A Brief History of Bank Capital Requirements in the United States Joseph G
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Number 2020-05 February 28, 2020 A Brief History of Bank Capital Requirements in the United States Joseph G. Haubrich* Modern capital requirements can appear to be overly complex, but they reflect centuries of practical experience, compromises between different regulators, and legal and financial systems that developed over time. ThisCommentary provides a historical perspective on current discussions of capital requirements by looking at how the understanding of bank capital and the regulations regarding its use have changed over time. When Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr founded What Is Bank Capital? their rival banks in the 1780s, their charters required At a simple level, a bank’s capital is the stock or equity put them to hold capital, but the rules were far simpler than up by the bank’s owners. The bank then takes in deposits or the hundreds of pages of regulations facing today’s banks. other debt liabilities and uses the debt and equity to acquire assets, which means mainly making loans, but they also buy Today’s rather complicated (some would say arcane) branches, ATMs, and computers. In fact, a rough picture rules may look less arbitrary if viewed as the outcome of of a bank is that it takes in capital and deposits and makes a centuries-long lived experience in a changing financial, loans. So this logic also means the capital, or equity, is the legal, and political landscape. This Commentary provides difference between the value of the assets and the value a historical perspective on current discussions of capital of the liabilities. As such, capital can act as a buffer: If the requirements by looking at how the understanding of loans don’t pay off, the value of the equity gets reduced, bank capital and the regulations regarding its use have but there will (might?) still be enough assets to pay off the changed over time.1 depositors so the bank doesn’t get closed down. And if the loans do well, the capital owners get to keep the profits after paying the interest due to the depositors. Joseph G. Haubrich is a senior economic and policy advisor at the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland. The views authors express in Economic Commentary are theirs and not necessarily those of the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland or the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System or its staff. Economic Commentary is published by the Research Department of the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland. Economic Commentary is also available on the Cleveland Fed’s website at www.clevelandfed.org/research. To receive an e-mail when a new Economic Commentary is posted, subscribe at www.clevelandfed.org/subscribe-EC. ISSN 2163-3738 DOI: 10.26509/frbc-ec-202005 This may sound a bit esoteric, but the ideas should be level of capital, which often depended on where the bank familiar to every homeowner.2 To purchase an asset (the was headquartered: Section 7 of the National Banking Act home) the buyer puts up some of his or her own money of 1864, for example, prescribed $50,000 for places with a (the equity) and borrows the rest (the mortgage). If the population of 6,000 or less. State regulations differed both as house appreciates in value, the owner can sell it and make a to capital levels and population, with Maryland at one time profit after paying off the mortgage (the debt). If the house having seven categories and Nebraska eight (Grossman, depreciates, the equity acts as a protective buffer for the 2010, p. 236).3 lender: As long as the house price falls less than the value of Early capital requirements showed more similarity to their the equity, the owner will get enough money from a sale to modern counterparts than readily meets the eye, however. pay back the mortgage. While the law prescribed a minimum level of capital, Because banking is such an important part of the economy, bank charters also restricted bank liabilities to a multiple regulators have established minimum required levels of of capital. Of course, mathematically, requiring 10 percent bank capital, generally requiring more capital if the bank capital is the same as limiting liabilities to being 10 times is larger or is riskier, though exactly what counts as capital capital. This was a restriction on liabilities, not assets (as these days, and how size and risk are measured, becomes capital ratios are phrased today), but the logic of double- quite complex. entry bookkeeping makes a limit on liabilities also a limit on assets. This identity never really held, however, because Early Capital Requirements deposits were often exempted and not counted against the The intricacies of modern capital requirements appear liability limit. It seems that Hamilton and the other bank less tangled when viewed as the outgrowth of centuries founders assumed deposits would be specie, a usage and an of practical experience, of compromises between different assumption that did not last.4 regulators, and of legal and financial systems that developed over time. In Hamilton and Burr’s day, banks were required Exempting deposits effectively made the capital requirement to hold capital, but the rules were far simpler then than a rule that specie backed bank notes and for that reason, today (table 1). In the nation’s earliest years, capital most Hammond (1985) argues that these restrictions actually often meant the specie—gold or silver—originally contributed represented a different type of bank regulation, namely, a by the bank’s organizers to get it started. (Hammond, 1985, reserve requirement. Where a capital requirement specifies p. 134) Unlike today’s capital requirements, which are set the amount of capital that a bank must hold, a reserve in terms of a specified fraction of assets (perhaps adjusted requirement specifies the amount of liquid assets that the for risk), back then the law required a minimum absolute bank must hold. This makes the early capital requirement Table 1. Summary of Capital Regulations Time period Capital regulation 18th and early 19th century Banks chartered by states. Banks required to have a minimum level of capital to start. Rules vary by state. National Banking Era, 1864 National banks created; starting capital depends on location of bank. Deposits become more important. 20th century Comptroller considers capital-to-deposit ratio, following states. New Deal lists capital adequacy as requirement for Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) coverage. Post–World War II In 1950s, capital only one component of supervision; risk of assets considered. International Lending Supervision Act of 1983 (ILSA) requires supervisors to create capital requirements. United States implements Basel I in 1989; explicit risk-weighted assets. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement Act of 1991 (FDICIA) creates prompt corrective action. 21st century: Basel and Basel II, 2007, creates standardized and advanced approaches. Dodd–Frank Act Basel II and Dodd–Frank Act create capital conservation buffer (CCB), countercyclical capital buffer (CCyB), supplemental leverage ratio (SLR), and global systemically important bank (GSIB) surcharges. Stress tests: Dodd–Frank Act Stress Tests (DFAST) and Comprehensive Capital Analysis and Review (CCAR). 2 that banks hold a certain amount of gold relative to an asset ratio of better than one-tenth capital to total their liabilities look a lot like a reserve requirement. The assets—New Deal legislation had listed adequate capital restrictions soon explicitly required that banks hold a as a prime criterion for deposit insurance eligibility. In fraction of liabilities as specie, which made it a classic 1942, quantitative criteria were effectively suspended to reserve requirement. Gradually, deposits became more aid in the war effort by bank supervisors not wishing to important than bank notes, which eventually disappeared, restrain banks’ purchase of Treasury securities (Orgler leading to today’s reserve requirements, where banks must and Wolkowitz, 1976). The question returned after the hold a certain amount of cash or reserves with the Federal war, however, with the comptroller’s office looking at the Reserve as a fraction of their deposits. ratio of capital to what it termed risk assets, that is, assets excluding cash and government bonds, a very early form The early capital requirements also took the idea of of “risk-weighted assets” that became important later on. capital as a buffer stock very seriously, as equity at times By 1952 the Federal Reserve Bank of New York created had double, triple, or even unlimited liability (Grossman, an explicit formula for weighting different assets by their 2010, p. 237). That meant that if the bank suffered losses, risk, and in 1956 the Board of Governors adopted a similar the equity holders would have to pony up more money. ABC (Analyzing Bank Capital) model. The trend was not Furthermore, capital did not have to be “fully subscribed” monotonic, however, as in 1962 the comptroller, on the before a bank opened: Section 14 of the National Bank Act urging of banks, de-emphasized formulas (Hahn, 1966) of 1863 required just half the capital to be paid in before and even in the 1970s maintained that capital ratios were operations could commence. This created the distinction only one part of a suite of tools for assessing bank health between authorized and paid-up capital. The remaining (Tarullo, 2008). Furthermore, the different regulators had “uncalled’” capital served as an additional buffer in case different definitions of what counted as capital. Capital of losses. An individual might subscribe for, say, $1,000 ratios were used as a supervisory instrument, but the legal of capital, pay in $500 with specie, and remain liable for authority to enforce capital limits was at best unclear. The the additional $500 if the bank had need of it. If the stock Federal Reserve lost a court battle in 1959 when it tried to had double liability, the individual might then be asked to revoke Federal Reserve membership on the basis of capital contribute another $1,000.5 problems (Orgler and Wolkowitz, 1976).