Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Volume 28 Issue 1 Article 4

5-2003

Sowing the Seeds of a Pre-Service Model of Teacher Education in the Early Twentieth Century.

Lynne Trethewey University of South Australia

Kay Whitehead Flinders University

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Recommended Citation Trethewey, L., & Whitehead, K. (2003). Sowing the Seeds of a Pre-Service Model of Teacher Education in the Early Twentieth Century.. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 28(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2003v28n1.4

This Journal Article is posted at Research Online. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/ajte/vol28/iss1/4 Australian Journal of Teacher Education

SOWING THE SEEDS OF A PRE-SERVICE MODEL OF TEACHER

EDUCATION IN THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY

Lynne Trethewey and Kay Whitehead

University of South Australia and Flinders University

ABSTRACT Margaret Emily Hodge (1858-1938) and Harriet Christina Newcomb (1854-1942) Our article seeks to describe, analyse and were wealthy middle class Londoners whose assess the contribution of Margaret Hodge fifty-year friendship began in the 1880s at and Harriet C. Newcomb to the training of Maria Grey Training College for Women, kindergarten, primary and secondary school London, where both commenced as students teachers in New South Wales at a time of and later returned as lecturers. Having each wide-ranging educational reform. These two graduated with a Cambridge Teacher’s English teacher educators were recruited to Certificate, in the interim Margaret taught at Sydney in 1897 for the purpose of the College’s first practising school establishing a new training scheme (Bishopsgate School for Girls) and Harriet at equivalent to the teaching diploma courses Exeter High School. In following years the offered at the University of Cambridge. In two women travelled frequently to Europe to their subsequent work for the Training Board study educational trends. For example, of the NSW Teachers’ Association, “inspired by Matthew Arnold with an intense reconfiguring training programs for teachers admiration for the German educational in private schools, as lecturers and examiners system”, in 1892-3 Margaret spent six in the history and theory of education, and in months visiting schools in the Rhine district, founding Shirley School and Kindergarten to Hanover, Prussia and Saxony (Hodge, 1898, practically demonstrate their progressive p. 1). Harriet spent an equivalent period in educational philosophy, the pair were at the France during 1895 in order to “compare forefront of moves to abolish the outmoded standards of teaching and methods of pupil teacher system and institute a pre- training with our own”; also “the service model of teacher education. organisation of Secondary Education, and Concurrently, they agitated for change by French criticism upon it” as might inform speaking authoritatively in various forums on English opinions on the subject (Newcomb, the broader issue of improved schooling 1899, p. 2). Notably, whilst in Paris for three standards through the systematic training of months, Harriet stayed with Madame R-El teachers in the science and art of education. Chalamet - a leading educational reformer. On the eve of their return to London after Such travel enabled Margaret and Harriet to eleven years in Sydney, Margaret and Harriet broaden their educational ideas and aptly concluded that if their record was one experience, to the extent that they became of “the petty done, the vast undone”, and recognised as experts in their fields. their appeal for the technical training of Moreover, their positions as lecturers at teachers so they might constitute themselves Maria Grey afforded them opportunities to into a professional class “premature”, they network with senior educationalists, had “at least sown the seed”. including Sir J. G. Fitch, HM Senior Inspector for Schools, Sir H. Evelyn Oakeley, HM Chief Inspector of Training Colleges, Sophie Bryant, headmistress of the Hurlstone Training College). Louisa and prestigious North London Collegiate School Maybanke were also prominent in Sydney for Girls, and Madame Michaelis of the feminist organisations that Margaret and Froebel Institute in Kensington, pioneer of Harriet joined and through which they the Kindergarten system in England. actively pursued improvements in all aspects of women’s condition - not least the Margaret and Harriet thus had the requisite professional training of women teachers. For cultural capital to fit relatively easily into the example, Margaret introduced this subject at social-cum-intellectual circles that led public the 1899 annual meeting of the National debate on educational matters in Sydney. Council of Women - NSW (The Dawn. They additionally possessed the credentials, 13(2), June 1899, p. 5). experience and expertise which enabled them to speak with intellectual and practical Professor Scott had been pressing for the authority. Ultimately, though, it was through introduction of teacher training at Sydney Margaret’s family connections that she and University since the 1880s and Fletcher Harriet were recruited to Australia. In 1896 (1992) suggests that much of the direction on Professor Walter Scott of Sydney University, teacher education adopted by the NSW whose brother George (Tutor and Fellow, Teachers’ Association, formed in 1891, was Merton College, Oxford) was married to probably due to his suggestion and guidance Margaret’s sister Florence, went to England (p. 6). While numerous Association members with his wife. There he saw a good deal of expressed reservations about the importance the Hodges and Harriet, “with whose of professional training for teachers, other revolutionary ideas he was much impressed” influential professors and private school (Guiterman, 1949, p. 6). He also visited principals on the Council, but especially Maria Grey Training College and approved Louisa Macdonald, agreed with Scott’s view the system, saying that there was a distinct (as cited in Beaumont & Hole, 1996) that “it opening in New South Wales for the training was not enough that teachers should know of teachers on such lines. With his how to manage a class; we ought to expect encouragement, Margaret and Harriet and require them also to be highly trained emigrated to Sydney to direct the expansion men and women” (p. 115). In 1894, and consolidation of training schemes responding to an appeal by Kindergarten conducted under the auspices of the NSW reformers within the ladies’ colleges, Scott Teachers’ Association, of which Professor called a meeting at the University to consider Scott was a founding member and office the need for examination and accreditation of bearer (Vice-President, 1893; President, kindergarten teachers. A significant outcome 1894-5). of this meeting was the formation of a Training Board, comprising selected The pair were given temporary executive members of the Teachers’ accommodation by the Scotts on arriving in Association, which subsequently issued a 1897 and they were soon inducted into the syllabus and undertook to arrange lectures professor’s educational networks. Leading and appoint examiners for the award of a educationalists with whom Margaret and Diploma in Kindergarten and Primary Harriet came to work most closely at Sydney Grades. Details of the course, based on University included Women’s College Hamburg-trained Fraulein Scheer’s ‘Scheme principal Louisa Macdonald, M.A., Professor for the Training of Kindergarten teachers’, Mungo MacCallum, Professor and Mrs were published in the Association’s journal Maybanke Anderson (formerly Mrs (Australian Teacher. 1(7), May 1894, pp. 5- Wolsteholme, proprietor of Maybanke 6; 1(11), April 1895, pp. 6-7). Five School), and Professor and Mrs David (neé kindergarten teachers were admitted to the Cara Mallett, foundation principal of Australian Journal of Teacher Education

training scheme in 1895, three of whom training of teachers for Kindergarten work: graduated. finding suitable lecturers capable of providing the necessary theory and with Scott also strongly supported Cara David’s experience of putting the theory into practice ‘Proposed Scheme for the Training and (p. 13). Margaret and Harriet were to Certificating of Elementary and Secondary admirably fill this void. Meanwhile, the main Teachers’, elaborated upon under the method of training teachers for state schools heading ‘Practical Training of Teachers in remained the English-based pupil teacher Existing Schools’ (Australian Teacher. 1(8), system, whereby 13-16 year-olds entered a September 1894, pp. 7-8; 1(12), May 1895, form of apprenticeship, four years in length, p.7). However, it took several more years of and progressed to the grade of assistant discussion and planning before Board teacher via a series of examinations. Only an training was extended to primary and elite few, those with the highest passes in the secondary teachers in a bid to raise their Class I examination, gained admission to the occupational status and improve educational two state training institutions established standards in private schools. Importantly, the under the 1880 Education Act: Fort Street training schemes stressed both theory and Training School for men and Hurlstone practice as essential elements and an in- (residential) Training School, Ashfield, for service model was adopted: students women (Barcan, 1980). enrolling in the four proposed Diploma courses (Kindergarten, Primary, Lower In October 1897 Margaret and Harriet Secondary and Higher Secondary) should became members of the NSW Teachers’ already be employed as teachers in Association and in 1898 Margaret was accredited schools where their practical elected to its Council, on which she served teaching could be supervised by a well- until 1902. From the outset both women qualified teacher, with their theoretical actively participated in the discussion of studies to be organised by the Teachers’ papers given at monthly meetings, deploying Association in conjunction with the their knowledge of English and European University. education to sometimes vigorously challenge other members’ perspectives. Seeking to When Margaret and Harriet were appointed influence public opinion on teacher to the Training Board in 1897 they found education in this and other forums, papers little advance beyond these tentative they delivered revealed their own position. beginnings to the systematic training of For example, in March 1898 Margaret private school teachers. In explication, addressed the Teachers’ Association on Fletcher (1992) cites Louisa Macdonald’s ‘Some Aspects of German Education account of the shortcomings of the Today’. She drew particular attention to “the arrangements and lack of teacher training on great care given to individual children, the the part of those who acted as supervisors certain mark of the trained teacher and and examiners. She adds that the educator rather than the untrained crammer”, examination syllabus was very demanding and in concluding remarked that “the future and ambitious in concept, there were of the Kindergarten system must depend insufficient schools which met the stringent wholly upon the qualifications of the pre-requisites for approval as a practising Kindergarten teachers” (Australian Teacher. school, and Teacher Association resources 1(27), April 1898, pp. 7-9). In were too limited to do much more than complementary fashion, Harriet’s March prescribe the syllabus. Hence numbers 1899 paper, ‘Some Impressions of Education undertaking the Kindergarten Diploma in France’, highlighted the connection course were initially low (pp. 21-3). Harrison between teachers’ qualifications and public (1985) points to another problem in the respect for the profession, together with the necessity for their training to include “first- Training Board in New South Wales. hand study of children”, for theory to inform Drawing on their knowledge and experience students’ teaching practice, and for a of the courses offered at the University of practising school in which they could apply Cambridge and Maria Grey Training such theoretical understandings. Harriet also College, they embarked upon their task by lamented the absence in France of a training forming a committee to reconceptualise the college “specially set apart for the formation Teachers’ Association training schemes. The of teachers of litle children” since in her main outline of those previously developed view (and Margaret’s) Kindergarten was generally accepted but the theoretical provided the foundation for all future side was expanded to include Physiology, learning and Kindergarten principles should Logic and Ethics. The difficulty of annually infuse the whole of schooling (Australian providing lectures in History of Education Teacher. 1(31), June 1899, pp. 6-7). and Psychology was overcome when Margaret and Harriet assumed responsibility Margaret’s position was rendered even more for these subjects as well as Nature clear in her paper entitled ‘The Professional Knowledge and Drawing. Furthermore, with Training of Teachers’, given at the 1902 Cara David they comprised the panel of Australasian Association for the examiners for the Training Board. In 1897 Advancement of Science (AAAS) ten of the fourteen kindergarten students to conference in Hobart. In it she advocated a whom they lectured presented themselves for sound general education for teachers upon the whole or part of the Theoretical and which to base their training, and she Practical Examinations. 1898 saw nineteen expressed her admiration for the Germans’ students take advantage of the new “intense belief in the need for a sound arrangements for kindergarten training, scientific theory to aid and correct personal including “Specimen Lessons and other experience [which] leads them to insist on practical means of instruction”, whilst the the training of every teacher in the science scheme of primary and secondary teacher and art of education”. She argued that training also commenced operation with untrained teachers, however great their “enthusiastic support from the head teachers practical experience, were not sufficiently of some of the best girls’ schools” well informed about matters of physiology, (Australian Teacher. 1(28), August 1898, p. psychology and ethical principles as they 3). related to children’s physical, intellectual and moral development, nor sufficiently In 1899 Louisa Macdonald negotiated with reflective about their practice to be effective Margaret and Harriet to provide a course of and bring out the best in scholars. Moreover, lectures at Women’s College on the Science teacher training should precede instead of of Education and Practical Organisation of succeeding practical teaching. Lastly, she Teaching, for prospective teachers among was convinced that the professionalisation of her students. The arrangement allowed the teaching, and thereby the raising of two Englishwomen, appointed in July as educational standards in schools, depended Honorary Lecturers in the Theory and on the acquisition of credentials. She thus Practice of Education, to give tuition to looked forward to the day “when it will be as college students at reduced fees plus public impossible for a teacher to teach without a lectures for which they would receive the diploma as it is for a doctor to practice fees from outside students. The pair handled without a medical degree” (Hodge, 1902, pp. all applications and interviewed interested 780, 782, 784). students as well as furnishing lectures These were the major characteristics of covering physiology and psychology, history teacher education that Margaret and Harriet of education, “the best methods of teaching strove to incorporate in their work for the the subjects taught in schools”, and school Australian Journal of Teacher Education

organisation and management. Candidates from undertaking professional improvement were also required to undertake practical (p. 24). Irrespective, the training scheme teaching in Board-accredited schools and sit detailed in the September 1899 issue of The the designated examinations to complete the Australian Teacher represented a significant Primary or Secondary Diploma (Hole & advance on the pupil teacher system Treweke, 1953, p. 89; Australian Teacher. currently used in the private (and public) 1(32), September 1899, pp. 4-6). schools of Sydney. The Board was in full accord with Margaret’s view - deeming the Margaret and Harriet were later characterised pupil teacher system to be an outmoded by one of the graduates of the secondary model; worse, “a disgrace to the English course as “two experts who had given years educational system” (p. 6). In thus moving of thought, study and work to the training of towards prior training for private school teachers and who ranked high in the teachers, the Teachers’ Association pre- educational world of England”. This woman empted by some years similar action on the praised the quality of their lectures, noting part of the NSW Department of Public that “even the young student is able to Instruction. develop a theory as to the possible aims of education” and that “the lectures on the Yet another refinement to the scheme for practice of education embodied wide training private school teachers was experience in the methods of dealing with introduced in January 1900 when Harriet and subjects and classes”. According to her, the Margaret opened Shirley New School and perennial tensions between the theoretical Kindergarten as “a living example of their and practical components in teacher training philosophy in practice” and a Board- courses were not evident; instead “the recognised training school for kindergarten, practical and theoretical work aided and primary and secondary teachers (Harrison, amplified one another” (Australian Journal 1985, p. 14). Although they had striven at the of Education. 2(2), August 1904, pp. 5-6). Board’s behest to transform teacher training, Annual reports of the Training Board were the pair faced serious difficulties in similarly complimentary about the implementing the practical components of thoroughness of Margaret and Harriet’s work each course. By 1899 the Board’s exacting in this regard, whilst their 1899 report on the standards had led to the situation whereby practical class teaching component of the only ten kindergartens, three primary and Kindergarten course was considered to be two secondary schools were registered as “so important and suggestive that cyclostyled schools in which diploma students could copies of it were made, and privately complete the practicum requirement. The circulated among the Kindergarten Trainers” same lack of facilities hampered Margaret (Australian Teacher. 1(32), September 1899, and Harriet’s ability to demonstrate the pp. 3-4). principles and practices in which they believed. Hence the decision to establish Margaret and Harriet’s 1899 report to the their own private school, comprising a Training Board also prompted the decision kindergarten (attended by boys as well as that henceforth no student who was girls), a transition class, a lower division for employed full-time as teacher would be 9-13 year-olds and an upper division for girls permitted to compete for the Association’s aged 14-18 years. diplomas due to the demanding nature of the course. As Fletcher points out, this The school’s Prospectus (1900) constructed stipulation signified the Board’s inclination ‘the two advanced Englishwomen’ as being towards the Englishwomen’s preferred at the cutting edge of progressive educational model of pre-service training but probably thought and practice: precluded a number of practising teachers The aim of this school is to give the years by this time, may be seen as a leading pupils an education which shall exemplar for state-provided teacher training develop individual power and widen in New South Wales. the range of interest and sympathy in every direction. ... The methods which In January 1902 Margaret remarked that “the will be employed are the result of question of the adequate training of teachers many years of school experience, has lately been a subject of much together with the study of educational controversy in Sydney” (Hodge, 1902, p. principles to which so much attention 780. See also Barcan (1988), p. 207; Turney is now given in England, Germany, (1975), pp. 231-2). She was undoubtedly Sweden and America. These principles referring to events leading up to the have hitherto been most completely appointment of two education carried out in the system called the commissioners, G. H. Knibbs and J. W. Kindergarten. ... The Kindergarten Turner, whose 1904 reports on ‘Certain Parts principle of natural development by of Primary Education’ and ‘Mainly on self-activity will be adhered to Secondary Education’ stimulated reform of throughout the school. (p. 2) teacher training. In November 1901, Margaret and Harriet had participated in two Indeed Harriet and Margaret pioneered at public meetings held in Sydney Town Hall Shirley many of the reforms being advocated to demand such an education commission. by ‘new’ educationists world-wide at that The second of these meetings urged (among time, including a focus on the individual other things) reform of teacher training, child, early sensory training, experiential extension of the Kindergarten system, rather than book learning, open-air revision of the primary school curriculum schooling, ‘modern’ curriculum offerings, and teaching methods as well as specialised self-discipline, cultivation of a family female education - changes the pair had been atmosphere and concern for ‘the whole agitating for ever since their arrival in child’ (Docker, 1950; Harrison, Ch. 2). Sydney.

Shirley staff were all trained teachers, some Appointed in March 1902, Commissioners of them graduates of the Diploma courses Knibbs and Turner were sent abroad to whose theoretical components Margaret and investigate the educational systems of Harriet continued to teach and examine for Britain, Europe, Canada and the USA before the Training Board (The Shirley. 2(4), contrasting these with conditions in New January 1908, p. 10). Public school teachers South Wales. Each summarised his views on day-release from their duties also independently; on the subject of teacher frequently visited Shirley to observe training they were substantially in specimen lessons, for the school’s “unusual agreement. Having detailed the defects of the trend” was unparalleled in the state system pupil teacher system, both urged its (Daily Herald, 10 May 1913). Moreover, abandonment and replacement by a system talk of the state establishing efficient training “which gives all teachers a better and practising schools was not acted upon preliminary education and an adequate until 1906 with the founding of Blackfriars professional training before they are allowed Practising School in connection with Sydney to teach” (Interim Report on Primary Teachers’ College (formed by the Education, January 1902, p. 39. Emphasis amalgamation of Fort Street and Hurlstone supplied). This stance, incidentally, Training Schools). Harriet and Margaret’s represented an about-face on the part of New School and Kindergarten, having Commissioner Turner (Principal of Fort functioned successfully as a Street Training School), who at the 1902 demonstration/practising school for five Education Conference of Inspectors and Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Departmental officers was “still wedded to - certainly not one comparable with the Pupil-Teacher System”, albeit with European training methods - and “this defect certain modifications (Interim Report, pp. reacts profoundly on the efficiency of 266-7). Not so Commissioner Knibbs (a education” (pp. 15, 359). Otherwise, the young university lecturer in Surveying), for report outlined the one-year Secondary whom “proper training” in the science and Diploma course “for Ladies’ Schools” under art of teaching was “of the highest the supervision of Margaret and Harriet at importance” since “the realisation of any Shirley. Thanking Margaret for supplying scheme of public education depends on the the prospectus as printed in this section of thoroughness of the professional the report, the commissioners noted that qualifications of the teachers” (p. 361). In candidates for the Secondary Diploma issued support of his stance he made reference to by the NSW Teachers’ Association were Margaret Hodge’s “able” discussion of the required to be university graduates and that subject in her 1902 AAAS paper. five students had so far qualified whilst three were presently in training (Report on To effect such professional training of Secondary Education, ch. V, pp. 39-40). primary school teachers the commissioners Commenting on these low numbers, recommended the establishment of a Commissioner Knibbs summed up the seminarium, closely tied to the University situation: and with an adjunct practising school, where 16+ year-olds who had passed the Senior Every secondary school in our state is Public Examination or its equivalent could practically a law unto itself. Under such undertake a three-year course in which all circumstances it is difficult to establish any subjects were taught by specialists. The great educational traditions or to promote syllabus outlined in their Interim Report any thorough and obligatory system of strikingly resembles the Primary Diploma professional training for teachers. The course as reconceptualised and implemented necessity for improvement in this respect has, by Margaret and Harriet years earlier. it is true, been recognised by the Teachers’ Commissioner Turner further recommended Association and some steps have been taken that a Kindergarten Training College be to remedy this state of things. These, established, with Hurlstone students however, are quite inadequate and it would receiving regular instruction in Kindergarten be idle to pretend that any sufficient success theory and practice until this occurred; also has been achieved (Ch. V, p. 31). that as soon as sufficient teachers were trained, the subject be taught in all infant Whilst Margaret, too, acknowledged the schools and classes (Summarised Report, relative lack of success of the Training January 1904, p. 95). This was to completely Board’s scheme, it is significant to note that ignore Margaret and Harriet’s work in the an equivalent diploma course was not Kindergarten Diploma course conducted instituted at the state teachers’ college until under the auspices of the Training Board, 1911. through which approximately seventy Margaret played an active role in formulating students had passed by 1901. the NSW Teachers’ Association response to the commissioner’s blueprint for secondary The Knibbs-Turner Report on Secondary education. Indeed, she was the sole woman Education (October 1904) dealt far more on a seven-member sub-committee appointed briefly with the issue of teacher training, to remodel the Association’s resolutions as a concluding merely that a principal defect of set of policy statements. Her views clearly the New South Wales system was “the influenced the second of these resolutions, absence of any definitely regulated scheme which argued in part “that the need for for the professional qualification of teachers” professional training of teachers should be recognised as urgent” (Australian Journal of first generation of trained kindergartners in Education. 2(11), May 1905, pp. 5-6). She New South Wales. By their own admission, was, however, still pleading her case a year though, the same was not true of secondary later: “The value set on training in England teachers - nor of teacher training policy in was shown by the extension and endowment general. of training colleges. ... It was quite certain that if we [in Australia] wished to In her final report to the Training Board, approximate in our work the standard of whose operations ceased with the two Continental schools, we must make technical women’s departure for England late in 1908, training a sine qua non for the admission of Margaret reflected on their eleven years’ any man or woman to the profession of work in Sydney: teacher” (AJE, 4(1), July 1906, p. 6). Nor was her concern ill-founded that this cause We came out to N.S.W. to found a system of “meets with very little sympathy; indeed the training for teachers in secondary schools - majority of teachers are quite hostile, work for which our own twelve years’ covertly if not overtly” (Hodge, 1902, p. experience in the first Secondary Training 782). For Inspector Peter Board’s December College in London specially had fitted us. 1903 ‘Report on Primary Education with After three years of work as examiners and regard to Other Countries’, which advocated lecturers for the Board, we thought it modification rather than abolition of the advisable to open a school, where we could pupil-teacher system in New South Wales, at all events give a practical illustration of garnered more popular support than the our theories, and secure students for a Knibbs-Turner recommendations. Hence the consecutive course of training. About twenty training of state school teachers after 1905 students have taken part of their course with proceeded under the probationary student us, and eleven primary and six secondary system, essentially a different version of its teachers have taken their theoretical and predecessor, until 1913 when pre-service practical examinations and gained their training at Sydney Teachers’ College took its diplomas. ... The record I have just read is a place. rather melancholy one of the petty done, the undone vast, but the omissions were not due Margaret and Harriet’s lecturing, to any want of energy or lack of enthusiasm examination and demonstration work in the for the cause we have so much at heart. It Kindergarten Diploma course continued until may be that our appeal was made 1904 when the private training of prematurely, when we urged embryo teachers kindergarten teachers became the to receive a technical training and thus responsibility of Sydney Kindergarten constitute themselves as a professional class, Teachers’ College (founded by the if so, we have at least sown the seed, and we Kindergarten Union). Nonetheless, the shall live in hope that our successors in the Froebelian principles at the basis of their work will gather from this seed a plentiful educational approach flowed on into the harvest (AJE. 6(4), October 1908, p. 6). work of kindergarten trainers at the new institution. Additionally, in 1908 Harriet Margaret and Harriet’s contribution to gave a series of twenty “fine” lectures on teacher training in New South Wales as Kindergarten history and theory to twelve theorists and practitioners, together with specially selected second-year students their influence on policy development, can undertaking the Kindergarten and Infant hardly be more aptly summarised. School course at Sydney Teachers’ College. The two English teacher educators may thus CONCLUSION be said to have significantly influenced the philosophy and approach to teaching of the Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Aside from a passing reference by Noeline Kyle (1986), Margaret Hodge and Harriet Cambridge Training College for Women Newcomb’s philosophies and agendas for Teachers. (1896, March). The Australian teacher preparation have not been recognised Teacher, 1(17), 4-5. in histories of Australian education. However, they were recruited to Sydney at a Docker, R. B. (1950). Harriet Christina time when teacher training was in a state of Newcomb and Margaret Emily Hodge. flux, with the narrowly technicist pupil- Values and basis of their work in education. teacher system being the subject of intense Sydney: Newcomb-Hodge Fellowship. criticism. Margaret and Harriet were consummate political strategists in that they Fletcher, B. (1992). The Care of Education. cultivated networks with New South Wales’ The Teachers’ Guild of New South Wales leading social and educational reformers, 1981-1991. Sydney: Council of the and their ideas were subsequently Teachers’ Guild of NSW. promulgated in a range of public forums - not the least being the Knibbs-Turner Guiterman, R. (1949). Harriet Newcomb and Commission. In conceptualising and Margaret Hodge. A short account of two attempting to implement a pre-service model pioneers in education. Sydney: Author. of teacher training, based on a sound general education and focusing on the nexus Harrison, R. (1985). Sydney Kindergarten between theory and practice, they drew on Teachers College 1897-1981. Sydney: British and European trends of the day. Sydney Kindergarten Teachers College While their own success was limited, the Graduates Association. pre-service model, over time, has become the norm across Australia. Given the recent Hodge, M. (1898, April). Some aspects of attempts by conservative forces to re- the German education of today. Australian introduce more technicist modes of teacher Teacher, 1(27), 7-9. preparation, it is timely to reflect on the efforts of these two progressive women to Hodge, M. (1902). The Professional sow the seeds of our current approaches to Training of Teachers. Proceedings of teacher education. Contemporary teacher Section J, Australasian Association for the educators may well find that Harriet and Advancement of Science Conference. Hobart: Margaret’s ideas have particular salience AAAS. today. Hodge, M. E. (1908, October). Report of the REFERENCES Training Board Work 1897-1908. Australian Journal of Education, 6(4), 6. Barcan, A. (1980). A History of Australian Education. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hole, W. V. & Treweke, A. (1953). The History of the Women’s College within the Barcan, A. (1988). Two Centuries of University of Sydney. Sydney: Angus & Education in New South Wales. Sydney: Robertson University of New South Wales Press. Koemer, L. (1913, May 10). Women visitors Beaumont, J. & Hole, W. V. (1996). Letters of interest. World-wide movement for From Louisa. A woman’s view of the 1890s womanhood suffrage. A chat with Miss based on the letters of Louisa Macdonald, Newcomb and Miss Hodge. Daily Herald first principal of the Women’s College, (Adelaide), Magazine section, p. 13. University of Sydney. Sydney: Allen & Kyle, N. (1986). Her Natural Destiny. The Unwin. Education of Women in New South Wales. Sydney: University of New South Wales primary and secondary teachers. Conditions Press. of training for 1899; Training courses for teachers, 1899. Australian Teacher, 1(32), 4- Legislative Assembly. New South Wales. 6. Commission on Primary, Secondary, Teachers’ Association of New South Wales. Technical, and Other Branches of Education. (1904, August). Extracts from paper by Miss (1904a, January). Interim Report of the E. J. Read, read at presentation of diplomas Commissioners on Certain Parts of Primary to primary and secondary teachers who had Education. Sydney: Government Printer. completed their course under Miss Hodge.

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