness”, along the cochlear partition. In this project, we explore two types of OAEs evoked using different stimuli but theorized to both be reflection-type emissions: stimulus-frequency OAEs (SFOAE) and the reflection component of distortion product OAEs (DPOAER).
    [Show full text]
  • A Brief Overview of Amblyaudia
    Health, 2015, 7, 927-933 Published Online August 2015 in SciRes. http://www.scirp.org/journal/health http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/health.2015.78110 A Brief Overview of Amblyaudia RaeLynn J. Lamminen, Daniel Houlihan Minnesota State University, Mankato, USA Email: [email protected] Received 29 April 2015; accepted 2 August 2015; published 5 August 2015 Copyright © 2015 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Abstract Amblyaudia, a recent subcategory of auditory processing disorder, is characterized by asymme- trical auditory processing of an individual’s ears. Amblyaudia can result in speech comprehension difficulties, reading difficulties, information processing deficits, and inattention. These difficulties can be mistakenly attributed to Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Specific Learning Disorders (SLD), depression, anxiety disorders, and communication disorders. Unfortunately, tra- ditional hearing tests do not place the two ears in competition and cannot detect asymmetry. Therefore, students who exhibit these difficulties and have normal performance on traditional hearing tests should be also evaluated for amblyaudia with dichotic listening tests. Amblyaudia can be addressed through dichotic listening tasks that strengthen the non-dominant ear, as well as minor adjustments to the classroom environment. This paper will examine the current literature on amblyaudia and provide a brief overview of the causes, diagnosis, treatments, and prognosis. Keywords Amblyaudia, Auditory Processing Disorder, Otitis Media 1. Introduction Amblyaudia is a new diagnostic category within Auditory Processing Disorders (APD) [1] [2]. When one ear is developmentally deprived it causes the other ear to compensate and leads to weaknesses in the listener’s binau- ral processing of auditory information [2]-[4].
    [Show full text]
  • Auditory Map Plasticity: Diversity in Causes and Consequences
    Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect Auditory map plasticity: diversity in causes and consequences 1 2 Christoph E Schreiner and Daniel B Polley Auditory cortical maps have been a long-standing focus of anesthetized animals [11,12], continues to provide a valu- studies that assess the expression, mechanisms, and able basis for understanding each of these processes. consequences of sensory plasticity. Here we discuss recent progress in understanding how auditory experience transforms Auditory maps retain a fundamental plasticity throughout spatially organized sound representations at higher levels of the the lifespan that enables highly specific adjustments in central auditory pathways. New insights into the mechanisms the spatial domain and tuning properties for distinct underlying map changes have been achieved and more refined signal types. Maps represent a repository of an individ- interpretations of various map plasticity effects and their ual’s long-term history with sound as well as an ingenious consequences in terms of behavioral corollaries and learning as biological solution to meet the competing demands of well as other cognitive aspects have been offered. The stability and lability. On the one hand, topographically systematic organizational principles of cortical sound mapped auditory feature representations provide a robust processing remain a key aspect in studying and interpreting the and stable scheme for decoding the acoustic content of role of plasticity in hearing. afferent signals. On the other hand, inputs from higher cortical areas or neuromodulatory nuclei can override the Addresses 1 biological controls that maintain feature stability and Coleman Memorial Laboratory, UCSF Center for Integrative Neuroscience, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, enable rapid, specific, and lasting spatial modifications CA 94143, USA in support of adaptive behavior.
    [Show full text]