In the 1960s, a proposal to build two hydroelectric dams in Grand Canyon that would have flooded the natural wonder was greeted with a huge outcry of opposition. There might not have been anything to protect if not for the actions of an unlikely hero, Forest Service Chief Henry Graves, a half-century earlier. How the Forest Service Saved Grand Canyon etween 1963 and 1968, the Sierra Club battled the Bureau of Reclamation over a plan to build hydroelectric dams downstream from the Grand Canyon National B Park and National Monument. The idea that water would back up through the national monument and into the national park galvanized a nation and spurred the growth of the environmental movement. The plan erally protected lands to various bureaus for administrative over- was scuttled—by both the Sierra Club’s massive public relations sight. After President Theodore Roosevelt declared Grand Canyon campaign and the unraveling of a political compromise among a national monument in 1908, it was given over to the U.S. Forest the seven states of the Colorado River basin—and the Grand Service, perhaps the most utilitarian of federal agencies. The Canyon has remained free of hydroelectric dams.1 But that was agency, established in 1905 to protect watersheds and to ensure not the first time that developers had tried to turn the canyon the efficient use of the nation’s timber resources, not to preserve into a lake. At the beginning of the 20th century, a threat of at landscapes because of their scenic value, already managed land least equal magnitude arose and was averted—not by conserva- on either side of the canyon as national forests. tionists, but by a committed utilitarian forester. Gifford Pinchot, a leading utilitarian conservationist and close Before the National Park Service’s establishment in 1916, the adviser to President Roosevelt, served as the Forest Service’s first federal government distributed monuments, parks, and other fed- chief. After Pinchot’s dismissal in 1910, his protégé and like-minded BY BYRON E. PEARSON 4 FOREST HISTORY TODAY | SPRING 2012 fellow forester Henry S. Graves the myth that “rain follows the succeeded him. Historians have plow,” thousands of hopeful farm- characterized Graves as being inter- ers poured into the virtually ested only in carrying out Pinchot’s uncharted Southwest, an area so conservation policies and having dry that for years it had been des- little interest or sympathy for ignated on maps as the Great preservation. As evidence, they American Desert. Fearing a disaster point to the Hetch Hetchy contro- of biblical proportions, Powell, versy, in which Pinchot and Graves who had been exploring the region supported construction of a dam since 1868, published his Report in a remote corner of Yosemite on the Arid Region of the United National Park to supply water for States in 1878 and attempted to San Francisco. Neither man saw implement it as national policy the need for a parks bureau when he became the director of because they believed that purpose USGS in 1881.4 of the national parks and monu- Powell advocated replacing the ments aligned well with that of the Homestead Act and other private- national forests.2 Other environ- landownership laws developed in mental historians have argued that the humid East with settlement the Department of the Interior has policies designed for the West’s arid generally held to a more preserva- environment. Specifically, Powell tion-oriented philosophy than has proposed a system of grazing and the Forest Service, that this was irrigation districts with irrigation certainly true at the turn of the farms of no more than 80 acres 20th century, and that any Forest and pasturage farms of four sec- Service designs upon national tions. Powell’s most revolutionary parks and monuments were bound WIKIMEDIA COMMONS idea was to replace the rapidly to be detrimental to the cause of Havasu Falls in Cataract Canyon, the site of the Johnson-Baum emerging western water law doc- preservation. In his history of the dam proposal. Havasupai Falls is one of the most visited and trine of prior appropriation, which National Park Service, Ronald photographed places in the American West. allows claimants to divert water Foresta goes even further and great distances away from rivers argues that Graves actually constituted a greater threat to the and streams, with statutes tying water rights to land within the implementation of a centralized preservation effort than did watershed. Water usage and regulation policy would be determined Pinchot because the former favored allowing some recreation in locally rather than at the state or federal levels. However, Powell the forest reserves—a major argument for creating national parks— also believed that the federal government should assess the water while Pinchot’s unyielding utilitarian attitude did not.3 resources of the West, and he initiated a comprehensive irrigation However, such arguments fail to consider the individual per- survey he hoped would guide settlement and water planning at sonalities in both the Forest Service and the Interior Department the local level. Although Powell did not advocate for centralized and the differing perceptions of the meaning of the Hetch Hetchy federal water development, the very idea that the federal govern- precedent and its applicability to water development in national ment should catalog and guide western settlement and water parks and monuments. Indeed, this article will contend that but development and usage at all elicited strident protests from western for the actions of Chief Forester Graves, in all likelihood a massive politicians, cattle interests, real estate speculators, and government hydroelectric dam would have been constructed in the heart of bureaucracies. Though the intensity of the opposition drove Powell what is now Grand Canyon National Park in the early 20th cen- from his position at USGS in 1894, he spent the rest of his life vig- tury—and with the approval of Interior and most of the early orously opposing uncontrolled western expansion. Powell’s survey, supporters of the National Park Service. thought incomplete, identified 147 potential reservoir sites through- This dispute over the development of the Colorado River out the American West. None were located in the Grand Canyon within Grand Canyon, like the better-publicized dam controversy of the Colorado.5 of the 1960s, must be placed in the larger context of late-19th- Powell died in 1902. With centralized planning out of the pic- century water development and, in particular, the evolving ideas ture, individuals, promoters, and corporations tried to construct that would give rise to federally sponsored irrigation and power irrigation works to bring water to potentially rich western farm- generation. The roots of the debate can be traced to John Wesley land. However, most sites where water could easily be diverted Powell, the famous Colorado River explorer and U.S. Geological onto prospective farmland had been settled by the late 1880s, and Survey (USGS) director who became the first advocate of a sys- millions of acres of fertile soil lay uncultivated because farmers temic national approach to land settlement and the development and small irrigation districts lacked the resources to construct of the west’s water resources. large-scale water projects. As a result, several western states, including California and Colorado, attempted to construct irri- WESTERN WATER DEVELOPMENT gation works; most of these efforts ended in failure. During the 1870s, western migration reached beyond the 98th The lower Colorado River bisects one of the most arid places meridian. Lured by the promise of cheap land and spurred on by in the American West. Though the soil is fertile, the region’s FOREST HISTORY TODAY | SPRING 2012 5 meager rainfall, just 2.4 inches a year, prevented the development private western water developers had viewed the Grand Canyon of a viable agricultural industry on either side of the Arizona- as an ideal place to construct hydroelectric and water storage proj- California border. Charles Rockwood, an eastern visionary, sought ects even before Congress passed the Newlands Act, and they to irrigate these potentially rich farmlands with water from the continued to argue for dams on the Colorado in the first two Colorado by building a canal from the river to California’s Imperial decades of the 20th century. Stating that the “supply of water in Valley. This project, the first attempt to divert water from the the Colorado is an unfailing one and sooner or later it will be the main stream of the Colorado on a large scale, resulted in one of source of all great irrigation enterprises in Arizona,” in 1893 the the most spectacular failures of private irrigation in the history Salt Lake City Tribune advocated the construction of a steel-framed of western reclamation. dam in the Grand Canyon at the same time that Utah was attempt- Rockwood and his partner George Chaffey constructed a canal ing to wrest all land north of the Colorado River from Arizona that delivered water to the Imperial Valley in 1901. They soon Territory. Although Utah’s attempted land grab did not succeed, discovered why the river had been nicknamed Big Red, for the this dam proposal is noteworthy because it was conceived as a canal soon filled with silt. Undaunted, they dug another—with hydroelectric project rather than for water storage and was thus the same result. Still determined to bring the Imperial Valley into a precursor of future Bureau of Reclamation policy.11 David cultivation, they constructed a temporary channel while the first Babbitt, of Flagstaff, formed the Grand Canyon Electric Power canal was being cleared of silt during the spring rainy season of Company in 1902 and initiated the construction of another private 1905.