National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014 PREFACE

(ETCME-2014)

We are very pleased to introduce the proceedings of the “National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering” (ETCME-2014) focusing on recent trends in the field of Civil and Mechanical Engineering. Faculty members and researchers have greatly contributed in the form of advanced knowledge disseminated through their contributions.

ETCME-2014 has successfully brought together researchers, academicians, scholars and experts from various fields and application areas in Engineering and Science. The conference has emphasized on promoting a high level of interaction between theoretical, experimental, and applied research areas, so as to achieve exchange of ideas in new and emerging areas of Engineering and Technology. It has also served as a platform to cover advanced aspects and approaches of Engineering and basic sciences in real world scenario.

Research papers, case studies, review papers, system modeling and emerging technologies related to the proposed topics have been presented and discussed at the Conference. ETCME-2014 encouraged the further advancement of research through fruitful discussions among specialists.

The presented papers maintained the high promise suggested by the written abstracts.

The proceeding includes a total of 35 research papers in the field of Mechanical Engineering and 16 papers in the field of Civil Engineering.

I would like to express my deep appreciation to a conference sponsor, Indian Society for Technical Education, New Delhi for their financial support.

It is a great pleasure to present the proceedings of the conference for the advancement of further research, studies and will be invaluable to all researchers in their respective field.

Prof. Arvind Kumar Shrimali

Convener-ETCME-2014

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

CONTENTS

Sr. Page Paper Id Title of paper Authors No. No.

Section I - Mechanical

Akashdeep Gupta, Assistant Professor, Department of Study of Foot Step Power Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME57 1 1 Generator Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020.

Akashdeep Gupta, Assistant Professor, Department of Design and Development a Inlet Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME58 port (Single cylinder) fuelled by 6 2 Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, CNG Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020.

Alok Vyas, Assistant Professor, Department of An analytical Research Study on Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME108 10 3 Off-set strip Fin Heat Exchangers Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020

Krishnakant Sahu, Assistant Professor, Department of Dry Sliding Wear analyses of Al- Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME314 17 4 Al2O3 Nano Composites Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020.

Arvind Kumar Shrimali, Associate Professor, Lean Practices in Small and Department of Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi ETCME308 Medium-Sized Enterprises: A 26 5 School of Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Literature Review Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020.

Enhancement of Combustion Atreya Pathak, Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Process in I.C. Engine by Enginering, Chameli Devi School of Engineering ETCME66 36 6 Introducing Oxygen instead of (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Air Madhya Pradesh 452020 Chahat Mundra, Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Recent development in Enginering, Chameli Devi School of Engineering ECTME86 38 7 Renewable Energy Sources (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020 Deepak Bhonde, Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Automotive Air Conditioning Enginering, Chameli Devi School of Engineering ETCME38 49 8 using Exhaust Gas (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020

Deepak R. Phalke, Assistant Professor, Department of Jatropha as an Alternate Fuel for Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME55 54 9 Gas Turbine Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020.

Dushyant Sahu, Assistant Professor, Department of Performance study & analysis of Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME61 composite leaf spring for light 58 10 Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, vehicle Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020 One Hourly Line Feeding System: Himanshu Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Advancement of an Optimal Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME49 61 11 KANBAN System: A Case Study Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Of A Pump Manufacturing Plant Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Hitesh Koshti, Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Emerging Trends In Automotive Enginering, Chameli Devi School of Engineering ETCME120 64 12 Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020 A Study on Surface Roughness Kaustubh Kale, Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Minimization by Adopting Enginering, Chameli Devi School of Engineering ETCME100 70 13 Advanced Method of (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Manufacturing Madhya Pradesh 452020

Mechanical behaviour of Al- Krishnakant Sahu, Assistant Professor, Department of Al2O3 Nano Composites Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME111 73 14 Manufactured by Ultrasonic Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, assisted stir casting technique Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020.

Manish Gome, Assistant Professor, Department of A Review of Emerging Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME121 Technology for solar thermal 78 15 Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, energy storage Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020. Software for Finding Operating Sandeep Rajput, Assistant Professor, Department of Temperature of Hydrodynamic Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME59 Journal Bearing Considering 81 16 Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Effect of Various Bearing Design Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020 Parameters Sanjay Purohit, Associate Professor, Department of Dynamic Design of Machine Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME52 89 17 Tools Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020

Shashank S. Pawar, Assistant Professor, Department Product Attribute Measurement of Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME309 Using Entropy & Analytical 103 18 Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Hierarchy Process Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020.

Shashwat Vyas, Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Implementing lean tool in Enginering, Chameli Devi School of Engineering ETCME53 106 19 industry - A study (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020 Performance Study of a Solar Srinidhi Rao P, Assistant Professor, Department of Chimney Power Plant with Steel Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME310 109 20 Spheres for Energy Storage with Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Temperature as variable Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020. Review on improvement on the Swapnil Bhurat, Assistant Professor, Department of performance and reducing the Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME306 113 21 light off time of the catalytic Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, converter Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020. Vipul Jain, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Aided Modeling and Mechanical Enginering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME311 Analysis of Coned Compression 116 22 Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Springs Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020. Study Of Seismic Performance Mr. Shaik Kabeer Ahmed, Assistant Professor, And Retrofitting Of Existing ETCME51 Department of Civil Engineering, ATME College of 131 23 Reinforced Concrete Structure Engineering, Mysore, Karnataka. Using Pushover Analysis Mr. Shaik Kabeer Ahmed, Assistant Professor, Study Of Seismic Performance Of ETCME70 Department of Civil Engineering, ATME College of 139 24 RC Frames With Short Column Engineering, Mysore, Karnataka.

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Rajitram Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Probability and Challenges in the ETCME312 Mechanical Engineering, Swami Vivekanand College 144 25 Field of Robotics: A Survey of Engineering, Indore K. S. Jairaj, Registrar, Department of Mechanical Drying Rate Constant of Enginering, Chameli Devi School of Engineering ETCME62 Commonly Used Vegetables 149 26 (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Using Hot Air Dryer Madhya Pradesh 452020. Dr. Arun Kumar Bhat Kajake, Professor, Department Landslide in National Highway at of Civil Engineering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME99 Kethikal near Mangalore - Case 157 27 Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Study Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020. Mr. Ishanya Joshi, Lecturer, Department of Civil Compressive Strength of bricks Engineering, Chameli Devi School of Engineering ETCME37 made of clay and wood ash under 164 28 (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, loading Madhya Pradesh 452020. Mr. Jitendra Kumar, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Chameli Devi School of Engineering ETCME81 166 29 A Study on Green Buildings (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020. Mr. Ratnadeep Singh Siddhu, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Chameli Devi School of ETCME109 Testing of Concrete Blocks 168 30 Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020. Mr. Mukul Meshram, Lecturer, Department of Civil Efflorescence in Bricks and Engineering, Chameli Devi School of Engineering ETCME315 172 31 Concrete (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020. Mr. Prashant N. Nilugal, Assistant Professor, Performance of model footing on Department of Civil Engineering, Chameli Devi ETCME316 174 32 CmRs School of Engineering (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020.

Section II - Civil

Mr. Rahul, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil ETCME Utilization Of Waste Glass As A Engineering, Chameli Devi School of Engineering 33 194 101 Sand Replacement In Concrete (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020. Mr. Rishi Jain, Lecturer, Department of Civil ETCME Fly Ash Concrete Mix Using Engineering, Chameli Devi School of Engineering 34 198 102 Super Plasticizer (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020. Mr. Vikas Patidar, Lecturer, Department of Civil ETCME Engineering, Chameli Devi School of Engineering 35 Modern Methods of Construction 200 103 (CDGI), Near Toll Naka, Khandwa Road, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452020. Simplified Equation For Mr. Manu Vijay, Assistant Professor, Department of Estimating The Period Of Civil Engineering, ATME College of Engineering, 203 36 ETCME 42 Vibration Of Buildings With Flat Mysore, Karnataka. Slab And Shear Walls Mr. Prashant Bhagawati, Assistant Professor, Concept of Rooftop Rainwater ETCME Department of Civil Engineering, Annasaheb Dange Harvesting System for 208 37 College of Engineering & Technology Ashta, Dist. 201 Educational Institute Sangli - 416 301, Maharashtra. Role of von-misses stress & Amit Yadav, Engineer SC, ITER India, Institute of contact pressure for knee 232 38 ETCME 41 Plasma Research (DAE), Gandhinagar, Gujrat prosthesis material

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Organic solar cell by using Arun D Rao, Research Scholar, IISC, Bangalore, vertically aligned nanostructured 237 39 ETCME 39 Karnataka India ZnO nanorods Numerical Simulation Of Substrate And Coating M. Raja, Research Scholar, CRMS & TM, School of 240 40 ETCME 46 Temperatures During Plasma Mechanical Sciences, Karunya University, Coimbatore Spraying Pramod K Jangir, Assistant Professor, Department of Renewable Energy Sources of Mechanical Engineering, Poornima College of 244 41 ETCME 45 India Engineering, Jaipur, Rajasthan Analysis of Emission Saket Bihari, Assistant Professor, Indore Institute of characteristics of Karanja Bio- 249 42 ETCME 47 Technology and Sciences, Indore Diesel at different loads Performance Assessment of Various Absorber Configurations Satheesha Kumar K., Assistant Professor, Department 253 43 ETCME 48 of Fresnel lens Based Water of Mechanical Engineering, BCET, Puttur, Karnataka Distillation System FEA of Transient Heat Transfer Vipul Shekhada T, Research Scholar, Department of in Air Cooled IC Engine Fin of Mechanical Engineering, Technocrats Insttitute of 259 44 ETCME 50 Different Geometry and Materials Technology, Bhopal - A Review Vipul Shekhada T, Research Scholar, Department of FEA of Transient Heat Transfer Mechanical Engineering, Technocrats Insttitute of 263 45 ETCME 90 in Air Cooled IC Engine Fin Technology, Bhopal

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014 Study of Foot Step Power Generator Akashdeep Gupta1, Sheetal Gadekar2, Vipul Jain3 [email protected],[email protected],vipuljain09@rediff mail.com Department of Mechanical engineering CDGI, Indore1 Research Scholar Department of Mechanical Engineering BMCT, Indore2 Department of Mechanical engineering CDGI, Indore3

Abstract—Walking is the most common activity in day lights. The device is planned for test and to day life. When a person walks, he loses energy to the demonstration that the energy generated by this road surface in the form of impact, vibration, sound etc, device can be stored in a 12 V lead acid battery. A due to the transfer of his weight on to the road surface, 100 watt and 230 volt bulb is to be connected to the through foot falls on the ground during every step. This battery through an inverter. The device will be energy can be tapped and converted in the usable form such as in electrical form. In order to develop a operated by persons walking over to it. However, if technique to harness foot step energy, we planned a there is continuous movement of pedestrians over foot step electricity generating device with a new the device, the bulb can be kept lighted mechanism. This device, if embedded in the footpath, continuously. can convert foot impact energy into electrical form. The working principle is simple. When a pedestrian steps on II. HISTORY the top plate of the device, the plate will dip down slightly due to the weight of the pedestrian. The Earlier the concept of footstep energy conversion downward movement of the plate results in rotation of was based on embedded system design by using the shaft of an electrical alternator fitted in the device, piezoelectric transducers array and AT89S52 to produce electrical energy. The top plate reverts back Microcontroller. to its original position due to negating springs provided in the device. AT89S52 Microcontroller is the heart of the circuit as it controls all the functions. The control mechanism carries the piezoelectric sensor, AC I. INTRODUCTION ripples neutralizer, unidirectional current controller Walking is the most common activity in day to day and 12v, 1.3amplead acid dc rechargeable battery life. When a person walks, he loses energy to the and an inverter is used to drive AC/DC loads. The surface in the form of impact, vibration, sound etc, battery is connected to the inverter. This inverter is due to the transfer of his weight on to the road used to convert 12 V DC to 230 V AC. This 230 surface, through foot falls on the ground during volt A.C voltage is used to activate the loads. every step. This energy can be tapped and converted in the usable form such as in electrical This project uses regulated 5V, 500mA power form. This energy can be tapped in places where supply. 7805 three terminal voltage regulator is footfall is more like Railway Stations, escalators , used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave Airports ,Shopping Malls, Entrances Of Offices rectifier is used the ac output of 230/12V step down Exhibition's. This can help us to generate transformer. Electricity and reduce the energy consumption overall if applied in large chains. In order to develop a technique to harness foot step energy, we planned a foot step electricity generating device with a new mechanism rather than piezoelectric devices. This device, if embedded in the footpath can convert foot impact energy into electrical form.

The working principle is simple. When a pedestrian steps on the top plate of the device, the plate will dip down slightly due to the weight of the pedestrian. The downward movement of the plate results in rotation of the shaft of an electrical alternator fitted in the device, to produce electrical energy. The top plate reverts back to its original position due to negating springs provided in the device. This electricity generated per device is enough to light a Bulb. So, large Chain of these Boxes can help to generate enough electricity to power the lighting systems. If such devices are embedded in places where there is continuous human traffic such as in city malls, railway platforms, city footpaths etc., the electricity generated from these devices can be used for street PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS 1

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

A piezoelectric transducer includes a piezoelectric main Gear which will be mounted on the main element capable of converting electrical energy shaft having 200 teeth. into mechanical energy. Thus, a piezoelectric The gears which we are using having a surface transducer can server both as a transmitter of hardness of 220-250 BHN. mechanical energy and a sensor of impinging mechanical energy. The main shaft to be used is of length 600mm and diameter is 40mm and the set of Intermediate shafts to be used are of length 440mm and 600mm An ultrasonic piezoelectric transducer device can respectively and diameter 20mm each. Shaft will include a piezoelectric vibrating element that be subjected under twisting and bending moment vibrates at a high frequency in response to a time- both. It is made up of Commercial steel having varying driving voltage, and generates a high maximum combined permissible stress of frequency pressure wave in a propagation medium 55MN/m2. in contact with an exposed outer surface of the vibrating element. This high frequency pressure The flywheel which is attached on the first wave can propagate into other media. The same intermediate shaft of length 440mm is of 300mm vibrating element can also receive reflected Diameter and 15mm thickness and the flywheel pressure waves from the propagation media, and attached on the shaft of length 600mm is having a converts the driving voltage signals to obtain diameter of 400mm and 15mm thick. information on variations of density or elastic modulus in the propagation media. The spring to be used for restoring the cross arms are of 6mm wire diameter and Outside diameter is A piezoelectric transducer device can include one 75mm. Permissible stress is 350MPa and modulus or more vibrating elements each having an inner of rigidity is 84 KN/mm2. surface suspended above and attached to a base, Spring Index C= 11.5 and permissible load is of and an outer surface exposed to a propagation 4.12KN. medium. The one or more vibrating elements can vibrate in response to an applied time varying driving voltage and generate a pressure wave in the propagation medium in contact with the exposed outer surface of the vibrating elements.

The D.C voltage is stored to the lead-acid 12 voltage battery. The battery is connected to the ONE WAY GEAR SYSTEM inverter. This inverter is used to convert the 12volt D.C. the 230volt A.C. This 230 volt A.C voltage is In this System, power is only transmitted in one used to activate the light; cell consists of five major direction only. This system is generally used in components, electrodes-anode and cathode, Bicycles and Motorycles.This System helps the separators terminals electrolyte and a case or Rotatory motion of shaft to continue in one enclosure. direction. This system has been used in our device coz when the force is applied on the floor it should DESIGN generate power but when it will release back it will tend to damage the system so to prevent this we Footstep Power generator is a device which will have used this system . convert human energy in to Mechanical energy to generate electrical energy. In this system basically a circlip separates the The main Component of this system is: driving and driven gear when the motion reverses back. This system which we are using in the device . Gears (Spur type) is derived from a motorcycle system , so that it is . Shaft easy to implement. . Flywheel . Cross Arms In this device when the power is generated the . Springs motion is forward which is suited to the system but . Pedestal Bearings when the floor releases the motion is reversed all of . One way transmission gears a sudden which if in case transmitted ti the dynamo . Casing will result in catastrophic failures so the use of one . A Footstep to apply force. way power delivery system was necessary to . Dynamo prevent such failures happening so this system has . Current Amplifying circuit been used in our device. . Battery

In this system we are using 2 set of Gears of different teeth 100 and 50 teeth excluding the

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

III. OPERATION

When force is applied on the foot step, the applied force will be transmitted in two parts. Then the shaft through which the arms are connected got motion due to which the gears mounted on the both ends of the shaft also came in motion in opposite direction and transmit their torque to the secondary Gears which are mounted on the 1st intermediate shaft. The 1st intermediate shaft consist two flywheel at both the ends which will store the energy and supply it to the 1st intermediate shaft continuously and so how the same with the 2nd intermediate shaft. When the applied force is

Fig: One way Gear System removed the main gear will get back to its Initial position but due to use of one way transmission DYNAMO gear bearing arrangement the intermediate shaft have their continuous motion and so how the 2nd A dynamo is an electrical generator that shaft have. If the force is applied continuously the produces direct current with the use of power transmitted to the 2nd shaft goes on multiple a commutator. Dynamos were the first electrical times. generators capable of delivering power for industry, and the foundation upon which many The 2nd shaft carries a flywheel of diameter 400mm other later electric-power conversion devices were which will store more energy. 2nd shaft is running based, including the electric motor, the alternating- at high speed. A Dynamo is connected to the ends current alternator, and the rotary converter. Today, of 2nd shaft which will generate pulsating DC the simpler alternator dominates large scale power current which get will amplify with the help of a generation, for efficiency, reliability and cost Diode rectifier Circuit. The current generated reasons. A dynamo has the disadvantages of a through the system will be used in electrical mechanical commutator. Also, converting appliances but for this continuous periodic force is alternating to direct current using power required. So, it‘s better to stores this electrical rectification devices (vacuum tube or more energy as chemical energy in batteries for recently solid state) is effective and usually continuous supply or when the power is required it economic. will be used as secondary source of energy.

DESCRIPTION

The dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and IV. ENERGY GENERATION magnetic fields to convert mechanical rotation into a pulsing direct electric current through Faraday's The Dynamo will generate Pulsating DC which law of induction. A dynamo machine consists of a will convert into AC with the help of a bridge stationary structure, called the stator, which circuit which consist of a Transformer, Diode, and provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of Rectifier. rotating windings called the armature which turn within that field. The primary winding of transformer is full but the secondary winding of transformer is done in two half‘s. The circuit will work in two half‘s and the power output will be taken through rectifier circuit. For calculation of energy generated firstly we calculate the torque by following formula:

The motion of the wire within the magnetic field causes the field to push on the electrons in the metal, creating an electric current in the wire. On small machines the constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more permanent magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic field provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called field coils. Fig: Circuit Diagram

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Torque = radius ×force

Here the force is the weight of human body and the radius is the radius of first gear. After that we will calculate the torque for flywheel.

After that we have to calculate the power generated which can be calculated by following formula

P= (2 NT)/60

With the help of this power we can find out voltage generated by formula R= V^2/P V. ENERGY STORING Current can be calculated by: The power generated by the foot step generator can be stored in an energy storing device. The output of V= IR the generator was fed to a 12 V lead acid battery, through an ac-dc converter bridge. Initially, the Finally after these calculations with the help of battery was completely discharged. Then, the above quantities we can find energy produced by FSPG was operated by applying foot load and given formula energy was stored in the battery. A 100 W, 230V bulb was connected to the battery through an E= (I^2) ×R inverter. The arrangement is shown in Fig. The duration of lighting, the bulb for number of footsteps and corresponding energy stored, are given in Table.

No. of Duration of lighting a Total energy Energy foot 100 watt 230 Volt bulb (J) /step (J) steps (s)

250 6 600 2.4 500 12 1200 2.4 750 18 1800 2.4 1000 25 2500 2.4

VI. MULTI FSPG UNIT PLATFORM

The main objective of developing the FSEC was to However, persons below 50 kg weight can also demonstrate the technology of harness in energy operate but the power produced will be low. The from human walk. However, multiple unit clusters unit is fitted with two 12 V, 26 AH lead acid may be more useful for producing useable power. batteries for storing the output energy from this A cluster of 5 FSPG devices mounted on a wheeled unit. Also, an inverter is provided to convert 12 V platform could be developed. A view of the internal DC from battery to 230 V AC supply for general components of a typical FSPG device is used in the use. When a person walks over to the platform, the cluster. The electrical output of all five FSPG reading on the energy meter was observed to be devices will be stored in 2 batteries provided in the incremented by 3-5 J per step, depending on the platform. An electronic digital energy meter is weight of the person. The output may be further fitted on the platform. The energy generated in increased by increasing the efficiency of the FSEC each of the five FSPG units fitted in the mobile device. As millions of people are on the move in platform is integrated and displayed on the energy cities, significant amount of electricity can be meter. The energy meter shows a total integrated generated by installing these devices at places value of electrical energy in KJ generated in all where public walk through. The economic viability FSECs fitted in the platform. aspects of these units will be studied, after sufficient data is collected. There is a plan to put The platform is provided castor wheels, and can be the platform for public use, for testing and placed at any public place where there is collecting data. continuous movement of people. This unit is designed for persons weighing 50 Kg and above.

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

REFERENCES 3. V.V. Athani – 1997: Stepper Motors: Fundamentals, Applications and Design provided information about 1. Rex Miller, Mark Richard Miller – 2004: Audel Electric electronic drive circuits for hybrid stepper motors such as Motors (6Th Ed.) Detailed about fractional horsepower logic sequence generators, power drivers, current (FHP) flat-blade screwdriver, flux density, full-load suppression circuits, pulse generators, and ramping current (FLC) float switch, foot- pedal speed control. circuits.

2. Randy E. Ellis, Terry M. Peters – 2003: MICCAI detailed 4. With reference to www.manliftgroup.com (Man lift about system consists of a computer with a PCI-based Turnkey Power Solutions) posted about 50MW stepper signal generator (NI-5401 , Electrical Signals Penetration power generator. Panel" Stepper Motor Heating Applicator

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014 Design and Development a Inlet Port (Single Cylinder) Fuelled By CNG

Akashdeep Gupta1, G.V.R. Seshagiri Rao2 [email protected], [email protected] Department of Mechanical Engineering CDGI, Indore1 HOD of Mechanical Engineering BMCT, Indore

Abstract- the objective of this study is to design & deep within the earth. It is a fossil fuel formed develop a Inlet port (single cylinder) fuelled by over millions of years of geological pressures Compressed Natural Gas to comply with the Indian and changes. Natural gas is primarily methane emission norms of BS IV.Engine features a Port comprised of hydrogen and carbon. It is a safe Injection to increase the volumetric efficiency and fuel source that is reduce the NOx emissions as CNG or compressed commonly used in homes and natural gas is mo s t economical, clean burning, businesses for heating, lighting and cooking. alternative fuel source for vehicles. Project is split up into two stages. II. METHODOLOGY In the initial stage, design is done using CATIA V5R12 software that help us put together the The cylinder wall is subjected to gas pressure and basic design of port developed in CATIA V5R12 the piston side thrust. The gas pressure produces only. the following two types of stresses: The second stage is to develop a modified inlet (a) Longitudinal stress port design. (b) Circumferential stress. Finally based on the comparisons and results in FEA software, the parameters such as at a later stage the results of simulation and analysis will be compared and the parameters are optimized to achieve better results.

Keyword: - Inlet Port, CNG, CATIA V5R12 (FEA), Von Misses Stress, Displacement

I. INTRODUCTION

CNG or compressed natural gas is a domestically available, economical, clean burning, alternative fuel source for vehicles.

Fig.2:- 4 Stroke Engine

Since these two stresses act at right angles to each other, therefore, the net stress in each direction is reduced. The piston side thrust tends to bend the cylinder wall, but the stress in the wall due to side thrust is very small and hence it may be neglected. Fig 1. molecule of CNG Let D0 = Outside diameter of the cylinder in mm, Rather than burn gasoline or diesel fuel, a consumer would fuel their vehicle with natural gas. D = Inside diameter of the cylinder in In order to provide enough range, the gas is mm, compressed and stored on the vehicle in pressurized tanks. Tanks that can hold up to 3,600 p = Maximum pressure inside the engine cylinder psig. in N/mm2, Sounds a little scary but not when you compare t = Thickness of the cylinder wall in mm, and the physical properties of Natural Gas and 1/m = Poisson‘s ratio. gasoline. The fact is that natural gas is a much safer The apparent longitudinal stress is given by fuel than gasoline Natural Gas is an organic compound that is found

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

The allowance for reboring (C) depending upon the size of the cylinder. The thickness of the upon the cylinder bore (D) for I. C. engines is cylinder wall (t) may also be obtained from the given in the following table: following empirical relation, i.e. The thickness of the cylinder wall usually varies from 4.5 mm to 25 mm or more depending (a) If the power developed at the crankshaft, i.e. D 50 75 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 brake power (B. P.) and the (mm) 0 Mechanical efficiency (ηm)of the engine is C 12. known, then 1.5 2.4 4.0 6.3 8.0 9.5 11.0 12.5 12.5 (mm) 5 I.P. = B.P. /ηm (b) The maximum gas pressure ( p ) may be Table 1 Allowance for reboring for I. taken as 9 to 10 times the mean effective C. pressure ( pm).

t =0.045D+1.6 (mm)

Thickness of the water jacket wall

= 0.032 D + 1.6 mm or t / 3 m for bigger cylinders = 3t /4 for smaller cylinders Water space between the outer cylinder wall and inner jacket wall

= 10 mm for a 75 mm cylinder bore to 75 mm for a 750 mm cylinder bore Fig5 front cross sectional view = 0.08 D + 6.5 mm ii) Bore and length of the cylinder. The bore START (i.e. inner diameter) and length of the cylinder may be determined as discussed below: Let pm = Indicated mean effective pressure in N/mm2, Computer aided 2D Modeling of D = Cylinder bore in mm, inlet port using CATIA V5R12 for

A = Cross-sectional area of the cylinder in engine cylinder mm2,

= πD2/4 Computer aided 3D Modeling of inlet port using CATIA V5R12 for engine cylinder l = Length of stroke in meters,

N = Speed of the engine in r.p.m., and n = Number of working strokes per min Preprocessing in CATIA V5R12 software = N, for two stroke engine = N/2, for four stroke engine. We know that the power produced inside the engine cylinder, i.e. indicated power, IP= PLANK/60 Simulation using CATIA V5R12 I.P=B.P/n From this expression, the bore (D) and length of stroke (l) is determined. The length of stroke is generally taken as 1.25 D to 2D. Since there is a clearance on both sides of the cylinder, therefore length of the cylinder is Post-processing using CATIA V5R12 taken as 15 percent greater than the length of stroke. In other words,

Length of the cylinder, L = 1.15 × Length of END stroke = 1.15 l Notes:

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Fig. Flow chart port designs

S. Analysis Modifi Origin No results ed path al path .

1 Maximum 0.478 1.63 Von misses stress(N/m2 )

2 Maximum 4.44e- 1.38e- Fig 4. Inlet Port Displacem 12 10

ent (mm) III. MODELING AND SIMULATION

The design first shows better result for both the analysis i.e., for von misses stress as well as maximum displacement which are obtained lesser as compared to the second model in which the port is taken near the combustion chamber.

CONCLUSIONS It has been observed that the modified design of inlet port gives better flow coefficient and high volumetric efficiency. Due to injection on the port and less swirl so combustion is proper as CNG engine works on progressive combustion.

Design and Development of Inlet Port is Fig 6 cross section view of lower inlet port successfully done with result oriented performance. Reduce the NOx emissions as CNG or compressed natural gas is a domestically IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS available, economical, clean burning, alternative fuel source for vehicles. This work deals with design and development Finally it has suggested for CNG Engine of inlet port (single cylinder) fuelled by vehicles for better results. Compressed Natural Gas to comply with the Indian emission norms of BS IV. REFERENCES Engine features a Port Injection with increased volumetric efficiency and reduced NOx 1. Beck, N., Barkhimer, R., Johnson, W., Wong, emissions. H. et al., "Evolution of Heavy Duty Natural Gas V. INLET PORT DESIGN Engines - Stoichiometric, Carbureted and Spark

Ignited to Lean Burn, Fuel Injected and Micro- Inlet port is successfully designed in CATIA and design is verified with the help of Pilot," SAE Technical Paper 972665, 1997, Stress results. Stress results gives clear doi:10.4271/972665. indication whether the design is a success or not. In the current model we have successfully 2. Kamel, M., "The B5.9G Gas Engine achieved the Stress analysis for better outcome. Technology," SAE Technical Paper 952649, Flow pattern is quite different as per previous models. 1995, doi:10.4271/952649. Table no.2 shows the comparison of stress 3. Bohac, S. and Assanis, D., "Effect of components in two models with different inlet 8

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Exhaust Valve Timing on Gasoline Engine & Gas Science and Technology‖ – Rev. IFP, Performance and Hydrocarbon Emissions," Vol. 64 (2009), No. 3, pp. 431-444 SAE Technical Paper 2004-01-3058, 2004, 5. Ing. Radek Tichánek Ing. Miroslav Španiel, doi:10.4271/2004-01-3058. CSc. Department of Automotive and Aerospace Bell, S., "Natural Gas as a Transportation Fuel," Engineering ―Structural Stress Analysis of an SAE Technical Paper 931829, 1993, Engine Cylinder Head‖ 2003, vol. 2, no. 3 doi:10.4271/931829. 4. B. Reveille and A. Duparchy, ―3D CFD analysis of an abnormally rapid Combustion phenomenon in downsized gasoline engines. Oil

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An Analytical Investigating Research Study On Offset-Strip Fin Heat Exchangers

ALOK VYAS *PRSHANT SHARMA** *(Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chameli Devi Group of Institutions, Indore (M.P.) **(Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rajeev Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal (M.P.)

Abstract-This paper is a analytical research work- heat by flowing along the passage corrugations study of last few years on heat transfer growth in between the parting sheets. The edges of the compact heat exchangers. In this paper we are corrugated layers are sealed by side-bars. discussing Analytical model to predict the heat Corrugations and side-bars are brazed to the parting transfer coefficient and the friction factor of the OSFs geometry 2D & 3D Analysis in OSF, sheets on both sides to form rigid pressure- Experimental & investigating research on OSFs, , containing voids. The first and the last sheets, Heat transfer and pressure drop Characteristics called cap sheets, are usually of thicker material of an OSFs Thermal performance, CFD Analysis than the parting sheets to support the excess on OSFs. It is a brief discussion on the pressure over the ambient and to give protection application to improved heat transfer surfaces against physical damage. Each stream enters the with offset strip fin heat exchangers. block from its own header via ports in the side-bars Keywords - CFD Analysis, Offset-strip fin, Heat of appropriate layers and leaves in a similar transfer growth, laminar and turbulent flow. fashion. The header tanks are welded to the side- I. INTRODUCTION bars and parting sheets across the full stack of The first sign of movement to relatively layers ―compact‖ heat exchangers was seen in the automotive industry in the early 1900‘s, when an II. THE OFFSET STRIP FIN GEOMETRY improved manner for removing heat from engines with minimum material (weight) was required. The geometry of the offset strip fin surface is Whereas heat was previously removed from described by the following parameters: engines by boiling a collection of water and (i) Fin spacing (s), excluding the fin thickness, releasing it into the air in an unrefined convection (ii) Fin height (h), excluding the fin thickness, process, heat exchangers were seen as an (iii) Fin thickness (t), and inexpensive way to improve engine performance (iv) The strip length (_), in the flow direction. (Shah & Sekulic, 2003).[1] The lateral fin offset is generally uniform A plate fin heat exchanger is a form of and equal to half the fin spacing (including fin compact heat exchanger consisting of a block of thickness). Figure shows a schematic view of the alternating layers of corrugated fins and flat rectangular offset strip fin surface and defines the separators known as parting sheets. The geometric parameters. The following are some commonly used secondary parameters derived from corrugations serve both as secondary heat transfer the basic fin dimensions surface and as mechanical support against the internal pressure between layers Steam exchanges

Fig.1Offset-strip fin Geometry

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

III. ANALYTICAL MODEL TO PREDICT IV. EXPERIMENTAL & INVESTIGATING THE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT AND RESEARCH ON OSFS THE FRICTION FACTOR OF THE OSFS Hu and Herold [5] presented two papers to show the effect of Prandtl no. on heat transfer and GEOMETRY pressure drop in OSF array. Experimental study was carried out in the first paper to study the effect Joshi and Webb [2] developed an analytical model for which they used the seven OSFs having to predict the heat transfer coefficient and the different geometries and three working fluids with friction factor of the offset strip fin surface different Prandtl number. At the same time the geometry. To study the transition from laminar to effect of changing the Prandtl number of fluid with turbulent flow they conducted the flow temperature was also investigated. The study was visualization experiments and an equation based on carried out in the range of Reynolds number the conditions in wake was developed. They also varying from 10 to 2000 in both the papers. The results of the two studies showed that the Prandtl modified the correlations of Weiting [3]. There was number has a significant effect on heat transfer in some difference between there correlation. Four OSF channel.Although there is no effect on the different flow regimes were identified by Joshi and pressure drop. Webb [4] from there experiment. The flow was Zhang et al [6] investigated the found to be laminar and steady in the first regime. mechanisms for heat transfer enhancement in In the second regime the oscillating flow structures parallel plate fin heat exchangers including the were found in the transverse direction. The flow inline and staggered arrays of OSFs. They have also taken into account the effect of fin thickness oscillated in the wake region between two and the time dependent flow behavior due to the successive fins in the third regime. And in the vortex shedding by solving the unsteady fourth regime the effect of vortex shedding came momentum and energy equation. The effects of into picture. The laminar flow correlation of Joshi vortices which are generated at the leading edge of and Webb started to under predict the j and f the fins and travel downstream along the fin factors at the second regime. So they assumed the surface was also studied. From there study they found that only the surface interruptions increase Reynolds number at that point as the critical the heat transfer because they cause the boundary Reynolds number to identify the transition from layers to start periodically on fin surfaces and laminar to turbulent. reduce the thermal resistance to transfer heat between the fin surfaces and fluid. However after a critical Reynolds number the flow becomes unsteady and in this regime the vortices play a major role to increase the heat transfer by bringing the fresh fluids continuously from the main stream towards the fin surface. S.YoucefAli_,J.Y.Desmons[7] Presented A Fig.2 Laminar flow on the fins and in the wakes mathematical model that allows the determination (Source Joshi and Webb 1987) of the thermal performances of the single pass solar Four different flow regimes were identified by air collector with offset rectangular plate fin Joshi and Webb [4] from their experiment. The absorber plate is developed (fig.2). The model can flow was found to be laminar and steady in the first predict the temperature profile of all the regime. In the second regime the oscillating flow components of the collector and of the air stream in structures were found in the transverse direction. the channel duct.the offset rectangular plate fins The flow oscillated in the wake region between two were introduced, which increase the thermal heat successive fins in the third regime. And in the transfer between the absorber plate and the fluid. fourth regime the effect of vortex shedding came The offset rectangular plate fins, mounted in a into picture. The laminar flow correlation of Joshi staggered pattern, are oriented parallel to the fluid and Webb started to under predict the j and f flow and are soldered to the underside of the factors at the second regime. So they assumed the absorber plate. They are characterized by high heat Reynolds number at that point as the critical transfer area per unit volume and generate the low Reynolds number to identify the transition from pressure losses. The experimental results of the air laminar to turbulent. stream temperature wil be compared with the results obtained by the theoretical model suggested

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

FIGURE3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP Agreement Particularly In The Transition Flow Regime. On The Other Hand, In The Laminar Flow The Model, Which Determines The Thermal System, The Greatest Recorded Variation, Which Performances Of This Collector And Temperatures Is Of 71ↄc Obtained For The Lowest Value Of Of All Its Components And Air Stream, Uses An The Reynolds Number Re ¼ 479. In This Same Equation Of Global Irradiance Incident Along The Case, The Difference between the Theoretical and Collector, Ambient And Inlet Collector the Experimental Air Stream Temperature at the Temperature. Predicted And Experimental Results Collector Exit Is Only of 41 ↄc Which Is Of The Air Stream Temperature Are In Good Acceptable.

V. HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP CHARACTERISTICS OF AN OSFS

H. Bhowmik and Kwan-Soo Lee [8] studied the relative to Reynolds number were observed. heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of an General correlations for the f and j factors were offset strip fin heat exchanger. For their study they derived by them which could be used to analyze used a steady state three dimensional numerical fluid flow and heat transfer Characteristics of offset model. They have took water as the heat transfer strip fins in the laminar, transition, and turbulent medium, and the Reynolds number (Re)in the regions of the flow. range of 10 to 3500. Variations in the Fanning friction factor f and the Colburn heat transfer j

FIGURE4. DIRECTION OF FLUID AT LPD & HPD

Saidi and Sudden [9] carried out a numerical intermediate Reynolds numbers where the flow analysis of the instantaneous flow and heat transfer remains laminar, but unsteadiness and vortex for OSF geometries in self-sustained time- shedding tends to dominate. They compared their dependent oscillatory flow. The effect of vortices numerical results with previous numerical and over the fin surfaces on heat transfer was studied at experimental data done by Dejong, et al. (1998).

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Fig.

VI. HEAT TRANSFER IN OFFSET PLATE FINS The studies of few researchers like Patankar and this Reynolds number may be useful in systems Prakash [17], Kays and London [10] it is easy to where minimizing the heat exchanger size or get information regarding the effects of OSFs on maximizing the heat transfer coefficient is more heat transfer and pressure drop. But most of the important than minimizing the pressure drop. researchers have not taken into account the effect Various experiments are carried out in of manufacturing irregularities such as burred order to find out the j and f factors of the various edges, bonding imperfections, separating plate heat exchangers and are called as the thermal roughness which also affect the heat transfer and performance testing. These testing are needed for flow friction characteristics of the heat exchanger. heat exchangers, which do not have reported j and f Dong et al [11] made experiments and analysis data. Therefore, this test is conducted for any new considering the above factors to get better thermal development or modification of the finned surfaces. and hydraulic performance from the OSFs. Sixteen T. Lestina & K. Bell, Advances in Heat Transfer, types of OSFs and flat tube heat exchangers were told for heat exchangers already existing in the used to make the experimental studies on heat plants this test is done for the following reasons: transfer and pressure drop characteristics. A a) Comparison of the measured performance with number of tests were made by changing the various specification or manufacturing design rating data. fin parameters and all the tests were carried out in b) Evaluation of the cause of degradation or specific region of air side Reynolds number (500- malfunctioning. 7500), at a constant water flow crate. The thermal c) Assessment of process improvements such as performance data was analyzed using the those due to enhancement or heat exchanger effectiveness-NTU method in order to obtain the replacement. heat transfer coefficient. They also derived the j Another reason for developing these factor and f factor by using regression analysis. correlations is that, generally in most heat Results showed that the heat transfer coefficient exchanger problems the working fluid, the heat and pressure drop reduce with enlarging the fin flow rate and mass flow rate are usually known, so space, fin height and fin length. if certain correlations between geometry and fin Michna et al [12] investigated the effect performance is also known, then the problem can of increasing Reynolds number on the performance be deeply simplified. For that purpose developing of OSFs. He conducted the experiment at Reynolds the correlations for fanning friction factor f and number between 5000 to 120000 and found that Colbourn factor j are important for heat both heat transfer and pressure drop increased with exchanger.These are the ratio of free flow area ( increasing Reynolds number, because the effect of = s/h), the ratio of heat transfer area (β= t/l), and vortex shedding and eddy formation at turbulent the ratio of fin density (y= t/s). regime. Operation of OSF heat exchangers under Show in Fig.1

VII. THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF OSF HEAT EXCHANGERS

S. Youcef-Ali_, J.Y. Desmons [7] A mathematical the collector, ambient and inlet collector model that allows the determination of the thermal temperature. Predicted and experimental results of performances of the single pass solar air collector the air stream temperature are in good agreement with offset rectangular plate fin absorber plate is particularly in the transition flow regime. developed. The model, which determines the thermal performances of this collector and Suzuki et al [13] in order to study the temperatures of all its components and air stream, thermal performance of a staggered array of uses an equation of global irradiance incident along vertical flat plates at low Reynolds number has 13

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

taken a different numerical approach by solving the acceptable upon comparing their results to the elliptic differential equations governing the flow of data obtained from other correlations. momentum and energy. The validation of their numerical model has been done by carrying out Randall.F.Barron[15], shows that experiments on a two dimensional system, Cryogenic heat exchanger, has showed the effect of followed by those on a practical offset strip fin heat longitudinal wall heat conduction on the exchanger. The experimental result was in good performance of cryogenic heat exchangers. agreement with the performance study for the Cryogenic heat exchangers operate at low practical offset-strip-fin type heat exchanger in the temperatures where the longitudinal wall heat range of Reynolds number of Re<800. conduction results in serious performance Tinaut et al [14] developed two correlations for deterioration this is because they have small heat transfer and flow friction coefficients for OSFs distances ( on the order of 100 to 200 mm or 4 to and plane parallel plates. The working fluid for 8 in) between the warm and cold ends i.e. they OSF was engine oil and water was taken for have short conduction lengths. Because of the analyzing the parallel plate channels. By using the natural requirement of high effectiveness for correlations of Dittus and Boelter and some cryogenic heat exchangers, the NTU values are expressions of Kays and Crawford they obtained usually large (as high as 500 to 1000), so the effect their correlations. For the validation of their results of longitudinal conduction is most pronounced for they compared there correlations with correlations heat exchangers having short conduction lengths of Weitng[3]. and large NTU. The wall longitudinal heat Although there were some differences between the conduction reduces the local temperature difference results but there correlations have been found between the two streams, thereby reducing the heat exchanger effectiveness and the heat transfer rate.

VIII. CFD Analysis

Heat exchanger designs continued to expand and solutions in favor of Computational Fluid develop through the 1960‘s and more industries Dynamics (CFD). CFD provided low-cost means to gained interest in using compact heat exchangers to simulate the physics occurring inside heat increase efficiency. Compact heat exchanger exchangers relatively accurately, without the need technologies spread from the automotive industry to construct and test physical apparatus before a to the air conditioning industry, several final design was developed. manufacturing industries, and even to the magnetic railway industry (Shah, McDonald, & Howard, 1980).[16] The 1980‘s brought an increase in computing power and function that led compact heat exchanger research away from experimental

FIGURE 6. CFD ANALYSIS IN OFFSET PLATE FINS It took several years, and decades in some cases, In the time since CFD became prevalent in for the computing power to be able to accurately heat exchanger design, several systems of predict the physics in a timely fashion for the commercial codes have been developed to allow incredibly small geometries in compact heat for rapid testing and simulations. The programs exchangers. That breakthrough allowed for continue to become more accurate, and as significant advancements in the industry. computers continue to become more powerful and Optimization processes were more easily obtained, swift in their calculations, the use of CFD will and more complex geometries could be tested with expand to new applications. the use of CFD. The Fig.6 show in OSFs geometry. The technologies available today are leaps and incredibly more accurate in comparison to hand bounds ahead of the resources available to those drawings and manual calculations done in the designing the MSBR in the 1960‘s. Computing initial MSBR design (Bettis, et al., 1967). The power has made hydrodynamics and heat transfer computer programs developed at ORNL for 14

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optimization of the heat exchanger designs were plate situation leads to significantly higher pressure rudimentary compared to the commercial software drop while the heat transfer does not sufficiently packages available today. Performing CFD improve despite the increased surface area and analyses in FLUENT, with automated optimization increased mean velocity. available in ANSYS Workbench, is much more Fangjun Hong & Ping Cheng [18] show the 3-D sophisticated than the analog computer models numerical simulation, taking into consideration the used in the 1960‘s for overall plant operation conjugate heat transfer of heat sink base material (Burke, 1972) and heat exchanger design (Bettis, and coolant, was conducted for laminar forced Pickel, Crowley, Simon-Tov, Nelms, & Stoddart, convection of water to study offset strip fin micro 1971). channel heat sink for microelectronic cooling. It is found that due to the periodical change of the flow IX. TWO & THREE DIMENSIONAL direction, the convective heat transfer is enhanced ANALYSIS IN OSFS HEAT EXCHANGERS by mixing the cold and hot coolant, and the Patankar and Prakash [17] presented a two periodical breakup of boundary layer is another dimensional analysis for the flow and heat transfer factor to enhance heat transfer. The effects of the in an interrupted plate passage which is an ratio of fin interval to fin length K, and fin numbers idealization of the OSFs heat exchanger. The main M on the performance of strip-fin micro channel aim of the study is investigating the effect of plate were also investigated. It is found that for the same thickness in a non-dimensional form t/H on heat K, with the increase of M, the required mass flow transfer and pressure drop in OSF channels because rate to keep the maximum wall temperature the impingement region resulting from thick plate decreases. on the leading edge and recalculating region behind the trailing edge are absent if the plate thickness is X. CONCLUSION neglected. Their calculation method was based on This paper gives a detailed description of OSFs the periodically fully developed flow through one types of geometries that can be used to Heat periodic module since the flow in OSF channels transfer. Offset-strip-fin enhancement geometries attains a periodic fully developed behaviour after a have been developed in order to make heat short entrance region, which may extend to about 5 exchangers more efficient and compact. Currently (at the most 10) ranks of plates (Sparrow, et al. plate-fin heat exchangers are very common in 1977). Steady and laminar flow was assumed by cryogenic systems and gas-liquefaction plants. them between Reynolds numbers 100 to 2000. Increased demand for smaller and better heat They found the flow to be mainly laminar in this exchange devices will certainly lead to more range, although in some cases just before the widespread use of plate-fin heat exchangers in Reynolds no. 2000 there was a transition from other applications as well. laminar to turbulence. Specially for the higher values of t/H. They used the constant heat flow This review paper discuses the considerable boundary condition with each row of fins at fixed experimental, Numerical and CFD work which has temperature. They made their analysis for different been done on heat transfer growth through offset- fin thickness ratios t/H= 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 for the strip fin experimental work. There is a need of same fin length L/H = 1, and they fixed the Prandtl analyzing dynamics similarities amongst the number of fluid = 0.7. For proper validation they geometrical similarities on large scale model compared there numerical results with the covering industrial application, Further research is experimental results of [London and Shah][1] for required to be conducted at a large scale on offset strip fin heat exchangers. The result considerable range of curvature ratio, low range of indicated reasonable agreement for the f factors, curvature ratio, low range of Prandtl number and but the predicted j factor was twice as large as the Reynolds numbers temperature etc. experimental data. They concluded that the thick

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REFERENCES 1. London, A. L. A Brief History of Compact Compact Heat Exchanger – History, Heat Exchanger Technology, in R. K. Shah, C. Technological Advancement and Mechanical F. McDonald and C. P. Howard (Eds), Design Problems, HTD, 10, ASME, 1-4, Compact Heat Exchanger – History, (1980) Technological Advancement and Mechanical 11. Dejong N. C., Zhang L. W., Jacobi A. M., Design Problems, HTD, 10, ASME, 1-4, Balchandar S. and Tafti D. K. (1980) 1998.AComplementaryExperimental and 2. Joshi H. M. and Webb R. L. 1987. Heat Numerical Study of Flow and Heat Transfer in Transfer and Friction in Offset Strip Fin Heat Offset Strip Fin Heat Exchangers. Journal of Exchanger, International Journal of Heat and Heat Transfer 12:690:702 Mass Transfer. 30(1): 69-80 12. Michna J. G., Jacobi A. M. and Burton L. R. 3. Wieting, A. R. Empirical Correlations for Heat 2005. Air Side Thermal- Hydraulic Transfer and Flow Friction Characteristics of Performance of an Offset Strip Fin Array at Rectangular Offset-Fin Plate-Fin Heat Reynolds Number up to 12, 0000. Fifth Exchangers ASME J. Heat Transfer 97 488- International Conference on Enhanced 490 (1975) Compact and Ultra Compact Heat Exchangers. 4. Joshi, H. M. and Webb, R. L. Heat Transfer Science, Engineering and Technology 8-14. and Friction of the Offset Strip-fin Heat 13. Suzuki, K., Hiral, E., Miyake, T., Numerical Exchanger Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 30(1) 69- and Experimental studies on a two 84 (1987) Dimensional Model of an Offset-Strip-Fin type 5. Hu S and Herold K. E. 1995a Prandtl Number Compact Heat Exchanger used at low Effect on Offset Strip Fin Heat Exchanger Reynolds Number. International Journal of Performance: Predictive Model for Heat Heat and Mass Transfer 1985 28(4) 823-836 Transfer and Pressure Drop. International 14. Tinaut F. V., Melgar A. and Rehman Ali A. A. Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 38(6) 1043- 1992 Correlations for Heat Transfer and Flow 1051 Hu S and Herold K. E. 1995b Prandtl Friction Characteristics of Compact Plate Type number Effect on Offset Strip Fin Heat Heat Exchangers. International Journal of Heat Exchanger Performance: Experimental and Mass Transfer. 35(7):1659:166 Results. International Journal of Heat and 15. Barron R. F., Cryogenic Heat Transfer, Taylor Mass Transfer 38(6) 1053-1061. and Francis (1999) 311-318. 6. Zhang L. W., Balachandar S., Tafti D. K. and 16. R. K. Shah, C. F. McDonald and C. P. Howard Najjar F. M. 1997. Heat Transfer Enhancement (Eds), Compact Heat Exchanger – History, Mechanisms in Inline and Staggered Parallel Technological Advancement and Mechanical Plate Fin Heat Exchanger. International Design Problems, HTD, 10, ASME, 1-4, Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer (1980) 40(10):2307-2325 17. Patankar S. V. and Prakash C. 1981 An 7. S.YoucefAli_,J.Y.Desmons,Numerical and Analysis of Plate Thickness on Laminar Flow experimental study of a solar equipped with and Heat transfer in Interrupted Plate passages. offset rectangular plate fin absorber plate International Journal of Heat and Mass Volume 31, Issue 13, Pages 2025-2206 Transfer 24:1801-1810 (October 2006) Renewable Energy an 18. Fangjun Hong & Ping Cheng Three InternationalJournal,http://www.sciencedirect. dimensional numerical analyses and com/science/journal/09601481 optimization of offset strip-fin micro-channel 8. H. Bhowmik and Kwan-Soo 2009. Analysis of heat sinks International Communications in Heat Transfer and Pressure Heat and Mass Transfer volume36,issue- DropCharacteristics in an Offset Strip Fin Heat 7,August2009,Pages 651–656 Exchanger. International Journal of Heat and 19. Manglik and Bergles A. E. 1995 Heat Transfer MassTransfer 259-263 and Pressure drop Correlations for Rectangular 9. Saidi A. and Sudden B. 2001. A Numerical Offset Strip Finn Compact Heat Exchangers. Investigation of Heat Transfer Enhancement in Experimental Fluid Science 10:171-180. Offset Strip Fin Heat Exchangers in Self 20. Kays, W. M. and London, A. L. Compact Sustained Oscillatory Flow. International Heat Exchangers, McGraw-Hill, New York Journal of Numerical Methods for Heat and (1984). Fluid Flow. 11(7): 699-716 10. K.London, A. L. A Brief History of Compact Heat Exchanger Technology, in R. K. Shah, C. F. McDonald and C. P. Howard (Eds),

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Dry Sliding Wear analyses of Al-Al2O3 Nano Composites Krishnkant Sahu1, Ankit Sharma2, Shashwat Vyas3 [email protected] Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chameli Devi Group of Institutions, Indore (M.P.) competitor to Steel in engineering applications Abstract—The dry sliding wear behaviour of nano because of its excellent combination of composites processed through ultrasonic assisted stir properties. Now a days, more Aluminium is casting were studied. The composites were based on the A6061 aluminum alloy reinforced with different consumed (on a volumetric basis) than all weight percent of nano Al2O3 particles. The pin-on other non-ferrous metals/alloys including disc wear test is conducted to find the wear behaviour copper. The high utility index of Aluminium is of the Al- Al2O3 alloy based composite. In whole due to many of its unique properties such as experiment sliding distance 1500 m is taken as constant. The sliding wear test is conducted for light weight, low density, good thermal and different load, speed and weight % of nano Al2O3. electrical conductivity, good fabricability and The result shows that volume loss (wear rate/ Sliding excellent corrosion resistance. Because of Distance) of composite is reduced as reinforcement these properties, it has found application in increases. For the same working conditions wear rate various sectors like transportation, packaging, increases with increasing load and with increasing speed. electrical industries, chemical and food industries, architecture etc. Aluminium-matrix Keywords—wear, wear rate,nono composites, composites (AMCs) reinforced with applied load, sliding velocity. discontinuous reinforcements are finding I. INTRODUCTION increased use in automotive, military, The need of efficient use of energy & aerospace and electronics industries because materials is being felt strongly because of of their improved physical and mechanical diminishing resources in the present times. properties. There has been an important role of materials The first major industrial demand for in the development of civilizations. aluminium alloys arose in the ‗Aircrafts Necessities, urge for excellence and quality Industry‘ and the reasons are not difficult to have always acted in tandem to propel the understand. Aluminium offered an excellent development of science & technology. This combination of properties like ―light weight, has driven researchers in the realm of material high specific strength, stiffness and good science through the ages. The industrial corrosion resistance, higher ductility‖ etc. Its development during the last century would not good corrosion resistance also allowed it to be have been possible without a technological used extensively in chemical industries and innovation in production, processing & coatings for other metals. However, the poor effective utilization of materials, This fact is mechanical properties of aluminium (yield all the more apparent in the transportation strength: 30 MPa, tensile strength 70 MPa of sector when we compare earlier large bulky 99.6% pure aluminium) limit its use on a automobiles with today‘s light weight, wider scale. Realizing the potential of Al as technologically superior vehicles. Man has well as availability, considerable efforts are been using iron, copper & their alloys for being made to explore the possibilities of thousands of years, but surprisingly until the improving its mechanical strength so as to last century he was oblivious of the bauxite meet the requirements for various applications. ore, which is the second most abundant ore in In order to improve the mechanical strength earth crust. Aluminium became an economic 17

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and modulus of aluminium, it is alloyed with measurement, of alloy and composite, various alloying elements such as Cu, Zn, Mg, hardness measurement, dry sliding wear tests. Si, Mn etc. Microstructural characterization and worn surface study of alloy and composites has also Various processing methods have emerged for been performed. synthesis of Al-MMCs which include stir casting, squeeze casting, Rheo-casting (compo-casting), Aluminum based MMC Preparation by liquid-metal infiltration, spray deposition, powder Ultrasonic Assisted Stir Casting Route an metallurgy (P/M) etc. Each of these methods has ultrasonic assisted stir casting arrangement as its own advantages and limitations. In fact, shown in figure 2.1 consisted of a resistance suitability of a method primarily depends on reinforcement shape, size, and volume fraction as Muffle Furnace, stirrer assembly and probe also on the type of application. However, among assembly to manufacture the composite. The the different processing methods available for stirrer assembly consists of a stirrer which was synthesis of composite, Stir-Casting is found to be connected to a variable speed vertical drilling the most commercially viable method, especially machine with range of 80 to 900 rpm by for synthesis of particle reinforced composites as means of a steel shaft at the end of which the the present stir casting set-up could be used in this stirring blade is attached. process. The stirrer was made by cutting and shaping a In the present study, it is aimed to study the effect of reinforcement volume fraction on mechanical desired shape and size manually. The stirrer 0 and tribological properties of Al-Si-Mg alloy consisted of a four blades at an angle of 90 (Al6061) and its composite developed by apart. Crucible of 2 kg capacity was placed reinforcing 1 wt%, 2 wt% and 3 wt% Al2O3 inside the furnace. Approximately 1.1 Kg of particles in the Al matrix. The wear studies include alloy in solid form was melted at 800oC in the the effect of various extrinsic experimental resistance furnace. Preheating of variables (load, sliding speed, and sliding distance) reinforcement (alumina at 350oC) was done by Change in wear rate and coefficient of friction for using muffle furnace. It was used for one hour different sliding velocity and load is studied for to remove moisture and gases from the surface alloy and its composite, keeping sliding distance of the particulates and to avoid high drop of constant. It is worthwhile to mention that interfaces between the reinforcement and the matrix play an temperature after addition of particulates. important role in controlling the overall properties Stirring is initiated to homogenize the of composites and hence the performance. A good temperature & then adding the reinforcement bond between the reinforcement and the matrix into molten alloy. At every stage before and helps in transferring effectively the loads from the after introduction of reinforcement, matrix to the reinforcement without hampering or mechanical stirring is carried out for a period degrading the interface and the composites. Thus of 12 min. The stirrer is located approximately attention is given to prepare composites with good to a depth of 2/3 height of the molten metal interface bonding and uniform distribution of from the bottom and run at a speed of 200 particle. rpm. The speed of the stirrer is gradually II. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE raised to 800 rpm and the preheated Ultrasonic Assisted Stir Casting reinforcement particles were added into the This chapter deals with the materials and melt. After the addition of reinforcement, various experimental procedures used to carry stirring was continued for 15 to 20 minutes for out the present investigation. These include proper mixing of the prepared particles in the raw material characterization, synthesis of matrix. alloy and composites, secondary forming process, specimen preparation, density

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which is commonly used in property calculations, or the weight fraction (w), which is relevant to fabrication. By relating weight and volume fractions via density ( ), the following expression is obtained

The experimental density of Al2O3 has been measured by Archimedes technique. Porosity was calculated by different between theoretical density and experimental density. Variation of porosity with different weight % of nano

Al2O3 is shown in figure. It is seen that from the figure that porosity increases with

increasing weight percent of Al2O3. This is due to the effect of low wettability and agglomeration at high reinforcement. Moreover, decreasing liquid metal flow

FIGURE 2.1 – ULTRASONIC ASSISTED STIR CASTING SET UP Were, m stands for matrix and r for reinforcement material. Theoretical density can be calculated using above equation. After this the stir is replaced by an ultrasonic probe for the uniform distribution of nano Experimentally density of a composite is particulates in the matrix. Before the system obtained as per ASTM: D 792-66 test method using boot work, must make sure the horn is a physical balance with density measuring kit. preheated to higher than 5000C, the system Further, the density can also be calculated by the frequency 20.40 KHz about. The melt was basic method of measuring the mass and volume of kept in the crucible for approximate half the specimen used. The density of the specimen minute in static condition and then it was was then calculated from the formula given below: poured in the mould. After completion of the Density = Mass/Volume (g/cm3) previous procedure poured the molten metal The results indicate that the variation of weigh into the die cavity. percentage of the Al2O3 reinforcement with applied load has a clear effect on associated with the particle clusters leads to the formation A. Density Measurement of porosity. The theoretical and experimental density of the Al-Al2O3 composites will be measured. Theoretical density will be obtained by rule of mixture and experimental density values will for the composites studied for different weight% of reinforcements. Density is the physical property of composite that reflects the characteristics. The proportions of the matrix and reinforcement in a composite are expressed either as the volume fraction (v),

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0.25 Mo and balance Fe. Speed of the disc is controlled by the speed of the motor, which being controlled by regulator operated by computer (Figure 3.1 & 3.2). Rotating speed of the disc, sliding distance, Load etc were input parameters and the variation in temperature, frictional force, coefficient of friction and wear during test are shown with the help of Figures on commuter screen. The height loss of the samples was recorded by Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) of accuracy 1μm. The frictional force was measured by the use of force transducer of accuracy 1N. The surface of the pins and the FIGURE 3.1 PIN-ON-DISC TYPE WEAR TESTING MACHINE disc are ground using 400 grit emery papers and cleaned with acetone prior to test. The Temperature rise near the mating surface was measured using chromel-alumel thermocouple inserted in the hole of 2.0 mm made at a height of 3 mm from the contact surface. The sample prepared for wear test is shown in figure 3.3. Predetermined load was applied on the samples by cantilever mechanism. The thermocouples were set in to these holes using silver paste. An adhesive bond was applied over the setting to ensure the thermocouples were securely set in position.

FIGURE 3.2 TOP VIEW OF WEAR TESTING MACHINE

B. Dry sliding wear test

Dry sliding wear tests were carried out using a computerized Pin-on-Disc wear testing apparatus

(Model: TR20-LE) as shown in Fig. 3.1 & 3.2, under varying applied loads (10N to 40N) and varying sliding speed (1.5m/s to 4.5m/s). For wear test Pin sample of 10mm diameter and 30mm height were cut from composites and Al6061/Al2O3 composites were prepared. Pin sample is hold firmly against a rotating FIGURE 3.3 SAMPLE PREPARED FOR WEAR TEST EN-31 steel disc of hardness 60-62 HRC and surface roughness of 0.1 microns. The III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION chemical composition of the steel disc in wt% was: 1.5 Ni, 1.18 Cr, 0.38 C, 0.63 Mn, 0.29 Si,

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All the tests were conducted with varying the the unreinforced alloy is lower than that of the applied load (10N to 40N) and with varying composite. sliding speed (1.5 to 4.5) by keeping sliding distance 1500m constant. 7

Wear Rate of Composites calculated, by Al-0% using following formula 6 Al2O3

Weight Loss = Initial weight- Final weight ) 3 5 Al-1% Volume Loss= Weight Loss / Density 4 Al2O3 Wear Rate =Volume Loss / Sliding Distance 3 Al-2% Coefficient of Friction (µ) = Al2O3

Average Friction Force /Applied Load = Ff / (mm Loss Volume 2 Fn Al-3% Figure 1. Variation of Volume Loss with 1 Al2O3 Normal Load with weight % of Al2O3 at Volumetric wear rate was determined by the Sliding Velocity 1.6 m/s measurement of difference in weight of the pin 0 Figure 4 shows variations of temperature with sample before and after the test. During the 10 20 30 40 tests the temperature of the surrounding applied load have been studied.Load Weight (N) % of atmosphere was about 40ºC respectively. The reinforcement (Al 6061) as a function of the test time was 15minutes at a constant disk testing temperatures and different load was speed of 400rpm for all the tests and the studied. Two main features can be seen: weight loss was taken as wear of the specimen. • The wear rate increases as the load increases A photograph view of the pin-on-disk wear from 10N to 40 N. tester used in this study. An experimental 3 graph showing the volume loss or wear in mm The wear rate increases as the temperature against sliding time in seconds (which is increases, because load is directly proportional proportional to sliding distance) obtained from to temperature. Figure shows the wear rate of Pin on Disc Wear Testing machine. Al6061 reinforced with 3weight % Al O particles as a function of the testing The wear resistance of the composite 2 3 temperatures. The results show that addition of specimens increase with increasing weight reinforced particles negligible effect of percentage of nano Al O reinforcement and 2 3 temperature variations. decrease wear resistance with applied load. It is seen that the wear resistance of a composite specimen with a fixed weight percentage of Fig. 5-8 shows the variation of volume loss of reinforcement decreases with increasing Al6061 and Al6061/Al2O3 composites with applied load (Figure 1-3). At constant applied increased sliding velocities. It is observed that the load, the composite specimens show a lower volume loss increases for both the matrix alloy and wear rate as compared to unreinforced alloy. its composites. However, at all the sliding In figure shows the variation in wear rate with velocities studied, the wear rates of the composites were much lower when compared with the matrix load for both the Al alloy 6061 and Al6061- alloy. As the sliding velocity increases, the surface with 1%, 2%, and 3 weight % Al O 2 3 temperature increases which promotes softening of composites. It can observe that the wear rate of the surfaces leading to more surface damage 21

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resulting in higher wear rates. The increased rate of Normal Load with weight % of Al2O3 at subsurface deformation increases the contact area Sliding Velocity 4.5 m/s by fracture and fragmentation of asperities. Therefore this leads to enhanced delamination contributing to higher wear loss. Further, increased 80 wear rate with increased sliding velocity is due to 70

high strain rate subsurface deformation. 60

C) ̊

( 50 10 40 30

9 Temperature 20 Al-0% 8 10 Al2O3 0 ) 7 3 10 N 20 N 30 N 40 N Al-0% Al2O3 43.7 53.2 64.2 67.5 6 Al-1% Al-1% Al22OO33 44.4 51.6 62.6 70 5 Al-2% Al2O3 44.2 53.5 63.9 66.9 Al-3% Al2O3 43.5 52.3 64.5 68.2 4 Figure 4. Al Variation-2% of Temperature with

Volume Loss(mm Volume Al2O3 3 normal Load at sliding Velocity 1.6 m/s

Figure2 2. Variation of Volume Loss with Al-3% Normal Load with weight % of Al2O3 at 9 1 Al2O3 Sliding Velocity 2.6 m/s Al-0% 0 8 figure (5-8) shows the volume loss on ordinate Al2O3 10 20 30 40 and sliding speed on abscissa for Al6061 and 7 Load (N) its composites having 10 N load, (in fig. 5) 20 ) 3 Al-1% N load, (in fig. 6) and 30 N load (in fig. 7) and 6 40 N load in figure 8 under sliding speeds 1.5 Al2O3 m/s, 2.5 m/s, 3.5 m/s and 4.5 m/s and various 5 weight % of Al2O3 respectively. 4 Al-2% Al2O3 20 3

18 VolumeLoss(mm 2 Figure 5.Al Variation-0% of Volume Loss of Al6061 Al-3% 16 Al2O3 alloy and Al6061/Al2O3 composite with Al2O3 14 1 sliding velocity at load 10N. 12 Al-1% 0 Al2O3

) 10 3 8 1.6 2.5 3.5 4.5 Al-2% Sliding Velocity (m/s) 6 Al2O3 4 2 Al-3% Figure 3.Variation of Volume Loss with

0 Al2O3 Volume Loss (mm Loss Volume 10 20 30 40 22 Load (N) National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

12 Al-0%

10 Al2O3 ) 3 8 Al-1% Al2O3 6 Al-2% 4 Al2O3 2 Al-3%

0 Volume Loss (mm Al2O3 1.6 2.5 3.5 4.5 Sliding Velocity (m/s)

Figure 6. Variation of Volume Loss of Al6061 alloy and Al6061/Al2O3 composite with sliding velocity at load 20 N.

14 Figure 8. Variation of Volume Loss of Al6061 Al-0%

12 alloy and Al6061/Al2O3 composite with ) 3 sliding velocityAl2O3 at load 40 N. 10 IV. CONCLUSIONSAl-1% 8 I. AluminumsAl2O3 matrix nano (1, 2, and 3 weight

%) Al2O3Composites have been successfully 6 fabricatedAl-2% by ultrasonic assisted stir casting technique.Al2O3

Volume Loss (mm Loss Volume 4 II. The experimental density is closer to the theoreticalAl-3% density of composites. Porosity Figure 7. Variation of Volume Loss of Al6061 of compositesAl2O3 could be decreased alloy and2 Al6061/Al O composite with 2 3 considerably due to the ultrasonic sliding velocity at load 30 N. 0 treatment and nitrogen degassing. III. At constant sliding distance, and same 1.6 2.5 3.5 4.5 sliding velocity, wear rate of composites Sliding Velocity (m/s) increases with increasing applied load for all composites and decrease with increasing

percentage of the Al2O3 nano particle in the composite. IV. At constant sliding distance, it is observed that an increase in sliding velocity results in increased wear rates of all the composites. It is maximum for load 10 N and minimum for load 40. V. The load and the sliding speed affect the amount of friction force, which was affects the coefficient of friction and small coefficient of friction values, increase in sliding speed. 23

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VI. At constant sliding distance, temperature of wear properties of AA 2024-MoSi2 nanocomposites, Materials and Design 32 (2011) 2157–2164 composites increases when load increases but it was not marked effect on increases [13]. Yao-Chih Chuang, Shih-Chin Lee, Hsin-Chih Lin; Effect of temperature on the sliding wear behaviour of laser surface weight % of Al2O3. alloyed Ni-base on Al–Mg–Si alloy; Applied Surface Science VII. At constant sliding distance, coefficient of 253 (2006) 1404–1410 friction of composites decreases when load increases. [14]. A.M. Al-Qutub, I.M. Allam, T.W. Qureshi; Effect of sub- micronA1203concentration on dry wear properties of 6061 aluminium based composite; Journal of Materials Processing Technology 172 (2006) 327-331.

REFERENCES [15]. C.Y.H. Lim, D.K. Leo, J.J.S. Ang, M. Gupta; Wear of [1].A.A. Mazen and A.Y. Ahmed, Mechanical Behaviour of Al- magnesium composites reinforced with nano-sized alumina

Al2O3 MMC Manufactured by PM Techniques part I— Scheme particulates; Wear 259 (2005) 620–625 I Processing Parameters, JMEPEG (1998) 7:393-401 [16].Amro M. Al-Qutub; effect of heat treatment on friction and [2].B.G. PARK, A. G. CROSKY, A. K. Hellier, journal of wear behavior of al-6061 composite reinforced with 10% materials science36 (2001) 2417 – 2426 submicron al 2o 3 particles; The Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, Volume 34, Number 1B [3]. A. Daoud, T. El-Bitar, and A. Abd El-Azim, Tensile and

Wear Properties of Rolled Al5Mg- Al2O3 or C Particulate [17].C.S. Ramesh, R. Keshavamurthy, G.J. Naveen Effect of Composites JMEPEG (2003) 12:390-397 extrusion ratio on wear behaviour of hot extruded Al6061–SiCp (Ni–P coated) composites Wear 271 (2011) 1868–1877. [4]. Yung-Chang Kang , Sammy Lap-Ip Chan, Tensile

properties of nanometric Al2O3 particulate-reinforced aluminum [18].R. L. Deuis, C. Subramanian, J. M. Yellupb, dry sliding matrix composites Materials Chemistry and Physics 85 (2004) wear of aluminium composites-a Review, Received 25 438–443. February 1996; revised 30 August 1996; accepted 14 October 1996 [5].S.A. Meguid, Y. Sun, Materials and Design 25 (2004) 289– 296. [19]. Manish Narayan, M.K. Surappa, B.N. PramilaBai b, Dry sliding wear of Al alloy 2024~A1203 particle metal matrix [6].Z. RazaviHesabia, H.R. Hafizpoura, A. Simchi,An composites Wear 181-183 (1995) 563-570. investigation on the compressibility of aluminum/nano-alumina composite powder prepared by blending and mechanical milling [20]. J.W. Kaczmar, K. Naplocha, Wear behaviour of composite Materials Science and Engineering A 454–455 (2007) 89–98 materials based on 2024 Al-alloy reinforced with δ alumina fibres VOLUME 43 ISSUE 1 Nov.2010, journal of [7].T.G...Durai, Karabi Das, Siddhartha Das, Wear behavior of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering

nano structured Al (Zn)/ Al2O3 and Al (Zn)–4Cu/ Al2O3 composite materials synthesized by mechanical and thermal [21]. C.S. Ramesh, Mir Safiulla, Short communication Wear process Materials Science and Engineering A 471 (2007) 88–94. behavior of hot extruded Al6061 based composites Wear 263 (2007) 629–635. [8].A. Shafiei-Zarghani, S.F. Kashani-Bozorg,A. Zarei-

Hanzaki; Wear assessment of Al/ Al2O3 nano-composite surface [22].A. Al Qutub, I. Allam, A. Al Hamed and A. S. Elaiche, layer produced using friction stir processing; Wear 270 (2011) Elevated temperature wear of submicron A1203 reinforced 403–412 6061Aluminum Composite, Advanced Materials Research Vols. 83-86 (2010) pp 1288-1296. [9]. Ali Mazahery and Mohsen Ostadshabani; Investigation on

mechanical properties of nano- Al2O3-reinforced aluminum [23] umanath k, selvamani s t, palanikumar k, friction and wear

matrix composites Journal of Composite Materials 0(0) 1–8, behaviour of Al6061Alloy (sicp + Al2O3P) hybrid composites, 2011 International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology

[10]. F.C. Zhang , H.H. Luo, T.S. Wang, S.G. Roberts, R.I. [24] G. B. Veeresh Kumar, C. S. P. Rao, N. Selvaraj, M. S.

Todd; Influence factors on wear resistance of two alumina Bhagyashekar Studies on Al6061-SiC and Al7075- Al2O3 Metal matrix composites; Wear 265 (2008) 27–33 Matrix Composites, Journal of Minerals & Materials Characterization & Engineering, Vol. 9, No.1, pp.43-55, 2010. [11] S.C. Lima, M. Gupta, L. Ren, J.K.M. Kwok; the tribological properties of Al-Cu/SiCp metal matrix composites [25].Amro M. AI-Qutub, Ibrahim M. Allam, M. A. Abdul fabricated using the rheocasting technique, Journal of Materials Samad J Wear and friction of Al-A1203composites at various Processing Technology 89-90 (1999) 591-596. sliding speeds Mater Sci (2008) 43:5797-5803

[12]. M. Sameezadeh, M. Emamy, H. Farhangi; Effects of [26]. G. B. Veeresh Kumar, C. S. P. Rao, N. Selvaraj, particulate reinforcement and heat treatment on the hardness and Mechanical and Tribological Behavior of Particulate Reinforced

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Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites – a review, Vol. 10, No.1, composites reinforced by nano- and submicron-sized Al2O3 pp.59-91, 2011 particulates developed by wet attrition milling and hot extrusion2010.02.047, S0261-3069(10)00148-2 journal of [27]. M. TabandehKhorshid, S.A. JenabaliJahromi, M.M. material science. Moshksar, , Mechanical properties of tri-modal Al matrix

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Lean Practices in Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises: A Literature Review

Arvind K. Shrimali1, Dr. Vimlesh K. Soni2, Deepak R Phalke3, Sanjay Purohit4 1,3,4 Associate Professor, CD School of Engineering, Indore, India 2 Assistant Professor, MA National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India

Abstract-Amidst the number of philosophies that evolved improved customer satisfaction. Researchers agree from Japan, lean manufacturing (Lean) has proved to be that lean manufacturing could be a cost reduction the most effective and biggest ‗cost saver‘ in general. It mechanism and if well implemented it will be a was initiated and implemented by Toyota in the name of guideline to be world class organization. Toyota Production Systems (TPS). It has successfully Theoretically, Lean Manufacturing can be applied to made its place in Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises all industries (Rose 2009). (SMEs) globally apart from Large Scale Industries. This system is comprised of universal set of Researchers have played a role of catalyst in spreading management and manufacturing principles which can the Lean philosophy and its implementation. The present be implemented to any type of industry in any paper presents a systematic review of published literature country (Womack & Jones 1990). Therefore, SMEs on Lean Implementation with special attention to SMEs. have been encouraged to apply it (Rose, 2009). Various research articles available are function specific or country specific. Evidences on implementation of Lean Lean aims at eliminating waste of any type. The Practices in all the different types of enterprises have been waste in human effort, inventory, time to market and observed. It is observed that paucity of resources is one of manufacturing space to become highly responsive to the major issue in Lean implementation and its success in customer demand while producing world-class SMEs. The paper concludes with highly relevant issues quality products in the most efficient and economical manner (Pavnaskar et al. 2003). Anything that is done and their roles in implementation of Lean Practices and adds no value to the product is termed as waste. across various continents. It also summarizes the There are seven type of waste- overproduction, minimum requirements on generalized basis for waiting time, transportation, inventory, inappropriate implementation of Lean in SMEs. processing, excess motion and product defects (Womack & Jones 2003). Keywords: Lean implementation, Small & Medium

Enterprises (SMEs). II. METHODOLOGY I. INTRODUCTION This literature review is based on a systematic review The term ‗Lean‘ was first coined by James Womack, of research articles on Lean. Articles available Daniel Jones and Daniel Ross in ―The Machine that through the leading Journals on internet and the Changed the World‖ (Womack et al, 1990). Lean books on Lean are the source of the literature. The net manufacturing is a leading manufacturing paradigm based journals provided access to the leading citation with a systematic approach used to identify and databases covering thousands of journals and eliminate waste by focusing on production costs, conference proceedings. product quality and delivery, and worker involvement. The tenet of ‗lean‘ production is Based upon the reviewed articles and books, key elimination of waste both within the firm and across findings have been reported. This article is focused at the supply chain (Womack & Jones, 1996). the key requirements for implementation of Lean in SMEs. It will help in a better understanding of Lean It is just more than half a century when Lean was with its limitations for SMEs. implemented the first time at Toyota in Japan. In the 1950s, Taiichi Ohno, developer of the Toyota ―just- The initial search for ―Lean Manufacturing‖ on in-time‖ Production System, created the modern leading journal sites resulted into more than 28,000 intellectual and cultural framework for Lean articles. Manufacturing and waste elimination. Lean benefits On narrowing down the search to ―Lean include reduced work-in-process, increased inventory Manufacturing in SME‖ resulted into less than 18,000 turns, increased capacity, cycle-time reduction, and articles on the same sites. When we narrowed down 26

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the search to 2005-2014 the availability reduced to And finally with ―Literature Review of Lean in SME‖ less than five hundred articles. With a slight change we had only one article reported on net. This was in the search to ―Lean Implementation in SME‖ authored by A.N.M. Rose, B.M. Deros and M.N.A. during 2011-2014, we were offered less than three Rahman (2009). This strengthened our idea for hundred articles. Searching for ―Literature Review of selection of the review. (Figure 1) Lean Manufacturing‖ with a wider 2005-2014 span we were available with only seven articles.

Start of Study

Journals Conferance Proceedings Project Thesis Internet Books

More than 4,00,000 Papers, Thesis, Citations & Books

Lean Manufacturing Lean Manufacturing in SMEs Literature Review of Lean in SMEs >28,000 > 18,000 (2005-14) <10

Lean Manufacturing in SMEs Literature Review of Lean in SMEs (2005-14) < 500 (2011-14) = 1

Lean Manufacturing in SMEs (2011-14) < 300

Literature Review of Selected Papers

Generation of this Review Paper

FIGURE1. LITERATURE SEARCH

III. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE - the investment in equipment does not exceed Rs. 5 crore for Enterprises engaged in The main research objective of this review is to providing or rendering of services, and understand and evaluate basic lean practices for - the investment in plant and machinery does not Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME) and exceed Rs. 10 crore for Enterprises engaged in locate the best model proposed in the literature to the manufacture or production, processing or assist MSMEs in implementing a successful business preservation of goods. strategy. V. LITERATURE REVIEW IV. MICRO, SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES (MSME) The importance of small manufacturer (MSME) to MSMEs, in India, have been defined as an enterprise take part in lean implementation is to align with large where (Ministry of MSME, GOI, 2006)- manufacturer which are implementing new management system i.e. lean manufacturing, as to 27

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improve their performance. Therefore, it will affect Paucity of resources has been a major hurdle in the the micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) adoption of Lean practices in SMEs (Achanga et al. that are the suppliers to the large manufacturers. 2006). (Rose et al. 2009). This is evident that some barriers are there to implement Lean in MSMEs. However, it can be Large organizations have shown successful implemented. implementation of Lean during past three decades.

TABLE1. STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF SME'S ______SME's Strengths SME's Weaknesses Flexible and hence changes can be introduced fairly Low degree of standardization and formalization quickly Focus is on operational matters rather than planning Flat with few layers of management and fewer Lay off employees when the work becomes departmental interfaces superfluous. Top management highly visible and absence of This makes SWIEs work harder to retain a high bureaucracy in management teams caliber staff Tend to have high employee loyalty Budget and resources constraints Rapid execution and implementation of decisions Responsible for many facets of the business and Culture of learning and change rather than control many decisions. Decisions are generally made for short-term profitability

Lack of skills, time and resources; no specified More responsive to market needs and customers' training budget demand Formation of strategy process is of intuitive rather Loose and informal working relationships and than analytical. absence standardization ______Source: Antony & Kumar 2005

• Six Sigma, where statistical analysis is used to A. LEAN TOOLS FOR MSMES identify ways to improve process capability Lean relies on several fundamental concepts: • Kaizen (continuous improvement), where many • Customer focus – value is only what the customer small improvements can collectively achieve large values gains. Kaizen seeks ideas for improvements from people at the coal face, using their knowledge • Eliminate waste – if it is not value then it is waste common sense and intuition to observe the process, and get rid of it identify the value-add and identify wastes. • Smooth flow – levelling out any variations to achieve consistent flow of processes • Visual Workplace, where visual aids are put in place to help improve consistency. These may be • Continuous improvement – continually find ways to painted lines, signs or shadow boards to indicate make even small improvements where things should be stored, diagrams showing correct procedures, real time displays of productivity These principles are achieved using a range of tools data, visual systems for scheduling and progressing focusing on one or several of these principles. The work flow. most commonly used tools include: (NSW • Just in Time (JIT), where each process is initiated Department of Education and Training, 2009) by a ‗pull‘ or demand system and only occurs at the • Value Stream Mapping, where value (what is valued time that it is needed by the customer) is identified throughout a process and non-value (waste) can be reduced • Poka-Yoke, where mistakes are engineered out of a process, e.g. electrical fittings designed so they can • 5S, where the workplace is cleaned, organized and only be used the correct way. maintained in order to reduce waste, e.g. wasted time and unnecessary movement Rose et al. summed up the lean practices suggested by various researchers as follows (Table 2): 28

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

TABLE2. LEAN PRACTICES

Čiarnienė and Vienažindienė (2013) have highlighted three types of barriers to Lean manufacturing B. PROBLEMS AND BARRIERS IN IMPLEMENTATION OF implementation: people related barriers, LEAN IN MSME organizational and technical barriers. One of the major mistakes and reasons of unsuccessful Finch (1986) enlisted the problems in implementation implementing of Lean concept is focusing on tools of Lean at MSMEs as compared to the large and techniques instead of sufficient consideration to organizations: personally related issues. i) SMEs may not have negotiating power to ensure suppliers provide frequent delivery C. WAYS TO OVERCOME CHALLENGES and quality standards due to small business ii) SMEs have limited resources i.e. manpower Silva et al. have proposed ways to overcome the and financial, to make operational changes barriers and resistance through a detailed study of for lean practices implementation. apparel manufacturers in Sri Lanka (Silva et al. iii) SMEs management have lack of exposure on 2011). The authors have found that conducting lean practices workshops, delivering presentations, and belt programs are the most practiced ways to overcome A. Yang pingyu & B. Yu yu (2010) identified the the resistances of employees in implementing Lean. barriers to SMEs‘ implementation of lean Most of the manufactures under their study have manufacturing in the following areas: identified employees as their key assets. Employee i) Many companies have not heard of lean empowerment programs were started by all the production because of knowledge-level companies so as to sustain the Lean journey. Authors constraints stress that starting from training programs up to ii) Misunderstanding of lean production employee empowerment, a well structured human iii) The staffs‘ resistance to lean production resource plan is necessary when implementing Lean iv) Implementing lean production mechanically practices. without revision according to the environment of enterprise D. GUIDELINES FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF LEAN IN MSME

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Research scholars have identified some guidelines for what is important is having all the elements together the implementation process. Karlsson and Åhlström as a system. It must be practiced every day in a very (1996) developed an operational model which can be consistent manner – not in spurts.‖ used to assess changes required to introduce lean 1. Base Your Management Decisions on a long- manufacturing. Abdulmalek, Rajgopal, and Needy Term Philosophy, Even at the Expense of Short- (2006) provided a general set of guidelines about the Term Financial Goals applicability of some lean practices in the process 2. Create Continuous Process Flow to Bring industry. Davies and Greenough (2010) developed a Problems to the Surface lean practice template. They claimed that it is 3. Use ―Pull‖ System to Avoid Overproduction comprehensive enough to represent possible lean 4. Level Out the Workload – Work like the tortoise, activities within a company and particularly in the not the hare. Eliminating muda (waste) is only maintenance function. Some studies have used one third of achieving flow; eliminating muri roadmaps for the lean transformation. Nightingale (overburden) and smoothing mura (unevenness) and Mize (2002) developed a transition to lean are equally important. The only way to roadmap to assist organizations in their efforts to realistically create a continuous flow is to have transform into lean enterprises. Feld (2001) proposed some stability in the workload. a streamlined roadmap for lean manufacturing 5. Build a Culture of Stopping to Fix Problems, to through four phases: lean assessment, current state Get Quality Right the First Time gap, future state gap and implementation. Marvel and 6. Standardized Tasks Are the Foundation for Standridge (2009) enhanced Feld‘s roadmap by Continuous Improvement suggesting five phase roadmap including future state 7. Use Visual Control So No Problems Are Hidden validation. Anvari et al. (2011) developed a dynamic 8. Use only Reliable, Thoroughly Tested roadmap determining the tools needed to be Technology That Serves Your People and implemented in a firm based on its current state and Processes type of industry. 9. Grow Leaders Who Thoroughly Understand the Work, Live the Philosophy, and Teach It to Anand and Kodali (2010) established a conceptual Others framework to demonstrate 65 lean elements, the 10. Develop Exceptional People and Teams Who internal stakeholders and decision levels. Mostafa Follow your Company‘s Philosophy (2011) constructed an implementation framework for 11. Respect Your Extended Network of Partners lean manufacturing in 15 stages. Karim & Arif-Uz- and Suppliers by Challenging Them and Zaman (2013) and Powell et al. (2013) proposed two Helping Them Improve new frameworks. Karim and Arif-Uz-Zaman (2013) 12. Go and See for Yourself to Thoroughly developed a methodology for lean implementation Understand the Situation – Go to where it based on the five lean principles. happens, Gemba, observe the production floor without preconceptions and with a blank mind, E. SUCCESS FACTORS FOR LEAN repeat why five times to every matter do get IMPLEMENTATION deeper down to the problem. 13. Make Decisions Slowly by Consensus, The approach on how to start up implementing Lean Thoroughly Considering All Options; manufacturing must be adapted to the situation in the Implement Decisions Rapidly company. (Jensen & Jensen, 2007) 14. Become a Learning Organisation, Through Lean is a concept that concentrates on eliminating all Relentless Reflections and Continuous types of non-value adding entities. Improvement. Womack and Jones (2003) stated the five general principles of lean as: defining the value from According to a study of the selected apparel customer perspective, mapping the value stream manufacturers in Sri Lanka by researchers Silva, process to achieve the predefined value, creating the S.K.P.N. et al. (2012), successful Lean flow along the value chain, establishing pull system implementation requires many factors such as and pursuing perfection. introduction method, order of implementation, implementation method, etc. Anvari et al. explained Lean as a set of tools or Lars Medbo et al. (2010) have concluded under the techniques to identify and remove wastes (Anvari et experiences from a Swedish national program for al., 2010). Here the tools are the implementation of Implementation of Lean in SMEs that it takes time to the basic principles of Lean. develop a program methodology, develop courses, train coaches, build a Lean culture or develop Fujio Cho, President of Toyota Motor Company is companies, enlarge a program, improve and reach a cited in the book The Toyota Way (Liker 2004) that continuous improvement stage. Basic, in the ―The key to the Toyota Way and what makes Toyota stand out is not any of the individual elements… But 30

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

development of a company, is that there is a vision Upadhye et al. (2010) and longsighted operations strategy to follow. Gupta, Garg, and Gupta (2011) Involvement and active support from all stakeholders, Paneru N. (2011) i.e. companies, unions, society, universities and Giana Lorenzini et al. (2012) industry institutes, is a necessary prerequisite for Mejı´a G., D.C. Ramı´rez (2012) success. Mathur et al. (2012) Yogesh M. et al. (2012) Rose et al. (2011) purposed 17 lean practices which are considered to be best feasible and relevant to VII. BENEFITS OF LEAN MANUFACTURING small and medium scale characteristics. Consistency in implementation of lean practices is a must. If lean manufacturing is implemented in a proper way Inconsistency in the efforts may devoid from the it can lead to various positive improvements in the benefits of Lean. organization. Besides these benefits, lean manufacturing also has many hidden benefits that The best results will come when Lean is applied play a vital role in industrial success stories. These across the whole organization and with genuine benefits have no direct role in the success stories of support from senior management. (NSW Department lean manufacturing techniques but have the following of Education and Training, 2009) very significant indirect roles that cannot be neglected (Gupta and Jain, 2013). The literature available on Lean for MSME could be Improvements in quality and safety. classified into three major categories as shown in Time reduction for traceability. Table 2. Culture change. Reduction of fatigue and stress. TABLE 2. CLASSIFICATION OF THE LITERATURE ON LEAN IN MSMES. Denise Rodríguez and Marcos Buestán (2013) did a CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS OF PUBLICATIONS detailed survey on the improvement methodologies

LEAN PHILOSOPHY that fit the characteristics of Ecuadorian small and Womack, Jones, and Roos (1990) medium sized enterprises (SMEs). Based on the Womack and Jones (1996) findings of this study, the authors recommended that Achanga P. et al. (2005) the Ecuadorian industrial managers shall consider the Bhasin and Burcher (2006) Lean practices as a way of improving their Brockberg, K. H. (2008) productivity and competitiveness. The different tools Wong, Wong, and Ali (2009) that Lean manufacturing offers allow the company to Sérgio Sousa & Elaine Aspinwall (2010) perceived improvement in short, mid and long-term. Dhamija et al. (2011) Therefore, it motivates the employees and managers Rose et al. (2011) to stay attached to the methodology. Kumar M. (2011) Hoss, Marcelo et al. (2013) Great lean leaps are made during tough economic Okpala C.C. (2013) times. Not only to free cash by eliminating excess Wahaba et al. (2013) inventory, to protect profit margins by improving Zwißler F. et al. (2013) quality and productivity, to strengthen ties with LEAN SURVEYS customers by improving service, or to convert orders- Wong et al. (2009) to-cash faster by reducing lead times, but also to Ana Valentinova Kovacheva (2010) acquire enduring competitive advantage and Nordin, Deros, and Wahab (2010) sustainable business excellence. Yang and Yu (2010) An economy dominated by lean enterprises that Eroglu and Hofer (2011) continually trying to improve their productivity, Pedram Mirzaei (2011) flexibility and customer responsiveness, could Zeppetella L. et al. (2011) provide the long south antidote to economic Panizzolo et al. (2012) stagnation. (Ana Valentinova Kovacheva, 2010) Bollbach M.F. (2012) Enoch O.K. (2013) VIII. MODEL FOR SUCCESSFUL LEAN IMPLEMENTATION CASE STUDIES A number of models have been presented by various Karlsson and Ahlstrom (1996) researchers on Lean. In the context of MSMEs, the Gunasekaran and Lyu (1997) author has observed the model presented by Shah and Ward (2003) Čiarnienė and Vienažindienė (2012), to be more Abdulmalek and Rajgopal (2007) suitable (see Figure 2). Ferdousi F., Ahmed A. (2009) Miller G. et al. (2010) Rashid A.H.B. et al. (2010) 31

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

FIGURE 2. THE MODEL FOR SUCCESSFUL LEAN IMPLEMENTATION

In the presented model these implementation activities profit margin, cost reduction, improve utilization of lead to improvement in five dimensions: elimination of plant/facility, reduce inventory and assets required, and waste; continuous improvement; continuous flow and maintain competitive position. pull-driven systems; multifunctional teams and information systems. It has been observed that awareness among employees about different strategies of lean philosophy, various IX. CONCLUSION principles behind these strategies and the use of these There is vast literature available on lean manufacturing, strategies in different circumstances play an important which presents the philosophy and wide spread role in its successful implementation. applications of lean across the world. The review has produced some very pertinent observations about The most effective tools of lean have been identified as implementing Lean in MSMEs across the world. They waste reduction and continuous improvement. are about the perceptions about Lean, effective tools for Lean Implementation, limitations and benefits of Lean The limitations observed for successful implementation implementation. of Lean in MSMEs in this research are the following: a) Culture: It seems difficult to implement Lean Majority of the firms regard lean as costs saving, Manufacturing in MSMEs across the world continuous improvement, and waste reduction tool. It because of different organizational and social was also found that the main driving factors that culture of enterprises and labor as compared to encourage MSMEs to implement lean are: improve the origin country and its culture i.e. Japan. 32

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

b) Training: The concepts related to lean [6] Bednark, M. and Niño Luna, L.F. (2008) ―The manufacturing have been frequently Selected Problems of Lean Manufacturing misunderstood in SMEs because of poor Implementation in Mexican SMEs‖, in IFIP employee training and educational levels. It International Federation for Information includes poor psychology and lack of Processing, Volume 257, Lean Business responsibility, Systems and Beyond, Tomasz Koch, ed.; c) Resource constraints: Paucity of resources due to (Boston: Spring) financial limitations, and [7] Bollbach M.F.( 2012) ―Country specific d) Demand volatility with the MSMEs. barriers to implementing Lean production

systems in China‖, Doctoral Thesis submitted Lean tools and techniques observed through case to Loughborough University, March 2012 studies show benefits that are categorized as typical and hidden benefits. Some of the hidden benefits include [8] Brasov, 25 – 26 October 2007, RECENT, Vol. culture change, reduction of fatigue and stress, and 8, nr. 3a(21a), November, 2007, pp. 305-308 reduced time for traceability. The typical benefits are [9] Brockberg K. H. (2008), ―Origins and waste elimination, reduction in reworking, financial Elements of Lean A Brief Review of the benefits, lead time reduction and lower inventory levels. Literature‖, WHITE PAPER from PAWLEY

Learning Institute, Oakland University It is found that the MSMEs are segmented into Lean, Somewhat Lean, and Not Lean, each has about one [10] Christer Karlsson, Pär Ahlström (1996) ―The third of the sample size. This is an important finding difficult path to lean product development‖, which reveals that the current lean practice in MSMEs Journal of Product Innovation Management, is quite diverse, ranging from advanced adopters to Volume 13, Issue 4, July 1996, pp. 283-295 beginners of lean who are involved in sporadic usage of lean tools. [11] Davies C., Greenough R.M. (2010) ―Measuring the effectiveness of lean thinking REFERENCES activities within maintenance‖, Available at: http://www.plant-maintenance.com, articles: [1] Abdulmalek, F. Rajgopal, J., and Needy, K., Lean Maintenance.pdf (Accessed 21.01.2014). (2006) "A Classification Scheme for the Process Industry to Guide The Implementation [12] Deborah J. Nightingale, Joe H. Mize (2002), of Lean‖, Engineering Management Journal, ―Development of a Lean Enterprise Vol. 18(1), pp. 15-25. Transformation Maturity Model‖, Information- Knowledge-Systems Management archive, [2] Ana Valentinova Kovacheva (2010) Volume 3 Issue 1, January 2002, pp.15-30. "Challenges in Lean implementation: Successful transformation towards Lean [13] Definition of MSME in India (Accessed from enterprise", MASTER THESIS, AARHUS the official website of the Ministry of Micro, SCHOOL OF BUSINESS, University of Small & Medium Enterprises on Sep 09, Aarhus, January 2010, Aarhus 2014, http://msme.gov.in/Web/Portal/FAQ.aspx) [3] Anand G, and Kodali R (2010), ―Development of a framework for implementation of lean [14] Enoch O.K. (2013) "Lean Six Sigma manufacturing systems‖, International Journal Methodologies and Organizational of Management Practice, pp. 95-116 Profitability: A Review of Manufacturing SMEs in Nigeria", American Journal of [4] Antony Jiju, Kumar Maneesh and Madu Industrial and Business Management, 2013, 3, Christian N. (2005) ―Six sigma in small and pp. 573-582 medium-sized UK manufacturing enterprises: Some empirical observations‖. International [15] Silva S.K.P.N. et al. (2011) ―Factors Affecting Journal of Quality & Reliability Successful Implementation of Lean Management 22 (8) , pp. 860- Manufacturing Tools and Techniques in the 874. 10.1108/02656710510617265 Apparel industry in Sri Lanka‖, Electronic copy available at: [5] Azharul Karim, Kazi Arif‐Uz‐Zaman, (2013) http://ssrn.com/abstract=1824419 "A methodology for effective implementation of lean strategies and its performance evaluation [16] Feld, W.M. (2001). ―Lean manufacturing: in manufacturing organizations", Business tools, techniques, and how to use them‖, The Process Management Journal, Vol. 19 Iss: 1, St. Lucie Press pp. 169 – 196 [17] Ferdousi F., Ahmed A. (2009) "An Investigation of Manufacturing Performance Improvement through Lean Production: A 33

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Study on Bangladeshi Garment Firms", 3(1), pp. 11-32, International Journal of Business and doi:10.3926/jiem.2010.v3n1.p11-32 Management, Vol. 4, No. 9, September, 2009, [28] NSW Department of Education and Training pp. 106-111 (2009) ―Lean Networking: A guide to Lean [18] Finch, B. (1986). ―Japanese management Implementation Networks for small to medium techniques in small manufacturing companies: enterprises‖, Manufacturing Learning a strategy for implementation‖, Production Australia, Department of Education & and Inventory Management, 27(3), pp. 30-38. Training, New South Wales, Australia.

[19] Jensen S.H., Jensen K.H. (2007) [29] Prasanna M. , Sekar Vinodh, (2013) "Lean Six ―Implementing of Lean manufacturing in SME Sigma in SMEs: an exploration through companies‖, International Conference on literature review", Journal of Engineering, Economic Engineering and Manufacturing Design and Technology, Vol. 11 Iss: 3, pp.224 Systems - 250

[20] Kumar M. (2011) ―Lean / Six Sigma [30] Rodrígueza D. et al. (2013) ―Identifying an implementation in SMEs: Key Findings from improvement method for Ecuadorian small International Research‖, Cardiff Business companies‖, Eleventh LACCEI Latin School, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK- CF10 American and Caribbean Conference for 3EU Engineering and Technology (LACCEI‘2013)

[21] Liker, Jeffrey K. (2004) ―The Toyota Way: 14 [31] Rose A.N.M., Deros B.M. and Rahman Management Principles from the World's M.N.A. (2009) ―A Review of Lean Greatest Manufacturer‖, McGraw-Hill manufacturing practices in Small and Medium Professional Publishing, (ISBN: Enterprises‖, Seminar 3 - AMReG 09, 29 Julai 0639785384403) 2009, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

[22] Louis Raymond , François Bergeron & Anne- [32] Rose, A.M.N.et al. (2011) ―Lean Marie Croteau (2013) ―Innovation Capability manufacturing best practices in SMEs‖, and Performance Of Manufacturing SMEs: Proceedings of the 2011 International The Paradoxical Effect of IT Integration‖, Conference on Industrial Engineering and Journal of Organizational Computing and Operations Management, Kuala Lumpur, Electronic Commerce, 23:3, pp. 249-272, DOI: Malaysia, January 22 – 24, 2011, pp. 872-877 10.1080/ [33] Bhasin, Sanjay (2011) ―Improving [23] Marvel J., & Standridge C. (2009) ―A performance through Lean‖, International Simulation-Enhanced Lean Design Process‖, Journal of Management, Science and Journal of Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management, 6:1, pp.23-36 Management. 2 (1), pp. 90-113. [34] Sérgio Sousa & Elaine Aspinwall (2010) [24] Mathur Alok , Mittal M.L. & Dangayach G.C. ―Development of a performance measurement (2012) ―Improving productivity in Indian framework for SMEs‖, Total Quality SMEs‖, Production Planning & Control: The Management & Business Excellence, 21:5, Management of Operations, 23:10-11, pp.754- pp.475-501, 768 [35] Gupta, Shaman & Jain, Sanjiv Kumar (2013) [25] Medbo L., Carlsson D. 2013 ―Implementation ―A literature review of lean manufacturing‖, of Lean in SME, experiences from a Swedish International Journal of Management Science national program‖, International Journal of and Engineering Management, 8:4, pp.241- Industrial Engineering and Management 249, DOI: 10.1080/17509653.2013.825074 (IJIEM), Vol. 4 No 4, 2013, pp. 221-227 [36] Sherif Mostafa, Jantanee Dumrak & Hassan [26] Mejı´a G. , D.C. Ramı´rez (2012) Soltan (2013) ―A framework for lean "Implementation of Lean Manufacturing manufacturing implementation‖, Production & Principles in a Colombian Machine Shop: Manufacturing Research: An Open Access Layout Redesign and Theory of Constrains", Journal, 1:1, pp.44-64, DOI: G. Mejı´a and N. Velasco (eds.), Production 10.1080/21693277.2013.862159 Systems and Supply Chain Management in [37] Silva, S.K.P.N. et al. (2012) ―Factors Affecting Emerging Countries: Best Practices, Successful Implementation of Lean [27] Miller G. et al. 2010 ―A case study of lean, Manufacturing Tools and Techniques in the sustainable manufacturing‖, JIEM, 2010, Vol Apparel industry in Sri Lanka, accessed from http://ssrn.com/abstract=1824419 34

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[38] Stamm M.L., NeitzertKEY T. (2010) ―Key SMS in Wenzhou‖, International Journal of Performance Indicators (KPI) for the Innovation, Management and Technology, Implementation of Lean methodologies in a Vol. 1, No. 2, June 2010, ISSN: 2010-0248 Manufacture-To-Order Small and Medium [44] Yogesh M., Chandra Mohan G., Arrakal R. Enterprise‖, School of Engineering, AUT (2012) ―Application of Lean in a Small and University, Auckland, New Zealand Medium Enterprise (SME) Segment- A Case [39] Timans, W. and Antony, J. and Ahaus, Study of Electronics and Electrical K. and van Solingen, Manufacturing Industry in India‖, R. (2011) ―Implementation of Lean Six Sigma International Journal of Scientific & in small- and medium- sized manufacturing Engineering Research Volume enterprises in the Netherlands‖, Journal of the [45] Zeppetella L. et al. (2011) ―On the challenges Operational Research Society, 63. pp. 339- and opportunities of implementing lean 353. ISSN 0160-5682 practices in northern Italian manufacturing [40] Vienazindiene M., R. Ciarniene (2013) ―Lean districts‖. Accessed from: manufacturing implementation and progress https://www.academia.edu/5408403/On_the_c measurement‖, Economic and Management: hallenges_and_opportunities_of_implementing 2013. 18 (2), p 366-373, ISSN 2029-9338 _lean (ONLINE), [46] Zhou Bin (2012) ―Lean principles, practices, http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.em.18.2.4732 and impacts: a study on small and medium- [41] Vladimir Kajdan (2008) ―Bumpy road to lean sized enterprises (SMEs)‖, Ann Open Res, enterprise‖, Total Quality Management & DOI 10.1007/s10479-012-1177-3 Business Excellence, 19:1-2, 91-99, DOI:

10.1080/14783360701602338

[42] Wanitwattanakosol J. and Sopadang A. (2011) [47] Production Planning & Control: The ―A Framework for Implementing Lean Management of Operations, 23:10-11, 754-768 Manufacturing System in Small and Medium Enterprise‖, Applied Mechanics and Materials, [48] DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-26004-9_14, Volumes 110-116, pp.3997-4003 [49] DOI: 10.1080/14783363.2010.481510 [43] Yang pingyu A. and Yu yu B. (2010) ―The [50] doi:10.3926/jiem.2009.v2n1.90-113 Barriers to SMEs’ Implementation of Lean Production and Countermeasures—Based on

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Enhancement of Combustion Process in I.C. Engine by Introducing Oxygen instead of Air Atreya Pathak1, Kaustubh Kale2, Gaurav Joshi3 Chameli Devi Group of Institutions Department of Mechanical Engineering [email protected]

Abstract- Oxygen and fuel combustion produces performance also and when these chemicals comes in approximately 75% less flue gas than air fuel combustion and contact with moisture and metallic parts of machines produces exhaust consisting primarily of CO and H O. The 2 2 start reaction with the deposited surface. In combustion justification for using oxy-fuel is to produce a CO2 rich flue gas ready for "The process of removing carbon from the analyses, Ar is treated as N2, and other gases are atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir." This has neglected. Then air can be approximated as 21% O2 and significant advantages over traditional air-fuel combustion. 79% N2 by mole numbers. The mass and volume of the flue gas is reduced, less heat is lost in the flue gas. The size of the flue gas treatment Chemical analysis of fuel and air combustion inside the equipment can be reduced. The flue gas is primarily CO2, suitable for sequestration. Because nitrogen from air is not chamber shows the formation of different chemicals. allowed in, nitrogen oxide production is greatly reduced. When air burns with petrol (C8H18) the reaction will be Keywords: CO2 rich flue gas, Sequestration, Reduced flue gas volume, Reduced NO. C8H18 + 15 (O2+3.76 N2) ==> 8 CO2 + 9 H2O + 2.5 I. INTRODUCTION O2 + 56.4 N2

In general process for the combustion in an IC engine charge supplied from the carburetor/Air filter is the When air burns with Diesel (C12H23) the reaction will be mixture of atmospheric air and fuel, in both Otto and Diesel engines. As air is the mixture of different gases. C12H23 + 21.3 (O2+3.76 N2) ==> 12 CO2 + 11.5 H2O + The amount of these gases by volume in dry air is 3.55 O2 + 80.088 N2

Nitrogen (N2) (78.084%), Oxygen (O2) (20.946%),Argon (Ar) (0.9340%), Carbon dioxide Based on these equations it‘s clear that when air reacts (CO2) (0.0397%), Neon (Ne) (0.001818%), Helium with C8H18 and C12H23 the amount of N2 discharge in (He) (0.000524%), Methane (CH ) (0.000179%), Sulfur 4 atmosphere is 56.4 moles and 80.088 moles that is too dioxide (SO2)( 0.0001). In all these only Oxygen is the much in terms of pollution. To reduce the amount of N2 it gas which initiates the burning of fuel. But as the volume is suggested to use the pure oxygen instead of air. availability in the air for oxygen is very less hence it is not sufficient for the complete utilization of fuels II. OXYGEN-FUEL CONCEPT DESCRIPTION calorific value and also with the fewer amount of oxygen engine cannot generate its maximum power for which it In this concept to increase the power output and for is designed and it also effects the fuel economy as for the reducing the amount of harmful chemicals from the same power the amount of fuel will be high. Another exhaust of flue gases, instead of air pure oxygen is used. major problem with ambient air is that as it has different Oxygen and petrol (C8H18) or Diesel (C12H23), when gases in it so after mixing with fuel for the combustion burns inside the chamber increase the rate of combustion inside the chamber these gases generates different and in terms of higher power output with less or zero poisonous and harmful chemicals during reaction emission of poisons chemicals in the atmosphere. As in combustion at a very high temperature inside the this case only oxygen reacts with the fuels during combustion chamber. And after expansion finally these combustion which is 79% higher in amount than the gases in normal practice is discharged in the amount in air, which burns the fuel effectively for the environment. These chemicals are not safe for the life of optimization of fuels calorific value. humans, Plants and machines because as the exhaust of engine is in atmospheric air so during breathing and When pure oxygen 100% reacts with petrol (C8H18) the photosynthesis of humans and plants it effects their reaction will be 36

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

C8H18 + 12.5O2 ==> 8 CO2 + 9 H2O optimization of fuel economy and zero N2 emission in

the atmosphere. Exhaust of CO2 can be used for When pure oxygen 100% reacts with Diesel (C12H23) the Geological sequestration. reaction will be Exhaust system is required to be redesigned for this type C12H23 + 35.5O2 ==> 12 CO2 + 11.5 H2O of exhaust and collection of CO2 will be done by this in a

separate reservoir, and from this reservoir this collected Based on these equations it‘s clear that when 100% CO2 can be supplied to a storage unit for further oxygen reacts with C8H18 and C12H23 the amount of N2 processing and this will help in minimizing the carbon discharge in atmosphere is zero. The CO2 discharge during exhaust can be utilized in sequestration process. footprint in the atmosphere. The supply of oxygen will be possible in the combustion chamber either by installing a separate cylinder for this REFERENCES purpose or by a system specially designed for extracting O2 from the atmospheric air. 1. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES; Fernando Salazar; Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, IN 46556 2. INTRENAL COMBUSTION ENGINE III. RESULT FUNDAMENTLAS; John B Heywood, I. Title. II. Series Based on above concept it is clear that when 100% TJ755.H45 1988 621.43 87·15251 oxygen is used for the combustion, it results in

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Recent Development in Renewable Energy Sources

Chahat mundra#1, Dimpesh silarpuriya*2,Manish Gome*3 Lecturer in Chameli Devi Group of Institution Indore (M.P.) [email protected]

Abstract-Renewable is a term used for forms of energy Renewable are an almost unlimited supply of energy if which are not exhausted by use over time. It means that the one considers the energy required by mankind, renewable resources can be regenerated or renewed in a relatively short time. The World Energy Outlook foresees compared with the extremely large amount of energy that with an annual average growth rate of 2.8%, electricity we receive from the sun. Modern energy services will almost double between 1997 to 2014. Primary world require the growing inclusion of renewable energy into energy supply is expected to increase by 30% in 2014 relative the sustainable energy mix. A brief summary of the to 1997, and by nearly 60% by 2020. Annual electricity demand grows unevenly in developed and developing Actual utilisation of renewable energy follows, together countries projected growth rate 4.6% It should be noted here with the potential of various categories of renewable for that the developing world is in urgent need of energy, since future developments. The technologies used for more than 1.6 billion people until recently have lived without the benefit of modern energy services. With such increasing conversion of renewable energy sources to heat, demands, the present growth pattern is strongly influenced electricity and/or fuels are plentiful. Their development by the domination of fossil fuels. Renewable energy is has contributed to the gradual lowering of technology becoming economic in all markets as its rapid growth results prices on the one hand and to improvement in their in more competitive prices. It is needed to development in renewable energy sources are discussed in this paper. Most efficiency on the other. Gradually renewable energy and prominent are removal of subsidies to traditional energy its different energy conversion technologies have primarily benefiting the wealthiest; involving the local become economically viable, capable of competing populace in decision making; educating financial with fossil-fuelled technologies in the energy market. institutions about the economics of investing in renewable energy systems and creating investment vehicles appropriate 1. Biomas to financing them in poor localities; training personnel on 2. Wind Energy management, maintenance and drafting contracts; requiring 3. Geothermal Energy vendor provision of maintenance and parts; and effective regulation and oversight of system management and 4. Solar Energy financing. It surpasses demands for any other energy end- 5. Hydropower use. Energy development into three goals of accessibility, 6. Industrial Heat Recovery Power (IHRP) availability and acceptability. Accessibility requires provision of reliable and affordable energy services for all; availability addresses the quality and reliability of the service, stressing its long-term continuity Determined by the 1. Biomass right energy mix, while acceptability addresses Biomass resources suitable for energy production environmental goals and public attitudes. To ensure covers a wide range of materials, from firewood development according to these principles of sustainable collected in farmlands and natural woods to agricultural development, renewable energy is expected to provide an and forestry crops grown specifically for energy increasingly important contribution to supply diversification, production purposes. It includes timber processing emissions reduction and energy sustainability over the residues, solid municipal waste and sewage, aquatic longer term. flora, etc. Biomass can be divided into four sub- categories:

• Wood, logging and agricultural residue

• Animal dung • Solid industrial waste • Landfill biogas. I. INTRODUCTION The potential of landfill gas is dependent on environmental considerations and waste management practices. The potential available for exploitation LEADING RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES increases as controlled landfill replaces other dumps and uncontrolled tipping. It is estimated that the global

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

potential for landfill gas use by the year 2014 will be equivalent to 12,000 MW.

II. WIND ENERGY Therefore, not only the mean wind speed but also Wind is a widely distributed energy resource. the wind speed frequency distribution, commonly Between 30ºN and 30ºS, air heated at the equator described by a Weibull distribution, has to be rises and is replaced by cooler air coming from the taken into account in order to estimate the amount south and the north. This is the so-called Hadley of electricity that can be produced by wind circulation. At the Earth‘s surface this means that turbines in a certain region, on average. ―cool‖ winds blow towards the Equator. The air that comes down at 30ºN and 30ºS is very dry and moves eastward, because the earth‘s rotational speed at these latitudes is much slower than at the Equator. Between 30ºN(S) and 70ºN(S) winds are predominantly western. These winds Form a wavelike circulation, transferring cold air southward and warm air northward. This pattern is called Ross by circulation the availability of wind varies for different regions. It should be noted that the mean wind speed may differ by as much as 25% from year to year. In most areas there are also significant seasonal differences. Generally, wind speeds are higher in winter, although there are Source: Survey of Energy Resources exceptions. In California (USA), for Example, The wind speed varies with height, depending on summer winds are stronger due to local surface roughness and atmospheric conditions. The topography and sea breeze effects. Due to seasonal increase in wind speed with height is usually variations, the potential of wind energy for power described in terms of a power law or by a production can be significantly higher than the logarithmic expression. Daily and hourly annual mean wind speed would indicate. variations in the wind speed are also important for

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

scheduling the operation of conventional power plants and adjusting their output to meet these variations. On the time scales of minutes and seconds, the variations in wind speed (turbulence) are important for wind turbine manufacturers as they influence the optimum design of a wind turbine. Wind resources can be exploited mainly in areas where wind power density is at least 400 W/m2 at 30 metres above the ground. It is supposed that continuing technical advances will open new areas to development. The assessment includes regions where the annual average wind power density exceeds 250- 300 W/m2 at 50 Source: Nemzer, M. Geothermal Education Office, 2014 meters. Because of the sensitivity of the potential to the value of the wind speed, the determination The potential of geothermal resources is highly of specific sites for wind energy projects will be dependent on the results of the resource dependent on accurate meteorological exploration survey, Comprising the location and measurements, wind energy maps And handbooks, confirmation of a geothermal reservoir, with site measurements, etc. Even in the best sites, the economically exploitable Temperature, volume wind does not blow continuously. Therefore it can and accessibility. The geothermal resource is never achieve the 100% load factor but, in most stable and can provide an uninterrupted supply of systems, wind would be able to attain a 23-28% heat and electricity, with an annual load capacity factor. factor of over 90% for electric systems. The Hydrothermal Resource Exploration and III. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY: Development includes the following: Geothermal energy tends to be relatively diffuse, • Location of prospective reservoirs, to which makes it difficult to tap. Geothermal heat is characterise their condition and to optimise the concentrated in regions associated with the location of geothermalWells. For these purpose boundaries of tectonic plates in the earth‘s crust. geosciences – geology, geophysics and There are four types of geothermal resources: On geochemistry are generally used. average, the temperature of the earth increases by • Geothermal drilling. Methods developed for the about 3ºC for every 100 m in depth. This means petroleum industry were modified to work in a that at a depth of 2 km, the temperature is about high 70ºC, increasing to 100ºC at a depth of 3 km, and Temperature, high saline and chemically reactive so on. However, in some places, tectonic activity environment. allows hot or molten rock to approach the earth‘s • The outcome of exploration drilling leads to surface, thus creating pockets of higher resource definition, evaluation of the reservoir, its temperature resources at easily accessible depths. monitoring, well field design and well testing. The extraction and practical utilisation of • Geothermal field development ―in stages‖; where geothermal heat requires a carrier which transfers a small-sized plant at an early stage of field the heat towards the heat extraction system. This development can serve to obtain further field carrier is provided by hydrothermal fields reservoir information. comprised of geothermal fluids that form hot aquifer reservoirs inside permeable formations. Hydrothermal sources are distributed widely, but unevenly, across the globe. • Hydrothermal • Geopressured • Hot dry rock • Magma IV. SOLAR ENERGY:

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Solar radiation is available at any location on earth. The total world average power at the earth‘s surface in The form of solar radiation exceeds the total current energy consumption by 15,000 times, but its low density and geographical and time variations pose major challenges to its efficient utilization. The solar source is generally assessed on the following criteria: • Power density or irradiance • Angular distribution (diffuses or directs Source: Survey of Energy Resources components)

• Spectral distribution. The maximum power density of sunlight on earth V. HYDROPOWER Hydropower is the world‘s largest source of renewable is approximately 1 kW/m2 irrespective of location. energy used for power generation and today accounts Solar Radiation per unit of area during a period of for nearly one fifth of the world‘s electricity production time is defined as energy density or insulations. (some 2,700 TWh), with more than 720 GW installed Measured in a horizontal plane, the annual capacity worldwide. Further 100 GW were under insulation varies by a factor of 3 from roughly 800 construction in 2003. Hydro resources are widespread kW/m2/year in northern Scandinavia and Canada, around the globe, and potential sites can be found in to a maximum of 2,500 kWh/m2/year in some dry about 150 countries. About two-thirds of the desert areas. economically feasible hydropower potential remains to be developed. Total worldwide hydro potential is estimated at some 1,400 GW – twice the present installed hydro capacity.

Source: Survey of Energy Resources, WEC 2014 An estimate of total small hydro development in the range of 1,000 - 2,000 MWe per year is considered realistic

VI. INDUSTRIAL HEAT RECOVERY POWER States‘ definition of IHRP is: ―a system that (IHRP) converts the lost heat from the exhaust stacks of IHRP represents a poorly known, often unused and engines, manufacturing or industrial processes, in therefore, often wasted, distributed resource in a system with a nameplate capacity of less than 20 energy Intensive industries. The resource can MW‖. This definition excludes lost heat from provide fuel-free ―green‖ electricity but has been electricity generating engines. There are only widely neglected, mainly due to the general lack of dozens of megawatts of installed industrial waste knowledge about its vast potential. The United heat units for electricity generation. The leading

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

countries producing IHRP are the US, Western developing countries to sophisticated pyrolysis European countries, Canada, Japan and China. units producing solid, liquid and gaseous fuels. IRHP projects use a wide variety of heat resources The modern biomass conversion technologies can in applications such as chemical, cement and glass be separated into three basic categories: plants, oil refineries, waste incinerators, pulp and • Direct combustion processes paper mills, gas pipeline compressor stations, • Thermo chemical processes landfill gas reciprocating engine exhausts, etc. • Biochemical processes Industrial waste heat processes, even co-generation based, with waste heat at different temperatures: BIOMASS PYROLYSIS gases of 275ºC-500ºC, condensing vapors and Biomass pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of fluids of 100ºC-250ºC and hot oil of 200ºC-350ºC, biomass in the absence of oxygen. The products of can increase their eco-efficiency by adding power decomposition are solid char, a liquid known as to their basic process. The industrial applications bio-oil or pyrolysis oil and a mixture of for waste heat recovery do not require new sitting; combustible gases. The relative proportions of the power units are installed within the boundaries solid, liquid and gaseous products are controlled of the existing industrial site. It does not influence by process temperature and residence time, as the industrial process, and does not interfere with indicated in Table 2. In recent years there has been the basic aim of production. Preliminary Waste much research interest in fast pyrolysis of biomass, Heat Resource Assessment will include the in which production of bio-oil is maximised. Flash following: pyrolysis, which uses higher temperatures and • Industrial plant characteristics, including its shorter residence times than fast pyrolysis, is sitting data; plant working hours per year; its similarly aimed at maximising bio-oil production, electricity capacity needs, electricity resources, with bio-oil yields of 75-80%. Bio-oil has a lower etc. heating value of about 16MJ/kg and after suitable • The wasted heat data, including their possible upgrading, can be used as fuel in boilers, diesel aggregation. The nature should be specified (gas, Engines and gas turbines for electricity or CHP condensing vapor, Liquids), the available flow generation. As a liquid with higher energy density rate, temperatures, pressure and their availability than the solid biomass from which it is derived, (hours/year) should be measured. bio-oil provides a means of increasing • Other site data, e.g. site elevation, ambient air convenience and decreasing costs of biomass temperatures, availability of cooling water, etc. transport, storage and handling. Bio-oil production also offers the important advantage of separating RECENT DEVLOPMENTS IN R RENEWABLE fuel production from power generation, enabling ENERGY SOURCES independent operation of both processes at the TECHNOLOGIES FOR BIOMASS most economical scales. The technologies used to convert biomass into energy range from simple open fires for cooking in

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

FAST PYROLYSIS PROCESS combustion technologies, such as the application HEAT FROM BIOMASS of fluidised bed combustion and advanced gas Combustion of biomass for steam is used globally: cleaning allow efficient production of electricity advanced domestic heaters or district heating, with and heat in Combined Heat and Power heat efficiencies of over 70% and with strongly installations (CHP). Within the range of about 50- reduced atmospheric emissions are widely used in 80 MWe, electrical efficiencies of 30-40% are Scandinavia, Austria and various Eastern possible today. Hybrid systems combining European countries. Production of liquid and biomass with natural gas or coal can provide gaseous fuels from biomass Pyrolysis converts economies of scale, as well as reduce fuel supply biomass (at temperatures of about 500ºC) to liquid disruption risks. Gasification technologies can be bio oil, gaseous and solid (charcoal) fractions. used to convert biomass into fuel gas. The gas Ethanol is produced via fermentation of sugar in a must be cleaned prior to combustion in gas classic conversion of sugar cane, maize and corn. turbines or diesel engines. Biomass integrated Esters from oilseed: Oilseed, like rapeseed, can be gasification/combined cycle systems (BIG/CC) converted to esters to replace diesel. Methanol combine flexibility of final characteristics with a production using gasification technology and high electrical efficiency. Electrical conversion traditional syngas conversion & hydrogen efficiencies up to 40% are possible on a scale of processes, could offer an attractive longer-term about 30 MWe on the short term. A Princeton conversion route for biomass. Electricity from University study forecasts that the biomass- biomass It should be noted that biomass is not integrated gasifiers/steam-injected gas turbine used primarily for electricity generation. Direct (BIG/STIG) technology will compete with use for heating and bio-fuels for transportation is conventional coal, nuclear and hydroelectric power widespread, mainly in developing countries. The in both developed and developing countries. Small potential of biomass is very large, and some scale, fixed bed gasifiers coupled to diesel/gas forecasts up to 2025 envisage approximately 2.6 engines (typically for 100-200 kWe systems with Gtep based on biogas energy. At present biomass an approximate electrical efficiency of 15-25%) accounts for 10-14% of the world‘s energy supply. are commercially available on the market. The largest contribution – an average of about However, gas cleaning; relatively high costs and 33% - is found in developing countries, whereas in required careful operation have so far blocked industrialised countries the contribution of application of these systems in large numbers. biomass is an average of about 3%. The increasing use of biomass should, however, be carefully MAINSTREAM TECHNOLOGIES FOR WIND balanced with the risks of deforestation. Although the concept of wind turbines is old, a Combustion of biomass for electricity generation large-scale development of a new generation of is widespread across the world. Advanced turbines for power generation only began in the

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

mid-seventies, as a consequence of the energy crisis of 1973. Technology concepts of modern The basic wind energy conversion device is the wind turbines can be distinguished by two basic wind turbine. Although various designs and characteristics: ―power limitation‖ and ―rotor configurations exist, these turbines are generally speed‖. The scheme of power limitation can either grouped into two types: be active ―pitch‖ or passive ―stall‖. The rotor 1. Vertical-axis wind turbines, in which the axis of speed can be designed as constant or variable. The rotation is vertical with respect to the ground (and control of active and reactive power and the roughly perpendicular to the wind stream), rotation speed is crucial for the operation of the 2. Horizontal-axis turbines, in which the axis of turbines and their integration into the grid. The rotation is horizontal with respect to the ground different technical concepts are illustrated in (and roughly parallel to the wind stream.) Figure 4 below. One option to limit the active power is given by pitching the rotor-blades in their longitudinal axis. Without the active pitching of the rotor-blades the active power can be limited by stall-operation. However, this concept does not allow such a continuous control as in the case of the blade pitch setting. If the rotor speed is not transmitted by a gearbox, the generator must have a large diameter together with as many electrical or permanent excited poles, in order to meet the requirements of an induction machine. It also has to be constructed in a large and heavy manner. If the rotor speed should be de-coupled from the constant grid frequency and the plant should run with variable speed (e.g. for power equalisation or reduction of mechanical loads), an electronic link between generator and grid is necessary. TECHNOLOGIES FOR GEOTHERMAL • The synchronous generator with a DC-rectifier Geothermal energy has been used for centuries for on the machine side and an inverter on the grid bathing, various therapeutic treatments and hot side, the so-called ―DC intermediate circuit‖ or water. Only in the 20th century has it been ―DC link‖. This system is characterised by a large deployed on a large scale for space heating, speed range of the rotor. industrial applications and power generation. It is • The double-fed induction generator with a utilised by direct applications using geothermal variable frequency rotor supply through a heat for a variety of end-uses, such as space frequency converter. This concept was already heating and cooling, industrial heat, greenhouses, realised with MW sized turbines in the 1980s. Its fish farming, heat pumps and health spas. In 2000 rotor speed range is much smaller in comparison direct geothermal use produced over 17,000 MWt. with the DC-link concept. However, both systems The leading ―five‖ in direct use were China – are able to control the reactive power and can also 8,700 GWh, Japan – 7,500 GWh, the U.S. – 5,640 be used to stabilise the voltage. GWh, Iceland – 5,600 GWh and Turkey – 4,377 • In the third option the turbine with the directly GWh. Direct heat use In direct applications, coupled induction generator has an almost constant geothermal energy can be used for space and water speed connection with the grid. When adding an heating, district heating, greenhouse heating, external resistor to the rotor of the Generator to warming of fish ponds in aquaculture, crop drying, enlarge its slip, a dynamic load reduction of the etc. Geothermal fluids are generally pumped mechanical components leads to a variation of the through a heat exchanger to heat air or liquid in rotor speed during gusts. However, this kind of direct use, although the resource may be used grid connection, does not allow the opportunity to directly if the salt and solids contents are low. In control the reactive power or to influence the comparison with geothermal electricity voltage. production, direct use has several advantages, such WIND ENERGY TECHNOLOGY as higher energy efficiency (50-70%); generally

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

the development time is shorter and is less capital • Flashed Steam Plants produce energy from intensive. Geothermal heat pump (GHP) liquid-dominated reservoirs which are sufficiently technology can use geothermal sources at 20ºC or hot to flash a large less. GHP can move heat in either direction: in the Proportion of the liquid to steam. Typical units winter, heat is moved from the earth and is have a capacity of 10 – 55 MWe. Single flash delivered to the home or building – heating mode, systems evaporate hot geothermal fluids to steam while in summer, heat is removed from the home by reducing the pressure of the entering liquid and or building and delivered for storage to the earth – directing it through the turbine. In dual-flash air-conditioning model. Geothermal power systems steam is flashed from the remaining hot generation technologies there are several types of fluid of the first stage, separated, and fed into a geothermal energy conversion processes: dual inlet turbine or into two separate turbines. • Dry Steam Plants produce energy for vapour- dominated reservoirs with a typical unit capacity of 35 – 120 MWe. • Binary-Cycle Plants. For low-enthalpy resources resources are available for immediate binary plants based on the use of Organic Rankin development. The forecast for 2010 expects Cycles (ORC) are utilised to convert the resource 21,000 MWe installed geothermal electric capacity to electricity. The hot brine or geothermal steam is (accelerated development predicts even 32,000 used as the heat source for a secondary, organic MWe). The potential for development during the fluid, which is the working fluid of the ORC. coming • A supercritical cycle using isobutene, as well as a Decades are expected to be 60,000 MWe. Direct cascade concept, were developed in the early use is expected to grow by 12% annually. eighties in order to increase the power output by increasing the thermal cycle efficiency. For SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES moderate enthalpy, two-phase resources with Over several past decades, new commercial steam quality between 10-30%, binary plants are industries have been established for an assortment efficient. When the geothermal fluid has high no of solar energy technologies, demonstrating condensable gas (NCG) content even higher schemes with a wide variation of success. These efficiency can be achieved with a special tailored can be categorised as follows: binary two-phase Configuration than with condensing steam turbines. SOLAR HEAT • For efficient use of steam-dominated resource a • Low-temperature thermal solar energy (LTSE) is geothermal combined cycle is applied. The steam used to heat water, air or another medium, for first flows domestic or professional use. The system basically Through a backpressure steam turbine and is then consists of a solar collector, a thermal storage and condensed in the organic turbine vaporiser. The the necessary distribution systems. condensate and • Solar heat pumps are used to convert the energy Brine is used to preheat the organic fluid as in the available in solar-heated ambient air into useful two-phase binary configuration. Geothermal low temperature heat. Combined Cycle • ―Solar architecture‖ - This passive solar energy is Plants have electric efficiencies of 10-25%, while designed to reduce energy consumption for space the capacity factors are frequently above 90%; the heating, lighting, etc. by utilising the building plants are structure itself for solar energy collection, Independent of climate and seasons and can be distribution and storage. operated 24 hours a day providing stable base-load generation to the grid or to remote off-grid rural SOLAR ELECTRICITY areas. The potential of geothermal energy is very • Photovoltaic (PV) solar energy is the direct large, and the prospective locations of potential conversion of sunlight into electricity. This can be geothermal fields are known. During the early oil done by flat plate crisis intensive investigations led to the discovery of many geothermal reservoirs for electricity generation. About 11,000 MWe of proven

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

And concentrator system. The solar modules used Wattage as space will allow. Modules are are a number of solar cells connected in series. The usually designed to supply electricity at 12 efficiency Volts. PV modules are rated by their peak Watt of practical solar cells is determined by the number output at solar noon on a clear day. of loss mechanisms. The typical flat-plate modules PV tracking systems is an alternative to the achieve fixed, stationary PV panels. PV tracking systems Efficiencies between 10 – 15%. Solar cells and are mounted and provided with tracking their corresponding modules can be divided into mechanisms to follow the sun as it moves two main categories: wafer-type solar cells and through the sky. These tracking systems run Thin-film solar cells. entirely on their own power and can increase • Solar thermal-electric is used to produce high- output by 40% temperature heat, which is converted into Back-up systems are necessary since PV electricity. The specific Technologies applied are Solar Pond Power Plants systems only generate electricity when the sun is (SPPP), parabolic trough solar power plants, shining. The two most common methods of parabolic dish backing up solar electric systems are connecting Combined with Stirling engines (or Brayton, or the system to the utility grid or storing excess Rankine engines) and central receiver combined electricity in batteries for use at night or on with heliostats cloudy days

THE SOLAR-THERMAL DEVICES CAN BE CLASSIFIED MAINSTREAM HYDRO TECHNOLOGIES INTO THREE CATEGORIES: Hydro power technology is mature and proven. In solar thermal route, solar energy can be Well-established design concepts offer converted into thermal energy with the help of considerable scope solar collectors and receivers known as solar For adaptation to local circumstances, both in thermal devices. The Solar-Thermal devices construction and operation (the latter may range can be classified into three categories: from simple manual attention to fully automatic and computerised systems). The main civil works Low-Grade Heating Devices - up to the of a hydro development are the dam, spillway or temperature of 100°C. diversion weir, and the water passages to the Medium-Grade Heating Devices -up to the powerhouse. The dam directs the water into the temperature of 100°-300°C powerhouse through water passages. The High-Grade Heating Devices -above temperature powerhouse contains the turbine with the of 300°C mechanical and electrical equipment required to

transform the potential and kinetic energy of the SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV): Photovoltaic is the water into electrical energy. A significant number technical term for solar electric. Photo means of plants connected to transmission grids are "light" and voltaic means "electric". PV cells are designed for peaking service. Many rivers and usually made of silicon, an element that streams are well suited to small hydro-power naturally releases electrons when exposed to installations (<10 MWe capacity) and in large light. Amount of electrons released from silicon parts of the world there is a need for electric power cells depend upon intensity of light incident on in remote areas where these resources are it. The silicon cell is covered with a grid of available. New small hydro developments are metal that directs the electrons to flow in a path usually run-of-river developments where water is to create an electric current. This current is used only as it is available, and with no water guided into a wire that is connected to a battery storage reservoir. The cost of large dams can or DC appliance. Typically, one cell produces rarely be justified for small projects. Therefore, a about 1.5 watts of power. Individual cells are low dam or diversion weir of the simplest connected together to form a solar panel or construction is usually built. Inventories of small module, capable of producing 3 to 110 Watts hydro sites are not complete for many areas of the power. Panels can be connected together in world, nor are the capacity range of individual series and parallel to make a solar array (see sites assessed in any reliable way. An estimate of Figure 12.4), which can produce any amount of 5% of the total hydro potential currently thought to

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

be exploitable is expected to be small hydro. 8,000 MW, equivalent to 16 utility size power Canada has completed an inventory of small hydro plants and enough for 8 million homes. There is sites, which identified over 3,600 sites having a potential worldwide – in the European countries total technical potential of about 9,000 MWe. (both west and east) and industrialised developing Approximately 15% of this potential was found to countries, such as India, China, Brazil, Mexico, be economically viable. An estimate of total small Argentina and many others. hydro development in the range of 1,000 - 2,000 MWe per year is considered realistic. However, a VII. CONCLUSION comprehensive mapping of small hydro potential You may think that Earth has plenty of non- sites is still not available. Survey of hydrological renewable resources. At this rate, we may run out resources will provide more reliable information of non-renewable resources such as oil, goal and on optimum sitting of new plants. Computerised gas before we realise. It is not only the depletion data acquisition and handling will facilitate of these resources that we should worry humanity classification and evaluation of the data needed for but the waste produced from their consumption. site selection and environmental impact Global Warming is a problem created by waste by assessment. Techniques for monitoring water the excessive amounts of Carbon Dioxide. There resources and their use will offer more reliable are abundant examples, only a few of which have information on hydrology, which is the backbone been identified here, in both developed and for hydro generation. Such knowledge is also vital developing countries, of successful adoption of for multi-purpose applications. More attention will cost-effective renewable energy measures to be paid to comprehensive resource utilisation ameliorate pollution while aiding their economies. studies covering all purposes. Scarcity of water A wide variety of legislative and voluntary will dictate this approach programs have been undertaken and the legal and financial mechanisms for doing so also are many MAINSTREAM TECHNOLOGIES FOR IHRP and varied. It is possible to meet the world‘s The heat conversion technology applied for energy, development and environmental needs. electricity generation based on industrial heat This achievement can even be done on a basis of recovery is the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC). long term profitability. But achieving these goals The organic motive fluid is selected to optimise will take determined action and political will power output for specific waste heat applications. among all the governments and international Thermal energy in the exhaust gas or other heat institutions of the world. For the developed stream is transferred to the ORC‘s vaporiser by countries and international institutions, achieving non-flammable heat transfer fluid (hot water or these goals will require a vast increase in the oil) through the Heat Recovery Unit. The ORC resources they devote to funding sustainable working fluid is vaporised by the heat transfer energy, technology transfer, more developments in unit. The resulting organic vapour drives a special renewable energy technology and education and turbine, which is coupled to the electricity training in the developing countries. For generator. The turbines exhaust vapour flows developing countries, achieving these goals will through the recuperator and is condensed and require an increased commitment to eliminating recycled by the motive fluid pump. The electricity the barriers to adoption of sustainable energy conversion efficiency is 10-20%. The potential is measures and creating a climate and legislation to large. There are many such heat streams, encourage private investment in them. It starts especially in industrialised countries. Potential with you and me. We can make simple changes in generation in the USA alone was estimated at our everyday lives to help make a difference.

REFRENCES:

1. National Renewable Energy 4. National Wind Coordinating Laboratory (NREL), ―An Economic Committee, Cohen, Joseph M. & Valuation of a Geothermal Production Wind, Thomas A., Distributed Wind Tax Power 2. Credit‖, (www.nrel.gov/publications/) 5. Assessment, 2001 3. (www.nationalwind.org)

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6. ORMAT, Legmann, Hilel, Recovery of Industrial Heat in the Cement Industry by Means of the ORC Process, 2002 7. Pembina Institute for Appropriate Development, Raynolds, Marlo & Pape, Andrew, The Pembina Institute Green 8. Power Guidelines for Canada, 2000 (www.pembina.org) 9. Pew Center on Global climate Change, Smith, Douglas W., Nordhous, Robert R., Roberts, Thomas C., Fidler S., 10. Anderson J., Danish K., Agnew R. & Chupka M., Designing a Climate- Friendly Energy Policy: Options for the 11. Near Term, 2002 (www.pewclimate.org) 12. SOLEL Presentation, Parabolic Troughs Integrated with Thermal Power Machines 13. World Energy Council, Renewable Energy Targets, 2003 14. TATA Energy Research Institute, Overview of Renewable Energy Sector in India, available at http://www.teriin.org/renew/overview. htm.

48 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Automotive Air Conditioning Using Exhaust Gases Deepak Bhonde Shashank Singh Pawar, [email protected], Department Of Mechanical Engineering, Chameli Devi School Of Engineering, Indore

Abstract-The automotive air conditioning system in Components that are the compressor, condenser, the 1940's, many things have undergone extensive expander (expansion valve) and Evaporator. change. Improvements, such as computerized automatic temperature control and improvements to Research work and improvement are still being overall durability, have added complexity to today's made on this system to improve the performance as modern air conditioning system. An approach to well as reducing the overall cost. The operating automotive air conditioning by using waste exhaust gases function of Automotive Air Conditioning useful concept of the system, currently available heat available in the exhaust gas is sufficient to compressor concept and current research work with generate 1.5-2 tons air conditioning unit does not affect automotive air conditioning by using waste exhaust fuel consumption, life and efficiency of the engine system is noise free and practically maintenance-free. gases function of Automotive Air Conditioning. All Competitive from a first-cost point of view. Nh3-h2o is Information and data gained through literature suitable for car a/c. Libr-h2o is suitable for heavy study are then extracted to formulate a proper vehicle refrigeration. Present automotive air conditioning system is not environmental friendly methodology in designing and developing the automotive air conditioning compressor is powered by newly proposed automotive air conditioning internal combustion engine more cost and maintenance system. thermal energy of exhaust gases remains unutilized. Keywords; vapor absorption system. I. INTRODUCTION AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM OVERVIEW- Since The Advent Of The Automotive Air Conditioning System In The 1940's, Many Things There are four primary components in a Have Undergone Extensive Change. vehicle‘s air conditioning system: • Improvements, such as computerized • Compressor automatic temperature control and improvements to • Condenser overall durability, have added complexity in today's modern air conditioning system. • Evaporator • To add to the complications, we now have • Expansion device tough environmental regulations that govern the very simplest of tasks, such as recharging the These parts are connected by tubes and those to system with refrigerant R-12 commonly referred to form a continuous path with two distinct sections: a as Freon (Freon is the trade name for the refrigerant high-pressure side and low - pressure side. In order R-12 that was manufactured by DuPont). to transfer heat from the vehicle‘s interior to the outside air; a chemical refrigerant is circulated • Extensive scientific studies have proven the throughout the system. damaging effects of this refrigerant to our ozone II. REFRIGERATION PROCESS layer, and its manufacture has been banned by the A complete vapor compression cycle is shown U.S. and many other countries that have joined on the t-s diagram in figure. The refrigerant together to sign the Montreal Protocol, a landmark evaporates entirely in the evaporator and produces agreement that was introduced in the 1980's to limit a refrigerating effect. It is then induced by the compressor at state point 4, and is compressed the production and use of chemicals known to isentropically to point 1. It is next Condensed to deplete the ozone layer. liquid in the condenser, and the latent heat of condensation is rejected To the atmosphere as the The vapor-compression cycle is the most widely heat sink. The liquid refrigerant, at state point 2, used refrigeration cycle in Practice. Its range of flows through an expansion valve, which reduces application covers from small refrigerator to the pressure to that of the evaporator. In The ideal vapor compression cycle, the throttling process in building and automotive air conditioning for the expansion valve is the only irreversible process, human comfort. It consists of four major

49 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

usually indicated by a dotted line. Some of the IV. COMPRESSION CONCEPT liquid Flashes into vapor and enters the evaporator There many types of air conditioning at state point 3. The remaining liquid Portion compressor available in the market with each evaporates at the evaporating temperature thus compressor have their own advantages as well as completing the cycle. limitations. The compressor can be divided into two major groups; positive displacement and dynamic compressor. Positive displacement compressor can be further subdivided into three major groups; reciprocating, rotary and orbital compressor the case of an air conditioning system, the compressors. main function is to raise the pressure of the refrigerant and provide the primary force to circulate the refrigerant. At low pressure and temperature heat is transfused to the refrigerant by an evaporation process and at high pressure and temperature heat is rejected by the refrigerant by a condensation process.

Fig. Vapour Compression Cycle

III. REFRIGERANT USED IN AUTOMOTIVE AIR CONDITIONING - air conditioning systems function according to a basic law of physics that states ‗a fluid absorbs heat as it changes from a liquid to a gas, and a vapor releases heat as it changes from a gas to a liquid.‘ In an A/C system, refrigerant is the transfer medium used to absorb the heat inside the passenger compartment and release it to the outside air. Refrigerant is a tasteless, odorless gas with an ability to change state rapidly within a specific temperature range. It is also oil soluble and non- corrosive. There are only two types approved by vehicle manufacturers R-12 and R-134a. R-12, commonly referred to as Freon, has long been used as the refrigerant in all automotive A/C systems. R- 12 contains chlorine, which is the primary cause of ozone layer damage. Long before the phase-out of R-12 began however, the automotive industry conducted extensive research and development to find an environmentally friendly alternative. They ultimately selected R-134a as the new refrigerant, and began using it in vehicles as early as 1992. R- 134a is similar to R-12, in that it absorbs, transfers, and releases heat efficiently. It is also non- flammable, and mixes well with oil, just like R-12. However, R-134a does have some unique characteristics.

• R-134a requires a special synthetic lubricant since it does not mix with mineral oil (standard R- 12 lubricant).

• R-134a operates at higher discharge pressures than R-12. Therefore, systems using R-134a may not cool as well as R-12 when the vehicle is idling for extended periods (e.g. Heavy traffic).

• R-134a and R-12 cannot be mixed, which is why separate equipment is needed to service vehicles using either refrigerant. Layout Of Summer And Winter Automotive Air Conditioning System (Bolero)

50

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Present automotive air conditioning system is The highly competitive nature of the refrigeration not environmental friendly automotive air and air-conditioning Industry creates an conditioning compressor is powered by internal atmosphere in which systems manufacturers must combustion engine more cost and maintenance thermal energy of exhaust gases remains unutilized. continuously improve the quality and capability of their products in order to maintain or increase their V. HEAT LOAD OF AUTOMOTIVE AIR current market shares. Environmental concerns and CONDITIONING higher energy costs Persuade governments in many Amount of parts of the world for their country to develop more heat load heat (KJ/hr) efficient systems. Thus, customers demand systems that cost less to purchase and to operate than that Solar radiation (roof ,wall, already existed in the market. The challenge faced glasses ,floor) 300 by compressor Manufacturers is to meet this demands and this requires aggressive R&D work. Normal heat gain through Therefore it is not surprised to see records of glasses 4300 product development work when one looks at the Passengers including driver 1200 history of compressors like Matshushita or Sanden which are actively Filing patents to every improvement made on their compressor models.

Problem Statement

The work carried out is to develop an alternative refrigerant gas compressor with a better characteristic on certain aspect such as less vibration while operating at High speed and comes in smaller durable packages. On top of it, the market demands Smaller and better efficiency

compressors to reduce cost as well as increasing their Product features. Originally it was planned to PRESENT AAC SYSTEM AND EXAUST FLOW acquire the compressor technology through patent SCHEME review, reverse engineering and examination of the SIMPLE CALCULATION- existing designs. Without any intention to improve One Kg of diesel produces 42000KW of power the performance. However today‘s refrigeration Power present in exhaust gas 30% of Industry is very demanding requiring a tight 42000KW specification, as such that the designed Compressor should be capable of operating at low noise and Therefore 42000*.3 =12600 KW vibration levels while running at high speed which Power present in exhaust gases = 12600 KW contributes to smaller overall size. In the process of Only 50% of this can be utilized = 6300 Reverse engineering, literature study and problem COP=0.5 solving it is found that the Vibration can be reduced by introducing a new concept and thus Now in one Kg of diesel, distance travel is say achieving the above Said criteria. The whole 20KMS IN 20 MIN process involved a new concept development and 42000/20=2100 KJ/MIN =35KJ/SEC thus treated as problems to be solved in the present 30% of 35KJ/SEC (KW) =10. 5KJ/SEC work and therefore create opportunity to set a clear available and achievable objective with a reasonable scope of Now for one ton 3.5KJ/SEC is required work specified. If COP=0.5

Energy available =10.5*.5 =5.25KW VI. SIGNIFICANT OF RESEARCH For 1.5 tons=3.51.5 =5.25KW Air conditioning system mainly comprises of four OVERVIEW- major components that Is; the compressor,

51 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

evaporator, condenser and the expansion valve. The compressor is considered as the ―heart‖ of the air conditioning system and it is also difficult to manufacture due to its precision machining requirement. The aim of the research is to acquire the compressor technology which comprised of several elements such as the lubrication system, material selection, tribology, heat transfer, and others. It is Imperative that the designed compressor met the high demand of today‘s Requirement such as compactness, lightweight yet simple and easy to manufacture. The success of the research work will help in reducing the monopoly of the Companies that produce these compressors using the technologies they developed. In the existing swash plate type compressor used in the automotive air conditioning system, the development of prototypes is Based on experience and knowledge gained through reverse engineering BASIC ABSORPTION CYCLE on several Existing compressor models in the market such as the swash plate compressor and the

Wobble plate compressor. Literature reviews were carried out to keep up with the Latest technology PROPOSED AAC SYSTEM POWERD BY EXHAUST ENERGY that is available in the market and to acquire more state of the art Knowledge required to design a better compressor. In parallel, an experimental rig Was developed based on international standard to test and evaluate both existing and Newly developed compressors. Tests were conducted by varying the compressor Speed from 800rpm to 1800rpm. The performance of the compressors was studied in Terms of coefficient of performance

(COP), volumetric efficiency and Mechanical efficiency (mech). For the existing compressor model, the highest COP Obtained was 4.1 at 800rpm while the highest volumetric and DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED MODEL mechanical efficiency Are 71% at 1400 rpm and 74% at 800 rpm. Similar data were planned to be MAINCOMPONENTS- obtained from the test of the newly developed Absorber prototypes. However, the new prototypes were not Generator fully developed and data obtained from the test carried out were not enough to Make a conclusive Condenser comparison with the performance of the existing Expansion valve model. The Compressor managed to get a pressure Evaporator ratio of 3 which was enough for an air Conditioning system to work. The shortfalls and A rectifier the source of the failure have been identified and The Exhaust pipe recommendations for improvement have been made. VII. FLUID USED IN THIS SYSTEM: Ammonia and Water

52 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

vehicle turbine driven accessorises. Absorption/compression refrigeration system using waste Exhaust energy. IX. CONCLUSION- Useful heat available in the exhaust gas is sufficient to generate 1.5-2 tons air conditioning unit.

Does not affect fuel consumption, life and efficiency of the engine. System is noise-free and practically maintenance free. Comperetitive from a first cost point of NH3-H20 ABSORPTION AAC view.

NH -H O is suitable for CAR A/C. POSITIONING OF AAC COMPONENT- 3 2 LiBr-H O is suitable for heavy vehicle Condenser and evaporator: Arranged same as 2 refrigeration the conventional unit

Absorber: Below Radiator REFERENCE- Generator: Close to the Exhaust manifold or below the engine. 1. ASHRAE. ASHRAE: HVAC SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT. NEW YORK:

2. American Society of Heating, VIII. APPLICATIONS- Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Exhaust apparatus for recreational vehicle 3. Inc, 2000Trott, A. R. Refrigeration and A/C. Air Conditioning. England. Mcgraw- Highway vehicle Exhaust gas refrigeration Hill.1981 system. 4. Skinner, T. J. And Swadner, R. L. V-5 Automotive Variable Displacement Engine heated compressed drive for 5. Air Conditioning Compressor. SAE Paper. vehicle A/C. 1986. No. 850040 Exhaust pipe driven turbo generator. Exhaust driven air condition for small

53 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Jatropha as an Alternate Fuel for Gas Turbine

Deepak Phalke, Dimpesh Silalpuriya, Arvind Kumar Shrimali

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chamelidevi Group of Institutions Indore (M.P.)

Abstract-India is one among the largest petroleum consuming demand. In addition, the efficient use of fuel is also very nations .India imports 80% of its petroleum demands and due to important subject to prevent exhaustion of them. There is widely fluctuating prices of oil, is one of the destabilizing an increasing amount of literature on gas turbine covering elements for the balance of economy our country. Secondly the aspects as: design, performance , materials, applications high emissions of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, NOx and and process control but very less literature is available on unburned hydrocarbon through fossil fuel are steeply increasing and there reduction is most urgent and important alternate fuel for Gas turbine. .Papers devoted gas turbine subject to prevent global warming. There are many fuels and specially to power generation application usually available for Gas turbines such as kerosene, diesel, and natural mention natural gas and gas oil but they virtually ignore the gas and due to rapid depletion in world petroleum reserves at alternate fuel. fast rate and due to uncertainty in continuous supply of petroleum products biodiesel can be one of the alternate fuel for India is one among the largest petroleum consuming Gas Turbine. nations. India imports 80%of its petroleum demand, widely fluctuating world prices of oil is the destabilizing element The present work is the result of experiments carried out as a for the balance of the country. The current yearly part of the efforts and to develop the use of bio-diesel as an consumption of diesel oil in India is 60 million tones alternate fuel for gas turbine. Jatropha oil has been selected due to its properties very close to diesel fuel and may be a promising forming about 70% o the total petroleum product alternative fuel for its use in diesel engine as well as in gas consumption. turbine. Test results of diesel engine which has encouraged us to test the Jatropha oil on the gas turbine also. Different blends Gas turbine and engines running on diesel is a major of biodiesel were tested on gas turbine under the condition such contributor to air pollution especially within cities and as water injection at the inlet of compressor and it was along urban traffic routes,inaddition to air pollution that compared with the diesel fuel under normal conditions. The cause ground level ozone and smog in the atmosphere, result shows the emissions get reduced with the use of different diesel exhaust also contains particulate and hydrocarbon blends of biodiesel. The most important factors in any gas toxic air contaminates(TAC). turbine performance are the NOx emissions. With water injection the NOx emissions can reduce by 35%. Large scale Biodiesel can be one of the alternate and renewable energy production of biodiesel can be one of the best alternative fuels sources for gas turbine. As the properties of biodiesel for future to run gas turbine, diesel engine, and pump set, matches with the diesel fuel, so it can be used as one of the generator set etc so as to save large expenditure done on import alternate fuel which is of low cost and produce less of petroleum products and to improve the economic growth of our country. emission.

NOMENCLATURE II. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN DIRECT USE OF BIO DIESEL: Problems are encountered in using vegetable oil directly as d diesel SFC Specific Fuel Consumption fuel in diesel engine and gas turbine. Biodiesel has viscosity which is the major constraints in using straight b1 blend1 (15%biodiesel&85%diesel) Bp Brake Power vegetable oil as diesel engine fuel. The ultimate effect is b2 blend2 (25%biodiesel&75%diesel) reducing the life of the engine. The high viscosity Co Carbon monoxide interferes the fuel atomization and contributes to w water injection incomplete combustion making cols starting difficult, Hc Hydrocarbon nozzle clogging, excessive deposits, and contamination in Nox Nitrogen oxide lubricating oil etc. Poor volatility makes vegetable oil I. INTRODUCTION difficult to vaporize and ignite this result in thermal The fossil fuel however, should be the main energy sources cracking resulting in heavy smoke emission and carbon for future extended years because the developing deposits in the combustion chamber. The problem of high renewable energy is quite insufficient for total energy viscosity can be overcome to greater extent by various

54 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

techniques, such as heating, dilution, emulsification and the wasteland area of our country can be used for its esterification. production. Jatropha plant can be used as fencing for cash crop plants. Jatropha farming is not only used for III. THE EFFECT OF WATER INJECTION AT production of biodiesel, it helps proper utilization of less COMPRESSOR INLET: productive land When jatropha oil is triesterified, it There are several reasons why water may be present in the produces acid which help in the treatment of various dieses air used by a gas turbine engine such as ambient humidity, like cancer, paralysis, lever dieses. It is also used in soap, water injection. The above are additional to the water vapor hair dye, furniture polish, mosquito repellent.Jatropha produced by combustion. There the amount of water and farming helps in preventing soil erosion. Jatropha farming help the poor farmer living below poverty line for easy and carbon dioxide produced are based on fuel properties and economic farming. fuel air ratio, accounted in performance calculations via modified gas properties .The presence of any additional water beyond that produced by combustion impacts engine B. EXPRIMENT SET UP performance via several different effects. Turbine selected for testing the performance under diesel and biodiesel is rover gas turbine IS/60 is a single stage i. Changes in gas properties due to presence of water axial turbine with max BHP of 60 at a rated condition. vapor. Since most vegetable oils and diesel oil are miscible in all ii. For liquid water or ice ingestion, solid or liquid water proportion, possible solution is to use mixture of vegetable absorbs power and affects the compressor oil and diesel oil. However problem of carbon deposition aerodynamics, which may also lower the surge line. iii. Increases in mass flow- for example water into occur in case of long operating period. Blending up to 30% combustion provides additional mass flow through the in many of the experiments show the same result as that of turbines relative to compressors. diesel fuel used in diesel engine. Two blends were prepared iv. Gas turbine [4] with air-water mixture as a working for testing the biodiesel in gas turbine Blend 1—Contains fluid promise high electrical efficiencies and high 15% biodiesel and 85% diesel power outputs to specific investment costs below that of combined cycle. . Blend 2--- Contains 25% biodiesel and 75% diesel. The v. Water injection [9] at compressor inlet increases the two blends and diesel were tested under ambient power and reduces the Nox in regular turbine fuels. temperature 28°to 35°C.The blends were also tested under TABLE1: PROPERTIES OF JATROPHA & DIESEL the condition of water injection at inet of compressor and STANDARD STANDARD inet air cooling and the performance was compared with SPECIFICATION OF SPECIFICATION OF SPECIFICATION JATROPHA OIL DIESEL diesel fuel.

Specific gravity 0.9186 0.82/0.84 V. SPECIFICATIONS OF IS/60 GAS TURBINE Flash point 240/110°C 50°C COMPRESSOR CENTRIFUGAL

Carbon residue 0.64 0.15 or less Turbine Single Stage Axial Cetane value 51.0 > 50.0 Distillation point 295°C 350°C Combustion Chamber Reverse Flow Kinematics Anti-Clockwise Viewed 50.73 cs > 2.7 cs Direction of Rotation Viscosity from rear Sulpher % 0.13 % 1.2 % or less Governed Speed 46,000 Rpm. Calorific value 9,470 kcal/kg 10,170 kcal/kg Pour point 8°C 10°C Air mass flow 0.63Kg/min(rated) Colour 4.0 4 or less Pressure Ratio 2.8/1

Max. Intermittent Jet pipe 610°C IV. JATROPHA AVAILABILITY Temperature A. Jatropha plant can be easily grown on a waste land, less productive, less fertile, rocky land. It cannot be grown on a Max.Continuous Jet pipe 580°C Temperature watery land this plant is not eaten by animals and birds and it requires little care. The cycle of full grown plant is Max BHP at rated 15°C 60 at 580°C shortened production can be achieved in same year There is no need for every year plantation and the same plant can give you production (seed) for more than 50 years. Jatropha seed have more oil as compare to other plant seed. VI. RESULT AND DISCUSSION It gives 35% of oil from seed. Jatropha plant does not From fig-1 we can see the specific fuel consumption for affect the production of other cash crops.Lakhs of acre of blend1 & blend 2 is higher than that of diesel. The high

55 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

consumption may be due to lower calorific value which BRAKE POWER Vs CO EMISSIONS may even lower the thermal efficiency. Vijay Raja[10] co% Vol d co% Vol b1 co% Vol b2 co% Vol b1w reported the specific fuel consumption for various blend of co% Vol b2w co% Vol b1c co% Vol db2c jatropha oil as compare to diesel oil is higher and predicted 0.1 0.09 higher density may be the reason behind it .He also 0.08 reported the performance of diesel engine with biodiesel 0.07 0.06 does not very much. The specific fuel consumption is 9% 0.05 higher than that of diesel and improves at higher power 0.04

0.03 Co% (VOLUME) Co% output and thermal efficiency is lower than that of diesel. - 0.02 0.01 we can see that the effect of water injection at inlet of 0 compression 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 BP(Kw)

BRAKE POWER VS SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

SFC d SFC b1 SFC b2 SFC b1w SFCb2w SFCb1c SFCb2c Fig2—Effect of Brake power on CO emissions from diesel 5.25 and different blends of biodiesel at different inlet 4.75 4.25 conditions 3.75 3.25 So, reduction in CO emissions for blends as compare to 2.75 2.25 diesel is due to complete combustion as compare to diesel.

SFC(KG/KW-Hr) 1.75 Again the emissions from blend2 are lower than that of 1.25 blend1 it may be due to more oxygen content then from 0.75 0.25 blend1. Due to water injection there is a fall in the 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 BP(Kw) temperature of combustion chamber and also at low temperature which may also be due to incomplete Fig1—Effect of Brake power on Specific fuel consumption combustion results in high CO emissions. The emissions of diesel and different blends of biodiesel at different inlet from blend2 are found to be more than that of blend1.The conditions. graph shows the emissions for blend 2 are found to be increase by 12 to 15%. we can see the CO emissions from Water injection lowers the inlet temperature of air which blend1 and blend2 is slightly higher as compare to without improves the specific fuel consumption for the blends by cooled air at inlet of compressor. It may be due to lower 5% and also improves the power output [39] by 13%. We temperature the emissions for blend 1 and blend 2 is higher can also see the effect of cooled air at inlet of compression but comparable with diesel. The percentage increase in CO from the graph initially the specific fuel consumption is emissions increases by 8 to 11 %. higher due to lower calorific value for the blends but due to decrease in inlet temperature of compressor the compressor VII. CONCLUSIONS I. Large portion of our unfertile land can be used for work get reduce which increases the power output and jatropha plantatation so that large production of jatropha increases the efficiency. oil can be used for biodiesel production. II. Physical and chemical properties of jatropha are similar b) From fig-2 we can see the co emissions from different in nature to that of diesel.. blends of bio diesel are much lower then diesel. This may III. Calorific value of Jatropha oil is found to be low by 7 % be due to compositional difference between the oxygen due to the difference in chemical composition and the content. Biodiesel contains 10-13% oxygen in weight basis difference of carbon – hydrogen content. and this lowers the energy content. The lower energy IV. Results show the fuel consumption of various blends are content causes reduction in engine torque and power. higher initially due to higher specific gravity, low volatility, high viscosity but improves as the combustion proceed due to decrease in viscosity. V. Specific fuel consumption is higher for the blend due to lower calorific value and high density but improves by 6% and also the power output improves by 12 % with water injection at inlet of compressor. VI. The brake specific fuel consumption is not the reliable parameter to compare the fuels as the calorific value and density of the blend follow slightly different trend. Therefore specific energy consumption is more reliable

56 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

parameter for comparison. Blend2 show less energy [4] Suryavanshi J.G. and Deshpande N.V. (2004): required per kilowatt power then diesel fuel may be due ―Experimental investigation on Jatropha oil Methyl Ester to lower calorific value. Fueled Engine‖; ASME (ICEF). VII. Emissions such as Co2from the exhaust of turbine by [5] Maria Johnson and jinyue (2003): ―Humidified gas turbine- a review of implemented and proposed cycle‖. using blend1 and blend2 are much lower than diesel. It [6] F.J.Wang and J.S.Chiou (2003): ―Integration of steam may be due to complete combustion oxygenate blends of injection and inlet air cooling‖. fuel, which can be predicted from high exhaust [7] Raheman H and Phadatare(2003): ―Karanja etherified oil temperature as compare to diesel. an Alternate Renewable fuel for Diesel engines in VIII. It was observed that with water injection at compressor controlling air pollution‖.Bio energy News inlet ,the exhaust gas temperature reduces by 15° C to [8] L.G. Schumacher, Charles L.Peterson, J.V.Gerpen (2001 20°C. ―Engine oil analysis of diesel engine fueled with biodiesel REFERENCES blends‖. [9] Danilo salvi, paolo pierpaoli (2000) ―Optimization of inlet air cooling systems for steam injected gas turbine [1] Project report (2008) ―Jatropha Farming‖ Urja vikas nigam system‖. (mp). [10] Raju N, Rao G Amba Prasad and RamamohanP.(2000): [2] Magnus C. Rydstrand ,Mats O.Westermark,Michael ―Esterified Jatropha Oil as a Diesel Engine Fuel‖.Proceeding A.Barlett(2004): ―an analysis of efficiency and economy of of XVI national conference of I.C. Engines and combustion humidified gas turbines in district heating applications.‖ New Delhi,(2000),pp65-75. [3] Nikos Aronis ,Reinhard leithner(2004): ―Combined cycle with low –quality heat integration and water injection into [11] L.G.Schumacher, Steven Howell (1996) ― Bio diesel the comprssed air.‖ research 1999 and beyond‖.

57 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

PERFORMANCE STUDY & ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITE LEAF SPRING FOR LIGHT VEHICLE

Dushyant Sahu Asst. Professor, CDGI, Indore

Abstract- This project describes the performance, study II. SPECIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM and analysis of composite leaf spring made of glass The objective of the present work is to analyses, fiber reinforced polymer. The objective is to compare Glass Fiber/Epoxy complete composite leaf spring the load carrying capacity, stiffness and weight savings without end joints and composite leaf spring using of composite leaf spring with that of steel leaf spring. bonded end joints using hand-layup technique. This The design constraints are stresses and deflections. The dimensions of an existing conventional steel leaf spring is an alternative, efficient and economical method of a light commercial vehicle are taken. Same over wet filament-winding technique. dimensions of conventional leaf spring are used to fabricate a composite multi leaf spring using E- III. LEAF SPRINGS Glass/Epoxy unidirectional laminates. Compared to Leaf springs also known as flat spring are made out steel spring, the composite leaf spring is found to have of flat plates. Leaf springs are designed two ways: 67.35% lesser stress, 64.95% higher stiffness and multi-leaf and mono-leaf. The leaf springs may 126.98% higher natural frequency than that of existing carry loads, brake torque, driving torque, etc... In steel leaf spring. A weight reduction of 76.4% is addition to shocks. achieved by using optimized composite leaf spring. The multi-leaf spring is made of several steel plates

of different lengths stacked together. During I. INTRODUCTION normal operation, the spring compresses to absorb In order to conserve natural resources and road shock. The leaf springs bend and slide on each economize energy, weight reduction has been the other allowing suspension movement. main focus of automobile manufacturers in the present scenario. Weight reduction can be achieved IV. COMPOSITE MATERIAL FOR LEAF primarily by the introduction of better material, SPRING: design optimization and better manufacturing processes. The suspension leaf spring is one of the potential items for weight reduction in automobiles CHARACTERISTICS: as it accounts for 10% - 20% of the unstrung A composite material is defined as a material weight. This achieves the vehicle with more fuel composed of two or more constituents combined on efficiency and improved riding qualities. The a macroscopic scale by mechanical and chemical introduction of composite materials was made it bonds. possible to reduce the weight of leaf spring without Typical composite materials are composed of inclusions suspended in a matrix. The constituents any reduction on load carrying capacity and retain their identities in the composite. Normally stiffness. the components can be physically identified and Since, the composite materials have more elastic there is an interface between them. strain energy storage capacity and high strength to Many composite materials offer a combination of weight ratio as compared with those of steel, multi- leaf steel springs are being replaced by mono-leaf strength and modulus that are either comparable to composite springs. The composite material offer or better than any traditional metallic materials. opportunities for substantial weight saving but not Because of their low specific gravities, the strength. always are cost-effective over their steel counter weight-ratio and modulus weight-ratios of these composite materials are markedly superior to those parts. The leaf spring should absorb the vertical of metallic materials. vibrations and impacts due to road irregularities by The fatigue strength weight ratios as well as fatigue means of variations in the spring deflection so that damage tolerances of many composite laminates the potential Energy is stored in spring as strain excellent. For these reasons, fiber composite have energy and then released slowly. So, increasing the emerged as a major class of structural material and energy storage capability of a leaf spring ensures a are either used or being considered as substitutions more compliant suspension system. According to for metal in many weight-critical components in the studies made a material with maximum strength aerospace, automotive and other industries. Another unique characteristic of many fiber and minimum modulus of elasticity in the reinforced composites is their high internal longitudinal direction is the most suitable material damping. This leads to better vibration energy for a leaf. absorption within the material and results in reduced transmission of noise land vibration to neighboring structures. High damping capacity of composite materials can

58 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

be beneficial in many automotive applications in VI. CONCLUSION which noise, vibration, and hardness is a critical The development of a composite leaf spring having issue for passenger comfort. constant cross sectional area, where the stress level at any station in the leaf spring is considered For automobiles: 50Cr 1, 50 Cr 1 V 23, and 55 Si 2 constant due to the parabolic type of the thickness Mn 90 all used in hardened and tempered state. of the spring, has proved to be very effective. The For rail road springs: C 55 (water - hardened), study demonstrated that composites can be used for C 75 (oil-hardened), 40 Si 2 Mn 90 (water- leaf springs for light weight vehicles and meet the hardened) and 55 Si 2 M N90 (oil-hardened). requirements, together with substantial weight savings. V. DESIGN SELECTION The leaf spring behaves like a simply supported beam and the flexural analysis is done considering it as a simply supported beam. The simply supported beam is subjected to both bending stress and transverse shear stress. Flexural rigidity is an important parameter in the leaf spring design and test out to increase from two ends to the center.

SPECIFICATION OF EXISTING LEAF SPRING

Specifications 1 Total Length of the spring (Eye to Eye) 1540 mm

2 Free Camber (At no load condition) 136mm

3 No. of full length leave (Master Leaf) 01

4 Thickness of leaf 13mm

5 Width of leaf spring 70mm

6 Maximum Load given on spring 3850N

2 7 Young‘s Modulus of the spring 22426.09 N/mm

8 Weight of the leaf spring 23 kg

59 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF E-GLASS/EPOXY:

Sl.No Properties Value

1 Tensile modulus along X-direction (Ex), MPa 34000

2 Tensile modulus along Y-direction (Ey), MPa 6530

3 Tensile modulus along Z-direction (Ez), MPa 6530

4 Tensile strength of the material, Mpa 900

5 Compressive strength of the material, Mpa 450

6 Shear modulus along XY-direction (Gxy), Mpa 2433

7 Shear modulus along YZ-direction (Gyz), Mpa 1698

8 Shear modulus along ZX-direction (Gzx), Mpa 2433

9 Poisson ratio along XY-direction (Nuxy) 0.217

10 Poisson ratio along YZ-direction (NUyz) 0.366

60 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

One Hourly Line Feeding System: Advancement of an Optimal KANBAN System: A Case Study Of A Pump Manufacturing Plant Himanshu Singh1, Swapnil Bhurat2, Deepak Bhonde3 Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indore, M.P.

ABSTRACT-Kanban is a method for increasing manufacturing, computer integrated manufacturing and productivity with emphasis on just in time Robotics. Due to the technological advancement, the manufacturing process in which movements of conventional method of push production system linked materials in a process are recorded on Kanban cards. with Material Requirement Planning (MRP) was The purpose of this paper is to show how a kanban changed to pull type JIT production system to meet out system is used and improved to a certain extent in a the global competition, where the work-in-process pump manufacturing plant having demand fluctuation (WIP) can be managed and controlled more accurately in the orders, which forms a trigger to overall system. than the push- production system [2]. The existing plant works on the principle of Mixed KANBAN system is a new philosophy, which Model Assembly Line. The One Hourly Line Feeding plays a significant role in the JIT production System is an application of Kanban system which has system. Kanban is basically a plastic card been implemented in the pump manufacturing containing all the information required for company to increase the efficiency of Kanban System production/assembly of a product at each stage and implemented. This Paper shows how this system has details of its path of completion. These cards are used to control production flow and inventory. This been implemented in production/assembly line and it‘s system facilitates high production volume and high working. As the name implies, in this system production capacity utilization with reduced production time is scheduled for each single hour. Because the and work-in-process[2]. production planning is done for a single hour there is The existing plant works on the principle of Mixed no need of keeping large inventory on shop floor as Model Assembly Line. A Mixed Model Assembly well as in the store. One hourly Line Feeding System is line is configured to produce several models the technology introduced by the company. The result without changeover. of using this system is huge inventory reduction as well as better material/product control and tracking as this II. LITERATURE REVIEW system uses Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) for signaling and tracking the product. In the paper by Monden Y. [4], a comprehensive presentation of Toyota production system is given. I. INTRODUCTION A successful Kanban system will drastically reduce the throughput time and lead time. Just-In-Time (JIT) manufacturing system was Karmarker and Kekre [5] have concluded from developed by Taiichi Ohno which is called Japanese their studies that the reduction in container size and ―Toyota production system‖. JIT manufacturing system increase in number of Kanbans lead to better has the primary goal of continuously reducing and results. Many researchers were interested in finding ultimately eliminating all forms of wastes. Based on the optimal number of Kanbans. The Toyota this principle, Japanese companies are operating with formula is very much useful in determining the very low level of inventory and realizing exceptionally optimal number of Kanbans. high level of quality and productivity [1]. JIT According to John M. Gross [1], there are seven emphasizes ―zero concept‖ which means achievement steps in which Kanban can be implemented in any of the goals of zero defects, zero queues, zero inventories, zero breakdown and so on. It ensures the factory: Data Collection, Calculation of Kanban supply of right parts in right quantity in the right place Size, Designing the Kanban, Training of everyone, and at the right time. Hence, the old system of material starting the kanban, auditing and maintain the acquisition and, buyer and seller relationships are kanban, and improving the Kanban. changed to new revolutionary concepts. Similarly, JIT becomes an inevitable system at plant level, which integrates the cellular manufacturing, flexible III. APPLICATION OF KANBAN

61 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

separate trolley for different materials with RFID A. ONE HOURLY LINE FEEDING SYSTEM tag on it. One hourly line feeding system is an application of Kanban system adopted by the existing plant. The C. AT STORES goal of one hourly line feeding system is same as Kanban system; reduce WIP inventory and elimination of wastes. Wastes eliminated can be in terms of excess man power, excess inventory on the shop floor. Also this system aims to better material tracking throughout the supply chain. This system is a very new philosophy implemented in FIG.2: Store Prepares The Trolleys With The Materials According To single phase assembly line of the existing plant The Fixed Quantity As Per The Released Prd. These Trolleys Are Parked only. One hourly line feeding system and its At A Predefined Location Inside The Stores. working is shown in the figure. D. LINE SIDE STOCK AREA

FIG.3: The Next One Hour Material Which Is To Be Produced In Line On The Second Hour Is Kept Ready For Delivery In Fixed Quantity Beside The Line In A Predefined Area.

FIGURE1: ONE HOURLY LINE FEEDING SYSTEM Now the trolleys with specified quantity of materials are taken to the assembly line floor area. The next one hour material which is to be produced B. HOW THIS SYSTEM DOES WORKS? in line on the second hour is kept ready for delivery in fixed quantity beside the line in a predefined As shown in figure, Central Planning Department area. issues the daily Product Release Document (PRD) to Assembly line and Stores based on the demand Figure 3, shows how materials for next hour is kept of customer. Based on this demand the planning at their pre defined area. department releases 8 PRDs for every single hour On the shop floor matrials are kept on the trolleys of production per day; that means one PRD for one in specified quantity as shown in the figure 4. hour. Product release document is a format which indicates the stores and assembly line that how much pumps to be assemble in single hour duration. It consist of all the information about the materials (i.e. order number, material code, material description, quantity to be supplied, status in the store and store location) to be assembled. The list contain all the materials to be assembles for making a pump. The firm has its own three stores located near the assembly line: General Store (GS), Store 008, and Store CY. When the store gets the PRD, the storekeepers and workers prepare a trolley with full of material required for the hour. The materials which are to be sent to the assembly line are tagged with a Radio FIG.4: MATERIALS ON THE SHOP FLOOR Frequency ID (RFID). This RFID contains the On the shop floor, the engineer on assembly line necessary information about the product like prepares a chart containing the all information technical specifications, make etc. They prepare regarding the assembly of pumps for the day. A format of the chart is shown in table 2.

62 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

TABLE 2: LIST OF MODELS TO BE PREPARED AS PER PRD AT one hourly line feeding system also the existing SINGLE PHASE ASSEMBLY LINE MODEL QTY. firm is looking for the further improvement in KV 20 3 20 material handling. As discussed above, there are KDS 134 (25 X 25) 80 several benefits of implementing this technology in 1 KDS 212 NP 50 the existing assembly line which has made the firm KAM II (80 X 80) 180 more efficient in material handling and more KAM II LV (80 X 110 80) promising towards the customers. When material is reached to the assembly line, on the RFID station the RFID is tracked and necessary information is generated in that. In the next step the VII. REFERENCES material is assembled on the assembly line. After [1] John, M.G. and Kenneth R.M., (2003), that painting and packing is done. After the ―Kanban Made Simple‖, American assembly the assembled pump is sent to the RFID Management Assosiation, USA. station where the Serial Number, Batch Number [2] Kumar, S.C. and Panneerselvam, (2007), ― and other information about the product is Literature revie of JIT-KANBAN system‖, generated in the RFID. Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. After that product is send to the Finished Goods 32, pp.393-408. stores. [3] Yang, Lei, Zhang, Xiapeng, and Jiang,

Mingue,(2010), ―An Optimal Kanban System IV. BENEFITS OF ONE HOURLY LINE FEEDING in a Multi-Stage, Mixed-Model Assembly SYSTEM Line‖, J Syst Sci Syst Eng, Vol. 19, pp.36-49. [4] Monden, Y., (1983), ―Toyota production A. As it works on Just in Time philosophy, the system‖, Ind Eng Manage press, - Atlanta ultimate goal of this system is to eliminate the [5] Karmarker and Kekre, (1989), ―Batching wastes through reducing Work in Process policy in Kanban system‖, Journal of Inventory. Because only specified quantity of Manufacturing System, Vol. 8, pp. 317–328. materials are brought from the stores as per the PRD there are no excess inventory on the shop floor. Production Rate for single hour is fixed so there is a huge reduction in WIP Inventory.

B. Sufficient space for the workers on the assembly floor to move because limited numbers of raw materials are present on the shop floor and the place for keeping them is fixed.

C. RFID contains all the information regarding the product. And it is placed on the product itself. Hence there is a very easy tracking of the product throughout its life.

D. As RFID itself contains all the information like batch no., serial no. etc. there is no need of putting other information on the packing box about the product. Hence it eliminates the work of putting such information. So there is no use of keeping a man for this work. Therefore this system eliminates excess man power.

V. CONCLUSION

The implementation of Kanban system results an increase in material availability and reduction of excess inventory inside the firm. While by using

63 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Emerging Trends in Automotive Engineering First A. Hitesh Koshti, Chameli Devi School of Engineering, Indore

Abstract— We have come a long way since the The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially inception of automobile, and with all this passing time in China and India. they have become much more than just a mere mode of transportation for us. More than just ferrying people The car industry has seen a very rapid from one place to another, there have a number of new dimensions added to cars and their development, as growth in the past decade, this is followed by people eventually started travelling more and more. We the evolution from ordinary inline cylinder have come an age when cars were just a simple engines to high performance V-type engines, structure and mechanism, to hi-tech and swanky ones etc., but the parameters which take the centre in the present time. With much more attention being stage of the competition are efficiency, power, paid to passenger comfort, safety, convenience and emission control, we now have cars with superior and environmental safety. technology, unthinkable of even three decades back. Potential future car technologies include varied energy The inventors have made a systematic sources and materials, which are being developed in analysis of engine concepts, their value, their order to make automobiles more energy efficient weaknesses, and their potential for (Efficient energy use, sometimes simply called energy improvement. All improvement ideas efficiency, is the goal of efforts to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products and services.) with converged when they suggested making a reduced regulated emissions. Cars are being developed turbo-shaft turbine having only one turbine in in many different ways. With rising gas prices, the one plane. In order to achieve that, the future of the automobile is now leading towards fuel inventors had to attach the turbine blades one efficiency, energy-savers, hybrid vehicles (A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power to another in a chain like configuration, where sources to move the vehicle), battery electric vehicles, the rotor acts as compressor for a quarter of a and fuel-cell vehicles (A fuel cell is a device that turn, and as engine the next quarter of a turn... converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity This is the Quasiturbine! through a chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent.). Many researches are going on to increase energy efficiency on the long term with piston, hydrogen, Index Terms— ASH, CFD, Quasiturbine engine, fuel cell... Hybrid concepts are ways to harvest part Turbosteamer. of the "low power efficiency penalty" of the piston engine used in cars, but counter-productive VIII. INTRODUCTION measures limit the long term perspective until they could efficiently fuel from the electrical grid. None he term car redirects here as a wheeled of these solutions are short term stable and T competitive. motor vehicle used for transporting The Quasiturbine in Otto cycle is a relatively passengers, which also carries its own engine simple technology which could be widely used within a few years with substantial efficiency or motor. Most definitions of the term specify benefits over piston engines in many automobile that automobiles are designed to run primarily cars. The Quasiturbine (Qurbine) is a no crankshaft on roads, to have seating for one to eight rotary engine having a 4 faces articulated rotor with a free and accessible centre, rotating without people, to typically have four wheels, and to vibration nor dead time, and producing a strong be constructed principally for the transport of torque at low RPM under a variety of modes and people rather than goods. fuels. The Quasiturbine design can also be used as an air motor, steam engine, gas compressor or It was estimated in 2010 that the number of pump. The Quasiturbine is also an optimization automobiles had risen to over 1 billion theory for extremely compact and efficient engine concepts. vehicles, with 500 million reached in 1986.

64 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

thus provides small amounts of digital data describing interchanges, recommended speeds, etc. The cars have power steering and automatic speed controls, which are controlled by a computer. The cars organize themselves into platoons of eight to twenty-five cars. The platoons drive themselves a meter apart, so that air resistance is minimized. The distance between platoons is the conventional braking distance. If anything goes wrong, the maximum number of harmed cars should be one platoon.

A2. Vehicle Infrastructure Integration (VII)- Vehicle infrastructure integration is that branch of engineering, which deals with the study and application of a series of techniques directly linking road vehicles to their physical surroundings Fig 1- Internal Mechanism of Quasiturbine in order to improve road safety. Engine Vehicle Infrastructure Integration (VII) is an initiative fostering research and applications IX. SCOPE FOR ADVANCED development for a series of technologies directly TECHNOLOGIES linking road vehicles to their physical A. Advanced Controls surroundings, first and foremost in order to improve road safety. The technology draws on A1. Platoons- several disciplines, including transport engineering, Grouping vehicles into platoons is a electrical engineering, automotive engineering, and method of increasing the capacity of roads. An computer science. VII specifically covers road automated highway system is a proposed transport although similar technologies are in place technology for doing this. Platoons decrease or under development for other modes of transport. Planes, for example, use ground-based beacons for the distances between cars using electronic, automated guidance, allowing the autopilot to fly and possibly mechanical, coupling. This the plane without human intervention. In highway capability would allow many cars to accelerate engineering, improving the safety of a roadway can or brake simultaneously. Instead of waiting enhance overall efficiency. VII targets improvements in both safety and efficiency. after a traffic light changes to green for drivers ahead to react, a synchronized platoon would A3. Autonomous car- move as one, allowing up to a fivefold An autonomous car, also known as robotic increase in traffic throughput if spacing is or informally as driverless or self-driving, is an autonomous vehicle capable of fulfilling the human diminished that much. This system also allows transportation capabilities of a traditional car. As for a closer headway between vehicles by an autonomous vehicle, it is capable of sensing its eliminating reacting distance needed for environment and navigating on its own A human human reaction. may choose a destination, but is not required to perform any mechanical operation of the vehicle. Autonomous vehicles sense the world with such An automated highway system (AHS) or Smart techniques as radar, lidar, GPS and computer Road is a proposed intelligent transportation vision. Advanced control systems interpret the system technology designed to provide for information to identify appropriate navigation driverless cars on specific rights-of-way. It is most paths, as well as obstacles and relevant signage. often touted as a means of traffic congestion relief, Autonomous vehicles typically update their maps as it would drastically reduce following distances based on sensory input, such that they can navigate and headway, thus allowing more cars to occupy a through uncharted environments. given stretch of road. How it works? B. Energy Sources- In one scheme, the roadway has magnetized One major problem in developing cleaner, stainless-steel spikes driven one meter apart in its energy efficient automobiles is the source of power centre. The car senses the spikes to measure its to drive the engine. A variety of alternative fuel speed and locate the centre of the lane. vehicles have been proposed or sold, including Furthermore, the spikes can have either magnetic north or magnetic south facing up. The roadway

65 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

electric cars, hydrogen cars, compressed-air cars The most common form of regenerative brake and liquid nitrogen cars. involves using an electric motor as an electric generator. In electric railways the generated B1. Alternative fuel vehicle- electricity is fed back into the supply system, whereas in battery electric and hybrid electric An alternative fuel vehicle is a vehicle that vehicles, the energy is stored chemically in a runs on a fuel other than "traditional" battery, electrically in a bank of capacitors, or mechanically in a rotating flywheel. Hydraulic petroleum fuels (petrol or diesel); and also hybrid vehicles use hydraulic motors and store refers to any technology of powering an energy in form of compressed air. engine that does not involve solely petroleum (e.g. electric car, hybrid electric vehicles, solar C2. Turbosteamer- powered). Because of a combination of Turbosteamer uses energy from the exhaust factors, such as environmental concerns, high gases of the traditional Internal Combustion Engine oil prices and the potential for peak oil, (ICE) to power a steam engine which also development of cleaner alternative fuels and contributes power to the automobile. This can increase energy efficiency by up to 15%. advanced power systems for vehicles has A turbosteamer is a term used by BMW to become a high priority for many governments describe a combined cycle engine. It uses a steam and vehicle manufacturers around the world. engine to convert waste heat energy from an internal combustion engine into supplemental Hybrid electric vehicles such as the Toyota Prius power for the vehicle. The turbosteamer device is are not actually alternative fuel vehicles, but affixed to the exhaust and cooling system. It through advanced technologies in the electric salvages the heat wasted in the exhaust and radiator battery and motor/generator, they make a more (as much as 80% of heat energy) and uses a steam efficient use of petroleum fuel.[1] Other research piston or turbine to relay that power to the and development efforts in alternative forms of crankshaft. The steam circuit produces 14 hp power focus on developing all-electric and fuel cell (10 kW) and 15 ft·lbf (20 N·m) of torque at peak vehicles, and even the stored energy of compressed (for a 1.8 Straight-4 engine), yielding an estimated air. 15% gain in fuel efficiency. Unlike gas-electric hybrids, these gains increase at higher, steadier C. Energy Savers- speeds. Conventional automobiles operate at about 15% BMW has been the pioneer of this concept as efficiency. The rest of the energy is lost to engine early as 2000 under the direction of Dr. Raymond and drive-train inefficiencies and idling. Therefore, Freymann, and while they are designing this the potential to improve fuel efficiency with system to fit to most current BMW models, the advanced technologies is enormous. technology is not expected to reach production Various technologies have been developed and until 2015 onward, based on 2005 estimates. utilized to increase the energy efficiency of conventional cars or supplement them, resulting in C3. Computational fluid dynamics- energy savings. Using computational fluid dynamics in the C1. Regenerative braking- design stage can produce vehicles which take significantly less energy to push through the air, a Regenerative braking technology saves and major consideration at highway speeds. The stores energy for future use or as backup power. Volkswagen 1-litre car and Aptera 2 Series are When conventional brakes are used, 100% of the examples of ultra-low-drag vehicles. kinetic energy lost is converted to thermal energy, Computational fluid dynamics, usually and dissipated in the form of heat. Regenerative abbreviated as CFD, is a branch of fluid mechanics braking recovers some of this energy to recharge that uses numerical methods and algorithms to the batteries in a hybrid vehicle. solve and analyze problems that involve fluid A regenerative brake is an energy recovery flows. Computers are used to perform the mechanism which slows a vehicle or object down calculations required to simulate the interaction of by converting its kinetic energy into another form, liquids and gases with surfaces defined by which can be either used immediately or stored boundary conditions. With high-speed until needed. This contrasts with conventional supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved. braking systems, where the excess kinetic energy is Ongoing research yields software that improves the converted to heat by friction in the brake linings accuracy and speed of complex simulation and therefore wasted. scenarios such as transonic or turbulent flows. Initial validation of such software is performed

66 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

using a wind tunnel with the final validation Substantially shorter commutes during coming in full-scale testing, e.g. flight tests. peak periods. D. Materials- On longer highway trips, vehicles The heavier the vehicle the more fuel could be mostly unattended whilst in consumption and performance is decreased making following mode. the car less efficient, but by using lighter materials Fewer traffic collisions cars can achieve less fuel consumption and The potential downsides of a platoon increased performance resulting in greater technology are- efficiency and not converting energy into waste. Duraluminum, fiberglass, carbon fiber, and Drivers would feel less in control of carbon nanotubes may totally replace all steel their own driving, being at the hands in cars (potentially improving lightness and of computer software, or the lead strength). Aluminum, carbon fiber and driver. fiberglass are currently being used more in A major issue facing the deployment of VII is cars today. the problem of how to stand up the system initially. The costs associated with installing the technology Duralumin (also called duraluminum, in vehicles and providing communications and duraluminium or dural) is the trade name of one of power at every intersection are significant. the earliest types of age-hardenable aluminium Building out the infrastructure along the roadside alloys. The main alloying constituents are copper, without the auto manufacturers' cooperation would manganese, and magnesium. A commonly used be disastrous, as would the reverse situation; modern equivalent of this alloy type is AA2024, therefore, the two parties will need to work which contains 4.4% copper, 1.5% magnesium, together to make the VII concept work. 0.6% manganese and 93.5% aluminium by weight. There are proof of concept tests being performed Typical yield strength is 450 MPa (65 ksi), with in Michigan and California that will be evaluated variations depending on the composition and by the US DOT and the auto manufacturers, and a temper. decision will be made, jointly, about whether or not Duralumin was developed by the German to move forward with implementation of the metallurgist Alfred Wilm at Dürener Metallwerke system at that time. Aktien Gesellschaft. In 1903, Wilm discovered that after quenching, an aluminium alloy containing 4% Autonomous cars are not in widespread use, but copper would slowly harden when left at room their introduction could produce several direct temperature for several days. Further advantages: improvements led to the introduction of duralumin Fewer traffic collisions, due to the in 1909. The name is obsolete today, and mainly autonomous system's increased used in popular science to describe the Al-Cu alloy reliability and decreased reaction time system, or 2000 series as designated by the International Alloy Designation System (IADS) compared to human drivers. originally created in 1970 by the Aluminum Increased roadway capacity and Association. reduced traffic congestion due to reduced need of safety gaps and the X. FEASIBILITY ability to better manage traffic flow. Though all the advanced technologies would Relief of vehicle occupants from driving and navigation chores be adhering to the optimization of the future resulting in increased productivity. cars, still the feasibility of the new Removal of constraints on occupants' technologies need to be discussed in terms of state - it would not matter if the their real field applications. occupants were too young, too old, distracted, intoxicated, or otherwise The potential benefits of a platoon impaired. Furthermore, disabilities technology are- would no longer be an issue. Alleviation of parking scarcity as cars Greater fuel economy due to reduced could drop off passengers, park far air resistance. away where space is not scarce, and Reduced congestion return as needed to pick up passengers.

67 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Elimination of redundant passengers - Under emergency braking it is humans are not required to take the car desirable that the braking force anywhere, as the robotic car can drive exerted be the maximum allowed by independently to wherever it is the friction between the wheels and required. This would be especially the surface without slipping, over the relevant to trucks, taxis and car- entire speed range from the vehicle's sharing services. maximum speed down to zero. The Reduction of space required for maximum force available for vehicle parking. acceleration is typically much less Reduction in the need for traffic police than this except in the case of extreme and vehicle insurance. high-performance vehicles. Therefore, Reduction of physical road signage - the power required to be dissipated by autonomous cars could receive the braking system under emergency necessary communication braking conditions may be many times electronically (although physical signs the maximum power which is may still be required for any human delivered under acceleration. Traction drivers). motors sized to handle the drive power may not be able to cope with the extra Traditional friction-based braking is used in load and the battery may not be able to conjunction with mechanical regenerative braking accept charge at a sufficiently high for the following reasons: rate. Friction braking is required to The regenerative braking effect drops dissipate the surplus energy in order to off at lower speeds; therefore the allow an acceptable emergency friction brake is still required in order braking performance. to bring the vehicle to a complete halt. Wrought Al-Cu alloy can be typically used Physical locking of the rotor is also in the following applications- required to prevent vehicles from rolling down hills. 2011: Wire, rod, and bar for screw The friction brake is a necessary back- machine products. Applications where up in the event of failure of the good machinability and good strength regenerative brake. are required. Most road vehicles with regenerative 2014: Heavy-duty forgings, plate, and braking only have power on some extrusions for aircraft fittings, wheels, wheels (as in a two-wheel drive car) and major structural components, and regenerative braking power only space booster tankage and structure, applies to such wheels because they truck frame and suspension are the only wheels linked to the drive components. Applications requiring motor, so in order to provide high strength and hardness including controlled braking under difficult service at elevated temperatures. conditions (such as in wet roads) 2024: Aircraft structures, rivets, friction based braking is necessary on hardware, truck wheels, screw the other wheels. machine products, and other structural The amount of electrical energy applications. capable of dissipation is limited by 2036: Sheet for auto body panels. either the capacity of the supply system to absorb this energy or on the XI. CONCLUSION state of charge of the battery or capacitors. Regenerative braking can Vehicle technology can improve the transport system only occur if no other electrical in many ways, but specifically in the context of this paper, it has the potential to reduce the number of component on the same supply system accidents on the roads, maximum utilization of energy is drawing power and only if the sources, to save the available energy as well as to utilize battery or capacitors are not fully the waste & to develop the materials technology that charged. For this reason, it is normal would be adhering to make the future cars more efficient. to also incorporate dynamic braking to There are a vast number of new technologies available absorb the excess energy. on new vehicles or top of the range vehicles that will

68 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

become more common in future, there are also many Science/Engineering/Math. McGraw- more technologies being researched. All of which are Hill Science. designed to alert, assist, or take control from, the driver, [12] Patankar, Suhas (1980). and all respond to different dangers at different intervals Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid before an accident occurs. Flow. Hemisphere Series on It is important that the most beneficial of these Computational Methods in Mechanics technologies are identified at an early stage and emphasis and Thermal Science. Taylor & is put on introducing them as early as possible. This Francis. emphasis must consist of; ensuring that resources are [13] ASM Handbook. Volume 2, dedicated towards developing the technology and In Properties and Selection: validating it‘s safety effects, promoting the safety Nonferrous alloys and special purpose benefits of the technology to the public in the wider context of road safety, and ensuring early take up of the materials. ASM, 2002. technology where possible. [14] http://www.emagzin.com/feat ured/latest-technology-in-cars/ XII. REFERENCES [15] http://mechsters.blogspot.in/2 010/12/advancement-in-automobile- [1] Zabat, Stabile, Frascaroll, Browand, engineering The Aerodynamic Performance of [16] http://www. Platoons howstuffworks.com [2] http://www.memagazine.org/backissu

es/membersonly/may98/features/smart er/smarter.html First A. author has completed his engineering [3] National AHS Consortium technical feasibility demonstration report, with specialization in Automobile University of California. Engineering, form North Maharashtra [4] GPS Drives Vehicle Infrastructure University, Jalgaon, than he worked as a Integration, GPS World professional Automobile Engineer in a leading [5] Full speed ahead for intelligent car car manufacturer company, in India. Presently design, Financial Times the author is designated as Sr. Lecturer in [6] O'Toole, Randal (2009). Chameli Devi School of Engineering, Indore. books?id=1I8Wuv7P13AC Gridlock: why we're stuck in traffic and what to E-Mail- [email protected] do about it. Cato Institute. ISBN 978- 1-935308-23-2. [7] Advanced technologies & energy efficiency. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.fueleconomy.gov/Feg/atv. shtml [8] Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicle Data Center (U.S. DoE), report [9] Straun Jno, T Robertson, John Markham "The Regenerative Braking Story". Venture Publications. [10] R. Freymann, W. Strobl, A. Obieglo: The Turbosteamer: A System Introducing the Principle of Cogeneration in Automotive Applications. Motortechnische Zeitschrift, MTZ 05/2008 Jahrgang 69, pp.404-412. [11] Anderson, John D. (1995). Computational Fluid Dynamics: The Basics With Applications.

69 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

A Study on Surface Roughness Minimization by Adopting Advanced Method of Manufacturing Kaustubh Kale1, Atreya Pathak2, Gaurav Joshi3 Chameli Devi Group of Institutions, Department of Mechanical Engineering, [email protected]

Abstract- Surface roughness is the phenomena which The American National Standard Institute (ANSI) plays an important role in our life cycle. It affects the recommends the use of symbols for surface life of the machine part or equipment which texture.These symbols describe the allowable the continuesly slides or roll under the action of power roughness, waviness and height. Certain other transmitted with the other parts of equipment, as due to terms are also used to describe surface surface roughness the wear of the equipment parts takes place. It also tends to increase the power characteristics.The following is the list of terms consumption. and definitions:

Keywords- Roughness Terminologies, Roughness 1. Roughness: High and low points on a surface. Parameters, Ra value, Cost saving, Energy saving, These are often caused by the machining process improved life of equipment. used to generate the surface. 2. Lay: Refers to the predominant direction of I. INTRODUCTION surface roughness caused by the machining process. Surface roughness plays an important role in 3. Waviness: The larger undulation of the surface satisfactory operation of elastohydrodynamic that lie below the surface roughness marks. Roughness and lay characteristics are imposed on lubrication of rolling / sliding contacts. Although top of surface waviness. machined surfaces appear smooth to the naked eyes 4. Micro inch: A measurement in millionths of an but they are quite rough at the microscopic levels. inch. The height of surface roughness is measured In the past few decades a number of different in micro inches. The higher the number of micro devices have been designed and developed in order inches, rougher the surface. to characterize the surface features of machine 5. Roughness Height: An arithmetical average components. Roughness is fine irregularities that height as measured from the mean line of the roughness profile. The mean line is the point are produced during a machining process (grinding, halfway between the peak and valley. Roughness polishing etc.). Waviness is the result of unwanted height is the amount of deviation from that mean vibration, run out, deflection, tool wear and line. misalignment etc. during the manufacturing 6. Roughness Width: The distance between points process which results in widely spaced surface on a ridge on a equal point on the next ridge. profiles. Error of form results in errors in 7. Waviness Width: A distance measured in the same way as roughness width. manufacturing process and results in deviations 8. Waviness Height: Distance between the mean from the desired surface patterns. roughness line measured at the top and the bottom of the wave. II. THEORY

Surface texture refers to the degree of quality 9. Roughness Width cutoff: The distance of surface required on the surface of the work piece. Modern roughness to be included in calculating average technology demands close tolerance, high speeds roughness height. and increased resistance to friction and wear. To If we take the example of Pinch Roll or Feeder Roll accomplish this , exact control of surface texture blocks used in rolling industry for guiding the must be maintained. Simple finish marks are no specimen for feeding into the rolling mill or in longer adequate in all cases. Where specific texture shear machine etc. the surface of the block is quality must be controlled, special symbols are required to be smooth, as they are required to be used. slide into the housing continuously. Whenever two

70 National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

machined surfaces come in contact with one There are many different roughness parameters in another the quality of the mating parts plays an use, but Ra is the most common though this is often important role in the performance and wear of the for historical reasons not for particular merit as the mating parts. The height, shape, arrangement and early roughness meters could only measure Ra. direction of these surface irregularities on the work Other common parameters include Rz,/ RRMS and piece depend upon a number of factors such as: Rsk etc. Some parameters are used only in certain industries or within certain countries. For example, A) Machining Variables which include: the Rk family of parameters is used mainly for a. Cutting Speed cylinder bore linings, and the distinctive and recurring parameters are used b. Feed and primarily within France. c. Depth of cut. Where, B) The tool geometry: Ra / Raa / Ryni = Arithmetic Mean of absolute values Some geometric factors which affect achieved R / R = average distance between the highest surface finish include: zDIN tm peak and lowest valley in each sampling length a) Nose radius Rq / RRMS = Root mean square of absolute values b) Rake angle Rsk = Skewness c) Side cutting edge angle, and RzJIS = Japanese Industrial Standard for based on d) Cutting edge. the five highest peaks and lowest valleys over the entire sampling length. C) Combination of tool material and Work piece and their mechanical properties. Rv = Maximum valley depth

D) Quality and type of the cutting tool used, Rp = Maximum peak height

E) Auxiliary tooling, and lubricant used, and Rt = Maximum height of the profile

F) Vibrations between the work piece, cutting tool Rku = Kurtosis (sharpness of peak) and machine tool. Some standard ranges of Ra values in different Apart from this if above given factors are keep in processes are listed in the table below: knowledge during machining one more factor which affects the surface finish is the elasticity of Surface S. the work piece. Due to this property at the time of Roughness No. Machining Process giving feed to the tool, the work piece gets Ra (μm) compressed under the action of cutting force, which results in waviness on the machined surface. 01. Sand Casting 03 to 50 To remove this waviness scrapping (Hand Grinding / Chipping) is done to smooth the surface, but even 02. Die Casting 0.8 to 3.2 after this we are unable to get the required surface finish. 03. Hot Rolling 03 to 50

III. PARAMETERS OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS 04. Forging 1.6 to 25

The parameters of surface roughness are generally 05. Extrusion 0.16 to 5 considered to be "well known" a standard reference describing each in detail is Surfaces and their 06. Grinding (Hand) 1.6 to 25 Measurement.

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07. Planing 1.6 to 50

08. Shaping 1.6 to 25 V. RESULT

09. Drilling 1.6 to 20 Thus based on above theory it is clear that on using surface grinding process for the manufacturing of 10. Turning and Milling 0.32 to 25 Pinch Roll and Feeder Roll blocks we are getting the surface roughness of the range of 0.063 to 5 Ra. Boring, Reaming, 0.4 to 6.3 As a result we find that somewhat manufacturing 11. Broaching and cost will increase but the running cost of the Hobbing equipment gets somewhat reduced and leads to the energy saving and enhancing the life of the 12. Surface Grinding 0.063 to 5 equipment. 13. Finishing Process 0.012 to 0.16 VI. REFERENCE 14. Super Finishing 0.016 to 0.32 [1] Optimization Of Surface Roughness, Material Removal Rate And Cutting Tool Flank Wear In Turning Using Extended Taguchi Approach; Umesh Khandey; Department of IV. CONCEPT OF APPLICATION Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela With reference to the above discussed theory till [2] Machine Trades Blue Print Reading; David L. now we are using milling or facing operation for Taylor the manufacturing of Blocks of Pinch Roll and [3] Engineering Drawing; N. D. Bhatt and V. M. Feeder Roll and after that we are using Grinding Panchal; 49th Edition, 2014 (Hand) or Scrapping Process for removing waviness of the blocks. But after this process of manufacturing, the machined surface is having waviness even after Grinding (Hand) or Scrapping, thus for the manufacturing of these blocks we have use some finished methods so that its surface become smooth. Now for the manufacturing of these blocks if we use Surface Grinding or Finishing process, thus we are able to get smoother surface of the blocks. Probably some manufacturing cost of the block will increase but it will compensate with the reduced running cost and improved life of the equipment. Thus it is favorable that we will use the Grinding Processes for the manufacturing of Blocks of Pinch Roll Blocks.

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Mechanical Behaviour Of Al-Al2O3 Nano Composites Manufactured By Ultrasonic Assisted Stir Casting Technique Krishnkant Sahu1, Ankit Sharma2 [email protected] Chameli Devi Group of Institutions Indore (MP)

Abstract— Al/ Al2O3 composites as an example of technologically superior vehicles. Man has been lightweight materials are very remarkable for several industrial applications because of a favourable using iron, copper & their alloys for thousands of combination of low density and improved mechanical years, but surprisingly until the last century he was properties. Metal matrix composites (MMC) were manufactured using ultrasonic assisted stir casting oblivious of the bauxite ore, which is the second technique of aluminum (Al) powder reinforced by nano most abundant ore in earth crust. Aluminium alumina (Al2O3) particles. A systematic examination of the effect of particulate weight % on the mechanical became an economic competitor to Steel in properties of an Al2O3-Al 6061 has been studied. The addition of reinforcement in the aluminium matrix is engineering applications because of its excellent being varied from 1–3 wt. %. In result it is found that combination of properties. Now a days, more the mechanical properties of the prepared composite were increased when increasing weight % of Aluminium is consumed (on a volumetric basis) reinforcement. than all other non-ferrous metals/alloys including

Keywords—density, Al-Al2O3, hardness, reinforcement copper. The high utility index of Aluminium is due I. INTRODUCTION to many of its unique properties such as light The need of efficient use of energy & materials is weight, low density, good thermal and electrical being felt strongly because of diminishing conductivity, good fabricability and excellent resources in the present times. There has been an corrosion resistance. Because of these properties, it important role of materials in the development of has found application in various sectors like civilizations. Necessities, urge for excellence and transportation, packaging, electrical industries, quality have always acted in tandem to propel the chemical and food industries, architecture etc. development of science & technology. This has Aluminium-matrix composites (AMCs) driven researchers in the realm of material science reinforced with discontinuous reinforcements are through the ages. The industrial development finding increased use in automotive, military, during the last century would not have been aerospace and electronics industries because of possible without a technological innovation in their improved physical and mechanical production, processing & effective utilization of properties. materials, This fact is all the more apparent in the The first major industrial demand for transportation sector when we compare earlier aluminium alloys arose in the ‗Aircrafts Industry‘ and the reasons are not difficult to large bulky automobiles with today‘s light weight, understand. Aluminium offered an excellent

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combination of properties like ―light weight, II. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE high specific strength, stiffness and good Ultrasonic Assisted Stir Casting corrosion resistance, higher ductility‖ etc. Its This paper deals with the materials and various good corrosion resistance also allowed it to be experimental procedures used to carry out the used extensively in chemical industries and present investigation. These include raw coatings for other metals. However, the poor material characterization, synthesis of alloy mechanical properties of aluminium (yield and composites with different weight % of strength: 30 MPa, tensile strength 70 MPa of Al2O3 nano particles, secondary forming 99.6% pure aluminium) limit its use on a process, specimen preparation, density wider scale. Realizing the potential of Al as measurement, of alloy and composite, well as availability, considerable efforts are hardness measurement, density measurement being made to explore the possibilities of of alloy and composites has also been improving its mechanical strength so as to performed. meet the requirements for various applications. In order to improve the mechanical strength Aluminum based MMC Preparation by and modulus of aluminium, it is alloyed with Ultrasonic Assisted Stir Casting Route an various alloying elements such as Cu, Zn, Mg, ultrasonic assisted stir casting arrangement as Si, Mn etc. shown in figure 2.1 consisted of a resistance Muffle Furnace, stirrer assembly and probe Various processing methods have emerged for assembly to manufacture the composite. The synthesis of Al-MMCs which include stir casting, stirrer assembly consists of a stirrer which was squeeze casting, Rheo-casting (compo-casting), liquid-metal infiltration, spray deposition, powder connected to a variable speed vertical drilling metallurgy (P/M) etc. Each of these methods has machine with range of 80 to 900 rpm by its own advantages and limitations. In fact, means of a steel shaft at the end of which the suitability of a method primarily depends on stirring blade is attached. reinforcement shape, size, and volume fraction as also on the type of application. However, among the different processing methods available for synthesis of composite, Stir-Casting is found to be the most commercially viable method, especially for synthesis of particle reinforced composites as the present stir casting set-up could be used in this process. In the present study, it is aimed to study the effect of reinforcement volume fraction on mechanical of Al-Si-Mg alloy (Al6061) and its composite developed by reinforcing 1 wt%,1.5 wt.%, 2 wt.%, 2.5 wt. % and 3 wt. % Al2O3 particles in the Al matrix. It is worthwhile to mention that interfaces between the reinforcement and the matrix play an FIGURE 2.1 – ULTRASONIC ASSISTED STIR CASTING SET UP important role in controlling the overall properties The stirrer was made by cutting and shaping a of composites and hence the performance. A good bond between the reinforcement and the matrix desired shape and size manually. The stirrer 0 helps in transferring effectively the loads from the consisted of a four blades at an angle of 90 matrix to the reinforcement without hampering or apart. Crucible of 2 kg capacity was placed degrading the interface and the composites. Thus inside the furnace. Approximately 1.1 Kg of attention is given to prepare composites with good alloy in solid form was melted at 800oC in the interface bonding and uniform distribution of resistance furnace. Preheating of particle. 74

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

reinforcement (alumina at 350oC) was done by Table 3.1 shows the theoretical and actual density using muffle furnace. It was used for one hour of cast Al6061 alloy & composite. It is observed to remove moisture and gases from the surface that when increases the weight % of nano Al2O3; of the particulates and to avoid high drop of there is a decrease in the porosity of cast matrix alloy and its composites. This can be attributed to temperature after addition of particulates. the fact that hot forging leads to higher Stirring is initiated to homogenize the densification and grain refinement of the matrix temperature & then adding the reinforcement material. Figure 3.1 shows the variation in density into molten alloy. At every stage before and with percent of Al2O3 in Al6061 alloy matrix. after introduction of reinforcement, Increase in Density of composite with percent of mechanical stirring is carried out for a period Al2O3 can be attributed that alumina has more of 12 min. The stirrer is located approximately density than Al6061 alloy. The density of the to a depth of 2/3 height of the molten metal casted Al6061/Al2O3 composite, in fact, slightly from the bottom and run at a speed of 200 increased from 2.68 to 2.74569 g/cm. rpm. The speed of the stirrer is gradually (1) Al / 1% of Al2O3 Density (ƍ ) = 100% of (ƍ 1) + raised to 800 rpm and the preheated 1% (ƍ 2) reinforcement particles were added into the = 1 * 2.7 + 3.95 melt. After the addition of reinforcement, *0.01 stirring was continued for 15 to 20 minutes for = 2.7395 g/cm3 proper mixing of the prepared particles in the (2) Al / 1.5 % of Al2O3 matrix.After this the stir is replaced by an Density (ƍ ) = 100% of (ƍ 1) + ultrasonic probe for the uniform distribution of 1.5 % (ƍ 2) nano particulates in the matrix. Before the = 1 * 2.7 + 3.95 system boot work, must make sure the horn is *0.015 3 preheated to higher than 5000C, the system = 2.75925 g/cm (3) Al / 2 % of Al O frequency 20.40 KHz about. The melt was 2 3 Density (ƍ ) = 100% of (ƍ 1) + 2 kept in the crucible for approximate half % (ƍ 2) minute in static condition and then it was = 1 * 2.7 + 3.95 poured in the mould. After completion of the *0.02 previous procedure poured the molten metal = 2.779 g/cm3 into the die cavity. (4) Al / 2.5 % of Al2O3 Density (ƍ ) = 100% of (ƍ 1) + III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION 2.5 % (ƍ 2) DENSITY MEASUREMENT = 1 * 2.7 + 3.95 Table 3.1 Theoretical and Experimental Density *0.025 measurement = 2.79875 g/cm3 Density Density (5) Al / 3 % of Al2O3

(Theoretical) (experimental) Density (ƍ ) = 100% of (ƍ 1) + Sample 3 3 g/cm g/cm 3% (ƍ 2)

Al6061 Alloy 2.701 2.68 = 1 * 2.7 + 3.95 Al6061/1% *0.03 3 Al2O3 2.7395 2.6883 = 2.8185 g/cm Al6061/1.5% Al2O3 2.75925 2.6936

Al6061/2% Al2O3 2.779 2.6979 Al6061/2.5% Al2O3 2.79875 2.7158 Al6061/3% Al2O3 2.8185 2.74569

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2.85 applied on the smooth surface is 100 Kg and the indenter ball diameter is 1/16 inch is used. The dwell time was 8 seconds for 2.8 each sample. The total five reading is taken from the different point on the sample and 2.75 average is calculated. The result of hardness Theoritical

test for Al alloy 6061 MMCs with wt. % )

3 Density (1%,1.5%,2%,2.5%,3%)variation of 2.7 reinforcement nano Al2O3 ultrasonic that stir castingExperimental process are shown in table:3.2 Shows 2.65 Density the hardness of AMCs reinforced with Al2O3

by the ultrasonic stir casting route. It is Density (g/cm Density 2.6 observed that the hardness of Figure3.1.Variation of Density with weight % of

Al2O3 AMCs was increased by increasing weight %

of Nano Al2O3 Hardness of composite depends HARDNESS MEASUREMENT on the weight % of reinforcement and the

Weight % of Reinforcement matrix. Coefficient of thermal expansion of Hardness Testing Machine Model- TRSN- Al2O3 is less than that of aluminum alloy D/TRSNT-D is shown in figure 3.2 used for 6061, an enormous amount of dislocations are the hardness measurement. The surface being generated at the particle- matrix interface tested generally requires a metallographic during solidification process, which further finish and it was done with the help of 100, increases the matrix hardness. Smaller ceramic 220, 400, 600 and 1000 grit size emery paper. particle reinforced composite have more particle- matrix interface as In case of alumina reinforcement compared to larger 1 2 3 4 5 Average particle reinforced composite for same

amount. Hence, the hardness of the Al 6061- 1% 46.2 48.2 47.6 44.3 46.3 46.52 composite increases with decrease in particle size and increase the weight % of Al2O3 Composite reinforcement. The use of Ultrasonic Al 6061- 1.5% 55.1 55.4 58.3 56.4 52.5 55.54 Transducer which generates the vibration at the 20 KHz frequency helps to break the Al2O3Composite cluster which is formed during the stirring Al 6061- 2% 62.8 64.8 62.4 63.1 68.1 64.24 process and the particle is dispersed in a

Al2O3Composite matrix. Hardness tests were carried out to observe the effects of wt. % of aluminum Al 6061- 2.5% 68.5 67.5 69.4 66.5 69.2 68.22 oxide on aluminum alloy matrix.

Al2O3Composite Variation of Hardness of Aluminum

alloy Nano Al2O3 composites is shown Al 6061- 3% 69.5 68.5 71.5 70.1 72 70.32 in figure 3.2.

Al2O3Composite

For measuring hardness of Al alloy, B scale is used. The specification of B scale is that the load

Table 3.2 Hardness Measurement 76

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

REFERENCES [1] A.A. Mazen and A.Y. Ahmed, Mechanical Behavior of Al- Al2O3 MMC Manufactured by PM Techniques, JMEPEG (1998) 7:393-401 ÓASM 80 International. [2] E. Soppa, S. Schmauder, G. Fischer, J. Brollo, U.

70 Weber, Deformation and damage in Al/ Al2O3, Computational Materials Science 28 (2003) 574– 60 586. [3] Clyne T.W. (2001)‘Metal Matrix Composites: 50 Matrices and Processing‘, Encyclopaedia of Materials: Science and Technology, A Mortensen (ed.), Elsevier. 40 Hardness

Hardness (HRB) Hardness [4] S. Seal S.C Kuiry, P Georgieva, and Agarwal A. (2004)‘ Manufacturing Nanocomposite Parts: Present 30 Status and Future Challenges‘, MRS BULLETIN/JANUARY, 16-21. 20 [5] G. B. Veeresh Kumar, C. S. P. Rao, N. Selvaraj (2011).‘ Mechanical and Tribological Behavior of 10 Particulate Reinforced Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites – a review‘, Journal of Minerals & Figure 3.20 Hardness VS Weight % of Materials Characterization & Engineering, Vol. 10, Al-1% Al-1.5% Al- 2% Al-2.5% Al-3% No.1, pp.59-91. Reinforcement. [6] S.S.Razavi-Tousi, R Yazdani-Rad., S.A. Manafi Al2O3 Al2O3 Al2O3 Al2O3 Al2O3 (2011)‘Effect of volume fraction and particle size of Weight CONCLUSIONS % of Al2O3 Nano particle alumina reinforcement on compaction and I. Aluminium matrix nano (1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, densification behavior of Al–Al2O3 nanocomposites, Materials Science and Engineering a 528, 1105– and 3 weight %) Al O Composites have 2 3 1110. been successfully fabricated by ultrasonic [7] S Mula., P Padhi., Panigrahi S.C., Pabi S.K., Ghosh assisted stir casting technique. S. (2009) ‗On structure and mechanical properties of II. The experimental density is closer to ultrasonically cast Al–2% Al2O3 Nanocomposite‘, Materials Research Bulletin 44,1154–1160. the theoretical density of composites. Porosity of composites could be decreased considerably due to the ultrasonic treatment and nitrogen degassing. III. It reveals that the hardness of composite increases with increasing

weight percentage of nano Al2O3 particles.

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A Review of Emerging Technology For Solar Thermal Energy Storage

Manish Gome, Purushottom Sahu, Vivek Rege # Mechanical Engineering Department, Chameli Devi group of Institute, Indore [email protected]

Abstract— In thermal energy storage (TES) systems low-cost, high- temperature phase-change materials (PCMs) are used. Thermal storage can be considered as a kind of thermal battery. Solar energy is a renewable energy source that can generate electricity, provide hot water for process heating, space conditioning, and provide lighting for buildings. In response to increasing energy demand and for better load management, thermal storage technology provides a good solution. PCMs are latent thermal storage materials. They use chemical bonds to store and release heat. PCMs are materials that store energy in the process of changing the aggregate state from solid to liquid. A Phase change material (PCM) is one of the latent heat materials having low temperature range and high energy density of ―melting followed by solidification‖ compared to the sensible heat storage. TES deals with the storage of energy by cooling, heating, melting, solidifying or vaporizing a phase-change material. Energy-storage in PCM has a lot of advantages over sensible-heat systems because of the lower mass and volume of the system and energy -storage at a relatively constant temperature with lower energy losses to the surroundings than with conventional systems. Keywords— Thermal energy storage (TES), phase-change materials (PCMs), sensible heat, Latent heat.

I. INTRODUCTION A study of solar TES using solid–liquid phase change has been carried out. The information obtained is presented divided into three parts: materials, heat & mass transfer and FIG. 1. AREAS OF RESEARCH IN THERMAL STORAGE SYSTEMS applications. Materials used by researchers as potential PCMs II. PHASE CHANGE MATERIALS are described, together with their thermo physical properties. The Classification [1]contain a complete review of the types Commercial PCMs have also been listed. Different methods of material Which have been used, their classification, of thermal properties determination can be found. Problems in characteristics, advantages and disadvantages and the various long term stability of the materials and their encapsulation are experimental techniques used to determine the behavior of discussed. Heat transfer is considered mainly from a these materials in melting and solidification. theoretical point of view, considering different simulation techniques. Many applications of PCMs can be found, divided in ice storage, industrial processes, building applications, conservation and transportation of temperature sensitive materials, water tanks vs. PCM tanks, and others.

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Candidates because of the high heat of fusion per unit volume. They have high thermal conductivities, so fillers with added weight penalties are not required. A eutectic is a minimum- melting composition of two or more components, each of which melts and freeze congruently forming a mixture of the component crystals during crystallization [2].

Thermal energy storage (TES) can take the form of sensible heat storage (SHS) or latent heat storage (LHS). To store the same amount of energy, significantly larger quantities of a storage medium are required for SHS in comparison to LHS. When LHS is used to store solar energy it can increase the thermal storage efficiency. Phase change materials (PCMs) are materials that store energy in the process of changing the aggregate state from solid to liquid. PCMs are latent heat thermal storage materials. They use chemical bonds to store and release heat.

FIG2. CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY STORAGE MATERIALS

III. ORGANIC PHASE CHANGE MATERIALS Organic materials are further described as paraffin and non paraffin‘s. Organic materials include congruent melting means melt and freeze repeatedly without phase segregation and consequent degradation of their latent heat of fusion, self nucleation means they crystallize with little or no super cooling and usually non-corrosiveness.

A. INORGANIC PHASE CHANGE MATERIALS Inorganic materials are further classified as salt hydrate and metallic‘s. These phase change materials do not super cool appreciably and their heats of fusion do not degrade with cycling. FIGURE 3. TEMPERATURE–TIME DIAGRAM FOR THE HEATING OF A SUBSTANCE

B. SALT HYDRATES Figure 3 shows the increase of internal energy when energy in Salt hydrates may be regarded as alloys of inorganic salts the form of heat when it is added to a substance [1]. The well- known consequence is an increase in temperature (sensible and water forming a typical crystalline solid of general heating) or change of phase (latent heating).Starting with an formula AB_nH2O. The solid–liquid transformation of salt initial solid state at point O, a heat addition to the substance hydrates is actually a dehydration of hydration of the salt, first causes sensible heating of the solid (region O–A) although this process resembles melting or freezing followed by a solid-to-liquid phase change (region A–B), a thermodynamically. A salt hydrates usually melts to either to a sensible heating of the liquid (region B–C), a liquid-to-vapor salt hydrate with fewer moles of water. phase change (region C–D), and a sensible heating of the C. METALLICS vapor (region D–E). The total amount of heat can be written in This category includes the low melting metals and metal the following formula: eutectics. These metallic‘s have not yet been seriously considered for PCM technology because of weight penalties. Q= m [ + qt + + qi + ]. However, when volume is a consideration, they are likely (1)

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the use of PCM in buildings applications, an encapsulation of PCM (50–80%) with unsaturated polyester matrix (45–10%), and water (5–10%) was studied al. [13]. Polymerization of

SOLAR WATER-HEATING SYSTEMS PCMs has been also studied for other applications, like insulation materials for use in clothing or bedding articles Solar water heater is getting popularity [4,5] since they are [13].studied the presence of concentrated voids in relatively inexpensive and simple to fabricate and maintain. a encapsulated PCM use for spacebased heat exchangers [13]. built in storage type water heater containing a layer of PCM For many applications, PCMs are microencapsulated, and this filled at the bottom. During the sunshine hours, the water gets has been studied by several researchers and developed by heated up which in turn transfers heat to the PCM below it. companies . Nevertheless, theotential use of The PCM collects energy in the form of latent heat and melts. microencapsulated PCMs in various thermal control During off sunshine hours, the hot water is withdrawn and is applications is limited to some extent by their cost. Unlike substituted by cold water, which gains energy from the PCM. conventional (sensible) storage materials, when PCMs reach The energy is released by the PCM on changing its phases the temperature at which they change phase (their melting from liquid to solid. This type of system may not be effective point), they absorb large amounts of heat without getting due to the poor heat transfer between PCM and water. A hotter. When the ambient temperature in the space around the cylindrical storage unit in the closed loop with a flat plate PCM material drops, the PCM solidifies, releasing its stored collector has been theoretically studied [6] for its charging latent heat. PCMs absorb and emit heat while maintaining a and discharging mode. The calculations for the interface nearly constant temperature. Within the human comfort range moving boundary and fluid temperature were made by using of 293–303 K, latent thermal storage materials are very paraffin wax (p-116) and stearic acid as phase change effective. materials. A comparative study of solar energy storage systems based on the latent heat and sensible heat technique REFERENCES has been carried out to preserve the solar heated hot water for B Zalba , J Ma Mar , Luisa F. Cabeza Harald night duration [7]. For this purpose, two identical storage units Mehling Review on thermal energy storage with phase were used.One storage unit contained 17.5 kg paraffin wax change: materials, heat transfer analysis and applications (m.p. about 54 8C) as the storage material packed in a heat exchanger made of the aluminum tubes and another unit George A. Hand book of thermal design. In: Guyer C, editor. Phase change thermal storage materials. McGraw Hill Book Co.; 1989 simply contained the water as a storage material in a GI tank. Stritih, U., and P. Novak. 2002. Thermal storage of solar energy in Both units were separately charged during the day with the the wall for building ventilation. help of the flat plate solar collectors having same absorbing Tanishita, Int Solar Energy Eng, Meibourne, Paper 2/73; 1970. Richards SJ, Chinnery DNW. 42, CSIR Res Rep. 237, South; 1967. area. This study has revealed that the latent heat storage Bansal NK, Buddhi D. An analytical study of a latent heat storage system in a system comparatively yields more hot water on the next day cylinder. Solar Energy 1992;33(4):235–42. Chaurasia PBL. Phase change material in solar water heater storage morning as compared to sensible storage system. system. In: Proceedings of the 8th international conference on thermal energy storage; 2000. IV. ENCAPSULATION OF THE MATERIALS [8] G.A. Lane, Solar Heat Storage: Latent Heat Material, vol. II, Technology,CRCPress,Florida,1986. The encapsulation of the PCM has developed interest in [9] Harald Mehling: strategic project ‗‗Innovative PCM- several researchers. Advantages and disadvantages of Technology‘‘—results and future perspectives. 8th expert different geometries of PCM encapsulation with different meeting and work shop,Kizkalesi, Turkey, April 18–20, 2004. [10] Athienities A,Chen Y. The effect of solar radiation on dynamic materials and their compatibility was discussed [8]. The freezing and melting processes of water contained in spherical thermal performance of floor heating systems. Solar Energy elements was studied experimentally [9], proposing semi empirical equations that allow the mass of ice within a sphere 2000;69(3):229–37. to be predicted at any time during the freezing or melting processes. Earlier,[10,11,12], studied the crystallization process of an organic eutectic in a spherical encapsulation. For

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Software for Finding Operating Temperature of Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing Considering Effect of Various Bearing Design Parameters Sandeep Rajput1, Sanjay Purohit2, Sachin Gadakh3, Shashank Singh Pawar4 Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chameli devi College of Engg.,Indore, India.

Abstract-This paper deals with the bearing design based was conducted for various operating conditions like on heat balance i.e. heat generated inside the bearing rotational speed, bearing load and oil flow rate to should be nearly equal to the heat dissipated from the check the performance of sensor used. The results bearing housing to the surrounding. This analysis is show that the sensor can effectively monitor the based on computer aided bearing design process. As it condition of bearing as compared with the is an iterative process of bearing design, the use of computer provides more accurate, optimum, easy and thermocouple installed in the pads and collar. fast calculations. This paper also gives the software tool Further, Glavatskih S. B. et al. [3] in 2004 for finding the effect of various parameters such as oil developed a new method for monitoring a grade, lubrication system, bearing housing geometry, temperature in fluid film bearing. In this method R/C and L/D on the operating temperature of the the lubricating oil comes in direct contact with hydrodynamic journal bearing. thermocouple through a special arrangement. The Key words: bearing design, heat balance, operating temperature obtained is compared with those temperature. measured by thermocouple in the pad backing and I. INTRODUCTION in the collar. This method provides high sensitivity for temperature monitoring. Hydrodynamic journal bearing is used in many industrial applications. As it plays a very Compact designed journal bearing needs significant role in many applications, its design severe operating condition to work. Hence, Wang needs much accuracy. The conventional method Yansong et al. [10] gave a steady state mixed includes the use of various charts and tables in TEHD (Thermo Elasto Hydrodynamic) model. The journal bearing design. But this is time consuming model is compared with the experimentally and not so much appropriate method of design. obtained results and change in temperature has That‘s why a CAD tool is needed to develop for a been studied numerically and experimentally. fast and accurate design of journal bearing. Two Sharma S.C. et al. [7] studied the types of parameters are used in design of journal performance of a hole-entry hybrid journal bearing bearing viz. operating parameters and performance system by considering variation of viscosity parameters. Operating parameters are under the corresponding to the temperature rise of the control of the designer, but performance parameters lubricant. The thermo elastohydrostatic are not directly under control the designer. performance of a given bearing has been studied Performance parameter shows how well the for a particular operating and geometric bearing is performing. Certain limitations on their parameters. It has been observed that the static and values are imposed according to the designer dynamic performance of a hole-entry hybrid guidelines, to assure satisfactory performance. journal bearing system gets affected by the The operating temperature is one of the variation of viscosity due to temperature rise of significant performance parameters which is lubricant. needed to be found out for safe operation of the bearing. To measure the operating temperature of fluid film bearing, Glavatskih S. B. et al. [4] in Singh U. et al. [9] in 2008 studied 2001 gave eddy current sensor technique. The test theoretically the thermo hydrodynamic analysis of

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an axial groove journal bearing. Simultaneous velocity. Also, select the Karelitz‘s constant ( ) solution of Reynolds equation, energy equation and according to lubrication scheme and the bearing heat conduction equation is used for this analysis. housing geometry. The results show that the temperature of the fluid film increases due to frictional heat. Due to numerical instability, this method cannot be adopted for high eccentricity ratios.

TABLE-I: OVERALL COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT Roy L. [6] in 2009 studied the thermo CONDITIONS [8] hydrodynamic performance of grooved oil journal U Conditions bearing for different feeding position and it is W/ (m2 0C) o observed that 12 feeding groove locations is good 11.3 For still air over other feeding location. 15.3 For shaft stirred air Garg H.C. et al. [2] in 2010 studied 33.4 For air moving at 2.5 m/s thermal and rheological effects of lubricants on the performance of symmetric and asymmetric slot- TABLE-II: KARELITZ‘S CONSTANT ( ) FOR DIFFERENT LUBRICATION SCHEME AND CONDITIONS[8] entry hybrid journal bearing system. The result Lubrication Conditions Range of obtained shows that the bearing performance is System affected by the variation of viscosity due to Oil ring Moving air 1-2 temperature and non Newtonian behaviour of Still air ½ -1 lubricant. Oil bath Moving air ½ -1 Boubendir S. et al. [1] in 2011 Still air 1/5 – ½ numerically studied the thermo-hydrodynamic performance of journal bearing and found that temperature affects on the performance of journal Step 1: Initially assume some operating bearing. temperature of the bearing. Now, for this operating temperature and assumed SAE grade oil, the This paper includes the design of bearing viscosity can be found out by using the chart given for stable zone by considering the bearing in reference [8] or using the formula, characteristic, 0.362 x 10-6 [8] and finding the 0 exp [b / (1.8 T + 127)] …(1) operating temperature for heat generation to be equal to heat dissipation for certain value of R/C The values for 0 and b for different SAE grade oil ratio, L/D ratio and SAE grade oil. can be obtained from the Table-3.

II. BEARING DESIGN PROCEDURE TABLE-III: VALUES OF 0 AND B FOR DIFFERENT SAE GRADE OIL[8] As for stable bearing operation the bearing SAE Oil Viscosity 0, Constant b, temperature should not reach in severe temperature o grade mPas C zone, there should be thermal balance in bearing 10 0.1089 1157.5 operation i.e. the heat generated inside the bearing 20 0.0937 1271.6 should get dissipated to the surrounding. Now, to design the bearing for a particular load and journal 30 0.0971 1360.0 speed, let us assume initially some values for the 40 0.0827 1474.4 parameters like L/D ratio and R/C ratio, also 50 0.1171 1509.6 assume some SAE oil grade. Before starting the 60 0.1288 1564.0 bearing design, select the value of overall heat transfer coefficient (U) which depends upon the bearing material, geometry of the bearing, Step 2: To calculate the value of length of bearing roughness, the temperature difference between and corrected pressure, housing and the surrounding objects and air

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For thick film lubrication inside the If , then the design of bearing is stable and bearing, the bearing characteristic should be if it is not so, then iterate the procedure by greater than or equal to 0.362 x 10-6. changing the operating temperature till the required condition is obtained. In this paper the computer 0.362 x 10-6 …(2) aided design procedure is adopted which helps to iterate the process for small step of temperature From this, the overall pressure inside the fluid film variation. Also the computer aided design process can be calculated as, allows us to vary the assumed L/D ratio, R/C ratio and SAE Oil grade. P = …(3) III. USE OF SOFTWARE TOOL AND This pressure can also be defined as the load per OBTAINED GRAPHICAL RESULTS unit projected area, According to the above mentioned P = …(4) mathematical procedure of bearing design, a software tool can be prepared by using Matlab By comparing equation (3) and equation (4), the software. The GUI of that tool is shown in the length and diameter of the bearing can be obtained. fig.1. This GUI helps us to give input of different These obtained values of length and diameter may values such as Load, RPM, L/D, R/C, SAE grade be in fraction so round up it into immediately next of oil, overall heat transfer coefficient and value of integer value and for these corrected values find alpha. According to this input values, software tool out the corrected pressure. calculate the values of operating temperature, Step 3: Now, calculate the value of Sommerfeld minimum film thickness and coefficient of friction. number as, By making the use of speed of this software tool, one can try many possible values for the design and S = …(5) optimization of the hydrodynamic bearing. Also, by using this tool, we can plot the graphs as shown From Raimondi and Boyd [5] chart for coefficient in Fig.2 to Fig.19 which can help directly like a of friction variable Vs Sommerfeld number, find graphical database. Basically, the bearing designed the value of coefficient of friction variable for an for particular condition of load and speed of shaft. assumed L/D ratio. As we have assumed the R/C Let us assume, the bearing is to work at load of ratio initially, the coefficient of friction can be 2500N and speed of 900RPM. Now, the required calculated from this. operating temperature for any particular L/D ratio can be observed from the graphs shown in Fig.2 to Step 4: Finding the heat generation inside the Fig.19. bearing. When journal rotates inside the bearing, the shearing action takes place between the layers of lubricant, which causes the heat generation. Heat generation can be found out mathematically,

= f x W D x N …(6)

Step 5: Heat dissipation from the bearing housing. Heat dissipation is the phenomena in which heat dissipates from the bearing housing to the surrounding and the amount of heat dissipated can be found out mathematically as,

= …(7) Figure-1: GUI of software tool

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Figure-2: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=11.3, = 0.3 and R/C=800 Figure-5: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=11.3, = 0.75 and R/C=800

Figure-3: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=11.3, = 0.3 and R/C=1000 Figure-6: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=11.3, = 0.75 and R/C=1000

Figure-4: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=11.3, = 0.3 and R/C=1200 Figure-7: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=11.3, = 0.75 and R/C=1200

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Figure-8: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=15.3, Figure-11: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=15.3, = 0.75 and R/C=800 = 1.5 and R/C=800

Figure-9: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=15.3, Figure-12: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=15.3, = 0.75 and R/C=1000 = 1.5 and R/C=1000

Figure-10: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=15.3, Figure-13: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=15.3, = 0.75 and R/C=1200 = 1.5 and R/C=1200

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Figure-14: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=33.4, Figure-17: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=33.4, = 0.75 and R/C=800 = 1.5 and R/C=800

Figure-18: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=33.4, Figure-15: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=33.4, = 1.5 and R/C=1000 =0.75 and R/C=1000

Figure-19: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=33.4, Figure-16: Graph of Operating Temp Vs L/D ratio for U=33.4, =0.75 and R/C=1200 = 1.5 and R/C=1200 From these figures, for a particular value of L/D ratio and operating temperature, one can get sets of SAE oil grade, R/C, U and α value. One of such sets is shown in Table-IV. From such set of values, one can choose optimum set according to

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the SAE oil grade available, provision of mode of Toperating R/C L/D SAE oil U α heat transfer, lubrication scheme and bearing (oC) grade W/ (m2 o housing geometry. In another way, one can make a C) set of differ L/D values, SAE oil grade, U and α for 100 1200 0.6 10 11.3 0.3 particular value of operating temperature and R/C 1.6 50 11.3 0.3 1 10 11.3 0.75 value as shown in Table-5, Table-VI and Table- 0.6 10 15.3 0.75 VII. Same type of tables can be made for different 1.6 50 15.3 0.75 values of operating temperature, L/D, R/C, SAE oil 1 10 15.3 1.5 grade, U and α. 2 40 15.3 1.5 TABLE-IV: VALUES OF SAE OIL GRADE, U AND Α FOR 0.6 60 33.4 0.75 PARTICULAR VALUE OF OPERATING TEMPERATURE AND L/D 0.8 50 33.4 1.5 1 60 33.4 1.5 Toperating L/D SAE oil R/C U Α (oC) grade W/ (m2 oC) In inverse direction also one can use these 100 1 10 1200 11.3 0.75 graphical results i.e. for given condition of L/D, 30 800 15.3 1.5 R/C, SAE oil grade, U and α, one can decide the 20 1000 15.3 1.5 operating temperature generated. Such a developed 10 1200 15.3 1.5 graphical database for different load and speed 60 1200 33.4 1.5 conditions can be used directly while designing the bearing.

TABLE-V: VALUES OF L/D, SAE OIL GRADE, U AND Α FOR R/C=800 AND ANY PARTICULAR VALUE OF OPERATING TEMPERATURE IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Toperating R/C L/D SAE oil U α (oC) grade W/ (m2 The user friendly GUI of bearing design oC) as shown in fig.1 helps designer to try many 100 800 1 50 11.3 0.3 possible combinations of different design 1.2 60 11.3 0.3 0.6 30 15.3 0.75 parameters and hence accordingly can select the 0.8 20 15.3 1.5 optimum design for the bearing. The different operating temperatures are achieved according to the different L/D and R/C ratio selected. Also it TABLE-VI: VALUES OF L/D, SAE OIL GRADE, U AND Α varies according to the lubricating oil, lubrication FOR R/C=1000 AND ANY PARTICULAR VALUE OF scheme and air velocity. The graphs for operating OPERATING TEMPERATURE temperature versus L/D ratio have been plotted for Toperating R/C L/D SAE oil U α (oC) grade W/ (m2 different SAE oil grade considering various values oC) of U and as shown in Fig.2 to Fig.19. It has been 100 1000 0.6 20 11.3 0.3 observed from all these graphs that as the value of 1.6 60 11.3 0.3 L/D ratio increases, the operating temperature 0.8 10 11.3 0.75 achieved decreases gradually. Also, the operating 1.2 30 11.3 0.75 temperature of the oil increases according to the 1.4 40 11.3 0.75 increase in SAE grade of an oil. It is observed from 2 50 11.3 0.75 Fig.2 to Fig.19 that for different SAE oil grade, the 0.6 20 15.3 0.75 value of operating temperature increases as the 1.6 60 15.3 0.75 value of R/C increases for any particular value of U 1 20 15.3 1.5 and . It has also found that for any particular value 0.8 60 33.4 1.5 of R/C and U, as the value of increases, the value of operating temperature increases. The value of TABLE-VII: VALUES OF L/D, SAE OIL GRADE, U AND Α operating temperature decreases for all SAE oil FOR R/C=1200 AND ANY PARTICULAR VALUE OF grade, as the value of U increases for any fixed OPERATING TEMPERATURE value of R/C and . In the same way one can plot 87

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the graphical results for the minimum film [6] Roy L., ―Thermo-hydrodynamic Performance of thickness and coefficient of friction. Grooved Oil Journal Bearing‖, Tribology International 42 (2009)1187–1198. [7] Sharma S. C., Vijay Kumar , Jain S.C., Nagaraju T. , V. CONCLUSION ―Study of Hole-entry Hybrid Journal Bearing System Considering Combined Influence of Thermal and Elastic The conclusions of this study are, Effects‖, Tribology International 36 (2003) 903–920. [8] Shigley J. E. and Mischke C. R., ―Mechanical 1. This CAD application provides more Engineering Design(in SI units)‖, sixth edition, Tata precise results as it allows to take more McGraw Hill publishing; 2003. fine guess step of the operating [9] Singh U., Roy L., Sahu M., ―Steady-state Thermo- hydrodynamic Analysis of Cylindrical Fluid Film Journal temperature. Bearing with an Axial Groove‖, Tribology International 41 2. This CAD application gives fast bearing (2008) 1135–1144. design without any manual error in [10] Wang Y., Zhang C., Wang Q. J., Lin C., ―A Mixed- calculation. TEHD Analysis and Experiment of Journal Bearings Under Severe Operating Conditions‖, Tribology 3. Many possibilities of bearing design can International 35 (2002) 395–407. be tried and compared to get the optimum design. 4. The reference data base can be prepared which helps to decide the value of L/D APPENDIX ratio, R/C ratio, SAE grade oil, U and NOMENCLATURE for a desired value of operating temperature. b Constant R radius of journal (m) 5. As L/D ratio increases, the operating temperature decreases gradually. C radial clearance (m) S Sommerfeld number 6. For higher grade oil, the operating D diameter of the Operating temperature range is also higher. bearing (m) temperature (0C) 7. As lubrication scheme improves, the operating temperature range decreases. E eccentricity (m) Atmospheric 8. The operating temperature varies in temperature (0C) proportional to the air flow velocity over the bearing. F Coefficient of U combined overall friction coefficient of 9. As R/C ratio increases, the operating radiation and temperature also increases. convection heat transfer (m2 0C) REFERENCES H lubricant film Load (N) [1] Boubendir S., Larbi S., Bennacer R., ―Numerical Study of the Thermo-hydrodynamic Lubrication Phenomena in thickness (m) Porous Journal Bearings‖, Tribology International 44 Heat generation Karelitzs constant (2011) 1–8. [2] Garg H.C.,Vijay Kumar, Sharda H. B., ―Performance of Slot-entry Hybrid Journal Bearings Considering Heat dissipation Eccentricity ratio = Combined Influences of Thermal Effects and Non- e/C Newtonian Behavior of Lubricant‖, Tribology International 43 (2010) 1518–1531. L length of bearing Slenderness ratio [3] Glavatskih S. B., ―A Method of Temperature Monitoring in Fluid Film Bearings‖, Tribology (m) (L/D) International 37 (2004) 143–148. [4] Glavatskih S. B., Uusitalo O., Spohn D. J., N journal rotation Journal angular ―Simultaneous Monitoring of Oil Film Thickness and speed (rpm) speed (rad/s) Temperature in Fluid Film Bearings‖, Tribology International 34 (2001) 853–857. P film pressure (Pa) µ Viscosity of [5] Raimondi A, Boyd J. ―A Solution for the Finite Journal lubricant film (Pa s) Bearing and its Application to Analysis and Design - Part III‖. Trans. ASLE, vol. 1, No 1, April, 1958; pp. 194-203.

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Dynamic Design of Machine Tools

A. Sanjay Purohit , Sandeep Rajput, Arvind Kumar Shrimali Department of Mechanical Engineering, CDGI ,Indore

Altering natural frequency of a structure in a Abstract-Structural dynamic modification (SDM) desired manner is one of the aims of dynamic methods are the techniques that intend to determine the design. changes in the vibration characteristics, like natural Dynamic design methods can be classified on the frequencies, mode shapes and frequency response functions, as a result of a certain design modification basis of data used. Analytical method uses FE like addition of a mass, spring, stiffener or damper. model for dynamic design. Predictions based on These techniques form the basis for performing this data are not accurate enough. Experimental dynamic design, a process to obtain desired dynamic method uses large no. of prototypes for dynamic characteristics, at the computer level. This paper is design. Modal tests performed on these prototypes about the application of a SDM method, that utilizes are very costly and time consuming. Structural experimental simulated modal data, to predict modified dynamic modification (SDM) offers a good characteristics of an existing drilling machine. alternative to carry out dynamic design efficiently and economically. Only one prototype is build according to the design proposal. Modal test is I. INTRODUCTION performed on this prototype to extract modal data Demand for higher cutting speeds, increasingly by curve fitting. On the basis of this data modified high accuracy and better surface finish has vibration characteristics are predicted. They are necessitated that machine tools be designed for then compared with desired vibration high static and dynamic rigidities. characteristics. If the predicted data is close enough to the desired characteristics then the Dynamic design aims to obtain desired dynamic design proposal with the modification in question characteristics of products, equipments, systems can be accepted as a final design proposal. and structure; it aims to specify the right shape, Otherwise analytical modifications are done in size, configuration, materials and manufacturing of design proposal and results are predicted and again various elements. Desired vibration characteristics compared with desired dynamic characteristics. may include reduced vibration and noise levels, Procedure is repeated until final satisfactory design shifting of natural frequencies or avoidance of is achieved. Thus these techniques form the basis resonances, higher dynamic stability and desired for performing dynamic design at the computer mode shapes [1]. level. Dynamic design is an area of vibration and In the present work one of the SDM method noise engineering that aims to reduce the vibration that uses experimental modal data for prediction response or to control the noise radiated by a has been applied for the case of a complex structure vibrating surface. This is particularly true if we like that of a drilling machine. The problem of refer to systems that are not originally designed to dynamic design of a complex structure is difficult fulfill these dynamic requirements. In fact vibration one because the structure is three-dimensional and and acoustics are not usually the primary concern the vibration modes of the structure exist in all in a conventional design procedure. Although, they three directions. The SDM method has been increasingly become the focus of the problem once evaluated on the basis of simulated experimental the system has been built up. Unfortunately, the data in the present work. control of noise and vibration at this last stage, often at the end of the project, is a complex II. THEORY problem. Because the practical actions are limited In this section the method for predicting and the significant changes to the main features of modified vibration characteristics due to a the systems are not permitted. structural modification is explained. The method In many machine tool, as the cutting speed is likely requires experimental modal data of the to vary over a wide range, sometimes it may be unmodified structure to make predictions and has difficult to arrange for n to be far off from on been called in the literature as dual modal space either side .It is there for safer to arrange for the method [2] or modal synthesis method [3]. natural frequency to be much higher then the working frequency. The natural frequency can be altered either by modifying mass or stiffness. 89

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The undamped equation of motion for the .. original system can be written as, M M x K K x 0

..

M x K x 0 (8) (1) Using again the coordinate transformation given by equation (3), premultiplying by [ ]T and The corresponding eigenvalue problem is given using orthogonal properties one obtains, by, .. T T K 2 M X 0 I M y K y 0 (2) (9)

The solution of above problem yields T It is noted that the terms [ ] [ M][ ] and eigenvalues [ ] (square of natural frequencies) and T [ ] [ K][ ] are not usually diagonalised by the eigenvectors [ ] (the mode shapes). Using the eigenvectors of the original structure. This means coordinate transformation, that the equation of motion written in the modal x y coordinates of the original structure are coupled. The undamped eigenvalue problem corresponding (3) to the modified structure then is given by,

in equation of motion and premultiplying by T T T K I M 0 [ ] one obtains, (10) .. T T M y K y 0 The above eigenvalue problem provides new eigenvaues [ ] and eigenvectors [ ]. The new (4) eigenvectors can then be used to uncouple the equations of motion of the modified structure given by equation (9) using the transformation, Using the orthogonal properties of the eigenvectors, [ ]T[M][ ]=[I] and [ ]T[K][ ]=[ ], y z the above equation becomes, (11)

.. I y y 0 The natural frequencies of the modified structure can be obtained from the eigenvalue (5) matrix [ ] while the mode shapes of the modified structure in the physical coordinates are calculated as [ ][ ]. Thus, the modes of the modified As is known above is an uncoupled system of structure are linear combination of the modes of the equations. Now if the structure is modified such unmodified structure. that the modified stiffness and mass matrix are expressed by, Thus, the modal properties of the modified K K K m structure can be obtained provided that the natural (6) frequencies and the vibration modes of the original structure as well as the modification matrices M m M M [ M] and [ K] are known. (7)

The equation of motion of the modified structure can be written as, EXPANSION OF MEASURED MODE SHAPES

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The prediction of modified characteristics for beam value decomposition of a system matrix expressed modification requires expansion of the measured in terms of measured FRF properties and then on mode shapes to the size of the modification a complex eigensolution, which extracts required matrices [ M] and [ K] to overcome size model properties. In this way different modes are incompatibility between them. The method of identified in term of their natural frequencies (λ) system equivalent reduction expansion process and the plot of corresponding mode shapes (Φ). (SEREP) [4], which makes use of the finite element [2] .The stiffness and mass modification matrices model modal data, has been used in this work to are generated analytically. expand the mode shapes. B. PREDICTION WITH SIMULATED EXPERIMENTAL DATA The present work deals with studying the III. GENERATION OF applicability of an SDM technique for making SIMULATED prediction for a very complex structure like that of EXPERIMENTAL DATA a drilling machine. Therefore the applicability of method needs to be assessed using simulated This chapter describes how simulated experimental data. Because experimentally experimental data has been generated. First the obtained modal data will inherently suffer from experimental data that is required for prediction is measurement and other processing errors. This described. This is followed by details of FE model will make difficult to determine whether any of machine tool in ANSYS. And in the end a problem with prediction accuracy is due to study is reported regarding solution of a FE model measurement error or complexity of structure to which method is applied. Therefore in this work A. Data required for prediction of vibration simulated experimental data has been generated characteristics using SDM for the drilling machine on the basis of a FE model of the machine using software ANSYS. The data we require to predict the modified C. FE MODELING OF THE DRILLING dynamic characteristics of the drilling machine MACHINE USING ANSYS are

(1) The unmodified natural frequencies and mode To generate simulated experimental data a FE shapes of drilling machine. model for the drilling machine has been built (2) Stiffness and mass modification matrices using software ANSYS. The FE program first corresponding to a particular discretizes the structure into finite elements and modification. then constructs stiffness and mass matrices .An eigenvalue problem is then set using these The unmodified natural frequencies and mode matrices which when solved gives analytical shapes required for making predictions are estimates of natural frequency and mode shapes. obtained in practice by experimental model This is the process that has been essentially testing. Essentially, a model test comprises the followed in generating simulated experimental measurement of a set of response function. For data. this a response accelerometer is fixed at some point on the machine while the machine is exited with an impact hammer. The response and force D. SELECTION OF NUMBER OF ELEMENTS signals are fed to an FFT analyzer via charge IN THE FE MODEL One of the important decisions that one has to amplifiers. The FRF of the structure are obtained make while building FE model is regarding no of by impacting the structure one by one at several elements. The no of element should be sufficient points. The FRF so acquired are analyzed using a enough so as to give a converged model in the global curve fitting method. The global curve frequency range of interest. To decide whether fitting method is based on a complex singular 91

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number of elements selected was sufficient or not the natural frequencies obtained for different FE several FE model with increasing no of element model. were built. All the models were analyzed for natural frequency and mode shapes. Table 1 shows

It has been observed that even if the no. of plot deformed shape, modeshape have been elements are increased from 5526 to 14026. The animated to see the machine is vibrating under percentage change in natural frequencies value is which mode. After viewing the animated display, less then 0.5 %. Thus it is seen that the FE model it has been found that that first two modes are first with 5526 no elements is as good as the FE bending modes in and out of plane respectively. model with 14246 elements therefore it is While the third mode is rotational mode, the fourth concluded that FE model with 5526 elements is and fifth mode are second bending mode. As the converged FE model in the frequency range of rotational mode is complex to analyze and difficult interest. Therefore this model is finally selected to measure as discussed in second chapter on SDM for generating simulated experimental data. theory, we shall consider only bending modes for our analysis. Next step in the analysis is to plot deformed shape of the machine tool in the various modes. Prior to The deformed shapes under various modes are shown from figure no 3.8 to 3.11.

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IV. PREDICTION USING SDM No of In this chapter prediction of modified dynamic Location of Quantity Case simulated characteristics (natural frequency, mode shapes) mass of mass using SDM method has been made. An identical no measurements modification added modification is made on the simulated model on taken computer and modified dynamic characteristics are extracted. By comparing the two sets of values Case an attempt is made to check the accuracy of 1 50 46 prediction by SDM method. in the present work no 1 several cases of mass modification have been considered in order to gauge the applicability of Case 1 100 46 the SDM method to the complex structures. no 2

Case A. PREDICTION USING SDM 2 50 46 TECHNIQUE no 3 The equation used for predicting dynamic behavior for predicting dynamic behavior, which Case 2 100 46 is discussed in detail in chapter 2, imply that that no 4 matrix changes [ M], [ K] are determined in the same coordinate as that of original matrices and Case corresponding to the real life modifications like 4 50 46 lumped masses, stiffeners etc and configuration no 5 variation of the structure. (An already available program for SDM has been used for making Case 4 100 46 prediction) no 6

Case 1 50 100 no 7

Case 1 100 100 no 8

Case 2 50 100 no 9

Case no 2 100 100 10

Case no 3 50 100

11

Case

no 4 50 100 12

Case no 4 100 100 13

Table 4.1

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Figure 4.1 Location of points where mass modification is carried out National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

B. MASS MODIFICATION The order in which these nodes appear in The determination of [ M] in case of simulated measured mode shape no table is as modification of a structure with a lumped mass m follows. Simulated measurements are taken in all is a straight forward and can be obtained by three directions except for those nodes on column. inserting the modified mass m at diagonal As these nodes do not have any significant locations of the matrix with zero elements. The movement in z direction, hence measurement in z location are determined by the coordinate of direction is not considered for these nodes. motion influenced by modifying mass m. an Table 4.4 example could be as follows: C. IMPLEMENTATION OF SDM Simulated NODE NO. Degree of freedom TECHNIQUE measured considered

mode Next step involved in the analysis is to use shape no X Y Z SDM method to predict modified natural frequencies when mass is added to at some 1-2-3 40 selected point on the m/c tool. This has been done in following manner. 4-5-6 173 Using SDM program (see appendix 1) to predict modified natural frequencies. The inputs for this 7-8-9 650 program are the unmodified natural frequencies and the mode shapes (in the farm of simulated 10-11 1240 mode shapes) at selected nodes. In addition M, K needs to be given. The program gives 12-13 1997 us the modified natural frequencies. D. PREDICTION USING ANSYS 14-15-16 2080

Similar changes have been made in the solid 17-18-19 2100 model i.e. addition of mass to the point, at which mass is added in SDM program, Using ANSYS 20-21-22 2106 analysis find the natural frequencies of the modified model. Process is repeated by changing 23-24-25 2110 node location and mass added. Above procedure is repeated first by taking 50 26-27-28 2114 measurements and then by 100 measurements. 29-30 2242

31-32 2308

33-34 4542

35-36 4697

37-38 4735

39-40 4742

41-42 4747

43-44 5075

45-46 5960

47-48 7129

49-50 7966

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Figure 4.3 location of nodes for 100 simulated measurements taken

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Table 4.4 39-40-41 2096 simulated NODE NO. No of degree of 42-43-44 2099 measured freedom considered mode 45-46-47 2102 shape no X Y Z 48-49-50 2105 1-2-3 132 51-52-53 2108 4-5-6 137 54-55-56 2111 7-8-9 155 57-58-59 2114 10-11-12 202 60-61 2308

62-63-64 2900 85-86 7132 65-66 3284 87-88 7241 67-68 4375 89-90 7366 69-70 4469 91-92 7375 71-72 4829 93-94 7392 73-74 4640 95-96 7875 75-76 4723 97-98 7954 77-78 5170 99-100 7992

79-80 5900 13-14-15 206 81-82 6204 16-17-18 242 83-84 6953 19-20-21 352

22-23-24 420 4.4 Results for cases 25-26-27 426 In this chapter results obtained for various cases by 28-29 1997 adding different masses masses at various node location (ref. Figure 4.1) is discussed. The mass 30-31-32 2087 added at different node location is shown in figures 33-34-35 2090 4.4 to 4.7

36-37-38 2093

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Figure 4.4 mass addition at node location 1

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Figure 4.6 mass addition at node location 3

Figure 4.4 mass addition at node location 1

ANALYSIS A This analysis has been done by picking up 21 points from FE model (Ansys). An already available program on SDM is used (see appendix). The input for the program is the four natural frequencies (excluding third for reasons explained earlier) and mode shape value for each node in three directions X, Y and Z (except all nodes on column) corresponding to each natural frequency, value of mass to be added and degree of freedom no at which mass to be added. And following different cases are discussed.

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21

11

B. RESULT COMPARISON ANSYS VS SDM METHOD (1)

61

11 12 With no of nodes selected=39 1 6 C. EFFECT OF INCREASING THE AMOUNT Fig.4.8LOCATION OF OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA NODES 11 The analysis has been done two-times first by selecting 21 points from FE model then by 39 11 points. A graph is plotted to show and compare the 1 accuracy of values predicted by two analysis.

Fig.4.8LOCATION OF NODES

This analysis has been done by picking up 39 points from FE model (Ansys) and repeating the procedure as in previous analysis. The following cases are discussed

DISCUSSIONS ON RESULTS Mass Amount Case added In this paper an attempt has been made to make of mass no at node comparison between dynamic properties predicted (kgs) no by a theoretical model and those measured on the machine (simulated experimental data) .It is 1 21 50 observed that accuracy of prediction increases as the analysis is done by picking more number of 2 21 100 nodes. Also it is seen that results are comparatively less accurate when larger mass is 3 11 50 added. One of the reasons could be that we have changed the mass in the theoretical model at a 4 11 100 point only while change in actual model is on large 5 6 50 area affecting so many nodes

6 6 100 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

The present work indicates that structural dynamic modification is a potential strategy for the 101

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prediction of the modified dynamic characteristic accuracy of prediction increases as the analysis is due to design modification. These techniques performed by taking more number of simulated provides predictions of modified behavior of a experimental measurements. Also it is seen that structure at the computer level, which would results are comparatively less accurate when otherwise carried out by time consuming and expensive cut and try prototype testing. larger mass is added. One of the reasons could be that we have changed the mass in the theoretical model at a point only while change in actual In the present work an attempt has been made to model is on large area affecting so many nodes. gauge the prediction accuracy of one of the SDM This study shows that structural dynamic method that uses experimental model data in case modification could be an effective tool to predict of a complex structure like a radial drilling the modified behavior of dynamic system. machine. Experimental data used were simulated Simulated measurements are used in this thesis. experimental data generated by building a 3-D Actual measurements on the machine will contain finite element model of the radial drilling noise as a result of cutting forces and complexity machine. The model is build by using software of structure. Updated model and FRF based SDM ANSYS. In this thesis an attempt has been made are simple proposition for future implementation. to make comparison between predicted modified Dynamic design based on adding stiffeners of dynamic properties by the method and that different shapes need to be carried out. The obtained by ANSYS. Several cases of mass dynamic characteristics other then natural modification were considered. It is observed that frequencies are to be investigated.

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Product Attribute Measurement Using Entropy & Analytical Hierarchy Process

Shashank Singh Pawar, Deepak Phalke, Deepak Bhonde, ChahatMundra Assistant Professor, CDGI, Indore [email protected]

Abstract-Product attributes play vital role in the overall the manufacturer to have a wide range of alternative quality of a product.Changes made in the product uses. attributes directly affect the product in terms of product quality and product cost. Therefore to measure the performance of these attributes is much important in order II. LITERATURE REVIEW to maintain the product quality. In this paper, Analytical Hierarchy Process and Entropy methods are used to A. ANALYTICAL HIERARCHY PROCESS measure the product attribute performance so that required quality product can be design. If the material and processing of the product are chosen using these attributes AHP is very useful because it is an algorithm that environment friendly, then the product design can be helps to solve decision problems such as MCDA - consider as green design. Multiple Choice Decision Analysis (Saaty, 2005). There are many MCDA methods that have been Keywords: Product Measurement, Analytical Hierarchy Process, Entropy. developed such as ELECTRE, TOPSIS, AHP, etc., but these methods do not consider the interdependence I. INTRODUCTION among criteria and alternatives (Lin et al., 2008). Contrarily to other methods, AHP, given a number n There is variety of products of different brands of functions, allows to define the importance for available in the market for the customer of different customers through a direct and objective value of each levels which can satisfy their specific demands. The function and of all the others. This occurs within a customer has been offered by means of variety of matrix of assessment in which the functions appear on products of the same species and category with both axes. different features and attribute. This enhance the AHP uses an interactive hierarchical structure for competition between the brands, resultantly make multi-objective decision-making (MODM) developed efforts to stimulate the customers towards their by Saaty (Saaty, 1980). AHP is the one of the most products by means of different policies, which systematic analytical techniques of MCDM within the sometimes can make customer confuse between the framework of operational research techniques that brands and their products to – what to pick and what facilitates a rigorous definition of priorities and not to. preferences of DMs. The AHP consists of three main A firm wishes to buy one new piece of equipment of a operations, including hierarchy construction, priority certain type and has four aspects in mind which will analysis and consistency verification. govern its purchasing choice: expense-E, operability- The methodology combines both qualitative and O, reliability-R and adaptability for other uses, or quantitative approaches. In the qualitative sense, it flexibility-F. Competing manufacturers of that decomposes an unstructured problem into a systematic equipment have offered three options, X, Y and Z. The decision hierarchy. It then uses a quantitative way to firm‘s engineers have looked at these options and employ pair-wise comparison to determine the local decided that X is cheap and easy to operate but is not and global priority weights and the overall ranking of very reliable and could not easily be adapted to other the alternatives. uses. Y is somewhat more expensive, is reasonably easy to operate, and is very reliable but not very adaptable. Finally, Z is very expensive, not easy to operate, is a little less reliable than Y but is claimed by

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TABLE 1: THE SAATY RANKING SCALE [1]

INTENSITY OF DEFINITION EXPLANATION IMPORTANCE

1 Equal importance Two factors contribute equal to the objective

3 Somewhat importance Experience and judgment slightly favors one over the other

5 Much more importance Experience and judgment strongly favors one over the other

7 Very much more importance Experience and judgment very strongly favors one over the other.

The evidence favoring one over the other is of the highest possible 9 Absolutely more importance validity.

2, 4, 6, 8 Intermediate Values When compromise is needed.

B. ENTROPY attribute into normalization. After that the actual weights of these attributes are obtained in table 3 and According to the degree of index dispersion, the table 4. weight of all indicators is calculated by information entropy. IV. CONCLUSION Suppose we have a decision matrix B with m alternatives and n indicators: From the above tables it is clearly seen that the weightage of different attributes calculated by AHP th and Entropy are different but the sum of overall Step 1: In matrix B, feature weight Pijis of the j alternatives to the jth factor: weightage from individual methods are nearer to unity. In AHP all the calculations are made on the basis of assumptions where in Entropy method normalization pij= , (1≤ i ≤ m, 1≤ j ≤ n) procedure is adopted to obtain the attribute weightage. Therefore such weight calculations are considerable in

th order to further analyzing the Multi Criteria Decision Step 2: The output entropy ejof the j factor becomes Making.

e -k ( k= 1/ ln m, 1≤ j ≤ n) j = ,

Step 3: Variation coefficient of the jth factor: g can be j defined by the following equation:

dj= 1- ej, (1≤ j ≤ n)

Step 4: Calculate the weight of entropy wj:

wj = gj/ , (1≤ j ≤ n)

III. APPLICATION

Same attributes of five different products (Table 2) are taken in order to compare the weight measurement using Analytical Hierarchy Process and Entropy.

Applying the Saaty scale as shown in table 1 and Entropy process for the in table 2 and converting these

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TABLE 2: ATTRIBUTES OF DIFFERENT PRODUCTS Products Dimension Weight Size RAM Bluetooth Camera Processing Hard Price Speed Disk (mm) (kg) (Inch) (GB) (MP) (GHz) (Rs.) (GB) P1 2273852 2.22 14 4.0 2.0 0.3 2.1 500 40430 P4 1970240 2.68 15.6 4.0 2.0 0.3 2.0 640 43120 P5 2456244 2.20 14 2.0 2.0 1.3 2.3 500 36510 P7 2386393.5 2.40 15.6 4.0 3.0 0.3 2.4 500 44920 P9 2322060 2.26 14 3.0 2.1 0.3 2.66 320 40750

TABLE 3: ATTRIBUTE MEASUREMENT USING ENTROPY Product Dimension Weight Size RAM Bluetooth Camera Processing Hard Price Speed Disk (mm) (kg) (Inch) (GB) (MP) (GHz) (GB) (RS.) Ej 0.9908 0.9908 0.9992 0.9849 0.9920 0.8474 0.9922 0.9884 0.9982 dj 0.0092 0.0020 0.0008 0.0151 0.0080 0.1526 0.0078 0.0116 0.0018 wj 0.0440 0.0096 0.0038 0.0723 0.0383 0.7305 0.0373 0.0555 0.00862

TABLE 4: ATTRIBUTE MEASUREMENT USING ANALYTICAL HIERARCHY PROCESS Product Dimension Weight Size RAM Bluetooth Camera Processing Hard Price Speed Disk (mm) (kg) (Inch) (GB) (MP) (GHz) (GB) (RS.) weight 0.0300 0.0090 0.0055 0.0748 0.0300 0.6431 0.0255 0.0855 0.0962

REFERENCES

[1] Thomas L Saaty, 2001, ―Analytical Heirarchy [5] Shashank Singh Pawar and Devendra Process‖, International Journal of Services Singh Verma (2013), ―Digital Camera Science, Vol.1, Issue No.1, pp. 83-98. Evaluation Base on AHP and TOPSIS‖, [2] HosenzadehLofti and R. Fallahnejad (2011), International Journal of Engineering ―Ranking Efficient Unit in DEA by Using Research, ISSN: 2319-6890 Vol. 2, Issue TOPSIS Method‖, Applied Mathematics 2, pp. 52-55. Sciences, Vol.5, no. 17, pp. 805-815. [6] TettehAkyene (2012), ―Cell Phone [3] Hwang C.L., and Yoon K., (1981) ―Multiple Evaluation Base on Entropy and Attribute Decision Making: Methods and TOPSIS‖, Interdisciplinary Journal of Applications‖ Springer-Verlag: New York. Research in Business, ISSN: 2046-7141 Vol. 1, Issue.12, pp.09-15. [4] S.R.Gangurde and M.M. Akarte (2011), ―Ranking of Product Design Alternatives using Multi-criteria Decision Making Methods‖, ICOQM-10.

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Implementing Lean Tool in Industry - A Study

Shashwat Vyas, Purushottam Kumar Sahu, Dimpesh Silarpuriya #Mechanical Engineering Department, R.G.P.V. Bhopal University Assistant Professor Mechanical Department CDGI, Indore [email protected]

Abstract—Lean manufacturing concepts to the continuous production process sector with a focus on Gear manufacturing company. The concept of the Toyota Production System or what is known today in the US as ―Lean Manufacturing.‖ The basic idea behind the system is eliminating waste .Waste is defined as anything that does not add value to the product from the customer‘s perspective. The primary objective of lean manufacturing is to assist manufacturers who have a desire to improve their company‘s operations and become more competitive through the implementation of different lean manufacturing tools and techniques. The company believes in total customer satisfaction through open communication, quality up-gradation and continuous training, the practice of which will lead it to being recognized as a World Class Gear Manufacturer. Industry is the largest manufacturer of automobile transmission gears in India boasting strength of over 1000 trained and committed employee and offering a range of around 1700 gears for virtually every major brand of truck, car, jeep, and tractor. This dissertation is based on data based analysis. We are used one tool six sigma and another kaizen from lean manufacturing.

Keywords - Six sigma, DAMIC, DMADV, Kizen, Kanban, 5S,

I. INTRODUCTION Running the company as efficiently as possible has become critical in recent years. In today‘s due to reason of competitive market various continuous improvement strategies have been developed and applied to improve manufacturing system performance over the year. U.S. manufacturers have always searched for efficiency strategies that help reduce costs, improve output, establish competitive position, and increase market share. Early process oriented mass production manufacturing methods common before World War II shifted afterwards to the results-oriented, output-focused, production systems that control most of today's manufacturing businesses. After World War II Japanese, manufactures were faced with the dilemma of vast shortages of material, financial, and human resources. The problems that Japanese manufacturers were faced with differed from those of their Western counterparts. These conditions resulted in the birth of the ―lean‖ manufacturing concept. Lean Manufacturing initiative focused on cost reduction and increase in turnover by systematically and continuously eliminating non value added activities is minimize with the help of waste minimization, waste is that does not add any value. Basic Tool of implementing Lean Tool of implementing the lean is depend on the nature of industry and their requirement but there are five basic steps in assessing lean tool: 1.5s 2. Kizen 3. Kanban 4. Jit 5. Six-Sigma. Case Study The company started in 1950. Originally trading in diesel engines and spares, it then moved on to making Gears in 1962 with the set up of Gears. Currently Gears is the largest manufacturer of automobile transmission gears in India boasting strength of over 1000 trained and committed employees and offering a range of around 1700 gears for virtually every major brand of truck, car, jeep, and tractor. Keeping pace with the gear industry's ever-evolving needs Gears over the years has further extended its capabilities to cater to railway, off road and other niche segments of gear application. Although initially concentrating on the Indian aftermarket, today more than 50% of the products manufactured at Gears are exported across the globe. General profile of the company under study is shown in Table (1)

Type of Company : Private Limited

Nature of company : Medium scale

Type of production system : Make to order

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Product being manufactured 1.Transmission Gears 2. Spline Shafts and Axles 3. Engine Gears, Oil Pump Gears 4.A Gear Box Assemblies 5.Automatoic Transmission Parts 6. Planetary Assemblies.

Sales Turnover : Near 98 crores

Type of layout : Process

Number of Employees :2500-1400

Number of Suppliers : 20

the plant visit. The information obtained during discussion with, managers, production in charge, supervisors, workers, etc. Information is collected regarding the identifying area, which include system of 5s, kaizen, JIT, Quality management. The information was made available through company records, documents etc.

II. JIT IMPLEMENTATION In many industrial processes, such ―non-value added‖ activity can comprise more the 90%of the total activity as a result of time spent waiting, unnecessary ―touches" of the product, overproduction wasted movement, and insufficient use of raw materials, energy, and other factors. The Case Study addresses the application of lean manufacturing concept to the continuous production process sector with a focus on the process industry. In the company following main waste that is reduce by lean tool Just in time.

A. OVERPRODUCTION – In Industry the reasons of the overproduction is poor flow of information, and management also want to engage the worker for production, and also Lack of stable schedules. B. DELAYS (WAITING TIME) – The main reason of Delay is Machine breakdowns. In Gear industry the Broaching Rod breakdown is Common the reason is not proper maintenance and machine is old style, that the reason of many time Delay. Many times the file that is required for production is missing in production planning department. For that problem Searching for files or documents will cause waiting time. A simple trick will help: draw a colored slant line on the back of the files

C. TRANSPORTATION-In gears industry due to reason of the Plant layout it can not be reduce but they have to be kept to the very minimum. D. PROCESS - In Gears Industry Old rules still remain even if the causes of their creation disappeared a while ago. As long as nobody will update the set of rules, everyone will carry on, sticking to the olds with application and discipline. E. INVENTORIES- That type of west are not found in Gear industry they achieve only a standard level inventory only. F. DEFECTIVE PRODUCTS- Rejection and rework due to Teeth Span Size Variation of GG 1491/1 after Shaving. That Type of waste reduces by Use the lean tool six sigma in the case study. G. MIS-USED RESOURCES

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III. CONCLUSION Hence we can see that to have a JIT manufacturing system, a company-wide commitment, proper materials, quality, people and equipments must always be made available when needed. In addition; the policies and procedures developed for an internal JIT structure should also be extended into the company's supplier and customer base to establish the identification of duplication of effort and performance feedback review to continuously reduced wastage and improve quality. By integrating the production process; the supplier, manufacturers and customers become an extension of the manufacturing production process instead of independently isolated processes where in fact in clear sense these three sets of manufacturing stages are inter- related and dependent on one another. Once functioning as individual stages and operating accordingly in isolated perspective; the suppliers, manufacturers and customers can no longer choose to operate in ignorance. The rules of productivity standards have changed to shape the economy and the markets today; every company must be receptive to changes and be dynamically responsive to demand. In general, it can be said that there is no such thing as a KEY in achieving a JIT success; only a LADDER; where a series of continuous steps of dedication in doing the job right every time is all it takes.

REFERENCES:

[1] A.Rehg, James and W. Kraebber, computer integrated Manufacturing, Second edition pp295 [2] Book A. Stephen & Epstem J. Mare, Statical Analysis, Scott Foresman Company, Genavew, pp-38-77 [3] Bank Johan, Total Quality Management, Hall of India private limited Publication pp-21-51 [4] Dr. Trukes H.E., Design for Economical production, 2nd edition, pp285-288 [5] Griffiths N. David, Management in A Quality Enivermaent, Mc Grawa Hill, pp21-23 [6] Jhamb L.C., Production (Operations) Management, Everast Publication, pp615-627 [7] Josep H.S. Martinich, Production & Operation Management, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1997 pp 758-761 [8] Khan M.I Industrial Engineering, New Age International Publications, pp 178-181 [9] Mahapatra P.B, Computer Aided Production Management , Prentice Hall Of India Pvt. Limit. New Delhi, 2001,pp461-510 [10] Michael L. George, Dave Rowlands, Bill Kastle, ‗‘what is Lean Six

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Performance Study of a Solar Chimney Power Plant with Steel Spheres for Energy Storage with Temperature as Variable Srinidhi Rao P1*, Dushyant Sahu2*, Shashank Singh Pawar3* *Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chameli Devi School of Engineering, Indore, M.P, India.

Abstract— Growing energy needs has lead to chaos in gases which has produced many negative effects the world. The energy sources such as coal, oil, gas and that includes rise in sea level caused by receding of nuclear are being utilized on a large scale all around glaciers, loss of biodiversity and productive forests, the world. Continuation of the use of such fossil fuels acidification of oceans, extinction of animals etc. will lead to many complex challenges such as rapid Over dependency on fossil fuels for energy needs depletion of fossil fuels reserves, global warming, continued fuel price rise and other environmental has led to the energy crises and has caused various concerns. For these reasons, the existing sources of adverse effects on our environment. Therefore the conventional energy may not be adequate to meet the biggest challenge faced by the energy pioneers and ever increasing energy demands. Consequently sincere researchers is to find a new way for harnessing and tireless efforts are being made by the scientists and energy from renewable sources that are sustainable engineers in exploring the possibilities of harnessing and free of greenhouse gases. energy from several non-conventional energy sources which is known to be a perfect solution for the growing Amel Dhahri and Ahmed Omri [1] carried out a energy challenges. Being the most abundant and well review on Solar Chimney Power Generation distributed form of renewable energy, solar energy can Technology and found that it is an interesting be considered a big asset for dry and semi-dry regions. alternative to centralized electricity generation A range of solar technologies are used throughout the power plants. It is an ideally adapted technology world to harvest the sun‘s energy. In the recent years, an exciting innovation has been introduced by the for countries that lack a sophisticated technical researchers called ―solar chimney‖ which is a solar infrastructure, where simplicity and uncritical thermal driven electrical power generation plant that operation of the installation is of crucial converts the solar thermal energy into electrical power importance. It also discusses the principles and in a complex heat transfer process. Performance of the characteristics of such a system, its requirements, scaled model of solar chimney power plant (SCPP) its construction and its operation. It gives a brief installed in NMAMIT, Nitte is carried out in this study overview of the present state of research at the with the usage of steel spheres as energy storage solar chimney power plant and future prospects for material. large-scale plants. Keywords— Energy, fossil fuels, global warming, conventional energy, SCPP In the research carried out by Jörg Schlaich et al [2] the functional principal of solar updraft towers V. INTRODUCTION were described and some results from the design, construction and operation of the first ever Rapid development of global economy and prototype built in Spain were mentioned. increase in population and living standards has Beerbaum and Weinreb [3] conducted techno- been posing a great threat on natural resources and economic analysis on solar thermal power the environment in recent years. Fossil fuels are generation in India. In their study, they analyzed being exhausted at a faster rate and utilization of the potential and the cost effectiveness of fossil fuels in addition with deforestation has centralized and decentralized Solar Thermal Electricity (STC) generation in India. induced considerable climate change leading to warming of atmosphere by release of greenhouse 109

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In the research work of Xinping Zhou et al [4] a pilot experimental solar chimney power generating equipment in China was built and simulation study was carried out in order to investigate the performance of the power generating system based on a developed mathematic model. Abdulcelil Buğutekin [5] conducted a study of temperature field in a solar chimney plant in Adiyaman University campus and found that the performance of solar chimney is low in the morning and evening hours with a peak obtained in the noon. D.G.Kröger and J.D.Buys [6] in their study found that, for a large solar chimney power plant there is a pronounced peak output shortly after solar noon, while power is also generated at night due to the energy storage capacity of the ground. Mohammad O.Hamdan [7] conducted an experiment where he developed a simplified thermodynamic analytical model to predict the performance of the solar chimney power plants. The developed analytical model was used to evaluate the effect of geometric parameters on the plant‘s power generation. The analysis showed that chimney height and turbine pressure head are the Fig. 1 Scaled model of SCPP [9] most important physical variables for the solar chimney design. The following are the components of SCPP Nizetic et al [8] carried out an analysis on feasibility of solar chimney power plants as an Collector environmentally acceptable energy source for small Solar energy collectors are special kind of heat settlements and islands of countries in the exchangers that transform solar radiation energy to Mediterranean region. internal energy of the transport medium. The Present work focuses on the performance of scaled collector is the part of the chimney that produces hot model of SCPP with steel spheres filled with water air by the green house effect. It has a roof made up as an energy storage material which is placed in the glass film. absorber for various void fractions and its heat storage ability and immediate heat release to air Chimney during the overcast cast condition are studied. Chimney or tower tube is located at the centre of the collector. It creates a temperature differential VI. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP between cool air at the top and the heated air at the The scaled model of SCPP installed at NMAMIT bottom which results in the suction of air from the Nitte is shown in Figure 1. bottom of the tower out of the top.

Energy Storage In general, the ground under the collector roof behaves as a storage medium. Here it is the aluminium absorber. The solar radiations incident on it will be absorbed and released instantaneously. Hence there is a need of storage material so that the SCPP can be operated continuously.

VII. WORKING PRINCIPAL The basic working principle of solar chimney power plant is that air is heated by solar radiation under a low circular transparent or translucent roof open at periphery. The roof and the natural ground below it form a solar air collector. In the middle of the roof there is a vertical tower with large air inlets at its base. The joint between the roof and the tower base is airtight. As hot air is lighter than cold 110

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air it rises up the tower. Suction from the tower then draws in more hot air from the collector and cold air comes in from the outer perimeter as shown in Figure 2.

Fig. 4 Variation in temperature of collector and chimney in SCPP

Steel spheres were coated with mat black paint in order to prevent reflection. They were placed in the Fig. 2 Working of Solar Chimney Power Plant [1] collector such that 50%, 60% and 70% of the collector area was occupied by the spheres at different stages of the study. The temperature VIII. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION variations for these fractions are shown in figure 5, The experiment was carried out for a period of two th th figure 6, and figure 7 respectively. months from 5 February to 5 April 2014. Solar radiations falling on the collector was recorded for the entire period and conclusions were drawn by comparing two days where hourly variation in solar radiation is nearly same. The performance of scaled model of SCPP without and with energy storage material (Steel spheres) is observed.

Fig. 5 Variation in temperature as steel spheres placed on 50% collector area

Fig. 3 Variation in solar radiation on 19th February

On 19th February, variation in solar radiation was as shown in figure 3. The X axis shows the time interval and Y axis shows the variation of solar radiation in W/m2. No storage material is used. The changes in temperature at the collector and different sections of the chimney are shown in figure 4. 111

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REFERENCES Amel Dhahri., Ahmed Omri., (2013). ―A Review of solar Chimney Power Generation Technology‖ – International Journal of Engineering and advanced Technology (IJEAT), ISSN: 2249-8958, Volume-2, Issue-3. Jörg Schlaich., Rudolf Bergermann., Wolfgang Schiel., Gerhard Weinrebe., (2005). ―Design of commercial solar updraft tower systems-utilization of solar induced convective flows for power generation‖. J Solar Energy Eng, 127, 117-24. Beerbaum.S and Weinrebe.G. (2000). ―Solar thermal power generation in India - a techno-economic analysis.‖ J Renewable Energy, 21, 153-174. Xinping Zhou, Jiakuan Yang, Bo Xiao and Guoxiang Hou. (2007). ―Simulation of a pilot solar chimney thermal power generation equipment.‖ J Renewable Energy, 32, 1637-1644. Abdulcelil Buğutekin (2012). ―Experimental study of temperature field in a solar chimney power plant in Adiyaman.‖ J Thermal Science and Technology, 32, 2, Fig. 6 Variation in temperature as steel spheres placed on 60% 73-80. ISSN 1300-3615. collector area [6] Kröger D.G. and Buys. J.D. (2002). ―Solar Chimney power plant performance characteristics.‖ J R and D, 18, 2. [7] Mohammad O. Hamdan (2010) ―Analysis of solar chimney power plant in the Arabian Gulf region.‖ J Renewable Energy, 1-5.

[8] Nizetic, S., Ninic., N. and Klarin, B., (2008) ―Analysis and feasibility of implementing solar chimney power plants in the Mediterranean region.‖ J Energy, 33, 1680- 1690.

[9] Suhas Kumar and Sudesh Bekal, ―Experimental study on the performance of a small scale model of solar chimney power plant (SCPP) with a multiple materials for energy storage.‖ (27-7-2011).

Fig. 7 Variation in temperature as steel spheres placed on 70% collector area

CONCLUSION Based on the results discussed, it can be said that the presence of the energy storage material will enhance the performance of the SCPP to a certain extent. It can be seen that without storage, there will be a decrease in temperature at the collector as well as different sections of the chimney along with the reduction in solar radiation. But the provision of storage materials (steel spheres) will maintain the temperature so that there is a constant temperature difference between the collector and the ambient which will also balance the temperature variation during the overcast conditions.

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Review on Improvement on the Performance and Reducing the Light off Time of the Catalytic Converter Swapnil Bhurat1*, Himanshu Singh2*, Deepak Phalke3* Assistant Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., CDGI,Indore

Abstract -The automotive exhaust emission is becoming There are three main types of structures used in progressively stricter due to increasing the awareness of catalytic converters - ceramic honeycomb, metal hazardous effect of exhaust emission. The main plate and ceramic beads (now almost obsolete) - challenge to meet the regulations is to reduce the the most cars today use a ceramic honeycomb emission during cold starts because the catalytic structure. converters are ineffective until they reach the light off temperature. It has been found that 50% to 80% of the The reduction catalyst is the first stage of the regulated hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emission catalytic converter. It uses platinum and rhodium to are emitted from the automotive tailpipe during the cold starts. So this paper represents the techniques to help reduce the nitrogen oxide emissions. The improve the performance of catalytic converter. oxidation catalyst is the second stage of the catalytic converter. It reduces the unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide by burning I. INTRODUCTION them over a platinum and palladium catalyst.

A catalytic converter is a device used to reduce the II. TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVEMENT toxicity of emissions from an internal combustion THE PERFORMANCE AND REDUCING THE engine. Catalytic converters are still most LIGHT OFF TIME OF THE CATALYTIC commonly used in motor vehicle exhaust systems. CONVERTER: Catalytic converters are also used on generator sets, forklifts, mining equipment, trucks, buses, trains, IMPROVE THE CATALYTIC CONVERSION and other engine-equipped machines. A catalytic EFFICIENCY: converter provides an environment for a chemical reaction wherein toxic combustion by-products are The automotive industry and emission system converted to less-toxic substances. suppliers invest considerable efforts for the improvement of the conversion efficiency of a HOW CATALYTIC CONVERTERS REDUCE catalytic converter, in order to lower vehicle emission. One of the methods to improve the POLLUTION catalyst conversion efficiency is to use a higher cell density brick with a thinner wall to increase its Most modern cars are equipped with three-way geometric surface area. catalytic converters. "Three-way" refers to the three regulated emissions it helps to reduce - carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide molecules. The converter uses two different types of catalysts, a reduction catalyst and an oxidization catalyst. Both types consist of a ceramic structure coated with a metal catalyst, usually platinum, rhodium and/or palladium. The idea is to create a structure that exposes the maximum surface area of the catalyst to the exhaust stream, while also minimising the amount of catalyst required (they are very expensive).

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In this technique, the concept of a brick with radially variable cell density is introduced to Figure3: catalytic converter efficiency Vs possibly resolve several issues. A CFD study was temprature conducted to verify benefits in both flow efficiency and pressure loss along the brick with several As it can be seen from the figure3 catalytic different flow rates. The results show that with the converter are not very effective when they are cold. variable cell density brick, the flow uniformity When an engine is started after not being operated improves with different flow rates and prevents the for several hours, it takes several minutes for the flow from concentrating in one specific area, which converter to reach an efficient operating may contribute to extend catalyst life. Also, temperature. pressure loss along the brick is reduced 7% to 15%, compared to those with uniform cell density. The temperature at which a converter becomes 50%efficient is defined as the light off IMPROVES THE EFFECTIVENESS OF temperature, and this is in the range of about 250- CATALYTIC CONVERTER: 300 degree Celsius. A large percentage of automobile travel is for short distance where the A mixture of hydrogen and air is introduced onto catalytic converter never reaches efficient the face of the catalytic monolith of a catalytic temperature and therefore the emissions are high. converter in the exhaust line of a cold internal combustion engine. The hydrogen and the oxygen 1. A major reduction in emission is therefore from the air spontaneously combine possible if the catalytic converters could be exothermically, thereby pre-heating the catalytic preheated, at least to light off temperature, before converter. Pre-heating the catalytic converter engine start-up. Preheating to full steady-state significantly improves the effectiveness of the operating temperature would be even better. catalytic converter in eliminating undesirable Several methods of preheating have been tried with emissions of the internal combustion engine. The varying success. Because of the time involved and hydrogen is preferably produced on-board the the energy needed, most of these methods are vehicle using the system. The hydrogen source may preheat only small portion of the total volume. also be coupled to the internal combustion engine This small section is large enough to treat the low to be burned by the engine during startup in the exhaust flow rate which usually occurs at start-up absence of gasoline to minimize the production of and immediately following .methods of catalytic unacceptable emissions while the catalyst is converter preheating include the following. brought up to light-off temperature. The hydrogen and the oxygen are preferably metered to provide a By locating the converter close to the predetermined concentration of oxygen and engine hydrogen and are preferably mixed in a mixing By having super insulation chamber prior to introduction to the catalyst. By employing electric preheating By using flame heating TECHNIQUES USED FOR REDUCING THE Incorporating thermal batteries LIGHT OFF TIME:

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2. An automotive engine and exhaust after significantly. Hence, for an active method to be treatment system includes an engine, a catalytic effective, it must supply additional energy to raise exhaust after treatment device for receiving exhaust the catalyst temperature beyond certain gas from the engine, and an air source for temperature. In this way by increasing the supplying air to the exhaust stream entering the conversion efficiency there would improvement in catalyst. An exhaust gas oxygen sensor determines the performance of catalytic converter and by the amount of oxygen contained in the exhaust preheating there would be reduction in light off entering the catalyst, and an engine control time. computer connected with the air source and with the oxygen sensor monitors the amount of oxygen REFERENCE contained in the exhaust and controls the amount of air supplied to the exhaust stream by the air source [1] Huixian Shen, Tariq Shamim and Subrata such that the available oxygen is slightly in excess Sengupta, 25October 1999, ‘An Investigation of the stoichiometric requirement. In this manner, of Catalytic Converter Performances during the light-off time of the catalyst is minimized. Cold Starts‘ SAE Paper [2] Jeong Y. Kim and Seha Son, 1 March 1999, ‗Improving Flow Efficiency of a Catalytic Converter Using the Concept of Radially III. CONCLUSION Variable Cell Density - Part I‘ SAE Paper [3] Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc, march 2003, ‗Advance Emission After treatment If the converter is heated upto certain temperature Systems ‗ ISBN 0-7680-1306-2. before the engine start, the lightoff time decreases to zero and both HC and CO emissions decrease

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Computer Aided Modeling and Analysis of Coned Compression Springs

Vipul Jain1, Akashdeep Gupta2 Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chameli Devi Group of Institutions, Chameli Devi School of Engineering, Indore

Abstract: The paper deals with the behavior of coned varying compression. The nonlinear behavior of a compression spring using FEA simulation software in an static mode using steel as spring material having a base spring can be achieved by and a punch in the upper and lower sides of the spring - varying the coil diameter such that the base is used to support the spring while the punch is used to apply a uniform pressure on to the spring. - varying the pitch A 4 node tetrahedron element is used to mesh the spring using a mesh size less than spring wire radius. In the - varying the mean spring diameter in axial direction present paper the simulation as well as the analytical calculations is performed to obtain the best results in a It is evident that also combinations of these three static environment using a friction less interaction between the base and spring, the punch and spring as well as the options can be used. spring itself. Keywords: Coned Compression Spring, FEA Simulation, Conical Compression springs are often specified Force-Displacement. where the large end is meant to work in a bore and the I. INTRODUCTION small end is meant to work over a rod. They offer the A spring is defined as an elastic body, whose function advantage of a reduced solid height compared to is to distort when loaded and to recover its shape straight compression springs, especially when capable when the load is removed. The various applications of of "telescoping." spring are as follows: Conical Springs are Cone shaped compression springs 1. To cushion, absorb or control energy due to either designed to provide a near constant spring rate and a shock or vibration as in car spring, railway solid height lower than a normal spring. Each spring buffers, air craft landing gears, shock absorbers features a variable pitch to achieve the constant spring and vibration dampers rate and coils which nest during deflection to provide 2. To apply forces as in brakes, clutches and spring a solid height approximately equal to two wire loaded valves diameters. 3. To control motion by maintaining contact Some uses for conical compression springs are as between two elements as in cams and followers follows: 4. To measure forces, as in spring balances and engine indicators • Small Solid Height: A Conical spring can be 5. To store energy as in watches, toys etc. designed so that each active coil fits within the next Helical springs are often used in mechanical systems. coil, so the solid height can be equal to one or two They can be designed in such a way that they show thicknesses of wire. This is useful where the solid nonlinear behavior. This means that the spring height is limited. stiffness is not constant but depends on the • Variable Rate: These springs offer a constant, or compression. This nonlinear behavior occurs when the uniform pitch, and have an increasing force rate number of active coils decreases or increases with instead of a constant force rate (regular compression springs). The larger coils gradually begin to bottom as 116

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a force is applied. A variable pitch can be designed to thicknesses of wire. This is useful where the solid give a uniform rate if necessary. height is limited.

• Stability: Conical compression offers more lateral • Variable Rate: These springs offer a constant, or stability and fewer tendencies to buckle than regular uniform pitch, and have an increasing force rate compression springs. instead of a constant force rate (regular compression springs). The larger coils gradually begin to bottom as • Vibration: Resonance and vibration is reduced a force is applied. A variable pitch can be designed to because Conical Compression springs have a uniform pitch and an increasing natural period of vibration give a uniform rate if necessary. (instead of a constant) as each coil bottoms. • Stability: Conical compression offers more lateral stability and fewer tendencies to buckle than regular Helical conical springs are like the helical cylindrical springs where the mean coil diameter of the coil is not compression springs. constant. As similar to the cylindrical spring conical • Vibration: Resonance and vibration is reduced springs are designed to resists the compression force because Conical Compression springs have a uniform that is applied along the axis of the coil. This type of pitch and an increasing natural period of vibration spring replaces the cylindrical spring requirement (instead of a constant) as each coil bottoms. where work has to be carried out in less space. Helical conical springs are like the helical cylindrical Conical springs are generally wound with wire having springs where the mean coil diameter of the coil is not the circular cross section. constant. As similar to the cylindrical spring conical springs are designed to resists the compression force The parameters required for the selection of the spring includes its loading capacity i.e. it‘s minimum and that is applied along the axis of the coil. This type of spring replaces the cylindrical spring requirement maximum loads, required stiffness, specific deflection where work has to be carried out in less space. etc. Space requirements in terms of minimum inside Conical springs are generally wound with wire having diameter, maximum outside diameter, spring length at different loads etc. Nature of load i.e. whether static or the circular cross section. frequently applied or fatigue loading. The parameters required for the selection of the spring includes its loading capacity i.e. it‘s minimum and • Small Solid Height: A Conical spring can be maximum loads, required stiffness, specific deflection etc. Space requirements in terms of minimum inside designed so that each active coil fits within the next diameter, maximum outside diameter, spring length at coil, so the solid height can be equal to one or two different loads etc. Nature of load i.e. whether static or frequently applied or fatigue loading. its linear behavior. Only two papers are found, in which the nonlinear behavior of the conical springs II. LITERATURE REVIEW is discussed. The first paper is "Analytical behavior Many books are written about springs, but only a law for a constant pitch conical compression spring" few discuss conical springs. In these books, often by Rodriguez et al. [2006] and the second paper is only the linear behavior of conical springs is treated. "Modeling the static and dynamic behavior of a Wahl [1963] has derived the load deflection relation conical spring by considering the coil close and of the helical cylindrical spring. Timoshenko [1966] damping effect" by Wu and Hsu [1998]. This extended this relation to a conical spring, but only nonlinear behavior occurs when the number of

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active coils decreases or increases with varying s = Pitch of lead (10x10-3m) compression. The research concerns an introductory τ = Shear stress 955x106 Pa study of the steady-state behavior of a nonlinear conical spring. In order to increase the choice to see MATERIAL PROPERTIES FOR MODELING OF nonlinear dynamic effects later on, preferably a SPRING: spring with a strong nonlinear static load-deflection Material Used = Steel characteristic has to be used. A high value of this Young‘s Modulus = 2x1011 N/m2 stiffness ratio is wanted, because it indicates a Poissons ratio = 0.266 relatively strong nonlinear spring characteristic.

Density: 7860 Kg/m3 In literature, very little about the dynamic research of conical springs can be found. Only Wu and Hsu Coefficient of thermal expansion = 1.17x10-5 K-deg propose a basic equation of motion, but do not give 8 2 experimental verification of this model. Yield Strength = 2.5x10 M/m

MESH SIZE III. PROBLEM FORMULATION In mathematics , the finite element method (FEM) is Calculation for coned compression springs a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions to boundary problem for equation . It uses

iterative method to minimize an error function and produce a stable solution. Analogous to the idea that connecting many tiny straight lines can approximate

Where, a larger circle, FEM encompasses all the methods for connecting many simple element equations over -3 d = Diameter of the spring wire (2x10 m) many small sub domains, named finite elements, to

-3 approximate a more complex equation over a larger 2r1 = Mean coil diameter (30x10 m) area -3 2r0 = Mean coil diameter (15.05x10 m) Here in the present work we used four note octree- tetrahedron mesh element and element size is taken n = Number of active coils (10) as 1 (one).

G = Shear modulus [ ] (79.3x109 Pa) BOUNDARY CONDITION Boundary conditions plays a vital role in analysis F = Spring Force (100 N) part as the degree of freedom should be properly

Lc = nd = Closed spring length (20x10-3 m) define for the whole component to be analyzed. Here all the Boundary condition except the -3 f = Spring Deflection (80x10 m) deformation in axial direction is taken as zero so that the spring cannot move in any other direction further k = Spring Stiffness F/f = 1.25x103 N/m the base and punch of spring has been made as a 3 L0 = Free length of the spring (100x10 m) rigid body and base is fully constrained in all direction where as the punch is given a uniform

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distributed force of 100 N and the spring is stress above condition and deformation value have been obtain for the

Figure 1: Geometry of coned compression spring Fig Figure 1 shows the geometry of the spring with ure 3: Meshing of coned compression spring different nomenclatures. Figure 2 shows the Boundary Conditions of coned compression spring. Figure 3 shows the Meshing of coned compression spring. Figure 4 shows the Von mises stress of coned compression spring. Figure 5 shows the translational Deformation of coned compression spring

Figure 4: Von mises stress of coned compression spring

Figure 2: Boundary Conditions of coned compression spring

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very vital role in the analysis and in reducing the complex calculation to design a machine component. 2. A tetrahedron meshing element with least mesh size gives better results than simple 3 dimensional block type element and with bigger element size 3. The conical springs may be implemented where the top end is in the form of a rod and the bottom end is of wide span to provide compact body and better overall efficiency of the component in which the spring is to e incorporated.

We may enhance the spring dimensions to analyze Figure 5: Translational Deformation of coned how it behaves in different loading conditions, compression spring moreover the simulation work can be made using some different mechanical software viz., Ansys etc

to get even closer results.

REFERENCES IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS: [1] RS Khurmi and JK Gupta ―Machine Design‖ 1. The observation shows that the conical Tata Mc-Graw Hill, 2001 compression spring deflects more than the simple closed coil helical spring so is [2] Shigley, J.E., ―Mechanical Engineering sometimes more efficient. Design‖, Tata Mc-Graw Hill, 2001. 2. The CATIA solver provides much better results and is in the range of the complex numerical [3] [Wahl 1963] A. M. Wahl, Mechanical springs, calculations. It saves much time and human 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963.Maitra, effort. G.M., and Prasad, L.V., Handbook of Mechanical 3. A little consideration shows that constraining Design, Edition 2nd, Tata McGraw Hill, the spring in vertical direction gives much better pp.10.56-10.60. results with the application of force in axial [4] S. Timoshenko, D.H. Young, Vibration direction Problems in Engineering, 3rd ed., D. Van 4. Taking steel as the spring material is much Nostrand, Toronto, 1955, pp. 312–316. effective in solving and analyzing different spring problems [5] Wu, M. H., and Hsu, W. Y., 1998, ―Modelling the Static and Dynamic Behavior of a Conical V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE: Spring by Considering the Coil Close and 1. From the present analysis it may be concluded Damping Effects that simulation software like CATIA plays a 120

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Simplified Equation For Estimating The Period of Vibration of Buildings With Flat Slab and Shear Walls Manu Vijay Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering ATME College of Engineering, Mysore, India Email: [email protected]

Abstract - The aim of the present investigation has led The stiffness of RC members significantly to a simplified period – height equation for use in the decreases after cracking and so this stiffness seismic assessment of RC buildings, taking due reduction should be adequately modeled in analysis accounts of the presence of flat slab and shear walls. to determine an expected period of vibration. The period of vibration which has been derived herein represents the period of first mode of Simple empirical relationships are available in vibration. The study includes the seismic response of regular and irregular buildings and soil flexibility many design codes to relate the height of a building using the Winkler’s soil model. The parameters to its fundamental period of vibration. However considered for the present study are three different these relationships have been realized for force types of soil (soft, medium and hard), for high based design and so produce conservative estimate seismic zone and building irregularities like plan of period such that the base shear force will be irregularity, vertical irregularities such as , mass conservatively predicted. For the seismic design of irregularity, Non parallel, offset irregularity, re- a reinforced concrete (RC) frame, the period of entrant corners irregularity offset irregularity, and vibration will not be known a priori and thus stiffness irregularity, as per IS:1893-2002 for 10, 15, simplified equations are employed in the seismic 20 storey buildings. Various analytical models for the parametric study were using modeled using design codes to relate the fundamental period to the Etabs.V.9.2 software. Various parametric studies height of the frame. These equations have were carried out to estimate the fundamental time traditionally been obtained by regression analysis period of the structure with flat slab and shear walls. on the periods of vibration measured during earthquakes. Keywords—Flat sla ,time perio ,shear walls. II IRREGULAR BUILDINGS I INTRODUCTION

The determination of the natural period of vibration The buildings can be broadly categorized as regular of a reinforced concrete structure is an essential and irregular buildings. An irregular building can procedure in earthquake design and assessment. An be defined as a building that lacks symmetry and improved understanding of the global demands on has discontinuity in geometry, mass or load a structure under a given seismic input can be resisting elements. The structural irregularities can obtained from this single characteristic. This be broadly categorized as horizontal and vertical property is dependent on the mass, strength and irregularity. stiffness of the structure and is thus affected by The horizontal irregularity refers to asymmetrical many factors such as structural regularity, number plan shapes such as (L,T,U,F) or discontinuities in of storeys and bays, section dimensions, infill panel horizontal resisting elements such as cutouts, large properties, axial load level, reinforcement ratio and openings, re-entrant corners and other abrupt extent of concrete cracking. Cracking of RC changes resulting in effects like torsion, diaphragm members is a phenomenon often ignored in period deformation and stress concentration. calculation however it generally occurs under gravity loading and after moderate seismic action. 121

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III FLAT SLAB WITH SHEAR WALL d - is the base dimension of building at plinth level in m, along the considered Common practice of design and construction is to direction of lateral force. support the slabs by beams and support the beams by columns. This may be called as beam-slab (ii) Determination of base shear (VB)n of the building construction. The beams reduce the available net VAW Where, clear ceiling height. Hence in warehouses, offices Bh and public halls sometimes beams are avoided and slabs are directly supported by columns. These Z I Sa Ah is the design horizontal seismic types of construction are aesthetically appealing 2 R g also. These slabs which are directly supported by coefficient, which depends on the seismic zone columns are called Flat Slabs. factor (Z), importance factor (I), response reduction 1) Soil–Structure Interaction factor (R) and the average response acceleration coefficients (Sa/g). Sa/g in turn depends on the The response of a structure during an earthquake nature of foundation soil (rock, medium or soft soil depends on the characteristics of the ground sites), natural period and the damping of the motion, the surrounding soil, and the structure structure. itself. For structures founded on rock or very stiff soils, the foundation motion is essentially that (iii) Distribution of design base shear The design base shear V thus obtained shall be which would exist in the soil at the level of the B distributed along the height of the building as per foundation in the absence of the structure and any 2 excavation; this motion is denoted the free-field Wh the following expression: QV ii ground motion. iBn 2 Whii 2) Equivalent Lateral Force Method i1

The total design lateral force or design base Where, Qi is the design Where, Qi is the design shear along any principal direction is given in lateral force, Wi is the seismic weight, hi is the terms of design horizontal seismic coefficient and height of the 1th floor measured from base and n is seismic weight of the structure. Design horizontal the number of stories in the building. seismic coefficient depends on the zone factor of the site, importance of the structure, response IV PRESENT ANALYSIS reduction factor of the lateral load resisting The study includes the seismic response of regular elements and the fundamental period of the and irregular buildings and soil flexibility using the structure. The procedure generally used for the Winkler‘s soil model. The parameters considered equivalent static analysis is explained below: for the present study are three different types of soil (i) Determination of fundamental natural (soft, medium and hard), for high seismic zone and period (Ta)of the buildings building irregularities like plan irregularity, vertical 0.75 irregularities such as , mass irregularity, Non Ta =0.075h Moment resisting RC parallel, offset irregularity, re-entrant corners frame building without brick infill wall irregularity offset irregularity, and stiffness 0.75 irregularity, as per IS:1893-2002 for 10, 15, 20 Ta =0.085h Moment resisting steel storey buildings. frame building without brick infill walls

Ta =0.09h/ d All other buildings including moment resisting RC frame building with brick infill walls.

Where,

h -is the height of building in m Fig 1.1 showing plan for regular building ETABS model screen shot of a regular 10 storied building. 122

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Drop 0.45m

Column 0.7x0.7m

Shear wall 0.3 m

15 Storey

Fig 1.2 showing ETABS model screen shot of a Slab 0.2m Mass irregularity and Non-parallel irregularity of a 10 storied building. Drop 0.45m

Column 0.8x0.8m

Shear wall 0.3 m

20 Storey

Slab 0.2m

Fig 1.3 showing ETABS model screen shot of a Drop 0.45m offset irregularity and re-entrant irregularity of a 10 storied building. Column 0.9mx0.9m,1mx1m

Shear wall 0.3 m

Live Load Intensities

Roof 1.5 kN/m2 Fig 1.4 showing ETABS model screen shot of a Stiffness irregularity and spring constants of a 10 Floor 3.0 kN/m2 storied building.

V DESIGN DATA FOR ALL THE BUILDINGS VI RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS TABLE I Fundamental Period of Combined irregularities for all DESIGN DATA types of soil: The result of, Fundamental time period are presented for different building models (10, 15 & 20 No. of storey 10, 15, 20 storey‘s) for different irregularities with spring constants and different type of soil and zone types. Storey height 3.0 m TABLE II

Seismic zone V DETAILS OF FUNDAMENTAL TIME PERIOD OF ALL TYPES OF BUILDINGS AND SOIL

Material Properties

Grade of concrete M25(SLABS), Type of Number Fundamental time periods in M30, M35,M40(columns) buildings of seconds Soil type stories Grade of steel Fe 415 S1 S2 S2

3 Density of 25 kN/m 10 reinforced 0.3376 0.3527 0.4387 concrete Mass 15 0.5753 0.5943 0.7110 Irregularity Member Properties 20 0.8615 0.8823 1.0321 10 Storey 10 0.3665 0.3814 0.4610 Non Parallel Slab 0.2m Irregularity 15 0.6237 0.6483 0.7174

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20 0.8937 0.9212 1.0322 Non parallel=Building with non-parallel irregularity 10 0.501 0.510 0.5462 15 0.8027 0.8065 0.8741 Stiffness=Building with stiffness irregularity New Spectral IS;1893- Rentrant =Building with rentrant corner formula Type acceleration co 2002 irregularity for time of Story efficient (Sa/g) code period soil Height The period height relationship for building formula from the (m) From From with flat slab and shear wall for combined for time present code new period irregularities by considering all types of soil study formula formula may be estimated by the analytical expression; Soil 30 1.04 2.5 1.29 1 Ta =0.005h ………. eqn T =Natural time period of structure in Soil a 45 0.77 1.49 seconds 1 h=Height of the building in ‗m‘ Soil 60 0.61 1.02 1 Offset

Irregularity Soil 30 1.41 3.4 2 1.4

Ta= Ta = Soil 1.2 1.29 45 1.05 2.08 0.75 0.005h 2 0.075h 1.0

Soil 0.8 60 0.84 1.38

2 Periods(s) 0.6 Ta=0.005h1.29 Soil 30 1.74 3.89 0.4 3 0.2 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Height(m) Soil 45 1.28 2.49 3 Soil 60 1.03 1.68 New Time Period formula Vs IS: 1893-2002 3 code formula for Time Period for different soils. 20 1.1282 1.133 1.2405 10 0.3496 0.35 0.4581 Re-Entrant Irregularity 15 0.5955 0.6286 0.7419 20 0.8699 0.9596 1.058 VII CONCLUSIONS 10 0.3814 0.3926 0.4712 Stiffness  The fundamental natural period of a particular Irregularity 15 0.6217 0.6419 0.7266 20 0.9315 0.9562 1.1249 structure increases as the Stiffness of soil 10 0.3152 0.3310 0.34 decreases. Regular Building 15 0.5461 0.5722 0.6920  The natural period of the structure increases 20 0.8296 0.8548 1.0862 with the increase in number of stories.  The fundamental time period of a structure with mass irregularity decreases as compared Note: : The notations used below are as follows to time period of regular building.  The fundamental time period of a structure with non-parallel irregularity increases as S1=Hard soil,S2=medium soil compared to time period of regular building. S3=Soft soil  The fundamental time period of a structure with offset irregularity increases as compared Regular=Building with no irregularity to time period of regular building. Mass=Building with mass irregularity  The fundamental time period of a structure with re-entrant corners irregularity increases as Offset=Building with offset irregularity compared to time period of regular building.

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[6] Devesh P. Soni and Bharat B. Mistry ―Qualitative Review REFERENCES Of Seismic Response Of Vertically Irregular Building Frames‖, Vol. 43, No. 4, December 2006, pp. 121-132 [1] Ahmad J. Durrani, S.T. Mau, Amr Ahmed AbouHashish [7] Garg c.s, Yogendra singh, Pradeep Bhargava and Bhandari and Yi Li ―Earthquake Response of Flat-Slab Buildings‖ N.M, ―Seismic performance of flat slab shear wall Vol.120 No. 3, March, 1994. ©ASCE,ISSN 0733- system‖, Journal of structural Engineering, Vol.37, No.3, 9445/94/0003-0947. August-September2010, PP.203-207. [2] Apostolska1 R.P and Necevska-Cvetanovska G. S, ―Seismic [8] Helen Crowley and Rui Pinho (2006) ―Simplified performance of flat-slab building structural systems‖ The th Equations for Estimating the Period of Vibration of 14 World Conference on Earthquake Engineering October Existing Buildings, Proceedings of 1st European 12-17, 2008, Beijing, China. Conference of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology‖, [3] Berero, V.V., Bendimerad, F.M., and Shah, H.C.(1998). Geneva, paper no 1122. ―Fundamental period of reinforced R/C moment-resisting [9] Murty C.V.R. (2002a) ―What is the Seismic Design frame structures.‖ Rep. No. 87, John A. Blume Earthquake Philosophy for Buildings‖ Earthquake Tip 08, IITK- Engg. Ctr., Stanford Univ., Stanford, Calif. BMTPC, Indian Concrete Journal, 2002. [4] Chopra, A.K. and Goel, R.K.(2000), ―Building Period [10] Bhavikatti S.S, ―Advance R.C.C. Design‖ , New Age Formulas for Estimating Seismic Displacements‖, o International (p) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi, India. Earthquake Spectra, 16, n 2, 533-536. [11] Bowles.J.E-― Foundation Analysis and Design‖, McGraw- [5] Chopra, A.K. and Goel, R.K (1997) ―Period Formulas for Hill,Singapore-1974. Moment-Resisting Frame Buildings, Journal of Structural Engineering‖, ASCE 123, no 11, 1454-1451.

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Concept of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting System for Educational Institute Bhagawati.P.B*, Mahadik. S G. Khurupi S. B, More. P. H. Patil K. P. Undergraduate Students, Civil Engineering Dept,ADCET,Ashta, Maharasthra-416401 *Asst Prof,Civil Engineering Department , ADCET,Ashta, Maharasthra-416401.

Abstract: India is on the threshold of water stress and it is environment and the global food supply high time to take all possible steps to obviate or at least (Seckler,1998). mitigate the scarcity round the corner.Maharashtra is currently one of the nation‘s eighth poorest state in water Resources. People living in rural and semi urban areas of The present paper describes the rooftop rain Maharashtra uses underground water sources, which is water harvesting in the College having more hardness for domestic purpose. In order to campus,Building of Annasaheb Dange conserve and meet our daily demand of water College of Engineering located in Astha of requirement, we need to think for alternative cost effective Sangli district has been undertaken for the and relatively easier technological methods of conserving water. Rain water harvesting is one of the best methods present investigation. The average annual fulfilling those requirements. Rainfall harvesting from rainfall in the study area is hardly 420 mm. rooftops can increase the water supply for various uses The proposed study is entirely based on such as constructing new infrastructure building, primary and secondary data. gardening and artificial recharge of ground water. Proposed study is entirely based on primary and secondary data. This paper mainly focused on the various A. NEED FOR THE STUDY existing rooftop water harvesting systems, management through modern methods and implementing those in Population of college is about 3,500 including ADCET Campus Astha of Maharashtra. students, teaching and non-teaching staff and Key Words : Rooftop water harvesting, ground water daily visitors. According to World Health recharge, catchment area, . Organization, it is assumed that average 2.5 liter daily water intakes per capita per day I. INTRODUCTION required. Analysis revealed that 8750 liter water required for per day. Rainwater Today due to rising population & economical harvesting can meet potable and non-potable growth rate, demands for the surface water is water demands and also control flooding. increasing exponentially. Rainwater harvesting Again, this non-potable harvested rainwater is seems to be a perfect replacement for can be best utilized for purpose of constructing surface & ground water as later is concerned new infrastructure building, gardening etc. with the rising cost as well as ecological Rainwater harvesting also helps in increasing problems. There are frequent failures of rains the soil moisture in one region or the other and prolonged dry periods during the non monsoon seasons in India. This gives rise to serious drought conditions in many parts of India including condition and fertility factor of soil for Maharashtra .Modern society has viewed plantation. To increase the greenery water as a resource for the taking. This is no surrounding the campus. Hence for water longer possible as limits are being reached. scarcity, Rainwater harvesting is seems to be a About 30 countries have already fallen into the perfect replacement for surface & ground water scarce category. Per capita availability is water as later is concerned with the rising cost rapidly declining. Development experts feel as well as with ecological problems. that water scarcity, not shortage of land, is Therefore, Rainwater harvesting is highly likely to be the main future constraint on recommended for campus of ADCET,Campus. agricultural production in the developing countries. In fact, water scarcity is now the single greatest threat to human health, the

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II. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY a ‗Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting‘ for the buildings A, B and C. The method of The great challenge for the coming decades harvesting is gone be the artificial ground will be the task of scarcity of water .The recharge through an existing bore well. In dependency on water for future development college campus there are two existing bore has become a critical constraint for wells. development. The annual precipitation in India is estimated at about 4,000 billion cubic meters[3]. Heavy monsoon rainfalls and the annually recurring floods may have led to the common perception that water is an inexhaustible resource or there is plenty of it available. But, as the National Water Policy Document prepared by the Planning Commission says,‗it is a grossly misplaced conception that India is a water rich country and water is a free commodity.‘ About 90 per cent of the annual runoff in peninsular rivers and over 80 per cent in Himalayan Rivers occur during monsoon months and much of it in just a few monsoon storms[4]. The projected total water demand by year 2025 is around 1050 billion cubic meter. The country‘s annual utilizable water resources are assessed around 1140 billion cubic meter. Thus, almost the entire utilizable water resources would be required to be put to use by the year 2025.

On the basis of the 1991 census, India‘s per capita water availability per year was estimated at 2214 cubic meters against the global average of 9321 cubic meter and this is likely to come down to 1496 cubic meter by 2025. We have moved from a position of ‗marginally vulnerable‘ in 1990 to that of ‗water stresses‘ by 2007 and ‗water scarcity‘ by 2025. Therefore, while every potential source of water would need to be exploited, its FIGURE 1 SATELLITE IMAGE OF ADCET CAMPUS conservation, proper utilization and efficient use has become of paramount importance. III. EXISTING CONCEPTS OF ROOFTOP A. STUDY AREA WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS A. SELECTION ROOF RAINWATER HARVESTING The Annasaheb Dange College of Engineering SYSTEMS & Technology, Astha. Started from the academic year 1999 after getting approval Roof becomes the catchment which is the from AICTE, New Delhi and recognized by crucial factor in the rain water harvesting Government Of Maharashtra. It is affiliated to system and collected water from roof of the Shivaji University, Kolhapur. house‘s or buildings can either be utilized for The institute spreads over picturesque, day to day domestic purposes or for artificial sprawling land of 30 acres . The Institute is recharge of ground water. This method is less having various department buildings and expensive and very effective and if Hostel Facility. In 2014 college decided to do implemented properly helps in augmenting the ground water level of the area[1]. 127

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The ideal roof rain water harvesting and D. RATIONING METHOD (RM): conservation system encompasses following The Rationing method (RM) distributes stored basic components[2]. rainwater to target public in such a way that Catchment Area/Roof: Surface upon which the rainwater tank is able to service water rain falls, Gutters and Downspouts: System of requirement to maximum period of time. This transport channel from catchment surface to can be done by limiting the amount of use of storage, Leaf screens and Roof Washers: water demand per person. Systems that remove contamination and debris. Cistern or Storage Tanks: Where E. GIS ANALYSIS collected rain water is stored, Conveying: The A geographic information system (GIS) is delivery system for treated Rain Water, either computer software that allows researchers and by gravity or pump, Water Treatment: Filters investigators to manage and manipulate and equipment and additives to settle, filter interactions between data and geographic and disinfect the water. locations. GIS technology has the sophistication to go beyond mapping as simply

a data management tool. GIS can integrate geo B. HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS referenced imagery as data layers or themes On the basis of experimental evidence, Mr. H. and link them to other data sets to produce Darcy, a French scientist enunciated in 1865, a geospatial representations of data[9]. These law governing the rate of flow (i.e. the geographical pictures not only depict discharge) through the soils. According to geographic boundaries but also offer special him, this discharge was directly proportional insight to students and researchers across to head loss (H) and the area of cross-section disciplines such as health, economics, (A) of the soil, and inversely proportional to agriculture, and transportation. the length of the soil sample (L).

Q = K. I. A. IV. RELEVANT LITERATURE

Q = Runoff , hydraulic gradient (I), K is the Rainwater harvesting is an old and cost co-efficient of permeability[10] . effective practice that is being adopted by The total amount of water that is received many nations as a viable decentralized water from rainfall over an area is called the source. Individual rainwater harvesting rainwater legacy of that area. And the amount systems are one of the many tools to meet the that can be effectively harvested is called the growing water demand. Rainwater harvesting water harvesting potential. The formula for can be defined as a method for inducing, calculation for harvesting potential or volume collecting, storing and conserving local of water received or runoff produced or surface runoff. Rainwater harvesting is the harvesting capacity is given as:- accumulation and deposition of rainwater for reuse before it reaches the aquifer. Harvesting potential or Volume of water Rainwater harvesting is an yearlong ancient Received (m3) = Area of Catchment (m2) technique studied by many scientist for *Amount of rainfall (mm) *Runoff different purposes e.g. for storing the coefficient harvested water in some storage tank, impact of rainwater harvesting on social and C. RAPID DEPLETION METHOD (RDM): economic aspects and or recharging In Rapid Depletion method, there is no underground aquifer for increasing soil restriction on the use of harvested rainwater by moisture condition. A few of them has been consumer. Consumer is allowed to use the listed. Rural Rainwater Harvesting: Concept, preserved rain water up to their maximum Techniques, and Social & Economical Impacts requirement, resulting in less number of days by Dr. Osman Mohammed Naggar. This of utilization of preserved water. The person has really dedicated his work in finding rainwater tank in this method is considered to out all the factors which affects the surface be only source of water for the consumer, and runoff and rainwater harvesting impacts on alternate source of water has to be used till next rains, if it runs dries.

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environment.

FIGURE 2: RAINWATER STORAGE

A. COMPONENTS OF ROOFTOP RAINWATER high demand in the campus of ADCET, astha HARVESTING SYSTEM and thus, proposed Rooftop Rainwater Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting Systems, harvesting at ADCET,astha campus is highly rainwater from the house roof is collected in a storage vessel or tank for use during the periods of recommended. scarcity. Usually, these systems are designed to support the drinking and cooking needs of the REFERENCES family at the doorstep. Such a system usually comprises a roof, a storage tank and guttering to [1] Panhalkar, Sachin (2011): ‗Domestic Rain transport the water from the roof to the storage Water Harvesting System: A Model for Rural tank. In addition, a first flush system to divert the Development‘, International Journal of dirty water which contains roof debris collected on the roof during non-rainy periods and a filter unit to Science and Nature, Vol.2 (3), Pp 861-867. remove debris and contaminants before water [2] Khastagir, A., and Jayasuriya, N. (2010). enters the storage tank are also provided. ―Optimal sizing of rain water tanks for Components are shown in Fig 2, Roof catchments domestic water Conservation.‖ J. Hydrol.,  Drain pipes 381(3/4), 181–188.  Gutters [3] Qureshi, A. L. and Khero, Z. I. and  Down pipe Lashari, B. K. (2012) Optimization of  First flush pipe. irrigation water  Filter unit management : a case study of secondary  Storage tank. canal, Sindh, Pakistan. Sixteenth International  Collection sump. Water Technology Conference, IWTC 16,Turkey. V. CONCLUSION [4] Malaterre, P.-O. and Baume, J.-P. (1998) India reachs much of its rainfall in just 100 hrs Modeling and regulation of irrigation canals: in a year usually during monsoon period. If existing applications and ongoing researches. this water is not captured or stored, the rest of IEEE, France. the year experiences a precious situation [5] Making water everybody‘s business – manifest in water scarcity.This paper dealt practice and policy of water harvesting, edited with all aspect of improving the water scarcity by Anil Agarwal, Sunita Narain and Indira problem in the ADCET,astha campus by Khurana. (Center for science and implementing modern technique of rainwater environment) Harvesting.A planned approach is needed in order to fully utilize the potential of rainwater [6] Reddy P.Sai Rukesh and Rastogi A.K., to adequately meet our water requirements. (2008), Rainwater Harvesting in hostel 12 and Hence, an equal and positive thrust is needed hostel13of IIT Bombay, The Indians society in developing and encouraging the water for Hydraulics and Journal of Hydraulic harvesting systems Therefore, water is highly Engineering. a precious natural resource which is always in 129

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[7] Garg, S.K. Table 7.31, Chapter Hydrology [10] Athavle, R. N. (1998): Water Harvesting and runoff computation, Irrigation Engineering and Sustainable Supply in India; A Rawat & Hydraulic Structure, Publications, Jaipur. [8] Arun Kumar Dwivedi and Sudhir Singh [11] Helmreich B. and Horn H. (2008), Bhadauria(2009): Domestic rooftop water ―Opportunities in rainwater harvesting‖, harvestingcase study, ARPN Journal of Elsevier Desalination 251 (2010) 118–124 Engineering and Applied Sciences, vol. 4, no. [12] Amin M. T., Han M. Y., (2011) 6, august 2009, pp. 31-37. ―Improvement of solar based rainwater [9] Gaikwad, V. P. (2008) : Geographical disinfection by using lemon and Analysis of Rainwater Harvesting Potential in vinegar as catalysts‖, Science Direct PhaltaTahsil of Satara District (M.S.), M.Phil Desalination. Dissertation submitted to Shivaji University, Kolhapur.(Unpublished)

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Study Of Seismic Performance And Retrofitting Of Existing Reinforced Concrete Structure Using Pushover Analysis SHAIK KABEER AHMED Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering ATME College of Engineering, Mysore, INDIA Email: [email protected]

Abstract: In current scenario very little knowledge during minor earthquakes, which may occur about seismic evaluation of structures are available in the way of guidelines for use in the existing concrete frequently in life time, (b) to prevent structural buildings. An improved Pushover analysis using damage and minimize non-structural damage ETABS based on structural dynamic theory, ATC-40 during moderate earthquakes which may occur and FEMA273 is developed and an attempt has been made to study the seismic performance of existing RC occasionally, (c) to prevent sudden collapsing structure subjected to earthquakes forces. For this or serious damage during major earthquakes purpose, behavior of 8 storey 3-D R.C structure is studied under various seismic zones as per IS- which may occur rarely. Designs are explicitly 1893:2002 and ATC-40. Pushover analysis is carried done only under the third condition. out and performance level of the structure under continuous lateral earthquake forces is studied. The STATEMENT OF PROBLEM adequacies of design are checked and if the building is below expected performance level, retrofits at proper The seismic performance of newly constructed positions are suggested. structure at NMAM Institute of Technology, Keywords-Seismic Performance, Retrofit, Pushover, Non-linear Seismic Hinges, Storey Drift, Storey Shear. Nitte (which comes under zone III) is considered for study, in which all structural design aspects are provided as per the INTRODUCTION specifications given by IS 456-2000 and IS Earthquake is a manifestation of rapid release 1892-2002. The structure is pushed both along of stress waves during a brittle rupture of rock. X and Y direction [Refer Fig. 1] and The complexity of earthquake ground motion performance of the structure for various is primarily due to factors such as source seismic forces are studied. The study is based effect, path effect and local site effect. The on the comparison of pushover curve, intensity of the quake is measured in terms of performance point, seismic-hinge formation, the energy release at the location of the ground storey drift and storey shear; after analyzing fault. Earthquake causes ground to vibrate and the structure proper retrofit is suggested if structures supported on ground are subjected required. ETABS, finite element software for to this motion. Thus the dynamic loading on structural analysis is used to carry out the structure during an earthquake is not nonlinear pushover analysis. external loading, but due to motion of support. The various factors contributing to the structural damage during earthquake are vertical irregularities, irregularity in strength and stiffness, mass irregularity, shape irregularity etc. which needs to be analyzed if required and retrofitted accordingly.

The purposes in earthquake-resistant design are: (a) to prevent non-structural damage

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is applied incrementally to frameworks until a collapse mechanism is reached.

FEMA-273 (1997), ATC-40(1996), are the codal document which provides a comprehensive, technically sound recommended methodology for the seismic evaluation and retrofit design of existing concrete buildings. Acceptable performance is measured by the level of structural and/or non- structural damage expected from the earthquake shaking. Damage is expressed in terms of post yield, inelastic deformation Fig. 1. Showing 3D ETAB Model limits for various structural components and elements found in concrete buildings. The OBJECTIVE OF STUDY analytical procedure incorporated in the The following are major objectives of methodology accounts for post elastic present study: deformations of the structure by using simplified nonlinear static analysis methods. 1. To perform nonlinear pushover analysis on 3D reinforced concrete structure using Ashraf et al., (1998) presented a study on the ETABS. steps used in performing a pushover analysis 2. To study the seismic performance of the structure under various seismic zones. of a simple three-dimensional building. 3. To understand the vulnerability of various SAP2000, a state-of-the-art, general-purpose, stories under different intensity of three-dimensional structural analysis program, earthquake. is used as a tool for performing the pushover 4. To study the effect of shape of the structure on overall seismic performance. analysis. The SAP2000 static pushover 5. To study the possibilities of retrofitting at analysis capabilities, which are fully integrated various portions of the structure if required. into the program, allow quick and easy

LITERATURE REVIEW implementation of the pushover procedures prescribed in the ATC-40 and FEMA-273 Earthquake engineering in recent years have documents for both two and three-dimensional emphasized the need for performance-based buildings. seismic analysis.An essential element in many seismic evaluations is the determination of Dhileep. M et al., (2011) explained the ultimate inelastic response of the structure. practical difficulties associated with the Performance-based methods require non-linear direct numerical integration of reasonable estimates of inelastic deformation the equations of motion leads to the use of or damage in structures which are better non-linear static pushover analysis of quantities to assess damage than stress or structures. Pushover analysis is getting forces. The performance based analysis is popular due to its simplicity. High based on quantifying the deformation of the frequency modes and non-linear effects members and the building as a whole, under may play an important role in stiff and the lateral forces of an earthquake of a certain irregular structures. Nonlinear static level of seismic hazard. Pushover analysis is a pushover analysis used as an simplified, static, nonlinear procedure in approximation to nonlinear time history which a predefined pattern of earthquake loads analysis is becoming a standard tool among the engineers, researches and professionals

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worldwide. High frequency modes may PUSHOVER ANALYSIS contribute significantly in the seismic Pushover Analysis in the recent years is analysis of irregular and stiff structures. In becoming a popular method of predicting order to take the contribution of higher seismic forces and deformation demands for modes, structural engineers may include the purpose of performance evaluation of high frequency modes in the nonlinear existing and new structures. Pushover analysis static pushover analysis. The behaviour of is a partial and relatively simple intermediate high frequency modes in nonlinear static solution to the complex problem of predicting pushover analysis of irregular structures is force and deformation demands imposed on studied. structures and their elements by severe ground Bracci et al (1997) presented a static pushover motion. Pushover analysis is one of the analysis procedure for evaluating the seismic analysis methods recommended by ATC 40 performance and retrofit options for low-to- and FEMA 273. Steps Involve in Pushover medium rise RC buildings. The technique is analysis:- based on the capacity spectrum method and was illustrated by application to the 1/3-scale 3-storey RC frame model that had been a) Building is pushed in horizontal direction. previously tested on the shaking table at b) Proportion of applied force on each floor is Buffalo. Three retrofit examples were constant, only its magnitude is increased gradually. considered. These were (1) prestressed c) Material nonlinearity is modeled by inserting concrete jacketing of internal columns, (2) RC plastic hinge at potential location. fillets around beam-column joints, and (3) post d) Lateral load is increased in step and sequence tensioning of additional column longitudinal of cracking, yielding, and failure of component is recorded. reinforcement. Retrofit increased the frame‘s base shear strength by 66% (from 0.15W to PERFORMANCE LEVELS 0.25W) and the maximum drift from 1% to A performance level describes a limiting 2%. damage condition which may be considered satisfactory for a given building and given Giuseppe Oliveto et al., (2004) studied the ground motion. The limiting condition is seismic retrofitting of two reinforced concrete described by the physical damage within the buildings in Eastern Sicily not originally building, the threat to life safety of the designed to withstand the seismic action. buildings occupants created by the damage, Some special characteristics of the two and the post-earthquake serviceability of the buildings suggested the choice of a base building. Target performance levels for isolation retrofitting system. Tests performed structural and nonstructural systems are on the original building materials and also specified independently. Structural structural analyses performed on the original performance levels are given names and and on the retrofitted buildings suggested that number designations, while nonstructural some stiffening of the superstructure was performance levels are given names and letter required. The reasons that led to the designations. Which are mentioned below:- retrofitting and to the choice of the retrofitting system are presented in some detail. The a) Structural Performance Level: Immediate Occupancy(SP-1); Damage Control(SP-2); analyses conducted for the evaluation of the Life Safety(SP-3); Limited Safety(SP-4); seismic resistance and vulnerability of the Structural Stability(SP-5); Not Considered(SP- existing buildings and of the seismic resistance 6) of the retrofitted buildings are also presented. b) Non-structural performance level: Operational (NP-A); Immediate Occupancy (NP-B); Life

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Safety (NP-C); Reduced Hazard (NP-D); Not seismic event. Multi-storied buildings are Considered (NP-E). often constructed with provision for vertical extension in future. Before carrying out vertical extension in future, it is sometimes noticed that the existing structures may not be adequate to take the additional vertical and lateral loads on account to the additional stories. Under such situation one has to conduct a cost-benefit analysis to decide the two obvious options: strengthening the existing structure to enable it to take the load of additional stories.

Seismic strengthening is a specialized job and is for obvious reasons more difficult than

construction of a new facility. Each building Fig. 2 Combination of structural and non-structural performance poses a unique set of constraints and problems level as per ATC-40 requiring due care in design and detailing. Ultimately, the success of any upgrading exercise depends on the quality of work at the site. During execution of the work, many difficulties arise which may not have been anticipated during the design stage.

At present, India lacks adequate experience in strengthening of seismically-deficient low and medium-rise RC framed buildings. This is Fig. 3. Performance level and corresponding structural failure partly due to the lack of awareness regarding the importance of the problem. The problem of RETROFITTING seismic strengthening is being recognized as a A number of reasons may necessitate the need major challenge to civil engineering profession to retrofit existing structures. It may be the in many countries of the world. In recent rehabilitation of a structure damaged by an years, there has been a tremendous increase in earthquake or other causes, or the the research and publication activities in this strengthening of an undamaged structure made area in many countries. necessary by revisions in structural design or However, since a suitable strengthening loading codes of practice. Earthquakes are by technique depends on many factors such as the far the most common cause of damage to type of construction and the professional structures in earthquake-prone areas. Here, the environment; what is suitable for one country collective term, retrofit, which implies the may not be suitable for another country. Thus, addition of structural components after initial while we can draw benefit from the construction, is applied to both rehabilitation experiences of many other countries, we must and strengthening processes. Seismic retrofit evolve methodologies suitable to our own becomes necessary if it is shown that, through conditions. Considering the severe seismic risk a seismic performance evaluation, the building that many parts of our country are prone to, does not meet minimum requirements up to experience on seismic strengthening needs to the current building code and may suffer be accumulated by carefully documenting severe damage or even collapse during a individual case histories. Since cost is a very 134

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important consideration, we also need to study connected with existing construction. This cost aspects of different strengthening schemes may be done by drilling holes in the existing for such buildings. Professional engineers beams and columns and by providing involved in design and constructions in the reinforcement dowels and fixing with these country need to accept the challenge that is with epoxy mortar. The frame with this panel posed by seismically deficient buildings. becomes much stiffer than the rest of the frames and therefore attracts most of the a) Seismic Strengthening Procedures seismic forces. This means that the foundation

i. Jacketing of elements: with new panel should be able to transfer a significantly higher load to soil; hence, The strength and ductility of existing beams, foundation has to be strengthened in many columns, and/or beam-column joints can be cases. Also, sometimes the columns may also enhanced by jacketing shown in fig.5.2 and have to be strengthened to account for 5.3.This requires puncturing the slab to pass increased axial force in columns as a result of new reinforcement. This technique is very the increased stiffness. effective for strengthening an individual element, including for gravity loads. However, METHODOLOGY as a means to provide the overall strengthening Analysis is done with the help of ETABS 9.06, to a building, it is somewhat uneconomical which is a integrated design and analysis and even impractical since it involves work in software for building system. It is a finite most areas of element based powerful structural engineering building. software, used to carry out the pushover analysis which does the pushover analysis as per guidance given by ATC-40 and FEMA- 273.[Refer Fig. 4]

Fig 4(a). Jacketing of a Fig 4(b). Jacketing of a column Beam

ii. Providing steel bracing inside the RC frame:

Steel braced frame can be provided inside the RC frames along the perimeter of the building. For this technique to be effective, it is necessary to have good connecting between the bracing and concrete structures because bracing causes the stress concentration at the frame corners. This technique may be considerably expensive in India in view of high steel costs. iii. Providing RC shear panels in the frame:

Reinforced concrete shear wall panels can be provided as infill to existing frames. The bays to be provided with shear panel have to be Fig 5. Flow chart representing methodology of Pushover carefully chosen. The new concrete should be analysis

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Fig 7(a).Seismic hinges graphs along X-direction for Zone III

RESULTS Following graphs are obtained after analyzing the structure and they are concluded as:

A) Capacity Curve vs. Demand Curve:

Fig 7(b).Seismic hinges graphs along Y-direction for Zone III

 From Non-linear Hinge horizontal bar chart we are getting approximately 2850 Non-linear hinges at various performance levels along X-direction in zone-III.  We are getting similar amount of non- Fig 6(a). capacity curve along X-direction for Zone III linear hinges but performance levels are much lesser along Y-direction.  The structure is collapsing under Immediate Occupancy level because we are getting maximum number of Non- linear hinges in Immediate Occupancy level.  This shows that we cannot predict the failure of structure along Y-direction. The failure may be brittle. Fig 6(b). capacity curve along Y-direction for Zone III  Along X-direction Performance point is C) Storey fitting properly whereas along Y- Shear Vs. Storey Drift: direction Performance point is just fitting and only one Non-linear hinge is crossing the capacity curve by the Demand curve. Again this shows the lack of stiffness and ductile characteristics of structure along Y- direction.  Similarly because of increase in spectral acceleration (Sa) and spectral displacement (Sd), the performance point shifts in a linear way rather than shifting Fig 8(a). Storey Shear Vs. Storey Drift Curve along X- in a non-linear way. direction for zone III

B) Seismic Hinge Curve:

Fig 8(b). Storey Shear Vs. Storey Drift Curve along Y-

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direction for zone III REFERENCES [1] ATC-40(vol.1), ―Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of  The maximum Storey shear obtained is concrete buildings‖, Applied Technology Council, 7031kN and the maximum Storey drift Redwood city, California, 1996. is 0.0212m. The maximum storey drift is [2] Federal Emergency Management Agency (1996), obtained for 2nd floor level and ―1994 NEHRP Guidelines for the Seismic respective base shear is 6128kN. Rehabilitation of Buildings,‖ Reports FEMA 273 (Guidelines), Ballot version, Washington, D.C.  We can conclude that second floor is [3] IS:1893 (Part 1)-2002 Criteria for Earthquake much more vulnerable compared to resistant Design of structures, part 1 General other floors when we move towards provisions and buildings, fifth revision, Bureau of higher zone levels. Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.  In zone-IV and zone-V, the base shear is [4] Murty C.V.R,‖ EARTHQUAKE TIPS‖, Learning more compared to zone-II and zone-III Earthquake Design and Construction, IITK-BMTPC. and we are getting approximately same [5] Bracci. J. M, Kunnath. S. K and Reinhorn. amount of storey drift at both 1st and 2nd A.M(1997) ―Seismic Performance and Retrofit Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete Structures‖ floor level along X-direction. Journal of structural engineering January ASCE-  Similarly along Y-direction we are JSE, pp.3-10. getting same amount of storey shear and [6] ETABS (2006), ―The integrated design and analysis nd software for building system‖, Version 9.06, storey drift at 2 floor level when Computers and Structures.inc. structure is in zone-II and zone-III [7] Seifi. M, Noorzaei. J., Naafar M. S. and Panah. E. Y. condition but when the structure is in (2008), ―Nonlinear static pushover analysis in earthquake engineering‖, International conference on zone-IV and zone-V condition we are construction and building technology, Malaysia, getting higher value of storey shear; but pp.69-80. st nd [8] Chopra AK, Goel R. A modal pushover analysis the drift at 1 and 2 floor levels are procedure to estimate seismic demands for buildings: similar. theory and preliminary evaluation. Report No. PEER 2001/03, Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research CONCLUSIONS Center, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 2001. 1. Shape effect weakens the structure along Y-direction. 2. Safety and ductility are the main criteria [9] Prasad, S. K., Chandradhara, G. P., Nanjundaswamy, should be considered for earthquake P. and Revanasiddappa, K. (2004) ―Seismic Bearing Capacity Of Ground From Shaking Table Tests‖, design; however in this case the structure IGC-2004, Warangal, December. does not satisfy these requirements. [10] ShaikKabeer Ahmed (2010),‖Pushover Analysis for 3. The structure fails in immediate Seismic Performance of RC Frames with occupancy level without the formation of Irregularities‖, M Tech Thesis, Department of Civil engineering, SJCE, Mysore. other performance levels; hence [11] ShaikKabeer Ahmed and S. K. Prasad retrofitting can‘t be done for major part of (2011),‖Influence of Ground Flexibility on Seismic structure. Performance of 3D FRAMES‖ Proceedings of Indian 4. Limited portions of the structure can be Geotechnical Conference, Kochi. [12] Shaik Kabeer Ahmed and S. K. Prasad (2011) repaired when the intensity of earthquake ―Influence of Soft Storey on Seismic Performance of is mild, whereas for moderate and severe Building Frames Using Pushover Analysis‖, National earthquake the retrofitting is not possible. Conference on Recent Development in Civil 5. The structure is designed considering both Engineering, VVIET, Mysore. [13] Jain, S.K. and Navin, C.N (2000), ―Historical static and dynamic load cases but ductile Developments And Current Status Of Earthquake detailing is not done properly which Engineering In India‖, 12WCEE. causes pre-matured failure. [14] W. Huang, L. A. Toranzo-Dianderas, A. D. 6. Retrofitting can done either by jacketing Reynolds, J. R. Gavan, and J. W. Wallace (2004),‖A Case Study of Performance-Based Seismic of the element or by providing steel Evaluation and Retrofit of an Existing Hospital bracing inside the RC frame. Building In California, U.S.‖, 14WCEE, Beijing, 7. IS 1893-2002, doesn‘t gives failure and China. retrofitting criteria of seismically affected structure; hence there is a need to implement performance based analysis for design of structures.

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Study of Seismic Performance of RC Frames With Short Column SHAIK KABEER AHMED Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering ATME College of Engineering, Mysore, INDIA Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT: Present study describes the importance against earthquakes. Thus, predicting the damage of performance based approach and pushover level of the columns as a result of an earthquake analysis for short and long column effect. In this plays a major role in predicting the seismic work, initially a brief introduction to short column is vulnerability of a reinforced concrete frame structure presented and its vulnerability is described. Typical failures due to short and long column effect are II PUSHOVER ANALYSIS shown. Pushover analysis and modeling procedure are described. Various seismic performance curves Pushover analysis is a static non-linear procedure representing the vulnerability of structures having in which the magnitude of the lateral load is short and long column are presented. For analysis, incrementally increased maintaining a predefined design and pushover analysis of frame ETABS distribution pattern along the height of the building. software has been used. With the increase in the magnitude of loads, weak Fig. (A) Force – Deformation curves for Push Over Hinges

KEY WORDS: SEISMIC PERFORMANCE, PUSHOVER, NON-LINEAR SEISMIC HINGES, SHORT COLUMN, PERFORMANCE CURVE. I INTRODUCTION Every year several destructive earthquakes hit dif- ferent regions of the world causing loss of huge amounts of economic properties and lives. The high economic loss and death toll prompt research to deal with reducing the seismic risk in the earthquake prone regions. Seismic codes of the countries which links and failure modes of the building can be are susceptible to damaging earthquakes, are revised found. Pushover analysis can determine the or rewritten to en-able the satisfactory performance of behaviour of a building, including the ultimate load the structures and thus to reduce loss after a major it can carry and the maximum inelastic deflection it earthquake. There are still a lot of structures undergoes. Local non linear effects are modelled throughout the world, which are highly vulnerable to and the structure is pushed until a collapse seismic action. Because of short column long mechanism is developed. At each step, the base column effect, identifying this kind of structures that shear and the roof displacement can be have high vulnerability is of critical importance for plotted to generate the pushover curve. The graphs both reliable loss estimation as a result of an are plotted with base shear along the vertical axis expected earthquake and setting priority criteria for and roof displacement along the horizontal axis. strengthening of structures. Predicting vulnerability Location of hinges in various stages can be of a whole structure is not easy to handle due to lack obtained from Push over curve. The range AB is of proper experimental and observed data. For this elastic range, B to IO is the range of immediate reason, the trend has moved towards evaluating the occupancy, IO to LS is the range of life safety, and whole structure at the level of its components. LS to CP is the range of collapse prevention. If all Reinforced concrete frame buildings are amongst the the hinges are within the CP limit then the structure most common construction types in the world. The is said to be safe. However, depending upon the capacity and behavior of the columns of a reinforced importance of structure the hinges after IO range concrete frame structure is an important factor that may also need to be retrofitted. Here, IO is the limit determines the performance of the whole structure

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for Immediate Occupancy, LS is the limit for Life IV PRESENT ANALYSIS safety and CP is the limit for Collapse Prevention. Pushover analysis is carried out for 4 typical III SHORT COLUMN frames. In which two cases are considered namely, One floor case (Ground floor case) and Ground Many situations with short column effect arise in with one floor case (G+1, floor case) In the both buildings. When a building is rested on sloped cases, a 2-D regular frame (bench mark frame) of ground (Figure B (a)), during earthquake shaking beam and column sizes 0.3 m X 0.6 m and height all columns move horizontally by the same 4m is designed as per IS456-2000, were considered amount along with the floor slab at a particular for pushover analysis and performance of structure level (this is called rigid floor diaphragm under severe horizontal loads is studied. Later, action). If short and tall columns exist within the three other similar frames (which are similar to same storey level, then the short columns attract bench mark frame) but intentionally one column of several times larger earthquake force and suffer ground floor is made shorter by more damage as compared to taller ones. The 1m,2m,3m,respectively in both cases to produce short column effect also occurs in columns that the short column and long column effect. and support mezzanine floors or loft slabs that are performance of structure for the all four frames in added in between two regular floors (Figures B two cases are analysed for lateral forces and results (b)). There is another special situation in obtained from all the cases are compared to buildings when short-column effect occurs. understand the effect of short column and long Consider a wall (masonry or RC) of partial column effect on seismic behavior of structures. height built to fit a window over the remaining Fig. 1 and 2 presents the details about the four height. The adjacent columns behave as short frames including the benchmark frame. columns due to presence of these walls. In many cases, other columns in the same storey are of regular height, as there are no walls adjoining them. When the floor slab moves horizontally during an earthquake, the upper ends of these columns undergo the same displacement (Figure B (c)). Fig. 1 Case I, Short column at ground floor with various

length

Fig. 2 Case II, Short column at ground floor with various

Building with short Walls with short and long length columns columns

Fig.(B) Various Cases of short column and long column V DESIGN DETAILS effect The frames were initially analyzed using ETABS, and the design was carried out as per IS 456:2000 in ETABS. The design details of structures, with ground floor one side column is short, are presented in Tables 5.1 to Table 5.2. In the tables, the details of cross section, percentage steel in

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compression and in tension for beams and columns on different floors are presented. It can be observed from the reinforcement details in column, that in both Case 1 and Case 2 percentage of steel remains same, and there is a little variation in percentage of steel in beams.

Fig.5 Pushover curve for short Fig.6 Pushover curve for VI STATIC LOAD ON THE STRUCTURE column of 2m length(Case I) short column of 3m length(Case I) Dead load of slab=0.15 x 25 kN/m3 = 3.75 kN/m2

Floor finish= 1.0 kN/m2

Dead load due to slab =4.75 kN/m

Wall load =0.23 x 4 x20 = 18.4 kN/m Say 19 kN/m

Total load on floor slab=12 + 19+ 19 =50 kN/m

Parapet load = 0.23 x 0.6 x 20 x 4=11 kN.

Fig.7 Pushover curve for Fig.8 Pushover curve for short columns of equal length (Case column of 1m length (Case II) II)

Fig.9 Pushover curve for Fig.10 Pushover curve for short column of 2m length short column of 3m length (Case II) (Case II)

Fig.11 Pushover curve for Fig.12 Pushover curve for columns of equal length short column of 1m (Case I) length(Case I)

Fig.3 Pushover curve for Fig.4 Pushover curve for columns of equal length (Case short column of 1m I) length(Case I)

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short column of 2m length short column of 3m length (Case I) (Case II)

VII RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fig (a) presents the generalized pushover curve consists of spectral acceleration along vertical axis and spectral displacement along horizontal axis. It

has two components namely capacity curve and Fig.13 Pushover curve for Fig.14 Pushover curve for demand curve. Capacity curve represents the short column of 2m length short column of 3m length capacity of a structural system in terms of base (Case I) (Case I) shear and roof displacement. Demand curve represents the demand under a given seismic force for known damping and soil conditions. Here, the capacity curve is represented by A, B, C, D and E which suggests different stages in a building which experienced under increased horizontal force representing earthquake effect. Based on structural and functional requirements three different demarcations are represented they are 1. Immediate occupancy (IO) 2. Life Safety (LS) 3. Collapse

prevention (CP). Accordingly, the following are the Fig.15 Pushover curve for Fig.16 Pushover curve for four states a structure can experience in terms of columns of equal length short column of 1m length increase in vulnerability they are operational state, (Case II) (Case II) demand control state, limited control state and hazard state. Normally, the structure experiences elastic linear deformation from A to B beyond which the increase in load carrying capacity is non- linear and ultimate load is reached at C. At this stage there will be a drop in the load carrying capacity and every structure has minimum strength called residual strength to which it will settle. Pushover analysis will indicate to what state the given structure reaches under assigned load, it is represented by pushover hinges of different stages. Further, the point of intersection between capacity curve and demand curve is called the performance Fig.17 Pushover curve for Fig.18 Pushover curve for point whose co-ordinates provide the information short column of 2m length short column of 3m length (Case II) (Case II) about the seismic performance of a given structure under a design earthquake load.

Fig 3 to Fig 6 and Fig 7 to Fig 10 are plotted to study the influence of short column on seismic performance of frame from pushover analysis. Pushover curve consists of base shear along vertical axis and roof displacement along horizontal axis. The curves are plotted for Case I and Case II. Each case had 4 frames, one with columns of equal height on both sides and three fames with varying column heights on one side Fig.19 Pushover curve for Fig.20 Pushover curve for namely 1m, 2m and 3m. Case I is for frame with 141

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ground floor only and Case II is for frame with of 1. In frame with ground floor only, the natural G+1 floors. period of short column system is low.

1. As the length of the column increases the base 2. In frame with G+1 floor also the natural period shear carrying capacity decreases. But, short of short column system is low, but vulnerability is columns fail at lower displacements in Case I relatively more in this case.

2. (G+1) floor frame takes less base shear than VIII CONCLUDING REMARKS frame with only ground floor and experiences The effect of short and long column on the overall lower displacement, showing vulnerability of performance of the multistoried frame against presence of short column at ground floor level in earthquake, such variation in height of column will multistoried frames. not appreciably effect under static load. However under dynamic lateral load such as earthquake, Fig 11 to Fig 14 and Fig 15 to Fig 18 are plotted to many instances of short column failure in the study the effect of short column from seismic structure are identified during past earthquakes. hinges. Seismic hinge chart consists of number of steps involved along vertical axis and number of From the results it can be observed that the hinges formed for each step along horizontal axis. vulnerability of overall structure increase when the The charts are plotted for the two cases, namely, frame with only ground floor and frame with G+1 one side of the column of a structure is very small, floor. Each case had 4 frames, one with columns of and it gradually reduces when there is increase in equal height on both sides and three fames with height of short column. Hence the care should be varying column heights on one side namely 1m, 2m taken to avoid the short columns in a structure. and 3m. Indian seismic codal provision‘s (IS 1893-2002) 1. In frame with only ground floor, the numbers of doesn‘t give any details or suggestions about short collapsible seismic hinges are more in case of short column and long column effect, hence codal columns. provisions required through scrutiny. 2. Life safety to collapse prevention level of hinges is few in number in case of short column showing REFERENCES vulnerability to earthquake forces. [1] ETABS, (2009), ―Reference Manual‖, Computers 3. Frame with G+1 floor experiences less number and Structures, Inc. Berkeley, California, USA. of collapsible hinges and number of steps involved [2] Gazetas, G., (1991), ―Formulas and Charts for Impedances of Surface and Embedded Foundations‖, are more than the case of frame with ground floor Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, vol.117 (9), only. But in a particular case, the numbers of ASCE. collapsible level of hinges are more for frames with [3] IS: 1893-2002 (part 1), Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures, Fifth short columns. revision, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. [4] Prasad, S. K., Srikanta Prasad, S., Syed Shakeeb Ur Rahman and Chandradhara, G. P., (2010) ―Effect Of Fig 19 to Fig 20 was plotted to study the effect Soil Stiffness On Natural Period Of Rigid Structural Frame System‖, 14th symposium on Earthquake frame with short column on natural period of the Engineering, IIT Roorkee, December 17-19, 2010. system. The graphs are plotted with natural period [5] Jag Mohan Humar, David lau, and Jean - Robert (2001) ―performance of buildings along vertical axis and stiffness along horizontal during the 2001 Bhuj Earthquake‖, NRC, axis. The curves are plotted for Case 1 and Case 2. Canada. Each case had 4 frames, one with columns of equal [6] Murthy, C.V.R (2005) ―Learning Earthquake Design And Construction‖, Resonance, Indian Institute of height on both sides and three fames with varying technology, Kanpur. column heights on one side namely 1m, 2m and [7] Shaik Kabeer Ahmed and S. K. Prasad (2011) ―Influence of Soft Storey on Seismic Performance of 3m. Case 1 is for frame with ground floor only and Building Frames Using Pushover Analysis‖, National Case 2 is for frame with of G+1 floors. Conference on Recent Development in Civil Engineering, VVIET, Mysore. [8] Murty C.V.R, ―EARTHQUAKE TIPS‖, Learning Earthquake Design and Construction, IITK-BMTPC.

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Probability and Challenges in the Field of Robotics: A Survey 1Rajitram Singh, 2 Vinay Kumar Singh, 3 Ankur dwevedi SVIT, Indore. [email protected]

Abstract: Robotics has been named a key science of the developing relation to biological systems. This 21st century. The means and methods of Mechatronics development is illustrated by terms such as and robotics are scattering to other trade sciences, and behavior, emotions, or intelligence, taken out of to medical areas, contribution giant chances for their biological context and used to describe original products. The progress of robots into technical features and properties. For example, the intelligent equipment touch upon issues such as the self-understanding of humans, upon socio-economic, term ―intelligent‖ is being used to describe legal, and ethical issues. It may be excellent to step advanced robot behavior, maybe still rather as a back for a flash and reflect on objectives, on chances, marketing term, but the idea certainly is to give it and on boundaries and contentious aspects to be more meaning. It is obvious that there are high considered. Examples for application in medication, expectations as to the future potential of robotics, robots in service and edutainment, robots for work in even euphoric ones and somewhat unrealistically micro- and nano techniques, and extensions to topics (Moravec, 1988). On the other side, there are embedded robotics will be presented skeptical views, seeing robotics as one of the most

powerful technologies of the 21st century, together I. INTRODUCTION with genetic engineering and nanotech (Joy, 2000), Robotics is vicinity where a number of methodical threatening to make humans an endangered species. fields meet, and this fact already is a source of A more moderate and realistic, but still fascinating magnetism for the involved scientists, for users, approach has been taken by a study group, and the public. Expectations run high and in consisting of experts from engineering, medical, diverse directions. The word ―robot‖ itself comes philosophical and legal sciences, discussing the from prose and was created in the twenties by provoking question whether humans could be Czech poet, Karel Capek, in one of his plays, a play substituted by robots (Chris taller et al., 2001). that ended tragically. Since these times, robots have The paper will give examples of the actual state of been subjects of mind. The reality of industrial the art by referring to nano-manipulation, a human robots only came in the sixties introduced the leg PUMA robot as a freely programmable, universal, Prosthesis, and by looking at developments in the handling device. With it came automation in medical area, and into embedded robotics. The manufacturing industry, economic issues, and paper will present some aspects and results social concern about human labor replaced by discussed by that study group cited above, it will machines. The versatility of these robot machines comment on robot intelligence, on expected has been increasing, largely due to their benefits of future robot technology, as well as on continuously increasing capability of information socio-economic, legal and ethical constraints. processing. The ultimate goal was the autonomous robot. However, as the application field for robots II. TECHNOLOGY is widening, and the robot is coming out of the Robotics can be regarded as a typical and factory halls, new challenges are seen, and even a representative part of Mechatronics, as a cutting change of paradigm is taking shape. The robot is edge technology in this rapidly expanding research expected to be an extended, intelligent tool for the field (Schweitzer, 1996). Mechatronics combines in human, it should become a partner instead of being a synergetic way the classical engineering a ―competitor‖ in fulfilling tasks, and there is a 143

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disciplines mechanical and electrical engineering the non-linear, model based, adaptive control that and computer science, leading to new kinds of makes novel machine tools with parallel kinematic products. It can be stated that any technical structures feasible, together with hard real-time progress in robotics will quickly spread over to operating systems, being used already in mobile products of everyday life and may eventually robots. On the other side, bio-inspired behavioral initiate further progress. Automotive technology control will lead to intelligent mobile robots for modern cars, for example, in making advanced moving smoothly in unstructured environments. use of sensors for controlling their dynamics and Ideas for such a kind of control architecture are assisting in safe driving are following ideas from derived from motor control in animals. The relation robotics (Hiller et al., 2001). In addition to that, the between robotics and biology, however, goes need for low-priced sensors in mass-produced cars beyond that and will be considered subsequently. has subsequently spurred the industrialization of micro technology in a very sustainable way. MAN-MACHINE RELATIONS Methods of robotics and Mechatronics serve, beyond the individual product, as guidelines for the Obviously, the relation of man to machine will be development of complete systems. Thus, the name the key issue in dealing with intelligent machines. system robotics or embedded robotics has been It has become a most complex area with technical, coined, to describe the integration of sensors, psychological, and socio-economic aspects, and its control, actuators and information processing into a implications are leading to a change of paradigm in system. This can be a car, an automated traffic the objectives of robotics and to a new definition of control system, a military air defence system, a robot. medical service and human care systems, or the safety and energy management system of a III. COMMUNICATION AND EMOTIONAL building. There are already names such as BEHAVIOR cartronics, or domotronics, characterizing these The interaction between human and computer is new fields (Schweitzer, 2003). seen today as one of the topics in computer science A very promising area is nano-techniques. (Shneidermann, 1998), and these approaches Results from physics research are already available, certainly will form an essential part of the but exploiting and using them on an industrial scale communication methods between human and robot needs highly automated processes, it needs the as well. In addition to that, safety aspects will be of transfer of technology known from robotics. In much more importance, as a misunderstanding or a addition, this technology will be the basis for novel mistake in the communication can have most products in medical techniques, for techno- serious consequences. Furthermore, the activity and implants, or for prostheses. An actual research mobility that can be exerted by a robot will allow a topic in robotics is the development of ―soft wider range of communication modalities. The computing‖, i.e. learning algorithms and the robot can turn its attention actively to points of interpretation of uncertain data from unstructured interest, it can explore strange situations, and it can environments with methods such as fuzzy logic, actually ―bring‖ information or objects. The neural nets or genetic algorithms. The spread-over observer, seeing a real, to smart machine technology, with self-calibration, Moving robot will get different impressions than self-diagnostics, and self-tuning control loops can just by looking at some animated simulation from already be seen. This will lead to improved safety, virtual reality. A nice example is the toy dog from reliability, and maintenance procedures for such Sony. It is even supposed to express ―emotions‖, smart machines, and there the expected economic for example by wagging its tail. Emotions may play benefits are obvious (Schweitzer, 1998). Another an important role for man-machine communication, important area that is profiting from the advances expressing expectations, summarizing rational in robotics is the control of complex dynamical thinking, condensing information and representing systems. Examples are humanoid robots, as well as it in an easily understandable way. This desire to vehicles, construction machinery, machine tools, or generate human-like communications may be an prostheses for limbs and hands. On one side, it is 144

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argument for building humanoid robots whose will influence the way of automation and the body motion could carry ―emotional qualities‖ that design of future machines. We will need machines might be more easily interpreted by humans. which can work in an autonomous way up to a certain degree of complexity, and in critical situations or on a higher level of autonomy the IV. ALLOCATION OF WORK AND necessary interactions with the human operator or AUTHORITY user have to be facilitated and structured. Another issue in designing the cooperation between man and machine is the allocation of work VI. APPLICATIONS and the authority to make decisions when man and Intelligent robots will offer novel chances machine are jointly solving a task. Our capabilities in various ways and for different areas. The to use automated machinery for carrying out subsequent selection of applications gives some complex tasks is increasing, and at the same time, comments on the chances offered: we are aware of the limitations in the autonomy 1. Robots for the extension of the human work with which machines can or should perform these range are being used in areas such as space tasks. It therefore appears natural to design (Hirzinger, 1999, and in Chris taller et al., machines that can co-operate in an "intelligent" 2001, p. 46 ff.), underwater, and the micro- way with their human users, thus extending the and nano- world. An example will be given range of the human and making best use of the below. capabilities of the machine. Such human oriented 2. Robots for the alleviation of humans from hard machinery will have novel features in their or dangerous work will be used as intelligent behavior, related to their interaction with humans. tools in complex environments. Examples are The allocation of work between human and machinery for construction work, in tunneling machine is a problem that is being discussed and (Honegger, 1997), sewage channeling and will influence the way of automation and the cleaning, waste disposal, de-mining, de- design of future machines. We will need machines construction of nuclear power-plants. which can work in an autonomous way up to a 3. Service robots, serving humans for making life certain degree of complexity, and in critical easier, will be built for delivery services in situations or on a higher level of autonomy the office environments (Tschichold, 2001) and necessary interactions with the human operator or hospitals, cleaning, or lawn mowing. An user have to be facilitated and structured. economic profit is difficult to assess, as they are most often directly competing with V. ALLOCATION OF WORK AND AUTHORITY relatively cheap and still somewhat attractive Another issue in designing the cooperation human labor. between man and machine is the allocation of work 4. Edutainment-robots (for education and and the authority to make decisions when man and entertainment) will probably be the first ones machine are jointly solving a task. Our capabilities to introduce advanced concepts of to use automated machinery for carrying out ―intelligence‖. They have the advantage that complex tasks is increasing, and at the same time, malfunctions usually do not endanger the user we are aware of the limitations in the autonomy and are of no serious economic consequences, with which machines can or should perform these and that they are therefore very suitable to try tasks. It therefore appears natural to design out novel ideas, even in mass production. machines that can co-operate in an "intelligent" Playing football with robots is just one of the way with their human users, thus extending the most popular topics in this field. It is typical range of the human and making best use of the that computer games are increasingly capabilities of the machine. Such human oriented integrating artificial intelligence into their machinery will have novel features in their programs as demonstrated for example by the behaviour, related to their interaction with humans. game ―Republic – The Revolution‖ (Eidos, The allocation of work between human and 2003). machine is a problem that is being discussed and

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5. Medical techniques are a dominant research day? The arguments converge to the conclusion area in robotics today. It includes prostheses that humans will make use of advanced robotics for limbs and hands, artificial organs for audio tools in an evolutionary way. The relation between and vision sensing, other techno-implants, man and machine will be a most important issue. It surgery robot assistants, in particular for will require efforts in the technology of endoscopic surgery, robot helping assistants communication, and in the discussion of socio- for handicapped, for rehabilitation, or for the economic, legal and ethical issues. On one side, aged to enable them to stay in their familiar communication will make use of the progress of environment as long as possible. Some classical tools for communicating with computers. examples are given below. In addition, the non-linguistic communication, the 6. Embedded robotics is an extension of information transfer through motion and gesture, machine-oriented robotics to systems. through emotional expressions and the Applications range from‚ cartronics‘, phenomenology of humanoids, will support the ‚domotronics‘, to medical systems, and to information flow between man and machine and advanced man-machine-interfaces making use lead to some kind of ―understanding‖. Progress will of wearable computing equipment. A survey is come through edutainment robots. Socio-economic given in (Schweitzer, 2003). aspects will come up in allocating work between man and machine. Suggestions are being made for VII. CONCLUSIONS the simultaneous optimization of ―Man, Robotics is a key science of this century. The Techniques and Organization ―. Examples for development of robots into ―intelligent‖ machines allocating authority, the decision making, in joint and systems will offer chances; however, tasks of man and machine are shown. The classical challenges will have to be overcome. Intelligent objective of robotics, to build a robot which can robots should be able to communicate with users work autonomously and which can do the work of and work as intelligent tools in a co-operative way man, is undergoing a change of paradigm: Instead in the same work-space. The paper presents some of building machines that can do the work of aspects and results discussed by a study group on humans, we should build machines that can do the robotics, consisting of experts from engineering work which humans cannot do, or do not want to and natural sciences, philosophy, medicine, and do. A robot definition which considers this trend to legal science on ―Perspectives on human ways of intelligent machinery is given. In such a complex, acting in future society‖ (Chris taller et al., 2001). far reaching and promising area as robotics it is It will comment on robot intelligence, on expected unavoidable that ethical and legal constraints have benefits of future robot technology, as well as on to be set. Ideas and suggestions are briefly socio-economic, legal and ethical constraints, and it presented, including some philosophical comments will give some examples. Here, ―intelligence‖, and on the indiscriminate use of anthropological terms in particular the intelligence of robots, has been such as ‗conscience‘, ‗autonomy‘, ‗behavior‘, defined in a rather anthropocentric way, according which can lead to a failure of appreciation of basic to the needs of humans co-operating with such differences between man and machine and to robots and using them as intelligent tools. problematic lines of reasoning. A classification of Subsequently, trends and expected benefits of such potential applications for intelligent robots and the intelligent robots are addressed. Technology related chances offered by them is listed. The actual state to and growing from robotics has been discussed. It of the art is shown by some examples, referring to includes areas such as mechatronics, automotive nano-manipulation, human leg prosthesis, and by concepts, micro and nano techniques, smart looking at developments in the medical area. It machine technology, soft computing, embedded appears to be appropriate to leave predictions or robotics, and dynamics and control of complex, prophesies about the far future to visionaries, to bio-inspired motion systems. Relations to biology poets, and artists. An impressive variety of short and neuroscience play an important role in defining summaries are collected for example by Crawford robotics trends, and in giving an answer to the and Edgar, eds. (1997). question: will humans be replaced by robots some 146

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REFERENCES [6] Christaller, T., et al., 2001, ―Robotik – Perspektiven [1] Akella, P. et al., 1999, ―Cobots for the automobile für menschliches Handeln in der zukünftigen assembly line‖, Proc. Internat. Conf. on Robotics Gesellschaft‖, Wissenschaftsethik und and Automation ICRA ‘99, Detroit, pp. 728-733. Technikfolgenbeurteilung Band 14, Springer-Verlag [2] Asimov, I., 1986, ―Robot Dreams‖, New York, Berlin, 280 p. ACE Books. [7] Codourey, A. et al., 1995, ―A Robot System for [3] Asimov, I., Frenkel, K.A., 1985, ―Robots - Automated Handling in Micro-World,‖ Proc. machines in man's imagination‖, New York: IROS'95 IEEE/RSJ Internat. Conf. on Intelligent Harmony Books, Crown Publ. Inc., 240 p. Robots and Systems, Pittsburgh, August 5-9, pp. [4] Austen, J., 2002, ―Computerized limbs is next for III.185-190. artificial limbs‖, The New York Times, January 3. [8] CO-ME, 2003, ―Computer Aided and Image Guided [5] Christaller, T., 1999, Cognitive robotics. A new Medical Interventions‖, http://co-me.ch/ approach to artificial intelligence, Artificial Life and [9] Crawford, A., Edgar, R. (eds.), 1997, ―Transit Robotics, 3. Lounge, Wake-up Calls and Travellers‘.

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Drying Rate Constant of Commonly Used Vegetables Using Hot Air Dryer K.S.Jairaj and K.Srikant

Abstract— As most of the investigators who have [4]. Thermal drying, which is most attempted to dry vegetables are either from the field of food sciences or from agricultural sciences, they have commonly used for drying agricultural concentrated mainly on the determination of drying products, involves vapourisation of characteristics. Therefore, an attempt has been made moisture within the product by heat and its through this paper to determine the drying rate constant whose numerical value directly indicates the rate at subsequent evaporation. Thus, thermal which a particular vegetable could be dried. A hot air drying involves simultaneous heat and dryer fabricated in our departmental workshop was used mass transfer [5]. for the experimentation. The drying air temperature was maintained at 60°C throughout the test. The dryer was operated in natural convection mode using chimney India receives an enormous amount of effect which created an exhaust airflow rate of 0.72 m/s. solar energy: on an average of about 5 Results obtained from this experiment would enable us to kWh/m2 day for over 300 days/year [6]. compare the drying rates of some vegetables. Drying rate constant values are decided by the type, size, structure, Natural sun drying of vegetables is still composition, initial moisture content and the final practiced largely unchanged from ancient moisture content suitable for prolonged storage. The experimentally obtained drying rate constants of the times in many tropical and subtropical sample vegetables ranged from 0.030073 to 0.093262 h-1. countries. It is traditionally practiced All the dried vegetables were observed to possess the because of the negligible cost of specified quality parameters. The hot air dryer used in the experimentation was also found to be energy processing. efficient. In open sun drying, part of the solar

Keywords— Drying characteristics, Drying rate constant, radiation may penetrate the material and Hot air dryer, Vegetable drying. be absorbed within the product itself, thus generating heat in the interior of the IV. INTRODUCTION product as well as at its surface, and DRYING is quite a simple, ancient skill. It thereby enhancing heat transfer. The solar is one of the easily accessible and the most radiation absorptance of the product forms widespread processing technology [1]. an important factor in direct solar drying Food processing has become a dire [7]. The vegetable spread as a thin layer is necessity, specifically for fruits and exposed to the sun and turned over at vegetables due to their reduced shelf life regular intervals to obtain a uniformly and seasonal availability [2]. Water, a dried product. This is the cheapest and major constituent of vegetables, is most adopted method in India, without any important in controlling rates of capital investment but involves enormous deteriorative reactions, including those manual labour. In this method, there is resulting in nutrient losses [3]. Drying is scope for contamination of the dried one of the methods used to preserve vegetable. The direct exposure to intense vegetables by lowering moisture levels sun radiation may also result in colour below which microorganisms cannot grow deterioration and unexpected weather

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conditions may further worsen the MR a exp( kt) situation [8]. (2)

Use of industrial dryers for vegetable provides a good prediction of the drying drying helped in improving quality of the characteristics of green seedless grapes dried product. However, the large initial [9]. In Equation 2, ‗k‘ is the drying rate and running costs of electrical energy constant. Drying rate constant describes based and alternative fossil fuel powered the mechanism of heat and mass transport dryers presented such financial barriers phenomena and investigates the effect of that small farmers could rarely adopt certain process variables on the moisture them. removal process [10]. Drying rate constant ‗k‘ is the most suitable quantity in design An economical hot air dryer fabricated in optimization and in situations where in a the department workshop, when tested for large number of iterative model grape drying initially proved to be calculations are required. This stems from efficient. The same hot air dryer was used the fact that the drying rate constant to conduct drying tests on different embodies all the transport properties into a vegetables. A variety of vegetables were simple exponential function, which is the chosen for the drying test wherein some of solution of the equation : them were cut into pieces before drying and some were dried in their existing under constant form. If results of this drying test prove that the dryer would be efficient for drying air condition. On the other hand, vegetable drying also, then the hot air the classical partial differential equations, dryer would be altered, modified and which analytically describe the four designed to work as a solar dryer. prevailing transport phenomena during drying (internal-external, heat-mass

transfer) require considerable time for obtaining the numerical solution and V. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING hence are not attractive for iterative Drying rate may be expressed using the calculations [11]. The drying rate constant thin layer drying equation: depends on both material and drying air dM k M M properties, as it is a phenomenological dt t e property representative of several transport (1) phenomena. Therefore, it is a function of material moisture content, temperature, Where Me is the equilibrium moisture size, as well as drying air humidity, content and Mt is the moisture content temperature and velocity. at any time t

Investigators describing the moisture movement in fruits and vegetables have VI. MATERIALS AND METHODS proposed several mathematical models. A. Material Preparation However, Singh et al., (2012) have shown that the exponential model Vegetable samples required for this study were purchased from the local Choitram Vegetable market, Indore. Red 149

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chilly, Cauliflower and Tomato were stored in cool enclosures prior to their use. B. Instrumentation

Figure 2 shows the laboratory scale hot air dryer used for the test. It worked in the natural convection mode by chimney effect. A wire mesh tray was placed at the top, inside the drying chamber.

Air outlet

Chimney

Drying tray with

Vegetables

Bottom plate Fig. 1 Vegetable samples before drying with Heater Before conducting the drying test, red Air inlet Air inlet chilly and tomato were thoroughly washed with tap water and rolled on a tissue paper Stand to remove surface water. Two sizeable pieces of Cauliflower were cut off from Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of Laboratory scale hot air dryer the inner portion. A few similar sized red used for drying vegetable (not to scale). chillies were also selected. Two uniform sized onion bulbs were chosen and their A 250 W electrical heater was fixed to an top stem part as well as the bottom hard aluminum plate fitted at the bottom of the portion of the root part was cut off. The dryer. MECO Power Guard meter was upper most dried layer was peeled off and used to record all the input electrical cut into four equal sized pieces. The onion parameters. Pt-100 temperature sensors pieces were rolled over a tissue paper to were used along with a 16 channel data dry out moisture oozing out. Tomatoes logger supplied by Ambetronics were cut into four equal pieces and rolled Engineers, Mumbai, India. KUSUM- over a tissue paper to remove the inside MECO 909 make Thermo-anemometer liquid. Initial weight of four vegetable was used to measure the airflow rate. samples chosen for drying were: Red Weight loss of the vegetable due to drying chilly: 26.60 g ; Cauliflower : 39.62 g ; was measured using OHAUS - PAG 214 Onion : 47.55 g ; Tomato : 138.13 g analytical weighing scale. All the above mentioned equipment were calibrated Drying tests were carried out during the before conducting the drying test. month of August 2014. Ambient temperature inside the laboratory was around 28°C during the drying test.

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C. Experimental Procedure

The initial moisture content of all vegetable samples was determined by initially weighing and then placing uniform sized red chilly, two pieces of cauliflower, two pieces of onion and two pieces of tomato in a hot air oven maintained at a constant temperature of 110ºC till they attained nearly constant weight. The vegetables after removal from the oven were placed in a desiccator to cool them down before weighing. The FIG. 3 DRYING CHARACTERISTICS OF VEGETABLES DRIED IN A LABORATORY SCALE HOT AIR DRYER AT A TEMPERATURE OF calculated initial moisture content on wet 60°C. basis were : Red chilly : 86.21% ; Onion : According to the characteristics 88.67 % ; Cauliflower : 91.68 % ; Tomato obtained, it is observed that the drying : 95.94 % process occurred in the range of falling The electrical heater was switched ON and rate period. after the drying tray attained a temperature of 60ºC, the vegetable samples were With an initial moisture content of 86.21 spread in a single layer on the mesh tray. %, the time required to reach a final moisture content of 12.43 % was 10 hours Weight loss was noted for one specifically for Red chilly. Cauliflower with an initial marked sample from each variety moisture content of 91.68 % required 16 vegetable at regular intervals of one hour hours to reach a final moisture content of initially and at regular intervals of two 8.20 %. Tomato with an initial moisture hours later on. Drying was continued until content of 95.94 % required 20 hours to the vegetables attained a nearly constant reach a final moisture content of 4.85 % weight. Electrical energy supplied to the and Onion with an initial moisture content hot air dryer was recorded by Power of 88.67 % required 28 hours to reach a Guard meter. The drying airflow rate final moisture content of 12.32 %. measured at the outlet of chimney was 0.72 m/s. Considering the values of moisture content after a drying time of 10 hours, instantaneous moisture content in Red VII. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION chilly was the lowest and that in Onion A. Drying Characteristics was the highest. Drying time required for Onion to reach the safe moisture content The curves of moisture ratio versus level for prolonged storage was found to drying time obtained for all the vegetables be high and decreased in the following are shown in Figure 3. It is observed that order : Drying time Onion > Drying time the vegetables selected for drying had Tomato > Drying time Cauliflower > Drying different initial moisture contents and their time Red chilly. final moisture content for prolonged shelf life were also different. Red chilly required very less drying time to reach a safe moisture content level for 151

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prolonged storage. Drying times recorded Drying time of Cauliflower : 16 hours, were 10, 16, 20 and 28 hours respectively Drying rate constant of Cauliflower : for Red chilly, Cauliflower, Tomato and 0.068838 h-1 Onion. Taking the value of drying time Drying time of Tomato : 20 hours, Drying required for Red chilly as reference, it is rate constant of Tomato : 0.069599 h-1 observed that the drying time increased by Though the drying time of Cauliflower is 60 %, 100 % and 180 % for Cauliflower, less than that of Tomato, it was observed Tomato, and Onion respectively. that the drying rate constant value of Tomato was higher than that of Cauliflower. The possible reason for this B. Drying Rate Constant observation is that the initial moisture content of Tomato was 95.94 % and its When the vegetable samples chosen for safe moisture content level for prolonged drying test were compared for their storage was 4.85 %, while the values of structure, composition and size, it was Cauliflower were 91.68 % and 8.20 % observed that they were quite different respectively. During sample preparation, from each other. Some of the samples Tomato was cut into four pieces to were cut into pieces in order to reduce the enhance its drying rate, while in the case drying time . Technical observations of Cauliflower it was not. Taking the indicate that permeability and porosity of drying rate constant of Red chilly as the selected vegetable decides the rate of reference, it was observed that value of mass transfer. As permeability and drying rate constant decreased by 25 %, 26 porosity in case of Red chilly was more % and 68 % for Tomato, Cauliflower and the mass transfer was high. Onion respectively. It has been observed that vegetables requiring lower drying time will have C. Quality parameters of Vegetable higher values of drying rate constant and Vegetable samples in dried form those requiring higher drying time will fulfilled all the basic requirements of a have lower values of drying rate constant. dried product and were observed to It has been observed that Red chilly has possess all the specified quality the highest value of drying rate constant parameters. ‗k’ and it decreases in the following order

: k Red chilly > k Tomato > k Cauliflower > k Onion. The values of drying rate constant obtained were 0.093262, 0.069599, 0.068838 and 0.030073 h-1 respectively for Red chilly, Tomato, Cauliflower and Onion.

When drying time and drying rate constant values of Cauliflower and Tomato were compared, the following observations were made :

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Statistical results such as correlation coefficient were observed to be greater than the acceptable value of 0.99 and standard error values were found to be quite low. High values of correlation coefficient and low values of standard error indicate that the exponential model satisfactorily describes the drying characteristics of the selected vegetables.

E. Realisation of drying rate constant values-by curve fitting

Equation MR = a exp (– kt) can be written as log MR = – kt + a. Fig. 4 Vegetable samples after drying A plot of log MR versus time is a straight

line and slope of the straight-line yields D. Drying Curves fitted into Exponential drying rate constant ‗k‘. The values of log model MR and drying time ‗t‘ were fitted into From the drying test results, value of the linear model using Curve Expert moisture ratio and drying time in hours Version 1.3, the parameter ‗k‘, correlation were fitted into the exponential model y coefficient and standard error values = a exp(kt) using Curve Expert Version obtained have been tabulated in Table II. 1.3. Non-linear regression analysis was carried out and estimates of the model parameters ‗a‘, ‗k‘ as well as correlation TABLE II coefficient (R2) and standard error (χ2) DRYING RATE CONSTANT OF VEGETABLES AND obtained have been tabulated in Table I. STATISTICAL PARAMETERS OBTAINED BY FITTING LOG MR Vs TIME IN A LINEAR MODEL USING CURVE EXPERT VERSION 1.3 Name of Value Value of Value Value

TABLE I Vegetable of a k (h-1) of R2 of χ2 PARAMETERS OF EXPONENTIAL MODEL OBTAINED BY NON-LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR VEGETABLES USING CURVE EXPERT VERSION 1.3 Red chilly -0.042905 0.093262 0.990210 0.044679 Name of Value Value Value Value Tomato -0.029165 0.069599 0.998131 0.028108

2 2 Vegetable of a of k of R of χCauliflower -0.004672 0.068838 0.997103 0.027621

Onion 0.038548 0.030073 0.998966 0.012665

Red chilly 1.0449937 - 0.194307 0.991866 0.040860 Tomato 1.0253284 - 0.149409 0.998905 0.015244 The values of drying rate constant of the selected vegetable samples ranged from Cauliflower 1.0126772 - 0.157577 0.999331 0.011373 0.030073 to 0.093262 h-1. Onion 0.9425774 - 0.073373 0.997341 0.019774 153

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[2] S.P. Singh, K.S. Jairaj, K. Srikant. (2014). Influence of variation in temperature of dipping solution on drying time and colour parameters of VIII. CONCLUSION Thompson seedless grapes. International Journal of Agricultural and Food Science. 4(2),pp. 36-42.  Drying time required to reach the safe moisture content for prolonged storage [3] I. Saguy, M. Karel. (1980). Modelling of quality deterioration during food processing and storage. of Red chilly, Cauliflower, Tomato and Food Technology. 78,pp. 84. Onion were 10, 16, 20 and 28 hours respectively. [4] Mahmutoglu Teslime, Ferhunde Emir, Y. Birol Saygi. (1996). Sun/solar drying of differently  With drying time of Red chilly taken as treated grapes and storage stability of dried grapes. reference, drying time of Cauliflower, Journal of Food Engineering. 29 (3-4),pp. 289-300. Tomato and Onion increased by 60 %, [5] O.V. Ekechukwu. (1999). Review of solar-energy 100 % and 180 % respectively. drying systems I: an overview of drying principles  Value of drying rate constant obtained and theory. Energy Conversion and Management. 40,pp. 593-613. were Red chilly: 0.093262 h-1 ; Tomato: 0.069599 h-1 ; Cauliflower: 0.068838 h-1 [6] M.S. Sodha, Chandra Ram. (1994). Solar drying ; Onion: 0.030073 h-1 systems and their testing procedures: a review. Energy Conversion and Management. 35 (3),pp.  With drying rate constant of Red chilly 219-267. taken as reference, drying rate constant [7] O.V. Ekechukwu, B. Norton. (1999). Review of of Tomato, Cauliflower and Onion solar-energy drying systems II: an overview of decreased by 25 %, 26 % and 68 % solar drying technology. Energy Conversion and respectively. Management. 40,pp. 615-655.  The exponential model satisfactorily [8] D.R. Pangavhane, R.L. Sawhney. (2002). describes the drying characteristics of all Review of research and development work on solar dryers for grape drying. Energy Conversion the selected vegetables. and Management. 43,pp. 45-61.  The hot air dryer used for drying vegetables was found to be energy [9] S.P. Singh, K.S. Jairaj, K. Srikant. (2012). Universal drying rate constant of seedless grapes: A efficient. Review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy  The hot air dryer will be altered, Reviews. 16(8),pp. 6295-6302.

modified and designed into a natural [10] S.P. Singh, K.S. Jairaj, K. Srikant. (2014). Effect of convection type indirect solar dryer. variation in temperature of alkaline dipping solution on drying time and quality of black seedless grapes. Accounts of Biotechnology Research. 1(1),pp. 1-7. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors duly acknowledge the [11] M.K. Krokida, E. Foundoukidis, Z. Maroulis. (2004). Drying constant: literature data compilation laboratory facilities provided by Shri. for foodstuffs. Journal of Food Engineering. 61,pp. Vinod Kumar Agarwal, Chairman, 321-330.

Chamelidevi Group of Institutions, Indore, India. K. S. Jairaj was born in Hubli, Karnataka, India, on October 14, 1956. He completed his B.E. Electrical REFERENCES Power from Siddaganga [1] K.S. Jairaj, S.P. Singh, K. Srikant. (2009). A review Institute of Technology, of solar dryers developed for grape drying. Solar Tumkur, Karnataka. He pursued his M.E. Power Energy. 83(9),pp. 1698-1712. Electronics from P.D.A College of Engineering, Gulbarga, Karnataka. At present he is pursuing his Ph.D. under the guidance of Dr. S.P.Singh, 154

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Professor and Head School of Energy and March 19, 1955. He completed his B.Sc. from Environmental Studies, DAVV, Indore. National College, Basavanagudi, Bangalore, Karnataka, and B.E. Electronics and He was appointed as the first Special Officer and Communication from Siddaganga Institute of Secretary to Vice Chancellor, when the Technology, Tumkur, Karnataka. He pursued his Visveswaraiah Technological University, was M.E. Power Electronics from P.D.A College of started at Belgaum, Karnataka, during 1998. He has Engineering, Gulbarga, Karnataka. At present he is a total teaching and administrative experience of pursuing his Ph.D. under the guidance of Dr. more than 30 years and at present serving as S.P.Singh, Professor and Head School of Energy Registrar, Chamelidevi Group of Institutions, and Environmental Studies, DAVV, Indore. Indore, Madhya Pradesh. He has a total teaching and administrative experience of more than 30 years and at present serving as Senior Academic Head, Chamelidevi Prof. K.S.Jairaj has presented six papers in Group of Institutions, Indore, Madhya Pradesh. International and National conferences. He has published five research papers in International Prof. K.Srikant has presented six papers in Journals among which two are published by International and National conferences. He has Elsevier. He is on the panel of five International published five research papers in International Journals as a Reviewer. Journals among which two are published by Elsevier. K. Srikant was born in Bijapur, Karnataka, India, on

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Landslide in National Highway at Kethikal near Mangalore - Case Study

Dr. Arun Kumar Bhat Kajake Dr. R. Shivashankar Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering Chameli Devi School of Engineering (CDGI) National Institute of Technology, Karnataka Near Toll naka, khandwa Road, Indore 452020, INDIA Srinivas Nagar, Surathkal, Mangalore Taluk [email protected] [email protected]

Dr. Ramakrishna Yaji Retired Professor in Civil Engineering Department National Institute of Technology, Karnataka Srinivas Nagar, Surathkal, Mangalore Taluk [email protected]

Abstract: Slope failures and Landslides pose the program is the flexibility of varying the input serious problems to the Geotechnical Engineers. parameters to suit to the field conditions. The They may be due to natural causes or initiated parametric study of input parameters like angle due to human activities. The stability analysis of of slope, pore pressure ratio, Friction angle of earth slope is essentially a problem of soil in three layers, Cohesion of soil in three optimization requiring consideration of layers and Height of slope are varied in steps and numerous field conditions, such as type of their effect on factor of safety is carried out. The failure, drainage conditions, non-homogeneity, effects of pore pressure ratio, height of slope, tension cracks, hard stratum below base and density of soil in different layers are discussed in many others to determine the factor of safety this paper. associated with the critical slip surface. Slope section can be analyzed using the generalized In the layered soil slope the instability starts procedure of slices developed by Janbu in after 45˚ of slope angle and it reduces to 38˚ conjunction with sequential unconstrained when the effect of tension crack is considered. minimization technique. The type of failure is toe failure if the slope angle is less than 45˚ and then the face failure is most Slope with three different soil layers is likely to happen. The pore pressure ratio more selected with different soil parameters. The than 0.25 is results in failure of slopes. general computer program is developed in C language which evaluates the factor of safety Index Terms: Stability analysis, lithomarge, corresponding to critical slip surface in three optimization, berm types of failure such as base failure, toe failure and slope failure. The effect of tension crack is also considered in another program. The programs applicable to homogeneous and non I. INTRODUCTION homogeneous slopes list the least among the Human settlements and their subsequent three types of failures for the given input soil developmental activities, especially in the parameters of all the layers. The main feature of urban and Semi-Urban areas, are drastically 156

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changing the landforms and thereby disturbing one, since it requires very accurate input data. the original drainage pattern. The changed Otherwise the results obtained from such drainage pattern could be the primary cause analysis become as doubtful as the input data for the failure of the soil masses located itself. On the other hand, limit equilibrium beneath the natural soil slopes. The result generally is called ‗land slide‘. The failure of approach is relatively simple and has been slopes leads to considerable loss of life and widely used by practicing engineers and property. It is therefore essential to check the attracted the attention of researchers. stability of slopes. Reservations have been raised against the limit Slope stability analysis is essentially a equilibrium approach on the grounds that the problem of optimization namely the factors such as slope deformation, the history determination of the slip surface that yields of slope formation and initial state of stress are minimum factor of safety. Slope section can be not considered in the analysis. Nevertheless, analyzed using the generalized procedure of success in the usage of limit equilibrium slices developed by Janbu in conjunction with methods has been rated as commendable. sequential unconstrained minimization However, the limit equilibrium method has technique. This method is capable of locating been used over the years because of its the critical shear surface corresponding to the simplicity and reasonable accuracy. minimum factor of safety without putting any prior restrictions on the shape of the slip Over the years, limit equilibrium surface. In this technique the stability problem methods have been extensively refined by is posed as an optimization problem wherein various investigators. Perhaps the most the factor of safety is minimized with respect remarkable refinement has come in the form of to the co-ordinates of the slip surface and thus development of methods which do not require critical surface is located. any priori assumption regarding the shape of the slip surface. Some of the widely studied methods in this category are those credited to Typical stratified slope with three layers Janbu (1957, 1973), Morgenstern and Price is considered for the stability analysis. The general computer program is developed in C (1965) and Spencer (1967, 1973). language for optimization of factor of safety Subsequently, the refinement, which has so far for the selected stratified slope. The factor of been concentrated only on the method of safety is calculated using Janbu‘s generalized analysis, has been extended to the search for procedure of slices. The program uses critical slip surface. It is now well appreciated Davidon-Fletcher-Powel (DFP) technique for that limit equilibrium slope stability analysis is optimization. The program gives the minimum a problem of optimization wherein the shape factor of safety and the cross section of critical slip surface in three types of slope failures as and location of the critical slip surface which Base, Toe and Slope failure. The program is yields the minimum factor of safety, are found modified to take the effect of tension crack out. The use of powerful and efficient existing at the top layer in cohesive soils. minimization techniques available in the optimization literature has been a topic of increasing interest among the researchers in II. STABILITY ANALYSIS the area. Evaluation of stability is essential prior to any construction involving natural or manmade slopes. Various methods are III CASE STUDY OF KETHIKAL available to evaluate the stability of slopes. LANDSLIDE There are at present two basic lines of approach in the slope stability analysis, namely The landslide being discussed in this the limit equilibrium approach and the stress- report occurred on the Mangalore – Hospet strain analysis using the finite element Road (NH- 13) at Kethikal near Vamanjoor technique. The later approach is a sophisticated about 20 Kms from Mangalore. There was a 157

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major distress associated with the landslide horizontal berm of width about 12 m. The involving more than 60000 m3 of earth during slope has upper slope angle of 65 to 70 degrees rainy season of June 1998. The location is in a and lower slope angle of about 55 to 60 cutting portion of the steep hillock rising to a degrees. The height of slope above the berm is height of more than 50 m. The road is in about 12.0m and below the berm is continuous North-South direction (Mangalore towards and for the study it is taken as 15m. At the top south) and hillock to the west of the road. The of slope there exists a gentle slope of about 16 investigation revealed that the failure had a to 18 degrees with horizontal. In the analysis it history ever since 1998. It is also noted that a is taken as additional vertical load. There were heavy rainfall for 2 – 3 days continuously of some small residential buildings at the top of intensity more than 1000 mm triggered the hill. To simulate their effect in the analysis an landslide. additional surcharge load is also considered to be acting over the sliding wedge. As a result of landslide a length of 100 m of hill slope including the road suffered The study of records and local enquiry a major damage. In the western side of road, revealed that the failure had a history. In the site, the surface sank about 5m with a lateral shift there had been sinking of road surface associated of 6 m and a major heave up to about 2 m. The resultant movement was in NW-SE direction. with formation of cracks during rainy season for There was mudflow on the northern hill slope; more than 10 years. They were too small in nature the area affected being more than a hectare and routinely attended. The movement became involving more than 60000 m 3 of earth as mentioned earlier. prominent in the rainy seasons of 1996 and 1997. During 1996 the width of crack was in the range of The detailed observations revealed that few centimeters and in 1997 it grew larger up to near the northern side of the road in the affected nearly a 1.0 m. Northern hill slopes developed portion, the hill slope underwent a vertical slump of significant cracks, deep cuts and slips. The about 5 m followed by a lateral mudflow, which residential houses at the top were evacuated. The pushed the road and the supporting soil by almost 6 landslide was attended. The failed soil mass was m laterally. The most severe damage took place removed and dumped at South – Eastern side of near the location of culvert 1, where the road sunk slope. In the year 1998 there were two cracks at the by about 6 m. Further the mud slide had resulted in same place. The road surface sunk by 3 m over 6 to a heaved soil mass on the southern side of slope days and 5 m over a month. Lateral shifting of the as shown in Figure 1(a) and (b). road was about 6 m. There was a Landslide IV CROSS SECTION OF SLOPE resulting in mudflow. It had a slump of 5 m at The road is formed on the top of northern side and a heave of 3 m at the eastern side. lithomargic clay, which has a tendency to lose The Mangalore tiled bus shelter was moved much of its shear strength on coming in contact with water, and is highly erodible. This laterally by about 3 m without any distress to the lithomargic clay is locally called as ‗shedi structure. The culvert was also moved by about 2 soil‘; unconsolidated undrained triaxial shear m. The longitudinal drain was completely damaged test gave considerable reduction in shear strength parameters on saturation. and laterally shifted. The soil mass was lifted and dumped at the eastern side, about 100 m away from The cross section of slope indicates that the slide. The new road surface was prepared and a the road is present in between the slope. The slope can be taken as a slope with presence of new culvert was built. A series of stone piles on 158

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either side of the road surface are installed up to the hard rock level. During the years 1999 to 2003 not much movement was seen at the site. In 2004 the soil, which is failed in the year 2000, had moved TABLE 1 down by 3 m. The road has developed an upward projection due to the pushing of the soil. The soil is LABORATORY TEST RESULTS OF SOIL SAMPLE AT SITE removed from the edge of road. It is observed that Sl. No. Parameters Values the development of cracks has close relationship 3 with the rainfall. 1. Dry unit weight 14.35 kN/m V FIELD INVESTIGATIONS 2. Type of soil SM In the sliding area, at western side, hillock rises to a height of about 30 meters above the 3. Unit Cohesion 40 kN/m2 road surface over a distance of 80 meters. The eastern side of the slope dips to a depth of 20 – 4. Angle of internal friction 3° 30 meters over a distance of 50 meters. A length of 100 meters of road suffered a major damage. The minor damage was seen over a length of about 200 meters. VI AUTOMATED STABILITY ANALYSIS The bore log details indicated that USING THE OPTIMIZATION PROGRAM weathered rock is available at ground level at the top of ridge in western side of hill. The bore log also indicates the presence of 4.5m of Slope stability analysis is essentially a depth hard laterite at top, 9.0m of depth shedi problem of optimization namely the soil, 3.3m of weathered rock and then hard determination of the slip surface that yields rock. The another bore indicates the presence minimum factor of safety. Slope section can be of 5.3m of depth hard laterite at top, 3.7m of analyzed using the generalized procedure of depth soft laterite soil, 8.0m of shedi soil, 1.5m slices developed by Janbu in conjunction with of weathered rock and then hard rock. In sequential unconstrained minimization conclusion the presence of 6.0m of depth technique. This method is capable of locating Shedi soil at top, 2.5m of depth weathered the critical shear surface corresponding to the rock, 2.0m of disintegrated rock and then hard minimum factor of safety without putting any rock was the soil structure at land slide area. prior restrictions on the shape of the slip surface. In this technique the stability problem Abandoned laterite quarries are also is posed as an optimization problem wherein found on the western part at the top of the hill. the factor of safety is minimized with respect These quarries are filled with water in rainy to the co-ordinates of the slip surface and thus season. The road is formed in the top of critical surface is located. lateritic material. Soil below is clayey sandy silt which is essentially Kaolinitic in nature, For the given geometry of the slope locally called as ‗Shedi Soil‘. The type of soil and soil properties the factor of safety is a wedge movement indicates that there was a function of shape and location of the potential base failure. The width of failure wedge is slip surface. The problem is to determine the about 55.0m and the length of failure wedge is shape and location of the shear zone that yields about 105.0m. the minimum factor of safety. In the adopted procedure, the factor of safety is minimized The results of laboratory tests are with respect to these design variables. Thus tabulated in Table 1. determination of the critical surface involves the optimization of the factor of safety, now

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treated as an optimal function F, with variables M-1 as geometrical co-ordinates defining each admissible slip surface. Consequently, Ψ (D,rk) = F(D) - rk ∑( 1/gj(D) ) optimizing the factor of safety function will j=0 yield the minimum factor of safety and the corresponding set of co-ordinates defining the Where, F is to be minimized over all D, critical slip surface. satisfying

The objective function is the factor of safety and an expression for the same can be obtained from the Janbu‘s method. The factor gj(D) <=0; J = 0,1,2,………..(M-1) of safety can be expressed in terms of the design vector as F = f(D) = The penalty parameter rk is taken as f(X[0],X[1],X[2],…..X[6]). We are now in a 1.0 in the present analysis. A computer position to state the problems of finding the software in C language is developed to search critical slip surface and the corresponding the the shear failure plane and is associated factor minimum factor of safety as a mathematical of safety of the given slope section. In order to programming problem as follows. ensure that the slip surface is physically reasonable and acceptable the following Find the design vector d such that F = constraints are imposed on the shear surface. f(D) is minimum of f(D) subject to Gj (D) <=0; The general computer program is developed in C language for calculating minimum factor of safety of three layered Where j = 0, 1, 2,…….(M-1), where slope section in association with Janbu‘s M is number of constraints. The best way of method (1973) of analysis. The solution deciding the initial design vector is to choose procedure is based on the entire penalty the initial slip surface in such a way that a function method coupled with Davidon- major portion of it lies along the existing shear Fletcher-Powel method of unconstrained plane. If the initial design vector is chosen in minimization and cubic interpolation method any other way then during the optimization of one dimensional search. This program is process it is likely that the weak shear plane applicable to much type of slope stability will be bypassed and the obtained solution problems i.e. for homogeneous and non would not be the global minimum. homogeneous slopes for finding minimum factor of safety. The program is given input The sequential unconstrained values of the land slide and it is analyzed for minimization technique using the interior stability. The presence of berm and tension penalty function formulation coupled with crack is also considered in the analysis. The Davidon – Fletcher – Powel variable metric results of stability analysis using the program method (DFP) and cubic interpolation method is shown in Table 2. of one dimensional search for linear minimization. Interior penalty function needs feasible point for starting the solution. As in this it is possible to get a feasible initial design TABLE 2 vector, the interior penalty function method RESULTS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS OF KETHIKAL has been chosen for the analysis. The basic LAND SLIDE object of the penalty function method is to convert the original constraint problem in to Sl. Type of slope Value of No. factor of one unconstrained minimization by blending safety the constraints in to composite function (Ø). For problems with inequality constraints only

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Slope with presence of berm and absence of tension crack – Base 1. failure. 1.1216

Slope with presence of berm and absence of tension crack – Toe 2. failure. 1.5947

Slope with presence of berm and absence of tension crack – Slope 3. failure. 1.3473

Slope with presence of berm and presence of tension crack – Fig 2: View of land slide at Kethikal showing upward 4. Base failure. 0.9357 movement of soil mass at eastern side of slope.

Slope with presence of berm and presence of tension crack – Toe 5. failure. 1.7555 VII INFERENCES Slope with presence of berm and presence of tension crack – Slope 6. failure. 2.7378 The land slide at kethikal was analyzed using the optimization program using generalized procedure of slices for stratified From the above table it clearly shows soil slopes. This slope is taken as a slope with that the minimum value of factor of safety is in berm which houses a road. The road is formed base failure with the presence of tension crack. on the top of lithomargic clay, which has a From the field observation the type of failure is tendency to lose much of its shear strength on base failure at Kethikal land slide. The coming in contact with water, and is highly program gave the co-ordinates of failure erodible. The program is used to evaluate the surface which is as shown in Figure 1. factor of safety in three cases of failure and is compared with the field observations. Based 60 118.65, 54.00 Kethikal land slide Base failure 50 50.27 on the stability analysis following observations Length of failure w edge = 92.17m 40 are made.

30 FS BASE 0.9357 26.48 64 20 Layer3

10 Layer2 Vertical distance in meters in Verticaldistance Layer1 0 1. The automated stability analysis 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Horizontal distance in meters optimization program using generalized procedure of slices gave Fig 1: Failure surface in Kethikal land slide - Base failure least value of factor of safety in base in slope with presence of berm and tension crack. failure with tension crack. The obtained result matches with the field The Fig. 2 shows the view of the slide during the year observation i.e. there was an upward 2004. movement of soil mass at the base of slope. 2. The program gave the length of failure wedge as 92.17m and the actual length of failure wedge is about 105.0m. 3. The stability analysis gave the value of depth of tension crack at top layer is 3.73m which can be compared with the actual depth of tension crack as

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observed at site which is around Ed. R. C. Hirchfield and S. J. Poulos, John Wiley & 4.0m. Sons, Inc., pp 47 – 86. 4. Kethikal landslide is due to the [14] Janbu, N., Bjerrum, L., and Kjaernsli, B., (1956), development of high pore pressure in ―Veiledning ved Losning av Fundamenteringsoppgaver‖, Chapters 1 and 2, soil. The development of high pore Norwegian Geotechnical Institute Publication, No. 16, pressure is assisted by continuous Oslo. rainfall for 4 to 5 days which resulted [15] Morgenstern, N. R. and Price, V. E., (1967), ―A in triggering the movement. The Numerical Method for solving the Equations of presence of abandoned laterite Stability of General Slip Surfaces‖, The Computer quarries at top of hill which gets filled Journal, Volume 9, pp. 388 – 393. during the rainy season is also the [16] Rao, S. S., (1991), ―Optimization: Theory and additional factor in developing the Applications, Wiley Eastern Limited, Second Edition, high pore water pressure. pp. 339 – 426. [17] Setty K. R. N., Shivashankar R., Peshwe L. R., REFERENCES (2002), Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical [12] Bjerrum. L,kjaernsli. B (1957), ―Analysis of the Conference 2002, pp 405 – 408. stability of some Norwegian clay slopes‖, [18] Spencer, E., (1973), ―The Thrust – Line Criterion in Geotechnique. Embankment Stability Analysis‖, Geotechnique, [13] Janbu N., (1973), ―Slope stability computations‖, London, England, 23, pp. 85 – 101. Embankment Dam Engineering., Casagrande Volume,

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Compressive Strength of bricks made of clay and wood ash under loading

Ishanya Joshi Rishi Jain Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering Chameli Devi College Of Engineering Chameli Devi College Of Engineering Umrikheda, Khandwa Road, Indore (M. P.) Umrikheda, Khandwa Road, Indore (M. P.) [email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT: The brick is the important and long category of admixtures includes organic lasting material for building construction. Ordinary matter, such as building bricks are made of a mixture of clay, which is rice husks, sawdust, coal, etc., which burn out subjected to various processes, differing according to when the bricks undergo firing. the nature of the material, the method of manufacture and the character of the finished product. After being II. MATERIALS USED FOR MAKING properly prepared the clay is formed in moulds to the desired shape, then dried and burnt. On seeing the BRICKS present day demand for bricks , an attempt was made to study the behavior of bricks manufactured using 1) Wood Ash: Wood ash is a by-product wood ash. The main aim of this project was to compare created during the combustion of wood the compressive strength of the bricks, so for this products for energy production at pulp and purpose different percentage of materials were paper mills, sawmills and wood- product separately added 4%, 8%, 12% & 16% by weight and manufacturing facilities. Wood ash is then the compressive strength of the Bricks was composed of both organic and inorganic established. After that bricks were made & sun dried compounds. The physical and chemical and some bricks were oven dried & then with the help properties of wood ash, which determines its of Compression Testing Machine (C.T.M.) finely their beneficial uses, are influenced by species of compressive strength was calculated. From this test in this project work it was concluded that the wood ash the wood and the combustion method. was that waste material, which gave the highest compressive strength. Advantages of Wood Ash Bricks: 1. Due to high strength, practically no Index Terms- Bricks, Wood Ash and compressive breakage during transport & use. strength. 2. Due to uniform size of bricks mortar required for joints &plaster reduces I. INTRODUCTION almost by 50%. 3. Due to lower water penetration Brick is a block made of clay burnt in a kiln. It seepage of water through bricks is is one of the primary building materials known considerably reduced. to mankind. Bricks are composed of inorganic 4. These bricks do not require soaking in non-metallic material and are widely used as water for 24 hours. Only sprinkling of building components all over the world. water before use is enough. In this research attention has been focused on low-cost alternative building materials. Bricks 2) Clay; Due to the increasing cost of cement, are the important building material and burnt the Forest Products and Industries bricks are stronger as compare to sun dried Development Commission (FORPRIDECOM) brick especially when they are made of clay. conducted a research that will produce blocks There are different categories of the bricks, from soil and water. Clay particles because of depending upon the admixtures and raw their fineness of division must expose a large material used for making bricks. It is also amount of external surface. There are also common that certain admixtures are added to internal surfaces as well, the sum of which burnt brick raw mixes to produce different usually greatly exceeds that of a superficial effects in the finished product. A second character. 163

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TABLE II III. MATERIALS TESTING COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF BRICKS

Percentage Compressive Strength of 1) Sieve Analysis: The grain size Clay Bricks characteristics of soils that are predominantly of 2 coarse grained are evaluated by a sieve 4.4 N/mm analysis. A nest of sieves is prepared by materials stacking test sieves one above the other with Compressive Strength of the largest opening at the top followed by Various sieves of successively smaller openings and a catch pan at the bottom. Materials Bricks ( N/mm2) 2) Specific Gravity: The object of the test is to determine the specific gravity of materials 4% 5.78 passing through 4.75 mm IS sieve by Pycnometer. The experimental results are 8% 6.31 given in Table I. 12% 7.36 TABLE I SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF MATERIALS USED 16% 10.0 S.No. Materials Specific gravity 1 Clay 2.16 V CONCLUSION 2 Wood Ash 2.16 The clay bricks gave the compressive strength of 5.26N/mm2, but when 4% of Wood ash was

added by weight in the clay, then it gave the IV RESULT compressive strength of 5.78 N/mm2, again while increasing the percentage of wood ash as The following Table II gives the values of 8%, 12%, 16%by weight the compressive strength of Wood Ash brick also increases compressive strength of bricks manufactured 2 using different percentage of wood ash. respectively 6.31, 7.36, 10 N/mm .

REFERENCES [1] D.L. Narasimha Rao, Editor ―Cement and Building Materials Form Industrials Wastes Proceedings of the national conference‖ July 24-25' 1992 (India) [2] Indian Concrete Journal, July 1992 Subject: i) New trend in bricks and blocks: the role of FaL-G N. Bhanumathidas and N.Kalidas [3] Indian Standard, Guidelines For Utilisation and Disposal of Fly Ash, IS:10153 - 1982, Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi Indian Standard Specification For Fly Ash, IS : 3812 ( Part I) - 1966 For [4] Use As Pozzolana IS : 3812 ( Part II) - 1966 For Use As Admixture For Concrete, Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi. [5] Jayesh Pitroda (2010); paper on ―A study of utilization aspect of fly ash in Indian context‖ [6] Kesarjan Building Centre Pvt. Ltd., Kerala G.I.D.C., Near Bavla District, Ahmadabad. - Promoted by Govt, of India, through ―Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO)". [7] New Building Materials and Construction World October, 2000, B.N.Agrawal, S.M.Kohli

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A Study on Green Buildings Jitendra Kumar Mukul Meshram Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering Chameli Devi College Of Engineering Chameli Devi College Of Engineering Umrikheda, Khandwa Road, Indore (M. P.) Umrikheda, Khandwa Road, Indore (M. P.) [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract - A green building is that building which Human population per sq.km of country area: is constructed at a well planned location with proper design and sustainable materials. Fitted Year and painted with eco friendly materials. The Country building should give to its occupants healthy and 1947 2009 2049 comfortable environment in all climates. Solar India 121 350 581 reflective coating is an acrylic based coating China — 132 141 which provides weather proofing and heat insulation to the exposed roof. This can be used U.S.A. — 34 49 for coating RB, RCC roof top surface, asbestos cement roofing sheets, galvanized zinc sheets as With the increase in the population the house well as aluminum sheets. With such coating, demand will also increase. For India it is of the temperature may be lowered up to 100 C, thus top concern as by the year 2049 having the giving comfort to the occupants of house and also reduces the load on Air Conditioner. same country area 581 persons sharing Index Terms – Green building, Reflective recourses of one sq. km. area against China coating, Open area. 141 and USA only 49. From the present day crowd, it can be well imagine what will be the crowd condition of India in 2049. A drastic I INTRODUCTION action is needed otherwise it will be too late to cope with this situation. There will be more A green building is that building which is slumps. By 2011 India will have 9.31 crore constructed at a well planed location with slump dwellers in which 31.63 lakhs people proper design and sustainable materials. Fitted will be living in slumps in Delhi alone. and painted with eco friendly materials. The building should gives to its occupants healthy Some builders have a novel way to attract the and comfortable environment in all climates. It client for the apartments they are going to remains cool in summer, warm in winter, build or already build. They gives big inside fully protected from rain, gives natural advertisement in green colour showing pollution free air and light through doors, apartment surrounded by tall green trees. windows and ventilators without any artificial When you go to such site you will not found means. For particular requirements it has solar, the trees of your dream. The other misleading wind power and eco friendly electrical, advertisement is that the apartment has 70% mechanical etc. devices. open lush green area. The facts will be known when you calculate the actual open area for A green building should have all safety one house you will be going to live. Refer devices. It should be provided with potable table II. water, having proper drainage, sewerage and rainwater harvesting system. The building TABLE II should be surrounded with trees, plants and grass to provide natural greenery. Can the ACTUAL OPEN AREA SHARED BY NUMBER OF above building be possible when day by day PEOPLE the population in India is increasing at a very fast rate? The facts may be found from the Persons Ground following Table I. Storey of Total Covered living in open area building houses area sq. ft. total sq. ft. apartment Table: I 1 24 36000 25200 96 5 120 180000 25200 480

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10 240 360000 25200 960 shades the surface, keeping it cooler. Reducing 15 360 540000 25200 1440 the urban heat island effect, isn‘t the only benefit of green roofs- they can also be used to From the above table it can be seen that in a grow fresh local products in the city, and they single storey apartment of 24 houses for 96 significantly reduce storm water runoff as persons the open area is 25200 sq. ft., whereas well. Local birds will be attracted on the roof for a 15 storey apartment of 360 houses for greenery and make their nest upon it. 1440 persons the open area is again same only 25200 sq. ft. Accordingly if a builder claim 3) Permeable Pavement: Many types of that his 15 storey apartment has 70% open area permeable pavement reduce the urban heat of covered area then the open area should be island effect in one or more ways. For 378000 sq. ft. and not 25200 sq. ft. example, many grid or block pavers incorporate grass or other ground covers, Suppose per house there is one car, then a which help shade the surface of the pavement single storey apartment will have 24 cars and a and increase local evapo-transpiration. Porous 15 storey apartment will have 360 cars. In a 15 pavements often have much lower total mass storey apartment where is the open space will than asphalt or concrete, reducing the amount be left for trees. To maintain our natural of heat they absorb and many permeable environment there must be one tree for each pavements are lighter colored than traditional house. Accordingly in a 15 storey apartment pavement as well. having 360 houses there should be 360 tall trees. Have we such greenery in any of the 4) Building Walls: The walls of building apartment in our cities. How then they may be should be painted with solar reflective paints. called green houses and claiming 70% lush green open area. The fact is we are living in 5) Roofs: The roof of house remains exposing congested places where we can never feel to direct sun rays most of the day time. The comfortable and enjoy the life of natural traditional methods of keeping roof surface environment. cool are lime terracing, mud phuska and brick bat coba treatment. These methods are not only II URBAN HEAT ISLAND MITIGATION time consuming, costly but also increases the dead load on roof. The new and very Urban areas have been found to have air convenient method is to paint the roof surface temperature 20C to 50C warmer than the white with solar reflective paint/coating. Solar surrounding country side. This phenomenon is reflective coating is an acrylic based coating known as the URBAN HEAT ISLAND which provides weather proofing and heat EFFECT. There are number of ways one can insulation to the exposed roof. This can be fight the urban heat island at home and around used for coating RB, RCC roof top surface, the city. asbestos cement roofing sheets, galvanized zinc sheets as well as aluminium sheets. With 1) Planting Trees: Trees are one of our most such coating temperature may be lower up to 0 important allies in the fight against the urban 10 C thus giving cooling comfort to the heat island effect. Air temperatures directly occupants of house and also reduces the load under trees can be as much as 100C cooler than on Air Conditioner. temperature over unshaded blacktop. Trees can be sited strategically to shade roofs, pavement, REFERENCES walls, and other surfaces, keeping them cooler [19] M. King, B. Zhu, and S. Tang, and reducing energy bills. Trees also provided ―Optimal path planning,‖ Mobile Robots, a cooling effect through evapo- transpiration. vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 520-531, March 2001. Other vegetation, including grass etc. also [20] H. Simpson, Dumb Robots, 3rd ed., provides cooling effects, though not usually as Springfield: UOS Press, 2004, pp.6-9. significant as trees.

2) Green Roofs: Green roofs are roofs planted with grasses, flowers, or other vegetation. Like trees planted at ground level, the vegetation

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Testing of Concrete Blocks Mukul Meshram Ratnadeep Singh Siddhu Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering Chameli Devi College Of Engineering Chameli Devi College Of Engineering Umrikheda, Khandwa Road, Indore (M. P.) Umrikheda, Khandwa Road, Indore (M. P.) [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract - A concrete test is performed to learn Depending upon the structural requirements of more about the properties of a specific sample of masonry unit, concrete mixes can be designed concrete. A number of different tests can be using ingredients available locally with in the performed on concrete both, on a job site and in most economical distance. The concrete mix a laboratory. Because concrete is an important used for normal hollow and solid blocks shall structural element, testing is mandatory in many regions of the world, and construction companies not be richer than one part by volume of must provide documentation of their testing and cement to 6 parts by volume of combined results when asked to do so by government room dry aggregates and it is before mixing. representatives. In this study we have learned the Hollow concrete blocks for normal work used basic idea of how the concrete blocks are tested in masonry when reinforced is used shall not either it is hollow or solid, and some be leaner than 1 part cement to 8 parts room determinations and analysis also with taking dry sand by volume. Mixes are designed with some precautions and throughout learning the the available materials to give overall economy procedure. and the required properties of the products. Index Terms – Concrete, Block density, Capping The hollow load bearing concrete blocks of the tests. standard size 400 x 200 x 200 mm will weight between 17 and 26 kg when made with normal I INTRODUCTION weight aggregates. Normal weight blocks are made with cement, sand, gravel, crushed stone A concrete test is performed to learn more and air-cooled slag. The grading for sand used about the properties of a specific sample of in Hollow concrete block shall be as given in concrete. A number of different tests can be Table I. performed on concrete both, on a job site and in a laboratory. Because concrete is an TABLE I important structural element, testing is GRADING OF SAND mandatory in many regions of the world, and I.S. Sieve Size Percentage Passing construction companies must provide 4.75 mm 98-100 documentation of their testing and results 2.36 mm 80-100 when asked to do so by government 1.18 mm 60-80 600 Micron 40-65 representatives. Test results are also kept on 300 Micron 10-40 file in case a problem develops in the future. 150 Micron 0-10 There are a dozen different test methods for freshly mixed concrete and at least another dozen tests for hardened concrete, not The aggregates for solid blocks shall be sand including test methods unique to organizations as per IS: 383-1970 and well graded aggregate like the Army Corps of Engineers, the Federal of suitable maximum size as per the Highway Administration and state departments dimensions of the block. The mixes are of transportation. properly designed as per standard practice. Concrete admixtures may be used in Hollow and Solid concrete blocks both. Concrete can be converted into precast masonry units such as Hollow and Solid normal and light weight concrete blocks of suitable size to be used for load and non-load bearing units for walling . Use of such II ASTM STANDARDS concrete blocks are appropriate in region where soil bricks are costly, they are poor in C55 Specification for Concrete Building Brick strength and are not available easily . 168

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C73 Specification for Calcium Silicate Brick C618 Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw (Sand-Lime Brick) or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete C90 Specification for Load bearing Concrete Masonry Units C666/C666M Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing C1093 Practice for Accreditation of Testing Agencies for Masonry C1262 Test Method for Evaluating the Freeze- Thaw Durability of Dry-Cast Segmental C1232 Terminology of Masonry Retaining Wall Units and Related Concrete Units C1319 Specification for Concrete Grid Paving Units D4533 Test Method for Trapezoid Tearing Strength of Geo textiles C1372 Specification for Dry-Cast Segmental Retaining Wall Units D4632 Test Method for Grab Breaking Load and Elongation of Geo textiles C1491 Specification for Concrete Roof Pavers D4833 Test Method for Index Puncture C1552 Practice for Capping Concrete Masonry Resistance of Geo membranes and Related Products Units, Related Units and Masonry Prisms for Compression Testing III SPECIMENS C1634 Specification for Concrete Facing Brick 20 full size units shall be measured for length, width and height. Cored units shall also be E4 Practices for Force Verification of Testing measured for minimum thickness of face, Machines shells and webs. From these 3 blocks are to be tested for block density, 8 blocks for E6 Terminology Relating to Methods of compressive strength, 3 blocks for water Mechanical Testing absorption and 3 blocks for drying shrinkage and moisture movement. C33 Specification for Concrete Aggregates IV DETERMINATION OF BLOCK C39/C39M Test Method for Compressive DENSITY Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens For this , Three blocks shall be dried to C42/C42M Test Method for Obtaining and constant mass in a suitable oven heated to Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of approximately 1000C. After cooling the blocks Concrete to room temperature, the dimensions of each block shall be measured in centimeters nearest C67 Test Methods for Sampling and Testing mm and the overall volume computed in cubic Brick and Structural Clay Tile centimeters. The blocks shall then be weighted in kilograms to the nearest 10 gm. The density C140 Test Methods for Sampling and Testing of each block calculated as follows: Concrete Masonry Units and Related Units Density in kg/m3 = Mass of block in kg/Mass 2 6 C150 Specification for Portland cement of block in cm * 10

C207 Specification for Hydrated Lime for V DETERMINATION OF WATER Masonry Purposes ABSORPTION

C595 Specification for Blended Hydraulic For this, three full size blocks shall be Cements completely immersed in clean water at room temperature for 24 hours. The blocks shall then 169

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be removed from the water and allowed to thickness equal to at least the distance from the drain for one minute by placing them on a 10 edge of the platen to the most distant corner of mm or coarser wire mesh, visible surface water the specimen shall be placed between the being removed with a damp cloth, the platen and the capped specimen. The length saturated and surface dry blocks immediately and width of the steel plate shall be at least 6.3 weighed. After weighing all blocks shall be mm greater than the length and width of the dried in a ventilated oven at 100 to 1150C for unit. The surface of the platen or plate not less than 24 hours and until two successive hardness shall be not less than HRC 60 (BHN weighing at intervals of 2 hours show an 620). increment of loss not greater than 0.2 percent of the last previously determined mass of the Thickness of bearing plates has a significant specimen. The water absorption calculates as effect on the tested compressive strength of given - masonry units when the bearing area of the Absorption, percent = (A-B)/B * 100 platen is not sufficient to cover the area of the specimen. Tested compressive strength will Where, typically increase with increased plate A = wet mass of unit in kg. thickness and with reduce distance to the further corner of the specimen. Accordingly B = dry mass of unit in kg. the CTM platens shall have the required dimensions with respect to the specimens to be tested on it. VI TESTING BLOCKS FOR COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH VII TEST SPECIMENS COMPRESSIN TESTING MACHINE (CTM) The compression testing machine should be as Eight full size units shall be tested within 72 per IS: 516-1959 and I.S: 14858-2000. The hours after delivery to the laboratory, during load capacity, platens sizes, vertical space which time they shall be stored continuously in between platens and horizontal space between normal room air. machine columns shall be as per the requirements of the specimens to be tested. For the purpose of acceptance, age of testing the specimens shall be 28 days. The age shall However, IS: 2185 – 1979 specifies that when be reckoned from the time of the addition of the bearing area of the steel blocks is water to the dry ingredients. insufficient to cover the bearings area of the block, steel bearing plates shall be placed and VIII CAPPING TEST SPECIMENS it should placed between the bearing blocks and the capped specimen after the centroid of The bearing surfaces of units shall be capped the masonry bearing surface has been aligned by gypsum. The gypsem and water paste shall with the centre of thrust of the bearing blocks. be spread evenly on a non-absorbent surface It is desirable that the bearing faces of blocks that has been lightly coated with oil. The and plates used for compression testing of surface of the unit to be capped shall be concrete masonry have hardness of not less brought into contact with the capping paste. than 60 (HRC). The average thickness of the cap shall be not more than 3 mm. The caps shall be aged for at When steel plates are employed between the least 2 hours before the specimens are tested. steel bearing blocks and the masonry specimen, the plates shall have thickness equal IX PROCEDURE to at least one-third of the distance from the edge of the bearing block to the most distant Specimens shall be tested with the centroid of corner of the specimen. In no case shall the their bearing surfaces aligned vertically with plate thickness be less than 12 mm. the centre of thrust of the spherically seated steel bearing blocks of the testing machine. ASTM: C 140-03 specified that when the The load up to one-half of the expected bearing area of the upper platen or lower maximum load may be applied at any platen is not sufficient to cover the area of the convenient rate, after which the control of the specimen, a single steel bearing plate with a 170

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machine shall be adjusted as required to give a analysis also with taking some precautions and uniform rate of travel of the moving head such throughout learning the procedure. that the remaining load is applied in not less than one nor more than two minutes. REFERENCES [21] Basic idea based on research paper of Er. Kaushal The compressive strength of a concrete Kishore, Materials Engineer, Roorkee. masonry unit shall be taken as the maximum [22] IS: 2185 (part-I) 1979 1987 1998 – Specifications for load in Newton‘s divided by the gross cross concrete masonry. Units part-I Hollow and Solid sectional area of the unit in square millimeters. Concrete Blocks (Second Revision).M. King and B. 2 Zhu, ―Gaming strategies,‖ in Path Planning to the Report to the nearest to 0.1 N/mm separately West, vol. II, S. Tang and M. King, Eds. Xian: Jiaoda for each unit and the average for the 8 full Press, 1998, pp. 158-176. units. [23] IS: 2185 (part-II)- 1985: Super seeding IS : 3590- 1966 Specifications for concrete masonry units part-II Hollow and Solid light weight concrete blocks (First Note: - The Gross area is the total area Revision). occupied by a block on its bedding face, [24] IS: 2572-1963 Reaffirmed 1997 Code of practice for including areas of the cavities and end construction of hollow concrete block masonry. [25] IS: 383-1970 Specification for coarse and fine recesses. aggregates from natural sources for concrete (Second Revision). X CONCLUSION [26] ASTM: C 140-03 Standard test methods for sampling and testing concrete masonry units and related units. [27] www.astm.org and In this study we have learned the basic idea of www.engineeringcivil.com. how the concrete blocks are tested either it is hollow or solid, and some determinations and

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Efflorescence in Bricks and Concrete Mukul Meshram Vikas Patidar Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering Chameli Devi College Of Engineering Chameli Devi College Of Engineering Umrikheda, Khandwa Road, Indore (M. P.) Umrikheda, Khandwa Road, Indore (M. P.) [email protected] [email protected] Abstract - Efflorescence is the usual terms for deposit of soluble Place the end of the bricks in the dish, the depth of salts, formed in or near the surface of a porous material, as a immersion in water being 25 mm. Place the whole result of evaporation of water in which they have been arrangements in a warm (for example, 20 to 30o C) well dissolved. ventilated room until all the water in the dish is absorbed by Index Terms – Efflorescence, Porous material, Evaporation5. the specimen and the surface water evaporate. Cover the dish with suitable cover, so that excessive evaporation from I. INTRODUCTION the dish may not occur. When the water has been absorbed and bricks appear to be dry, place a similar quantity of water Efflorescence In Bricks: Usually sulphate of magnesium, in the dish and allow it to evaporate as before. Examine the calcium, sulphate and carbonate (and sometimes chloride bricks for efflorescence after the second evaporation and and nitrates) of sodium and potassium are found in report the results as: efflorescence. These salts may be traced to the brick itself, sand used in construction, the foundation soil, ground water, (a) Nil – When there is no perceptible deposit of water used in the construction and loose earth left over in efflorescence. contact with brick work. Bricks with magnesium sulphate content higher than 0.05 percent should not be used in (b) Slight- Not more than 10% area of the brick covered construction. Soluble salt content in sand (chloride and with a thin deposit of salt. sulphate together) should not exceed 0.1 percent.

(c) Moderate- Covering upto 50% area of the brick. Water, if it finds access to brick work, moves along its pores by capillary action and carries with it dissolved salts. As the solution evaporates from the exposed surface of the brick (d) Heavy- Covering 50% or more but unaccompanied by work, the salts are left as deposit on the surface or on layers powdering or flaking of the brick surface. just below it. Disintegration or flaking of the brick surface is caused by the mechanical force exerted by salts as these (e) Serious- When, there is a heavy deposit of salts crystallize just below the exposed surface. Magnesium accompanied by powdering and/or flaking of the exposed sulphate, in particular, disintegrates bricks and pushes out surfaces. plaster. IV EFFLORESCENCE AND LEACHING IN II REMEDIES CONCRETE

1. Well fired bricks should be used in construction. When water percolates through poorly compacted concrete or through cracks or along badly made joints, the lime 2. Sand should be tested for its salt content. compounds within the concrete leached out which leads to the formation of salt deposits on the surface of concrete, known as efflorescence. This caused primarily by calcium 3. Proper D.P.C. should be provided in the building. hydroxide Ca(OH)2 one of the hydration products and slightly soluble in water, migrating to concrete surface 4. Efflorescence on brick work traceable to salts in the through the capillary system. After evaporation, the solid Ca materials can be removed by dry brushing and washing (OH) reacts with the atmospheric carbon dioxide CO to repeatedly. Such efflorescence may re-appear in dry season 2 2 form calcium carbonate CaCO3, a white deposit on the but usually are less in intensity. Finally these disappear as concrete surface. the salt content of the bricks is gradually leached out. Early efflorescence can be removed with a brush and water. III TESTING BRICKS FOR EFFLORESCENCE Heavy deposits may require acid treatment of the surface of the concrete. The acid used is HCl diluted from the Distilled water is filled in a dish of suitable size. The dish concentrated form in a ration of 1:20 or 1:10. The action of should be made of glass, porcelain or glazed stone ware. the acid stops when it has been used up by the reaction with 172

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lime, but the concrete should be washed in order to remove be used, properly proportioned (preferable design mixes) as the salts which have been formed. per required durability and grade of concrete. All the materials should be properly mixed, placed, compacted, Efflorescence and leaching in concrete is harmful. In finished and cured. addition to blemish and ugly appearance, the process of carbonation of concrete is accelerated. In reinforced REFERENCES concrete, the chances of corrosion of steel are increased due [28] I.S.: 3495 (Part-III)- 1976 – Method of tests of burnt clay building to carbonation and higher permeability of concrete. It is brick) Part-III, determination of efflorescence (Second Revision). therefore necessary the concrete making materials should be [29] A.M. Neville, Properties of Concrete, Fourth Edition. of good quality, mineral and chemical admixtures preferably

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Performance of Model Footing Resting on Coir Mat Reinforced Sand

Prashant.N.Nilugal Assistant professor Dept.Civil engineering Dr. M.T.Prathap Kumar CDGI Indore Madhya Pradesh India Professor and R&D Coordinator Dept.Civil engineering [email protected] REVA ITM Bangalore, Karnataka India [email protected]

Abstract— Coir fiber is one of the natural fiber that has improvement in tensile strength, shear been extensively used for strengthening soft soils, strength, other properties, bearing capacity thereby increasing its bearing capacity. In the present as well as economy. This is a relatively study, coir mat with different size of openings was used as the reinforcement in sand. Load settlement simple technique for ground improvement characteristics of model footing resting on reinforced and has tremendous potential as a cost sand bed was studied and compared with model footing effective solution to many geotechnical resting on un-reinforced sand bed. The effect of size of problems. opening and depth of first layer of coir mat was assessed by conducting experimental study on model Increasing the bearing capacity of the soil footings to arrive at conclusions regarding the performance of the footing, with regard to bearing and the stability of soil in slopes are only capacity and settlement characteristics of sand. It was two applications of reinforcing the soil with found from the experimental study, that placement of fibers. Several well established techniques reinforcement at a depth ratio of u/b =0.4 increases the of soil stabilization and soil reinforcement bearing capacity of reinforced sand and decreases the settlement of the model footing significantly. The size of are available to improve properties of the opening has insignificant influence in increasing geotechnical materials. However, the bearing capacity and reducing the settlement of addition of fiber into soils has its unique footings. However the bearing capacity of reinforced potential as a reinforcing agent. This is sand is found to be larger and settlement of the footing because a friction between fiber and soil reduces corresponding to coir mat with 10mm size opening, when compared with 20mm and 30mm size particles increases the bonding between the coir mat openings. particles of soils and this can improve the plasticity, stress-strain behavior and failure

Keywords—Coir mat, Ground improvement, characteristics of both cemented and Bearing capacity ratio, normalized settlement. uncemented soils.

INTRODUCTION Foundation is that part of the structure Soil reinforcement technique is one of the which is in direct contact with the soil and most popular techniques used for transmits load directly to the soil. Prior to improvement of poor soils. Metal strips, the application of load, the soil beneath the synthetic geotextiles, geogrid sheets, natural base of the footing is in elastic equilibrium. geotextiles, randomly distributed, synthetic As the load is applied settlement occur and natural fibers are being used as which is proportional to the load. With the reinforcing materials to soil. Further, the increase in loading, settlement progressively soil reinforcement causes significant increases, and the soil transforms from the

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state of elastic equilibrium to plastic reinforced soil {RDFS} is more than that for equilibrium and thus the distribution of soil the unreinforced sand. The effect of fiber stresses changes and failure of soil occurs. content at low normal stress is more at relative There are three principal modes of bearing density 50%. As the fiber content increases the capacity or shear failure i.e. general shear percentage increase in the peak shear stress failure, local shear failure, and punching increases up to 0.2% fiber content. Beyond shear failure depending upon the relative 0.2% fiber content rate of percentage increase compressibility and characteristics of soil. in the peak shear stress starts decreasing. As General shear failure occurs in relatively the normal stress increases the increase in the incompressible soil with finite shearing peak shear stress of RDFS decreases. And for strength. The failure is accompanied by a given intensity, the settlement of considerable bulging of on the soil surface. unreinforced sand is more than that of the Local shear failure occurs in relatively reinforced sand and the settlement reduces compressible soil. The failure is with the increase in fiber content. The bearing accompanied by visible sheared zone after capacity of RDFS increases with increase in bulging has taken place. Punching shear fiber content. failure takes place due to the relatively great compressibility of soil and may be evaluated Wasti and Butun [1996]. A series of laboratory by determining the rigidity index of the soil. model tests on a strip footing supported by A number of equations based on theoretical sand reinforced by randomly distributed Coir analysis and experimental investigations are fiber and mesh elements was conducted in available to determine the ultimate bearing order to compare the results with those capacity of soil. obtained from unreinforced sand and with each other. For conducting the model tests, LITERATURE REVIEW uniform sand was compacted in the test box at Vinod et.al [2009] carried out experiments on its optimum moisture content and maximum behavior of a square model footing on loose sand reinforced with braided coir rope. The influence of dry density. Three types of reinforcement, two parameters such as depth of reinforcement sizes of mesh elements having the same embedment, length, number of layers and number opening size and one size of fiber element cut of plies of braided coir rope was examined. The model test indicate that up to about a six-fold from the meshes, were used in varying improvement in strength and about 90% reduction amounts in the tests. Results indicated that in settlement (vertical displacement) can be reinforcement of sand by randomly distributed achieved through the use of the proposed reinforcing method. The optimum value of inclusions caused an increase in the ultimate embedment depth of a single layer braided coir bearing capacity values and the settlement at rope reinforcement was identified as 0.4 times the the ultimate load in general. The effectiveness footing width. It was also found that the optimal benefit was realized for a length ratio equal to of discrete reinforcing elements was observed about 0.6 times the width of footing. Increase in to depend on the quantity as well as the shape number of layers within the significant depth leads of the inclusions. The larger mesh size was to a proportionate increase in strength improvement ratio, while the optimal settlement reduction is found to be superior to other inclusions realized with 3 layers of braided coir rope considering the ultimate bearing capacity reinforcement. values. For the mesh elements there appears to Praveen Kumar, Swami Saran and Ravi Kant be an optimum inclusion ratio, whereas fibers Mittal [2006]: they conducted the series of exhibited a linearly increasing trend on the direct shear test, they found out that the peak basis of an increase in ultimate bearing shear stress of Randomly distributed

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capacity for the range of reinforcement results is demonstrated through comparisons amounts employed. with theoretical computations.

Yetimoglu T Salbas O [2003] A study was SivakumarBabu and Vasudevan [2008] undertaken to investigate the shear strength of published paper on (strength & stiffness sands reinforced with randomly distributed discrete response of coir fiber reinforced with tropical fibers by carrying out direct shear tests. The effect of the fiber reinforcement content on the shear soil).In this paper results on the strength & strength was investigated. The results of the tests stiffness behavior of soil reinforced with coir indicated that peak shear strength and initial fibers are presented, soil samples are stiffness of the sand were not affected significantly by the fiber reinforcement. The horizontal reinforced with coir fibers of different size and displacements at failure were also found made in to cylindrical soil specimens were comparable for reinforced and unreinforced sands tested in triaxial shear apparatus to determine under the same vertical normal stress. Fiber reinforcements, however, could reduce soil strength & stiffness of soil response to fiber & brittleness providing smaller loss of post-peak compared with unreinforced soil. Result shows strength. Thus, there appeared to be an increase in that addition of coir fibers (1-2%) as random residual shear strength angle of the sand by adding fiber reinforcements. material increases both strength & stiffness of soil. MadhaviLatha and Vidya S. Murthy [2006] conducted studies on the effects Lee and Manjunath [2000],This paper of reinforcement form on strength describes large size direct shear test on soil improvement of geosynthetic-reinforced geo textile interference with medium , grained, sand through triaxial compression tests. uniform sand and there varieties‘ of woven Samples of sand reinforced with geosynthetics &non woven geo textiles manufactured with in three different forms, viz. horizontal layers, different techniques and utilized to investigate geocells, and randomly distributed discrete the soil geo textile interference frictional co- fibers are tested in triaxial compression, and efficient(f)by conducting test on direct shear results are analyzed to understand the strength test .The results obtained from this study improvement in sand due to reinforcement in indicated that the determination of peak different forms. Three types of interference behavior was not a matter ,as that geosynthetics—geotextile, geogrid, and of boundary & testing conditions of the testing polyester film are used for reinforcing sand in apparatus. Since use of multiple direct shear layer form. Two types of geosynthetics— tests on the proposed apparatus can imposes a geotextile and polyester film are used in tests high degree of shear displacement and stresses on geocells. Polyester film is used in all the uniformly and the soil geotextile interference a three forms of reinforcement viz. planar, more reliable definition of the residual cellular, and discrete fiber reinforcement. interface frication, thus results indicate that the Among the three forms of reinforcement, woven &and non-woven geo textiles interfaces cellular form of reinforcement is found to be exhibits a significant post peak strength loss more effective in improving the strength. The after a number of shear cycles. discrete fiber form of reinforcement used in the studies is found to be inferior compared to According to Consoli N.C. et al [2003] for the the other two forms. The scale effects involved fiber reinforced soil stratum, the fibers seemed in the results obtained from the triaxial tests on to redistribute the stresses over a broader area, small size samples of reinforced sand were acting similar to plant roots. As a result, the discussed and the qualitative importance of the load-settlement response was considerably improved when compared to that obtained on

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the non-reinforced soil stratum. According to MATERIALS AND METHODS Zhang Z.D. and Farrag K. (2001), during the ◦ Sand specimen preparation process, the fibrillated fibers opened into a randomly oriented net that Sand is a naturally occurring granular material interlocked with clayey soils. According to composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. Sand is formed by disintegration of Lawton et al (1993), the fiber reinforced soil sedimentary rocks by weathering action. Locally required some amount of deformation before available sand was used for the present the strengthening benefits were realized. They experimental investigation which has been taken from Harihara in Karnataka. Sand was sieved observed that because of the flexible nature of through IS 2.00mm sieve size in order to have the relatively long, slender fibers, substantial uniform size. The specific gravity of the soil penetration (typically greater than 2.5mm), particle was determined by the pycnometer method, was required to mobilize the reinforcing effect. three tests were carried out producing an average value of 2.66. According to the unified soil At large penetrations (greater than 14mm), the classification system, the soil is classified as poorly fiber reinforced soils provided greater graded sand with letter symbol SP. The particle resistance than the comparable jack-reinforced size distribution was determined using dry sieving soils. method & the properties of sand used are as shown in Table 1.

SCOPE OF PRESENT WORK Table 1: Properties of sand

Specific gravity (G) 2.66 ◦ Coir mat Coefficient of 4.48 Coir is a biodegradable organic fiber uniformity (Cu) material which is rigid, strong, and tensile in nature. The rate of decomposition of coir is Coefficient of 0.960 much less than any other natural fiber. Coir curvature (Cc) is a 100% organic fiber, from a renewable Type of sand SP (poorly graded source coconut husk. Naturally resistant to sand) rot, moulds and moisture, it needs no Relative density of 70% chemical treatment. Hard and strong, it can sand in experiments be spun and woven into matting. They also 1.62 ϒ dmax (gm/cc) have the right strength and durability to 1.37 protect the slopes from erosion, while ϒ dmin (gm/cc) allowing vegetation to flourish. They can The objective of the present investigation is to determine the effect of introducing coir mat dissipate the energy of flowing water and reinforced soil layer over soil stratum. The results absorb the excess solar radiation. Coir is a of the present experimental investigation will be one of the cheaply available organic analyses to determine the following: material and for the present study coir mat 1. Effect of size of the opening of coir mat was purchased from Channapatna in on shear strength characteristics of sand. Karnataka. 2. Effect of coir mat reinforced sand layer on bearing capacity and settlement of the model footing. 3. Effect of depth ratio on the bearing Table 2. Physical properties of coir mat capacity and settlement of model footings.

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Parameters Results

Mass per unit area 1150grams per square meter Thickness in mm 5.43 (under stress of 200 Kpa) Puncture resistance One single layer (CBR punch – 1.6kN through) Figure 1: Grain size analysis Strain at failure 62%

Initial tangent 58kN/m Relative density determination modulus This test is performed to determine the relative density of cohesion less, free- Table 3. Chemical properties of coir mat draining soils using a vibrating table. The relative density of a soil is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the difference Total water soluble 26.00 % between the maximum index void ratio and Pectin etc. soluble 14.25 % the field void ratio of cohesion less, free- in boiling water draining soil; to the difference between its maximum and minimum index void ratios. Hemi-celluloses 8.50 % Dr= [(e - e)]/ [(e - e )]*100 Lignin 29.23 % max max min Where: Cellulose 23.81 % e = the volume of voids divided by the volume of solid particle ◦ Methodology Grain Size Distribution emax = void ratio in loosest state The sieve analysis is performed to determine e = void ratio in most compact state. the percentage of different grain sizes min Direct shear test for determining the contained within sand. effect of shear strength characteristics of coir mat reinforced sand. IS: 2720-1975 - Standard Test Method for To determine the shear strength parameters Particle-Size Analysis of Soils for a Sand and Coir mat reinforced sand Significance: using the direct shear test.

The distribution of different grain sizes affects Standard reference: the engineering properties of sand. Grain size [IS: 2720 (1983) part XIII – standard test analysis provides the grain size distribution, method for direct shear test] and it is required in classifying the soil. The test is carried out on either undisturbed samples or remoulded samples. 178

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To facilitate there moulding purpose. Then specimen for the direct shear test could be obtained using the cutter provided. Diameter of the tank (d) = 250mm Height of the tank (H) = 300mm Alternatively, sand sample can be placed in a Area π/4*d² =11,783cm2 dry state at a required density, in the Weight of the sand (W) = ϒ d * V = 17.90 kg assembled shear box. A normal load is applied to the specimen and the specimen is sheared For conducting model tests, specified weight across the pre-determined horizontal plane of sand was poured in to the test tank. The between the two halves of the shear box. sand was compacted in 3 layers by giving Measurements of shear load, shear suitable number of blows. At the desired displacement and normal displacement are depths of reinforcement placement, the recorded. The test is repeated for two or more pouring of sand was temporarily stopped and identical specimens under different normal the reinforcement was placed on the surface of loads. From the results, the shear strength the sand. parameters can be determined. The direct shear apparatus is shown in plate3. Upon filling the tank with sand to the top, the top surface of sand was levelled and the model

footing was placed on the predetermined Direct shear test programme: alignment such that the load from the loading jack was transferred concentrically to the Direct shear test were conducted on dry sand footing. The magnitude of loads applied to the specimen of size 60x60x25mm with bottom footing was recorded with the help of a half (12.5mm) having wooden plate pasted sensitive precaliberated proving ring of 10KN with coir mat as shown in plate4. A total of 3 capacity placed between the hydraulic jack direct shear tests were conducted to study the and the reaction beam. Each load increment influence of coir mat with different openings. was maintained constant until the rate of The test results were compared with shear displacement was less than 0.01mm/h. parameters obtained by conducting direct Displacement(settlement) of the model footing shear test on unreinforced sand. The sand in was measured using 3 dial gauges (Dg1, Dg2 the upper half was compacted with dry sand at and Dg3) whose location are shown in Fig: 70% relative density at 3 different normal 4.2. The displacements reported are the stresses of 50KN/m², 100KN/m² and average of 3 dial gauge readings, which were 150KN/m². Desired compaction was achieved nearly identical. In all of the experiments, the by light tamping, using circular iron rod. loading was continued until footing displacement reached 50mm. Before starting Model Footing Test. each test, the test tank was completely emptied Testing procedure: and then refilled with sand. All of the Load settlement test using 50mm diameter experiments were repeated to verify the model footing were conducted in the consistency of the test data. laboratory in a steel test tank, whose Test programme: dimensions are given below. The size of the tank selected such that it minimizes the scale Under test series A, model test is conducted on effect of the model footing used. The inside circular footing resting on unreinforced sand dimensions of the tank were given as follows: bed. Under test series B model tests are carried out on footings resting on coir mat by varying 179

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different parameters such as different opening Test series Parameters used sizes of coir mat, depth to the top most layer from the base of the footing (u). The objective A Unreinforced sand of this series of test is to compare the performance improvement due to the reinforcement for different opening sizes of Reinforced coir mat coir mat and the influence of the depth of reinforced zone on the overall performance of B Sizes of opening: the footing, which will help in deciding the 10mm, 20mm an effective depth of reinforced zone for 30mm Depth ratio: obtaining better bearing capacities. Table 4.4 u/b=0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 shows the summary of test program used in and 1.00 the study. Circular in shapes, are placed at specific depths while preparing the sand bed for each model test. The depth of placement of the top most reinforcement from the bottom face of the footing is measured as u and the vertical spacing between consecutive depths ratio as u/b, all these parameters are expressed in non-dimensional form in terms of the footing width as u/b (reinforcement depth ratio). The circular footing of diameter b is then placed on the prepared reinforced sand bed.

10mm opening size coir mat

20mm opening size coir mat

Figure 2. Schematic setup of test programme

Table 4. Details of parametric study

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30mm opening size coir mat

Figure 3. Direct shear Test for coir mat with different mat openings

Table 5. Effect of coir mat on the shear strength parameter (ɸ ) of different openings of coir mat in direct shear test

Coir mat pasted on a wooden piece in direct shear box Coir mat unreinforced 10mm 20mm 30mm opening

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Angle of . Direct shear test for coir mats with different apertures internal 33° 55° 51° 48° Results of the direct shear test on friction in unreinforced sand as well as sand reinforced with degrees different sized coir mat have been plotted in terms of shear stress v/s normal stress. Fig 3 shows direct shear test results from which angle of internal friction (φ) are calculated. Table 5 shows summary of angle of internal friction obtained for coir mat with different sized openings. Load Settlement Characteristics of coir mat reinforced sand Model footing of diameter 50mm has been used to study the load settlement characteristics of reinforced earth compacted over soil stratum using coir mats of different opening sizes placed at different depth ratios u/b= 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.00

In order to study the effect of placement of reinforcement, the depth of placement of the top most reinforcement layer

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from the bottom face is measured as u and b is the width or diameter of model footing used.

Model Footing Test results

Effect of opening and depth of reinforcement in load carrying capacity Using model footing test results, which was conducted both on unreinforced and reinforced sand, load settlement curves were plotted. Fig 4, 5 and 6 shows load settlement characteristics, obtained for coir mat with 10mm, 20mm, and 30mm opening sizes. It can be seen from these figures that load carrying capacities of reinforced sand increases with introduction of coir mat as reinforcement. It can now be seen that, the load carrying capacity as well as settlement reduction is affected significantly corresponding to a depth ratio of u/b=0.4 for all of the sand reinforced with coir mat of different size openings. Fig 5. Load settlement characteristics for

20mm coir mat opening size with reinforced and unreinforced at different u/b ratios.

Fig 4. Load settlement characteristics for 10mm coir mat opening size with reinforced and unreinforced at different u/b ratios.

Fig 6. Load settlement characteristics for 30mm coir mat opening size with reinforced and unreinforced at different u/b ratios.

In order to understand the effect of size of the opening as well as the depth of the placement of reinforcement, Bearing Capacity Ratio (BCR) was calculated. BCR is defined as the ratio between

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bearing pressure of reinforced sand to bearing Fig 8. Variation of bearing capacity ratio of pressure of unreinforced sand (Qr/Qur) at a different coir mat openings with depth ratios at specified settlement. Fig 7 and 8 shows the variation between BCR with depth ratio. It can be settlement=40mm clearly seen that the BCR is found to be maximum corresponding to u/b=0.4 for all coir mat with different size openings. Hence a single layer with u/b=0.4 can be considered as optimum depth, Fig 9, 10 and 11 shows the variation further increase in size of opening decreases the of BCR with normalized settlement. BCR value marginally. Normalized settlement is defined as the ratio of specified settlement divided by width of plate, which is expressed in terms of percentage. The BCR values corresponding to normalized settlement of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30%. The following figure shows the variation of BCR with normalized settlement. It can be seen that with increase in normalized settlement, the BCR shows an increasing trend. This is because with increase in settlement greater mobilization of reinforcement takes place due to frictional resistance at soil reinforcement interface. The trend in the above results is similar to those reported in the earlier literatures and the trend is not affected by the size of the opening of the coir mat, as in all the cases, maximum BCR value to u/b=0.4. Fig 7. Variation of bearing capacity ratio of different coir mat openings with depth ratios at settlement=25mm

Fig 9. Variation of BCR with Normalized settlement at different depth ratios for 10mm coir mat opening

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In order to understand the effect of reinforcement on settlement characteristics of

model footing, the settlement reduction factor was obtained, which is defined as

SRF= So-Sr/So

Where So is the settlement of the unreinforced sand at a given pressure and Sr is the settlement of reinforced sand at the same pressure.

Fig 12 shows variation of SRF with Depth ratios u/b. Once again it can be observed that settlement reduction is maximum corresponding to u/b=0.4 for all coir mat with different openings. With increase in depth ratio the reduction in settlement decreases and is found to be almost zero corresponding to u/b=1. Hence the settlement of the footing is found not to be affected when the depth of the reinforcement exceeds u/b=1. Similar trend were obtained for values corresponding to 40mm settlement. Fig 13 shows such variation of Fig 10. Variation of BCR with Normalized SRF with depth ratio. SRF is found to be maximum for sand reinforced with coir mat of 10mm settlement at different depth ratios for 20mm opening. With increase in size of the opening, SRF coir mat opening decreases marginally. This indicates, the size of opening does not influence settlement significantly.

Fig 11. Variation of BCR with normalized settlement at different depth ratios for 30mm coir mat opening Fig 12. Variation of settlement reduction factor for different coir mat openings with different depth ratio at settlement=25mm Effect of size of the opening and depth

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7. From the test results it can be seen that, with the provision of coir mat of 10mm opening size at the optimum depth of about 0.4b, the strength improvement ratio increase significantly when compared with the unreinforced case. 8. Strength improvement ratio increases almost proportionately with decrease in the vertical spacing of reinforcement within the significant depth and the settlement reduction factor increases with decrease in the opening size of the coir mat. 9. Provision of coir mat with different opening sizes reinforcement layers improve the load carrying capacity of the Fig 13. Variation of settlement reduction factor for model footing substantially at all levels of different coir mat openings with different depth normalized settlement. ratio at settlement=40mm REFERENCES

Gerald. P. Raymond (1992), CONCLUSIONS ―Reinforced sand behavior overlying On the basis of the present experimental compressible sub grades‖, Journal of investigations, the following conclusions have been Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 118, drawn: No. 11, 1663-1680. 1. The maximum value of angle of internal friction (ɸ ) has been obtained corresponding to 10mm coir mat opening as compared to unreinforced sand. P.Vinod, Ajitha B. Bhaskar, S. 2. In direct shear test, peak shear stress of Sreehari (2009), ―Behavior of a square different coir mat openings is more than footing on loose sand reinforced with that of the unreinforced sand. The effect of braided coir rope‖, Geotextiles and coir mat at smaller values of normal Geomembranes, vol. 27(2009), 464- stresses is more in increasing peak shear stress. 474. 3. As the normal stress increases, the percentage increase in the peak shear stress decreases and as the size openings Praveen kumar, Swami Saran and of coir mat decreases, the peak shear stress Ravikant Mittal (2006), ―Behavior of increases. fiber reinforced sand in different test 4. The bearing pressure of different coir mat conditions‖, Indian Geotechnical openings is significantly large than that for Journal, vol. 36, No. 3, 2006, 272-282. the unreinforced case and the 10mm coir mat opening shows maximum BCR when compared with to unreinforced case. BINQUET.J. & LEE.K.L. (1975), 5. The BCR of reinforced sand bed ―Bearing Capacity Analysis of improved as the depth ratio of embedment Reinforced Earth Slabs‖, Journal of of reinforcement increases from u/b=0.2 Geotechnical Engg. Division, Proc, to 0.4 and thereafter it decreases. ASCE, Vol. 101, No Gt12, 1257-1276 6. From the overall performance point of view of the model footing (i.e. both Consoli, N.C., Preitto, P.D.M., and strength and settlement aspects), the Ulbrich, L.A. (1998), Influence of optimum location of coir mat fiber and cement addition on behavior reinforcement is about 0.4b below the of sandy soil, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. base of the model footing. Eng., 124(12), 1211-1214.

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Consoli, N.C., Casagrande, M.D.T., Proc. Ind. Geotech. Conf. Delhi. Vol- preitto, P.D.M., and Thome, A. 2, 195-199. (2003), Plate load test on fiber reinforced soil, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 129(10), 0951- Nagraja P.S (2006)―Behavior of 0955. reinforced sand beds subjected to monotonic, cyclic and dynamic loads‖ G. Madhavilatha, Vidya S. Murthy 2007 PhD thesis report UVCE, Bangalore ―Effects of reinforcement form on the University. behavior of geosynthetic reinforced sand‖ Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore Baruah, Saikia and Bora, ―Road 560012, India, Geotextiles and construction in assam by using coir Geomembranes 25 (2007) 23–32., Volume mat‖ Indian Geotechnical conference 25, Issue 1, Pages 23–32. – December 16-18, 2010. G L SivakumarBabu & A.K Vasudevan Giroud, J. P. and Noiray L. (1981) (2008).‖Strength and stiffness response of Geotextile Reinforced Unpaved coir fibre reinforced Tropical soil‖. Roads, Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 107, G Madhavilatha & Amit Somwanshi No. GT9, Sept. 1981,1233- 1254 (2009), ―Effect of reinforcement on VIDAL, H., (1969), ―The Principle of the bearing capacity of square footings Reinforced earth ―, Highway Research on sand. Record, 282, 1: 1-163.

TEMEL YETIMOGLU*, OMER HOE. I. LING et.al (2001), ―Post SALBAS ―A study on shear strength Earthquake investigation on several of sands reinforced with randomly Geosynthetic reinforced soil retaining distributed discrete fibers‖, Kızılay- walls and Slopes‖, Soil Dynamics and Ankara 06410, Turkey, Geotextiles Earthquake Engg, Vol. 21, No. 2, 297- and Geomembranes 21 (2003) 103– 313. 110, 5 December 2002

IS: 2720 (Part XIII): (1986), ―Indian Standard Methods of tests for soils- Direct Shear Test‖, Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi.

IS: 2720 (1975), ―Indian Standard Methods of tests for soils- Particle-Size analyses of soils‖, Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi.

K. M. Lee & V .R. Manjunath (soil – geotextile interference frication by direct shear test). (2000),Soil-geotextile interface friction by direct shear tests.

MANDAL, J.N and DIXIT, R.N. (1986), ―Response paper to: Under what situations are Geotextiles more effective than traditional methods for ground improvement and drainage‖,

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Advance Construction Material – Micro Silica in Concrete Ratnadeep Singh Siddhu Lecturer Civil Engineering Deptartment, CDGI, Indore

Abstract-Micro silica is an amorphous type of silica ferrosilicon or silicon product is drawn off as a dust mostly collected in bag house filters as by-product liquid from the bottom of the furnace. Vapor rising of the silicon and ferro-silicon production. The paper from the 2000-degree-C furnace bed is oxidized, summarizes important physical and chemical properties and as it cools condenses into particles which are of micro silica and uses those results for an evaluation trapped in huge cloth bags. Processing the of micro silica from a Health Safety and Environment (HSE) standpoint. Micro silica consists of spherical condensed fume to remove impurities and control particles with an average particle size of 150 nm and a particle size yields micro silica. Micro silica, also specific surface area of typically 20 m3/g. The chemical known as Silica fume is fine amorphous silica. and physical properties of this inorganic product are Added to concrete at around 30kg/m3 it changes different as compared to other amorphous and the rheology and reacts with the cement hydration crystalline silica poly morphs. More than 500.000 MT products to dramatically improve concrete of micro silica are sold to the building industry world- strengths, durability and impermeability, allowing wide and are used in fibre cement, concrete, oil-well concrete to be used in ways never before possible. drilling, refractories, and even in polymers. When pozzolanic materials are incorporated to Micro silica contains trace amounts of heavy metal oxides and organic deposits, which originate from concrete, the silica present in these materials react natural raw materials. Since the concentration of these with the calcium hydroxide released during the impurities is very low, micro silica complies with hydration of cement and forms additional calcium company policies and international regulations. Traces silicate hydrate (C – S – H ), which improve of crystalline silica in micro silica do not seem to durability and the mechanical properties of represent a health risk, neither for silicosis nor for lung concrete. High strength concrete refers to concrete cancer, due to the low levels and the large particle size. that has a uniaxial compressive strength greater According to the International Agency for Research on than the normal strength concrete obtained in a Cancer (IARC), there is insufficient evidence for the particular region. High strength and high carcinogenicity of silica fume, in contrast to crystalline silica. In order to assess potential health risks of micro performance concrete are being widely used silica and compliance with international regulations throughout the world and to produce them, it is from an occupational hygienist‘s point of view, one has necessary to reduce the water binder ratio and to collect fragments of information from different increase the binder content. High strength concrete analytical techniques. Putting these fragments together means good abrasion, impact and cavitations results in a cohesive picture. All evidences indicate that resistance. Using high strength concrete in micro silica is not a hazardous product when applied as structures today would result in economical advised. advantages. In future, high range water reducing admixtures (Super plasticizer) will open up new 1.0 Introduction possibilities for use of these materials as a part of cementing materials in concrete to produce very 1.1 General high strengths, as some of them are make finer than Micro silica is a mineral admixture composes of cement. very fine solid glassy spheres of silicon dioxide (SiO2). Most micro silica particles are less than 1 1.2 Aids strength gain of fly ash concretes: micron (0.00004 inch) in diameter, generally 50 to Preliminary indications suggest that micro silica 100 times finer than average cement or fly ash may be useful in controlling heat generation in particles. Frequently called condensed silica fume, mass concrete. It has also been found useful in micro silica is a by product of the industrial combination with fly ash. Early-age strength manufacture of ferrosilicon and metallic silicon in development of concrete in which fly ash replaces high-temperature electric arc furnaces. The 187

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cement tends to be slow because fly ash is 2.2 Mixing And Placing Considerations relatively inert during this period of hydration. 2.2.1 Handling the micro silica Adding micro silica, which is more reactive in Because of its extreme fineness, micro silica early hydration, can speed the strength presents handling problems. A cement tanker that development. could ordinarily haul 35 metric tons of cement accommodates only 7 to 9 tons of dry micro silica 2.0 Methodology and requires 20 to 50 percent more time for The methodology adopted comprised of both discharging. Some producers mix micro silica with preliminary and experimental investigations carried water on a pound-for-pound basis ton form a slurry out using the study material and these are presented that is transportable in tank trailers designed to as follows: handle liquids. The water of the slurry replaces part of that ordinarily added to the mix. One supplier prepares a slurry which, used at the rate of 1 gallon 2.1 Preliminary Investigations per 100 pounds of cement, will provide aboutn5 For the preliminary investigations, micro silica and percent micro silica by weight of cement. In 1984, cement was subjected to physical and chemical that supplier was quoting a price of $1.70 per analyses to determine whether they are in gallon at a plant in West Virginia. In Canada, compliance with the standard used. The experimental program was designed to investigate patented methods have been used to densify the silica fume as partial cement replacement in micro silica for shipment to ready mix producers. Some concrete producers also use the loose micro concrete. The replacement levels of cement by silica just as it is collected. silica fume are selected as 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25% for standard size of cubes for the M30 grade of concrete. The specimens of standard cubes 2.2.2 Water requirements of the mix (150 x 150 x 150 mm), was casted with silica fume. When no water reducing agent is used, the addition Compressive machine was used to test all the of micro silica to a concrete mix calls for more specimens. The specimens were casted with M30 water to maintain a given slump. Water content can grade concrete with different replacement levels of be held the same by using a water reducer or super cement from 0 to 25% with silica fume. Seventy plasticizer along with the micro silica. Water two samples was casted and the cubes were put in reducing agents appear to have a greater effect on curing tank for 3, 7, 14, and 28 days and density of micro silica concrete than on normal concrete. the cube, and compressive strength were Thus water demand for given micro silica concrete determined and recorded down accordingly. The can be controlled to be either greater or smaller other materials used are listed as follow: than for the reference concrete.

2.1.1 Cement 2.2.3 Placing and finishing, curing Ordinary Portland cement produced by QNCC was The gel that forms during the first minutes of used in this study. The cement conformed to the mixing micro silica concrete takes up water and requirements of BS 12 (1996). stiffens the mixture, necessitating adjustment of the timing of charging and placing. Scandinavian researchers have concluded that micro silica 2.1.2 Aggregates concretes often require 1 to 2 inches more slump There are the inert filler in the concrete mixture than conventional concrete for equal workability. which constitute between 70 – 75% by volume of When cement content and micro silica dosage are the whole mixture. The sand used was collected relatively high, the mixture is so cohesive that there within Ibadan metropolis, Nigeria. It was clean and free from organic material and clay. The coarse is virtually no segregation of aggregates and little aggregate used were mainly material retained on a bleeding. This may cause problems for floors or slabs cast in hot, windy weather because there is no 4.7mm BS 410 test sieve and contained only so water film at the surface to compensate for much fine materials as was permitted for various evaporation .Plastic shrinkage cracking can readily sizes in the specification. develop unless precautions are taken. It is important to finish the concrete promptly and apply 2.1.3 Water a curing compound or cover immediately. With The water used for the study was free of acids, lean concrete mixes or mixes containing fly ash organic matter, suspended solids, alkalis and replacement of cement, different effects have been impurities which when present may have adverse reported. For example, Reference 4 re ports that effect on the strength of concrete. mixes with less than 380 pounds of cement per cubic yard plus 10 percent micro silica are both 188

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more cohesive and more plastic so no extra water is needed to maintain slump. 2.2.4. Concrete color effects 2.3 Preparation of Specimens Freshly mixed concrete containing micro silica can In this study, a total number of 12 cubes for the be almost black, dark gray, or practically control and cement replacement levels of 5%, unchanged, depending on the dosage of micro 10%,15%, 20% and 25% were produced silica and its carbon content. The more carbon and respectively. For the compressive strength, 150mm iron in the admixture, the darker the resulting x 150mm x 150mmcubes mould were used to cast concrete. Hardened concretes are not much darker the cubes and 3 specimens were tested for each age than normal concretes when dry. Sometimes there in a particular mix(i.e. the cubes were crushed at 3, is a faint bluish tinge, but when the micro silica 7 ,14 and 28 days respectively). All freshly cast concrete is wet, it looks darker than normal specimens were left in the moulds for 24 hours Silicosis danger doubted before being demoulded and then submerged in water for curing until the time of testing. Micro silica is essentially non crystalline. Currently available data indicate it has no tendency to cause 2.4 Mix Proportioning silicosis, the lung disease associated with inhalation Mix Proportioning by weight was used and the of crystalline SiO2. However, because of possible cement/ dried total aggregates ratio was 1: 2: 4. cumulative long-term effects, Norwegian standards Micro silica were used to replace OPC at dosage restrict dust in the air of the workplace to the same levels of 5%,10%, 15%, 20% and 25% by weight level as that of other dusts such as natural of the binder. The mix proportions were calculated diatomaceous earth, mica, and soapstone. and presented in table

TABLE 1: MIX PROPORTION FOR 30MPA CONCRETE Materials Mix Proportion (Kg) Control MS 5% MS 10% MS 15% MS 20% MS 25% Cement(Kg) 370.0 351.5 333.0 314.5 296.0 277.5 Micro silica (Kg) 0 18.5 37.0 55.5 74.0 92.5 Total Water ( Ltr) 140 140 140 140 140 140 Fine Aggregate(Kg) 780 780 780 780 780 780 Coarse Aggregate 1180 1180 1180 1180 1180 1180 (Kg) MS432 (ltr) 4 4 4 4 4 4 W/C 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38

2.5 Testing of Specimens the density of each cube was determined Compressive strength test were carried out using standard procedures for density at specified ages on the cubes. The determinations. consisted of the application of uniaxial compressive load on the cube until failure 2.5.1 Compressive Strength of Concrete at which point the load require for failure The test was carried out conforming to BS of each cube was noted, prior to testing, EN:12390 – 3: 2009 to obtain compressive

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strength of M30 grade of concrete. The concrete with silica fume depends on three compressive strength of high strength parameters, namely the replacement level, concrete with OPC and silica fume water cement ratio and chemical concrete at the age of 3, 7, 14 and 28 days admixture. The super plasticizer admixture are presented in table3.5.here is a dosage plays a vital role in concrete to significant improvement in the strength of achieve the0% to 25% there is a decrease concrete because of the high pozzolanic in compressive strength for 3, 7, 14 and 28 nature of the micro silica and its void days curing period. It was observed that filling ability. The compressive strength of the percentage of micro silica are given the mix M30 at 3, 7,14 and 28days age, workability at lower w/c ratio. Cement with replacement of cement by micro replacement up to10% with micro silica silica was increased gradually up to an leads to increase in compressive strength optimum replacement level of 10% and and beyond 1eplacement from average then decreased. The maximum 3, 7, 14and concrete strength(mpa) in table 3.3 were 28 days cube compressive strength of M30 16.15%, 29.24%, 23.98% and20.22% for grade with 10% of silica fume was 30.35, 3, 7, 14 and 28 days. The percentage given 38.26, 44.51, and48.22 mpa respectively.3 above shown that the compressive strength increased from 3 days to 7 days and The compressive strength of M30 grade decreased from 14 days to28 days i.e. concrete with partial replacement of 10% (23.98% to 20.22%). The maximum cement by silica fume shows 15.31% replacement level of silica fume is 10% for greater than the controlled concrete. The M30 grade. maximum compressive strength of

Table 2: Compressive strength Test Result for varying Micro Silica Replacement Levels in concrete Compressive Strength of Concrete

%MS Compressive Strength of Concrete(Mpa) Replacement 3 Days 7 Days 14 Days 28 Days 0 25.32 29.55 35.07 39.55 5 27.11 32.11 39.21 43.54 10 29.50 37.8 43.27 47.85 15 27.29 32.50 41.48 47.27 20 27.02 30.40 34.25 40.53 25 27.39 29.85 34.20 39.90 % Increased 14.15% 18.24% 24.98% 21.22%

3.0 Discussions OPC + H2O CSH (Calcium silicate hydrate) + 3.1 How Micro silica Works in Concrete Ca(OH)2 Micro silica in concrete contributes to strength and durability two ways: In the presence of micro silica, the silicon dioxide from the micro silica will react with the calcium 3.1.1. Pozzolonic effect: hydroxide to produce more aggregate binding CSH When water is added to OPC, hydration occurs as follows:- forming two products, as shown below:

Ca(OH)2 + SiO2 + H20 CSH 190

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The reaction reduces the amount of calcium aggregate bond of silica fume concrete compared to hydroxide in the concrete. The weaker calcium conventional concrete. The silica reacts rapidly hydroxide does not contribute to strength. When providing high early age strengths and durability. combine with carbon dioxide, it forms a soluble The efficiency of micro silica is 3-5 times that of salt which will each through the concrete causing OPC and consequently vastly improved concrete efflorescence, a familiar architectural problem. performance can be obtained. Concrete is also more vulnerable to sulphate attack, chemical attack and adverse alkali-aggregate As a pozzolana, micro silica provides a more reactions when high amounts of calcium hydroxide uniform distribution and a greater volume of is present in concrete. hydration products. As a filler, micro silica decreases the average size of pores in the cement 3.1.2. Micro filler effect : paste. Microsilicas effectiveness as a pozzolana and Micro silica is an extremely fine material, with an a filler depends largely on its composition and average diameters 100x finer than cement. At a particle size which in turn depend on the design of typical dosage of 8%by weight of cement, the furnace and the composition of the raw approximately100,000 particles for each grain of materials with which the furnace is charged. At cement will fill the water spaces in fresh concrete. present there are no U.S. standard specifications for This eliminates bleed and the weak transition zone the material or its applications. Dosages of micro between aggregate and paste found in normal silica used in concrete have typically been in the concrete. This micro filler effect will greatly range of 5 to 20 percent by weight of cement, but reduced permeability and improves the paste-to- percentages as high as 40 have been reported. Table 3 : Chemical and Physical Composition

U Unit OPC Fly ash Micro silica SiO2 % 17 – 25 40 – 55 90 – 98 CaO % 60 – 67 1 – 5 0.2 – 0.7 Al2O3 % 2 – 8 20 – 30 0.4 – 0.9 Fe2O3 % 0 – 6 5 – 10 1 – 2 Other % 1 – 8 4 -15 2 – 3 S. G Kg/m3 3150 2100 2200 Bulk density Kg/m3 1400 900 – 1000 550 – 650 Surface Area m2/kg 200 -500 200 – 600 20,000

3.2 How microsilica improves concrete overcome by mixing micro silica with water (and Finer than fly ash, this pozzolana increases strength sometimes other admixtures) in a slurry which and density, reduces concrete permeability Since replaces part of the normal concrete mixing water. micro silica particles are only about 1?100 the size Densification and pelletization have also been tried of cement grains, the material may be hard to batch to simplify the mixing and handling. and ship. These handling problems may be

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Flowchart of Microsilica (improving concrete)

3.3 Micro silica Concrete Applications observing the efficiency factor of Micro silica, a Because of the pozzolanic and micro filler effect of lower maximum temperature rise and temperature micro silica, its use in concrete can improve many differential will take place for concrete with the of its properties opening up a wide range of same strength. It performs better than slag andfly- applications including. ash blends in thick sections. It is also the most effective way of achieving low heat without 3.3.1. Corrosion Resistance sacrificing early age strength. The reduced permeability of micro silica provides protection against intrusion of chloride ions there 3.3.4. Silica Fume Waterproof Concrete by increasing the time taken for the chloride ions to Because of its low permeability, micro silica can be reach the steel bar and initiate corrosion. In use as an integral water proofer for below ground addition, micro silica concrete has much higher structures where some dampness is acceptable, eg. electrical resistivity compared to OPC concrete carparks thus slowing down the corrosion rate. The combined effect generally increased structures life 3.3.5. High Strength Concrete: by 5 – 10 times. Micro silica concrete is therefore Micro silica in conjunction with superplasticizers is suitable for structures exposed to salt water, de- used to produce very high strength concrete (70 – icing salts, ie. Harbor structures, ports, bridges, 120 MPa). High strength concretes provides large docks, on shores constructions situated in areas economic benefits to developers e.g. reduced with chlorides in the ground water, soil and in the column and wall thickness in tall buildings and air. improved construction schedule. It is also much more easier to pump micro silica concrete up the 3.3.2. Sulphate Resistance highrise buildings during construction. Micro silica concrete has a low penetrability and high chemical resistance that provides a higher 3.3.6. Shotcrete degree of protection against sulphates than low Micro silica is use in shotcrete whether produced C3A sulphate resisting cements or other by wet or dry process to reduce the rebound, to cementitious binder systems. increase application thickness per pass, improve resistance to wash out in marine construction or 3.3.3. Heat Reduction wet areas and to improve the properties of By replacing cement with Micro silica and

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hardened shotcrete. With fibres it can eliminate 4.0 Conclusions mesh and reduce cracking. 1. Cement replacement up to 8% with silica fume leads to increase in compressive strength, for 3.3.7. Abrasion Resistance M30grade of concrete. From 14% there is a Microsilica concrete has very high abrasion decrease in compressive strength for 3, 7, 14 and resistance. In floor and pavement construction it‘s 28 days curing period. use saves money and time and improves operational efficiencies for the facility operator. It 2 .It was observed that the compressive strength also improves the hydraulic abrasion-erosion ofM30 grade of concrete is increased from 16% to resistance of concrete thus making it suitable for 28%. use in dam spillways. 3. The maximum replacement level of silica fume 3.3.8.hemical Resistance: is 9% for M30 grade of concrete. Microsilica concrete is widely used in industrial structures exposed to an array of chemicals 4. The use of micro silica in high strength concrete aggressive. In the alimentary industry the exposure leads to economical and faster construction. comes from fat acids and other acids, detergents, etc. In the chemical industry there is exposure from 5.Due to use of the micro silica in a OPC concrete mineral acids, phosphates, nitrates, petrochemicals, the life of that concrete is increase 4-5 times than etc.Microsilica concrete is therefore in valuable in the OPC concrete. the industrial and agricultural sector

References

[1] International journal of civil and structural engineering. Volume 2, No 1, 2011 © Copyright 2010 All rights reserved Integrated [4] Investigations on Microsilica (Silica Fume) As Publishing services Research article ISSN 0976 Partial Cement Replacement in Concrete -By – 4399-Effect of replacement of Cement by Faseyemi Victor Ajileye.-Global Journal of Micro silica – 600 on the properties of Waste researches in engg.civil and structural Plastic Fibre Reinforced (WPFRC) Concrete – engg.Volume 12 Issue 1Version 1.0 January An experimental investigation-by Prahallada M. 2012. C1, Prakash K.B2. [2] IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil

Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) e-ISSN: 2278- 1684,p-ISSN: 2320-334X, Volume 6, Issue 4 (May. – Jun. 2013), PP 57-63 [5] Experimental Investigations of Mechanical www.iosrjournals.org www.iosrjournals.org 57 | properties on Micro silica (Silica Fume) and Fly Page Experimental -Investigations of Ash as Partial Cement Replacement of High Mechanical properties on Micro silica (Silica Performance Concrete.Magudeaswaran , Fume) and Fly Ash as Partial Cement Eswaramoorthi Replacement of High Performance Concrete – by-Magudeaswaran P1, Eswaramoorthi P2. [3] International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering Website: [6] Effect of Micro Silica on The Strength of www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, Volume 2, Concrete with Ordinary Portland Cement .-by Issue 8, August 2012).- Effect of Partial Verma Ajay, Chandak Rajeev and Yadav R.K. Replacement of Cement by Silica Fume on Hardened Concrete By-Dilip Kumar Singha Roy1, Amitava Sil2.

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Utilization of Waste Glass as a Sand Replacement in Concrete

Rahul K. Angamuthu Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering Chameli Devi College Of Engineering Bangalore college of Engineering and Technology, Bangalore Umrikheda, Khandwa Road, Indore (M. P.) [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract- The increasing awareness of glass recycling However, deleterious alkali-silica speeds up inspections on the use of waste glass with reaction (ASR) might occur in glass concrete due different forms in various fields. One of its significant to its high silica constituent. Some solutions have contributions is to the construction field where the been formed to alleviate ASR, but these solutions waste glass was reused for value-added concrete have some limitations which made it still production. Literature survey indicates that the use of waste glass as aggregates in concrete was first reported particularly important to investigate the utilization over 50 years ago. The glass from varying recycling of glass in concrete. process is considered to material which could be used These limitations include the long-term as blinder and also as aggregate replacement. inspecting of the effectiveness of ASR Laboratory experiments were conducted in suppressants; the effectiveness of the combined use the Bangalore College of Engineering and of ASR suppressants; the effective dosage of Technology to further explore the use of waste glass suppressants in mitigating ASR. fine aggregates. This paper presents mainly the latter In order to develop concrete with high aspect, in which study, both fresh and hardened aesthetic standard and less ASR potential, a series properties of concrete were tested of waste glass streams with increasing environmental process to reduce solid of laboratory experiments were conducted with the waste and to recycle as much as possible. Waste glass following objectives: (a) to develop concrete mixes creates serious environmental problem mainly due to using glass as a fine aggregate replacement; and (b) the inconsistency Results demonstrate that the use of to obtain by using glass as decorative aggregates. waste glass as aggregate facilitates the development of The paper here describes the study of waste glass in concrete towards a high architectural level besides its concrete, encompassing the fresh and hardened high performances, thereafter, the increasing market in properties tests, along with the aesthetic standard industry. improvement.

Keywords-Alkali-silica reaction (ASR), aesthetic properties, glass aggregate II.EXPERIMENTAL WORK As afore mentioned, within the series of experiments, the concrete study is of main concern I. INTRODUCTION in this paper, where glass was used fine aggregates with the purpose of achieving a high performance Waste glass is a major component of the solid and aesthetic level of concrete. Details of the waste stream in many countries [1]. It can be found experimental work are given in the following in many forms, including container glass, flat glass sections. such as windows, bulb glass and cathode ray tube glass. At present, although a small proportion of 1) Materials: the post-consumer glass has been recycled and a) Cement: In the present work OPC of 53 grade reused, a significant proportion, which is about cement has been used for the physical properties 84% of the waste glass generated in UK [2], is sent of cement. By test results as per IS to landfill. Glass is a 100% recyclable material with [12269:1987]. high performances and unique aesthetic properties Physical properties of cement which make it suitable for wide-spread uses. 1) Initial setting time of the cement =55min Besides, the current recycling state and legislative 2) Final setting time of the cement =440min forces pose great pressures on glass recycling and 3) Specific gravity of cement =2.54 reusing. The use of glass as aggregates in concrete 4) Standard consistency test =32% has great potential for future high quality concrete development. 194

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b) Coarse aggregate (CA): The material which is A number of colored glass concretes passed in 20 mm IS Sieve and retained on using different colors and particle sizes of glass 4.75mm IS Sieve as termed as coarse aggregate. aggregates, cement (OPC). Generally broken stones are used. 1. Slump test results: As shown in Table II, the 1) Specific gravity of coarse aggregate =2.75 slumps are in the IS recommended range of 10- 2) Water absorption test=0.2% 200mm, indicate that the test results are valid in 3) Fineness modulus =4.11 this experiment. 4) Zone =2 TABLE II c) Fine aggregate (FA): Generally we are SLUMP OF GLASS CONCRETE collected waste glass from the various places than it has been cleaned after that it has placed in abrasion testing machine 33 to 40 RPM has been given after that it has been placed in compressive Mix Water slump(mm) testing machine and load is applied up to 200KN. designation Cement ratio d) Chemical Composition of Glass TABLE I CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GLASS 0.4 10 Compound GC M20 wt.% age 0.5 45 Silica 68 0.6 135 Sodium oxide 12 Calcium oxide 11 Alumina 7 It can be seen from table-2 that the workability of Magnesium oxide 1 glass concrete containing was much higher (about Potassium oxide <1 twice as much) than that of the concretes Iron oxide <1 containing. All other oxides combined <1 Hence, it could react rapidly with the calcium hydroxide in the cement paste, converting it into III TEST METHODS stable cementitious compounds, thus refining the 1) Fresh concrete property tests: Three tests were microstructure of concrete, thereby reducing its carried out to examine the fresh concrete workability as well as permeation properties. In workability, density. Among them, the workability the meanwhile, the workability is governed of fresh concrete was examined by the slump test. mainly by the surface area and shape of pozzolan. The test set-up is conducted as recommended in [IS 2. Density Test Results: The densities are 7320:1974]. approximately 2300kg/m3 and conform to the 2) Hardened concrete property tests: The assumption of mix design. compressive strength test adopts the method specified in IS [9013:1978]. The specimens were VI EXPERIMENTAL TEST loaded to failure in a compression testing machine To study the compressive strength behavior of and the maximum load was recorded. M20 grade concrete in which sand has been For the tensile strength test, the method replaced by glass material by using used is as specified in IS [5816:1999]. The water 10%,30%,50%&100%. cubes specimen of size absorption test aims at inspecting the capability of 150mm*150mm prepared for 3days are tested for concrete to absorb water. The method is based on 3days, 7days, 14days&28days. the IS [2386:1963] PART (3). And also it has been carried same for also cylinder which has been in size 300 in depth and IV. BENFITS OF GLASS CONCRETE 150mm in dia.3 cylinder has been tested for 3,7,14 Savings on land fill cost for recovered days.

glass collection in concrete. 1. Compressive strength test: Saving on units cost of concrete. a. Failure mode: A typical failure mode of Environmental benefits of replacing the glass concrete tested for compressive strength natural aggregate resource with recycled is shown in Table IV. Similar failure mode has material as glass. been found in the IS [4] whereas a satisfied test has been verified. V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 2) Compressive strength development:

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a. Glass concrete specimens were used for each 70%+GC mix code, the mean compressive strength was 30% Sand50%+G 28.44 32.05 34.20 37.23 measured and calculated at 3, 7, 14 and 28 days C 50% individually Sand30%+G 27.32 30.10 31.98 33.25 b. Normal concrete: M20 grade of concrete is C 70% considered. The mix design is carried out as per IS 10262-1982. Details of mix proportion for M20 High compressive strength concrete with the value concrete are given below. above 40MPa can be obtained by using colored glassed as aggregates in concrete, Table- IInd TABLE III DETAILS OF MIX PROPORTION FOR M20 CONCRETE table-IV As expected and commonly, the compressive strength at earlier ages is much smaller than that at later ages and, after 7 days, the Fine Coarse Cement Water aggregates aggregates rate of strength development decreases. Moreover, the w/c ratio could affect the strength Quantity development of concrete. The absorption of water 383 545.41 1087.19 191.61 in kg/m³ by the aggregate can affect the final w/c ratio, which then leads to the strength difference. Ratio 1.00 1.42 2.83 0.50 The higher the w/c ratio is, the lower the strength. The effective w/c ratio of has been taken as 0.46% TABLE IV and thus, higher strength would be resulted in COMPARISON OF NORMAL CONCRETE AND GLASS CONCRETE because glass is a non-absorbent of Water.

Mix design 3 Days 7 Days 14Days 28 Days N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 Normal Concrete 6.47 13.5 18.4 20

Glass Concrete 14.66 20.44 23.84 28.68 For s100%

Graph-2:-Compressive Strength Development in Days

3. Tensile Strength Test

The tensile strength results of glass concrete are shown in Table VI.

Graph-1:-Normal Concrete vs Glass Concrete

2) Compressive strength development TABLE VI TABLE V TENSILE STRENGTH (AFTER BREAKING) COMPRESSIVE STRENTH DEVELOPMENT 3 Days 7 Days 14 Days 28 Days MIX in in in in DESIGN N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 MIX 3 Days in 7 Days in 14 Days 28 Days Sand DESIGN N/mm2 N/mm2 in N/mm2 in N/mm2 90%+GC10 1.98 2.34 2.45 2.4 % Sand Sand 90%+GC 24.88 29.56 31.45 33.25 70%+GC30 2.26 2.39 2.6 2.6 10% % Sand 27.55 30.22 32.60 34.51 196

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Sand 50%+GC50 2.41 2.7 2.83 3.2 VIII CONCLUSION % Sand 30%+ 2.19 2.35 2.49 2.57 G70% The paper presents the effective utilization of colored glass aggregates in a range of concretes It can be seen from Table VI that the trend of the and their properties tests. The performance test value of the tensile strength is similar to that of results conducted in this research confirm that the properties of those special mixed concretes are the compressive strength. satisfactory. The properties tested include workability, air This indicates that the effective w/c ratio has a content, density, compressive strength, tensile similar influence to the tensile strength as to the strength, and water absorption. Moreover, it is compressive strength and this is likely related to found that water absorption is strongly related to the water absorption performance of concrete. the strength of the concrete. Ultimately, glass is found to be an ideal material as a decorative aggregate in concrete with its satisfactory performances and aesthetic property improvement. REFERENCES [30] Shao Y, Lefort T, Moras S and Rodriguez D. Studies on Concrete Containing Ground Waste Glass. Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 30, pp 91-100, 2000. [31] Enviros. Recycled Glass Market Study & Standards Review. The Waste & Resources Action Programme, 2004. [32] Indian Standards. Testing fresh concrete: Slump test. IS 7320:1974. [33] Indian Standards. Testing hardened concrete: Compressive strength of test specimens. IS 9013:1978. [34] Indian Standards. Tensile splitting strength of test Graph-3:- Tensile Strength after Specimen Failure specimens. IS 5816:1999 [35] Indian Standards. Method for determination of water 4. Water Absorption Test absorption. IS 2386:1963 Part 3. [36] Indian Standards. Alkali-Silica Reaction in Concrete: IS The water absorption is calculated as the increase 2386:1963 Part 7. in mass resulting from immersion expressed as [37] Indian Standards. Specification for 53 grade ordinary percentage of the mass of the dry specimen and the Portland cement. IS 12269:1987. test results. By IS [2386:1963].[6]. This finding also confirms that higher water absorption would result in the reduction of the effective w/c ratio, and thus increasing the strength.

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Fly Ash Concrete Mix Using Super Plasticizer

Rishi Jain Vikas Patidar Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering Chameli Devi College Of Engineering Chameli Devi College Of Engineering Umrikheda, Khandwa Road, Indore (M. P.) Umrikheda, Khandwa Road, Indore (M. P.) [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract - All precast concrete producers can Water (free) = 170 x = 162 = 0.1620 now use a group of materials called ―fly ash‖ to 0.95 improve the quality and durability of their products. Fly ash improves concrete’s workability, pumpability, cohesiveness, finish, Superplasticizer= 482 x =4.82 = 0.0042 ultimate strength, and durability as well as solves 0.01 many problems experienced with concrete today–and all for less cost. Fly ash, however, Total =0.3476 must be used with care. Without adequate knowledge of its use and taking proper precautions, problems can result in mixing, Aggregates 1- = 0.6524 setting time, strength development, and 0.3476 durability. Index Terms – Fly ash, Super plasticizer, Mix Coarse aggregate =1060 = 0.4077 design. Fine =642 = 0.2447 I. FLY ASH aggregate=0.2447×2600

Fly ash or pulverized fuel ash (pfa) is a finely Total = 1 divided powder thrown out as a waste material at the thermal power plants using pulverized coal for raising steam in the boilers. In the building industry, the use of fly ash a part • Total dosages of superplasticizer may be replacement of cement in mortar and concrete reduced on actual trials. at the construction site has been made all over Standard deviation for fly ash concrete is the world including India and is well known. assumed unaffected with the ash

Material produced by FLY ASH: III COMPOSITION

1) Fly ash bricks. Cement: OPC, 53 grade, Specific gravity = 3.15 2) Fly ash cements.

3) Bituminous products. Fine aggregate: From river of Zone II

4) Ready mix fly ash concrete. Specific Gravity = 2.6 II MIX DESIGN Coarse aggregate: Crushed 20 mm graded, Material Wt.(kg) Vol.(m3) Specific Gravity = 2.6 OP Cement = 482 x = 337 = 0.1070 0.70 Fly ash: As per I.S.: 3812, Sp. Gr = 2.25

Fly ash= 482 x 0.30 = 145 = 0.0644 Super plasticizer: Liquid Specific gravity 1.15, dosage 1% b. w .c. for required Workability 198

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Water content reduction for fly ash concrete: Fine aggregate 707 636 5% Coarse aggregate 1060 1060 Superplasticizer 4.3 4.82 Increase in cementitious material: 12% total 2371 2345

Designed plain concrete of above strength and Saving in cement 430-337 = 93 kg/m3 workability: V ADVANTAGES Water (free) = 170 kg/m3 The advantages of using fly ash far outweigh OP Cement = 430 kg/m3 the disadvantages. The most important benefit is reduced permeability to water and Fine aggregate = 707 kg/m3 aggressive chemicals. Properly cured concrete made with fly ash creates a denser product Coarse aggregate = 1060 kg/m3 because the sizes of the pores are reduced. This increases strength and reduces permeability. Super plasticizer = 4.300 kg/m3= 3739 ml/m3 Today, there are at least two ways to make fly

3 ash more beneficial: a dry process that Total = Sum of all of the above = 2371 kg/m involves triboelectric static separation and a (air = 1%) wet process based on froth flotation. These procedures generally lower the carbon content and the LOI of fly ash. The cost of an additional storage bin should be easily covered by the reduction in the cost of the concrete and the added benefits to the concrete. Low-carbon fly ash or the use of a better air-entraining agent at a higher-than-usual addition rate can control the problem of freeze-thaw durability. IV COMPARISON

REFERENCES Material in kg/m3 Plain Fly ash concrete concrete [38] I.S. 3812 (Part-I) – Specification for fly ash.. Water 170 162 [39] Result from various sources on internet. OP Cement 430 337 Fly ash - 145

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MODERN METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION

Vikas Patidar Mukul Meshram Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering Chameli Devi College Of Engineering Chameli Devi College Of Engineering Umrikheda, Khandwa Road, Indore (M. P.) Umrikheda, Khandwa Road, Indore (M. P.) [email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT: In today‘s fast paced world, many processes by material for example timber, steel, concrete and have been modernized in order to increase efficiency and masonry). drive down costs. Same is the case with field of A construction process that can encompass the use of construction. As traditional or conventional methods takes composite new and traditional materials and lot of time for construction, also requires a large number components often with extensive factory produced of manpower these methods of construction have become sub-assembly sections and components. This may be obsolete in new era. So to overcome the defects in old in combination with accelerated on-site assembly methods of construction, engineers have come up with modern methods and techniques of construction. In simple methods and often to the exclusion of many of the way modern Methods of Construction are defined as those construction industry traditional trades. The process methods which provide an efficient product management includes new buildings and retrofitting, repair and process to provide more products with better quality in less extension of existing buildings. time. They also help in increasing the manpower efficiency. It will not only save the time but also reduce II UNCERTAINTIES IN TRADITIONAL manpower involved, provide improved quality under CONSTRUCTION AND NEED OF MODERN factory controlled conditions and reduce the wastage of METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION materials. KEYWORDS: Alkali-silica reaction (ASR), aesthetic properties, glass aggregate. The key characteristic of traditional construction method is that almost all of the production occurs at I INTRODUCTION the building site. There are difficulties within the sector to change and develop modern methods of The overall objective of the case study is to develop a construction. By some researchers which are detailed assessment of the current level of use of associated with this type of building site production, Modern Methods of Construction (MMC) in different suggesting that changes that occur do so within the construction sectors, identifying positive and negative isolated setting of the respective building sites. There factors influencing take-up. Modern methods of are many type of uncertainties are also with the construction (MMC) are suggested to deal more traditional construction methods. Some of these effectively with uncertainties that construction uncertainties are arising in concern with traditional commonly presents i.e. uncertainties inherent in methods because of Labor shortages, Weather delays, traditional construction regarding e.g. time, defects, Schedule delays, Scarcity of material, Designing safety, environmental impact, costs, profits and issues, Delivery issues, Men & Material safety lifecycle performance. hazards. 1) Modern Methods of Construction (MMC) are To vanquish these issues of traditional construction, defined as the methods which provide an efficient were required some hard sole solutions which arose product management process to provide more the need of modern methods of construction. Together products of better quality in less time. Modern with these, some other factors which also influenced methods are explained either with the following i.e., the rise of MMC are shortage of housing supply, pre-fabrication, off-site production and off-site Environmental degradation, Quality compromises, manufacturing (OSM). But while all OSM is MMC etc. not all MMC is OSM. It can be classified in various ways and the key services involved in these are III FEATURES OF MODERN METHODS OF plumbing, key items (e.g. foundations) inner shell CONSTRUCTION (walls etc.), external walls, or any combination of Some of the perceived features of MMC are: these elements. These methods can also be classified

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• Improved quality control of components are factory finished internally, complete with produced under factory controlled mechanical and electrical services. Pods are available conditions. in timber frame, light-steel frame, hot rolled steel frame, concrete or GAP superstructure and are mainly • Services (e.g. electrics, plumbing) can be used in more specialized areas that can be pre-planned and either fully or partly pre- standardized and repeated, such as kitchens and installed for final connection on site. bathrooms. • Faster construction times on site. c) Hybrid Systems (also known as Semi-Volumetric): • Fewer workers required on site and for This method combines panelized and volumetric shorter periods. methods of construction and frequently includes the • Minimized construction wastes and use of pods. The hybrid approach can be used to bring flexibility to the development and can also reduce pollution. uniformity of design. • Highly skilled design and engineering. d) Sub-Assemblies and Components: These methods, • Eco-friendly and energy efficient systems. although predominantly traditional, utilize factory • Earthquake resistant. fabricated sub assemblies or components. This includes floor or roof cassettes and pre-cast concrete IV TYPES OF MODERN METHODS OF foundation assemblies and it can also be said as pre- CONSTRUCTION fabricated construction. Prefabrication is the practice Modern methods of construction fall into the of assembling components of a structure in following categories: a factory or other manufacturing site, and 1) Off-site Manufacture (OSM): This is the part of transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the production process that is carried out away from the construction site where the structure is to be the building site in factory conditions. Examples located. include: a) Panelized Building Systems: These comprise of 2) Non Off-site Manufacture: This approach walls, floors and roofs in the form of flat pre- encompasses building techniques and structural engineered panels that are erected on site to form the systems that cannot be placed in the category of off- box like elements of the structure that then require site manufacture. The main characteristic of these various levels of finishing. The most common methods is that of innovation. This could be through approach is to use open panels or frames which an innovative non OSM building technique or through consist of skeletal structure only with services, the use of a method of construction that has been used insulation, external cladding and internal finishing in other industries, but not house building. By way of occurring on-site. Another system that is used illustration, examples of non OSM include: frequently involves closed panels. These are more a) Tunnel Form: Tunnel form is evolving into one of complex, involve more factory fabrication and may the most frequently used methods of cellular include lining materials and insulation. Types of panel construction as its cost effectiveness, productivity and systems build include timber frame and steel frame, quality benefits are being realized on a variety of both of which usually consist of prefabricated load developments. Tunnel form is particularly suitable for bearing panels. These are then fitted on-site with the repetitive cellular projects such as hotels, apartment insulation and other features subsequently installed blocks and student accommodation. Structures of up on-site. to 40 or more storeys‘ in height can be built using this b) Volumetric Systems (also known as Modular technique. Tunnel form simplifies the construction Construction) : In this type of systems units are used process by making possible a smooth and quick to form the structure of the building, thereby operation that can result in costs being reduced by 15 enclosing the usable space. Typically, modular per cent and time savings of up to 25 per cent. During construction means that between 80 to 95 per cent of the tunnel form construction process, a structural the building-come manufacturing process is tunnel is created by pouring concrete into steel mould completed at the factory and then delivered to the site known as a formwork to form the floor and walls. for final assembly. This process involves connecting Every 24 hours, the formwork is moved so that the completed modules to each other on site. There is another tunnel can be created. Once a storey has been no requirement for any additional supporting completed, the process is repeated on the next floor. superstructure. Modular construction is often used on b) Thin-Joint Masonry: Thin-joint masonry is a quick, larger, more standardized schemes due to the clean and accurate method that utilizes aircrete blocks, economies of scale of many similar sized modules and which are manufactured to extremely precise the discernible benefit of reduced construction times. standards in terms of size and shape, and a thin layer Prefabricated modules are often referred as pods and of mortar. Thin joint combines reduced build times 201

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with greater flexibility of aircrete construction, such We can say that now in days the technology is as ease of handling, working and finishing. It can also working on different aspects and new techniques are result in cost savings, facilitate improved build quality developed day by day for fulfilling the requirements and reduce wastage. of construction. The developing of new material with Other significant areas include carpet reinforcement mixing of no. of different elements and make a new and load bearing faced systems, through to process material with different characteristics is the new thing and schedule improvements such as metal shutters, comes in everyday life. In short we are developing core jump systems, double jumping cores, edge different new techniques as well as different materials protection systems, service walls, and light weight for growing up of construction field and we have to facades. develop these for environment and human‘s goodness purpose. V. IMPLEMENTATION OF MMC ON CONSTRUCTION SITE REFERENCES Procurement and construction of conventionally [1] Rangawala, S. C., Building Construction, Charotar constructed dwellings is by necessity a sequential Publishing House, Anand. process, which is represented in its simplest step wise [2] Merritt, F. S., Building Construction Handbook, McGraw form: Hill Book Company, New York (USA). [3] Arora, S. P. and Bindra, S. P., A Text Book of Building 1. Develop concept design Construction, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, New Delhi. 2. Obtain approvals [4] Design Practices to Facilitate Construction Automation." 3. Develop detailed design Construction Industry Institute (CII), Austin, TX, Jan. 2001 - 4. Construct infrastructure Sept. 2003. PI: John Gambatese. 5. Construct substructure [5] Cost/Benefits of Constructibility Reviews." Co-PI's: Dr. 6. Erect superstructure Phillip Dunston and Mr. James McManus, University of 7. Erect roof Washington. National Cooperative Highway Research 8. Fit out units Program, Washington, D.C., Aug. 2000 - Nov. 2001 .PI: John Gambatese. The first three steps are part of pre-construction phase [6] Lu, W., Ye, K., Flanagan, R. and Jewell, C. (2013) and after their approval the rest of the steps take place Developing construction professional services in the off-site and on-site relevantly. international market: a SWOT analysis of China. Journal of Management in Engineering, 29 (3). pp. 302-313.ISSN1943- VI. CONCLUSIONS 5479doi:10.1061/ (ASCE) ME.1943-5479.0000144.

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Simplified Equation For Estimating The Period Of Vibration Of Buildings With Flat Slab And Shear Walls

MANU VIJAY Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering ATME College of Engineering, Mysore, India Email: [email protected]

Abstract - The aim of the present investigation has led stiffness of the structure and is thus affected by to a simplified period – height equation for use in the many factors such as structural regularity, number seismic assessment of RC buildings, taking due of storeys and bays, section dimensions, infill panel accounts of the presence of flat slab and shear walls. properties, axial load level, reinforcement ratio and The period of vibration which has been derived extent of concrete cracking. Cracking of RC herein represents the period of first mode of members is a phenomenon often ignored in period vibration. The study includes the seismic response of calculation however it generally occurs under regular and irregular buildings and soil flexibility using the Winkler’s soil model. The parameters gravity loading and after moderate seismic action. considered for the present study are three different The stiffness of RC members significantly types of soil (soft, medium and hard), for high decreases after cracking and so this stiffness seismic zone and building irregularities like plan reduction should be adequately modeled in analysis irregularity, vertical irregularities such as , mass to determine an expected period of vibration. irregularity, Non parallel, offset irregularity, re- entrant corners irregularity offset irregularity, and Simple empirical relationships are available in stiffness irregularity, as per IS:1893-2002 for 10, 15, many design codes to relate the height of a building 20 storey buildings. Various analytical models for the parametric study were using modeled using to its fundamental period of vibration. However Etabs.V.9.2 software. Various parametric studies these relationships have been realized for force were carried out to estimate the fundamental time based design and so produce conservative estimate period of the structure with flat slab and shear walls. of period such that the base shear force will be conservatively predicted. For the seismic design of Keywords—Flat sla ,time perio ,shear walls. a reinforced concrete (RC) frame, the period of vibration will not be known a priori and thus I INTRODUCTION simplified equations are employed in the seismic design codes to relate the fundamental period to the The determination of the natural period of vibration height of the frame. These equations have of a reinforced concrete structure is an essential traditionally been obtained by regression analysis procedure in earthquake design and assessment. An on the periods of vibration measured during improved understanding of the global demands on earthquakes. a structure under a given seismic input can be obtained from this single characteristic. This property is dependent on the mass, strength and

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the site, importance of the structure, response reduction factor of the lateral load resisting II IRREGULAR BUILDINGS elements and the fundamental period of the structure. The procedure generally used for the The buildings can be broadly categorized as regular equivalent static analysis is explained below: and irregular buildings. An irregular building can be defined as a building that lacks symmetry and (iv) Determination of fundamental natural period (Ta)of the buildings has discontinuity in geometry, mass or load 0.75 Moment resisting RC resisting elements. The structural irregularities can Ta =0.075h be broadly categorized as horizontal and vertical frame building without brick infill wall irregularity. 0.75 Ta =0.085h Moment resisting steel The horizontal irregularity refers to asymmetrical frame building without brick infill walls plan shapes such as (L,T,U,F) or discontinuities in horizontal resisting elements such as cutouts, large Ta =0.09h/ d All other buildings openings, re-entrant corners and other abrupt including moment resisting RC frame changes resulting in effects like torsion, diaphragm building with brick infill walls. deformation and stress concentration. Where, III FLAT SLAB WITH SHEAR WALL h -is the height of building in m Common practice of design and construction is to d - is the base dimension of building at support the slabs by beams and support the beams plinth level in m, along the considered by columns. This may be called as beam-slab direction of lateral force. construction. The beams reduce the available net clear ceiling height. Hence in warehouses, offices (v) Determination of base shear (VB)n of the and public halls sometimes beams are avoided and building VAW Where, slabs are directly supported by columns. These Bh types of construction are aesthetically appealing also. These slabs which are directly supported by Z I Sa Ah is the design horizontal seismic columns are called Flat Slabs. 2 R g 1) Soil–Structure Interaction coefficient, which depends on the seismic zone factor (Z), importance factor (I), response reduction The response of a structure during an earthquake factor (R) and the average response acceleration depends on the characteristics of the ground coefficients (Sa/g). Sa/g in turn depends on the motion, the surrounding soil, and the structure nature of foundation soil (rock, medium or soft soil itself. For structures founded on rock or very stiff sites), natural period and the damping of the soils, the foundation motion is essentially that structure. which would exist in the soil at the level of the foundation in the absence of the structure and any (vi) Distribution of design base shear excavation; this motion is denoted the free-field The design base shear VB thus obtained shall be ground motion. distributed along the height of the building as per Wh 2 2) Equivalent Lateral Force Method the following expression: QV ii iBn Wh 2 The total design lateral force or design base ii i1 shear along any principal direction is given in terms of design horizontal seismic coefficient and Where, Qi is the design Where, Qi is the design seismic weight of the structure. Design horizontal lateral force, Wi is the seismic weight, hi is the seismic coefficient depends on the zone factor of

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height of the 1th floor measured from base and n is Fig 1.4 showing ETABS model screen shot of a the number of stories in the building. Stiffness irregularity and spring constants of a 10 storied building. IV PRESENT ANALYSIS

The study includes the seismic response of regular and irregular buildings and soil flexibility using the V DESIGN DATA FOR ALL THE BUILDINGS Winkler‘s soil model. The parameters considered TABLE I DESIGN DATA for the present study are three different types of soil No. of storey 10, 15, 20 (soft, medium and hard), for high seismic zone and building irregularities like plan irregularity, vertical Storey height 3.0 m irregularities such as , mass irregularity, Non Seismic zone V parallel, offset irregularity, re-entrant corners irregularity offset irregularity, and stiffness irregularity, as per IS:1893-2002 for 10, 15, 20 Material Properties storey buildings. Grade of concrete M25(SLABS), M30, M35,M40(columns)

Grade of steel Fe 415

Density of 25 kN/m3 reinforced concrete

Fig 1.1 showing plan for regular building ETABS Member Properties model screen shot of a regular 10 storied building. 10 Storey

Slab 0.2m

Drop 0.45m

Column 0.7x0.7m Fig 1.2 showing ETABS model screen shot of a Shear wall 0.3 m Mass irregularity and Non-parallel irregularity of a 10 storied building. 15 Storey

Slab 0.2m

Drop 0.45m

Column 0.8x0.8m

Shear wall 0.3 m Fig 1.3 showing ETABS model screen shot of a offset irregularity and re-entrant irregularity of a 10 20 Storey storied building. Slab 0.2m

Drop 0.45m

Column 0.9mx0.9m,1mx1m

Shear wall 0.3 m

Live Load Intensities

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Roof 1.5 kN/m2 Mass=Building with mass irregularity

Floor 3.0 kN/m2 Offset=Building with offset irregularity Non parallel=Building with non-parallel irregularity

Stiffness=Building with stiffness irregularity VI RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Rentrant =Building with rentrant corner irregularity Fundamental Period of Combined irregularities for all The period height relationship for building types of soil: The result of, Fundamental time period are with flat slab and shear wall for combined presented for different building models (10, 15 & 20 irregularities by considering all types of soil storey‘s) for different irregularities with spring constants and different type of soil and zone types. may be estimated by the analytical expression; TABLE II 1.29 Ta =0.005h ………. eqn DETAILS OF FUNDAMENTAL TIME PERIOD OF ALL TYPES OF BUILDINGS AND SOIL Ta=Natural time period of structure in seconds

h=Height of the building in ‗m‘ Type of Number Fundamental time periods in buildings of seconds Soil type stories S1 S2 S2 1.4 10 0.3376 0.3527 0.4387 1.2

Mass 15 1.0 0.5753 0.5943 0.7110 Irregularity 0.8 20

0.8615 0.8823 1.0321 Periods(s) 0.6 Ta=0.005h1.29 10 0.3665 0.3814 0.4610 0.4

Non Parallel 15 0.2 0.6237 0.6483 0.7174 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Irregularity Height(m) 20 0.8937 0.9212 1.0322 10 0.501 0.510 0.5462 Offset New Time Period formula Vs IS: 1893-2002 Irregularity 15 0.8027 0.8065 0.8741 code formula for Time Period for 20 1.1282 1.133 1.2405 different soils. 10 0.3496 0.35 0.4581 Re-Entrant Irregularity 15 0.5955 0.6286 0.7419 20 0.8699 0.9596 1.058 10 0.3814 0.3926 0.4712 Stiffness Irregularity 15 0.6217 0.6419 0.7266 20 0.9315 0.9562 1.1249 10 0.3152 0.3310 0.34 Regular Building 15 0.5461 0.5722 0.6920 20 0.8296 0.8548 1.0862

Note: : The notations used below are as follows

S1=Hard soil,S2=medium soil S3=Soft soil Regular=Building with no irregularity

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[2] Apostolska1 R.P and Necevska-Cvetanovska G. S, New Spectral ―Seismic performance of flat-slab building structural IS;1893- formula Type acceleration co systems‖ The 14th World Conference on Earthquake 2002 for time of Story efficient (Sa/g) Engineering October 12-17, 2008, Beijing, China. code [3] Berero, V.V., Bendimerad, F.M., and Shah, H.C.(1998). period soil Height formula ―Fundamental period of reinforced R/C moment-resisting from the (m) From From for time frame structures.‖ Rep. No. 87, John A. Blume Earthquake present code new period Engg. Ctr., Stanford Univ., Stanford, Calif. study formula formula [4] Chopra, A.K. and Goel, R.K.(2000), ―Building Period Formulas for Estimating Seismic Displacements‖, Soil Earthquake Spectra, 16, no 2, 533-536. 30 1.04 2.5 1 [5] Chopra, A.K. and Goel, R.K (1997) ―Period Formulas for Moment-Resisting Frame Buildings, Journal of o Soil Structural Engineering‖, ASCE 123, n 11, 1454-1451. 45 0.77 1.49 1 [6] Devesh P. Soni and Bharat B. Mistry ―Qualitative Review Of Seismic Response Of Vertically Irregular Building Frames‖, Vol. 43, No. 4, December 2006, pp. Soil 60 0.61 1.02 121-132 1 [7] Garg c.s, Yogendra singh, Pradeep Bhargava and Bhandari N.M, ―Seismic performance of flat slab Soil shear wall system‖, Journal of structural Engineering, 30 1.41 3.4 2 Vol.37, No.3, August-September2010, PP.203-207. [8] Helen Crowley and Rui Pinho (2006) ―Simplified Ta= Equations for Estimating the Period of Vibration of T = Soil a 45 1.05 2.08 Existing Buildings, Proceedings of 1st European 0.005h1.29 2 0.075h0.75 Conference of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology‖, Geneva, paper no 1122. Soil [9] Murty C.V.R. (2002a) ―What is the Seismic Design 60 0.84 1.38 2 Philosophy for Buildings‖ Earthquake Tip 08, IITK- BMTPC, Indian Concrete Journal, 2002. Soil [10] Bhavikatti S.S, ―Advance R.C.C. Design‖ , New Age 30 1.74 3.89 International (p) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi, India. 3 [11] Bowles.J.E-― Foundation Analysis and Design‖, McGraw- Hill,Singapore-1974. Soil 45 1.28 2.49 3

Soil 60 1.03 1.68 3

VII CONCLUSIONS

 The fundamental natural period of a particular structure increases as the Stiffness of soil decreases.  The natural period of the structure increases with the increase in number of stories.  The fundamental time period of a structure with mass irregularity decreases as compared to time period of regular building.  The fundamental time period of a structure with non-parallel irregularity increases as compared to time period of regular building.  The fundamental time period of a structure with offset irregularity increases as compared to time period of regular building.  The fundamental time period of a structure with re-entrant corners irregularity increases as compared to time period of regular building. REFERENCES [1] Ahmad J. Durrani, S.T. Mau, Amr Ahmed AbouHashish and Yi Li ―Earthquake Response of Flat-Slab Buildings‖ Vol.120 No. 3, March, 1994. ©ASCE,ISSN 0733- 9445/94/0003-0947. 207

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Concept of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting System for Educational Institute Bhagawati.P.B*, Mahadik. S G. Khurupi S. B, More. P. H. Patil K. P. Undergraduate Students, Civil Engineering Dept,ADCET,Ashta, Maharasthra-416401 *Asst Prof,Civil Engineering Department , ADCET,Ashta, Maharasthra-416401.

Abstract: India is on the threshold of water stress and it is agricultural production in the developing high time to take all possible steps to obviate or at least countries. In fact, water scarcity is now the mitigate the scarcity round the corner.Maharashtra is currently one of the nation‘s eighth poorest state in water single greatest threat to human health, the Resources. People living in rural and semi urban areas of environment and the global food supply Maharashtra uses underground water sources, which is (Seckler,1998). having more hardness for domestic purpose. In order to conserve and meet our daily demand of water The present paper describes the rooftop rain requirement, we need to think for alternative cost effective water harvesting in the College and relatively easier technological methods of conserving water. Rain water harvesting is one of the best methods campus,Building of Annasaheb Dange fulfilling those requirements. Rainfall harvesting from College of Engineering located in Astha of rooftops can increase the water supply for various uses Sangli district has been undertaken for the such as constructing new infrastructure building, present investigation. The average annual gardening and artificial recharge of ground water. Proposed study is entirely based on primary and rainfall in the study area is hardly 420 mm. secondary data. This paper mainly focused on the various The proposed study is entirely based on existing rooftop water harvesting systems, management primary and secondary data. through modern methods and implementing those in ADCET Campus Astha of Maharashtra. B. NEED FOR THE STUDY Key Words : Rooftop water harvesting, ground water recharge, catchment area, . Population of college is about 3,500 including students, teaching and non-teaching staff and VI. INTRODUCTION daily visitors. According to World Health Organization, it is assumed that average 2.5 Today due to rising population & economical liter daily water intakes per capita per day growth rate, demands for the surface water is required. Analysis revealed that 8750 liter increasing exponentially. Rainwater harvesting water required for per day. Rainwater is seems to be a perfect replacement for harvesting can meet potable and non-potable surface & ground water as later is concerned water demands and also control flooding. with the rising cost as well as ecological Again, this non-potable harvested rainwater problems. There are frequent failures of rains can be best utilized for purpose of constructing in one region or the other and prolonged dry new infrastructure building, gardening etc. periods during the non monsoon seasons in Rainwater harvesting also helps in increasing India. This gives rise to serious drought the soil moisture conditions in many parts of India including Maharashtra .Modern society has viewed water as a resource for the taking. This is no longer possible as limits are being reached. condition and fertility factor of soil for About 30 countries have already fallen into the plantation. To increase the greenery water scarce category. Per capita availability is surrounding the campus. Hence for water rapidly declining. Development experts feel scarcity, Rainwater harvesting is seems to be a that water scarcity, not shortage of land, is perfect replacement for surface & ground likely to be the main future constraint on water as later is concerned with the rising cost as well as with ecological problems. 208

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Therefore, Rainwater harvesting is highly Government Of Maharashtra. It is affiliated to recommended for campus of ADCET,Campus. Shivaji University, Kolhapur. The institute spreads over picturesque, VII. BACKGROUND OF THE sprawling land of 30 acres . The Institute is STUDY having various department buildings and Hostel Facility. In 2014 college decided to do The great challenge for the coming decades a ‗Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting‘ for the will be the task of scarcity of water .The buildings A, B and C. The method of dependency on water for future development harvesting is gone be the artificial ground has become a critical constraint for recharge through an existing bore well. In development. The annual precipitation in India college campus there are two existing bore is estimated at about 4,000 billion cubic wells. meters[3]. Heavy monsoon rainfalls and the annually recurring floods may have led to the common perception that water is an inexhaustible resource or there is plenty of it available. But, as the National Water Policy Document prepared by the Planning Commission says,‗it is a grossly misplaced conception that India is a water rich country and water is a free commodity.‘ About 90 per cent of the annual runoff in peninsular rivers and over 80 per cent in Himalayan Rivers occur during monsoon months and much of it in just a few monsoon storms[4]. The projected total water demand by year 2025 is around 1050 billion cubic meter. The country‘s annual utilizable water resources are assessed around 1140 billion cubic meter. Thus, almost the entire utilizable water resources would be required to be put to use by the year 2025.

On the basis of the 1991 census, India‘s per capita water availability per year was estimated at 2214 cubic meters against the global average of 9321 cubic meter and this is likely to come down to 1496 cubic meter by 2025. We have moved from a position of ‗marginally vulnerable‘ in 1990 to that of ‗water stresses‘ by 2007 and ‗water scarcity‘ by 2025. Therefore, while every potential source of water would need to be exploited, its conservation, proper utilization and efficient use has become of paramount importance. . Figure 1 Satellite Image of ADCET Campus

B. STUDY AREA

The Annasaheb Dange College of Engineering VIII. EXISTING CONCEPTS OF ROOFTOP & Technology, Astha. Started from the WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS academic year 1999 after getting approval from AICTE, New Delhi and recognized by

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*Amount of rainfall (mm) *Runoff F. SELECTION ROOF RAINWATER HARVESTING coefficient SYSTEMS H. RAPID DEPLETION METHOD (RDM): Roof becomes the catchment which is the In Rapid Depletion method, there is no crucial factor in the rain water harvesting restriction on the use of harvested rainwater by system and collected water from roof of the consumer. Consumer is allowed to use the house‘s or buildings can either be utilized for preserved rain water up to their maximum day to day domestic purposes or for artificial requirement, resulting in less number of days recharge of ground water. This method is less of utilization of preserved water. The expensive and very effective and if rainwater tank in this method is considered to implemented properly helps in augmenting the be only source of water for the consumer, and ground water level of the area[1]. alternate source of water has to be used till The ideal roof rain water harvesting and next rains, if it runs dries. conservation system encompasses following basic components[2]. I. RATIONING METHOD (RM): Catchment Area/Roof: Surface upon which The Rationing method (RM) distributes stored rain falls, Gutters and Downspouts: System of rainwater to target public in such a way that transport channel from catchment surface to the rainwater tank is able to service water storage, Leaf screens and Roof Washers: requirement to maximum period of time. This Systems that remove contamination and can be done by limiting the amount of use of debris. Cistern or Storage Tanks: Where water demand per person. collected rain water is stored, Conveying: The delivery system for treated Rain Water, either J. GIS ANALYSIS by gravity or pump, Water Treatment: Filters A geographic information system (GIS) is and equipment and additives to settle, filter computer software that allows researchers and and disinfect the water. investigators to manage and manipulate interactions between data and geographic G. HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS locations. GIS technology has the On the basis of experimental evidence, Mr. H. sophistication to go beyond mapping as simply Darcy, a French scientist enunciated in 1865, a a data management tool. GIS can integrate geo law governing the rate of flow (i.e. the referenced imagery as data layers or themes discharge) through the soils. According to and link them to other data sets to produce him, this discharge was directly proportional geospatial representations of data[9]. These to head loss (H) and the area of cross-section geographical pictures not only depict (A) of the soil, and inversely proportional to geographic boundaries but also offer special the length of the soil sample (L). insight to students and researchers across Q = K. I. A. disciplines such as health, economics, agriculture, and transportation. Q = Runoff , hydraulic gradient (I), K is the co-efficient of permeability[10] . IX. RELEVANT LITERATURE The total amount of water that is received Rainwater harvesting is an old and cost from rainfall over an area is called the effective practice that is being adopted by rainwater legacy of that area. And the amount many nations as a viable decentralized water that can be effectively harvested is called the source. Individual rainwater harvesting water harvesting potential. The formula for systems are one of the many tools to meet the calculation for harvesting potential or volume growing water demand. Rainwater harvesting of water received or runoff produced or can be defined as a method for inducing, harvesting capacity is given as:- collecting, storing and conserving local surface runoff. Rainwater harvesting is the Harvesting potential or Volume of water accumulation and deposition of rainwater for Received (m3) = Area of Catchment (m2) reuse before it reaches the aquifer. 210

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Rainwater harvesting is an yearlong ancient Figure 2: Rainwater Storage technique studied by many scientist for different purposes e.g. for storing the harvested water in some storage tank, impact of rainwater harvesting on social and economic aspects and or recharging underground aquifer for increasing soil moisture condition. A few of them has been listed. Rural Rainwater Harvesting: Concept, Techniques, and Social & Economical Impacts by Dr. Osman Mohammed Naggar. This person has really dedicated his work in finding out all the factors which affects the surface runoff and rainwater harvesting impacts on environment. Fig. 3: A typical Rainwater Harvesting System

B. COMPONENTS OF ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM X. CONCLUSION Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting Systems, rainwater from the house roof is collected in a India reachs much of its rainfall in just 100 hrs storage vessel or tank for use during the periods of in a year usually during monsoon period. If scarcity. Usually, these systems are designed to this water is not captured or stored, the rest of support the drinking and cooking needs of the the year experiences a precious situation family at the doorstep. Such a system usually manifest in water scarcity.This paper dealt comprises a roof, a storage tank and guttering to with all aspect of improving the water scarcity transport the water from the roof to the storage problem in the ADCET,astha campus by tank. In addition, a first flush system to divert the dirty water which contains roof debris collected on implementing modern technique of rainwater the roof during non-rainy periods and a filter unit to Harvesting.A planned approach is needed in remove debris and contaminants before water order to fully utilize the potential of rainwater enters the storage tank are also provided. to adequately meet our water requirements. Components are shown in Fig 2, Roof catchments Hence, an equal and positive thrust is needed  Drain pipes in developing and encouraging the water  Gutters harvesting systems Therefore, water is highly  Down pipe a precious natural resource which is always in  First flush pipe. high demand in the campus of ADCET, astha  Filter unit and thus, proposed Rooftop Rainwater  Storage tank. harvesting at ADCET,astha campus is highly  Collection sump. recommended. 211

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REFERENCES hostel13of IIT Bombay, The Indians society for Hydraulics and Journal of Hydraulic [1] Panhalkar, Sachin (2011): ‗Domestic Rain Engineering. Water Harvesting System: A Model for Rural [7] Garg, S.K. Table 7.31, Chapter Hydrology Development‘, International Journal of and runoff computation, Irrigation Engineering Science and Nature, Vol.2 (3), Pp 861-867. & Hydraulic Structure, [2] Khastagir, A., and Jayasuriya, N. (2010). [8] Arun Kumar Dwivedi and Sudhir Singh ―Optimal sizing of rain water tanks for Bhadauria(2009): Domestic rooftop water domestic water Conservation.‖ J. Hydrol., harvestingcase study, ARPN Journal of 381(3/4), 181–188. Engineering and Applied Sciences, vol. 4, no. [3] Qureshi, A. L. and Khero, Z. I. and 6, august 2009, pp. 31-37. Lashari, B. K. (2012) Optimization of [9] Gaikwad, V. P. (2008) : Geographical irrigation water Analysis of Rainwater Harvesting Potential in management : a case study of secondary PhaltaTahsil of Satara District (M.S.), M.Phil canal, Sindh, Pakistan. Sixteenth International Dissertation submitted to Shivaji University, Water Kolhapur.(Unpublished) Technology Conference, IWTC 16,Turkey. [10] Athavle, R. N. (1998): Water Harvesting [4] Malaterre, P.-O. and Baume, J.-P. (1998) and Sustainable Supply in India; A Rawat Modeling and regulation of irrigation canals: Publications, Jaipur. existing applications and ongoing researches. [11] Helmreich B. and Horn H. (2008), IEEE, France. ―Opportunities in rainwater harvesting‖, [5] Making water everybody‘s business – Elsevier Desalination 251 (2010) 118–124 practice and policy of water harvesting, edited [12] Amin M. T., Han M. Y., (2011) by Anil Agarwal, Sunita Narain and Indira ―Improvement of solar based rainwater Khurana. (Center for science and disinfection by using lemon and environment) vinegar as catalysts‖, Science Direct Desalination . [6] Reddy P.Sai Rukesh and Rastogi A.K., (2008), Rainwater Harvesting in hostel 12 and

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Study Of Seismic Performance And Retrofitting Of Existing Reinforced Concrete Structure Using Pushover Analysis

SHAIK KABEER AHMED Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering ATME College of Engineering, Mysore, INDIA Email: [email protected]

Abstract: In current scenario very little knowledge stiffness, mass irregularity, shape irregularity about seismic evaluation of structures are available in the way of guidelines for use in the existing concrete etc. which needs to be analyzed if required buildings. An improved Pushover analysis using and retrofitted accordingly. ETABS based on structural dynamic theory, ATC-40 and FEMA273 is developed and an attempt has been The purposes in earthquake-resistant design made to study the seismic performance of existing RC structure subjected to earthquakes forces. For this are: (a) to prevent non-structural damage purpose, behavior of 8 storey 3-D R.C structure is during minor earthquakes, which may occur studied under various seismic zones as per IS- 1893:2002 and ATC-40. Pushover analysis is carried frequently in life time, (b) to prevent out and performance level of the structure under structural damage and minimize non- continuous lateral earthquake forces is studied. The structural damage during moderate adequacies of design are checked and if the building is below expected performance level, retrofits at earthquakes which may occur occasionally, proper positions are suggested. (c) to prevent sudden collapsing or serious Keywords-Seismic Performance, Retrofit, Pushover, Non-linear Seismic Hinges, Storey Drift, damage during major earthquakes which Storey Shear. may occur rarely. Designs are explicitly done only under the third condition. INTRODUCTION STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Earthquake is a manifestation of rapid The seismic performance of newly release of stress waves during a brittle constructed structure at NMAM Institute of rupture of rock. The complexity of Technology, Nitte (which comes under zone earthquake ground motion is primarily due to III) is considered for study, in which all factors such as source effect, path effect and structural design aspects are provided as per local site effect. The intensity of the quake is the specifications given by IS 456-2000 and measured in terms of the energy release at IS 1892-2002. The structure is pushed both the location of the ground fault. Earthquake along X and Y direction [Refer Fig. 1] and causes ground to vibrate and structures performance of the structure for various supported on ground are subjected to this seismic forces are studied. The study is based motion. Thus the dynamic loading on the on the comparison of pushover curve, structure during an earthquake is not external performance point, seismic-hinge formation, loading, but due to motion of support. The storey drift and storey shear; after analyzing various factors contributing to the structural the structure proper retrofit is suggested if damage during earthquake are vertical required. ETABS, finite element software for irregularities, irregularity in strength and

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structural analysis is used to carry out earthquake of a certain level of seismic nonlinear pushover analysis. hazard. Pushover analysis is a simplified, static, nonlinear procedure in which a predefined pattern of earthquake loads is applied incrementally to frameworks until a collapse mechanism is reached.

FEMA-273 (1997), ATC-40(1996), are the codal document which provides a comprehensive, technically sound recommended methodology for the seismic evaluation and retrofit design of existing concrete buildings. Acceptable performance is measured by the level of structural and/or non-structural damage expected from the

earthquake shaking. Damage is expressed in Fig. 1. Showing 3D ETAB Model terms of post yield, inelastic deformation limits for various structural components and OBJECTIVE OF STUDY elements found in concrete buildings. The The following are major objectives of analytical procedure incorporated in the present study: methodology accounts for post elastic deformations of the structure by using 6. To perform nonlinear pushover analysis on simplified nonlinear static analysis methods. 3D reinforced concrete structure using ETABS. Ashraf et al., (1998) presented a study on the 7. To study the seismic performance of the structure under various seismic zones. steps used in performing a pushover analysis 8. To understand the vulnerability of various of a simple three-dimensional building. stories under different intensity of SAP2000, a state-of-the-art, general-purpose, earthquake. 9. To study the effect of shape of the three-dimensional structural analysis structure on overall seismic performance. program, is used as a tool for performing the 10. To study the possibilities of retrofitting at pushover analysis. The SAP2000 static various portions of the structure if pushover analysis capabilities, which are required. fully integrated into the program, allow LITERATURE REVIEW quick and easy implementation of the pushover procedures prescribed in the ATC- Earthquake engineering in recent years have 40 and FEMA-273 documents for both two emphasized the need for performance-based and three-dimensional buildings. seismic analysis.An essential element in many seismic evaluations is the Dhileep. M et al., (2011) explained the determination of ultimate inelastic response practical difficulties associated with the of the structure. Performance-based methods non-linear direct numerical integration of require reasonable estimates of inelastic the equations of motion leads to the use deformation or damage in structures which of non-linear static pushover analysis of are better quantities to assess damage than structures. Pushover analysis is getting stress or forces. The performance based popular due to its simplicity. High analysis is based on quantifying the frequency modes and non-linear effects deformation of the members and the building may play an important role in stiff and as a whole, under the lateral forces of an irregular structures. Nonlinear static

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pushover analysis used as an evaluation of the seismic resistance and approximation to nonlinear time history vulnerability of the existing buildings and of analysis is becoming a standard tool the seismic resistance of the retrofitted among the engineers, researches and buildings are also presented. professionals worldwide. High frequency modes may contribute significantly in the PUSHOVER ANALYSIS seismic analysis of irregular and stiff Pushover Analysis in the recent years is structures. In order to take the becoming a popular method of predicting contribution of higher modes, structural seismic forces and deformation demands for engineers may include high frequency the purpose of performance evaluation of modes in the nonlinear static pushover existing and new structures. Pushover analysis. The behaviour of high frequency analysis is a partial and relatively simple modes in nonlinear static pushover intermediate solution to the complex analysis of irregular structures is studied. problem of predicting force and deformation demands imposed on structures and their Bracci et al (1997) presented a static elements by severe ground motion. Pushover pushover analysis procedure for evaluating analysis is one of the analysis methods the seismic performance and retrofit options recommended by ATC 40 and FEMA 273. for low-to-medium rise RC buildings. The Steps Involve in Pushover analysis:- technique is based on the capacity spectrum method and was illustrated by application to the 1/3-scale 3-storey RC frame model that had been previously tested on the shaking e) Building is pushed in horizontal direction. f) Proportion of applied force on each floor is table at Buffalo. Three retrofit examples constant, only its magnitude is increased were considered. These were (1) prestressed gradually. concrete jacketing of internal columns, (2) g) Material nonlinearity is modeled by inserting RC fillets around beam-column joints, and plastic hinge at potential location. h) Lateral load is increased in step and sequence (3) post tensioning of additional column of cracking, yielding, and failure of longitudinal reinforcement. Retrofit component is recorded. increased the frame‘s base shear strength by PERFORMANCE LEVELS 66% (from 0.15W to 0.25W) and the A performance level describes a limiting maximum drift from 1% to 2%. damage condition which may be considered Giuseppe Oliveto et al., (2004) studied the satisfactory for a given building and given seismic retrofitting of two reinforced ground motion. The limiting condition is concrete buildings in Eastern Sicily not described by the physical damage within the originally designed to withstand the seismic building, the threat to life safety of the action. Some special characteristics of the buildings occupants created by the damage, two buildings suggested the choice of a base and the post-earthquake serviceability of the isolation retrofitting system. Tests performed building. Target performance levels for on the original building materials and also structural and nonstructural systems are structural analyses performed on the original specified independently. Structural and on the retrofitted buildings suggested performance levels are given names and that some stiffening of the superstructure was number designations, while nonstructural required. The reasons that led to the performance levels are given names and retrofitting and to the choice of the letter designations. Which are mentioned retrofitting system are presented in some below:- detail. The analyses conducted for the 215

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c) Structural Performance Level: Immediate construction, is applied to both rehabilitation Occupancy(SP-1); Damage Control(SP-2); and strengthening processes. Seismic retrofit Life Safety(SP-3); Limited Safety(SP-4); Structural Stability(SP-5); Not becomes necessary if it is shown that, Considered(SP-6) through a seismic performance evaluation, d) Non-structural performance level: the building does not meet minimum Operational (NP-A); Immediate Occupancy requirements up to the current building code (NP-B); Life Safety (NP-C); Reduced Hazard (NP-D); Not Considered (NP-E). and may suffer severe damage or even collapse during a seismic event. Multi- storied buildings are often constructed with provision for vertical extension in future. Before carrying out vertical extension in future, it is sometimes noticed that the existing structures may not be adequate to take the additional vertical and lateral loads on account to the additional stories. Under such situation one has to conduct a cost- benefit analysis to decide the two obvious options: strengthening the existing structure to enable it to take the load of additional stories.

Seismic strengthening is a specialized job Fig. 2 Combination of structural and non-structural performance level as per ATC-40 and is for obvious reasons more difficult than construction of a new facility. Each building poses a unique set of constraints and problems requiring due care in design and detailing. Ultimately, the success of any upgrading exercise depends on the quality of work at the site. During execution of the work, many difficulties arise which may not have been anticipated during the design stage.

Fig. 3. Performance level and corresponding structural failure At present, India lacks adequate experience in strengthening of seismically-deficient low RETROFITTING and medium-rise RC framed buildings. This A number of reasons may necessitate the is partly due to the lack of awareness need to retrofit existing structures. It may be regarding the importance of the problem. the rehabilitation of a structure damaged by The problem of seismic strengthening is an earthquake or other causes, or the being recognized as a major challenge to strengthening of an undamaged structure civil engineering profession in many made necessary by revisions in structural countries of the world. In recent years, there design or loading codes of practice. has been a tremendous increase in the Earthquakes are by far the most common research and publication activities in this cause of damage to structures in earthquake- area in many countries. prone areas. Here, the collective term, retrofit, which implies the addition of However, since a suitable strengthening structural components after initial technique depends on many factors such as

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the type of construction and the professional building. For this technique to be effective, it environment; what is suitable for one country is necessary to have good connecting may not be suitable for another country. between the bracing and concrete structures Thus, while we can draw benefit from the because bracing causes the stress experiences of many other countries, we concentration at the frame corners. This must evolve methodologies suitable to our technique may be considerably expensive in own conditions. Considering the severe India in view of high steel costs. seismic risk that many parts of our country are prone to, experience on seismic vi. Providing RC shear panels in the frame: strengthening needs to be accumulated by Reinforced concrete shear wall panels can be carefully documenting individual case provided as infill to existing frames. The histories. Since cost is a very important bays to be provided with shear panel have to consideration, we also need to study cost be carefully chosen. The new concrete aspects of different strengthening schemes should be connected with existing for such buildings. Professional engineers construction. This may be done by drilling involved in design and constructions in the holes in the existing beams and columns and country need to accept the challenge that is by providing reinforcement dowels and posed by seismically deficient buildings. fixing with these with epoxy mortar. The frame with this panel becomes much stiffer b) Seismic Strengthening Procedures than the rest of the frames and therefore iv. Jacketing of elements: attracts most of the seismic forces. This means that the foundation with new panel The strength and ductility of existing beams, should be able to transfer a significantly columns, and/or beam-column joints can be higher load to soil; hence, foundation has to enhanced by jacketing shown in fig.5.2 and be strengthened in many cases. Also, 5.3.This requires puncturing the slab to pass sometimes the columns may also have to be new reinforcement. This technique is very strengthened to account for increased axial effective for strengthening an individual force in columns as a result of the increased element, including for gravity loads. stiffness. However, as a means to provide the overall strengthening to a building, it is somewhat METHODOLOGY uneconomical and even impractical since it Analysis is done with the help of ETABS involves work in most areas of 9.06, which is a integrated design and building. analysis software for building system. It is a finite element based powerful structural engineering software, used to carry out the pushover analysis which does the pushover analysis as per guidance given by ATC-40 and FEMA-273.[Refer Fig. 4]

Fig 4(a). Jacketing of Fig 4(b). Jacketing of a column a Beam v. Providing steel bracing inside the RC frame:

Steel braced frame can be provided inside the RC frames along the perimeter of the 217

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 Along X-direction Performance point is fitting properly whereas along Y- direction Performance point is just fitting and only one Non-linear hinge is crossing the capacity curve by the Demand curve. Again this shows the lack of stiffness and ductile characteristics of structure along Y- direction.  Similarly because of increase in spectral acceleration (Sa) and spectral displacement (Sd), the performance point shifts in a linear way rather than shifting in a non-linear way.

E) Seismic Hinge Curve:

Fig 5. Flow chart representing methodology of Pushover analysis

RESULTS

Following graphs are obtained after Fig 7(a).Seismic hinges graphs along X-direction for analyzing the structure and they are Zone III concluded as:

D) Capacity Curve vs. Demand Curve:

Fig 7(b).Seismic hinges graphs along Y-direction for Zone III

 From Non-linear Hinge horizontal bar chart we are getting approximately Fig 6(a). capacity curve along X-direction for Zone III 2850 Non-linear hinges at various performance levels along X-direction in zone-III.  We are getting similar amount of non- linear hinges but performance levels are much lesser along Y-direction.  The structure is collapsing under Immediate Occupancy level because we are getting maximum number of Non- linear hinges in Immediate Occupancy Fig 6(b). capacity curve along Y-direction for Zone III level.

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 This shows that we cannot predict the CONCLUSIONS failure of structure along Y-direction. 8. Shape effect weakens the structure along The failure may be brittle. Y-direction. 9. Safety and ductility are the main criteria should be considered for earthquake F) Storey design; however in this case the Shear Vs. Storey Drift: structure does not satisfy these requirements. 10. The structure fails in immediate occupancy level without the formation of other performance levels; hence retrofitting can‘t be done for major part of structure. 11. Limited portions of the structure can be repaired when the intensity of earthquake is mild, whereas for moderate and severe earthquake the retrofitting is not possible. Fig 8(a). Storey Shear Vs. Storey Drift Curve along X- 12. The structure is designed considering direction for zone III both static and dynamic load cases but ductile detailing is not done properly which causes pre-matured failure. 13. Retrofitting can done either by jacketing of the element or by providing steel bracing inside the RC frame. 14. IS 1893-2002, doesn‘t gives failure and retrofitting criteria of seismically affected structure; hence there is a need to implement performance based analysis for design of structures.

Fig 8(b). Storey Shear Vs. Storey Drift Curve along Y- direction for zone III REFERENCES [15] ATC-40(vol.1), ―Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit  The maximum Storey shear obtained is of concrete buildings‖, Applied Technology 7031kN and the maximum Storey drift Council, Redwood city, California, 1996. is 0.0212m. The maximum storey drift [16] Federal Emergency Management Agency (1996), is obtained for 2nd floor level and ―1994 NEHRP Guidelines for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings,‖ Reports FEMA 273 respective base shear is 6128kN. (Guidelines), Ballot version, Washington, D.C.  We can conclude that second floor is [17] IS:1893 (Part 1)-2002 Criteria for Earthquake much more vulnerable compared to resistant Design of structures, part 1 General other floors when we move towards provisions and buildings, fifth revision, Bureau of higher zone levels. Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. [18] Murty C.V.R,‖ EARTHQUAKE TIPS‖, Learning  In zone-IV and zone-V, the base shear Earthquake Design and Construction, IITK- is more compared to zone-II and zone- BMTPC. III and we are getting approximately same amount of storey drift at both 1st [19] Bracci. J. M, Kunnath. S. K and Reinhorn. nd A.M(1997) ―Seismic Performance and Retrofit and 2 floor level along X-direction. Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete Structures‖  Similarly along Y-direction we are Journal of structural engineering January ASCE- getting same amount of storey shear JSE, pp.3-10. nd [20] ETABS (2006), ―The integrated design and and storey drift at 2 floor level when analysis software for building system‖, Version structure is in zone-II and zone-III 9.06, Computers and Structures.inc. [21] Seifi. M, Noorzaei. J., Naafar M. S. and Panah. E. condition but when the structure is in Y. (2008), ―Nonlinear static pushover analysis in zone-IV and zone-V condition we are earthquake engineering‖, International conference getting higher value of storey shear; on construction and building technology, st nd Malaysia, pp.69-80. but the drift at 1 and 2 floor levels [22] Chopra AK, Goel R. A modal pushover analysis are similar. procedure to estimate seismic demands for buildings: theory and preliminary evaluation. 219

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Report No. PEER 2001/03, Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 2001.

[23] Prasad, S. K., Chandradhara, G. P., Nanjundaswamy, P. and Revanasiddappa, K. (2004) ―Seismic Bearing Capacity Of Ground From Shaking Table Tests‖, IGC-2004, Warangal, December. [24] ShaikKabeer Ahmed (2010),‖Pushover Analysis for Seismic Performance of RC Frames with Irregularities‖, M Tech Thesis, Department of Civil engineering, SJCE, Mysore. [25] ShaikKabeer Ahmed and S. K. Prasad (2011),‖Influence of Ground Flexibility on Seismic Performance of 3D FRAMES‖ Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference, Kochi. [26] Shaik Kabeer Ahmed and S. K. Prasad (2011) ―Influence of Soft Storey on Seismic Performance of Building Frames Using Pushover Analysis‖, National Conference on Recent Development in Civil Engineering, VVIET, Mysore. [27] Jain, S.K. and Navin, C.N (2000), ―Historical Developments And Current Status Of Earthquake Engineering In India‖, 12WCEE. [28] W. Huang, L. A. Toranzo-Dianderas, A. D. Reynolds, J. R. Gavan, and J. W. Wallace (2004),‖A Case Study of Performance-Based Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of an Existing Hospital Building In California, U.S.‖, 14WCEE, Beijing, China.

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Study Of Seismic Performance Of Rc Frames With Short Column

SHAIK KABEER AHMED Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering ATME College of Engineering, Mysore, INDIA Email: [email protected]

buildings are amongst the most common Abstract: Present study describes the importance of construction types in the world. The capacity and performance based approach and pushover behavior of the columns of a reinforced concrete analysis for short and long column effect. In this frame structure is an important factor that work, initially a brief introduction to short column determines the performance of the whole structure is presented and its vulnerability is described. against earthquakes. Thus, predicting the damage Typical failures due to short and long column effect are shown. Pushover analysis and modeling level of the columns as a result of an earthquake procedure are described. Various seismic plays a major role in predicting the seismic performance curves representing the vulnerability Fig. (A) Force – Deformation curves for Push Over Hinges of structures having short and long column are presented. For analysis, design and pushover analysis of frame ETABS software has been used.

KEY WORDS: SEISMIC PERFORMANCE, PUSHOVER, NON-LINEAR SEISMIC HINGES, SHORT COLUMN, PERFORMANCE CURVE. I INTRODUCTION Every year several destructive earthquakes hit dif- ferent regions of the world causing loss of huge vulnerability of a reinforced concrete frame amounts of economic properties and lives. The structure high economic loss and death toll prompt research to deal with reducing the seismic risk in the II PUSHOVER ANALYSIS earthquake prone regions. Seismic codes of the Pushover analysis is a static non-linear procedure countries which are susceptible to damaging in which the magnitude of the lateral load is earthquakes, are revised or rewritten to en-able the incrementally increased maintaining a predefined satisfactory performance of the structures and thus distribution pattern along the height of the to reduce loss after a major earthquake. There are building. With the increase in the magnitude of still a lot of structures throughout the world, which loads, weak links and failure modes of the are highly vulnerable to seismic action. Because of building can be found. Pushover analysis can short column long column effect, identifying this determine the behaviour of a building, including kind of structures that have high vulnerability is of the ultimate load it can carry and the maximum critical importance for both reliable loss estimation inelastic deflection it undergoes. Local non linear as a result of an expected earthquake and setting effects are modelled and the structure is pushed priority criteria for strengthening of structures. until a collapse mechanism is developed. At each Predicting vulnerability of a whole structure is not step, the base shear and the roof displacement can easy to handle due to lack of proper experimental be and observed data. For this reason, the trend has moved towards evaluating the whole structure at the plotted to generate the pushover curve. The level of its components. Reinforced concrete frame graphs are plotted with base shear along the 221

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vertical axis and roof displacement along the Building with short Walls with short and long horizontal axis. Location of hinges in various columns columns stages can be obtained from Push over curve. The range AB is elastic range, B to IO is the range of Fig.(B) Various Cases of short column and long column immediate occupancy, IO to LS is the range of effect life safety, and LS to CP is the range of collapse prevention. If all the hinges are within the CP limit then the structure is said to be safe. However, depending upon the importance of IV PRESENT ANALYSIS structure the hinges after IO range may also need to be retrofitted. Here, IO is the limit for Pushover analysis is carried out for 4 typical Immediate Occupancy, LS is the limit for Life frames. In which two cases are considered safety and CP is the limit for Collapse namely, One floor case (Ground floor case) and Prevention. Ground with one floor case (G+1, floor case) In the both cases, a 2-D regular frame (bench mark III SHORT COLUMN frame) of beam and column sizes 0.3 m X 0.6 m and height 4m is designed as per IS456-2000, Many situations with short column effect arise were considered for pushover analysis and in buildings. When a building is rested on performance of structure under severe horizontal sloped ground (Figure B (a)), during loads is studied. Later, three other similar frames earthquake shaking all columns move (which are similar to bench mark frame) but horizontally by the same amount along with the intentionally one column of ground floor is made floor slab at a particular level (this is called shorter by 1m,2m,3m,respectively in both cases rigid floor diaphragm action). If short and tall to produce the short column and long column columns exist within the same storey level, then effect. and performance of structure for the all the short columns attract several times larger four frames in two cases are analysed for lateral earthquake force and suffer more damage as forces and results obtained from all the cases are compared to taller ones. The short column compared to understand the effect of short effect also occurs in columns that support column and long column effect on seismic mezzanine floors or loft slabs that are added in behavior of structures. Fig. 1 and 2 presents the between two regular floors (Figures B (b)). details about the four frames including the There is another special situation in buildings benchmark frame. when short-column effect occurs. Consider a wall (masonry or RC) of partial height built to fit a window over the remaining height. The adjacent columns behave as short columns due to presence of these walls. In many cases, other columns in the same storey are of regular height, as there are no walls adjoining them. Fig. 1 Case I, Short column at ground floor with various When the floor slab moves horizontally during an earthquake, the upper ends of these columns length undergo the same displacement (Figure B (c)).

Fig. 2 Case II, Short column at ground floor with various

length

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The frames were initially analyzed using ETABS, and the design was carried out as per IS 456:2000 in ETABS. The design details of structures, with ground floor one side column is short, are presented in Tables 5.1 to Table 5.2. In the tables, the details of cross section, percentage steel in compression and in tension for beams and columns on different floors are presented. It can Fig.3 Pushover curve for Fig.4 Pushover curve for be observed from the reinforcement details in columns of equal length (Case short column of 1m column, that in both Case 1 and Case 2 I) length(Case I) percentage of steel remains same, and there is a little variation in percentage of steel in beams.

VI STATIC LOAD ON THE STRUCTURE

3 2 Dead load of slab=0.15 x 25 kN/m = 3.75 kN/m

Floor finish= 1.0 kN/m2 Fig.5 Pushover curve for Fig.6 Pushover curve for short column of 2m short column of 3m Dead load due to slab =4.75 kN/m length(Case I) length(Case I)

Wall load =0.23 x 4 x20 = 18.4 kN/m Say 19 kN/m

Total load on floor slab=12 + 19+ 19 =50 kN/m

Parapet load = 0.23 x 0.6 x 20 x 4=11 kN.

Fig.7 Pushover curve for Fig.8 Pushover curve for columns of equal length short column of 1m length (Case II) (Case II)

Fig.9 Pushover curve for Fig.10 Pushover curve for short column of 2m length short column of 3m length (Case II) (Case II)

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short column of 2m length short column of 3m length (Case II) (Case II)

Fig.11 Pushover curve for Fig.12 Pushover curve for columns of equal length short column of 1m (Case I) length(Case I)

Fig.19 Pushover curve for Fig.20 Pushover curve for short column of 2m length short column of 3m length (Case I) (Case II)

VII RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fig (a) presents the generalized pushover curve consists of spectral acceleration along vertical axis and spectral displacement along horizontal axis. It has two components namely capacity curve and demand curve. Capacity curve

represents the capacity of a structural system in Fig.13 Pushover curve for Fig.14 Pushover curve for terms of base shear and roof displacement. short column of 2m length short column of 3m length Demand curve represents the demand under a (Case I) (Case I) given seismic force for known damping and soil conditions. Here, the capacity curve is represented by A, B, C, D and E which suggests different stages in a building which experienced under increased horizontal force representing earthquake effect. Based on structural and functional requirements three different demarcations are represented they are 1. Immediate occupancy (IO) 2. Life Safety (LS) 3. Collapse prevention (CP). Accordingly, the

following are the four states a structure can Fig.15 Pushover curve for Fig.16 Pushover curve for experience in terms of increase in vulnerability columns of equal length short column of 1m length they are operational state, demand control state, (Case II) (Case II) limited control state and hazard state. Normally, the structure experiences elastic linear deformation from A to B beyond which the increase in load carrying capacity is non-linear and ultimate load is reached at C. At this stage there will be a drop in the load carrying capacity and every structure has minimum strength called residual strength to which it will settle. Pushover analysis will indicate to what state the given structure reaches under assigned load, it is represented by pushover hinges of different stages. Further, the point of intersection between capacity curve and demand curve is called the Fig.17 Pushover curve for Fig.18 Pushover curve for performance point whose co-ordinates provide 224

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the information about the seismic performance of Fig 19 to Fig 20 was plotted to study the effect a given structure under a design earthquake load. frame with short column on natural period of the system. The graphs are plotted with natural Fig 3 to Fig 6 and Fig 7 to Fig 10 are plotted to period along vertical axis and stiffness along study the influence of short column on seismic horizontal axis. The curves are plotted for Case 1 performance of frame from pushover analysis. and Case 2. Each case had 4 frames, one with Pushover curve consists of base shear along columns of equal height on both sides and three vertical axis and roof displacement along fames with varying column heights on one side horizontal axis. The curves are plotted for Case I namely 1m, 2m and 3m. Case 1 is for frame with and Case II. Each case had 4 frames, one with ground floor only and Case 2 is for frame with of columns of equal height on both sides and three G+1 floors. fames with varying column heights on one side namely 1m, 2m and 3m. Case I is for frame with 1. In frame with ground floor only, the natural ground floor only and Case II is for frame with of period of short column system is low. G+1 floors. 2. In frame with G+1 floor also the natural period 1. As the length of the column increases the base of short column system is low, but vulnerability shear carrying capacity decreases. But, short is relatively more in this case. columns fail at lower displacements in Case I

2. (G+1) floor frame takes less base shear than frame with only ground floor and experiences VIII CONCLUDING REMARKS lower displacement, showing vulnerability of The effect of short and long column on the presence of short column at ground floor level in overall performance of the multistoried frame multistoried frames. against earthquake, such variation in height of column will not appreciably effect under static Fig 11 to Fig 14 and Fig 15 to Fig 18 are plotted load. However under dynamic lateral load such as to study the effect of short column from seismic hinges. Seismic hinge chart consists of number of earthquake, many instances of short column steps involved along vertical axis and number of failure in the structure are identified during past hinges formed for each step along horizontal axis. earthquakes. The charts are plotted for the two cases, namely, frame with only ground floor and frame with G+1 From the results it can be observed that the floor. Each case had 4 frames, one with columns vulnerability of overall structure increase when of equal height on both sides and three fames the one side of the column of a structure is very with varying column heights on one side namely small, and it gradually reduces when there is 1m, 2m and 3m. increase in height of short column. Hence the 1. In frame with only ground floor, the numbers care should be taken to avoid the short columns of collapsible seismic hinges are more in case of in a structure. short columns. Indian seismic codal provision‘s (IS 1893-2002) 2. Life safety to collapse prevention level of doesn‘t give any details or suggestions about hinges is few in number in case of short column short column and long column effect, hence codal showing vulnerability to earthquake forces. provisions required through scrutiny.

3. Frame with G+1 floor experiences less number REFERENCES of collapsible hinges and number of steps involved are more than the case of frame with ground floor only. But in a particular case, the [1] ETABS, (2009), ―Reference Manual‖, Computers and Structures, Inc. Berkeley, California, USA. numbers of collapsible level of hinges are more [2] Gazetas, G., (1991), ―Formulas and Charts for for frames with short columns. Impedances of Surface and Embedded Foundations‖, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, vol.117 (9), ASCE. [3] IS: 1893-2002 (part 1), Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures,

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Fifth revision, Bureau of Indian Standards, New [6] Murthy, C.V.R (2005) ―Learning Earthquake Delhi. Design And Construction‖, Resonance, Indian [4] Prasad, S. K., Srikanta Prasad, S., Syed Shakeeb Institute of technology, Kanpur. Ur Rahman and Chandradhara, G. P., (2010) [7] Shaik Kabeer Ahmed and S. K. Prasad (2011) ―Effect Of Soil Stiffness On Natural Period Of ―Influence of Soft Storey on Seismic Performance Rigid Structural Frame System‖, 14th symposium of Building Frames Using Pushover Analysis‖, on Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee, National Conference on Recent Development in December 17-19, 2010. Civil Engineering, VVIET, Mysore. [5] Jag Mohan Humar, David lau, and Jean - [8] Murty C.V.R, ―EARTHQUAKE TIPS‖, Learning Robert (2001) ―performance of Earthquake Design and Construction, IITK- buildings during the 2001 Bhuj BMTPC. Earthquake‖, NRC, Canada.

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A Practical Approach for Electrical Energy, Power Transfer Wirelessly-Green Technology Vaishali Holkar#1, Shreyansh Likhar#2, Devendra Goswami#3, Roopali Dahat#4 Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, RGPV University Chameli Devi Group of Institution (C.D.G.I.), Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India 1 [email protected] 2 [email protected] 3 [email protected] 4 [email protected]

Abstract— This paper presents a practical approach for wireless agencies put that number at 30%, 40% and greater than power transfer by inductive coupling. As the protection of environment from pollution green cars (electric cars) are 40%. This is attributed to technical losses (grid‘s emerging out now a day increasing the requirement of electricity but lacks in electricity power sockets. So to solve this problem a inefficiencies) and theft [1]. This problem can be new technology of wireless electricity can be used to charge these solved by an alternative option for power transmission electric cars which are more reliable.Under this research, working principle is presented about the design and which could provide much higher efficiency; low implementation of wireless power transfer. The experiment transmissions cost and avoid power theft. Power results also show the validity of the theoretical analysis. During this research investigation for the need of wireless power transfer Transmission wirelessly is one of the hopeful and comparison with different materials of coil used was done to demonstrate the power transfer. technologies and may be the decent alternative for efficient power transmission. The advantages, disadvantages, biological impacts and applications of WPT are also presented.

II. History- Electrical Energy Power Transfer Index Terms— Inductive coupling, Nikola Tesla, Wireless Power Transmission. Wirelessly Nikola Tesla he is who invented radio and shown us he is indeed the ―Father of Wireless‖. Nikola Tesla is the I. INTRODUCTION one who first conceived the idea Wireless Power HIS idea came from the availability of limited Transmission and demonstrated ―the transmission of Tpower sockets. Thus creating wireless power electrical energy without wires" that depends upon transfer system which is helpful in discarding a bunch electrical conductivity as early as 1891[2]. In 1893, of wires. Making the system more systematic. Tesla demonstrated the illumination of vacuum bulbs Wireless power transfer are devices which transmit a without using wires for power transmission at the signal which is useful for electronic devices to charge World Columbian Exposition in Chicago. The or work. It is a means by which large amounts of Wardenclyffe tower was designed and constructed by electrical energy may be transmitted through the Tesla mainly for wireless transmission of electrical atmosphere from a power source in one location to a power rather than telegraphy [3]. receiver and consumer of electric power at another location. Although these devices can be one of many III. COMPONENTS OF POWER TRANSFER WIRELESS portable electronic products utilized today (laptops, SYSTEM cell phones, iPods, PDAs, lawnmowers, etc.), the The Primary components of Wireless Power primary focus initially will be on electric vehicles, and Transmission are Inductive coils, the transmitter in particular vehicles for public transportation. consisting of a frequency amplifier circuit which increases the frequency of the supply voltage from According to the World Resources Institute (WRI), 50Hz to 10 MHz; the components used to make the India‘s electricity grid has the highest transmission and transmitter circuit are mosfets, resistors, capacitors and distribution losses in the world – a whopping 27%. inductors. Numbers published by various Indian government IX. ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES WPT 227

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Advantages VI. REQIREMENTS a) Green Wireless power transfer- This Eliminate unnecessary cords and outdated battery Resonant inductive coupling or electrodynamics solutions, while reducing energy wasted through induction is the near field wireless transmission of inefficient battery chargers. electrical energy between two coils that are tuned to resonate at the same frequency. [1] If resonant coupling is used, each coil is capacitive b) Freedom of positioning loaded so as to form a tuned LC circuit. If the primary and secondary coils are resonant at a common Wired circuits have limited flexibility of positioning frequency, it turns out that significant power may be while wireless circuits give the flexibility of operating transmitted between the coils over a range of a few electronic items without wires and independently. times the coil diameters at reasonable efficiency. Inductive coupling uses magnetic fields that are a natural part of current's movement through wire. Any time electrical current moves through a wire, it creates c) Eliminates power cords and adaptors a circular magnetic field around the wire [2]. Bending the wire into a coil amplifies the magnetic field. The Multiple devices are supported by a single primary, more loops the coil makes, the bigger the field will be. eliminating the need for multiple separate power supplies or chargers. Efficiency-

The major problem of inductive coupling is the output Disadvantages efficiency as the distance increases between the primary and secondary coils the efficiency decreases. The Capital Cost for practical implementation of WPT Even the power at output is not equal as input, seems to be very high and the other disadvantage of the inductive coupling suffers from various losses of concept is the high frequency which is harmful for long term power during transmission. use but the CEO of WiTricity Corporation says that witricity The efficiency of the system depends on the size of the is safer than using a Smartphone. primary and secondary coils if the size of primary and secondary is same the efficiency will be maximum this phenomenon is also known as tuning as according to HEALTH AND SAFETY resonance condition.

If worried about the health implications of yet another wireless signal coursing through your body, according WiTricity corporation wireless electricity is safer than C1 x L1 = C2 x L2 using a Smartphone. These technologies have long term

effects. According to this the product capacitance and inductance in primary and secondary must be same for IV. PRACTICAL APPROACH FOR ELECTRICAL ENERGY, POWER TRANSFER WIRELESSLY maximum efficiency. The purpose of this project is to supply power wirelessly to the load which is connected to the secondary coil. The system IV. Power Transfer includes a systematic process which is explained further The power is wirelessly transferred via resonant inductive coupling. The primary and secondary is coupled with a resonant capacitor, the primary and secondary is tuned to a frequency to let them

Figure 1. Functional Block Diagram of Wireless Power Transmission communicate to transfer power and to receive System maximum frequency.

V. POWER USAGE The system uses 12V, 5A D.C power

P = V * I

P = 12 * 4

P = 48 Watts

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Figure 2. - Basic diagram of primary and secondary circuits Figure 4- Setup of Wireless power transfer

a. DESIGN The transmitting and receiving coils is the main part of the system which is coupled with a capacitor as according to the condition of resonance the primary and secondary must be coupled with the equal value of capacitance and inductance.

Figure.5- Operating a lamp wirelessly via resonant inductive coupling.

V. CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS

A lamp is connected to the secondary which is able to Figure 3- Size of coil transfer 102MHz. successfully at 10watts another

TABLE I method of transmission is via microwaves which is COIL PARAMETERS ranging in kilometres. Item Diameter No. of turns Transmitting coil 50cm 4 Receiving coil 50cm 2 The data below is the output voltages and efficiencies by using different coil material. b. Constructions- 1) Transmitting and receiving 19Gauge copper super enameled wire- TABLE III The transmitting and receiving coils are made up of OUTPUT VOLTAGES AND EFFICIENCIES BY USING DIFFERENT COIL 19 gauge copper super enameled wire. The diameter of MATERIAL coils is 50cm. Coil I/P O/P I/P O/P I/P O/P 2) Transmitting and receiving with breadboard Type volt voltag curre curre powe powe aluminum wire- age e nt nt r r The transmitting and receiving coils is made up of Copper 1 31 4 3. 4 1 breadboard wire the diameter is 20cm. enameled 2V V A 5A 8W 08W wire(19gaug c. Testing- e) 1) Setup- Breadbo 1 25 4 2. 4 6 The transmitting and receiving coils is coupled with the ard 2V V A 42A 8W 0.5W resonant capacitors as to follow the condition of resonance. aluminum The supply is provided from a 12 volts 5A transformer wire which is connected to the transmitter circuit.

Power = Voltage x Current

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Input Power = 12 x 4 = 48 Watts

Copper enamelled wire-

Output Power = 31 x 3.5 = 108 Watts

Breadboard aluminium wire-

Output power = 25 x 2.42 = 60.5 Watts Figure 7 -Output frequency waveform with load.

As the diameter of secondary is decreased as compared to primary the efficiency also decreased. In Figure 5 the secondary coil is inside the lamp which is much smaller than the primary as a result of which efficiency is directly affected.

Fig.8- output frequency of same sized coils without load.

TABLE IVV Figure 6 -secondary coil of lamp along with the resonant OUTPUT AT SECONDARY COIL capacitor and rectifier circuit. Keeping the primary of 50cm diameter Coil Frequency TABLE IIIII Lamp Coil 102 KHz Parameter of smaller coil Secondary of 50cm too Coil Type Out Outp powe 5 MHz put ut r Voltage Current

Smaller than 20V 0.53 10W primary(copper) A atts

According to above result the output efficiency total depends upon the size of secondary coil. As the size of secondary is reduced with respect to primary the efficiency will decrease vigorously. So for maximum efficiency the diameter of coil must be same. Frequency-As there are three methods of power Figure 9– Wireless car charging (Block Diagram)[6] transfer i.e. high Voltage, high frequency and microwaves. The method used in this project is via high VI. CONCLUSION Frequency; the frequency received on the lamp is 102 The result obtained by the project is less than the Q KHz .Similarly, on the secondary whose size is same as i standard. There are more complications which is primary the frequency is 5 MHz responsible to make the system more difficult to build.

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With such a design, power transfer for laptop-sized coils is more than sufficient to run a laptop. As long as the laptop is in a room equipped with a source of such wireless power, it would charge automatically, without having to be plugged in. In fact, it would not even need a battery to operate inside of such a room.‖ In the long run, this could reduce our society‘s dependence on batteries, which are currently heavy and expensive. At the same time for the long range power transmission, power can be sent from source to receivers instantaneously without wires, reducing the cost [7].

FUTURE SCOPE As we know that for protection of environment from pollution green cars (electric cars) are emerging out now a day. This increases the requirement of electricity but lacks in electricity power sockets. So to solve this problem a new technology of wireless electricity can be used to charge these electric cars which are more reliable.

REFERENCES [1] http://cleantechindia.wordpress.com/2008/07/16/indiaselectricity- transmission-and-distribution-losses/ [2] Nikola Tesla, My Inventions, Ben Johnston, Ed., Austin, Hart Brothers, p. 91,1982. [3] Nikola Tesla, ―The Transmission of Electrical Energy Without Wires as a Means for Furthering Peace,‖ Electrical World and Engineer. Jan. 7, p. 21, 1905. [4] www.howstuffworks.com (How Micro Ovens Work – ACooking Oven for the 21st century. By Gabriel Gache) [5] J.C. Lin, ―Biological aspects of mobile communication fields,‖ Wireless Networks, vol. 3, pp. 439-453, 1997. [6] Sabuj Das Gupta, Md. Shahinur Islam, ―Design & Implementation of Cost Effective Wireless Power Transmission Model: GOOD BYE Wires‖, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 12, December 2012 1 ISSN 2250-3153. [7] Ada S. Y. Poon, Member, IEEE, Stephen O‘Driscoll, Member, IEEE, and Teresa H. Meng, Fellow, IEEE, ―Optimal Frequency for Wireless Power Transmission Into Dispersive Tissue‖, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. 58, NO. 5, MAY 2010. [8] Sagolsem Kripachariya Singh, T. S. Hasarmani, and R. M. Holmukhe, ―Wireless Transmission of Electrical Power Overview of [9] Recent Research & Development,‖ International Journal of Computer and Electrical Engineering, Vol.4, No.2, April 2012. [10] Sanjay kumara, Sonu Kr. Singh, Sant Kr. Mehta, ―WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION- "A PROSPECTIVE IDEA FOR FUTURE" Dr. M.G.R Educational and Research Institute University, Chennai, India, Undergraduate Academic Research Journal (UARJ), ISSN: 2278 – 1129, Volume-1, Issue-3,4, 2012

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ROLE OF VON-MISSES STRESS AND CONTACT PRESSURE FOR KNEE PROSTHESIS MATERIALS

AMIT YADAV Engineer-SC [ECH Group], ITER-India, Institute for Plasma Research (DAE) A-29 GIDC Electronic Estate, Sector-25, Gandhinagar – 382 016, Gujarat, India +91-9408925799/+ 91- 8989120768, [email protected]

runs (that appear or feel close to the real thing) are Abstract— Ultra high Molecular Weight Polyethylene expensive. In this paper, a procedure is proposed whereby [UHMWPE] wear is a critical deciding factor in the effects of wear may be calculated and included in the deciding/figuring out the life of total combined replacement overall analysis of the structure. devices. In an effort to reduce expensive and time using experimental testing, computer test run (that appears or feels Pro/Engineer was used for CAD modeling and Finite close to the real thing) has been proposed as another choice for element method has been used as an important tool in the predicting polyethylene stress and contact pressure variation in design and analysis of total joint replacements. In this study, combined replacements. The present study investigated the knee was modeled. Static, energetic and fatigue behavior of (math-based/computer-based) prediction of polyethylene these designed model shapes were analyzed using characteristic using Hannah J. Lundberg, 2012 [1]; Preclinical commercial limited element analysis code ANSYS. Static endurance testing of TKR is performed using ISO load and motion in a new, interesting approach accounting for path- analyses were conducted under body load. Fatigue behavior dependent motion. The fatigue phenomenon reduces life of was predicted using ANSYS Workbench software. system but simultaneous wear make it worse. In this paper the research has been carried out for the Knee Prosthesis in which XIV. METHODOLOGY: the FEM Analysis is conducted on three different kind of biocompatible metallic material (as femoral component) with A. Cad modeling: the geometry of prosthesis UHMWPE (as meniscus or liner insert) in order to check their has a significant influence in its performance therefore impact on various factors like stress variation and contact need of adopting the standard procedure to model the pressure of liner insert. . prosthesis is required; the geometrical models were

Keywords — Fatigue, FEM (Finite Element Method), prosthesis, TKA (Total knee Arthroplasty), UHMWPE (Ultra High Molecular Weight Poly ethylene).

XIII. INTRODUCTION Tribology is the science of interacting surfaces in relative motion. It is specifically concerned with the friction, wear and lubrication of these surfaces. Although tribology has ordinarily been spent time with/related to the surface interaction of mechanical systems, ideas of tribology have developed by using PRO-E Vs 4 Software after referring the design standards prescribed by G Mallesh et al 2012 also been important in the study of biological systems. [2]. Biotribology is one of the newest fields to come out in the control/field of study of tribology. It can be described as the Fig.1 Femoral Component Fig.2 study of friction, wear and lubrication of biological systems, Liner Insert mainly synovial joints such as the human hip and knee. Although TKA the surgery continues to be very B. Finite Element Modeling: After Cad Modeling the file successful at relieving pain and restoring combined is converted into IGES format and imported to the Ansys function, its long life is challenged by wear, fatigue and Environment, then the solid model is assigned with the loosening of the implant components. This requires the material properties and next secernated into smaller units so patient to go through a redoing surgery to replace the called Meshing (Dividing the component assembly into implant, a much combined replacement systems as bearing finite no of elements.), fig has been prepared for analysis failure is the leading cause for the need of redoing surgery considering perfect bonding between bone and prosthesis, which is more challenging operation than first (or most the FEM Analysis is performed using Commercially important) (surgical joint repair). Limited element analysis available software Ansys 14. usually neglects the (things that are given/work that's done) of wear and the changes in the surface due to wear. However, wear may be important in any structure subjected to repeated loadings and may be critical for certain tribological applications including the prediction of the sealing potential of surfaces. Polyethylene wear has been topics of long concern for the long life of Experimental test Fig.A.3 Assembly of Liner and Femoral Component 232

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B.1. Mesh Convergence Test: A check point is tested on the assembly by using mesh convergence test in order to simplify and justify the analysis result. In this process the stress level is tested on assembly by taking different size of element during meshing.

Fig.B.3 Chart of Axial Forces on Prosthesis as per ISO Standards and TKR Mathematical Model avg. (lundberg et al 2012) [1]

Fig.B.1 Mesh Element size convergence test XV. RESULTS B.2. Material Used: Materials used for manufacturing the femoral component of implant are Ti6Al4V Alloy, As the load of key points of ISO standard and TKR CoCrMo Alloy and 316L SS alloy and the commonly used Mathematical Model Avg. load is applied on liner Insert in material for manufacturing the liner Insert now a days is combination with different Femoral Component in assembly UHMWPE. The material properties that are being used for following curves are observed the analysis are mentioned in table 1.

Table B.2 Properties of different bio compatible materials widely used for prosthesis

Young's Yield Ultimate Density Poisson's Material Modulus Strength Strength (Kg/m^3) Ratio (Pa) (Pa) (Pa) UHMWPE 930 6.90E+08 0.29 2.10E+07 4.80E+07 Ti6Al4V 4430 1.15E+11 0.342 8.80E+08 9.50E+08 CoCrMo 8300 2.30E+11 0.3 6.12E+08 9.7E+08 316L SS 8000 1.97E+11 0.3 2.80E+08 6.35E+08

[3], [4], [5], [6]. Fig.3.1: Variation of Von-Misses stress on applying ISO Std. B.3. Loading Conditions: In the Gait Cycle mainly the load act on the prosthesis during the stance (Support or grounding) phase only while during the swing phase load acting on the knee prosthesis is negligible or very less. The loads applied on the Prosthesis are as per ISO Standards using gait cycle stance phase and the TKR (Total Knee Replacement) Mathematical model average calculated by lundberg et al 2012 [1].

C. Bottleneck of failure: As per material properties UHMWPE is lightest and softest material so fatigue failure Loads and wear phenomenon is very quick in it as compared to other materials used for femoral and tibial component and if Fig. 3.2 Von Misses Stress at 1800N on Liner Insert the liner insert (meniscus) fails then the knee prosthesis failure occurs found out in literature survey performed.

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Similarly effect on Contact Pressure with different Femoral Table 3.1 Stress on Liner with different Femoral Component Component material at Liner Insert can be observed after

Axial Force applying load of key points of ISO standard and TKR CoCrMo 316L SS Ti6Al4V ISO Standard (N) Mathematical Model Avg. load

1800 4.2687 4.3021 4.4126 1200 2.8458 2.8681 2.9417 2600 6.1659 6.2142 6.3738 800 1.8972 1.9121 1.9612 2450 5.8101 5.8557 6.006 200 0.4743 0.478 0.4903

Fig.3.3: Variation of Von-Misses stress on applying TKR Model Avg. load

Fig.3.5 Variation of Contact Pressure on applying ISO Std. Loads

Fig.3.6 Contact Pressure at 1800 N on liner Insert

Table 3.3 Pressure on Liner with diff. Femoral Comp

Axial Force 316L CoCrMo Ti6Al4V ISO Standard (N) SS 1800 10.388 10.391 10.338 1200 6.9262 6.9277 6.8928 2600 15.003 15.007 14.931 800 4.6178 4.6188 4.5955 Fig. 3.4 Von Misses Stress at 1600N on Liner Insert 2450 14.138 14.141 14.07

200 1.1546 1.1548 1.149

Table 3.2 Stress on Liner with diff. Femoral Component Axial Force 316L TKR Model CoCrMo Ti6Al4V SS Avg (N)

1150 2.7272 2.7486 2.8192

1300 3.0829 3.1071 3.1869 2100 4.9801 5.0191 5.148

1600 3.7944 3.8241 3.9223

2400 5.6916 5.7362 5.8865 600 1.4229 1.434 1.4709

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Fig.3.7 Variation of Contact Pressure on applying TKR Model Avg. Loads XVII. CONCLUSION:

The following facts can be concluded by this study and research work:  UHMWPE material resulted Von Misses Stresses don‘t have any (Negligible) variation with different Femoral Components Material Considered for comparison.  UHMWPE material resulted Contact Pressure is also not having any (Negligible) variation with different Femoral Components Material Considered for comparison.  Fatigue life according to ISO Standards load would be lesser than TKR mathematical Model Average Load.  Wear debris generation as per ISO Standards load Fig.3.8 Contact Pressure at 1600 N on liner Insert will be higher compared to TKR mathematical Model Average Load because of higher value in Table 3.4 Pressure on Liner with diff. Femoral Comp Stresses and contact pressure.

 Best pair of combination can be opted depending Axial Force on the best biocompatibility. TKR Model Avg CoCrMo 316L SS Ti6Al4V (N) 1150 6.6377 6.6391 6.6056 XVIII. FUTURE SCOPE: 1300 7.5033 7.5049 7.467 Above work can be used to calculate life of knee prosthesis 2100 12.119 12.122 12.06 mathematically according to ISO Standard load and also according to TKR mathematical Model Average Load. The 1600 9.2343 9.2364 9.1897 result obtained can be interpreted for precise life estimation 2400 13.85 13.853 13.783 of prosthesis. 600 3.4634 3.4642 3.4467 Calculation and variation of Contact pressure and Von- misses stress can be observed for all above combination of

prosthesis at different flexion angles and comparison can be analyzed. XVI. DISCUSSION:

As the results obtained from ISO Standard Load the variation in Von Misses stress is higher as compared to that REFERENCES of TKR mathematical Model Average Load which means the alternating stress and mean stress value in first case Hannah J. Lundberg et al ‗Comparison of ISO Standard and TKR would be higher irrespective of kind of femoral component Patient Axial Force Profiles during the Stance Phase of Gait‘ material used with the UHMWPE liner insert. Proc Inst Mech Eng H. 226(3) pp. 227–234, 2012. G Mallesh et al ‗Finite Element Modeling and Analysis of Prosthetic Knee Joint‘ International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering ISSN 2250-2459, [1] Vol. 2, Issue 8, 2012 AZoM™.com Pty.Ltd Copyright © 2000-2014 retrieved on 28/02/2014 ‗Accelerated Ageing and Characterisation of UHMWPE used in Orthopaedic Implants‘ from [2] http://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=909 Shabnam Hosseini, Biomedical Engineering – Technical Applications in Medicine Fatigue of Ti-6Al-4V, Hosseini, According to fatigue theory the material having higher value licensee InTech 2012, Ch. 3, pp. 75-91. of alternating Stress and mean stress fall in unsafe zone American Society for Testing and Materials, F75-87, p.42; F90-87, because generation of crack is easier in these kind of cases. p.47; F562-84, pp.150, 1992. J. Geringer et al ―Friction-corrosion of AISI 316L/bone cement and Contact Pressure is also following the same kind of trend AISI 316L/PMMA contacts: ionic strength effect on followed by Von Misses Stress tribological behavior‖ Wear vol. 267, 5-8 , pp.763-769, 2009.

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Organic solar cell by using vertically aligned nanostructured

ZnO nanorods Suresh Karalatti, Arun D Rao, Arul Varman K, T Thomas and Praveen C Ramamurthy

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, 560012, India

nanowires of different aspect ratio was used. The aspect Abstract — A low temperature solution approach was ratio of ZnO nanowires was varied by using various employed to grow zinc oxide (ZnO) nanorods with various concentration of growth medium. The structural and optical aspect ratios. Various sizes of the nanorods were grown by properties of the prepared ZnO nanorods have been studied changing the concentrations of the growth solution. The length using SEM, XRD and UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy. It is of nanorods was controlled using growth times. These one- dimensional (1D) nanostructures, with direct paths for a known that light helps partially filling the defect states in charge transport with high surface area for light harvesting, ZnO nanoparticle and results in enhanced device are promising candidates for organic photovoltaics. The performance[13]. ZnO nanorods were subjected to UV- structural and optical properties of the prepared ZnO Ozone treatment at various time duration. These treated nanorods have been studied using SEM, XRD and UV-Vis samples showed significant changes (up to 10%) in absorption spectroscopy. Using this ZnO templates, inverted transmittance. To understand the effect of introduction of organic photovoltaic device was fabricated. ZnO nanorods nanostructured ZnO in an organic photovoltaic device, an were subjected to various dose of UV-ozone irradiation which inverted solar cell with RF-sputtered ZnO was used as a led to improvement in transmission and hence enhanced device control; compared with UV-Ozone treated ZnO performance. nanostructure device. Index Terms — polymer, photovoltaic device, zinc oxide, nanorods. II. EXPERIMENT

A. Instruments I. INTRODUCTION Scanning electron microscope was measured using Organic solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as a promising ULTRA 55, Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope alternative technique for producing clean and renewable (Karl Zeiss). UV -Visible spectrum of ZnO films were energy due to their potential for fabrication onto large areas measured using Perkin Elmer lambda 35. XRD was of lightweight flexible substrates by low-cost solution measured using X-Pert PRO, PANalytical. The J-V processing.[1][2][3] However , due to low efficiencies and characteristics of device are measured using Keithley 2400 poor stability of the device, which negates low cost source meter under AM1.5 simulated solar light irradiation manufacturing aspect of PSCs when compared with the (Oriel Sol3A Class AAA Solar Simulators). The fabricated traditional devices[4]. These two issues can be addressed by active area of the devices was 1 mm2. The light intensity replacing PEDOT:PSS with metal oxide into PSCs, and by -2 was calibrated by 100 mWcm by a standard silicon solar replacing aluminium (Al) with more noble metals like Au, cell. Ag to be used as anode and ITO as cathode. [5][6] B. Synthesis of ZnO Nanorods Among several types of semiconductor nanostructures used in solar cells, zinc oxide (ZnO) has several advantages The seed layers of ZnO were deposited on the substrates over other traditional materials. [7] One-dimensional (1D) by sol-gel method. The solution was nanostructures, with direct paths for charge transport with synthesized from a 10 mM zinc acetate hexahydrate high surface area for light harvesting, hence is promising Zn(O CCH )2(H O) (99%, SD fine) precursor with candidates for photovoltaics [8][9]. 2 3 2 equimolar hexamethylenetetramine (HMT)(C6H 12N4) Among the various techniques, evaporation and (99.5%, SD fine) in ethanol. The solution was spun-coated condensation processes are preferential for their simplicity at 500 rpm for 60s. After the spin-coating, the samples were annealed at a temperature of 300 ⁰C for 1h. and high-purity, but these gas-phase techniques generally require temperatures of 800–900 After which the ZnO nanorods were grown on seeded layer by hydrothermal decomposition route of 5 mM, 20 mM and 50 mM aqueous solutions of zinc nitrate ⁰C [10]. The commercial potential of gas-phase-grown ZnO hexahydrate (Zn(NO3)2•6H2O) (99%, SD fine) and HMT in nanowires remains constrained by the size and exorbitant equimolar ratio. Obtained thin films samples were annealed cost of the vapor deposition systems. ZnO nanowires with at 95 °C 1 h, 3h and 5h for evaluating the optimum low temperatures solution based growth approach can be a transmittance. The samples were rinsed by de-ionized water and dried using nitrogen gas. promising candidate [11][12].

C. Device Fabrication In this work hydrothermal sol gel route to produce ZnO 236

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Inverted structure devices were fabricated using ITO substrates (70-150 Ω sq-1 Delta Technologies). On cleaned ITO substrate, ZnO nanorod layer was grown for 1 h using procedure mentioned above. The substrates were UV treated for 10 min and the samples were placed in glove box and immediately a composite layers of 1:1 wt.% P3HT (rieke metals):PCBM (Nano-C) dissolved in chlorobenzene in 15 mg/ml was spin-coated at 1000 rpm for 60 sec. The fabricated substrate is annealed over hot plate for 15 min at 150 °C. Molybdenum trioxide (5 nm) Silver (Ag, 100 nm) electrodes is deposited by thermal evaporation under vacuum (1×10–6 mbar), which is a hole collecting top electrode.

III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Fig.2. UV-visible spectra for of UV ozone treated ZnO and inset

fig shows for ZnO with various growth times. A. Structural and morphological characterization C. Device characterization ZnO nanowire was characterized by X-Pert PRO, PANalytical X-ray diffractometer using Cu - Kα radiation From preliminary IV results as shown in fig 3 (and Table (λ=1.54056 Å). Figure 1(e) shows the X-ray diffraction 1) it is observed that there is an increase in the performance pattern of ZnO nanowire on glass substrate, which suggests of UV treated samples compared to untreated sample. For the HCP phase present in the nanowire. Obtained pattern 20 mM growth sample shows matches with the reference JCPDS file 01-079-0206. relative higher efficiency of 1 % compared to 5 mM From fig.1 it is observed that with varying concentration and 50 mM sample, having efficiency of 0.9 % and of 5 mM (a), 20 mM (b), and 50 mM (c,d) the width of the 0.32 % respectively. zinc rods formed steadily increases in addition to density

Fig.1. (a-d) shows SEM image of 1h grown ZnO nanorods using 5 mM, 20 mM and 50 mM zinc nitrate solution and Fig 1e shows XRD spectrum of sample grown for 5h

Fig.3. J-V plot of OPVD‘s having ZnO nanorods grown at various concentrations.

TABLE I

DEVICE CHARACTERISTICS

-5 FF(% 2 3 Sample Isc(10 A) Voc(V) ) ƞ(%) Rs(10 Ω) Rsh(10 Ω)

A 5.45 0.16 36 0.27 7.02 3.88 B. UV - visible /Transmission studies B 11.9 0.25 39 0.92 7.33 3.13 UV - visible spectra of ZnO nanorods on glass grown using concentration of 20 mM for the duration of 1 h, 3 h C 15.4 0.27 26 1.03 4.55 1.83 and 5 h is as shown in fig 2 (inset). From fig 2 untreated ZnO nanorods exhibited transmission ~94 % at 500 nm and D 9.14 0.133 26.9 0.32 3.59 1.57 the samples treated with 20 min of UV-Ozone, the transmission improves by ~3%. This could be due to partially filling of the defect states with UV-Ozone treatment.

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[13] M. R. Lilliedal, A. J. Medford, M. V. Madsen, K. D. Conclusions Norrman, and F. C. Krebs, ―The effect of post-processing treatments on inflection points in current–voltage curves Low temperature sol -gel method was used to of roll-to-roll processed polymer photovoltaics,‖ Solar Energy Materials fabricate ZnO nanorods. By this technique various and Solar Cells, vol. 94, no. 12, pp. 2018–2031, Dec. aspect ratios and transparency of the nanorods was 2010. obtained by optimizing concentration and growth interval. These optimized nanorods were used as templates for fabricating an organic photovoltaic device. UV-Ozone treated ZnO nanorods exhibited enhanced device performance due to partial filling of the traps.

REFERENCES

[1] Z. He, C. Zhong, S. Su, M. Xu, H. Wu, and Y. Cao, ―Enhanced power-conversion efficiency in polymer solar cells using an inverted device structure,‖ Nature Photonics, vol. 6, no. 9, pp. 591–595, 2012. [2] H.-Y. Chen, J. Hou, S. Zhang, Y. Liang, G. Yang, Y. Yang, L. Yu, Y. Wu, and G. Li, ―Polymer solar cells with enhanced open-circuit voltage and efficiency,‖ Nature Photonics, vol. 3, no. 11, pp. 649–653, 2009. [3] Y. Liang, Z. Xu, J. Xia, S.-T. Tsai, Y. Wu, G. Li, C. Ray, and L. Yu, ―For the Bright Future—Bulk Heterojunction Polymer Solar Cells with Power Conversion Efficiency of 7.4%,‖ Advanced Materials, vol. 22, no. 20, pp. E135–E138, 2010. [4] K. Kawano, R. Pacios, D. Poplavskyy, J. Nelson, D. D. C. Bradley, and J. R. Durrant, ―Degradation of organic solar cells due to air exposure,‖ Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 90, no. 20, pp. 3520–3530, Dec. 2006. [5] Y. Şahin, S. Alem, R. de Bettignies, and J.-M. Nunzi, ―Development of air stable polymer solar cells using an inverted gold on top anode structure,‖ Thin Solid Films, vol. 476, no. 2, pp. 340–343, Apr. 2005. [6] Y. Sun, C. J. Takacs, S. R. Cowan, J. H. Seo, X. Gong, A. Roy, and A. J. Heeger, ―Efficient, Air-Stable Bulk Heterojunction Polymer Solar Cells Using MoOx as the Anode Interfacial Layer,‖ Advanced Materials, vol. 23, no. 19, pp. 2226– 2230, 2011. [7] J. Zhao, A. Wang, and M. A. Green, ―24·5% Efficiency silicon PERT cells on MCZ substrates and 24·7% efficiency PERL cells on FZ substrates,‖ Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 471–474, 1999. [8] W. I. Park, J. S. Kim, G.-C. Yi, M. H. Bae, and H.-J. Lee, ―Fabrication and electrical characteristics of high- performance ZnO nanorod field-effect transistors,‖ Applied Physics Letters, vol. 85, no. 21, pp. 5052–5054, Nov. 2004. [9] A. I. Hochbaum and P. Yang, ―Semiconductor Nanowires for Energy Conversion,‖ Chem. Rev., vol. 110, no. 1, pp. 527–546, Jan. 2010. [10] P. Yang, H. Yan, S. Mao, R. Russo, J. Johnson, R. Saykally, N. Morris, J. Pham, R. He, and H.-J. Choi, ―Controlled Growth of ZnO Nanowires and Their Optical Properties,‖ Advanced Functional Materials, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 323–331, 2002. [11] L. Vayssieres, K. Keis, A. Hagfeldt, and S.-E. Lindquist, ―Three-Dimensional Array of Highly Oriented Crystalline ZnO Microtubes,‖ Chem. Mater., vol. 13, no. 12, pp. 4395–4398, Dec. 2001. [12] L. Vayssieres, ―Growth of Arrayed Nanorods and Nanowires of ZnO from Aqueous Solutions,‖ Advanced Materials, vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 464–466, 2003. 238

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Numerical Simulation of Substrate and Coating Temperatures During Plasma Spraying

M.Raja1, Gavisiddayya Hiremath1, K. Ramachandran1

1CRMS & TM, School of Mechanical Sciences, Karunya University, Coimbatore-641114, India E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract-A 1-D computational model is developed to predict the temperature of both substrate and coating during plasma The main problem in temperature measurement using IR spraying. A transient heat conduction equation is solved in pyrometer is setting of appropriate emissivity value in the IR coating, substrate and substrate holding regions by assuming pyrometer. The emissivity of the coating/substrate depends constant heat flux from plasma jet and particles to the on temperature, thickness and roughness. Out of these three substrate/built coating. Results of current model are discussed and compared with previously published results. parameters, temperature and thickness of the coating strongly vary with spraying time. Hence it is very difficult to I. INTRODUCTION set variable emissivity within milliseconds in the pyrometer and difficult to measure the temperature of the coating with The substrate and coating temperatures are very important great accuracy. Mathematical modelling is one of the for physical properties and qualities of coating during methods to solve such complex problems easily and plasma spraying. Hence it is necessary to find the economically. interrelationship between the temperature profile and properties of plasma sprayed coatings. In order to improve Temperature distributions in the coatings during plasma the knowledge on this topic, the substrate temperature spraying have been analyzed theoretically based either on and/or coating temperature was studied during spraying [1- analytical solutions of semi-infinite body approximation [8, 14]. 9] or thin slab approximation [10]. Cirolini et al. [11] have developed a simple analytical model for deposition process Pawlowski et al. [1] found the coating temperature of a thermal barrier plasma sprayed coating. They experimentally and numerically. They measured the coating considered the plasma convective and radiative heat fluxes temperature with the help of IR pyrometer (λ = 2.5 - 5µm). with particle heat flux at the surface of the coating They determined the emissivities by varying coating /substrate. The effects of substrate temperature, particle thickness and coating roughness and found that there is no diameter, gun distance and coating thickness on the porosity significant change in emissivity value. An underestimation of the coatings were predicted and compared with of emissivities leads to an overestimation of coating measurements. The plasma/ thermal spray process is temperature measured by IR pyrometer. Mellali et al. [2] complex in nature, the opportunities to find analytical found the substrate/coating temperatures with and without solutions for the same is very difficult or even impossible. preheating of substrate to study the effect of substrate Pawlowski et al. [1] made an attempt to develop a theory temperature on plasma sprayed alumina coating using IR and numerical model for the calculation of temperature pyrometer. Brandt and Wandelt [3] measured the substrate distribution in a plasma sprayed alumina coatings on mild temperature during HVOF spraying using an infrared steel / copper material. This model included both plasma camera at the back side of substrate when the spray stream and particle heat fluxes. The results of this model were of droplets is directed on the front side. Bao et al. [4] compared with measured coating temperatures. This model measured coating temperature and substrate temperature was used to calculate coating temperature and predict the using an infrared thermometer during spraying of substrate temperature since coating region was not polyamide. The temperatures were measured with time incorporated in the computational domain. Then surface during flame spraying. Moulla et al. [5] measured the temperature of the coating was calculated from predicted atmospheric plasma spray (APS) torch radiant energy as a surface temperature of the substrate using Fourier‘s law of function of hydrogen flow rate in the spectral range of 7.5 - heat conduction. The same approach was used to find out 13 ↄm and concluded that the torch radiant energy has more the temperature of the coating by Cirolini et al. [11]. In this effect on temperature measurements under certain approach, the thermophysical properties of coating as conditions and proposed a temperature correction for specific heat capacity and density were neglected. Since the reflected APS torch radiation at low emissivity and low problem is transient, this effect cannot be ignored. Further, temperature targets. Xia et al. [6] and Zhang et al. [7] for the situations involving very short times, extreme proposed an integrated investigation approach for coating thermal gradients or temperatures near absolute zero, temperature measurement and control during plasma Fourier‘s heat diffusion theory becomes inaccurate and the spraying. They studied process parameters effects on non-Fourier effect becomes more reliable in describing the coating temperature using IR pyrometer in the spectral range diffusion process and predicting the temperature distribution of 8 - 14µm. [15, 16]

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Hence the approach used in the previous model [1] is solidification and cooling on the substrate/built coating. The insufficient to predict the temperature of the coating during total heat flux to the top wall is given by spraying. Bao et al. [4] have developed a 1-D (2) computational model to predict coating temperature and substrate temperature during scanning with flame. The It is calculated from the previous measurements measured temperature of flame and heat transfer coefficient [1]. Gradient of temperature in radial direction is zero at the was used to specify the boundary conditions. The model was side wall and axis, whereas the room temperature is validated by comparing the results with measurements. It is specified at the bottom wall. At time t=0, the substrate not clear whether heat flux from the particles and coating receives both particle and plasma heat fluxes and at t>0, the built-up with time are incorporated in the model or not. Wu built coating receives the same. Simulations are carried out et al. [12] used both meshless and finite element methods to to predict temperature distribution in substrate and substrate- study the heating effect of plasma and particles on the coating with and without considering the porosity in the substrate based on spraying distance. However they did not coating. To have the alumina coating on the copper take efforts to develop models for prediction coating substrate, alumina particles are assumed to be injected into temperature during spraying. Zhang et al. [13] developed a Ar+H2 plasma of 32 kW for all simulation. computational model to predict the temperature of organic coating on the metal surface. The coating growth and particle heat flux were not included in this model.

In this work, the model developed by Pawlowski et al. [1] is improved by incorporating the coating region in the computational domain and coating built-up during spraying. The predictions are compared with previous modeling and experimental results. Also, the effect of porosity that forms in the coating during spraying on coating temperature is clarified.

II. MODEL DESCRIPTION Fig. 1 Schematic representation of the computational model A model similar to that used [1], for predicting the coating and/or substrate temperatures during plasma spraying is shown in Fig. 1. The solid model includes three III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS regions (coating, substrate and substrate holder) and four 1600 boundaries (heat flux/top wall, side wall, axis and bottom Calculated coating Temp. by [1]. 1400 Calculated coating Temp. wall). The substrate holder (part III) and substrate (part II) Predicted substrate Temp. are assumed to be stainless steel and copper respectively and 1200 Measured coating Temp. by [1]. lengths of the same are 40 and 80 mm respectively. The 1000 coating (part I) produced by spraying material (α-Al2O3) and 800

600 its thickness (product of particle deposition rate and [˚C] Temperature spraying time) varies only with spraying time since the 400 particle deposition rate is assumed to be constant. During 200 spraying, the substrate and substrate holding system is 0 assumed to be pulled down with a speed equal to coating 0 10 20 30 40 50 Time [seconds] growth rate. This assumption makes heat flux boundary/top Fig. 2 Variation of the coating and substrate temperatures with spraying time ( = 57 m/s and S=10cm) wall as a stationary and the computational domain remains same throughout the coating region which grows on the substrate during spraying. To account the large temperature gradients close to the top wall, mesh density is increased Fig. 2 shows the variation of both coating and there. The equations that governs the heat conduction substrate temperatures with spraying time. To validate the process in the coating, substrate and substrate support/holder present model, the results of present model are compared is given as with previous experimental and calculated results [1]. From these results, it is found that Pawlowski et al. [1] predicted (1) the substrate temperature from the model and calculated the coating temperature from predicted results without considering coating region in the computational domain. Where, Cp and k are temperature (T) dependent density, specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity respectively. Also, it is observed that substrate and coating temperatures The boundary conditions used to solve these equations are and its difference increases by increasing spraying time. as follows. The top surface of the coating (top wall) receives heat flux from plasma and particles. The plasma jet deposits the heat on the substrate/built coating through convection and radiation. Particle heat flux is due to particle‘s

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

1600 Measured coating Temp. by [1]. 1200 Predicted coating Temp. with coating in C.D 1400 Predicted substrate Temp. with coating in C.D Calculated coating Temp.without coating in C.D 1000 with coating in C.D 1200 Predicted substrate Temp. without coating in C.D 800 without coating in C.D 1000

800 600

Temperature [˚C] Temperature 600 400 Temperature Temperature [˚C]

400 200

200 0 0 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Time [Seconds] Axial Distance from Bottom [m]

Fig. 3 Variation of the coating and substrate temperatures with spraying time Fig. 4 Axial temperature distributions along the axis ( = 57 m/s and S = 10cm) ( = 57 m/s and S = 10cm)

Fig. 3 shows the variation of substrate and coating temperatures with and without considering the coating region in the computational domain (C.D) by increasing The temperature gradients in part III, part II and part I spraying time. It is observed that coating temperature predicted from the model that includes coating region in the calculated without considering coating region in the computational domain are 2667 K/m, 3601 K/m and 213148 computational domain is higher than the predicted coating K/m respectively. The temperature gradients of part III, part temperature with considering coating region in the II and part I (imaginary) predicted without incorporation of computational domain. The difference between coating the coating region in the computational domain are 3109 temperatures of calculated and predicted increases by K/m, 4776 K/m and 6840 K/m respectively. Temperature increasing spraying time. Also, predicted substrate gradient of substrate and substrate holder is higher when temperature without considering coating region in the coating region is not included in the computational model. It computational domain is higher than the predicted substrate may be due to heat flux applied on the substrate surface temperature with considering coating region in the instead of coating surface when spraying time is greater than computational domain and its difference increases by zero. Also, the temperature gradient in coating is low in case increasing spraying time. From these results, it is important of the model that does not include coating region in the to include the coating region in the computational domain. computational domain. The deviation between predicted and measured coating temperatures is larger than calculated temperature. Since the emissivity involved in the temperature measurements 1200 depends on temperature, thickness and roughness of the 1000 coating and it is difficult to select suitable emissivity as a 800 function of coating thickness during the measurements. If 600 there is small change/error in emissivity input to pyrometer,

it may adversely affect the temperature measurement. This 400 Temperature [˚C] Temperature without porosity is confirmed by Pawlowski et al. [1]. Previous 200 with 10%porosity with 20%porosity measurements and calculations [14] performed using IR 0 pyrometer in the 2-14ↄm wavelength range showed that in 0 10 20 30 40 50 8-14ↄm range, the thermal radiation emitted by the in-flight Time [seconds] particles, plasma jet and its plume are negligible as well as Fig. 5 Effect of porosity on coating temperature with spraying time ( = 57 m/s and S = 10cm) absorption by the surrounding atmosphere. Since Pawlowski et al. [1] measured the coating temperature using IR pyrometer in the range of 2 - 5.6 ↄm; there was a possibility The model, which includes the coating growth, is for getting incorrect temperature. used to find the effect of percentage of pores on the coating temperature. Fig. 5 shows the predicted coating temperature Fig. 4 compares the axial temperature distribution along for various % of porosities in the coating. It is observed that the axis with and without considering coating region in the the coating temperature is improved by porosity which computational domain (C.D). The axial temperature forms in the coating during spraying. The coating obtained from the model that does not include coating temperature is increased up to 8.8 % by increasing the region in the computational domain varies linearly from the porosity up to 20% in the coating compare to temperature of bottom of the substrate holder to top of the coating. There the coating without porosity. should be a large temperature gradient in the coating region than in the substrate due to very low thermal conductivity of IV. CONCLUSION alumina than copper. It is observed in predicted axial temperature which is obtained from the model that includes A 1-D model is developed based on the theory of coating region in the computational domain. There is a large previous model to predict the substrate and coating temperature gradient in the coating than substrate as temperatures of growing alumina coating during plasma expected. spraying. The model is able to predict the temperature gradient of the coating during spraying. The uniform heat

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014 flux assumed at the coating surface is validated by coatings and substrates‖, Progress in Organic considering small exposed surface area of the Coatings, 70, p 45–51, (2011). coating/substrate. Radial distribution of heat flux is more [14] Michel Vardelle, Th.Renault and Pierre Fauchais, suitable for large surface. Hence, boundary condition at the ―Choice of an IR pyrometer to measure the surface coating surface should be modified to simulate real plasma temperature of coating during its formation in air spray conditions. Also, to predict the accurate temperature plasma spraying‖, High Temperature Materials and distribution during the coating on the larger and complex Processes, 6(4), p 469-489, (2002). shaped components, three-dimensional model may be [15] Amin Moosaie, ―Non-Fourier heat conduction in a suitable. finite medium with insulated boundaries and arbitrary initial conditions‖, International Communications in REFERENCES Heat and Mass Transfer, 35, p 103–111, (2008). [16] Reza Shirmohammadi and Amin Moosaie, ―Non- [1] Lech Pawlowski, Michel Vardelle and Pierre Fourier heat conduction in a hollow sphere with Fauchasis, ―A model of the Temperature Distribution periodic surface heat flux‖, International in an Alumina Coating during Plasma Spraying‖, Thin Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, 36, p Solid Films, 94, p 307-319, (1982). 827–833, (2009). [2] M.Mellali, P.Fauchais and A.Grimaud, ―Influence of substrate roughness and temperature on the adhesion/cohesion of alumina coatings‖, Surface and Coatings Technology, 81, p 275-286, (1996). [3] O.Brandt and M.Wandelt, ―Thermal measurements of substrate during plasma process‖, 9th national thermal spray conference, Ohio, ISBN/ISSN: 0-87170-583-4, p 799-802, (1996). [4] Y.Bao, T.Zhang and D.T.Gawne, ―Non-steady state heating of substrate and coating during thermal - spray deposition‖, Surface and Coatings Technology, 194, p 82-90, (2005). [5] Larbi Moulla , Patrick Gougeon and Christian Coddet, ―Influence of reflected atmospheric plasma spraying torch radiations on long wavelength IR radiometry temperature measurement‖, Infrared Physics & Technology, 46, p 364–369, (2005). [6] Weisheng Xia, Haiou Zhang, Guilan Wang and Yunzhen Yang, ―A novel integrated temperature investigation approach of sprayed coatings during APS process‖, Journal of Material Processing Technology, 209, p 2897-2906, (2009). [7] Haiou Zhang, Weisheng Xia, Guilan Wang, Yunzhen Yang and Yang Zou, ―An Integrated Investigation Approach for Coating Temperature Measurement and Control During Plasma Spraying‖, Journal of Thermal Spray Technology, 17(2), p 263-274, (2008). [8] Lech Pawlowski, ―Temperature Distribution in Plasma-Sprayed Coatings‖, Thin Solid Films, 81, p 79-88, (1981). [9] J.Madejski, ―Solidification of droplets on a cold surface‖, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 19, p 1009-1013, (1976). [10] C.W.Marynowski, F.A.Halden and E.P.Farley, ―Variables in Plasma spraying‖, Electrochem. Techol., 3, p 109-115, (1965). [11] S.Cirolini, J. H. Harding and G. Jacucci, ―Computer simulation of plasma sprayed coatings I. Coating deposition model‖, Surface and Coatings Technology, 48, p 137-145, (1991). [12] S.C.Wu , H.O.Zhang , Q.Tang,, L.Chen and G.L. Wang, ―Meshless analysis of the substrate temperature in plasma spraying process‖, International Journal of Thermal Sciences, 48, p 674–681, (2009). [13] T. Zhang,Y. Bao, D.T. Gawne and P. Mason, ―Effect of a moving flame on the temperature of polymer

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Renewable Energy Sources of India

Pramod Kumar Jangir Assistant Professor, Dept. Of Mech. Engineering, Poornima College of Engineering, Jaipur, India. [email protected] Kailash Mulewa Jitender Kumawat Research Scholar, Dept. of Mech. Engineering, Research Scholar, Dept. of Mech. Engineering, Poornima College of Engineering, Poornima College of Engineering Jaipur, India. Jaipur, India. [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract ─ In present era, India is a large consumer of fossil fuel such as coal, crude oil etc. The rapid increase in use of Non renewable fuels such as fossil fuel, oil, natural gas has created problems of demand & supply. Because of which, the future of non renewable fuels is becoming uncertain. Also India has a negative Energy Balance for decades, which has resulted in the need to purchase fuels from outside the country to fulfill the needs of the entire country. Even the Ministry of Power has set an agenda of providing Power to All by 2012.

According to this agenda, it seeks to achieve this objective through a comprehensive and holistic approach to power sector development envisaging a six level intervention strategy at the In recent years, India has emerged as one of the National, State, SEB, Distribution, Feeder and Consumer levels. leading destinations for investors from developed countries. This attraction is partially due to the lower cost of

manpower and good quality production. The expansion of Keywords ─ Renewable energy; Photovoltaic cell; Fuel; investments has brought benefits of employment, Electricity; Wind energy; Solar energy; Environment; development, and growth in the quality of life, but only to Installation. the major cities. This sector only represents a small portion of the total population. The remaining population still lives in very poor conditions. India is now the eleventh largest economy in the world, Introduction fourth in terms of purchasing power. It is poised to make Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes tremendous economic strides over the next ten years, with from resources which are naturally replenished on a human significant development already in the planning stages. This timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and report gives an overview of the renewable energies market geothermal heat. Renewable energy replaces conventional in India. We look at the current status of renewable markets fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water, in India, the energy needs of the country, forecasts of space heating, motor fuels, and rural energy services. consumption and production, and we assess whether India Gasoline, coal, natural gas, diesel, plastics and other things can power its growth and its society with renewable that come from fossil fuels are non-renewable. They take resources. millions of years to be made and they produce pollution and global warming. And also fossil fuels are very small in quantity. But renewable energy sources are eco-friendly and General information they are becoming cheaper by help of technological advancement. It means that renewable energy sources are Renewable energy in India comes under the purview of the much better than non-renewable energy sources. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. India was the first country in the world to set up a ministry of non- conventional energy resources, in early 1980s. India's Energy cycles: cumulative grid interactive or grid tied renewable energy 243

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014 capacity (excluding large hydro) has reached 29.9 GW, of MW), Andhra Pradesh (447.65 MW), Kerala (35.10 which 68.9% comes from wind, while solar PV contributed MW), West Bengal (1.10 MW), other states (3.20 MW) nearly 4.59% of the renewable energy installed capacity in It is estimated that 6,000 MW of additional wind power India. capacity will be installed in India by 2012. Wind power Total Renewable Energy Installed Capacity (May 2014): accounts for 6% of India's total installed power capacity, and it generates 1.6% of the country's Source Total Installed Capacity (MW) power. In its 12th Five Year Plan (2012-2017), the Indian Government has set a target of adding 18.5 GW of Wind Power 21,262.23 renewable energy sources to the generation mix out of Solar Power (SPV) 2,647.00 which 11 GW is Wind Energy. Small Hydro Power 3,803.65

Biomass Power 1,365.20 Advance Researches: Bagasse Cogeneration 2,512.88 Tower Height- Waste to Power 106.58 Advance Turbine System (ATS) has come up with an Total 31,833.01 innovative technique to increase the output of a wind

turbine by increasing its height. Conventionally people India ranks sixth in the world in total energy consumption. used to increase the blade size to increase the turbine Coming to power generation in the country, India has efficiency which soon turned out to be an expensive option increased installed power capacity from 1362MW to over with limited availability of space. However, with this 112,058mwsince independence & electrified more than technique one can boost the efficiency of the turbine by 20 50,000 villages. This achievement is impressive but not percent. This is surely a cost-effective method that will sufficient .It is matter of concern that 44% of households do continue to offer its benefits for a longer period of time not have access to the electricity & as many as 80,000 without incurring considerable amount of money. villages are yet to be electrified. It indicates that India has Bladeless Wind Mill- had a negative Energy Balance for decades. A research company recently patented its bladeless wind Renewable energy production sharing: turbine, which is based on a patent issued to Nikola Tesla in 1913. This wind turbine is as the Fuller Wind Turbine. This turbine is developed by Solar Aero. The specialty of Fuller Wind Turbine is it has only one rotating part, known as the turbine-driveshaft. The entire machinery is assembled inside housing. Wind turbines kill birds and bats and often generate noise for the residents living nearby.

The wind industry is trying to find a solution to the problem by working with environmental groups, federal regulators, and other interested parties. They are trying to develop methods of measuring and mitigating wind energy‘s effect on birds. The Fuller Wind Turbine offers hope to bird lovers and environmentalists.

Fuller Wind Turbine has several advantages over the traditional ones having blades. Fuller Wind Turbine has a

screened inlet and outlet. If you try to get a closer look at Wind energy this wind turbine you can see the only movement visible is as it adjusts to track the wind. This wind turbine can be The development of wind power in India began in utilized by the military surveillance and radar installations the 1990s, and has significantly increased in the last few because there are no moving blades to cause difficulties. years. Although a relative newcomer to wind industry compared withhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark or Another plus attached to this wind turbine is that it won‘t the US, domestic policy support for wind power has cost a heaven when you get its power. According to led India to become the country with the fifth largest installed wind power capacity in the world. As of manufacturers this turbine is expected to deliver power at a December 2013 the installed capacity of wind cost at par with the coal-fired power plants. If you want to power in India was 20149.50 MW, spread across probe deeper, its good news that total operating costs over Tamil Nadu (7162.18 MW), Maharashtra (3021.85 the lifetime of the unit are expected to be about $0.12/kWh. MW), Gujarat (3174.58 MW), Karnataka (2135.50 MW), Rajasthan (2684.65 MW), Madhya Pradesh (386.00 244

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Surendranagar, Gujarat (Madhav Power) Solar Energy Charanka Solar Commissioned Park – Charanka, 214 Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, April 2012 either directly using photovoltaic (PV), or indirectly using Gujarat Adani Power Commissioned concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power 40 Bitta,Gujarat January 2012 systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus Moser Baer Clean a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Commercial Commissioned Energy Limited – 30 concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the Banaskantha, October 2011 1980s. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using Gujarat Sivaganga Completed the photoelectric effect 5 Photovoltaic Plant December 2010 India has huge solar potential. The sunniest parts are situated in the south/east coast, from Calcutta to Madras. Solar energy can be used in two ways- Solar heating & Solar Advance Researches: electricity. A solar power plant offers good option for electrification in areas of disadvantageous locations such as Painting on Solar Cell- hilly regions, forests, deserts & islands where other Jersey Institute of Technology has developed solar cells so resources are neither available nor exploitable in techno thin that they can be painted on flexible plastic economically viable manner. Most parts of the country have sheets, which can then take up the place of your normal about 250 to 300 sunny days. Thus there is tremendous solar glossy paints. These cells are based on the combination of potential. 140MW solar thermal hybrid power plants with 35 carbon nanotubes and carbon Bucky ball molecules to MW solar through component will be constructed in create a series of snake-like patterns which can conduct Rajasthan raising India into the second position in the world electricity. Researchers also expect that the technique will in utilization of solar thermal. Grid interactive solar be much cheaper than what is being used today. photovoltaic power projects aggregating 2440KW of solar power in India is about 20,000 MW have so far been Hydro Energy installed. The estimated potential of solar power in India is about 20,000 MW. The hydroelectric power refers to the energy produced from water (rainfall flowing into rivers, etc). Consequently, rainfall can be a good indicator to investors looking for a location to implement or build a new hydroelectric power plant in India.

DC GW h Capacity Name of Plant Peak Notes /year factor Power (MW) Welspun Energy 50MW Rajasthan Commissioned Solar Project – 50 March 2013 Phalodhi, The dominant annual rainfall is located on the north/eastern Rajasthan part of India: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Mithapur Solar Power Plant – Commissioned Manipur and Mizoram, and also on the west coast between 25 Mithapur, Gujarat February 2012 Mumbai (Bombay). (Tata Power) Waa Solar Power Commissioned India utilizes primary hydroelectric power plants: Bihar, 10 Plant – December 2011 Punjab, Uttaranchal, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, 245

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Jammu & Kashmir, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh. If we 16,000 MW from surplus biomass). Currently, India has 537 consider the annual rainfall of Bangalore (central south), we MW commissioned and 536 MW under construction. The see that most of the rainfall occurs from May to November. facts reinforce the idea of a commitment by India to develop Consequently, we can predict that hydro energy could be these resources of power production. harnessed during the rainy season. Good water management Following is a list of some States with most potential for and storage allows for continuous electrical generation biomass production: throughout the year. 1) Andhra Pradesh (200 MW) 2) Bihar (200 MW) 3) Gujarat (200 MW) 4) Karnataka (300 MW) 5) Maharashtra (1,000 MW) 6) Punjab (150 MW) 7) Tamil Nadu (350 MW) 8) Uttar Pradesh (1,000 MW)

Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy is from thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. Earth's geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature Bio Mass Energy between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat. The heat that is used for geothermal energy can be from deep within the Earth, all the way down to Earth's core – 4,000 miles (6,400 km) down. At the core, temperatures may reach over 9,000 °F (5,000 °C). Heat conducts from the core to surrounding rock. Extremely high temperature and pressure cause some rock to melt, which is commonly known as magma. Magma convects upward since it is

lighter than the solid rock. This magma then heats rock and

water in the crust, sometimes up to 700 °F (371 °C). Biomass includes solid biomass (organic, non-fossil material Advances Researches: of biological origins), biogas (principally methane and Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS)- carbon dioxide produced by an aerobic digestion of biomass and combusted to produce heat and/or power), liquid bio Ten years ago, Marcellus, Barnett and Haynesville were fuels (bio-based liquid fuel from biomass transformation, merely considered to be interesting rock formations that mainly used in transportation applications), and municipal contained natural gas in very small pockets. But that waste (wastes produced by the residential, commercial and changed when the natural-gas industry successfully public services sectors and incinerated in specific commercialized the technique of horizontal drilling and installations to produce heat and/or power). Biomass may be hydraulic fracturing. used in a number of ways to produce energy. The most common methods are: This simple process involves drilling a hole down to the shale rock, which contains the natural gas. The drill bit then ↄ Combustion continues through the rock for as much as several miles. The ↄ Gasification bit is then withdrawn when the hole is pressurized enough, ↄ Fermentation and the rock is hydraulically fractured. This process releases ↄ Anaerobic digestion the gas, which then flows to the surface.

India is very rich in biomass. It has a potential of 19,500 MW (3,500 MW from bagasse based cogeneration and

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Today, geothermal scientists are experimenting with a 9) The Energy & Resources Institute (TERI) modified version of the natural gas technique for geothermal http://www.teriin.org/ energy - known as an Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS). 10) Trade Team Canada Environment (TTC Environment) 11) According to a 2006 report from the Massachusetts Institute Http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/internet/inenva.nsf/en/ of Technology (MIT) and funded by the U.S. Department of h_eg02268e.html Energy, the amount of EGS resources in the United States 12) Maps of India http://www.mapsofindia.com could provide 140,000 times the total annual energy use in 13) U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) the country. 14) Http://mospi.nic.in/mospi_energy_stat.htm 15) Global Energy Network Institute (GENI) Using technology available today, MIT scientists further www.geni.org estimated that the total recoverable power from EGS 16) Canada India Business resources could be as much as 12,200 Giga Watts. That's 15 17) times higher than the largest peak summertime electrical Http://canadaindiabusiness.ca/gol/cib/cib.nsf/en/ci0 load in the United States. 0109.html 18) Zenithenergy Government commitments and steps http://www.zenithenergy.com/index.HTM 19) Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) 1) Electricity regulatory commission within liberalized 20) Http://www.greenbusinesscentre.com/renenegy.asp market-1991 2) Mandatory environmental audits for power projects -1992 21) Centre for Wind Energy Technology 3) Energy conservation bill -2000 www.cwet.tn.nic.in 4) Renewable Energy promotion bill- 2005. Etc. 22) "Tata Power commissions 25 MW solar project in Gujarat". Economic Times (New Delhi, India). 15 February 2012. Acknowledgment 23) Surendranagar Solar Farm 24) "Gujarat flips switch on Asia‘s largest solar field, leading India‘s renewable energy ambitions". This paper would not have been compliter without the Washington Post (New Delhi, India). 19 April 2012. guidence and support of our all the faculty member specially 25) "Adani Group commissions largest solar power Mr.Shailendra Kasera and Mr.Praveen Kr. Jangid. We are project". Economic Times (New Delhi, India). 5 thankfull to all of them. January 2102. We would also like to thank our college to give us chance to 26) "Moser Baer commissions 30-MW solar farm in participate in such type of confrence under banner of Gujarat". The Hindu (Ahmedabad, India). 12 October college. 2011. We would also like to say thank to our friend Mr. Jitendra 27) Jaishankar, C. (23 December 2010). "Solar farm launched in Sivaganga district". The Hindu (Chennai, Kumar Yadav for his great techenical assistence. India) Finally we also oblige of ISTE and Chameli Devi Group of 28) www.greencyclopedia.com Institutions(CDGI) to allow us to participate in ECTME- 2014. -Authors

Reference

1) The Electricity Act, 2003 (No.36 of 2003) by Ministry of Law and Justice, 2) Ministry for Non-conventional Energy Sources, commonly known as MNES 3) The President of India www.presidentofindia.nic.in 4) Www.indiacore.com 5) Http://www.geni.org 6) Centre for Wind Energy Technology www.cwet.tn.nic.in 7) India Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) Http://mnes.nic.in/ 8) The President of India www.presidentofindia.nic.in 247

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Analysis of Emission characteristics of Karanja Bio-Diesel at different loads

Saket Bihari Sharan Pandey, Gaurav Patel, A. P. Singh, O.P. Singh Indore Institute of Science & Technology Indore, INDIA (452001) [email protected]

from 85 million barrels/day in 2006 to 107 million Abstract— In present study, production of fatty acid methyl barrels/day in 2030. Under these growth assumptions, ester from acid oil has been carried out which is substantially approximately half of the world‘s total resources would be less expensive than other vegetable oils derived biodiesel. Till exhausted by 2030. Also, as per many studies, the world oil now, production of biodiesel from acid oil is carried out using production would peak sometime between 2007 and 2030 three different catalysts (PTSA, H2SO4 & MSA) to obtain [4]. Therefore, the future energy availability is a serious optimal process for production. In order to accomplish the global problem. In order to control the emissions of objectives of this study, development of a test rig, performance & emission characteristics tests are carried out. The engine greenhouse gases, Kyoto Protocol targets to reduce the experimental result shows that exhaust emissions including CO greenhouse gas emission by a collective average of 5% & HC were decreased for biodiesel blends as compared to below 1990 level of respective countries. The diesel and in case of CO2 & NOx, level of emissions is slightly Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) increased as compared to petroleum diesel. It is also observed concludes in the Climate Change 2007 that, because of that the emissions decreases for biodiesel-diesel fuel blends. It global warming effect the global surface temperatures are was also seen that as concentration of biodiesel in biodiesel- likely to increase by 1.1°C to 6.4°C between 1990 and 2100 diesel blends increases, a downward trend in HC emission is [5]. Due to gradual depletion of world petroleum reserves observed. Smoke opacity was also found lower for biodiesel and the impact of environmental pollution, there is an urgent blends in comparison to diesel fuel. need for suitable alternatives fuels for use in diesel engines.

Index Terms— Engine test rig, gas analyzer, karanja, The objective of the present work has been formulated as to blending identify the suitable blending ratios of both karanja oil and karanja biodiesel resulting in better engine performance on one hand and lower emissions on the other. XIX. INTRODUCTION

Today's crisis in the field of energy supplies, environmental XX. TEST ENGINE AND FUEL SELECTION: control, population increase, poverty and shortage of food and materials are closely interrelated. It is gradually realized According to the climatic condition, there are many types of that they demand a holistic, systematic and integrated commercial but wild plants that can produce oil. Jatropha approach to deal with. Now we see that a 5 % yearly curcus, castor, pongamia pinnata (karanja), rapeseed, increase in the use of energy not only points to fuel sunflower, palm, etc. are some of such plants. Pongamia depletion, but is also a main cause for increase in pollution piñata (karanja) has been found to be one of the most level and related disasters. Energy has been at the centre suitable species in India being widely grown, it is N2-fixing stage of national & global economic development for tree, not brought by animals and oil is non-edible. several decades. The demand for energy, around the world is Regarding the different physical and chemical properties of increasing exponentially, specifically the demand for fuel to be used in engine, its characterization, performance petroleum-based energy. Petroleum derived fuels, actually, and emission to be evaluated through experiment. For that a exceeds the demand of any other fuels or energy resources. small capacity stationary engine with necessary Edible vegetable oils such as canola, soybean, and corn instrumentation, used in rural agricultural applications, has have been used for biodiesel production and are proven been considered to test various blends. The experiments diesel substitutes [1,2]. However, a major obstacle in the would be carried out to evaluate various engine performance commercialization of biodiesel production from edible parameters like BHP, SFC, heat release rate, mean effective vegetable oils is their high production cost, which is due to pressure etc. and the emitted gases like CO,CO2,HC,NOx etc. would be measured. the demand for human consumption. Reducing the cost of the feedstock is necessary for biodiesel‘s long- term commercial viability. One way to reduce the cost of this fuel is to use less expensive feedstocks including waste cooking oils and vegetable oils that are non-edible and/or require low harvesting costs. Waste cooking oil (WCO), which is much less expensive than edible vegetable oil, is a promising alternative to edible vegetable oil [3]. The world consumption for petroleum and other liquid fuel will grow 248

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N Rpm pick up &TDC encoder T6 Exh . Gas Table 1: Specifications of the Diesel Engine outlet temp from calorimeter Make Kirloskar T1 Cooling water inlet temp to engine 1 AVL 5 gas analyzer Mode TV1 T2 Cooling water outlet temp from engine 2 AVL 437 Rated Brake Power Smoke meter 7/5.2 (bhp/kW) 1. Emission Analysis: Rated Speed (rpm) 1500 rpm Exhaust emission analysis was done for smoke opacity, HC, Number of Cylinder Single cylinder CO, CO2 and NOx. The major pollutants appearing in the stroke 110 mm, bore 87.5 exhaust of a diesel engine are the oxides of nitrogen. The Bore X Stroke (mm) mm various gas emissions like CO, HC, NOx, O2, and CO2 are measured using AVL DIGAS 444 analyzer fig. 2. Compression Ratio CR 17.5 Cooling System water-cooled Lubrication System Forced feed system Cubic Capacity 0.661 liters Inlet Valve Open (Degree) 4.5 degree before TDC Inlet Valve Closed 35.5 degree after BDC (Degree) Exhaust Valve Open 35.5degree before BDC (Degree) Exhaust Valve Closed 4.5 degree after TDC (Degree) Fuel Injection Timing 23 degree before TDC (Degree)

Figure 2: Gas analyzer The Experimental Engine setup consists of single For measuring smoke opacity a smoke meter is used. cylinder, four stroke, VCR (Variable Compression Ratio) Diesel engine connected to eddy current type dynamometer for loading. A computerized Diesel injection pressure III. EXPERIMENTATIONS: measurement provision is also made. The photograph of the 1. Emission analysis: test rig with overall schematic diagram is shown in Fig 1. Most of the major industrial areas of the world have been experiencing serious motor vehicle pollution problems. The awareness has led to planned actions to reduce these emissions. The major engine exhaust gases namely CO, CO2, O2, NOx, HC, & smoke density at all the loading conditions for various blends would be measured using five gas analyzer and smoke meter.

Carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide is formed at the intermediate combustion stage because of air deficiency, which results in incomplete oxidization. Carbon monoxide is a tasteless, odorless and colorless gas produced through the incomplete combustion of carbon based fuels.

Hydrocarbon: Hydrocarbons are elements of unburned fuel, which have

Figure 1 Schematic Diagram of test rig formed because of a low combustion temperature and a poor fuel to air mixture. They give diesel exhaust its F1 Fuel injection pressure sensor T3 Cooling characteristic smell. water inlet temp to calorimeter F2 Air flow measuring T4 Cooling Nitrous oxide: water outlet temp from calorimeter Nitrous oxides are formed by a reaction between the N and PT Piezo sensor T5 O in the air at high temperatures. NOx emissions produce a Exh, Gas inlet temp to calorimeter wide variety of health and welfare effects.

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IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS: From the given experiment and output come should achieve the objective of this present work so various blends of karanja bio-diesel (KB) with diesel have been prepared and tested. Here discussion about all the engine performance tests and emission analysis for blends of KB with diesel at different loads.

A. EMISSION RESULTS FOR KB BLENDS:

a) CO Emission for KB blends: The measured values of carbon mono-oxide (CO) emission against engine loading for different blends of karanja biodiesel are plotted in the figure. KB 40 blends show higher CO emissions when compared with KB 10. CO emission for this blend is also increasing from 70% loading.

CO emission v/s load for diesel. Diesel fuel shows the Fig.4.2 UBHC emission v/s load for all blends of KB and highest CO Emissions compared with the KB blends at 70% diesel load it observed that from 87% load the CO emissions are In fig-4.2 KB20 blend showed the lowest UBHC almost constant. emission among the various blends and the compared with the diesel. This could probably be due to increase oxygen availability in the fuel. The higher order blends however have shown higher UBHC blends owing to their higher viscosity, in improper spray pattern resulting in improper combustion.

c) NOx Emission for KB blends: The different measured values for the different blends are shown in figure. For the given values of KB10%, KB20%, KB40%, KB100%, Diesel graph showing the characteristics.

Fig. 4.1 CO emission v/s load for all blends of KB and diesel

As seen from fig that CO emissions trend increase with increase in blend percentage and load and we can also observed that CO emission are higher from about 80% loading to 100% loading. This shows that CO emission increase with increase in the viscosity of the fuel.

b) UBHC Emission for KB blends: The measured values of un-burnt hydro-carbons (UBHC) emission against engine loading for different blends of Fig.4.3 NOx emission v/s load for all blends of KB and karanja biodiesel are plotted in the Figure. Same as the CO diesel emission graph analysis, UBHC emission for blends taken place. It is observed from the Fig 4.3 that with the increasing of percentage of KB oil in the blend decreased the emissions .This could be attributed to the increase viscosity of the fuel resulting in improper combustion and reduces in cylinder temperature.

V. CONCLUSION: After carrying out the experiment in the engine to measure the various engine performance parameters and emission gases. It is analyze those experimental results of the various engine performance parameters and the quantities of 250

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014 emission gases to identify at the suitable blending ratios of both karanja oil and karanja biodiesel resulting in better performance on one hand and lower emissions on the other. Comparative analysis of performance and emission characteristics of the karanja oil and karanja biodiesel under the given operating conditions have shows Better performance from KB blends on about 85%-100% load variations zone than Karanja oil (KO).

REFERENCES:

[1] B. Freedman, R. O. Butterfield and E. H. Pryde, ―Trans- esterification Kinetics of Soybean Oil,‖ Journal of the American Oil Chemists‘ Society, Vol. 63, No. 10, 1986, pp. 1375-1380.

[2] X. Lang, A. K. Dalai, N. N. Bakhashi and M. J. Reaney, ―Preparation and Characterization of Biodiesels from Various Bio-Oils,‖ Bioresource Technology, Vol. 80, No. 1, 2002, pp. 53-62. Doi: 10.1016/S0960-8524(01)00051-7

[3] M. Canakci and J. Van Gerpen, ―A Pilot Plant to Produce Biodiesel from High Free Fatty Acid Feedstocks,‖ Jour-nal of the American Society of Agricultural and Biologi-cal Engineers, Vol. 46, No. 4, 2003, pp. 945-954.

[4] International Energy Outlook 2009 by Energy Information administration, Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting, U.S. Department of Energy. [5] IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007 by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

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Performance Assessment of Various Absorber Configurations of Fresnel lens Based Water Distillation System Satheesha Kumar K#, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vivekananda College of Engineering& Technology, Puttur, D.K - 574203. #[email protected] Abstract— In this project a Fresnel lens based desalination days. Younas et al [3], carried out a performance analysis of system was fabricated and experiments were carried out for multi stage solar still coupled with Fresnel lens and from various configurations of absorber. The distilled water yield will this analysis found that The overall efficiency for the system be compared for determining the most appropriate configuration. was 57%, which is 62% more than the efficiency of simple Measurements of temperature, solar intensity and distilled water solar stills (35%). The quality of distillate produced from yield were noted between 9.30 am to 4.30 pm sunlight days. The synthetic brackish water and the seawater was well within results showed that Curved absorber provides higher water production than Straight absorber. The water tests were carried the range of world health organization (WHO) drinking out and found that water is safe and pure for drinking. water standards. Sampath Kumar et al [4], carried out the an Keywords--- water distillation system, various absorber experimental study on single basin solar still augmented configurations, Fresnel lens. with evacuated tubes and It was found that, after augmentation of the evacuated tube, the daily production XXI. I. INTRODUCTION rate has increased by 49.7% and it is increased by 59.48% with black stones. Rajesh et al [5], carried out works on harnessing solar energy for providing clean water by N fabricating single basin solar still integrated with a flat plate inety seven percent of the earth‘s water mass lies in its collector [FPC].During test time the distilled water oceans. Of the remaining 3 percent, 5/6 is brackish, leaving production were noted between 8 AM to 5 PM sunlight a mere 0.5 percent as fresh water. As a result, many people day.25 to 40% enhancement in the yield is observed with do not have access to adequate and inexpensive supplies of this system. Gao et al [6], Investigated an innovative, multi- portable water. This leads to population concentration stage solar distillation with slope-plate falling film system around existing water supplies, marginal health conditions, for seawater desalination. The system consists of a solar and a generally low standard of living. Within the next heater (flat plate solar collector) and one evaporation- decade, global shortage in consumable water will reach condensation set that is composed of five slope-plate stages. 35%. While the world searches for innovative solutions to From above reviews, all the work has been done on solar meet that challenge. To overcome this there are many still with/without using Fresnel lens but without using methods of converting brackish or sea water into portable separate evaporation and condensation technique. By water such as vapour compression, reverse osmosis and focusing on extensive review of the technologies developed solar desalination/distillation. Vapour compression and and learning the concepts of various experiments, conducted reverse osmosis are the methods in which mechanical or by research so far, an attempt has been made to study the electrical energy is required to convert brackish/sea into distilled water production by using Fresnel lens water portable water but the solar distillation requires solar energy distillation system with different absorber configuration. In which is available abundantly. this project work Fresnel lens focuses solar energy to the Many researchers have been done on solar desalination and absorber and generates vapour, which is made to condense to improve the productivity of the solar still many different in an outlet path and collects in a distillate tank. techniques have been developed. Reviews of these works are essential for developing improvement in the existing XXII. II. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP system. Some of the reviews like Gnanadason et al [1], Simplified schematic representation of the system is shown carried out research on comparison of performance analysis in Fig.1. The test setup consisted of following components between single basin solar still made up of copper and G.I. 1. Absorber configuration. The efficiency is found to be higher for solar still made up of copper sheet and can be increased further by providing a 2. Fresnel Lens heat absorbing materials inside the still. Mahmoud et al [2], worked on experimental and theoretical model for 3. Wooden Support. utilization of Fresnel lens in solar water desalination by humidification-dehumidification process and showed that the model outcomes are 25% higher than the experimental data due to energy losses. The analysis indicates that Fresnel lens collector has good efficiency (70%) in clear 252

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Fig.1. The schematic representation of the system.

For analysis purpose, two different types of absorber Fig.2.The actual view of system configuration are used, which is made up of copper material. The Straight absorber has ―50 mm‖ diameter and ―200 mm‖ length, outlet and inlet pipes of absorber is of ―9 mm‖ XXIII. III. EXPERIMENTAL PREOCEDURE diameter. The curved absorber has ―100 mm‖ radius of The performance of Fresnel lens based water distillation curve and ―200 mm‖ length. For placing of absorber; ―2 ft‖ system was tested on a site in NMAMIT Nitte, Karnataka. high wooden stand is made which is covered with sheet For the measurement of temperatures, thermocouples were metal. In this water is fed to the absorber through inlet from installed at different points of system. The temperature that the feed tank and when absorber receives the sunlight, water was recorded during the test included feed water inside the absorber gets heated up and starts boiling, temperatures, absorber surface temperatures, steam producing steam. This steam is then flows through the temperatures and distillate temperatures outlet, where it condensed and collected in a distillate tank. The temperature of feed water, steam and distillate was Fresnel lens was chosen because of smaller image and measured using J-type thermocouple (Accuracy ±1.5º C). hence, less heat losses from absorber. The solar These thermocouples, for the measurement of steam concentrating Fresnel lens used for the experimentation was temperature screw type thermocouple were used, which is made of acrylic material. The area of the Fresnel lens was directly fixed to the outlet of the absorber. Remaining ―740 mm×940 mm‖ and it has a focal length ―800 mm‖. The thermocouples are directly fixed in required positions. The effective area was ―700 mm×900 mm‖ when mounted on measurement of surface temperature of absorber was done lens frames which is shown in Fig 2. The lens frame is made by using pen type thermometer (accuracy ±1º C) and IR of aluminium. The Fresnel lens has a transmission efficiency thermometer. The pyranometer (KDS-051) was used for the of ―0.85 to 0.9‖ as per manufacture specified in formation measurement of global radiation and the water analysis tests [3]. pH meter and TDS meter are used to determine the purity of Wooden support was made to holding the Fresnel lens and it water. can moved up & down and can be rotated horizontally as the After fixing all equipments, the experiments was started by sun moves east to west. The wooden support consists of two filling absorber with water sample through feed tank, portions i.e., top portion and bottom portion which is as closing the valve and adjusting lens orientation so that the shown in Fig.2. In the top portion of the support consists of concentrated spot was focused on absorber. After 1hr the two ―2.5 ft‖ thin wooden frame which holds the Fresnel lens increase in temperature of absorber surface temperature, frame by using bolt and nut. By using this support the steam temperature and distillate temperature were recorded. Fresnel lens can be tilt at any tilt angle. The bottom portion The temperature of the feed water was measured at constant of the support consists of two trapezoidal shaped wooden level by adding the cool feed water to the feed tank. The frames of ―2 ft‖ height, ―2 ft‖ length and ―2.3 ft‖ width condensed distillate is collected in a measuring jar and the which are as shown in figure. The top portion and bottom hourly productivity of freshwater is noted down. The portion of the wooden supports are connected using ―9 mm‖ absorber unit was heated for a continuous period of ―6 to 7 nut and bolts. The azimuth angle marking are done on ―4 ft‖ hrs‖ and during this time, measurements were recorded for square wooden sheets (5 mm). Above this the trapezoidal every 1 hr interval. After the complete heat period the shaped wooden frame is mounted and hinged at centre. It Fresnel lens was set to out- focus. The experiment for can be rotate horizontally as the sun move east to west. The another absorber configuration was repeated for different actual complete view of the Fresnel lens based water water sample. To determine the purity of distilled water distillation system is as shown in Fig. 2. collected from the Fresnel lens based solar distillation unit. The tests like pH and TDS (Total dissolved solid) have been carried out for the water entering and leaving the distillation unit. The experimental setup is as shown in Fig.2.

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XXIV. IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The objective of the project was to identify the best absorber configuration and distillation production rates. The experiments were conducted on a newly fabricated Fresnel lens based water distillation system. Results were recorded by changing the different absorber configuration and changing different types of water. This section reports, the results obtained and discussion carried out to arrive at the conclusion. Experiment was conducted for 20 days for each of the above conditions. However, in order to evaluate relative merits of each configuration, the performance is required to be compare for same input data. i.e. for same or similar solar radiations. Therefore it was essential to identify days on which solar radiation data was almost the same. Therefore Fig. 5.Variations in Solar radiation (Salt Water Sample) on th th th st th radiation details for all 2 months were compared and 2 to 4 March 24 , April 4 , March 25 , April 1 and March 27 rd days on which solar radiation were almost same are chosen. &April 3 . This has shown in Fig. 3, 4, and 5.

Fig. 3. Variations in Solar radiation (Tap Water Sample) on Feb. 12th, Feb 25th, Feb 11th, March 5th, Feb 18th, Feb 28th and Feb 14th &March 6th. Fig.6. Comparison of Surface temperature of different absorber with different water Samples

Fig. 4. Variations in solar radiation (Well Water Sample) on March 14th, March 20th and March 19th & 21st.

Fig.7. Variation of surface temperature of different absorber configuration with different water Samples.

From the Fig. 6 determined that by using Straight absorber surface temperature ranges from ―200º C to 250º C‖ in between time ranges from 13.00 to 14.30 hrs. But while using Curved absorber surface temperature ranges from ―125º C to 145º C‖ in between from 12.00 to 15.00hr.

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Variation of surface temperature of different absorber maximum distillate temperature 37ºC was observed at 13.30 configuration with different water samples are as shown in to 14.00hrs. Fig. 6. In this figure, Y-axis represents absorber surface temperature in ºC and X-axis represents exposure time in hours. From the Fig. 6, it is observed that by using straight absorber surface temperature ―200º C to 250º C‖ was obtained from ―13.00 to 14.30‖ hrs. While using curved absorber the maximum range of surface temperature is found to be from ―125º C to 145º C‖ between ―12.00 to 15.00‖ hrs. From Fig. 6, it is observed that the maximum temperature (absorber) occurs for both absorber configurations, after the period of peek radiation which is also shown in Fig. 7. From Fig. 7, Y-axis represents absorber surface temperature in ºC, Solar radiation in W/m2 and X-axis represents time in hrs. From Fig .7, it is observed 2 that peek solar radiation 995 W/m is reached at 12.00 hr, after this surface temperature of both absorbers is increased. Fig.9 Variation on hourly Productivity of distillate from two It may be because when peak radiation is reached, the absorber configuration with three samples of water. vapour formed would reduce heat transfer from absorber to water. Hence the temperature of absorber is higher. But, the Variation on hourly Productivity of distillate from two increase of curved absorber surface temperature is slightly absorber configuration for three water samples are as shown less as compared to straight absorber surface temperature, in Fig. 9. In this figure, Y-axis represents distilled water in which is shown in Fig 6& 7. From Fig. 6, it is observed that ml/hr and x-axis represents times in hours. Fig. 9 shows the surface temperatures of both absorber increases gradually hourly productivity of two absorber configuration for three from 9.30 to 14.30 hrs and after 14.30 hrs it starts water samples. From this figure it is found that productivity decreasing slowly. is progressively increasing from 11.00am on wards and it start decrease from 14.30 pm on wards. By using curved absorber, hourly productivity of ―900 ml/hr‖ can achieved and by using straight absorber, hourly productivity of ―400 ml/hr‖ can achieved. Overall comparison of hourly productivity of two absorber configurations indicates that curve absorber produce 30% to 40% more productivity than the straight absorber configuration. Because of in straight absorber configuration having low heating surface therefore low evaporation rate and also when peak solar radiation reached the vapour formed inside the absorber reduces heat transfer from absorber to water. But in curved absorber configuration having large heating surface therefore absorber having high evaporation rate and transfers more heat between absorber and water. Hence curved absorber configuration produces more distillate than the straight absorber configuration.

Fig.8. Variation of Temperature of Feed Water, Steam and Variations of system efficiency of two absorber Distillate Water with Different Water Samples. configuration for three water samples are as shown in fig. 10. The system efficiency is defined as amount of heat Variation of Temperature of Feed Water, Steam and gained or amount of work done and the heat energy Distillate Water with Different Water Samples is shown in available from the solar radiation. From the figure 10, it is Fig .8, for two absorber configurations. In this, Y-axis found that Curved absorbers system efficiency is 40% better represents temperatures of feed water, steam and distillate in than the straight absorbers system efficiency. It could be ºC and X-axis represents time in hours. The feed waters because of higher absorber surface area and less heat loss. temperature is maintained at constant temperature (25⁰ C) For all absorbers the maximum system efficiency occurs for both absorber configuration arrangements. For Straight between from 11.30 to 14.30hrs. absorber configuration, due to the small rise in pressure inside the absorber the temperature of the steams inside the straight absorber ranges from ―112⁰ C to 118⁰ C‖. For the same absorber distillate temperature ranges from ―28⁰ C to 39⁰ C‖ and maximum temperature of distillate is ―39⁰ C‖ at time ranges from 13.30 hr. For Curved absorber configuration, the temperature of the steam ranges from ―78º C to 95º C‖ at time interval from 10.30 to 15.30 hrs and distillate temperature ranges from 28ºC to 37ºC. The

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XXVI. VI. Conclusions Based on the result and discussion carried out in the previous section the following conclusion can be drawn. I. Straight and curved absorber shows good performance in liters of fresh water yield.

II. Of the two absorber configurations tried, curved absorber configuration produced 35 to 40% better system efficiency as compared to straight absorber configuration.

III. The daily production rate by using straight absorber is about 1.2 to 2 liter and by using curved absorber, the daily production rate is about 2.8 to 4 liters.

Fig.10. Overall Variations of system efficiency of two IV. The maximum productivity and temperature is absorber configuration for three water samples achieved between 12.30 am to 14.30 pm with curved absorber as the configuration.

XXV. V. WATER ANALYSIS V. Water analysis indicated improvement in the pH To determine the purity of distilled water collected from the and total dissolved solid (TDS) content. Fresnel lens based solar distillation unit. The pH and total dissolved solid (TDS) tests have been carried out for the REFERENCES water entering and leaving the distillation unit. The Table 1 [1] M. Koilraj Gnanadason, P. Senthil Kumar , Vincent H. shows the Indian standard drinking water specification (IS Wilson, A. Kumarave, B. Jebadason, "Comparison of 10500:1991) [5].The Table 2 shows the water analysis test Performance Analysis between Single Basin Solar Still report for all water samples. made up of Copper and GI",International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Table 1. The Indian standard drinking water specification Technology Volume. 2, Issue 7, July 2013, ISSN: Sl. No. Characteristics *Acceptable 2319-8753. [2] Mohamed S. Mahmouda, Taha E. Farraga, Wael A. 1 pH 6.5-8.5 Mohameda, "Experimental and theoretical model for 2 TDS 300.31ppm water desalination by Humidification - dehumidification (HDH)",Procedia Environmental Sciences 17 ( 2013 ) 503 – 512. Table 2.Water Analysis test Report [3] Obaid Younas, Fawzi Banat, Md. Didarul Feed Water Islam,"Performance Assessment of a Multi-Stage Solar Still Coupled with Fresnel Lens for Water Parameters Tap Water Well Water Salt Water Desalination", TEPE Volume 2, Issue 4Nov. 2013, PP. 164-170 www.vkingpub.com/tepe © American V-King Scientific Publishing. pH 7.8 7.5 8.3 [4] Sampath Kumar k, Mayilsamy, shanmugan s and TDS 780ppm 600ppm 800ppm senthil kumar", An experimental study on single basin solar still augmented with evacuvated tubes", Journal Distilled Output of scientific & industrial research (2007) 1-13. Parameters [5] Rajesh .A.M a, Bharath .K.N b, Babu Kumar B R, "Design and Performance Evaluation of Hybrid Solar Distillate 1 Distillate 2 Distillate 3 Still", International conference on ―control, pH 6.7 7 6.5 automation, communication and energy conservation - 2009, 4th-6th June 2009,1-6. TDS 20ppm 16ppm 40ppm [6] Penghui Gao, Guoqing Zhou, Henglin Lv,"Simulation Studies on A Multi-stage Distillation with Slope-plate From water analysis test report, it is observed that, the three Falling Film Evaporation Desalination System using water samples had pH value and TDS content in the range of Solar Energy", 978-0-7695-3819-8/09 $26.00 © 2009 ―7.5 to 8.3‖ and ―600 ppm to 800 ppm‖ respectively. The IEEE,DOI 10.1109/ICEET.2009.415. same value for the distilled water was found to be in the range of ―6.5 to 7‖ and ―16 ppm to 40 ppm‖. This is acceptable as it satisfies the Indian Standard Stipulations. In this project, for the water analysis pH, TDS tests are carried out using LED display pH meter and TDS meter

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Satheesha Kumar K was born in Puttur City, Dakshina Kannada District in 1986. He received the B.E degree in Mechanical Engineering from Vivekananda College of Engg. & Technology, Puttur, Dakshina Kannada, in 2008 and M.tech degree in Energy systems Engineering from NMAMIT, Nitte, Udupi, in 2014. He is currently working in Vivekananda College of Engg. & Technology, Puttur, as a Assistant Professor in Mechanical Department.

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FEA of Transient Heat Transfer in Air Cooled IC Engine Fin of Different Geometry and Materials - A Review

Vipul Shekhada1, Shashi Kumar Jain2 1PG student, Mechanical engineering Department Technocrats Institute of Technology Bhopal, India

Abstract— Fin is a surface which extends from a surface to XXVIII. II. Literature Review increase the rate of heat transfer to the environment by Experiments were carried out to analyze the effect of increasing convection. The internal combustion (I.C.) engine fins number of fins, fin pitch and wind velocity on air cooled are made up of different metals and their alloys. The cooling engine of motorcycle. Cylinder which had a various mechanism of the air cooled IC engine is generally dependent on the various design parameters of fins like: material, cross-section number of circular fins and fin pitches was tested in wind area, pitch, thickness, air velocity, air exposed angle and weather tunnel. The temperatures inside the cylinder, on the surface conditions. Inadequate removal of heat from IC engine will lead of the fins and in the space between the fins were to high thermal stresses and lower thermal efficiency. The calculated. It was observed that the heat release from the present review covers study of fin design parameters for cylinder did not improve when the cylinder have more fins enhancement of heat transfer. and too narrow a fin pitch at lower wind velocities, because it is difficult for the air flow into the narrower space Keywords— IC engine; heat transfer; fin; fin design between fins, so temperature between them increased. The expression of average fin surface heat transfer XXVII. I. Introduction coefficient derived from the fin pitch and wind velocity [2]. Fins in an I. C. cylinder transfers heat from cylinder in to the atmosphere. The function of the fins is to increase the area The problem of cross flow forced convection heat transfer over which heat is transferred to or from the surrounding from a horizontal cylinder with multiple, equally spaced, fluid and to substantially increase the rate of heat transfer high conductivity permeable fins on its outer surface was between the primary surface and the surrounding fluid. numerically analysed. The heat transfer characteristics of There are different geometries for the primary surface like cylinder with permeable and solid fins were studied with pins, rectangular and radial as shown in Fig. 1. There are different parameters like number of fins, and fins heights many different shapes of fin: pin, rectangular, trapezoidal, with wide range of Reynolds number. From this study it dovetail and parabolic and annular [1]. has been observed that permeable fins offered very high Nusselt number than the solid fins under the same operating condition. Permeable fins resulted in very larger aerodynamic and thermals wakes which significantly reduced the effectiveness of the downstream fins, especially at ɵ < 90°. A single long permeable fin tended to offer the best convection heat transfer from a cylinder head. This has higher practical applications in terms of weight and cost of fins needed to achieve a certain level of heat transfer enhancement [3].

Fig. 1. Types of fins a) Rectangular b) Pin fins c) Radial Investigations were done on natural convection heat

All I.C. engines uses either air or a liquid for its cooling. transfer from solid and permeable fins. Permeable fins are With recent advancements in material science and formed by modifying the solid rectangular fins with metallurgy, a dire need has arisen to analyse the feasibility drilling three holes per fins inline at one half lengths of the of other materials to be used for fin manufacturing. In fins of two wheeler cylinder block. Engine cylinder blocks having solid and permeable fins were tested for different today‘s world, simulation softwares are being extensively inputs like 75 W, 60 W, 45 W, 30 W and 15 W. Following used for research and development. The current work is an attempt to review the available studies for analyzing the observations were there: future scope and likely gaps in the research of fins, their ↄ Temperature profile shows that the base temperatures geometry and construction materials to optimize the of solid fins are higher as compared to permeable efficiency of an I.C. engine. Table I below shows the fins. glimpses of research done in the above mentioned field. ↄ The tip temperatures of solid fins are h i g h e r as compared to permeable fins. It means that heat transfer rate is more in permeable fins as compared to

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the solid fins. concluded that natural convection heat transfer coefficient ↄ There is reduction in area due to which material cost increases with increasing temperature differences and are less about 10-30%. increases with fin spacing and decreases with fin length [8]. ↄ The average heat transfer coefficient and the ratio of heat transfer coefficient of the cylinder with The transient thermal analysis was done to analyse the permeable fins to the cylinder with solid fins has thermal properties by varying material, thickness and increased by significance value [4]. geometry of cylinder fins. In the analysis three material were used i.e. Aluminium Alloy A204, Aluminium alloy TABLE I. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS BY RESEARCHERS FOR 6061 and Magnesium alloy. These different materials were CYLINDERS, FINS AND AIR VELOCITIES experimented with rectangular, circular and curve shaped Cylinder Fin Fin Wind fins. Finally as result shows that by using circular fin with pitch Researchers diameter length Material velocity material Aluminium Alloy 6061 is better because heat (mm) (mm (mm) (km/hr) ) transfer rate, Efficiency and Effectiveness of the fin is more. Cu, Steel, 32-95 4-19 16-41 32-97 By using circular fins the weight of the fin body reduces A.H. Gibson Al compare to existing engine cylinder fins [9]. 1.448- 9.39- A.E. Biermann et al. 118.36 46.8- 15.24 37.3 Steel 241.2 The heat transfer rate and efficiency for circular and elliptical annular fins for different environmental conditions 86 7-14 25-65 D. Thronhill et al. Al alloy 7.2-72 was observed. Elliptical fin efficiency is more than circular 100 8-14 10-50 fin. If space restriction is there along one particular direction while the perpendicular direction is relatively unrestricted M. Yoshida et al. 78 7-20 35 Al 0-60 elliptical fins could be a good option. Generally heat transfer co-efficient depends upon the space, time, flow conditions and fluid properties [10]. A mathematical model for radial rectangular fin was developed. The model predicted that fin performance ratio is CFD simulations were done to analyse the heat transfer in not a measurement of the fin thermal performance but its motor-cycle engine fins at velocities from 40 to 72 km/hr effectiveness [5]. which is the most common operating range of motorcycles. It shows that when the ambient temperature reduces to a An analysis to study the efficiency of straight fins of very low value, it results in overcooling and poor efficiency different configurations when subjected to simultaneous of the engine. It was found that when the ambient heat and mass transfer mechanisms was carried out. The temperature reduces to a very low value, it results in temperature and humidity ratio differences are the overcooling and poor efficiency of the engine. They have parameters for heat and mass transfer, respectively [6]. concluded that overcooling also affects the engine efficiency because of overcooling excess fuel consumption occurs. The thermal loads and temperature distribution of the This necessitates the need for reducing air velocity striking cylinder and cylinder head of the two-stroke engine cooled the engine surface to reduce the fuel consumption. It can be by air at mean engine load was observed. The results of done by placing a diffuser in front of the engine which will simulation carried out in ANSYS program with creation of reduce the relative velocity of the air stream thus decreasing the mesh in CATIA were verified by the experiment on the the heat loss [11]. real engine. The results showed that the cooling heat in the air-cooled two-stroke engine increases with the engine speed The simulation of two type of engine blocks, i.e. Modenas and cooling energy amounts above 30% of the total energy Kriss 110 and Yamaha Lagenda 110z was performed. To delivered with fuel. Also, found that the highest temperature determine the heat transfer coefficients, the values of wind in SI two-stroke engine is in the area of the spark plug, and velocity have been determined. The design of motorcycle the outer ribs can be lessened in order to decrease the weight fins need to analysed in order to measure total heat of the parts [7]. transfer, because fins works by trapping the air flow to maintain the heat transfer rate of the engine block. The Study was carried out to predict natural convection from an inappropriate fin design can cause to overheating [12]. array of aluminium horizontal rectangular thick fins of 3 mm< t < 7 mm with short lengths (L 6 50 mm) attached on a Heat transfer inside hairy fin systems was modeled and horizontal base plate. The 3-dimensional elliptic governing analyzed. The ‗‗hairy fin system‘‘ is a fin system composed equations of laminar flow and heat transfer were solved of a primary rectangular fin with large number of slender using finite volume scheme. Based on the verified model, secondary rods attached on its surface. It was found that the fluid flow and thermal structure around various fins were hairy fin system may increase the heat transfer from heated illustrated and two types of flow patterns in the channel of surfaces. The enhancement in heat transfer caused by the the fin arrays were observed. Effect of various fin hairy fin systems was increased as the secondary fins geometries and temperature differences on the convection thermal conductivity, convection coefficients and diameter heat transfer from the array was determined for Rayleigh increases. It was concluded that the increase in heat flow numbers based on fin spacing of 192–6784 and applied through hairy fin systems is significant enough to allow correlations were developed to predict Nusselt numbers with them to be utilized in the design of thermal systems [13]. corresponding non-dimensional parameters. It was

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The heat transfer characteristics of different fin parameters characteristics of the heat storage liquid by aluminium namely: number of fins, fin thickness at varying air cylinder with six numbers of fins having a pitch of 10 mm velocities was determined. Cylinders with fins of 4 mm and and 20 mm was done. As the CFD results were mostly as 6 mm thickness were simulated for 1, 3, 4 & 6 fin same as that of the experimental results, it is possible to configurations. It was conclude regarding fin pitches and modify the fin geometry and predict those results. [19]. numbers when fin thickness was increased, the reduced gap between the fins resulted in swirls generation which helped XXIX. III. Conclusions in increasing the heat transfer. It was also observed that The summary of the above literature review shows that: large number of fins with less thickness can be preferred in ↄ Fin design plays an important part in heat transfer. high speed vehicles than thick fins with less numbers as it There is a scope of improvement in heat transfer of air helps inducing greater turbulence and hence higher heat cooled engine cylinder fin. transfer [14]. ↄ Heat transfer co-efficient depended on fin geometry and cross sectional area. Studies were carried out to observe thermal characteristics ↄ In High speed vehicles thicker fins provide better of a ceramic tube with annular fins of different profiles. efficiency. Increased fin thickness resulted in swirls It was found that there is a decrease in the temperature being created which helped in increasing the heat along the length of the fin for all the three profiles with transfer. various radius ratios also found that the base temperature is ↄ Heat transfer dependence on different stream maximum in the case of triangular profile and minimum velocities. Heat transfer coefficient can be increased for rectangular profile, while that of the trapezoidal profile by increasing the surrounding fluid velocity by forced lies in between the triangular and rectangular profile. It convection. was also observed that the temperature distribution along ↄ The temperature and heat transfer coefficient values the length of the fin for all the three profiles decreases with from fin tip to base are not uniform which shows the an increase in the radius ratio. This is because large radius major advantage of CFD for analysis of heat transfer. ratio value will lead to more heat being transferred to the ↄ Based on above review study, heat transfer rate also surrounding and less heat stored in the fin material, hence increase by changing the various types of geometry of resulting in low base temperature [15]. fins mounted on it. So it can be analyzed by CFD and by conducting experimental work the results can be Experimental analysis on the mo d i f i e d fins by removing validated. the central portion by cutting a notch was done. The results obtained over a range of fin heights and heat dissipation rate were compared with the results obtained XXX. IV. References by using CFD software. It was observed that heat transfer 1 C.F. Taylor, T.Y. Toong, ―Heat transfer in internal-combustion coefficient and in turn the rate of heat transfer can further be engines‖, ASME paper 57-HT-17, 1957. increased by increasing the surrounding fluid velocity. It is 2 M. Yoshida, ―Air-Cooling Effect of Fins on a Motorcycle Engine‖, JSME International journal, Series B, vol.49(3), pp. 869-875, 2006. proved that the heat transfer coefficient is highest for the set 3 B.A.K. Abu-Hijleh, ―Enhanced forced convection heat transfer from a of fins with triangular notch [16]. cylinder using permeable fins‖, Journal of heat transfer, vol. 125, pp. 804- 811, 2003. A parametric study on the dynamic natural convection 4 A.T. Pise, ―Investigation of enhancement of natural convection heat process concerned with long horizontal fin arrays with a transfer from engine cylinder with permeable fins‖, International Journal of uniform base temperature was done using a 3-D unsteady Mechanical Engineering and Technology, vol.1 (1), pp. 238-247, 2010. numerical analysis. It was investigated the range of height 5 P.J. Heggs, T.H. Ooi, ― Design charts for radial rectangular fins in terms of performance ratio and maximum effectiveness‖, Applied Thermal (H) is 6.4–38 mm and the range of spacing (S) is 6.4–20 Engineering, vol. 24, pp. 1341–1351, 2004. mm. The heat transfer rate per unit base area, Q/Ab, is 6 M.H. Sharqawy, S.M. Zubair, ―Efficiency and optimization of straight largest for a fin array with a shortest length of (L=128 fins with combined heat and mass transfer – An analytical solution‖, mm), a highest H (38 mm) and a narrower S (6.4 mm). Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 28, pp. 2279–2288, 2008. Although, this fin array implies the most striking 7 W. Mitianiec, K. Buczek, ―Analysis of thermal loads on air cooled engine‖, Powertrain and Transport, vol.14 (3), 2007. decreasing trend of Q/Ab with increasing L, as a result of 8 L. Dialameh, M. Yaghoubi, O. Abouali, ―Natural convection from an the highly increased viscous drag in fin channels. The array of horizontal rectangular thick fins with short length‖, Applied decreasing trend is weaker for lower H and wider S [17]. Thermal Engineering, 28, pp. 2371–2379, 2008. 9 N.P.R. Rao, T.V. Vardhan, ―Thermal Analysis of Engine Cylinder Experimental and numerical studies were done for thermal Fins By Varying Its Geometry and Material‖, International Journal of optimization of vertical plate-fin heat sinks under natural Engineering Research & Technology, vol. 2(8), 2013. convection in a fully-developed-flow regime. It suggested 10 N.Nagarani, K. Mayilsamy, ―Experimental heat transfer analysis on annular circular and elliptical fins‖, International Journal of closer correlations which allow for thermal optimization of Engineering Science and Technology, 2(7), pp. 2839-2845, 2010. vertical plate-fin heat sinks under natural convection in a 11 P.Agarwal, ―Heat Transfer Simulation by CFD from Fins of an Air fully-developed-flow regime. They presented analytical Cooled Motorcycle Engine under Varying Climatic Conditions‖, solutions using the volume averaging approach for velocity Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2011 Vol. III WCE and temperature distributions for high channel aspect 2011, July 6 - 8, ISBN: 978-988-19251-5-2, 2011, London, U.K 12 K. Shahril, ―Heat transfer simulation of motorcycle fins under varying ratios, high conductivity ratios, and low Rayleigh numbers velocity using CFD method‖, 2nd International Conference on Mechanical [18]. Engineering Research (ICMER 2013), doi:10.1088/1757- 899X/50/1/012043, pp. 1-6, 2013. Experimental analysis to determine the heat transfer 260

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13 A.R.A. Khaled, ―Heat transfer enhancement in hairy fin systems‖, Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 27, pp. 250–257, 2007. 14 J.A. Paul, S.C. Vijay, U. Magarajan, R.T.K. Raj, ―Experimental and Parametric Study of Extended Fins In The Optimization of Internal Combustion Engine Cooling Using CFD‖, International Journal of Applied Research in Mechanical Engineering, vol. 2(1), 2012. 15 M. Sudheer, G. Vignesh Shanbhag, Prashanth Kumar and Shashiraj Somayaji, ―Finite Element Analysis of Thermal Characteristics of Annular Fins with Different Profiles‖ ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, vol. 7(6), 2012. 16 S.H. Barhatte, M.R. Chopade, V.N. Kapatkar, ―Experimental and computational analysis and optimization for heat transfer through fins with different types of notch.‖ Journal of Engineering Research and Studies, vol.II(I), pp. 133-138, 2011. 17 S.C. Wong, G.J. Huang, ―Parametric study on the dynamic behavior of natural convection from horizontal rectangular fin arrays‖ International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 60, pp. 334–342, 2013. 18 T.H. Kim, K.H. Do, D.K. Kim, ―Closed form correlations for thermal optimization of plate-fin heat sinks under natural convection‖, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 54, pp. 1210–1216, 2011. 19 U. Magarajan, ―Numerical Study on Heat Transfer of Internal Combustion Engine Cooling by Extended Fins Using CFD‖, Research Journal of recent sciences, vol. 1(6), pp. 32-37, 2012.

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FEA of Transient Heat Transfer in Air Cooled IC Engine Fin

Vipul Shekhada1, Shashi Kumar Jain2 1PG student, Mechanical engineering Department Technocrats Institute of Technology Bhopal, India

transfer processes has been evaluated. They can be used to Abstract— Fin is a surface which extends from a surface to interpret the relationship between each parameters and the increase the rate of heat transfer to the environment by fin problem. PR, fin performance ratio is not a measurement increasing convection. The internal combustion (I.C.) engine fins made from aluminum alloys are provided for better cooling of the fin thermal performance but its effectiveness [2]. effect. The cooling rate of the air cooled IC engine is generally dependent on the various design parameters of fins like: cross- An analysis to study the efficiency of straight fins of section area, pitch, thickness, air velocity, air exposed angle and weather conditions. In this research paper first experimental different configurations when subjected to simultaneous readings were taken in form of temperature of existing fin of air heat and mass transfer mechanisms has been done. The cooled I.C. engine. These readings were validated with ANSYS temperature and humidity ratio differences are the software. After validation fin was modified with same volume and parameters for heat and mass transfer, respectively [3]. analysis of modified fin has been done by ANSYS software to simulate the fin performance. Experiment on the transient thermal analysis on the thermal Keywords— IC engine; heat transfer; fin; ANSYS properties by varying material, thickness and geometry of XXXI. I. Introduction cylinder fins have been performed. In the analysis three material were used i.e. Aluminum Alloy A204, Aluminum Heat transfer through a fin is the study of the heat transfer alloy 6061 and Magnesium alloy. These different materials from fins extending from a primary heat transfer surface. were experimented with rectangular, circular and curve The effect of such fins is to increase the area over which shaped fins. Finally as result shows that by using circular fin heat is transferred to or from the surrounding fluid and to with material Aluminum Alloy 6061 is better because heat substantially increase the rate of heat transfer between the transfer rate, Efficiency and Effectiveness of the fin is more. primary surface and the surrounding fluid. There are By using circular fins the weight of the fin body reduces different geometries for the primary surface: planar and compare to existing engine cylinder fins [4]. radial. There are many different shapes of fin: pin, rectangular, trapezoidal, dovetail and parabolic and annular Both experimental and numerical studies have been done to [1]. suggest a closed form correlations that allow for thermal optimization of vertical plate-fin heat sinks under natural convection in a fully-developed-flow regime. It provided a simple way to predict the optimal dimensions of plate-fin heat sinks. Analytical solutions using the volume averaging

approach for velocity and temperature distributions for high Fig.1. Rectangular fin channel aspect ratios, high conductivity ratios, and low Rayleigh numbers have been done [5]. All I.C. engines are fluid cooled using either air (a gaseous fluid) or a liquid, in which the coolant is passed through a XXXIII. III. Methodology heat exchanger cooled by air. Marine engines and some The IC Engine fins are made from Aluminum alloy and it is provided for increase in contact area in convective heat stationary engines have ready access to a large volume of transfer. By using fins the contact area of engine to air is water at a suitable temperature. The water may be used increased therefore the heat transfers rate increase. That‘s directly to cool the engine, but it often has sediments and why fins are used for cooling of the engine. chemicals, which can clog coolant passages or can The dimensions of extended surface or fin provided in chemically damage the engine. IC engine of HERO HONDA SPLENDOR were measured and temperature also measured by thermocouple after XXXII. II. Literature Review stopping the engine at every 5 min. interval. A mathematical model for radial rectangular fin has been used. The fin performance with respect to certain heat 262

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Fig.4. Meshing of fin

Boundary conditions are: ↄ Initial temperature = 200ºC ↄ Film co-efficient = 15w/m2K ↄ Bulk temperature = 25ºC

Fig. 2. Fin provided in IC engine

A. A. FEA of existing fin ↄ Element type - solid87 ↄ Analysis Type - Thermal Material Properties ↄ Thermal Conductivity = 190 watt/mºC ↄ Density = 2650 kg/m3

ↄ Specific heat= 900 J/kg.K Fig. 5. Boundary conditions

After measuring the dimensions of fin, the model of that fin in FEA software has been generated. The length of fin is After 5 minutes maximum temperature is 183.34 °C and 65 mm and height in one side is 9.2 mm and on another side minimum temperature is 182.02 °C. is 17.5 mm. The thickness of fin is 3 mm.

Fig.3. 3D model of fin Fig. 6. Result after 5 minutes By using meshing tool the fin is divided in the 9393 After 10 minutes maximum temperature is 114.39 °C and elements and 13249 nodes. minimum temperature is 114.203 °C.

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National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Initial temp. 193°C 5 minute 185°C 10 minute 117°C 15 minute 79°C 20 minute 57°C 25 minute 47°C 30 minute 41°C 35 minute 38°C 40 minute 36°C 45 minute 34°C 50 minute 32°C

XXXV. C. FEA OF OF MODIFIED FIN Existing fin dimensions b = 65 mm, y = 3 mm , L = 13.35 mm was replaced by taking b = 65 mm, y = 2 mm, L = 20 Fig.7. Result after 10 minutes mm keeping volume as constant.

After 30 minutes maximum temperature is 40.75 °C and minimum temperature is 40.73 °C.

Fig.9. 3D model of modified fin

By using meshing tool the fin is dived in the 30941 elements and Fin is divides in 29231 nodes.

Fig.8. Result after 30 minutes

TABLE I. RESULTS OF FEA OF EXISTING FIN

Time (after stop engine) FEA result readings Initial temp. 195°C 5 minute 182.33°C 10 minute 114.39°C 15 minute 78.46°C 20 minute 58.02°C Fig.10. Meshing of modified fin 25 minute 46.88°C 30 minute 40.74°C Conduction and convection will occurred in fins during heat 35 minute 37.26°C transfer. Heat transfer process starts when engine stops. 5 40 minute 35.36°C sides of fins are in contact of air and one side is contact of 45 minute 34.32°C cylinder. So in 5 sides there will heat convection will done 50 minute 33.72°C and in bottom side heat conduction process done. Hence B. boundary conditions have been applied on the 5 sides which C. are in contact of air. D. B. Experimental validation of fin

Reading has been taken by attaching thermocouple on the fin. K type thermocouple is used for experimental reading.

XXXIV. TABLE II. Results of FEA of existing fin Time (after stop engine) Temperature 264

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

Fig.11. Boundary conditions

After 5 minutes maximum temperature is 170.41 °C and minimum temperature is 170.17 °C

Fig.14. Result of modified fin after 30 minutes

TABLE III. RESULTS OF FEA OF EXISTING FIN

Time (after stop engine) Temperature Initial temp. 195°C 5 minute 170.41°C 10 minute 74.10°C 15 minute 45.29°C 20 minute 36.67°C 25 minute 34.09°C 30 minute 33.00°C

Fig.12. Result of modified fin after 5 minutes

After 15 minutes the maximum temperature is 45.3 °C and minimum temperature is 45.27 °C.

Fig. 15.Comparison of experimental, FEA of existing fin and FEA of modified fin data XXXVI. 1V. Conclusions By experimental data and FEA for fin of air cooled IC engine, the operating performance is compared and validated. Also comparing the modified fin FEA data with existing fin data, this research paper give clear idea about fin performance. After the modification of fin with constant Fig.13. Result of modified fin after 15 minutes volume, effectiveness was increased with minor change in After 30 minutes maximum temperature is 33.01 °C and efficiency. So modified fin gives best cooling rate than the minimum temperature is 33.01 °C. existing fin.

XXXVII. V. References 1 C.F. Taylor, T.Y. Toong, ―Heat transfer in internal-combustion engines‖, ASME paper 57-HT-17, 1957. 265

National Conference on Emerging Trends in Civil and Mechanical Engineering, CDGI, Indore, India, Oct. 11, 2014

2 P.J. Heggs , T.H. Ooi, ― Design charts for radial rectangular fins in 5 S. C. Wong, G. J. Huang, ―Parametric study on the dynamic behavior terms of performance ratio and maximum effectiveness‖, Applied Thermal of natural convection from horizontal rectangular fin arrays‖, International Engineering, vol. 24, pp. 1341-1351, 2004. Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 60, pp. 334-342, 2013. 3 M. H. Sharqawy, S. M. Zubair, ―Efficiency and optimization of straight fins with combined heat and mass transfer – An analytical solution‖, Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 28, pp. 2279-2288, 2008.

4 N.P.R. Rao, T. V. Vardhan, ―Thermal Analysis of Engine Cylinder Fins By Varying Its Geometry and Material‖, International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology, vol. 2(8), 2013.

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