RESEARCH IN REVIEW

Caring about Caring: What Adults Can Do to Promote Young Children’s Prosocial Skills

Marilou Hyson and Jackie L. Taylor “I worry about how the children treat one another every day. There are those moments when they struggle to be kind, and when they make fun of someone else.” As r e f l e c t e d in t h e s e t e a c h e r s ’ Spinrad 2006, 646). This article draws c o m m e n t s , many early childhood edu- extensively on their excellent literature — Amanda, Pre-K Teacher cators are seriously concerned about review. The second author of this article bullying and . Children’s nega- (Taylor) conducted a survey and face-to- “[Some children] have a tough time tive social behaviors also dominate the face interviews about prosocial develop- fitting in. Children who . . . physi- media and are the focus of much current ment with early childhood teachers and cally lash out at other children, hit, research. Recent studies result in some directors in the spring of 2010. In the punch. I have a large number [of progress in understanding the early ori- interviews, early childhood educators children] who need help.” gins and harmful effects of physical and used terms such as , sharing, relational aggression (Crick et al. 2006) compassion, helping others, compromise, — Rachel, Teacher and designing interventions to reduce respect for others, and hugging other chil- its occurrence (Ostrov et al. 2009). It is dren to describe prosocial behavior in equally important to nurture positive young children (Taylor 2010). Prosocial “I feel . . . responsible for the quality alternatives—children’s prosocial feel- behaviors might also include cooperat- of the interactions children experi- ings and behavior toward others. ing, including others in play, giving a ence. Sometimes children make fun Nancy Eisenberg, a leading researcher compliment, and comforting a child who of one another or bully each other.” in the area of prosocial behavior, and is upset (Honig 2004; Ramaswamy & — Maria, Pre-K Teacher her coauthors describe prosocial behav- Bergin 2009). ior as “voluntary behavior intended to One word, voluntary, is especially benefit another” (Eisenberg, Fabes, & important in Eisenberg’s definition of prosocial behavior. If children are forced to “be nice and share” or told to “say you’re sorry,” then their behavior is not voluntary and cannot be considered Marilou Hyson, PhD, is a US and international early childhood consultant based in Stock- bridge, Massachusetts. A former editor in chief of Early Childhood Research Quarterly and prosocial. The research we share in former NAEYC associate executive director, she has published several books on emo- this article highlights many ways that tional development and children’s approaches to learning. [email protected] children’s prosocial development can be Jackie L. Taylor, MS, is program director of the Texas AEYC in Austin, home of the actively promoted without being forced. T.E.A.C.H. Early Childhood TEXAS Project. Jackie is a 2009 Head Start Fellow and serves on the State Early Childhood Career Development System Advisory Committee. She has provided training and consulting on children’s prosocial behavior to early child- A preview hood programs for over 18 years. [email protected] With Eisenberg’s definition in mind, This Research in Review article was edited by journal research editor Mary McMullen, PhD, professor of early childhood education at Indiana University in Bloomington. we summarize the research on young children’s prosocial development and The authors wish to thank the teachers and directors in the Central Texas area who behavior. In doing so, we emphasize participated in the surveys and interviews. For copies of survey information, please contact Jackie Taylor at [email protected]. studies and literature reviews published within the past 10 years, especially

® those with implications for how early 1, 2, 7 childhood educators might intentionally

74 Young Children • July 2011 adulthood found that children who were observed to spontaneously share toys more often than their classmates showed more prosocial skill 19 years later (Eisenberg et al. 1999). Children’s prosocial competence also predicts their strengths in other areas, correlating with academic as well as social-emotional skills. For example, a recent study of Head Start children showed that those who scored higher on assessments of prosocial competence were, later on in the year, assessed to be among the most “cognitively ready” for school (Bierman et al. 2009). Another study showed that first-graders with low-income backgrounds who were more helpful to others had greater literacy skills in third grade (Miles & Stipek 2006). So there are many compel-

© Julia Luckenbill ling reasons to care about caring. promote prosocial skills among pre- The scope of this short review is school and kindergarten children. intentionally limited. We will be able to Prosocial children: It is important to know that much of touch only briefly on research on proso- Are they born or made? the prosocial research has been done cial development in infants and tod- with parents and children at home, not dlers, in children with disabilities, and with teachers and children in center- among culturally diverse children within based or family child care settings. Also, and beyond the United States. Many of “I have students who are ‘natural’ most of the research is correlational: the general references listed at the end helpers. These are the students thus it cannot show definitively that of this article will help readers pursue who clean up without being asked, certain experiences cause children to these and other topics in more depth. help a friend clean up spilled milk, be more prosocial or that children’s or give someone a toy without prosocial skills cause them to develop having to be asked. I am not sure why some children have a predis- other desirable competencies. However, Key questions we are confident of our conclusions here position toward prosocial behav- ior and some seem to struggle.” because in this review we have relied Our discussion of the research is orga- not just on the results of small individ- nized around three questions: (1) Why is — Amanda, Pre-K Teacher ual studies but also on evidence from a prosocial development so important— number of different types of studies. that is, why care about caring? (2) How do children develop prosocial skills— Although research has identified early that is, are prosocial children born or signs of empathy and prosocial behavior made? and (3) What can early childhood among infants and toddlers, it takes a A recent study of Head professionals do to promote children’s sensitive observer to notice these signs prosocial development? (see, for example, Quann & Wien 2006; Start children showed McMullen et al. 2009; Gillespie & Hunter Why care about caring? 2010). By their first birthday, many that those who scored children show what Hoffman (2000) higher on assessments Early childhood educators want to calls “empathic distress”—for example, help children become kind, generous, crying when they see other children of prosocial compe- and empathic. Starting early is impor- cry, or looking sad when caregivers tence were, later on in tant, because early prosocial tendencies look unhappy. Around 14 months, many often continue into later years. Children toddlers spontaneously try to help if the year, assessed to be who are more prosocial when they begin someone seems unhappy. Usually this school continue to be more prosocial in involves the toddler doing something among the most “cogni- the primary grades (Eisenberg, Fabes, & that would be comforting to the toddler, tively ready” for school. Spinrad 2006). And this pattern seems not necessarily what would comfort the to continue: one study that followed other person. By 18 months, toddlers children from preschool into early will even help a stranger in a research

Young Children • July 2011 75 What can early childhood profes- sionals do to promote children’s prosocial development? Adults are the most important features of young children’s environments (see Pianta 1997; Shonkoff & Phillips 2000). In various ways, adults may encourage or discourage children’s development of prosocial behavior. Across the grades, including preschool, classroom observa- tions reveal how seldom children behave in prosocial ways and how seldom teachers explicitly encourage, reinforce, or discuss expectations for prosocial behavior (Spinrad & Eisenberg 2009). Even in some infant classrooms, observ- ers may find active discouragement of prosocial interactions and relationships, as seen in one center (McMullen 2010) where staff always “taught” babies one by one, in isolation from others, and where staff moved a baby away from another when the two had contentedly been playing side by side. Basing our discussion on relevant research, in the next section of the review we describe five areas in which early childhood professionals’ actions can promote prosocial development.

Promoting children’s prosocial development

Educators can promote prosocial © Marilyn Nolt development by building secure rela- tionships, creating classroom com- laboratory, picking up an object if they than others. Are such children simply munity, modeling prosocial behavior, notice that the adult seems unable to do born more prosocial than their peers? establishing prosocial expectations, and so (Warneken & Tomasello 2006). Just as there are genetic influences on supporting families. During the preschool years, more children’s general sociability and empa- signs of empathy, helpfulness, and thy (Knafo et al. 2008), there may also be 1. Building secure relationships concern for others usually appear, and genetic influences on prosocial tenden- When teachers intentionally create preschoolers become more aware of and cies, as seen in studies of identical twins secure relationships in early childhood intentional about their prosocial actions later raised in different families (Knafo programs, children benefit socially, (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad 2006). & Plomin 2006). However, researchers emotionally, and academically (Howes School-age children often behave more agree that these influences are small in & Ritchie 2002; Hamre & Pianta 2001; prosocially than they did as preschool- comparison with the strong influence of Palermo et al. 2007). Now we have ers, in part because of their growing children’s environments, especially when ability to understand others’ thoughts it comes to children’s actual behaviors, and feelings and to regulate their own not just their general feelings of empa- distress and impulsive behavior. thy. The researchers’ findings contrast “Some [children] have much more Most children begin early in life to act with the common belief—reflected by prosocial families [who are nurtur- in ways that show empathy and pro- a number of teachers interviewed in ing], and in a classroom they are social tendencies. Yet it is obvious Taylor’s study and shown in this arti- more caring with peers.” that—at any age—some children are cle—that differences in prosocial tenden- — Jermayn, Pre-K Teacher more helpful, concerned, and caring cies are essentially genetic or “natural.”

76 Young Children • July 2011 evidence of the specific benefit of these individual children, those children show relationships for children’s prosocial more empathy and behave more posi- development. tively toward others in the classroom Humans are social crea- Secure relationships begin at home and as reported by mothers (Pianta & tures, and even subtle but extend into early childhood pro- Stuhlman 2004; Spinrad & Eisenberg gram settings as well. Differences in 2009). changes in children’s children’s attachment histories (that Teachers can nurture warm relation- social environments can is, whether they have previously devel- ships in many small ways: responding oped secure or insecure relationships sensitively to children’s everyday needs, make them more aware within their family) may help explain interacting in emotionally supportive why some children enter an early child- ways, listening and conversing with of their connection to hood program with more well-developed sincere attention. Sharing these small the group. prosocial skills than others. There is moments has been called “banking time” good evidence that young children who (Driscoll & Pianta 2010)—that is, invest- have warm relationships and secure ing brief, positive moments with indi- attachments to their parents are more vidual children, especially those who are close-knit learning community—in a likely to be empathic and prosocial often overlooked or viewed negatively classroom or family child care home— (Kestenbaum, Farber, & Sroufe 1989; (Hyson 2004, 2008). can also support children’s prosocial Zhou et al. 2002; Campbell & von development. Stauffenberg 2008), probably because Humans are social creatures, and children are more likely to notice and 2. Creating a classroom community even subtle changes in children’s social copy the behavior of adults to whom A core value of developmentally environments can make them more they feel a close connection. appropriate practice is to create a car- aware of their connection to the group. Turning from parents to teachers, ing community of learners (Copple & In a recent experimental study (Over & whether or not a child’s parental attach- Bredekamp 2009). Just as warm teacher- Carpenter 2009), 18-month-olds were ment has been secure, when teachers child relationships predict children’s much more likely to spontaneously help have warm, secure relationships with prosocial skills, being a member of a a stranger in need after they were shown

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eLearn:TYC’s easy-to-use format creates a collaborative learning environment for teachers, program directors, and adult educators. Learn more at eLearn.naeyc.org Young Children • July 2011 or call 800-424-2460, option 4. 77 photographs of people together with 2003). Wanting to play with their friends, just immediately but even after consid- others than after viewing photographs young children may feel motivated erable time has passed—as summarized of individuals alone. Teachers can help to behave prosocially, because other by Eisenberg and Fabes (1998). create this affiliative atmosphere in children may not want to play with If an adult is warm, nurturing, and many ways, such as posting class pho- them unless they cooperate, help solve responsive, children are especially tographs, talking about group projects, problems, and engage in flexible give- likely to notice and imitate aspects and reminding children that they are all and-take. of their behavior, including prosocial members of a caring group of friends. There is some evidence that children actions (Hyson 2004). Thus, teachers Young children are actually more who spend time with very prosocial who have those characteristics have a likely to use prosocial behavior when classmates are likely to become more good chance of prompting children’s they are with other children than with prosocial themselves; over time, they empathic, helpful, caring, generous adults (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad come to adopt the more helpful, caring behavior by demonstrating that behav- 2006). Teachers can tap into this ten- norms of their peers (Eisenberg, Fabes, ior themselves. Opportunities present dency by creating many opportunities & Spinrad 2006). However, it is often themselves every day: helping a child for children to work and play together. the case that the less-prosocial chil- put on a new jacket that buttons differ- As they do so, however, teachers need dren tend to spend their time with one ently; expressing loving concern when a to scaffold children’s emerging prosocial another, thus having fewer opportunities child’s parent has been ill; and offering skills; for example, teachers can give a to learn from more-prosocial classmates. some materials that will help a child child words with which to offer help to These findings should encourage finish a project. To highlight this mod- a classmate or suggest ways that two teachers to identify everyday opportu- eling, teachers can comment on what children can extend their pretend play nities and plan strategies that will give they are doing and why (“Oh, Carla, I in a mutually interesting direction. children time, space, and support to see that you’re having trouble with that. Friendships are especially important become fully engaged members of their How about if I help you? It makes me as contexts for prosocial development. learning communities (see in particular happy to help children out when they Children who have more “supportive Whitin 2001; Honig 2004; Jones 2005; need it.”). Teachers can also promote friendships” in preschool have been Copple & Bredekamp 2009). As part of these skills by modeling kindness and found to be more prosocial (Sebanc this effort, teachers can intentionally consideration in their interactions with counteract the separation of less- colleagues and families. prosocial children from the more proso- cial by pairing and mixing up children 4. Establishing prosocial expectations for various activities (Bodrova & Leong 2007), creating more ways for children to experience others’ prosocial and “I think how I address prosocial empathic behavior. behavior plays a large role in how the children interact with one 3. Modeling prosocial behavior another and what they learn in the classroom.” — Amanda, Pre-K Teacher “I have found that most of my stu- dents respond very well to the use Important as adult relationships and of puppet activities. The use of a modeling are, it is not enough to set up puppet makes a huge difference. If a nurturing environment for prosocial they can talk through the problem development, or even just to be proso- with a puppet, they build up to cial ourselves. Children are more likely talking it over with a peer.” to develop empathy and prosocial skills — Amanda, Pre-K Teacher if adults make it clear that they expect (but do not force) them to do so. Polite requests for children to be helpful and generous are effective and often neces- Adults’ demonstration or modeling sary prompts for prosocial behavior has been found to influence children’s (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad 2006). prosocial development in study after Sometimes adults may think that they study (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad should be more subtle, but children— 2006). Many of these studies have used especially toddlers—may need clear laboratory experiments to examine prompts or cues. For example, in a influences on children’s generosity. For laboratory study, Brownell, Svetlova, example, when children observe an and Nichols (2009) found that 25-month- adult behave in a generous way, they are old children would share voluntarily, but

© Marilyn Nolt very likely to imitate that behavior, not to elicit this prosocial behavior the adult

78 Young Children • July 2011 needed to offer an explicit cue about Spinrad 2006; Trommsdorff, Friedlmeier, what she liked or wanted (“I like crack- & Mayer 2007). In many cultures, includ- ers!” “I need a cracker!”). Note that this ing most non-Western cultures, children differs from an adult either remaining are often expected to do real work that silent and waiting for the child to think helps the family, care for brothers and of sharing the snack or, at the other sisters, share even their beloved pos- extreme, telling the child that he or she sessions with younger children, and must share the crackers. generally be more cooperative members of the community. Teachers may notice differences between children’s behav- iors that emerge from families’ cultur- It is important to point ally influenced prosocial expectations out that there are large and may see these behaviors reflected in children’s pretend play and interac- cultural differences and tions with peers. When a class includes children who are growing up within that adults in some such cultures, other children may have cultures emphasize a chance to learn more cooperative and caring ways of relating to their peers.

prosocial skills far more © Shatri Schmidt than others. 5. Supporting families In prosocial development, as in other mine prosocial development by relying aspects of children’s lives, families are on practices that are unlikely to produce the first and most influential teachers. these desired results. For example, Researchers find that when parents There are several areas where early many parents believe that children will are very clear about the kind of behav- childhood educators might support fam- become more prosocial if they are given ior they expect—and what they do not ilies in this role. Whatever their culture, treats or other rewards for “being nice.” wish to see—children indeed become many families do interact with their chil- Research indicates just the opposite, more helpful and caring than when dren in ways that are likely to encourage however (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad expectations are less clearly defined children to become more empathic, 2006; Warneken & Tomasello 2008). (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad 2006). generous, and helpful. However, other Although such rewards may produce An especially strong influence on pro- families may, without realizing it, under- short-term results, they actually backfire social development is adults’ use of the discipline strategy induction—pointing out the reasons for rules or the effect of one’s behavior on others. For example, Marta’s mother explains how her daugh- Now in Paperback ter’s friend Sarah is feeling because of Preschool in Three Marta’s hurtful comments. As summa- culTures revisiTed rized by Eisenberg and her coauthors China, Japan, and the United States (2006), research indicates that induction Joseph Tobin, Yeh hsueh, strategies are most likely to be effec- and Mayumi Karasawa tive when they are presented at the child’s developmental level, clear and “This is a book I strongly recommend. It consistent, and delivered by someone is a rich text presenting a cross cultural, with whom the child has a close, warm cross national, and cross time account of relationship—which could potentially preschool education.”—Education Review include both parents and teachers. PaPer $22.50 Adults differ a great deal in how A DVD is also available. It shows typical clearly they communicate prosocial days in preschools in China, Japan, expectations to children. Although a full and the United States, with narration discussion of cross-cultural research tracks that present explanations and reflections of early childhood educators on prosocial development is not our from each country. intention in this article, it is important individual $85.00 to point out that there are large cultural insTiTuTions $175.00 differences and that adults in some Go To JoeTobin.neT To order cultures emphasize prosocial skills far more than others (Levine, Norenzayan, The university of chicago Press www.press.uchicago.edu & Philbrick 2001; Eisenberg, Fabes, &

Young Children • July 2011 79 Morrissey (2009) suggests that when families use multiple child care arrange- Research indicates that if parents help children learn ments, their children, especially younger to cope with their own negative feelings, their chil- toddlers, show less prosocial behavior than those who are in a more stable dren become better able to tune in to and help others child care setting. It is possible that multiple caregiving arrangements lessen who are distressed. opportunities for children to develop the secure caregiver relationships that predict prosocial skill development. Although early childhood educators usu- in the long term. Children may become prosocial, with more behavior problems, ally cannot control the factors that lead less generous when the expected perhaps because of their mothers’ stress to individual families’ child care deci- rewards stop coming their way. levels. Through family and community sions, they can advocate for policies and While respecting families’ home outreach, early childhood programs resources that help families access con- practices, early childhood profession- may be in a good position to help fami- sistent, high-quality child care arrange- als might share information about the lies strengthen their social networks, ments that will support prosocial skills risk of rewarding children for sharing thereby benefiting many aspects of as well as other competencies. or being kind, and help families think of parents’ lives, including but not limited other ways to encourage these prosocial to their ability to strengthen their chil- behaviors. For example, research indi- dren’s prosocial skills. cates that if parents help children learn Families’ child care challenges may Conclusion—Taking action to cope with their own negative feelings, also affect their children’s prosocial for caring their children become better able to development. Using data from the NICHD tune in to and help others who are dis- (National Institute for Child Health and The research reviewed in this article tressed. Further, when parents talk with Human Development) Study of Early clearly demonstrates that the prosocial children about their own feelings, listen Child Care and Youth Development, domain is a critical component of chil- to their children when they are upset, and “coach” their children about how to express emotions, their children are likely to develop more prosocial skills Examples of Curricula and Other Resources for (see, for example, Garner, Dunsmore, & Southam-Gerrow 2008). Research Supporting Prosocial Development points out a few cautions about these conversations, however. First, one study A Blueprint for the Promotion of Prosocial Behavior in Early Childhood [including the (Trommsdorff 1995) suggests that when Bingham Early Childhood Prosocial Curriculum], by Elda Chesebrough, Patricia a mother becomes overly involved in King, Thomas P. Gullotta, and Martin Bloom. 2005. New York: Springer. discussing her child’s distress or other Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning (CSEFEL). highly emotional issues, the child may http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu become so focused on her or his own negative feelings that it is difficult to reg- Children’s Kindness Network. www.ckn-usa.org (See especially Moozie’s Kindness ulate those emotions in order to empa- Curriculum, 2004.) thize with others. And second, there is The Devereux Early Childhood Initiative. evidence that children often try to avoid www.devereux.org/site/PageServer?pagename=deci_index conversations about their prior experi- ences with negative emotions, especially The Incredible Years: Parents, Teachers, and Children Social Skills Training series. if mothers do not use an accepting, sup- www.incredibleyears.com portive, child-centered approach during Second Step: Social-Emotional Skills for Early Learning, by Committee for Children. the conversation (Waters et al. 2010). 2011. www.cfchildren.org/programs/ssp/early-learning Besides helping families have produc- tive conversations, early childhood Skillstreaming in Early Childhood: Teaching Prosocial Skills to the Preschool and educators can also support families Kindergarten Child, by Ellen McGinnis and Arnold P. Goldstein. 1990. Champaign, during other situations that can create IL: Research Press. risks for children’s prosocial develop- “Teaching Parents to Teach Children to be Prosocial,” by Linda K. Elksnin ment. For example, data from a study of and Nick Elksnin. 2000. www.ldonline.org/article/Teaching_Parents_ families living in poverty (Ryan, Kalil, & to_Teach_Their_Children_to_be_Prosocial Leininger 2009) shows that those moth- ers who had less of a social safety net Teaching Tolerance, a project publication of the Southern Poverty Law Center. (that is, fewer available sources of social www.tolerance.org support) had children who were less

80 Young Children • July 2011 dren’s development. The research shows how specific early experiences may help children gain essential prosocial skills. We hope the evidence will encourage Research into Action: teachers, researchers, and policy mak- ers to be at least as intentional in this A Checklist of Everyday Strategies to Promote domain as they are in early literacy Prosocial Development and mathematics. The suggestions that follow, the examples of prosocial cur- Early childhood program staff can intentionally implement these and other ricula and resources, and the checklist research-based strategies, using them in ways that respond to children’s cul- of recommended teaching practices may ture and other individual characteristics. Many of the references in this article jump-start this process. may help guide implementation.

Program-level actions. A good start- o Is each child—especially any child who may be struggling with behavioral ing point for an intentional approach to challenges—involved in frequent, friendly, individual interactions with teach- prosocial development is to examine and ers? (Even a few minutes a day help build a secure relationship, the founda- enhance the overall quality of the early tion for prosocial competence.) childhood program. Children who attend higher quality family child care and cen- o Are classroom jobs used to build prosocial skills and a sense of community? ter-based programs seem to show more (Invite a few children to pitch in and help open boxes that have been deliv- empathy and positive behavior toward ered, or ask a child for help in rearranging the books so that others can find other children (Spinrad & Eisenberg them more easily.) 2009; Romano, Kohen, & Findlay 2010). This is not surprising, as many of the o Does the physical environment promote cooperation and community partici- features associated with overall pro- pation? (Set up interest areas and materials to invite small groups to work gram quality are also likely to support together, share supplies, and interact.) the development of prosocial skills. o Such features include professionally Are photos displayed that show children working and playing together, and prepared staff who are grounded in early that show children as members of their class and of their families? childhood development and pedagogy; o Do adults model prosocial behavior by showing empathy and kindness to a program environment that encour- coworkers as well as to children by using respectful language such as thank ages children to work and play together; you and please? discipline strategies that encourage col- laborative problem-solving; an emphasis o Do teachers specifically, sincerely acknowledge children’s prosocial behav- on teachers’ knowledge of holistic child ior? (“I see that the two of you have started cleaning up the art area development; and supports for close together. That’s real cooperation!”) adult-child and peer relationships. As suggested earlier, teachers o Do teachers explain the reasons behind rules and help children under- can reexamine everyday routines stand the effects of their behavior on others? This kind of inductive discipline and activities to see if the prosocial seems to encourage children to be kind and helpful. potential of the activities is being fully o Do classroom rules include positive, prosocial expectations—the dos, not tapped (see “Research into Action”). In addition, teachers can implement just the don’ts? (“We are kind to our friends.”) various specialized curricula and other o Do teachers scaffold children’s efforts to be helpful and kind by giving them resources (see “Examples of Curricula words to use or offering suggestions about what to do? (“Polly, I think Adri- and Other Resources for Supporting ana looks worried about getting a turn with that doll. What if you say ‘It’s OK, Prosocial Development”) that target positive and character you will have it in just a few minutes’? Or maybe you can say, ‘Adriana, how education. A few cautions, however: about if we play together?’”) such materials should be used to o Do teachers prompt children to help them learn prosocial behavior? (“Mary, strengthen—but not replace—an across- would you show our new friend where to put the blocks when everyone is the-board emphasis on prosocial devel- finished playing with them?”) opment. And when deciding to adopt any curriculum or other resource, early o Do families receive practical, culturally relevant tips during home visits or at childhood professionals should think parent meetings to encourage prosocial behavior at home? (Avoid rewards about whether the resource is consis- for niceness. Instead, set clear expectations and foster warm relationships.) tent with the research on prosocial development as well as whether there is evidence that the resource has been

Young Children • July 2011 81 a more prominent role for prosocial outcomes. With these actions by educators, researchers, and policy makers, the early childhood field will demonstrate with a clear, unified voice that it “cares about caring.”

References

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© Marilyn Nolt How Do Families Contribute to Transitions in School? The Penn State University Family Issues Symposia Series, eds. A. Booth & A. effective with children whose cultural prosocial competence a priority for Crouter, 225–58. New York: Taylor & Francis or developmental characteristics are early childhood education programs. Group/Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Copple, C., & S. Bredekamp, eds. 2009. Devel- similar to those with whom the resource Prosocial behavior is as important as, opmentally Appropriate Practice in Early will be used. and also contributes to, outcomes in Childhood Programs Serving Children from other developmental domains. Social Birth through Age 8. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: Research actions. Thought-provoking and emotional outcomes are not always NAEYC. as it is, the existing prosocial research well represented in state early learning Crick, N.R., J.M. Ostrov, J.E. Burr, C. Cullerton- is still more focused on looking at chil- guidelines (Scott-Little, Kagan, & Frelow Sen, E.A. Jansen-Yeh, & P. Ralston. 2006. “A dren at home with their families rather 2006), and specific prosocial indicators Longitudinal Study of Relational and Phys- ical Aggression in Preschool.” Journal of than in early childhood program envi- are even less evident. As states revise Applied Developmental 27 (3): ronments. In the future, researchers or expand these guidelines, early child- 254–68. must focus their work more closely on hood professionals can point policy Driscoll, K.C., & R.C. Pianta. 2010. “Banking early childhood settings. Such research makers toward research that supports Time in Head Start: Early Efficacy of an Inter- should analyze the effects of variations vention Designed to Promote Supportive in classroom practices, teacher-child Teacher-Child Relationships.” Early Educa- interactions, and teacher professional tion and Development 21 (1): 38–64. Dunlap, G., & D. Powell. 2009. “Promoting development on children’s prosocial Children who attend Social Behavior of Young Children in Group outcomes. Researchers also need to Settings: A Summary of Research.” Road- look more closely at early childhood higher quality family map to Effective Intervention Practices #3. programs’ ability to support prosocial Tampa: University of South Florida, Techni- behavior among all children—children child care and center- cal Assistance Center on Social Emotional who differ in culture and language as Intervention for Young Children. www. well as those children who have disabili- based programs seem challengingbehavior.org/do/resources/ ties and developmental delays (Dunlap documents/roadmap_3.pdf. to show more empathy Eisenberg, N., & R.A. Fabes. 1998. “Prosocial & Powell 2009). Development.” In Handbook of Child Psychol- and positive behavior ogy, Vol. 3, Social, Emotional, and Personal- Policy actions. Finally, policy mak- toward other children. ity Development. 5th ed., eds. W. Damon & ers must focus attention on education N. Eisenberg, 701–78. New York: John Wiley standards and public policies that make & Sons.

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