Hindawi Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Volume 2018, Article ID 4089541, 58 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4089541

Review Article African Herbal Remedies with Antioxidant Activity: A Potential Resource Base for Wound Treatment

Mary Gulumian ,1,2 Ewura Seidu Yahaya ,3,4 and Vanessa Steenkamp 3

1 National Institute for Occupational Health, Johannesburg, South Africa 2Haematology and Molecular Medicine, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa 3Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa 4Department of Pharmacology, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana

Correspondence should be addressed to Mary Gulumian; [email protected]

Received 3 May 2018; Revised 23 October 2018; Accepted 7 November 2018; Published 22 November 2018

Academic Editor: Olumayokun A. Olajide

Copyright © 2018 Mary Gulumian et al. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Te use of traditional herbal remedies as alternative medicine plays an important role in Africa since it forms part of primary health care for treatment of various medical conditions, including wounds. Although physiological levels of free radicals are essential to the healing process, they are known to partly contribute to wound chronicity when in excess. Consequently, antioxidant therapy has been shown to facilitate healing of such wounds. Also, a growing body of evidence suggests that, at least, part of the therapeutic value of herbals may be explained by their antioxidant activity. Tis paper reviews African herbal remedies with antioxidant activity with the aim of indicating potential resources for wound treatment. Firstly, herbals with identifed antioxidant compounds and, secondly, herbals with proven antioxidant activity, but where the compound(s) responsible for the activity has not yet been identifed, are listed. In the latter case it has been attempted to ascribe the activity to a compound known to be present in the plant family and/or species, where related activity has previously been documented for another genus of the species. Also, the tests employed to assess antioxidant activity and the potential caveats thereof during assessment are briefy commented on.

1. Introduction blood vessels towards the injury site. Te presence of ROS and other free radicals in the wound vicinity during the Human cells are continuously exposed to exogenous oxi- infammatory phase of the healing process is also required for dants as well as to those produced endogenously during infection control and general maintenance of sterility. Finally, normal physiological processes. Antioxidants form part of ROS promotes the proliferation of keratinocytes, endothelial protective mechanisms that exist in human cells to scavenge cells, and fbroblasts, thereby enhancing angiogenesis and and neutralize these oxidants. Oxidants such as the reactive collagen deposition. However, uncontrolled release of ROS oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) could cause oxidative stress, resulting in cellular and tissue are involved in several diseases [1, 2]. Antioxidant defenses damage, thereby causing delayed healing [1]. are defective in these diseases and therefore it is possible to To keep ROS within physiological levels, antioxidants limit oxidative damage and ameliorate disease progression serve as electron donors, thereby preventing them from cap- with antioxidant supplementation [3]. turing electrons from other molecules which ultimately leads With reference to wounds, antioxidants play pivotal roles to their destruction [4]. Both nonenzymatic antioxidants that consequently restore normalcy to injured skin. Basal such as glutathione, ascorbic acid, and �-tocopherol, as well levels of ROS and other free radicals are essential in almost as enzymatic antioxidants like catalase and peroxiredoxin, all phases of the wound healing process (Figure 1) [4]. have shown potential to normalize high ROS levels and thus During haemostasis, ROS regulates the constriction of blood stimulate healing [4]. By normalizing ROS, antioxidants can vessels to limit loss of blood. Furthermore, ROS facilitates the enhance their physiological roles and thereby accelerate the migration of neutrophils and monocytes from surrounding wound healing process. Naturally occurring antioxidants are 2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Inflammatory phase Neutrophil influx

ROS

Normal level Oxidative stress

Haemostasis Lymphocyte Pathogen Tissue repair ROS mediated ROS mediated cell Cell death Necrosis vasoconstriction recruitment defence division

Wound Delayed healing healing

Figure 1: Role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the wound healing process. generally favoured over their synthetic counterparts, as the 15], leaves of Aspalathus linearis from South Africa [16–21], latter are suspected to cause or promote negative health leaves of Cinnamomum zeylanicum from Madagascar and efects [5]. Tis has resulted in the restricted use of synthetic Ethiopia [22–24], essential oils from the bark and leaves antioxidants in several countries [6]. of Ravensara aromatica from Madagascar [23, 25], buds Tis review provides a comprehensive list of African of Syzygium aromaticum from Madagascar [23], seeds of medicinal plants and isolated compounds with antioxidant Trigonella foenumgraecum from Ethiopia and Morocco [26– activities, with the aim of highlighting the continent’s rich 28], and oils in seeds of Nigella sativa from African countries herbal resource base for possible management of wounds and of the Mediterranean region [29–31]. allied conditions. Previous reviews have listed a number of these African medicinal plants with antioxidant properties [7–9]. Te present work has therefore aimed to expand the list 2. Tests Used to Assess Antioxidant Activities to include medicinal plant species with antioxidant properties of African Medicinal Plant Extracts that are used in diferent African countries including those from Madagascar and Mauritius. For the sake of inclusivity, A variety of test systems were employed to assess the plants that have been shown to contain compounds that hold antioxidant properties of the medicinal plant extracts and the potential of being novel antioxidants are also consid- compounds listed in Tables 1 and 2. A comprehensive list ered. In addition, those with anti-infammatory properties of the methods used in antioxidant activity determination, were also included due to an earlier observation that the as well as their merits and demerits, has already been anti-infammatory activities of the same extracts could be published [343–346]. Te methods used in the determination explained, at least in part, by their antioxidant properties [10]. of antioxidant activity of natural products and isolated Additional eforts were also made to include information, compounds result in varied outcomes when the same samples where available, on their vernacular names, their regional are tested in diferent laboratories and by other researchers distribution, and medicinal use and plant parts used for [347]. Furthermore, results of diferent methods cannot be these preparations or for the isolation of the antioxidant correlated, as contradictory results are usually obtained. ingredient(s). Table 1 lists medicinal plants that have been Hence, although several assays are available, none of them investigated and have confrmed antioxidant and/or anti- is capable of accurately and completely determining the infammatory activity and that contain compounds which are antioxidant activity of a test substance because of the complex known to have such activities. Table 2 on the other hand nature of the redox-antioxidant system in vivo (Figure 2). lists medicinal plants that have confrmed antioxidant activity Based on this complexity, antioxidants are broadly classifed but the compounds responsible for their antioxidant property as (i) inhibitors of free radical formation, (ii) free radical have not yet been identifed. scavengers, (iii) cellular and tissue damage repairers, and (iv) Many edible and culinary herbs and condiments were signalling messengers [347]. also included in these two tables as they were used in Te inhibition of free radical formation could protect certain instances as medicinal herbs to treat diseases. Tese against oxidative damage by suppressing the formation of included fruits and seeds of Balanites aegyptiaca,leavesof active ROS/RNS. Tis typically involves reduction or inhibi- Boscia senegalensis,leavesofEntada africana and seeds of tion of substrates required for free radical formation such as Parkia biglobosa, from Niger [11], also leaves, seeds, and metal ions like iron (Fe) and copper (Cu). Te sequestration stem-bark of Mangifera indica from Benin and Burkina of these metal ions by antioxidant compounds like ellagic Faso [12, 13], leaves of Cynara scolymus from Ethiopia [14, acid and glutathione is known to suppress formation of Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3 [35, 37] [41, 42] [35, 36] [32–34] [43–45] [46, 47] [38–40] Reference [12, 13, 46, 47] -rutinoside, O -rhamnoside O Tocopherols, phenolic acids Chromone glycosideChromone glycoside [35, 36] Two alkylphenols (cardonol 7 andand three cordonol dihydroalkylhexenones 13) Polyphenolics, favonoids Compounds isolated Agathisfavone, quercetin 3- quercetin 3- Flavonoids, two dihydrocoumarin derivatives and two favone glycosides Chromone glycoside Proanthocyanidins or experimental / edicinal use and Radical scavenging activity and moderate activity in the lipid peroxidation assay Radical scavenging activity and moderate activity in the lipid peroxidation assay Semipolar extracts high activity both as radical scavengers and lipoxygenase inhibitors. Lipophilic extracts inhibitor of 15-lipoxygenase. Used for painful menstruation, urogenital infection, sexually transmitted diseases. Anti-infammatory, analgesic, and hypoglycemic efects. Used to treat urogenital infection, tonic, diarrhoea, tooth ache, gingivitis,disease, liver diabetes. M validation Antioxidant activity. Used as laxative, purgative, diuretic, asthma, baldness, cuts, bounds, skin rash. Radical scavenging activity and moderate activity in the lipid peroxidation assay area / Mali Antioxidant properties Benin Tunisia Algeria, Ethiopia Antioxidant properties Morocco, Burkina Faso root Seed; stem-bark Plant part Country Leaf exudate South Africa Leaf exudate Leaf exudate South Africa Leaves, bark, Young sho ots Leaves, seeds, e ea velout´ siber, name Mpelu Mango ernacular Mnemvu Mangoro Table 1: Medicinal plants with confrmed antioxidant activity, shown to contain compounds that are known to have such activity. /mar, sbar Soap aloe, Dune aloe, Bemmbeyi Burn plant, V African aloe Raisinier velu, Not signalized Stem-bark Nigeria Anti-infammatory properties. Lann´ ikhala, umhlaba sbar/essouktouri L. Tassel fower L. Mill. A. Rich Burch. Kraal aloe Leaf exudate South Africa Engl. Wild Grape Root-bark Zimbabwe (Ait.) Haw. Baker loaceae maranthaceae nacardiaceae amily and plant name F A Aloe barbadensis Aloe clavifora A. saponaria A. thraskii A Amaranthus caudatus A Anacardium occidentale L. Lannea edulis Lannea velutina Mangifera indica 4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 75] [60] [12, 61] [65–73] [56–59] [48–55] [62–64] Reference [65, 67, 70, 74, -O-beta-D- � -tocopherol � -O-demethylknipholone-4 -tocopherol. � Phenylanthraquinones, Isofuranonaphthoquinones, Gaboroquinones A and B and 4 Phenols 3,4 hydroxybenzaldehyde, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, syringic acid, ferulic acid, carotenoids, glucopyranoside, and Knipholone (anthroquinone) Compounds isolated Quercetin and tetrandrine Flavonoids, cafeic acid derivatives and� Anthraquinone Knipholone Rutin, Quercetin robinobioside, Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, Kaempferol-3-O-robinobioside or experimental / Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and Anti-infammatory and weak antioxidant and free radical scavenging andperoxidation inhibition lipid activities. Knipholone is a selective inhibitor of leukotriene metabolism. Used to treat burns, rashes, blisters, insect bites, cracked lips, acne, coldmouth sores, ulcers and areas of cracked skin. Antioxidant activity and abilityincrease to antioxidant enzymes. Used for conjunctivitis. Anti-infammatory activity. Used to treat rheumatoid arthritis. M validation Antioxidant and anti-infammatory activities. Used for wound healing. Protectionagainst radiation-induced injury. Cardio protective efect. Oral treatment increased antioxidant enzymes. Antioxidant and anti-infammatory properties. Used for wound healing. Anti-infammatory and weak antioxidant and free radical scavenging andperoxidation inhibition lipid activities. Knipholone as a selective inhibitor of leukotriene metabolism. Used as a mild purgative andgonorrhoeal to infections. cure Anti-infammatory activity. Used for its analgesicanti-infammatory properties. and area / Ghana Ghana Nigeria Nigeria South Africa South Africa Stem Central Africa Roots Roots Leaf juice Root-bark Stem-bark Plant part Country Aerial parts Whole plant Madagascar e eb sosy´ edezosm Egbu name Awun, bulbine Ahaban cat’s tail, ernacular Gotu kola Leaves South Africa Kroratima kaka poul, periwinkle V Madagascar Snake fower, Scented grass blan, z` burn jelly plant karakt` Willd. Jacq. Ori Nuts (L.) Rhoem. Poelln. De Wild. recaceae sclepiadaceae sphodelaceae piaceae pocynaceae amily and plant name Urb. F A Centella asiatica A Alstonia boonei Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don A Elaeis guineensis A Secamone afzelii A Bulbine capitata Bulbine frutescens Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5 [85] [79–82] [85–87] Reference [19, 88–91] [65, 76–78] [79, 82–84] ∼ -dimethyl ether 7- � -dimethyl ether 7-O-f-D- � Essential oils and favonoids Essential oils and favonoids Phenolic compounds and favonoids. Phenolic compounds and favonoids. Phenolic compounds: quercetin 3-O-rabinobioside, quercetin 3-O-rutinoside. Two novel methoxylated favone glycosides: quercetin 3,3 glucopyranoside O-c¢-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 6)-f-D-glucopyranoside and the known quercetin 3,3 Compounds isolated Anthraquinone: Knipholone or experimental / Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and Radical scavenging and antioxidant activities. Used for stomachhealing. pain and wound Radical scavenging and antioxidant activities. Used for stomach pain, coughs, colds, fever, loss of appetite, colic, headache, earache, intestinal worms to malaria. Radical scavenging and antioxidant activities. Radical scavenging and antioxidant activities. Used to treat insomnia Antioxidant and anti-infammatory, antibacterial, antihypertensive activities. Used to treat diabetes and backache. M validation Anti-infammatory and weak antioxidant and free radical scavenging andperoxidation inhibition lipid activities. Knipholone as a selective inhibitor of leukotriene metabolism. Used for abdominal cramps, woundhealing area / Kenya Ethiopia South Africa South Africa Roots Leaves and leaves Plant part Country Whole plant Ethiopia Whole plantWhole Algeria plant Algeria Roots, stems Wild Field name African ernacular Chikugn Mugwort (Amharic) wormwood wormwood wormwood V Wormwood Field sagewort Arrtta bera (Or) Hochst. Red-not-peker L. L. Black jack L. Jacq. steraceae amily and plant name ex Willd. F Kniphofa foliosa A Artemisia abyssinica Sch.Bip. A. afra A. arvensis A. campestris Bidens pilosa 6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [23, 97] [94–96] [94–96] [63, 110] [107–109] Reference [11, 104–106] [14, 15, 92, 93] -d � )-26- 5R ,2 2R ,2 0S ,2 � 2)-glucopyranoside, a �→ ) cholest-5-ene-3,16-diyl bis ( � ,16 � ,14 � ,12 � Polyphenolic favonoid compounds Essential oils Essential oils Compounds isolated Essential oils. Ellagitannins: Tonningianin A and B [98–103] Phenylethanoid glucoside, jacaranone Flavonoids and cafeic acid derivatives Coumarins, favonoids, saponins (Balanin 1 (3 -glucopyranoside)- 12-sulphate, a new sterol sulfonated and Balanin 2 (3 hydroxy-22-acetoxyfurost-5-en-3- yl-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 novel furostanol saponin) in vitro or experimental / Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and Antioxidative and lipid-lowering properties and eNOS up-regulating ability. Used to treat chronic liver andbladder gall diseases, jaundice, hepatitis and atherosclerosis. Antioxidant, radical scavenging and anti-infammatory activities. Used to treat wounds, infections, respiratory conditions. Antioxidant, radical scavenging and anti-infammatory activities. Used to treat wounds, infections, respiratory conditions, asthma, chest problems and high blood pressure Shown to have antimicrobial activity and used to treat infections M validation Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. Used as anthelmintic, antispasmodic, purgative and for the treatment of gastritis, indigestion and internal worms. Antioxidative and radical scavenging activities and lipid peroxidation inhibitory activity. Used for bronchial asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis and diabetes. Anti-infammatory, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, anticomplement and anti-HIV activities. Used to treat itching, arthritis, and diabetes. Antioxidant properties confrmed. Te bark and roots areand used for as colic. Te laxatives, bark isthroats, used and for as sore a remedy formental sterility, diseases, epilepsy, yellow fever, syphilis, and tooth aches. area / Nigeria region) (Yaounde Cameroon East Africa Nigeria, Ghana, roots Leaves Leaves Ethiopia Leaves South Africa Leaves South Africa Leaves Madagascar Bark and Stem-bark Plant part Country aduwa name Globe ernacular (bedding material) marigold artichoke Sharpleaf Jacaranda Afrikaans Imphepho Nkomango Roots Ghana Desert date Khaki bush V Everlasting, Henry, wild of kooigoed muster John African tulip Stem-bark Hausa: stinking roger common name (L.) L. L. Hilliard & alanophoraceae alanitaceae ignoniaceae amily and plant name F Cynara scolymus Helichrysum dasyanthum Sweet H. petiolare B.L. Burtt. Tagetes minuta B Tonningia sanguinea Vahl. B Balanites aegyptiaca Delile B Jacaranda mimosaefolia D.Don. Spathodea campanulata P. B e auv. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7 [112, 113] [107, 111] [121–123] [124, 125] Reference [124, 126–131] �→ � Prenylated Anthronoids: harunmadagascarin A [8,9-dihydroxy-4,4-bis-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-6- methyl-2,3-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)anthrone], harunganol B Flavonoids: Rutin, hyperoside, isoquercitrin, avicularin, quercitrin, and quercetin. Bifavonoid: kolaviron [114–120] 3)-alpha/beta-D-glucopyranose, E/Z-acetoside, isoacetoside Compounds isolated 4-O-E-cafeoyl-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 Rutin and quercetin. Benzophenones: cariphenone A (6-benzoyl-5,7- dihydroxy-2,2,8-trimethyl-2H-chromene) and cariphenone B (8-benzoyl-5,7-dihydroxy-2,2,6- trimethyl-2H-chromene). or experimental / -induced DNA strand 2 O 2 Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and Anti-infammatory and anti-oxidant activities. Free radical scavenging, metal-chelation, and reactive oxygen quenching activities. Protective against scopolamine-induced altered brain oxidative stress status and amnesia in rats. Ability to suppress the activities of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), key enzymes in the formation of proinfammatoryeicosanoids from arachidonic acid (AA). Analgesic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, digestive, diuretic and sedative. Signifcant antioxidant activity. Used to treat skin diseases. breaksandoxidizedbases. Used for laryngitis, coughs, liver disease, bronchitis and throat infections.Afatoxin Inhibits B1 induced genotoxicity. M validation Antioxidant activity, inhibited lipoxygenase activity and calcium ionophore-stimulated LTB4 synthesis in human neutrophils. Used to treat wounds and prevent infammation Inhibit lipid peroxidation and protective against H Antioxidant and radical scavenging activities. area / Nigeria Anti-diabetic activity is shown. Seeds Nigeria Leaves Stem-bark Plant part Country Whole plant Egypt ı a´ or pl. ak´ a a´ o arr` or` arr´ Otori Stem-bark Eastern Nigeria name o´ Yellow Hausa: or` Nigeria ernacular o` G´ Common gwˆ V g` ilu, agbu ilu. trumpet bush Not signalized Leaves Egypt Bitter cola/aku St.-Johns’ wort Poir. L. Cleome efeina Leaves Egypt L. Heckel (L.) amily and plant name F Tecoma stans H.B. & K. Capparaceae Cleome arabica Clusiaceae Garcinia kola Harungana madagascariensis Hypericum carinatum Griseb. H. perforatum 8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [35] [138] [63, 145] [132–137] [146, 147] [139–143] Reference [21, 136, 144] -trimethoxybibenzyl). � -O-2,4-di-acetyl-l-rhamnopyranoside) � -dihydroxy-12-oleanen-29-oic, 4-trihydroxyl,3,5,4 � � ,23-dihydroxy-12-oleanen-29-oic ,3 ,3 � � � Polyphenols: gallotannins and ferulic acids 1 Flavonol aglycones, favonol glycosides and favonoids (catechin, myricitrin, rutin and quercetin) as well as tannins (galloylquinic(hydrolysable acids tannins). Not identifed Polyphenols: Combretastatin B5 (2 Tannins. Compounds isolated Pentacyclic triterpenoids Anolignan B Flavonoids 1-hydroxy-12-olean-30-oic acid, 3,30-dihydroxyl-12-oleanen-22-one, and 1,3,24-trihydroxyl-12-olean-29-oic acid, a new pentacyclic triterpenoid (1 acid-3 or experimental / Table 1: Continued. -induced lipid peroxidation and 2+ edicinal use and Antioxidant and radical scavenging activities. Used to treat dysentery, diarrhoea, gastro-intestinal pains and disorders, rheumatism, diabetes and fever. Antioxidant activity. Used for malaria, jaundice. Antioxidant and antibacterial activities. Also tannins showed inhibitory efect on Fe Combretum species are widely used for treating abdominal disorders (e.g. abdominal pains, diarrhea) backache, bilharziasis, chest coughs, colds, conjunctivitis, dysmenorrhoea, earache, fattening babies, fever, headache Anti-infammatory efects against carrageenan induced hind paw oedema radical scavenger activity. Used for pneumonia, syphilis, abdominal pain and conjunctivitis. M validation Radical scavenging and antioxidant activities. Used to treat diabetes and pneumonia and to relieve colic Anti-infammatory and antioxidant properties. Used to treat fever and is diuretic area / Nigeria West Africa South Africa Sudan, Uganda Leaf South Africa Bark South Africa Leaves Ghanna extracts Plant part Country Aqueous leaf e Leaf Western Africa forest Silver name fower ernacular N’kundj` N’tiribara Roots cluster-leaf bushwillow V Large-leaved Not signifed Not signifed Climbing day Wandering Jew A.Rich. retaceae b amily and plant name F Cochlospermaceae Cochlospermum tinctorium Com Combretum woodii Drum. Combretum imberbe Guiera senegalensis J.F.Gmel. sericea Terminalia Burch. ex DC. Commelinaceae Commelina difusa Burm.f. Palisota hirsuta K.Schum., Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9 [158–161] [155, 157] [155, 156] [167–172] [152–154] Reference [79, 150, 151] [12, 148, 149] [12, 57, 162–166] O �→ � -disulphate, -disulphate, quercetin, � -diacetate, rutin and quercetrin � � ,4 � 7)-Epigallocatechin. Flavonoids: quercetin and quercitrin. Dioscorea and Dioscoretine Quercetin-7,4 A biofavonoid: Gallocatechin-(4 quercetin-3,4 quercetin-3 �→ Compounds isolated Flavonoids, polyphenols, triterpenoids Essental oils Flavonoids: hyperoside, quercetin and isoquercitrin Flavonoids: hyperoside, quercetin and isoquercitrin or experimental / Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and Antioxidant, anti-infammatory and antimicrobial activities. Used for abortion. Anti-infammatory. Used to treat diarrhea, dysentery, gastro-intestinal disorders, gynecological disorders (including sterility), and rheumatic pains. Antioxidant activity to modifylipid serum and anti-infammatory activity. Used to treat diabetes. Antioxidant and anti-microbial activity. Used to treat jaundice and liverAlso disorders. used in food preservation. Anti-infammatory efects. Used to treat coughs and asthma Anti-infammatory efects. Used to treat coughs and asthma M validation Anti-infammatory properties. Used for earache. Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities. Used to relieve stomach pain. area / Africa Nigeria Ethiopia republic of West Africa Madagascar Madagascar West Africa Democratic Nigeria, South Congo, Nigeria fowers fowers and bark and buds Roots and Roots and Plant part Country Young twigs Leaves, stem Leaves, roots a a` ut´uw` Ora Yam Tubers Nigeria name Jororo Ufu ivo Leaves Sundew Sundew ernacular Round-leaf V af`arm´ Senampendi Wild banana Leaf and root Nigeria K´ African Juniper Mvundza jembe L. Burchell Kalanchoe iaceae (Lam.) Pers. b uphor amily and plant name F Crassulaceae Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken Synonym: pinnata Cupressaceae Juniperus procera Hochst ex. Endl. Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea dumetorum (Kunth) pax Drosera madagascariensis (DC.) D. ramentacea Drosera rotundifolia E Alchornea laxifora (Benth) Pax & K. Hofm. Bridelia ferruginea Benth. Mallotus oppositifolius (Geiseler) Muell. Arg. 10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [67, 177] [175, 176] Reference [19, 21, 178–181] [16–21,173,174] �� �� 8)-catechin 3-gallate, with smaller > )-beta-d-glucopyranosyloxy] )-beta-d-glucopyranosyloxy]benzaldehyde, � � 6 2 8)-catechin 3-gallate and bis-fsetinidol-(4alpha- 6, 4alpha- Phenolic Fractions, Tannins and monomericfavonoids aspalathin, nothofagin, quercetin, rutin, isoquercitrin, orientin, isoorientin, luteolin, vitexin, isovitexin, and chrysoeriol. Flavonoids Pinitol, shikimic acid, p-coumaric acid, 4-glucosyltyrosol, epigallocatechin gallate, the isofavone orobol, the favanones hesperedin,narirutin and eriocitrin, a glycosylated favan,favones the luteolin, 5-deoxyluteolin and scolymoside, the xanthone mangiferin and the favonol C-6-glucosylkaempferol. Phenolic content: tyrosol and a methoxy analogue, 2-[4-[O-alpha-apiofuranosyl-(1 fve glycosylated favonols, two isofavones,favanones, four two isofavones, and two favones �→ �→ phenyl]ethanol, 4-[O-alpha-apiofuranosyl-(1 Compounds isolated Proanthocyanidins; fsetinidol-(4alpha- > > amounts of favan-3-ols (catechin, epicatechinfsetinidol) and or experimental / Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and Radical Scavenging Capacity Used to treat stomach cramps, insomnia, and to reduce stress. Anti-infammatory activity. Used for the treatment of sore-eyes and boils. Expectorant. Antioxidant activity. Used as tonic for colds, catarrh and tuberculosis. M validation Antioxidant and radical scavenging activity. Used to treat coughs, colds,obstruction, stomach infusions against gonorrhoea and syphilis. area / Africa Mali and South Africa Sub-Saharan stem Plant part Country Leaves and name Rooibos Leaves South Africa ernacular Crotalaria Roots South Africa Honeybush V Hook Wild Syringa Bark C. Vog. aceae b amily and plant name a F F Aspalathus linearis (Brum. F.) R. Dahlgr. Burkea africana Crotalaria podocarpa DC. Cyclopia intermedia E. Mey. and subternata Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11 [182, 183] [187–190] Reference [67, 184–186] - - � ��� 6) -enyl)-6- �→ ��� enyl) isofavone -enyl) isofavanone -trihydroxy-4 � �� �� -methoxyfavone -methylether, � � -dihydroxy-6-(3 � ,8-dimethoxy -hydroxyisofavone-7-O- -methylbut-2 -hydroxyisopropyl � � �� -trimethoxyisofavanone. ��� :8,7] isofavone � �� ,5 ,5 � �� ,4 � -methylbut-3 -methylbut-2 �� �� -enyl)-2 ��� -(3 � ,5,7-pentahydroxy-3,40-dimethoxyfavone, � ,5,7-pentahydroxy-4 � 6)-beta-D-glucopyranoside (compound 2); -trihydroxy-8-(3 � ,5 � -hydroxy-3 �� -hydroxyisofavone-7-O-alpha-L-rhamnosyl ,3 ,3,5 �→ � � � (isosenegalensin), together with the four known favonoids abyssinone V-4 beta-D-glucopyranoside (compound 1); 4 alpinumisofavone, wighteone and burttinone (isoerysenegalensein E), 5,7,2 (1 (lysisteisofavanone), 5, 4 2 isofavone-7-O-alpha-L-rhamnosyl (1 glucopyranoside (8-O-methylretusin-7-O-alpha-L-rhamnosyl (1-6)-beta-D-glucopyranoside) (compound 3) Isofavonoids: 5,7-dihydroxy-2 methoxy-5 dihydrofurano [4 Compounds isolated Flavonoids and isofavonoids. Isofavones: erylatissin A anderylatissin B. C Flavanone: and favonoids and Isofavone glycosides: 4 Tree prenylated favonoid derivatives; 5,7,4 methylbut-2 (2 and a new compound 4 2 or experimental / Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and M validation Antimicrobial activity and weakscavenging radical properties. Purgative. Mild antioxidant activity. Used to treat sores, wounds, abscesses and arthritis. Used traditionally for the treatment of coughs in East Africa and skinCentral diseases Africa in area / Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Botswana Cameroon Congo and Republic of Democratic South Africa Ethiopia, Kenya, Bark South Africa Seeds Twigs Plant part Country Root wood Stem Wood tree name ernacular coral tree V Broad-leaved Common coral tree; lucky bean amily and plant name F Eriosema robustum Erythrina latissima E. Mey. E. lysistemon Hutch. 12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [26– 39, 43– 203–235] [191–194] [195–202] [246–248] Reference 28,249,250] 53, 55, 64, 66– [12, 33, 34, 36– 72,118,119,121, 138, 159, 182, 195, [12, 58, 239–245] - �� ,7 �� -dihydroxy-3 �� ,7 -methoxyisofavone), �� - � � -methylenedioxy ,4 � � ,5 � -methylenedioxyphenyl)-5,6,7- � ,4 -enyl)oxy-4 � �� -dimethoxy-4 � Flavonol glycosides and favonol glucoside gallates [236–238] Free phenolics and Vit C. an isofavone. dimethyloct-2 isofavone maximaisofavone G (5) and 7-hydroxy-6-methoxy-3 trimethoxycoumarin, durmillone, odorantin, 7-methoxyebenosin, calopogonium isofavone B and 7,2 methylenedioxyisofavone and new prenylated isofavonoids grifonianones A, B,E.Grifonianone C, D D ((7E)-(6 and Compounds isolated Flavonoids: kaempferol Coumarin: 4-hydroxy-3-(3 Tocopherol, ascorbic acid (Seeds) Canavanine, pinitol Proanthocyanidins epicatechin, catechin trimers and oligomers, favonoids, polyphenolics, C-methylfavonols (in the leaf extract) or experimental / Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and Antioxidant and antibacterial activities Used to treat diarrhoea, dysentery, sore throat, wounds, back and jointHIV-AIDS, venereal pains, diseases and infertility. Protective efect against Oxidative stress during ischemia-reperfusion. It is hypolipidemic, and is alsotreat used boils to and to improve appetite. Anti-infammatory activity. Used as antiseptic and tochest treat pain, coughs, and wound healing M validation Anti-infammatory properties. Used for asthma, haemorrhoid, wounds, excavated sore, piles, ulcers mouth infection, lacerated wounds, haemorrhoids, bronchial asthma (personal communication) Anti-infammatory activity. Used as an antimalarial. Superoxide and hydrogen peroxide scavenging activities. Used as tonic to boost thesystem. immune Anti-oxidant and anti-infammatory properties. Used to treat wounds, chronic ulcers, cough, respiratory disorders and toothache, gum infammation, arthritis, headache, backache, and antioxidant supplement. area / Mali Sudan Nigeria, Ethiopia Ethiopia, Morocco Tanzania, Botswana, Cameroon Ivory Coast South Africa Africa, Sudan, Senegal, South Kenya, Namibia, Uganda, Zambia and bark Bark seeds Seeds Leaves Ethiopia Leaves South Africa Root and Root-bark Plant part Country Root, bark, pods, leaves e er` N` Bean name Bread Abefe Kalgo clover Ojinyi Omepa Phetola ernacular Okpoatu Fenugreek Seeds V Egug, Gugi, Cancerbush ae’ foot Camel’s Yemen berri tree, Monkey Elegant sweet Niama (Mali). Weeping wttle Not signalized African Locust L. Baker) M. amily and plant name F Melilotus elegans Salzm. ex Ser. (syn. abyssinica Millettia grifoniana Baill. Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth Peltophorum africanum Sond. Piliostigma thonningii (Schum.) Milne- Redh Sutherlandia frutescens R.Br. Trigonella foenumgraecum Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13 [23, 258] [251–254] [188, 264] Reference [23, 25, 265] [22–24, 263] [188, 255–257] [12, 58, 258–262] -glucoside, apigenin O -rutinoside and vicenin-2 were identifed as -glucoside, luteolin 7- -glucoside and isothymusin were detected as -glucoside, vitexin, isovitexin, quercetin O O O O Linalool basil oil Methyl chavicol, eugenol, (E)-methylthymol, cinnamate, linalool Cinnamaldehyde, eugenol and eugenyl acetate to be the main constituents of cinnamon oil. Xanthomicrol, cirsimaritin, rutin, kaempferol 3- Compounds isolated Rooperol the major favonoids, whereas luteolin 5- Monoterpenoids Essential oils, principally composed of the monoterpene hydrocarbons a-pinene, sabinene, myrcene, limonene, & the azulene: iso-ledene.barks, In estragole (methyl chavicol) but leaves contain b-myrcene, 1,8-cineole, linalool, and carotol. 7- 3- minor constituents. Bergenin or experimental / Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and Intermediate antioxidant activity and high activity. antibacterial Used in Ethiopia to treat Conjunctivitis and in Kenya to treat colds and stomacheache. Very high antioxidant and high antimicrobial activities. Used to treat diarrhoea, rheumatism, colds and hypertension Antioxidant activity Popular republic of Congo it islaxative, used purgative, as and a to treat snakebite, diabetes, tooth ache, gingivitis. M validation Antioxidant activity. Used to treat tuberculosis, cancer, bladder disorders, benign prostatic hyperplasia. Anti-infammatory, cyclooxygenase inhibitory activity. Urinary disorders, headaches. Low antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. Useful for chronic respiratory conditions,and sometimes helpful in cases of asthma. area / Congo) Ethiopia Ethiopia Brazaville Madagascar Madagascar of Congo (ex Burkina Faso Eastern Nigeria Popular republic Leaf Bark South Africa Bark Leaves Leaves Stem-bark West Africa Antioxidant activity. Plant part Country Basil Basil ukandu name havozo ozouga Nutmeg ernacular M¨ V Cherry tree, Ujuju okpevu African potato Corms South Africa Cinnamon leaf Leaves Tea bush, Scent leaf/Nchuanwu. Unukane (Zulu) Black stinkwood L. L. (Burch.) Breyne amily and plant name F Humiriaceae Sacoglottis gabonensis Urb. Hypoxidaceae Hypoxis hemerocallidea Fisch. & C.A. Mey. Lamiaceae Ocimum basilicum Ocimum gratissimum Lauraceae Cinnamomum zeylanicum Ocotea bullata Baill. Ravensara aromatica Sonn. 14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [275] [272–274] Reference [67, 276–281] [19, 21, 266–269] , - - � - � ��� � ,- - -D- � ��� O- � -[2 � -[2 ,5 � -(2- � ,5 O -(3,3- � � -(2-hydroxy-3- -(2-hydroxy-3- � � -trihydroxychalcone, � -D-xylopyranosyl)- -dihydroxychalcone, 4,2 ,4 � � � -diprenylchalcone; and � -trihydroxychalcone, and ,4 � � -D-glucopyranoside, O- ,4 � -D-glucopyranoside and � � -(2- -prenylchalcone and � -di-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3- O- O � -trihydroxychalcone, 3, � -dimethyldihydropyrano)-4 ,4 �� � ,6 -trihydoxy-3, 3 -D-glucopyranoside, cyanidin 3- �� � -trihydoxy-8-prenylfavone. � � ,4 � O- -trihydoxy-3 -(2-Hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-5 � � Flavonol glucoside hibiscitrin Anthocyanins. Such as cyanidin 3- Furanoditerpenes: columbin, isocolumbin. Flavonoids-rich fraction. A diterpenoid furanolactone, columbin Prenylated favonoids: Tree diprenylated chalcones: bartericins A (-)-3-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-5 Polyphenols [270, 271] methylbut-3-enyl)-2 4,2 4-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)-3 dimethylallyl)-4,2 (1-hydroxy-1-methylethyl)-dihydrofurano]-2 (1-hydroxy-1-methylethyl)-dihydrofurano]-4,2 Other known compounds such as stipulin, 4-hydroxylonchocarpin, kanzonol B, 3 enyl)-4,2 bartericins B (+)-3-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-4 4 methylbut-3-enyl)-4,2 dihydroxychalcone and bartericins C 3,4-(6 hydroxychalcone and also twochalcones: novel 3,5 diprenylated Compounds isolated D-xylopyranosyl)- delphinidin 3- delphinidin 3- dorstenone. 5,7,4 glucopyranoside. or experimental / Table 1: Continued. -induced liver damage and 4 edicinal use and Antimutagenic activity and free radical scavenging efects on active oxygen species Used against insomnia, colic. Anti-infammatory activity. Used to treat infammatory-based diseases Antioxidant properties account for the anti-infammatory action of these extracts Used to treat arthritis, rheumatism, gout, headache and other forms of body pains. Anti-infammatory activity. To treat headache and rheumatism prevented perisinusoidal fbrosis. Used to treat malaria, abdominal pain and dermatitis. M validation Signifcantly protective against CCl area / Mali Nigeria West Africa South Africa Tropical Africa Root Root Fruit Flowers Plant part Country Whole plant Sudan ajo name sorelle Rosella Red tea, ernacular V Soulafnzan Akerejupon Contrayerva Twigs/leaves Cameroon L. Pierre subtriangularis alvaceae eliaceae enispermaceae oraceae amily and plant name F M Hibiscus sabdarifa M Trichilia roka Chiov. M Sphenocentrum jollyanum Tinospora bakis M Dorstenia barteri var. (Engler) M.E.E.Hijman & C.C.Berg Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15 285–287] [282–284] Reference [67, 187, 207, [67, 276, 280] - � - ,4 � - �� � - ,6 ,4 � � �� - ,4 � �� - � :7,6]favone - � �� :5,6]. �� ,4 ,3 -methoxy-6 � � ,3 �� �� -Dihydroxy-5 � -epimers of dorsmanins F �� -(1-hydroxy-1-methylethyl)- -tetrahydroxy-3 -tetrahydroxyfavanone, � �� � 4 � -Dihydroxy-3 � -(1-hydroxy-1- -tetrahydroxyfavanone). � �� -trihydroxfavanone). Also, dorsmanins F � ,4 � ,4 � phenolic compound (6-prenylapigenin) Flavones: (ciliatin A) 5,4 Prenylated favonoids Grenylated and prenylated favonoids and favonones: Flavonones: 6,8-diprenyl-5,7,3 dihydrofurano]-6-prenyl-5,3 dimethyldihydropyranol[2 4-hydroxylonchocarpin, 4-methoxylonchocarpin, 6-prenylchrysoeriol, 6,8-diprenyleriodictyol, gancaonin P and Prenylated favonoids: 6,8-diprenyleriodictyol, dorsmanin C 7,8-(2,2-Dimethylchromeno)-6-geranyl-3,5,3 (6,7-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)-8-prenyl-5,3 trihydroxyfavanone) and dorsamine H (6-prenyl-8-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)- 5,7,3 methoxyfavone, dorsmanins 1, J and 2 (ciliatin B) 7,4 trihydroxyfavanone), dorsmaine G (6,7-[2 isopropenyldihydrfuranol[2 tetrahydroxyfavone and dorsmanin D 6,8-Diprenyl-3,5,7,4 Compounds isolated trihydroxyfavanone, G (6,7-(2,2-dimethyldihydro-pyrano)-8-prenyl- 5,3 and G. Four new prenylated favanones, named dorsamine F (7,8-[2 methylethyl)dihydrofurano]-8-prenyl-5,3 or experimental / Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and Antiradical and antioxidant activities. Used as food additive. Antioxidant properties account for the anti-infammatory action of these extracts. Used to treat arthritis, rheumatism, gout, headache and other forms of body pains. Antioxidant action against copper-induced LDL oxidation, this activity is like the non-prenylated favonoid quercetin. Also, inhibition of platelet aggregation and infuence of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase activity. Used to treat rheumatism, stomach disorders. Anti-trichomonal activity. M validation area / Congo Cameroon Democratic Central Africa Central Africa Republic of the leaves Twigs and Plant part Country Aerial parts Twigs/leaves name ernacular V De Wild. Contrayerva Hook.f. Contrayerva Engl. Contrayerva Aerial parts amily and plant name F D. ciliata D. convexa D. mannii 16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 292] [293] [293, 295] [293, 294] Reference [207,288,289] [206,282,290– � -tetrahydroxyfavone and an unusualB/C � -(2,2-dimethylpyrano)-3,5,7- � ,4 � Grenylated and prenylated favonoids. Te unusual 4-phenyl-substituted dihydrocoumarin and the rare geranyl-and prenyl-substituted Chalcone. Grenylated and prenylated favonoids. Tree phenolic compounds: 6,8-diprenyl-3 ring modifed favonoid derivativenames for dorsilurins which C, the D and E,proposed. respectively, are Two new favones, dorsilurins A and B,benzofuran and derivative a new have beenDorstenia isolated psilurus, from together with three known phenylpropanoid derivatives, stearyl-p-coumarate [octadecanyl 3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)prop-2-enoate], stearyl ferulate [octadecanyl 3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)prop-2-enoate] and psoralen. [O],4 Compounds isolated Quercetin-3-O-galactoside (hyperoside), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin), quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catech Quercetin-3-O-galactoside (hyperoside), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin), quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catech. procyanidin B2 dimer and (-)-epicatechin Quercetin-3-O-galactoside (hyperoside), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin), quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catech. quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin), trihydroxyfavone, 3,6-diprenyl-8-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)- 5,7,2 or experimental / Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and Antiradical and antioxidant activities. Used against snakebite and torheumatism, treat headache and stomach disorders. Antiradical and antioxidant activities. Used to treat infected wounds. M validation Modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes. Modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes. Modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes. area / Cameroon Central Africa Plant part Country name ernacular Lilly Pilly Leaves Mauritius Dingetenga Whole plant Cameroon V (Poir.) Sm. var. Wall. Not signalized Leaves Mauritius Lam. Not signalized Leaves Mauritius Welw. Dingetenga Roots Engl. yrtaceae amily and plant name F D. poinsettifolia angusta D. psilurus M Eugenia elliptica Syzygium smithii Nied. E. fasciculata E. orbiculata Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17 [293] [293] [293] [293] [293] [293] [293, 296] [293–295] Reference [23, 297, 298] Eugenol Methyleugenol Phenols and favonoids: Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin) and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catechin, procyanidin B1 dimer, (-)-epicatechin gallate Compounds isolated Quercetin-3-O-galactoside (hyperoside), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin), quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catech. (-)-epicatechin gallate Quercetin-3-O-galactoside (hyperoside), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin), and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin). (+)-catechin Quercetin-3-O-galactoside (hyperoside), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin), and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin). (-)-epicatechin gallate Phenols and favonoids: kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin) and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), procyanidin B1 dimer, (-)-epicatechin gallate, chlorogenic acid, (-)-epicatechin Phenols and favonoids: quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin) and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catechin, chlorogenic acid, procyanidin B2 dimer Phenols and favonoids: quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin) and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catechin, chlorogenic acid Phenols and favonoids: quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin) and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), procyanidin B1 dimer, chlorogenic acid or experimental / Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Used to treat tooth ache andinfammation. throat Abilities to modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes. M validation Modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes. Modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes. Modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes. Abilities to modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes. Used to treat boils, abscesses, feverwounds and and as expectorant. Abilities to modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes. Abilities to modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes. Abilities to modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes. area / Sudan Mauritius Madagascar Buds Plant part Country Dried fowers name ernacular Clove bud V Notsignalized Mauritius Notsignalized LeavesNotsignalized Mauritius LeavesNotsignalized Mauritius Leaves Mauritius Not signalized Notsignalized Leaves Mauritius Bois de pomme Mauritius eho eho DC. Bois de pomme Leaves Mauritius amily and plant name F E. pollicina J.Gueho & A.J.Scott Monimiastrum acutisepalum J. Gueho & A.J. Scott. M. globosum J.Gueho & A.J.Scott Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry S. coriaceum J.Bosser & J.Gu´ S. glomeratum S. guehoii S. mauritianum J.Gueho & A.J.Scott S. petrinense J.Bosser & J.Gu´ 18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [317] [313–316] [302–312] Reference [84, 300, 301] [293,295,299] Diterpenoids, biofavonoids and Totarol Volatile oil components-monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, terpenoids, lignans and sterols. Compounds isolated Phenols and favonoids: quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin), kaempferol-3-glucoside (astragalin) and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (isoquercitrin), (+)-catechin, procyanidin B2 dimer Oleuafricein (mixture of oleanolic acid and ursolic acids), Triterpenoids and oleoropein. Roots contain iridoid glycosides mainly harpagoside. Other constituents are favones and favonols kaempferol, and luteolin. or experimental / Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and Tese species are used to treatasthma, fevers, coughs, cholera, chest complaints, arthritis, rheumatism, painful joints and venereal diseases Antioxidant activity. M validation Abilities to modulate the expression of the antioxidant enzyme genes. Potent antioxidant activity. Used as eye lotions andblood tonics, pressure, lower improve kidney function anddealwithsorethroats.TeearlyCape settlers used the fruits to treat diarrhoea Anti-infammatory and ability to inhibit the expression of cyclooxygenase-2inducible and nitric oxide by suppressionNF-kappaB of activation. Used for pain, muscular tension, osteoarthritis, degenerative rheumatism or painful arthrosis and tendonitis asas well tonic for loss of appetitecomplaints. and dyspeptic area / and Africa Nigeria Mauritius Botswana. Cameroon of southern Eastern and Ghana, West South Africa Native to the Kalahari Desert Africa, Namibia Southern Africa Leaves South Africa and leaf Fruit, seed Plant part Country Leaves and young stems olive name ashoesie ernacular Devil’s claw Root V African wild Bush pepper black pepper West African Ikom, Amana Not signalized kakwale iyeyeh taquale Meshoro (Mill.)P.S. DC. (Lam.) africana amily and plant name F S. venosum J.Gueho & A.J.Scott Oleaceae Olea europaea subsp Pedaliaceae Harpagophytum procumbens Piperaceae Piper guineense Schum. & Tonn. Podocarpaceae Podocarpus species Podocarpus elongates Podocarpus falcatus, Podocarpus henkelii and Podocarpus latifolius ex Meissner Green Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19 [210] [320–323] [328–330] Reference [188, 331, 332] [188, 324–327] [29–31, 318, 319] [84, 188, 331, 332] -sitosterone, � -sitosterol, � Flavonoids Essential oils and favonoids Polyphenols: (proanthocyanidin, favonoid, anthocyanin, (-)-epicatechin, procyanidin B2, chlorogenic acid). Flavonoids:quercetin and quercetrin, glycosides, proanthocyanidins, anthocynaidins, saponins, tannins, and cratetegin Also, Vitamin C. Phenolics, alkaloids and saponins Essential oils and favonoids Compounds isolated Oil: Tymoquinone 14% triterpenes (urolic acids, oleanolic acid, crataegolic acid), 0.5% n-docosanol Phytosterol ( Campesterol or experimental / Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and Radical scavenging and lipoxygenase inhibition activities. Used to treat fever and various respiratory diseases Anti-infammatory activity. Used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatitis, diabetes, infammation of the colon, gums,mucous and membranes. Leaves chewedrelieve to stomach complaints. Antioxidant activities. Used for its neuro- andactions. cardiosedative Antimicrobial and anti-infammatory properties Hydroxyl radical ion scavenging ability. Used for stomach problems, kidney and urinary track diseases. M validation Antioxidant potentials through scavenging ability of diferent free radicals including the superoxide anion radical, inhibition of lipid peroxidation, and protection of liver againsttetrachloride carbon (CCl4)-induced liver fbrosis in rabbits Used to treat diarrhoea, asthma, andgastroprotective as agent. Anti-infammatory. Used to treat against benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatitis area / Mali region Nigeria African Mauritius, South Africa South Africa Mediterranean countries in the Southern Africa Northern Africa and Bark South Africa roots Fresh Seeds stems stems organs Leaves, Leaves, Leaf and and roots vegetative Leaf, bark Plant part Country reproductive tree “rima name buchu buchu ernacular Oval-leaf Round-leaf V Day Flower, jogoo-hi/je” African plum Roger Blench White Torn. Blossom, May Red Stinkwood Hawthorn, May L. Black cumin Seed (L.) iaceae b amily and plant name F Ranunculaceae Nigella sativa Rosaceae Crataegus monogyna Jacq. Leucosidea sericea Pygeum africanum Hook. f. Ru Crossopteryx febrifuga Benth. Rutaceae Agathosma betulina (Berg.) Pillans. A. crenulata Pillans 20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [9] [337–341] Reference Phenylethanoid derivative, lignans and fagaronine [333–336] Sesquiterpenoid [188, 264, 342] Compounds isolated Quercetin, isorhamnetin Chromones, anthraquinones, anthrone, anthrone-C-glycosides, and other phenolic compounds Barbaloin or experimental / gel contains at least 130 medicinal Table 1: Continued. edicinal use and Antioxidant activity. Used to treat gingivitis, toothache, urinary and venereal diseases, rheumatism and lumbago, malaria and other infections. Anti-infammatory activity through inhibitory cyclooxygenase (prostaglandin-synthetase inhibition), activity. Used to treat Coughs, colds, asthma. M validation Anti-infammatory activity by inhibiting the synthesis of prostaglandin (PG) E(2). Used to treat rheumatism, skin infections, diarrhea, stomachaches, pains of hepatic and splenic origin, uterine colic. Itused is as also an antipruritic in skinfor rashes the and treatment of some throat, dermatitis and hemorrhoids. A. ferox agents with anti-infammatory, analgesic, calming, antiseptic, antiviral, antiparasitic and anticancer efects area / Uganda Lesotho Cameroon, South Africa, Roots, Leaves Rhizome South Africa root-bark Plant part Country o Wˆ name xeti, xe ernacular Umusasa Leaves Rwanda Cape aloe V Wild ginger Natal ginger Bitter aloe or African Ginger L. L. f.; Dodonaea eraceae anthorrhoeaceae ingi b amily and plant name Ptelea viscosa F Fagara zanthoxyloides Lam. Sapindaceae Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Synonyms: angustifolia X Aloe ferox Mill. Z Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Schweinf.) B.L. Burtt. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21

Free radical Oxidative Cellular and Delayed formation stress tissue damage healing

Free radical scavenging Repair

Antioxidants

Upregulation of Signalling messengers antioxidant compounds and enzymes

Figure 2: Mechanism of antioxidant action in wounds.

hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and other free radicals [348, 349]. accelerated wound closure, stimulated epithelialization, gran- Furthermore, increasing evidence suggests a relationship ulation tissue formation, and vascularization, and lowered between metal overload and several chronic diseases through lipid peroxidation in mice [352]. Moreover, an antioxidant the induction of oxidative stress [350]. Terefore, inhibition peptide (cathelicidin-OA1) promoted wound healing in a of free radical formation using metal ions as targets could be mouse model with full-thickness skin wounds, acceler- useful therapeutically. Antioxidant assays designed for this ated reepithelialization and granulation tissue formation by purpose include the cupric and ferric reducing antioxidant enhancing the recruitment of macrophages to the wound power (CUPRAC/FRAP). Tese methods measure the ability site, and induced cell proliferation and migration [353]. 2+ 3+ of antioxidants to reduce cupric (Cu ) and ferric (Fe )ions, Some antioxidants have also been reported to contribute to respectively. healing by enhancing the activity of endogenous antioxidant Another mechanism by which antioxidants act is through compounds and enzymes. Te induction of the nuclear factor the suppression of oxidative stress by directly scaveng- E2-related factor 2-(Nrf2) mediated antioxidative pathway by ing active free radicals. Most commonly reported antioxi- a rhomboid family protein (RHBDF2) promoted healing of � dant assays such as 2,2 -azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6- injured tissues, suggesting a relationship between antioxidant � sulfonic acid) (ABTS), 2,2 -diphenyl-p-picrylhydrazyl radi- gene induction and healing [354]. Niconyl-peptide enhanced cal (DPPH), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), wound healing and protected against hydrogen peroxide- Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), total oxyrad- induced cell death by increasing the expression of Nrf2 ical scavenging capacity (TOSC), and total radical antioxi- expression in human keratinocytes [355]. dant parameter (TRAP) are focused on testing the ability to Te most common tests used to determine the antiox- scavenge free radicals. Furthermore, there are diverse cellular idant activity of samples included the assessment of the + antioxidant assays that assess the ability of antioxidant com- ability to scavenge free radicals such as DPPH, ABTS [16, pounds and substances to protect cells against excessive free 19,35,62,85,94,98,99,139,158,175,184,187,266,282, radical generation. Such assays involve the use of a fuorescent 302, 356–364], or the hydroxyl radicals [79, 188, 267, 365, compound such as 2,7-dichlorofuoroscein to determine the 366], as well as the hydroperoxyl radicals by the Briggs- ability of test samples to quench intracellularly generated free Rauscher reaction [104]. Te ability of the extracts to chelate radicals and inhibit radical formation and lipid peroxidation metal ions was also determined as further indication of [345]. their ability to contribute in the reduction of free radicals Tere are also numerous reports of the ability of antioxi- such as the hydroxyl radical [114]. In addition, assessment dants to repair damaged tissues and improve healing. Topical of the ability of these medicinal plant extracts to protect application of kojic acid and deferiprone, two compounds against lipid peroxidation was also included, which in turn with the ability to scavenge free radicals, enhanced healing of was measured by the malondialdehyde-thiobarbituric acid wounds in rats [351]. Also, the mitochondria-targeted antiox- (MDA) test [320, 367], the modifed thiobarbituric acid � idant, 10-(6 -plastoquinonyl) decyltriphenylphosphonium, reactive species (TBARS) assay [18, 22], or conjugated diene 22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine formation [367]. Moreover, lipid peroxidation was assessed ubiquitous in nature and functions as an antioxidant and using the fuorescent probe, diphenyl-1-pyrenylphosphine anti-infammatory agent. Dose- and time-dependent efects (DPPP) [188], or using the inhibition of Cu(2+)-mediated of quercetin have been investigated on proinfammatory oxidation of human low-density lipoprotein (LDL) [187, 367]. cytokine expression and iNOS, focusing on its efects on Te ability of extracts to protect against damage to DNA using NF-�B signal transduction pathways in lipopolysaccharide- the Comet assay was also employed [114, 188]. stimulated RAW 264.7 cells by using real time polymerase Te antioxidant capacity of the medicinal plant extracts chain reaction (RT-PCR) and immunoblotting. Curcumin, a was determined using either the TEAC or FRAP assays [11, yellow pigment of turmeric, has been shown to exhibit anti- 85,302,313,321,368].Teabilityofextractstomodulate infammatory activity. Curcumin has been found efective the gene expression of the antioxidant enzymes, such as in the treatment or control of chronic infammatory condi- Cu,Zn-superoxidedismutase(Cu,Zn-SOD),Mn-superoxide tions such as rheumatism, atherosclerosis, type II diabetes, dismutase (Mn-SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase and cancer [203]. Calixto et al. reported that the anti- (GPx), was also used as a measure of their antioxidant infammatory action of active spice-derived components properties [293]. Te photochemilumiescence (PLC) assay is results from the disruption of the production of various a more recent antioxidant capacity assessment method and infammatory proteins (e.g., cytokines such as tumour necro- was employed for the evaluation of antioxidant capacity of sis factor-alpha (TNF-�), iNOS, and COX-2) [379]. baobab fruit pulp extracts [369]. Animal studies were also conducted to assess the Anti-infammatory properties of these extracts were antioxidant properties of several medicinal extracts. Te assessed by their ability to inhibit 5-lipoxygenases [94, 370, antioxidant potential of Hypericum perforatum, containing 371] or cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2) activities [65, many polyphenolic compounds, was evaluated on splanch- 275, 317, 372, 373]. Using the former [374] and the latter nic artery occlusion (SAO) shock-mediated injury [477] [264, 331] methodologies, respectively, a great number of and also against elevated brain oxidative status induced by South African medicinal plant extracts were screened for amnestic dose of scopolamine in rats [126]. Some medic- their anti-infammatory properties. Te efect of medicinal inal plant extracts were tested for their ability to protect extracts on the biosynthesis of diferent prostaglandins was against carbon tetrachloride-, 2-acetylaminofuorene- (2- assessed as a measure of their anti-infammatory efect AAF-), and galactosamine-induced liver as well as afatoxin [239, 337, 375]. Extracts of Podocarpus species were shown B1-(AFB1-)induced genotoxicity. Using this test, it was found to inhibit the activities of the COX enzymes [317]. Once that an extract of Garcinia kola seeds[116,478,479],a again, using this test, the anti-infammatory properties of decoction of Trichilia roka root [270], extracts of Entada the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of 39 plants used in africana [442], and Tonningia sanguinea [98, 480] pos- traditional Zulu medicine were screened [376]. Te Hen’s Egg sessed protective abilities. Te antioxidant properties of Test-Chorioallantoic Membrane (HET-CAM) assay which plant extracts against potassium bromate (KBrO(3))-induced utilizes the CAM’s capillary system in bred hen eggs was kidney damage showed the ability of G. kola seed extract to also used to assess the anti-infammatory activity through protect the kidneys [481]. antiangiogenic efects of the ethanol and aqueous extracts of Animal studies were also used to assess the anti- Drosera rotundifolia and D. madagascariensis [155]. infammatory ability of a great number of medicinal plant Te antioxidant and anti-infammatory abilities of the extracts using the carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema herbal extracts were further assessed by evaluating their abil- model. Plants investigated include seed extracts of Picral- ity to control the production of ROS produced by oxidative ima nitida [399], crude methanol extract of the root of burst in neutrophils stimulated with L-formyl-L-methionyl- Moringa oleifera [469], powdered leaves and root of Mallotus L-leucyl-L-phenylalanine (FMLP) [21, 246]. Te inhibition oppositifolium [167], methanolic extract of Picralima nitida of neutrophils elastase was used as a measure of anti- fruit [400], hot water extract of Alstonia boonei root-bark, infammatory property and it was proposed that the presence Rauvolfa vomitoria root-bark, and Elaeis guineensis nuts [56], of favonoids such as hyperoside, quercetin, and isoquercitrin secondary root aqueous extract of Harpagophytum procum- in D. rotundifolia [377] and fve favonoid compounds in bens [303], crude extracts of Sphenocentrum jollyanum [272], two Polypodium species (P. d ec umanum and P. triseriale) aqueous and methanolic extracts of Hypoxis hemerocallidea [378] were thought to contribute to this anti-infammatory corm [482], aqueous and methanolic extracts of Sclerocarya activity. Tese and other in vitro tests were used to assess the birrea stem-bark [483], aqueous extract of Mangifera indica antioxidant properties of three Ghanaian species: Spathodea stem-bark[13],aqueousextractsofLeonotis leonurus leaves campanulata, Commelina difusa,andSecamone afzelii [63]. [484], leaf extracts of Bryophyllum pinnatum [148], methanol Infammation is a complex mechanism with many path- extracts of the stem-bark of Alstonia boonei [485], aerial ways. Several extracts derived from medicinal plants have parts of Amaranthus caudatus [486], methanolic extracts been shown to modulate or inhibit the activities of mediators of Kigelia pinnata fower [415], and leaf and twig extracts of infammation. For instance, kolaviron, a biofavonoid of Dorstenia barteri [276]. In all of these studies, the anti- compound isolated from the seeds of Garcinia kola,has infammatory efect against carrageenan-induced rat paw been reported to possess anti-infammatory and antioxidant oedema was attributed to favonoids and other polyphenolic activities via its efects on COX-2 and inducible nitric oxide compounds. Animal tests also employed to assess the anti- synthase (iNOS) by inhibiting the expression of nuclear factor infammatory efects of the medicinal plant extracts included kappa B (NF-�B) [115]. Quercetin is a favonoid molecule infammatory cell response such as neutrophil chemotaxis Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23 [380, 381] [387, 388] Reference [290, 382–386] ity. -di-(3,3-dimethylallyl) � -tetrahydroxy-6-(3,3- -tetrahydroxy-6,3 � � -trihydroxy ,4 ,4 -di-(3,3-dimethylallyl)isofavone, and � � � � 5,7,2 Compounds isolated kaempferol 3-O-galactopyranoside isofavone. dimethylallyl)isofavone, 5,7,4 -6,3 Not identifed [212, 213] Diterpene: Hypoestoxide (a bicyclo [9,3,1] pentadecane) Tree favonoids: apigenin-7-O-glucoside, isovitexin, and luteolin-7-O-glucoside Tree isofavonoids: 5,7,2 or / edicinal use and M experimental validation Antioxidant and radical scavenging abilities. Anti-infammatory and antioxidant activities Anti-infammatory activity due in part to its ability to inhibit NF-kappaB activation through direct inhibition of IkappaB(IKK). kinase Used to treat cardiovascular and gastrointestinal system. area / Mali Sudan, Nigeria Ethiopia, Cameroon South Africa Uganda, Egypt. Leaf plant roots Seeds Whole extract Leaves, twigs and Balasa “Mettere” Not signalized ernacular name Plant part Country V Hairy carpet -weed Table 2: Medicinal plants with confrmed antioxidant activity or medicinal plants that contain compounds that are not known to have antioxidant activ L. izoaceae canthaceae amily and plant F A Barleria species B. albostellata, B. greenii, B. prionitis Hypoestes rosea Decne. A Glinus lotoides G. oppositifolius (L.) Aug. DC. name 24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [35] [35] [35] [389] [390–393] Reference [394–396] [12, 397, 398] Compounds isolated Not identifed Not identifed Not identifed Not identifed Not identifed or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and M experimental validation Free radical scavenging and moderate inhibition in lipid peroxidation. Used as a purgative. Used for its antiplasmodial activity. Polyphenols Free radical scavenging and moderate inhibition in lipid peroxidation. Used as a purgative. Anti-infammatory activity. Used to treat diabetes, tonsillitis, snake bite and also diarrhoea. Anti-infammatory activity. Used to treat ulcers and leprous spots wounds. Bark sap isdecoction taken against as diarrhoea. Free radical scavenging and moderate inhibition in lipid peroxidation. Used as a purgative. area / Nigeria Nigeria Ivory Coast Used asIvory for its Coast antiparasitic activity Anthocyanins and other favonoids South Africa root Root, Leaves, Leaves, roots and stem-bark stem-bark Stem, bark ol oulin Marula Stem-bark Okandii Muamba Kraal aloe South Africa “Yellow Form” Anweda tsoGa ernacular name Plant part Country V Erenbavbogo, Mf¨ Pareho-houon, Bahie Tiger Aloe, Soap Aloe ) Sc. P. B e auv. Baker Dune aloe South Africa A. saponaria loaceae nacardiaceae nnonaceae amily and plant F A Aloe clavifora Burch. A. maculata Forssk. (= A. thraskii A Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst A Enantia chlorantha Oliver Uvaria afzelii Elliot U. chamae name Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25 [11] [11] [56] [188] [404] [357, 403] Reference [405–407] [168, 399–402] Not identifed Not identifed Not identifed Not identifed Compounds isolated Not identifed Not identifed Not identifed Not identifed or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and Used to control dermal fungal infections and for pain relief. Latex used against scorpion stings and roots for jaundice. Antioxidant and radical scavenging abilities. Inhibitory activity on 5-lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase-1. Anti-infammatory and antioxidant activities. Antioxidant activity. Used to treat pain in the joints M experimental validation Anti-infammatory activity. Used for its analgesicanti-infammatory properties. and Anti-infammatory activity. Used for its analgesic, antipyretic and anti-infammatory activities. Also to treat scabies, high blood pressure, fever and snakebites. area / Sudan Ghana Ethiopia Nigeria, Mali Latex Seeds Roots Leaves Root-bark Ghana Stem-bark motoko-toko tree. Mwanje Kanwini, Kanwinu milkweed/ Cabbage tree Not signalized Shell Niger Antioxidant activity Not signalizedNot signalized LeavesNotsignalized Leaves Nigeria Bark Antioxidant activity Niger SouthAfrica Antioxidant activity ernacular name Plant part Country V African milk weed Asofeyeje, adapopo Sodom apple/Giant Ghana: Kpetepetetso, Swallow-wort/Auricula Cameroon: Afzel. Benth. E. Mey. raliaceae recaceae sclepiadaceae pocynaceae amily and plant F A Picralima nitida T. & H. Dur. Rauvolfa vomitoria A Cussonia barteri Seem. A Hyphaene thebaica Mart. A Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. A it on Gongronema latifolium Leptadenia hastata Decne. Pachycarpus rigidus name 26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [9] [35] [410] [187, 414] [359, 413] Reference [188,411,412] [12, 408, 409] -trimethoxyfavone, -trimethoxyfavone. -tetramethoxyfavone, -tetramethoxyfavone, � � � � -pentamethoxyfavone and ,5 ,5 -thujone (7–28%), and ,5 ,5 � � � � � � ,5 ,3 ,4 ,4 ,3 � � � � � ,4 ,3 � � ,3 � -trihydroxy-2 -trihydroxy-2 � � -dihydroxy-7,2 � Not identifed Not identifed Compounds isolated Not identifed Flavones: 5,7-dihydroxy-2 5-hydroxy-7,2 5,4 5,7,3 5,7,4 Camphor (17–33%), chrysanthenone (4–19%) Notidentifed has alba or / A.- herba Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and Antioxidant and anti-infammatory properties. Used to treat mastitis and urogenital infections and to dress wounds. Also as a gastroprotective. Anti-infammatory activity. Used to treat gastritis, gastro duodenal ulcers, as anameliorate aid digestion and to as a wound healing remedy. Immunomodulating activities. M experimental validation Antioxidant activity. Used to treat syphilis, anthelmintic Used to treat colds, fevers and abdominals pains. been used as analgesic, antibacterial, antispasmodic, and hemostatic agents in folk medicines Herbal tea from Antioxidant and radical scavenging activities. Used to induce fertility, impotence, tapeworm infestations but induces hepatic and renal tubular necrosis. area / Mali Africa Algeria, Rwanda Ethiopia Morocco Kenya, East Tunisia, Israel, Central Africa, Leaf parts plant roots Aerial Whole Leaves, exudate abouc Buaye Inkuruba Wormwood Leaves Egypt Used for gastrointestinal disorders Flavonoids with antioxidant activities. Herbe ` Mwendathigo ernacular name Plant part Country Broom asparagus Bark South Africa V Ox-eye daisy, Impila Tuber South Africa Desert wormwood, shih Sch. L. sparagaceae steraceae amily and plant F A Asparagus virgatus Baker Refug. Bot. (Saunders) A Ageratum conyzoides Artemisia herba-alba Artemisia judaica L. Callilepis laureola DC. Psiadia punctulata (DC) Vatke Vernonia kotschyana Bip. ex Walp. name Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27 [11] [107] [107] [368] [420] [415, 416] Reference - di-O-alpha-L- �� ,6 �� rhamnopyranosyl)-beta-D-glucopyranosides Flavonoids triglycosides: hesperetin and diosmetin 7-O (2 Compounds isolated Tannins, favonoids, alkaloids, quinones and traces of saponins Tannins, favonoids, alkaloids, quinones and traces of saponins Not identifed Naphthoquinones: kigelinone, isopinnatal, dehydro-alpha-lapachone, and lapachol and the phenylpropanoids: p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid (root), kigelinone and cafeic acid (fruits). Not identifed [417–419] Phenolics and favonoids or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and Used to treat coughs, asthma, and bronchitis. M experimental validation Used as purgative and to treat coughs. Used as dressing for ulcers and used to treat rheumatism Anti-infammatory activity Moderate antioxidant activity. Used for wound healing and for ocular infection. area / Egypt NigeriaNigeria Used to treat arthritis. fruit Root Leaves Leaves Stem-bark Stem-bark Calabash Nonsikou Leaves Mali Gourd tree Pink tecoma Suasage tree, Notsignalized Fruit Niger Antioxidantactivity Butterfy-bush Leaves Egypt ernacular name Plant part Country Cucumber tree Pink trumpet tree V L. DC. L. Golden shower tree Fruit Mauritius Laxative. L. aceae j acaceae b om oraginaceae ignoniaceae uddle amily and plant F B Kigelia pinnata Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC. Crescentia cujete B Bombax costatum Pellegrin & Vuillet B Heliotropium indicum B Buddleja madagascariensis Lam. Caesalpiniaceae Cassia fstula name 28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [11] [12] [188] [188] [425] [421–424] Reference � 2)glucoside]-7- �→ -trimethoxyisofavone and -dimethoxyisofavone, 6,7,3 -dimethoxyisofavone, -trimethoxy isofavone, -trimethoxyisofavone. -trimethoxyisofavone, � � � � � � -methoxy-7,8- -digalactoside and Quercetin: � -tetramethoxyisofavone, 6[glucosyl(1 � � -tri-O-beta-glucoside, -galactoside, myricetin -di-O-beta-galactoside, � � -dimethoxyisofavone, � � �→ -trihydroxy-7,2 -trihydroxy-2 -trihydroxy-7,2 -trihydroxy 2)-beta-glucoside, kaempferol 3-O-alpha- � � � � -dihydroxy-5,7,2 -dihydroxy-5,7,2 -dihydroxy-6,7,2 -dihydroxy -5,6,2 � � � mtoy67mtyeeixioaoe or -methoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyisofavone, � � -hydroxy-5,6,7,2 �→ � rhamnoside, kaempferide 3-O-beta-xylosyl (1 3-Rhamnosyl(1 5,6,3 6,3 Not identifed Not identifed Nine new isofavones, 5,3 Compounds isolated -trihydroxy-5,2 kaempferol 3-rutinoside, myricetin, quercetin 3-rhamnoside, kaempferol 3-arabinoside, quercetin 3-glucoside, quercetin, kaempferol 3-rhamnoside-4 -2 8,3 5,6,3 methylenedioxyisofavone, 3 kaempferol 3,7,4 7,3 5,8,3 5,8,3 3-galactoside and kaempferol 3-glucoside. rhamnoside-7,4 Flavonol glycoside Kaempferol, kaempferol 3-rhamnoside, kaempferol 3-Rhamnoside-7,4 Not identifed Not identifed or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and Antioxidant activity. Used to treat diarrhoea, cholera, tachycardia, pectoral pain. Antioxidant and radical scavenging activities. Used to treat coughs, stomach ulcers, malaria, rheumatism, liver and venereal diseases M experimental validation Used to treat stomach ache, chest pains, malaria, toothache and coughs. Antioxidant activity. Used as an aphrodisiac. area / Mali Niger Kenya Ethiopia leaf Bark South Africa Leaves Fruit hull Roots and Stem-bark Isibaha Fever tree Dingetegna Roots Ethiopia Used as taenicide. Lemon rope Root South Africa Not signalized Leaves Niger Antioxidant activity Senegal Boscia ernacular name Plant part Country Pepper-bark tree V Merr. amily and plant F Canellaceae Warburgia salutaris (Bertol F.) Chiov. W. ugandensisSprague Capparaceae Boscia senegalensis (Pers.) Lam. ex Poiret Gynandropsis gynandra Celastraceae Salacia leptoclada Tul. Chenopodiaceae Salsola somalensis N.E.Br. name Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29 [188] [357] [430] [428] [329, 426] [228, 429] Reference [434–436] [12, 431–433] [152, 153, 427] -Acetylglucosyl) ��� 5)-epioritin-4beta-ol and rhamnosylgalactoside �→ 5)-epioritin-4alpha-ol. O- 5)-epioritin-4alpha-ol and 5)-epioritin-4beta-ol, �→ �→ �→ -galloylgalactose, but a minor pigment -galloyl-6- O O 3)galactoside) (2- -(2- O O- �→ :quercitrin lavonoid Not identifed Not identifed Not identifed F Flavonol: Euphorbianin (3-(6 Compounds isolated Not identifed Gallic acid and Quercetin 3-O-rutinoside and kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside (1 epioritin-(4beta ent-oritin-(4beta Flavonoids Gallic acid and Quercetin 3-O-rutinoside and kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside Te main anthocyanin is the known3- cyanidind Flavonoids. Proanthocyanidins: oritin-(4alpha ent-epioritin-(4alpha (5%) is the new cyanidin Cy 3- or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and Radical scavengers and lipoxygenase inhibitors. Antioxidant activity. Used as diuretic and febrifuge. Antioxidant and hypolipidemic activities. Used to treat diabetes. M experimental validation Antioxidant properties. Used to treat gastric and duodenal ulcers. Used to treat ailments of microbial origin Used to treat venereal diseases, chest pains, pneumonia, internal body pains, stomach-ache and diarrhea. Chewed roots ease toothache. Used as purgative for abdominal disorders, fever. Te charred and powdered bark is used to treat bleeding gums Used to treat diarrhoea and as emetics. area / Mali Africa Nigeria Nigeria Used as anti-bacterial agent. Ethiopia Used to treat diarrhoea and asthma. Tropical West Bark South Africa plant roots Roots Ethiopia Leaves Leaves Whole Tubers Leaves, Flowers Root-bark Girga Stem-bark Mali Ufu idire Cat-thorn Copper leaf Leaves Nigeria Cluster yam Hook-thorn Magic guarri Trifoliate yam Chenille plant Karidjakouma Leaves Mali Kasandasanda Red-hot cattail ernacular name Plant part Country Giant diospyros V African bitter yam Lavender fever-berry Bark South Africa Diamond-leaved euclea L. (Hiern) Hochr. iaceae b retaceae b aceae enaceae b ull. Arg. uphor amily and plant a F Clusiaceae Psorospermum guineense Com Pteleopsis suberosa Engl. & Diels. Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea dumetorum T.Dur.et Schinz Eb Diospyros abyssinica F. White Euclea divinorum Hiern E Acalypha hispida Burm. f. A. wilkesiana M¨ Croton gratissimus Burch. Euphorbia hirta F Acacia cafra (Tunb.) Wild. name 30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [437] [434, 435] Reference [67, 358, 438] , � - � )and , � -m ethylene �� -methoxy-5 � -di( � , , � � ). Five other known  -di( -di( � � 5)-epioritin-4beta-ol and -hydroxy-2 -(2-epoxy-3- � �� �→ 5)-epioritin-4alpha-ol. -(4 methoxyisofavanol (  5)-epioritin-4alpha-ol and -trihydroxy-4 � �� -methoxy-6,5 � -methoxy-2-arylbenzofuran � 5)-epioritin-4beta-ol, -methoxyisofav-3-ene -methoxyisofavone favonoids � �→ � � �→ �→ -methoxyisofavone and � sofavonoids from the combined ethyl i -tetrahydroxy-8,5 -tetrahydroxy-8,3 -tetrahydroxy-5 � � � -Aromadendrin -trihydroxy-4 -trihydroxy-6-[1-hydroxy-2-methylbuten-2- trihydroxy-4 ,4 ,4 ,4 � � R � � � � -dihydroxy-4 -dihydroxy-4 -dihydroxy-4 � ,3 � � -dimethylallyl)isofavanone, -dimethylallyl)-isofavanone, and derrone. -dimethyla)isofavanone, -dimethylallyisofavanone, R (bolusanthin IV) in addition to eightderrone, known medicarpan, genistein, wighteone, lupiwighteone, gancaonin C, 7-hydroxy-4 � 5,7,2 � 7,3 epioritin-(4beta ent-oritin-(4beta ent-epioritin-(4alpha Proanthocyanidins: oritin-(4alpha Compounds isolated An acylated dihydrofavonol glycosideas identifed 2R,3R-trans-aromadendrin-7-O-beta-D- glucopyranoside-6 isofavonoids, 5,7,3 methylbutyl)isofavanone ( (bolusanthin III), 6,6 � 5,7,2 favonoids:butanoate), along with fve known favonoids and the lignan glycoside (+)-isolariciresinol 9-O-xyloside. yl]isofavone (isogancaonin C), 7,2 2 5,7,3 Tree new favonoids from the5,7,4 root: � 5,7,2 7-(6-[4-hydroxy-2-methylenebutanoyl]glucoside). Two new acetate/methanolic extracts of the stem barkBolusanthus of speciosus have been established as 4,7,2 or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and M experimental validation Used to treat skin diseases and cough. Used to treat abdominal pains, emetism and tuberculosis. area / Zambia. Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Mozambique, Root Stem-bark Tree Wisteria Pretty Afzelia Stem-bark Ivory Coast ernacular name Plant part Country Monkey-thorn Bark South Africa Used to treat diarrhoea. V Burtt amily and plant F A. galpinii Davy. Afzelia bella Harms Bolusanthus speciosus Harms name Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 31 443] [188] [438–441] Reference [444, 445] [329,357,442, -prenylfavanone � -dimethoxyisofav-3-ene] in � ,5 � -methoxy-5 � -tetrahydroxy-5-prenylchalcone (trivial � -dihydroxy-2 � ,7-dihydroxy-3 ,3,4,4 � � name 5-prenylbutein) and a new favanone, 4 Not identifed An isofavonoid derivative, named 7a-O-methyldeguelol, a modifed rotenoid with an open ring-C, representing a newisofavonoids sub-class of (the sub-class isrotenoloid). here named In as addition, therotenone, known deguelin and rotenoids, alpha-toxicarol. In addition, two unusual rotenoid derivatives, a rotenoloid (named 7a-O-methyl-12a-hydroxydeguelol) and a spirohomooxarotenoid (named spiro-13-homo-13-oxaelliptone). In addition a rare natural(6,7-dimethoxy-4-chromanone) and chromanone the known rotenoids rotenone, tephrosin and dehydrodeguelin were identifed. Also onerotenoid, new 6-alpha,12-alpha-12a-hydroxyelliptone. Not identifed Compounds isolated New isofav-3-ene [7,4 (trivial name, 5-deoxyabyssinin II) along with known favonoids addition to the known compounds erycristagallin, licoagrochalcone A, octacosyl ferulate and triacontyl 4-hydroxycinnamate were identifed. A new chalcone, 2 or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and Antioxidant properties. Protective against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage. Used to treat fever and various respiratory diseases. Antioxidant activity. Used to treat coughs. Used for preventionEntireplantisusedasstimulant, of cancer. antispasmodic. Bark is used as an alternative in rheumatism. M experimental validation area / Mali Niger Kenya Kenya Usedtotreatmalaria. Seeds. Root bark Stem bark Root-bark. Stem-bark. Samanere Leaves ernacular name Plant part Country Common derris V Red hot poker tree Lanceleaf rattlebox Root South Africa E. Mey. Lam. amily and plant F Crotalaria lanceolata Derris trifoliata Lour. Entada africana Guill. & Perr. Erythrina abyssinica name 32 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [199] [357] [450, 451] [452, 453] [454, 455] Reference [446–449] - � - �� - - ,2 -(3- � �� � �� -methoxy- � ,2 -methoxy-8- -trihydroxy- � �� � - �� ,4 � ,1 �� -di-(3-methylbut-2- -methoxy-3 � -methoxy-2 � � ,5 � -dihydroxy-2 � -dihydroxy-2 � :8,7]isofav-3-ene (trivial :6,7]isofavan one (trivial -trimethoxy-2 � -methylenedioxyisofavone) -(3-methylbut-2- �� �� � � ,5 ,6 ,6 � ,5 � �� �� -methoxy-5-(1 ,4 � � -hydroxy-2 � -methoxy-3 � -(3-hydroxy-3-methylbut-1-enyl)-5 � -dimethylallyl)isofav-3-ene (trivial name, -trimethoxyisofavanone (trivial name, �� -dimethylallyl)isofav-3-ene (trivial name, � ,1 �� -methyl ether) and 5,7-dihydroxy-4 ,5 -dimethoxy-4 �� � -dihydroxy-2 � � ,3 � �� -(3-methylbut-2-enyl) ether, isojamaicin and ,4 � � name, burttinol-B), 7,4 name, (R)-saclenone) (3 enyl)favanone, 3 isofavonoids (8-prenylluteone, 3-O-methylcalopocarpin and genistein) Tree isofav-3-enes, 7,4 dimethylallyl)-2-arylbenzofuran (trivial name, burttinol-D). burttinol-C), and 2-arylbenzofuran, 6,4 Compounds isolated A novel isofavanone, named eriotrichinnew prenylated B, favanone, named one sigmoidin L, one favanone (sigmoidin A), four(scandenone, 6,8-diprenylgenistein), isofavones femiphilippinin B and 8-prenyldaidzein Flavonoids: A new isofavone (7,3 Not identifed methylbutadienyl)-5 and three known isofavones [isoerythrinin A 4 (R)-2,3-dihydro-7-demethylrobustigenin) and (R)-5-hydroxy-2 (3-methylbut-2-enyl)favanone (trivial name, burttinone). A new isofavone, 5,2 6-(1 7-methoxy-6-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)isofavone (trivial name, 7-O-methylluteone) and a new favanone, 5,7-dihydroxy-4 burttinol-A), 4 nordurlettone]. enyl)favanone (trivial name, abyssinone V-4 methoxy-3 dimethylpyrano[5 dimethylpyrano[5 Two new favanones: 5,7- dihydroxy-4 Two new isofavanones, (R)-5,7-dihydroxy- 2 O-Geranylated and O-prenylated favonoids, C-prenylated isofavones Geranylated and prenylated favonoids or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and M experimental validation Used for blood parasitism Antioxidant activity. Used to treat painful menstruation, peritonitis, gastritis, colitis and gingivitis. Used as antifungal and antibacterial agent. Used to treat fever, malaria and leprosy. area / Kenya Uganda Rwanda Bark Ethiopia Used for skin disorders. Leaves Mali Root-bark Stem-bark Stem-bark Sari Sotallo Birbira Mnyinga Runyankore Uumuyogoro Not signalized Root-bark Cameroon Anti-microbial activity ernacular name Plant part Country V Hua Kinyarwanda Bark Kenya Baker f. Not signalized Dunn. amily and plant F E. burttii E. eriotricha Harms. E. sacleuxii Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Baker M. dura Ostryoderris stuhlmannii (Taub.) Dunn ex Harms name Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 33 [11] [357] [457] [457] [240] [456] [21, 462] Reference [12, 313, 463] [362,460,461] [290, 458, 459] -dihydroxy) element in � -pentahydroxyfavone. -pentahydroxyfavone. � � 4 � ,4 ,4 � � Not identifed Not identifed Not identifed Flavonoids Flavonoids: Rutin 1 – quercetine3-O-a-L-rhamnopyrannosyl (1-6) glucopyrannose – and morin 2 – 3,5,7,2 Compounds isolated Not identifed Flavonoids: Rutin 1 – quercetine3-O-a-L-rhamnopyrannosyl (1-6) glucopyrannose – and morin 2 – 3,5,7,2 Four isofavonoids the B-ring, which possesses higher antioxidant activity than ascorbic acid. Not identifed Polyphenols: catechol (3 or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and Decreased lucigenin enhanced chemiluminescence. Used to treat wounds and psoriasis. Antioxidant activity. Used as laxative and forand stomach kidney pain. Shown tototal lower cholesterol. M experimental validation High antioxidant activity. Used to treat wounds, bronchitis, malaria, sterility (leaves) and diarrhoea and dysentery (bark). Used to treat fever, discomfort and pain, stomach ache. Used to treat liver disorders, laxative, purgative, cancer, and pulmonary disorders area / Africa Nigeria Nigeria Southern Cameroon South Africa Bark Root stem. Seeds Leaves Leaves and Ono Kalga Ugobho Hoary pea Aerial partHoarypea Kenya Aerialpart Senegal Dingetegna Root Ethiopia Bush mango Not signalized Leaves Niger Antioxidant activity Not signalized Leaves Mali Antioxidant activity. ernacular name Plant part Country River pumpkin V Xhosa (Umckaloabo) Root (DC.) DC. (Chiov.) A. Willd. Spreng. Baker Hoary pea Aerial part Senegal eraniaceae unneraceae lacourtiaceae amily and plant Hochst F Piliostigma reticulatum Sesbania pachycarpa Tephrosia polyphylla J.B. Gillett T. defexa T. albifoliolisA.Nongonierma & T.Sarr Taverniera abyssinica Rich. F Flacourtia favescens G Pelargonium reniforme G Gunnera perpensa L. Irvingiaceae Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O’Rorke) Baill. name 34 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [11] [13] [360] [360] [360] Reference Not identifed Not identifed Compounds isolated Not identifed Not identifed Not identifed or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and Solvent extracts: antioxidant activity but poor anti-infammatory properties. Essential oils: anti-infammatory activity but poor anti-oxidant activity. Used for fevers and digestive disorders. Solvent extracts: antioxidant activity but poor anti-infammatory properties. Essential oils: anti-infammatory activity but poor anti-oxidant activity. Used against fever and digestive disorders. M experimental validation Anti-infammatory properties. Used to treat headaches, dysentery, coughs and colds. Solvent extracts: antioxidant activity but poor anti-infammatory properties. Essential oils: anti-infammatory activity but poor anti-oxidant activity. Used against fever and digestive disorders. area / Leaves South Africa Sage Wild dagga Leaves South Africa Notsignalized Leaves SouthAfrica Not signalized Leaves Niger Antioxidant activity ernacular name Plant part Country V L.f. Not signalized Leaves South Africa Tiegh. Burch. amily and plant F Lamiaceae Leonotis leonurus (L.)R.Br. Salvia stenophylla Burch. ex Benth. S. repens ex Benth. S. runcinata Loranthaceae Tapinanthus globiferus name Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 35 [465] [67, 278] [36, 464] Reference - � ,4 � -(3,3- � 6)-beta- �→ -(2-hydroxy-3- � -dihydroxych alcone and � -trihydroxy chalcone and ,4 6)-beta- � � ,4 � �→ diprenylated: chalcones -di-(2-hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-4,2 � L-ascorbic acid glucopyranosyl(1 galactopyranosides Two novel 3,5 Compounds isolated methylbut-3-enyl)-2 trihydroxychalcone, 3, 4-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)-3 dimethylallyl)-4,2 the known compounds: gancaonin Q, paratocarpins C, F, and lupeol. the known stipulin. 3-(2-Hydroxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl)-5 Two new tri-O-glycoside favonols:and kaempferol quercetin 3-O-alpha-rhamnopyranosyl(1 or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and Antioxidant, analgesic and anti-infammatory properties of extracts Used for snakebite and toinfection, treat rheumatism, headache, cough and stomach pain. M experimental validation Used to treat asthma and skin disorders (bark) and eye diseases and dysentery (leaves) area / Egypt trees in but limited Central Africa All over Africa, bark Leaves, and fruits root, bark Leaves and tongue. Notsignalized Twigs Cameroon Arabic: tabladi ernacular name Plant part Country English: baobab, Venda: muvhuyu, V Tsonga: shimuwu, East Indian walnut, soros-tree, woman’s Hausa: kuka, Sotho: lebbek tree, rain tree, Afrikaans: kremetart, frywood, koko, lebbek, siris rain tree, siris tree, seboi, Tswana: mowana, raom tree, silver raintree, (L.) Engl. imosaceae alvacea oraceae amily and plant F M Adansonia digitata (L.) M Albizia lebbeck Benth. M Dorstenia angusticornis name 36 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [467] [466] [67, 226] Reference - - � �� ,6 - �� � , ��� )-favanone, ��� - ,3 �� ��� :7,6]favone. ,6 - )-favone and )-favone. �� �� ,2 �� � �� �� ,3 ,3 ,6 ,3 ,3 �� -Trihydroxy-6 � �� �� �� � -dihydroxyfavone and -Hydroxy-3-methyl-3- �� � � ,5 � -dihydroxy-6 � -trihydroxyfavone � )-1-[2,4-dihydroxy-3-[3-methylbut-2- -(2,2-dimethylchromano)-2 -trihydroxy-6 E � bis �� - -hydroxy-3-methyl-3-butenyl)-5,7,4 � ,5 � � ,5 � -dimethylchromeno-(4 )1-[2,4-dihydroxy-5-[3-methylbut-2- ��� E (-)-6-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-7-hydroxy-6 (+)-5,4 trihydroxyfavone. 6-prenylapigenin, 4-hydroxylonchocarpin, stipulin and 5,4 Two novel favonoids:dimethylchromano)-5,4 6,7-(2,2- Compounds isolated dimethylchromano-(7,6,2 (dinklagin C): (+)-6-(2 butenyl)-5,7,4 hydroxychalcone together with the known 6-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)apigenin and two chalcones ( enyl]phenyl]-3-[4-hydroxyphenyl]-prop-2-en-1- one and ( enyl]phenyl]-3-[4-hydroxy-3-[3-methylbut-2- enyl]phenyl]-prop-2-en-1-one. (+)6-(2 dimethylchromano-(7,6,2 6 dimethyldihydropyranol[2 3,4-,4 Tree prenylated favonoids, dinklagins A, B and C identifed, respectively, as (dinklagin B): (+)-5,4 or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and Used for snakebite and toinfection, treat rheumatism, headache, cough and stomach pain. M experimental validation Used for snakebite and toinfection, treat rheumatism, headache, cough and stomach pain. area / Notsignalized Leaves Botswana ernacular name Plant part Country V . Engl. Not signalized Twigs Cameroon Bur. Not signalized Twigs Botswana Used to treat eye infection. Monoprenylated favan amily and plant Engl. F D. dinklagei D. elliptica D. Kameruniana name Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 37 [469] [67, 468] [67, 468] Reference [67, 206, 289] - ]chalcone �� � ,6 ,3 � �� :4 �� ,3 -digeranylchalcone �� � -prenylchalcone -prenylchalcone � � -Trihydroxy-6 �� ,5 � -Tetrahydroxy-5,3 � -trihydroxy-3 -trihydroxychalcone and -trihydroxy-3 � � � ,4 � -tetrahydroxychalcone. -(3-hydroxy-2,2-dimethyldihydropyrano)- -dihydroxychalcone and a bichalcone. � ,4 ,4 ,4 � -(3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienyl)-3,4, � � � � � ,4 ,4 � � 4,2 Not identifed Grenylated and prenylated favonoids. Inthe addition, favone 5,7,4-trihydroxy-8-prenylfavone (licofavone C), the chalcones 4,2 3 Compounds isolated 2 4-Hydroxylonchocarpin Chalcone: 3,4,2 4-Hydroxylonchocarpin. p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, dorsmanin A, 4,2 dimethyldihydropyranol[2 (isobavachalcone) and isobavachromene, the triterpene butyrospermol, and the carotenoid lutein. Chalcones: 4,2 4,2 Digeranylated chalcone, 5,3 or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and Anti-infammatory activity. Used as aphrodisiac and to treat asthma, gout and rheumatism. Used for snakebite and toinfection, treat rheumatism, headache, cough and stomach pain. Used for snakebite and toinfection, treat rheumatism, headache, cough and stomach pain. M experimental validation Used for snakebite and toinfection, treat rheumatism, headache, cough and stomach pain. area / Zimbabwe West Africa Root Moringo Zakalanda Drumstick Not signalized Twigs Botswana ernacular name Plant part Country Horse-radish tree V Engl. Not signalized Twigs Botswana Engl. Not signalized Twigs Botswana oringaceae amily and plant F D. prorepens D. poinsettiifolia Engl. D. zenkeri M Moringa oleifera Lam. name 38 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [188] [188] [337] [470] [413, 471] [337, 472] Reference [12, 58, 473–475] Not identifed Flavonoids. Not identifed Flavonoids: quercetin, kaempferol andand luteolin their glycosides such as dihydrochalcone glucoside and quercetin glycosides. Compounds isolated Not identifed Proanthocyanidins. Not identifed or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and Anti-infammatory properties Used to treat itching, skin eczema and leprosy. Antioxidant activity. Used to treat bladder ailments, wounds, impotence and sterility, and to help in childbirth. M experimental validation Anti-infammatory properties. Used to treat acne, wounds, eczema, typhus and as an ophthalmic antiseptic. Used as anthelmintic and tomalaria, treat fever, stomachache and liver diseases. Antioxidant activity. Used to treat asthma, headaches and wounds. area / Nigeria Ethiopia N. Africa - root Bark South Africa Leaves Ethiopia Leaves and a a` ıy` Ig´ ` Dengogo Alcgango Mekmeko Leaves Cross-berry Four-corner Not signalized Leaves Egypt Antioxidant activity ernacular name Plant part Country Pin Cushion Tree V Fotsimbarin’akoholahy Leaves Madagascar Torn-apple rwiziringa Seeds South Africa L. Vahl., iaceae b amily and plant F Myrtaceae Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Polygonaceae Polygonum senegalense Meisn. Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. R. nervosus Ru Nauclea latifolia Smith Solanaceae Datura stramonium Tiliaceae Grewia occidentalis L. name Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 39 [374] [475] [364, 374] [364, 374] [364, 374] Reference [364,374,476] Kaempferol, quercetin, afzelin, astragalin, quercitrin, isoquercitrin, rutin, gallic acid, chiro-inositol, dulcitol, and a novel bifavonoid, VC-15B (vahlia bifavone) Compounds isolated Not identifed Not identifed Not identifed Notidentifed Not identifed or / Table 2: Continued. edicinal use and M experimental validation Anti-infammatory and anti-microbial agents with signifcant inhibition of COX-1 Radical scavenging activity, inhibitory efect on xanthine oxidase activity, prevention ofperoxidation lipid and damage to DNA and ability to chelate iron. Anti-infammatory through inhibition of COX-1. Antioxidant and anti-infammatory activities. Anti-infammatory through inhibition of COX-1. Used to facilitate delivery. Radical scavenging activity, inhibitory efect on xanthine oxidase activity, prevention of lipidperoxidation and damage to DNA and ability to chelate iron. Anti-infammatory through inhibition of COX-1. Used to treat colds, infertility and stomach ailments. At high concentrations possessed some prooxidative properties. Anti-infammatory and anti-microbial agents with signifcant inhibition of COX-1. Used to facilitate delivery. area / :Venda South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa Mozambique leaves leaves leaves leaves Roots, Roots, Roots, Roots, stems and stems and stems and stems and Isinwazi Bitter grape Wilde patatat Monkey rope, ernacular name Plant part Country Tick-berry bush Root South Africa Bushman’s grape V Vahlia of the Cape Zimbabwe Used to treat bacterial infections. Glossy forest grape Wild grape Forest Grape, (L.f.) (Szyszl.) itaceae ahliaceae amily and plant Wild & Drum. F V Vahlia capensis (L.f) Tunb. V Cyphostemma natalitium J.v. d. Merwe Rhoicissus digitata Gilg. & Brandt R. rhomboidea (E. Meyer ex Harvey) Planchon R. tomentosa (Lam.) Wild & R.B.Drum. R. tridentata name 40 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine and degranulation[112, 487], antiatherosclerosisefects[486], may account for the anti-infammatory action of these and pain assessment in experimental animals [117]. extracts [276]. Free radical scavenging activity was also Te efect of the medicinal plants on the induction or confrmed for prenylated anthronoids isolated from the inhibition of drug metabolizing enzymes was also studied in stem-bark of Harungana madagascariensis [121] and for animals. Te efect of the aqueous extract of Tonningia san- proanthocyanidins isolated from the bark of Burkea africana guinea on 7-ethoxyresorufn O-deethylase (EROD, CYP1A1), [175]. Te anti-infammatory and antioxidant activities of 7-pentoxyresorufn O-dealkylase (PROD, CYP2B1/2), 7- kolaviron, a bifavonoid isolated from a Garcinia kola seed methoxyresorufn O-demethylase (MROD, CYP1A2), ani- extract to scavenge free radicals, which protect against lipid line hydroxylase (aniline, CYP2E1), p-nitrophenol hydrox- peroxidation and H2O2-induced DNA strand breaks and ylase (PNPH, CYP2E1), and erythromycin N-demethylase oxidized bases, were also reported [114, 116–119, 209]. In (ERDM, CYP3A1) in rat liver was found to selectively addition, the ability of free radical scavenging activity and modulate CYP isoenzymes [100] and suppress CYP3A2 and ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation of Tonningianin A and CYP1A2 gene expression [101]. Tonningianin B, ellagitannins, isolated from Tonningia sanguinea have been shown [99, 366]. Te anti-infammatory �� �� ability of Grifonianone D ((7E)-(6 ,7 -dihydroxy- �� �� �� � 3. Compounds Isolated from African 3 ,7 -dimethyloct-2 -enyl)oxy-4 -methoxyisofavone), Medicinal Plant Extracts with Confirmed an isofavone present in Millettia grifoniana,has Antioxidant Activities been established [195]. Prenylated anthronoids, harunmadagascarins A (8,9-dihydroxy-4,4-bis-(3,3- Several medicinal plant extracts were studied at research cen- dimethylallyl)-6-methyl-2,3-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)anthrone tres in African countries for their antioxidant properties. Te and B (8,9-dihydroxy-4,4,5-tris-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-6- major fndings of these investigations have indicated that, in methyl-2,3-(2,2-dimethylpyrano)anthrone), harunganol B, addition to known antioxidant compounds such as ascorbic and harungin anthrone from the stem-bark of Harungana acid in the seeds of Parkia biglobosa [204] and fruits pulp madagascariensis have exhibited signifcant antioxidant of Adansonia digitata [369], alpha-tocopherol in methanol activity [121]. Saponins and isofuranonaphthoquinones extracts of the stems of Secamone afzelii [62] or from the isolated from diferent medicinal plant extracts showed seeds [38] and methanol extracts of leaves of Amaranthus antioxidant properties and include the saponin, Balanin caudatus [39], and apigenin and luteolin in aerial parts of 1(3�,12�,14�,16�) cholest-5-ene-3,16-diyl bis (�-d- Bulbine capitata [66], several other antioxidant compounds glucopyranoside)-12-sulphate, sterol sulfonated, Balanin were identifed. Although known antioxidant compounds 2(3�,20S,22R,25R)-26-hydroxy-22-acetoxyfurost-5-en- such as ascorbic acid have been confrmed to promote wound 3-yl-rhamnopyranosyl-(1�→ 2)-glucopyranoside, and a healing, not all the newly identifed compounds have been furostanol saponin isolated from Balanites aegyptiaca [104]. tested for such activity [488–491]. Isofuranonaphthoquinones isolated from the roots of Bulbine Te identifed compounds included mainly favonoids capitata, 5,8-dihydroxy-1-tigloylmethylnaphtho[2,3-c]furan- such as favones and favonols, favone and favonol 4,9-dione, 1-acetoxymethyl-8-hydroxynaphtho [2,3-c]furan- glycosides, chalcones and dihydrochalcones, and favonones, 4,9-dione, and 1-acetoxymethyl-5,8-dihydroxynaphtho[2,3- although some anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and c]furan-4,9-dione possess antioxidant activities [68]. Tough anthrones were also isolated with antioxidant properties. none of these antioxidant compounds has been directly A wide range of plant extracts investigated have been assessed for wound healing potential, the enhanced wound shown to contain favonoids. Dorstenia species are rich closure observed with treatment of prenylated favonoids in favonoids some of which are unique to this genus such as genistein [492] and the demonstrated efect of [67, 205], namely, prenylated favonoids as found in chalcones on the infammation process [493] attest to the Dorstenia kameruniana and twigs of D. mannii [206, 207]. potential of isolated antioxidants in wound management. Earlier studies have shown that prenylated favonoids had antioxidant properties, which protected human LDL from oxidation [208]. Tose isolated from African medicinal plant 4. Crude Extracts of African Medicinal Plants extracts were also tested and their antioxidant properties with Confirmed Antioxidant Activities confrmed. Te antioxidant activities of three prenylated favonoids from D. mannii (6,8-diprenyleriodictyol, Te antioxidant properties of a larger proportion of African dorsmanin C, 7,8-(2,2-dimethylchromeno)-6-geranyl- medicinal plants listed in Tables 1 and 2 were tested using � � 3,5,3 ,4 -tetrahydroxyfavonol and dorsmanin F, (+)- either aqueous or organic plant extracts. Afer confrming �� 7,8-[2 -(1-hydroxy-1-methylethyl)-dihydrofurano]-6- antioxidant properties, a correlation was proposed between � � prenyl-5,3 ,4 -trihydroxyfavanone) against LDL oxidation this property and the general groups of antioxidant com- and also their free radical scavenging activity have pounds that are present in these extracts. No further attempts been indicated [187]. Similarly, a diprenylated chalcone, were made to isolate the specifc compounds that may Bartericin A, present in D. barteri leaf and twig extracts have contributed towards this property. Flavonoids in Aloe was shown to have potent antioxidant properties. It was barbadensis [32], chromone glycosides in A. clavifora [35], found that this and other prenylated and geranylated essential oils in Artemisia abyssinica,andJuniperus procera chalcones were as active as the prenylated favones and [79] as well as Helichrysum dasyanthum, H. felinum, H. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 41 excisum,andH. petiolare [94], proanthocyanidins in Burkea structure-activity relationship of these compounds africana bark [175], polyphenols in extracts of Crataegus has not yet been investigated. Recent studies have monogyna [321], saponins, and alkaloids in extracts of Leu- also shown that some favonoids are modulators of cosidea sericea [210, 211] are all considered as major com- proinfammatory gene expression, thus leading to the pounds that have contributed to the antioxidant properties attenuation of the infammatory response [224]. Examples of these plants. Reports on a number of Barleria species, of these include the lipophilic favones and favonols 5,7- � � � � � which includes B. albostellata, B. greenii,andB. prionitis, dihydroxy-2 ,3 ,4 ,5 -tetramethoxyfavone, 5,4 -dihydroxy- � � � � � � � have indicated their anti-infammatory [212] and antioxidant 7,2 ,3 ,5 -tetramethoxyfavone, and 5,7,4 -trihydroxy-2 ,3 ,5 - capacities [213]. Unlike the isolated compounds, most of the trimethoxyfavone isolated from Psiadia punctulata [225] and plants listed for possessing antioxidant activity, including Dinklagin B and C isolated from Dorstenia dinklagei [226]. extracts of Agerantum conyzoides, Euphorbia hirta, Kigelia Isolated favone and favonol glycosides include kaempferide africana, and Nauclea latifolia, have been shown to possess 3-O-beta-xylosyl (1�→ 2)-beta-glucoside, kaempferol 3-O- � wound healing ability [494–496]. alpha-rhamnoside-7,4 -di-O-beta-galactoside, kaempferol � Furthermore, studies have focused on screening a vast 3,7,4 -tri-O-beta-glucoside and quercetin 3-O-[alpha- number of plants, used in a specifc region, so as to determine rhamnosyl (1�→ 6)] [beta-glucosyl (1�→ 2)]-beta-glucoside- their antioxidant properties, Mali [357], South Africa [19, 188, 7-O-alpha-rhamnoside from Warburgia ugandensis,and � 267, 364], Cameroon [182, 313], Algeria [85], Ghana [98], quercetin-7,4 -disulphate from Alchornea laxifora [159]. Burkina Faso [266], Madagascar [23], and Mauritius [293], Flavanones and dihydrofavonols include dorsmanin I and anti-infammatory properties, South Africa [168, 264, and J and epidorsmanin F and G isolated from Dorstenia 374, 376] and West Africa [400]. mannii [227] and Dinklagins A, isolated from the twigs of Dorstenia dinklagei [226] and two favones isolated 5. Discussion and Conclusion from the twigs of Eriosema robustum [182] and 1�,3�- dihydroxy-12-oleanen-29-oic (1), 1-hydroxy-12-olean-30-oic Te use of traditional herbal remedies as alternative medicine acid (2), 3,30-dihydroxyl-12-oleanen-22-one (3), and 1,3,24- plays a signifcant role in Africa since it features extensively trihydroxyl-12-olean-29-oic acid (4), a new pentacyclic in primary health care. Te search for natural antioxidants, triterpenoid (1�, 23-dihydroxy-12-oleanen-29-oic acid-3�- especially from plant sources, as a potential intervention for O-2,4-di-acetyl-l-rhamnopyranoside) (5) from Combretum treatment of free radical mediated diseases is an important imberbe [138]. Anthocyanins isolated include the cyanidins 3- �� �� �� research feld, especially for those in developing countries. O-(2 -galloyl-�-galactopyranoside) and 3-O-(2 -galloyl-6 - Many polyphenols, including phenolic acids, favonoids O-�-rhamnopyranosyl-�-galactopyranoside) from Acalypha (anthocyanins and anthoxanthins), tannins, and lignans, are hispida [228] and cyanidin 3-O-�-D-glucopyranoside known to act as antioxidants and protect against various and cyanidin 3-O-(2-O-�-D-xylopyranosyl)-�-D- pathological conditions such as coronary artery disease and glucopyranoside from Hibiscus sabdarifa [266]. When wounds, in addition to their anti-infammatory, antimicro- revising the literature, it became apparent that even though bial, and anticancer activities [214–216]. most of these medicinal plants and compounds have Flavonoids are a large group of compounds contain- confrmed antioxidant activity, not many of them have ing several hydroxyl groups on their ring structures and been screened for wound healing potential. As there is include isofavonoids and isofavonoid glycosides, favones, an association between antioxidative therapy and wound and favone glycosides, favonols and favonol glycosides, healing, research in this direction is as imminent as it is anthocyanins, chalcones and dihydrochalcones, aurones, important. Furthermore, structure-activity studies on the favonones and dihydrofavonols, and favans and bifavonyls. isolated compounds from African medicinal extracts will be To date, approximately 9000 diferent favonoids have been of great interest. identifed from plant sources [217]. Great interest has been Antioxidants may exert their protective efects via difer- dedicated to the antioxidant properties of favonoids that ent mechanisms at diferent stages of the oxidation process. may function as potent free radical scavengers, reducing Terearethosethatareabletoinhibittheproductionoffree agents, and protectors against peroxidation of lipids [208, radicals via their ability to chelate transition metal ions and 218]. Reviews have been published documenting numerous those that are able to quench and stabilise free radicals [229, studies on antioxidant efcacy of favonoids and phenolic 230]. Additionally, they are further subdivided into categories compounds as well as on the relationship between their according to their functions [230]. Such classifcation of antioxidant activities, as hydrogen donating free radical scav- the newly isolated antioxidant compounds from African engers, in relation to their chemical structures. Te impor- medicinal plant extracts is warranted to better understand tance of the unsaturation in the C ring of quercetin compared their antioxidant properties. to catechin in the increased antioxidant activity of the former It should be noted that the antioxidant activity of the has been presented [216, 219–223]. Also, the importance of extracts and compounds listed in this review was mostly the position and number of hydroxyl groups on the phenolic determined using either single assays or in vitro analysis. It is rings in increasing or decreasing the antioxidant properties therefore possible that some of these extracts and compounds of these compounds has been emphasized [216, 219–223]. may not show antioxidant activity when alternative testing Although many favonoids have been isolated methods are used. Furthermore, although in vivo studies from diferent African medicinal plant extracts, the are encouraged, most studies cited used in vitro assays. As 42 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

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