ISSN: 2582-6980 Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1: Issue 5 September 2020

Editorial Team

Editorial Team Name Editor-in-Chief Ashish Khandelwal Senior Editor Kuleshwar Sahu Sudhir Kumar Jha Sonica Priyadarshini Dr R Vinoth Dr M. K. Verma Associate Editor Asish Kumar Padhy Praveen Verma Rakesh Kumar Priyank Sharma Ashish Gautam Tapas Paul Utpalendu Debnath Anurag Bhargav Sukriti Singh Vikas Lunawat DRK Saikanth B. Maruthi Prasad Preeti Sagar Negi Anusha N M Naseeb Choudhury Pankaj Thakur V Guhan Mohan Krishna Chowdry A Advisor Dr Sahadeva Singh Dr M. C. Yadav Dr P. Adiguru Dr. Sandeep Kumar Treasurer Preeti Sagar Negi Reviewers Name Name V.Vediyappan Anil Kumar Mishra Jai Hind Sharma Buddheswar Kar Gopalakrishnan Ankit Soni Rakesh Kumar Dr. Piyush Vagadia yoti Prakash Singh Dinesh G K Dr. Vanita Pandey Saurarabh Pratap Singh Ashish Khandelwal Kuleshwar Prasad Sahu Dr. Dushyant Yadav Sudhir Kumar

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1: Issue 5 September 2020

Dr. Dushyant Kumar Sharma Yogesh Kumar Agarwal Dr. A. K. Verma Dr. Manoj Shrivastava Tapas Paul Dr. Ritika Joshi Dr. Tarachand Kumawat Ravindra Kumar Rekwar Saikanth D R K Anurag Bhargav Dr. Pankaj Ojha Jayaraj M M. Murugan Rahul Sadhukhan Dr. R. Vinoth Sonica Priyadarshini Asish Kumar Padhy Nitesh Kumar Verma Dr. A. Nishant Bhanu Dr. Anindita Datta Ashish Gautam Praveen verma Neeraj Kumar Dixit Jagdeesh Kurmi Dr. Kamal Gandhi Dr. A. Palanisamy Sharath S Yeligar Srishti Upadhyay N S Praveen Kumar Monisha Rawat Alka Dixit

Cover page designed by - 1. Mr. Kirubakaran C 2. Mr. Mohan Krishna Chowdry A

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1: Issue 5 September 2020

INDEX Article ID No. Title Page No. 57 Vegetable Production in a Changing Climate 1-6 58 Reasons for Area Decline in Ground Nut Cultivation of Tamil Nadu 7-9 59 Global Dimming – An Unexplored Phenomenon 10-12 60 Science of Artificial Rain Formation 13-17 61 Two Line System of Rice Hybrid Seed Production 18-20 62 Cultivation of Three Different Edible Mushroom Species in India 21-25 63 Livestock Waste and Their Traditional Methods of Management 26-28 64 Breeding Objective of Sugarcane Concerned With Yield and Quality Traits 29-33 65 Concept of Crop Plants’ Water Use Efficiency 34-36 66 An Extension Approach for Agrometeorological Services 37-41 67 Hazardous Heavy Metals: A Blind Evil 42-44 68 Time Domain Analysis and Frequency Domain Analysis for Forecasting 45-48 the Price Volatility of the Agricultural Crops 69 Impact of Hydrogel Polymer in Water Stress Agriculture 49-53 70 Medicinal Uses of Insects 54-58 71 Spine Gourd (Momordica Dioica Roxb. Ex Willd.): A Potential Crop By 59-62 Value But Not Commercial in Production 72 Soil Borne Diseases - A Threatening to Crop Production 63-66 73 Insects as Biological Sniffers 67-73 74 Floral Biology of Tamarind and Its Medicinal Importance 74-79 75 Root Knot Nematode : An emerging threat to Kiwi Plantation 80-83 76 Conservation Tillage and Its Impact on Soil Quality 84-87

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Vegetable Production in a Changing Climate Guhan.V, and N.Kowshika Article ID: 57 Agro Climate Research Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore – 641003. Corresponding Author:

Introduction The 20th century bears testimony to the indubitable fact of climate change as evidenced by increases in global temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns and rates (IPCC, 2001; Jung et al., 2002). Climate change is one of the most pressing global problems of recent times and it has become a more complex issue than it was before. Climate change is defined as a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability persisting for an extended period (typically decade or longer). It may be due to natural internal processes or external forcing, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of atmosphere or in land use (IPCC, 2001). Rising fossil fuel burning and land use changes have emitted, and are continuing to emit greenhouse gases such as CO2, CH4, CFCs, N2O and O3into the earth’s atmosphere. A rise in these gases has caused a rise in the amount of heat from the sun withheld in the Earth’s atmosphere that would normally be radiated back into space. This increase in heat has led to an enhanced greenhouse effect, resulting in climate change. Climate change and crop production Climate change and its variability are posing major challenges influencing the performance of agriculture, including annual and perennial horticulture crops. The issue of climate change and variability has thrown up greater uncertainties and risks, further imposing constraints on horticultural production systems. Under changing climatic conditions, the rise in temperature would lead to higher respiration rate; alter photosynthesis rate and partitioning of photosynthetic to economic parts. It could also alter the phenology, shorten the crop duration, days to flowering and fruiting, hasten fruit maturity, ripening and senescence. The sensitivity of individual crop to temperature depends on inherent tolerance and growing habits. Indeterminate crops are less sensitive to heat stress conditions due to extended flowering compared to determinate crops. The temperature rise may not be evenly distributed between day and night and between different seasons (Rao et al. 2010). In tropical regions even moderate warming may lead to disproportionate declines in yield. In high latitudes, crop yields may improve as a result of a small increase in temperatures. In developing countries, which are predominantly located in lower latitudes, temperatures are already closer to or beyond thresholds and further warming would reduce rather than increase productivity. The impact of climate change is likely to differ with region and type of the crop. Climate change might result in price hike of fruits and vegetable crops. Challenges ahead are to have sustainability and competitiveness, to achieve the targeted production to www.aiasa.org.in 1

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 meet the growing demands in the environment of declining land, water and threat of climate change, which needs climate smart horticulture interventions, which are highly location-specific and knowledge-intensive for improving production in the challenged environment (Malhotra and Srivastava 2014, Malhotra 2015). To quantify the impacts of climate change on horticultural crops, we need detailed information on physiological responses of the crops, effects on growth and development, quality and productivity. The various impacts need to be addressed in concerted and systematic manner in order to prepare the horticulture sector to face the imminent challenges of climate change. Vegetable production in a changing climate Vegetables are known as protective food as they supply essential nutrients, vitamins and minerals to the human body and are the best resource for overcoming micronutrient deficiencies. The worldwide production of vegetables has doubled over the past quarter century and the value of global trade in vegetables now exceeds that of cereals. Yields in Asia are highest in the east where the climate is mainly temperate and sub-temperate. India is the second largest producer of vegetables (17.3 t/ha) after China (22.5 t/ha). In the past two decades, the vegetable production in India has been increased 2.5 times from 58.5 mt in 1991-92 to 146.5 mt in 2010-11(Kumar et al., 2011). The annual growth rate in domestic demands for vegetables is estimated as 3.03% (Chand, 2008). Other independent estimates (Acharya, 2007) also show that about 76% vegetables are consumed fresh, whereas 22% is lost or gets wasted in the marketing channel. About 127.2 Mt of vegetables will be required by 2020–21. Further, the estimated demands by 2050 are likely to be 199 Mt. In the horticultural crop sector, impressive growth in vegetables helped in improving nutritional security and increased export earnings. Share of fruits, vegetables and flowers helped in increasing agricultural export basket considerably. Further, growth in the horticulture sector is likely to be through enhancement of productivity, quality assurance and reduction of post-harvest losses and value-addition. The consequences of the climate change badly hit the vegetable production. Under changing climatic situations crop failures, shortage of yields, reduction in quality and increasing pest and disease problems are common and they render the vegetable cultivation unprofitable. This ultimately questions the availability of nutrient source in human diet. The failure of the monsoons results in water shortages, resulting in below-average crop yields. This is particularly true of major drought-prone regions such as southern and eastern Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. High temperatures and inadequate rainfall at the time of sowing and heavy rainfall at the time harvesting cause severe crop losses in Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Karnataka. According to Network Project on Climate Change (Impact, Adaptation and Vulnerability of Indian Agriculture to Climate Change), the maximum and minimum temperature (1960-2003) analysis for northwest region of India showed that the minimum temperature is increasing at annual, kharif and rabi season time scales. The rate of increase of minimum temperature during rabi is much higher than during kharif, in annual, kharif and rabi time scales but very sharp rise was observed from the year 2000 onwards and significant negative rainfall trends were observed in the Eastern parts of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and parts of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, www.aiasa.org.in 2

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parts of NW and NE India and also a small pocket in Tamil Nadu (http://www.crida.in/Climate%20change/3. network.html). Vegetables are generally sensitive to environmental extremes, and thus high temperatures and limited soil moisture are the major causes of low yields as they greatly affect several physiological and biochemical processes like reduced photo synthetic activity, altered metabolism and enzymatic activity, thermal injury to the tissues, reduced pollination and fruit set etc., which will be further magnified by climate change Climatic constraints limiting vegetable productivity Tropical vegetable production environment is a mixture of conditions that varies with season and region. Environmental stress is the primary cause of crop losses worldwide, reducing average yields for most major crops by more than 50%. The Climatic changes will influence the severity of environmental stress imposed on vegetable crops. Moreover, increasing temperatures, reduced irrigation water availability, flooding, and salinity will be major limiting factors in sustaining and increasing vegetable productivity. Extreme climatic conditions will also negatively impact soil fertility and increase soil erosion. Thus, additional fertilizer application or improved nutrient-use efficiency of crops will be needed to maintain productivity or harness the potential for enhanced crop growth due to increased atmospheric CO2. The response of plants to environmental stresses depends on the plant developmental stage and the length and severity of the stress. Plants may respond similarly to avoid one or more stresses through morphological or biochemical mechanisms. Environmental interactions may make the stress response of plants more complex or influence the degree of impact of climate change. Measures to adapt to these climate change-induced stresses are critical for sustainable tropical vegetable production. Climate change on major vegetable crops Vegetables being succulent are generally sensitive to environmental extremes and high temperature, limited and excess moisture stresses are the major causes of low yields. Impacts of climate change on major vegetable crops were discussed here. In tomato, high temperatures can cause significant losses in productivity due to reduced fruit set, smaller size and low quality fruits. Pre-anthesis temperature stress is associated with developmental changes in the anthers, particularly irregularities in the epidermis and endothesium, lack of opening of stromium and poor pollen formation (Sato et al., 2002). Optimum daily mean temperature for fruit set in tomato has been reported to be 21-24°C. The pre-anthesis stage is more sensitive in tomato. In tomato, water stress accompanied by temperature above 28°C induced about 30-45% flower drop in different cultivars (Srinivasa Rao 1995). Tomato plants under flooding conditions accumulate endogenous ethylene, leading to rapid epinastic leaf response. In Onion, soil water stress at early stages caused 26% yield loss. Onion is also sensitive to flooding during bulb development with yield loss up to 30-40%. Under climate change scenario the impact of these stresses would be compounded. These stresses are the primary cause of yield www.aiasa.org.in 3

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 losses worldwide by more than 50% plant and the response of plants to environmental stresses depends on the developmental stage and the length and severity of the stresses (Bray et al 2000). The duration of onion gets shortened due to high temperature leading to reduced yields (Daymond et al. 1997). In onion temperature increase above 40°C reduced the bulb size and increase of about 3.5°C above 38°C reduced yield (Lawande et al. 2010). In onion, warmer temperatures shorten the duration of growth leading to lower crop yields (Wheeler et al. 1996). In potato, reduction in marketable grade tuber yield to the extent of 10-20% is observed due to high temperature and frost damage reduced tuber yield by 10- 50%, depending upon intensity and stage of occurrence. Plants may respond accordingly to avoid one or more stresses through morphological or biochemical mechanisms (Capiati et al. 2006, Malhotra 2012). Advancement in appearance of aphids by two weeks with increase in 1°C and also the reduced growing period of potato seed crop. Post pollination exposure to high temperature inhibits fruit set in pepper, indicating sensitivity of fertilization process (Erickson and Markha 2002). Several connecting reasons for fruit drop have been enumerated (Hazra et al. 2007) such as bud drop, abnormal flower development, poor pollen development, dehiscence and viability, ovule abortion and poor viability and other reproductive abnormalities. In cucumber, sex expression is affected by temperature. Low temperatures favours female flower production, which is desirable and high temperatures lead to production of more male flowers (Wien 1997). Cauliflower performs well in the temperature range of 15-25°C with high humidity. Though some varieties have adapted to temperatures over 30°C, most varieties are sensitive to higher temperatures and delayed curd initiation is observed (Singh 2010). The quality of horticultural commodities is likely to be most affected by heat and water stresses. Temperature increase beyond 20°C during winter affects cultivation of seasonal button mushroom and increased incidence of diseases. Chilli also suffers drought stress, leading to yield loss up to 50-60%. Most vegetables are sensitive to excess moisture stress conditions due to reduction in oxygen in the root zone. Excessive rains/moisture or flooding also causes stress to the annual crops particularly vegetable crops. In case of tomato, flood situation has been reported to cause accumulation of endogenous ethylene, which may cause damage to the plants (Drew 1979). The severity of flooding symptoms such as wilting and death of tomato plants increases with high temperature (Kuo et al. 1982). The horticultural crops having C3 photosynthetic metabolism have shown beneficial effects indicated the increase in onion yield by 25-30% mainly due to increases in bulb size at 530 ppm CO2 (Wurr et al. 1998; Wheeler 1996, Daymond et al. 1997). Tomato also showed 24% higher yield at 550 ppm CO2 due to increase in number of fruits (Srinivas Rao 2010). In perennial crops like coconut, studies indicate the increase in shoot height, leaf area and shoot dry matter due to elevated CO2 to the tune of 36% over chamber control (Naresh Kumar et al. 2008). The net effect of climate change on horticultural crops will depend on interaction effects of rise in temperature and CO2concentration in atmosphere (Srinivas Rao 2010). In general, www.aiasa.org.in 4

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CO2enrichment does not appear to compensate for the detrimental effects of higher temperature on yield. Most importantly, the quality of produce of these horticultural crops is likely to be impacted severely. Conclusion Climate-smart agriculture/horticulture advocated, should contribute for achieving the goal of sustainable agriculture. It has an integration of three dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social and environmental) for jointly addressing food security and climate challenges. Such three dimensions are sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; adapting and building resilience to climate change and reducing and/or removing greenhouse gases emissions, where possible. It requires comprehensive policies at every level, adequate institutions and proper governance to make the necessary choices. An integrated approach with all available options will be most effective in sustaining the productivity under climate change conditions. To achieve this end, efforts must be initiated at national and agro-ecological region level to assess the impact of climate change on different horticultural crops and to develop combinations of adaptation options for horticulture sector as a whole in an integrated manner to tackle the impacts of climate change. Reference • Acharya, S. S. 2007. India’s current agrarian distress: Intensity and causes. NAAS News, July–September 2007, 7. • Bray EA, Bailey-Serres J, Weretilnyk E. 2000. Responses to abiotic stresses. In: Gruissem W, Buchannan B, Jones R (eds) Biochemistry and molecular biology of plants. ASPP, Rockville, MD pp 1158-1249. • Capiati DA, País SM, Téllez-Iñón MT (2006) Wounding increases salt tolerance in tomato plants: evidence on the participation of calmodulin-like activities in cross-tolerance signaling. J Exp Bot 57:2391-2400. • Chand, R., High value agriculture in India. In Souvenir – 3rd Indian Horticulture Congress, The Horticultural Society of India, New Delhi, 2008. • Daymond A J, Wheeler T R, Hadley P, Ellis R H and Morison J I L. 1997. Effects of temperature, CO2 and their interaction on the growth, development and yield of two varieties of onion ( Allium cepa L.). Journal of Experimental Botany 30: 108–18. • Drew MC (1979) Plant responses to anaerobic conditions in soil and solution culture. Curr Adv Plant Sci 36:1- 14. • Erickson A N and Markha A H. 2002. Flower developmental stage and organ sensitivity of bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) to elevated temperature. Plant Cell Environment 25: 123–30. • Hazra P, Samsul H A, Sikder D and Peter K V. 2007. Breeding tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) resistant to high temperature stress. International Journal of Plant Breeding 1 (1). • IPCC, 2001: Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Houghton,J.T., Y. Ding, D.J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P.J. Van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell, www.aiasa.org.in 5

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and C.A. Johnson (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, p881. • Jung, Hyun-Sook; Choi, Y; Joi-ho Oh; Gyu-ho Lim (2002) ‘Recent trends in temperature and precipitation over South Korea’, International Journal of Climatology 22: 1327–1337 • Kumar, B., N.C. Mistry, B.S. Chander, and P. Gandhi. 2011. Indian Horticulture Production at a Glance. Indian Horticulture Database-2011. National Horticulture Board, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. • Lawande K E. 2010. Impact of climate change on onion and garlic production. (In) Challenges of Climate Change in Indian Horticulture, pp 100–3. Singh H P, Singh J P and Lal S S (Eds.). Westville Publishing House, New Delhi. • Malhotra S K and Srivastva A K. 2014. Climate smart horticulture for addressing food, nutritional security and climate challenges. (In) Shodh Chintan- Scienti c articles, by Srivastava A K et al. ASM Foundation, New Delhi, pp 83–97. • Malhotra S K. 2012. Physiological interventions for improved production in horticulture. Souvenir Zonal seminar on Physiological and Molecular Interventions on Sustainable Crop Productivity under Changing Climate Conditions, held at Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Anand, 17 January, 2012. • Malhotra S K. 2015. Hydroponic in horticulture-an overview. Soilless Gardening India Magazine 11: 6–8. • Naresh Kumar, S Kasturi Bai K V, Rajagopal V and Aggarwal P K. 2008. Simulating coconut growth, development and yield using infocrop-coconut model. Tree Physiology (Canada) 28: 1 049–58. • Sato S, Peet MM, Thomas JF (2002) Determining critical pre- and post-anthesis periods and physiological process in Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Exposed to moderately elevated temperatures. J Exp Bot 53, 1187- 1195. • Singh H P. 2010. Impact of climate change on horticultural crops. (In) Challenges of Climate Change in Indian Horticulture, pp 1–8. Singh H P, Singh J P and Lal S S (Eds.). Westville Publishing House, New Delhi. • Srinivasa Rao, N K Laxman R H and Bhatt R M. 2010. Impact of climate change on vegetable crops. (In) Challenges of Climate Change in Indian Horticulture, pp 113–23. Singh H P, Singh J P and Lal S S (Eds.). Westville Pub. House, New Delhi. • Wheeler T R, Ellis R H, Hadley P, Morison J I L, Batts G R and Daymond A J.1996. Assessing the effects of climate change on eld crop production aspects. Applied Biology 45: 49–54. • Wien H C. 1997. The Cucurbits: Cucumber, melon, squash and pumpkin. (In) The Physiology of Vegetable Crops, pp 43–86. Wien H C (Ed). CAB International, Wallingford, UK. • Wurr D C E, Hand D W, Edmondjon R N, Fellows J R Hannah M A and Cribb D M. 1998. Climate change: a response surface study of the effects of the CO2 and the temperature on the growth of the beetroot, carrots and onions. Journal of Agriculture Science, Camb. 131: 125–33. www.aiasa.org.in 6

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Reasons for Area Decline in Ground Nut Cultivation of Tamil Nadu R.Thulasiram Article ID: 58 Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Bharath Institute of Higher and Research, Selaiyur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu – 600073. Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Introduction Ground Nut (Arachis hypogea L.) is an important oilseed crop which is also known as peanut, earthnut, monkeynut. It is considered as the 14th important food crop and 4th most important oilseed crop of the world. The cultivated groundnut originates from South America (Weiss 2000). In India, Groundnut is the major oil seed crop which accounts for about 50 per cent of area under oilseed crop and 45 per cent of edible oil production. Groundnut production is concentrated in five states viz., Gujarat (26.34 per cent), Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra. In Tamil Nadu, the area under groundnut was 3.38 lakh hectares with a production of 7.83 lakh tonnes. Thiruvannamalai, Villupuram, Vellore, Namakkal, Salem, Erode and Cuddalore are the major groundnut producing districts in the state. Thaipattam (January) is the main season for cultivation. The varieties released from TNAU are TMV- 2, TMV-7, TMV-10, TMV-13 VRI-1, VRI-2, JL-24, Asha, CO-3, and CO-4. These varieties are suitable for edible oil production, confectionary and export. Both at National and State level the area under Groundnut shows declining trend over the years due to various reasons. Groundnuts being the major edible oil seed crop in Tamil Nadu, planners are concerned with the declining area. Reasons for growing groundnut Groundnut is traditionally cultivated in Erode, Thiruvannamalai, Villupuram and Cuddalore districts. Farmers selected the groundnut in the cropping pattern since it is best suited to their land and they realized higher income. Next to this, high income realization and to meet the fodder requirement for their livestock were the second and third most important reasons reported by the farmers for raising the groundnut. In Thiruvannamalai and Erode districts, more than 80 per cent of the farmers used the groundnut hay to feed the livestock. In Erode, village farmers responded fodder requirement as the first reason for selecting groundnut due to their higher cattle population. However, less number of irrigations, fit well in to the present cropping pattern, need for home consumption were the other reasons reported by the farmers in growing the groundnut. Table 1: Reasons for growing groundnut

S.No Reasons Mean Score Rank

1 Best suited crop for their land 53.37 I

2 High income realization 32.66 II www.aiasa.org.in 7

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3 Fodder requirement for livestocks 24.08 III

Changes in area under groundnut It is observed from the Table 1, that 73 per cent of the sample farmers in Thiruvannamalai district expressed that area under groundnut weas constant for the last 10 years from 1999 to 2012 followed by Villupuram, Cuddalore and Erode with 53.33, 4.33 and 40 per cent respectively. The area under groundnut is considerably found decreased in all four districts with 42 per cent decrease was expressed in Cuddalore district followed by Erode, Villupuram and Thiruvannamalai districts. It is noteworthy to infer that only few farmers have opined that area under groundnut cultivation was increasing during the same period. Table 2: Changes in area under groundnut during last 10 years in Tamil Nadu

S.No District Increase % Decrease % Constant % Total %

1 Thiruvannamalai 6.66 20.00 73.33 100.00

2 Vilupuram 16.66 30.00 53.33 100.00

3 Cuddalore 18.00 42.00 40.00 100.00

4 Erode 20.00 36.66 43.33 100.00

Shift from groundnut cultivation It could be revealed from Table 2 that among four districts, about 83 per cent of the farmers have shifted their cultivation from groundnut to substitute crops. In all the districts it was found that farmers shift cultivation of other crops such as maize and banana. These crops are the main substitute crops followed for assured income. The opinion clearly shows that crop diversification is taking place in the state. These findings are in accordance with the results of C.Velavan and P.Balaji that Maize has grown 5.88, 10.35 and 17.81 per cent in 1980’s, 1990’s and 2000’s respectively and the growth rate was found to be 10.71 per cent during 1980 to 2007.

Table 3.Details of shift to substitute crops in the Sample Farms

S.No District Substitute crop % Reasons

Poor market price, labour 1 Thiruvannamalai Maize, Sorghum 26.67 scarcity

Timely onset of monsoon, 2 Vilupuram Banana, Maize 70.00 low marker price www.aiasa.org.in 8

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Timely onset of monsoon, 3 Cuddalore Banana,Maize 56.50 poor market price

4 Erode Maize, Gingelly 83.33 Labour scarcity at sowing

Even though Banana crop is considered to be the water intensive crop, it was preferred by large farmers having good irrigation sources. Almost all the farmers in the study area have expressed prevalence of poor price in the market for groundnut as the major reason for the shift in area of groundnut cultivation. Further it is being justified by the average monthly price of groundnut kernels in these 4 districts. It was found that wholesale monthly price of groundnut kernels decreased from Rs.7330 per quintal in January 2013 to 4145 per quintal in February 2014. The above result is further confirmed by the study carried by Government of India on evaluation of major rainfed crop production programmes for increasing the productivity in dry land agriculture in Tamil Nadu. The study revealed that the area under cultivation had reduced considerably in groundnut during 2009-10. The area under groundnut has reduced considerably from 8.65 lakhs hectares in the triennium ending 1998-99 to 4.79 lakhs hectares in the triennium ending 2009-10. The reduction in the area under groundnut was 44.55 per cent in the triennium ending 2009-10. Similarly, the area under maize in the State increased significantly from 0.54 lakh hectares to 2.51 lakhs hectares in the triennium ending 2009-10 and the increase in area accounted for 363.51 per cent. The area under banana crop has also increased significantly by 33.60 per cent. The area under black gram and green gram was also increased by 138.57 per cent and 101.43 per cent respectively. Conclusion There has been a decreasing trend in area under groundnut cultivation in Tamil Nadu. The main reason was lower returns in terms of gross returns as well as returns over variable cost as compared to its major competing crop, maize. The opinion of groundnut farmers revealed that there was a considerable shift in the groundnut area to substitute crops like Maize and Banana. Farmers adopted mixed & intercropping to reduce risk. The prevalence of low market prices for groundnut kernels and its fluctuations were expressed to be an important reason for the shift in production. In order to check the price fluctuations over time and space, the government should take immediate steps for the development of a network of warehouses in the rural areas which would help the farmers to retain the produce, instead of marketing them immediately after harvest. The productivity of groundnut in Tamil Nadu is efficient, hence efforts should be taken by the government to procure seeds and chemicals at a lower cost to the farmers and also the middlemen involvement should be reduced. References • Government of India, “Report on evaluation of major rainfed crop production programmes for increasing the productivity in dry land agriculture, 2012. • Velavan.C and P. Balaji, “Crop Diversification in Tamil Nadu-A Temporal Analysis”, Agricultural situation in India, 1-3, 2012. www.aiasa.org.in 9

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Global Dimming – An Unexplored Phenomenon N. Kowshika*, T. Sankar and V. Guhan Article ID: 59 Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction Solar radiation is the key factor of life survival on earth, which has never been on a stable scale (Wild et al., 2004). Natural variabilities like earth’s tilt on axis, solar emittence and solar cycle there could be gradual change in the solar radiation reaching earth. Though these are natural processes, there could also be the anthropogenic effect through aerosols as a resultant of air pollution leading to imbalances in surface temperature (Ramanathan et al., 2001; Streets et al., 2006). Gerald and Shabtai (2001) reviewed the evidences of global dimming can concluded that there had been an average global reduction of 0.51 ± 0.05 W m-2 per year which is equivalent to 2.7 % per decade. An effect of such a phenomenon could reduce plant processes which reflects greatly on agricultural productivity.

Source: www.huffpost.com Mount Pinatubo Discussions on global dimming are incomplete with the special scenario of Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption in 1991, where 20 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide was ejected into the atmosphere. This eruption is believed to have caused a global temperature drop of 0.5C between 1991 and 1993 due to the blockage effect of dust and aerosols.

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Source: https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs113-97/

Agents of global dimming Global dimming is just the flipped coin side of global warming, where the causal agents are quite similar. • Natural factors: Changes in solar activity, variations in earth tilt axis and rotation, volcanic eruptions, dust and sea salt • Anthropogenic factors: Aerosols, Particulate matters, Contrails from airplanes. When these suspended particles in air react with water vapour in the clouds, they tend to evolve as Atmospheric Brown Clouds (ABC) that tends to reflect solar radiation from top and create a dimming effect from bottom. But these clouds either result in polluted rains or at certain times dissipate due to high load of Condensation Nuclei thus overruling the prime purpose. Effects of global dimming Pros • Acceleration of global warming could be counter balanced with the positive effects of global dimming through reduced global average temperature. • Global dimming is believed to be an alternative for global warming Cons • Global dimming due to the anthropogenic pollutants present in air could be harmful when they result into acid rains, smog etc. (conserve-energy-future.com) • Sun is the primary source of energy for the weather systems to get driven by the water vapour available from evaporation. Thus, less solar radiation pave way to slower evaporation rates affecting the complete water cycle. The thermal distribution of globe may be interfered leading to cooler oceans. • Disruptions in water cycle may affect the rainfall patterns leading to frequent droughts, heat waves and forest fires due to the drier conditions. www.aiasa.org.in 11

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• During the 1970-1980 decade where global dimming was evident, it did create massive famines especially the Ethiopian famine, that were a part of failure in rainfall occurrence (www.globalissues.org) Conclusion In the century of global warming, this concept is completely an off-guard phenomenon that argues about global cooling effects caused by global dimming of incoming solar radiation. Though researches have proven the ill effects of aerosols and other suspended particles to cause global warming by trapping the out-going long-wave radiation, it is also believed that they do have balancing effect by reflecting back the incoming short-wave radiation. Thus, global dimming has a scope for many experiments and researches to explore the positive effects (cooling) from the negative causes (anthropogenic). References • Chris Newhall, James W. Hendley II, and Peter H. Stauffer. 1997. The Cataclysmic 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines. U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet. 113-97. • Gerald Stanhill and Shabtai Cohen. 2001. Global dimming: a review of the evidence for a widespread and significant reduction in global radiation with discussion of its probable causes and possible agricultural consequences, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 107(4) : 255-278 • Henry David Thoreau and Bradford Torrey (ed.), The Writings of Henry Thoreau: Journal: IV: May 1, 1852-February 27, 1853 (1906), 139 • https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/causes-and-effects-of-global-dimming.php • https://www.globalissues.org/article/529/global-dimming • https://www.huffpost.com/entry/what-is-global-dimming_b_740996 • Ramanathan, V., P. J. Crutzen, J. T. Kiehl, and D. Rosenfeld (2001), Aerosol, climate and the hydrological cycle, Science, 294, 2119–2124 • Streets, D. G., Y. Wu, and M. Chin (2006), Two-decadal aerosol trends as alikely explanation of the global dimming/brightening transition, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L15806, doi:10.1029/2006GL026471 • Wild, M., A. Ohmura, H. Gilgen, and D. Rosenfeld (2004), On the con-sistency of trends in radiation and temperature records and implicationsfor the global hydrological cycle, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L11201, doi: 10.1029/2003GL019188

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Science of Artificial Rain Formation Sankar, T*, and Kowshika, N Article ID: 60 Agro Climate Research Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction Cloud seeding experiment is a boon to not only for farming communities, for general people as well and rain making is an essential practise in the time of plunging water demand by higher population growth. Due to climate change the seasons are abruptly facing warmer winters and earlier springs that creates water demand. In this wake, cloud seeding can boost precipitation by 5 to 15 per cent globally. The theory behind cloud seeding was to introduce ICN aerosol into cloud regions (super-cooled liquid water) which leads to the nucleation of ice crystals, followed by ice particle growth that falls to the ground (Breed et al., 2008). Evaluating the efficacy of cloud seeding is a multistep process, while the first step is to establish physical chain of events. The next step is to determine conditions and their existence for a specific region. The objective of this manuscript is to narrate the science involved in cloud seeding experiments and sequence of events after seeding. All the information accumulated in this paper is aimed towards answering that real performance of cloud seeding works for local conditions. Principles of Artificial Rain Based on the temperature, clouds are grouped in to two i.e., warm cloud (above 0°C) and cold cloud (below 0°C). Inside warm cloud, small water droplets become large ice crystal through a dominant process of collision and coalescence, finally they break the buoyancy and fall from cloud bottom to become rainfall. Whereas, insidea cold-cloud, nucleation of ice particle initiation is followed by their growth through vapour diffusion process, displace into snow particles then become large one, finally breaking the buoyancy and fall out of the cloud's bottom (French et al., 2018). Apart from these principles, factors must be focused on the cloud seeding which includes aircraft observations of aerosol concentrations and cloud physics parameters, trace chemistry analysis of snow and water samples, plume detection, streamflow response, and numerical modelling studies. Process of Precipitation There are two mechanisms which mostly involved in the artificial cloud seeding, (i) Accretion and (ii) collision. Accretion process or Bergeron theory of ice crystal formation • In this process, ice crystals formed due to condensation process by the freezing nuclei, become active at –20°C to –25°C. When air currents rise above freezing level, some water www.aiasa.org.in 13

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droplets become ice pellets due to sublimation process. Even when a single ice crystal is introduced into a super-cooled cloud, the entire cloud becomes an ice cloud due to different vapour pressures and ice crystals at the same temperature • In such case, diffusion of vapour occurs from air to ice crystals (cold areas attract vapour from dry air and grow) and then ice crystals grow and become heavier. When the weight reaches the critical level, they fall to the surface. Based on the level at which ice nuclei are formed, cumulus clouds suddenly change to cumulonimbus and precipitation occurs. The process is depicted in figure 1. Collision and coalescence process • In this process, as the cloud droplets of different sizes fall, they collide on their way (because of different sizes) by affinity of water and the droplets grow due to coalescence. Size of the particles, their number and frequency of distribution determine the raindrop size and their velocity of fall. Larger droplets fall at a faster speed and coalesce after collision with the smaller droplets, which grows eventually. • If the droplets are small and are of uniform size, they will fall at the same speed and there will not be any collision. They will take more time for coalescence of cloud droplets and even for the formation of a single raindrop. With this process, rainfall may occur even if the temperature does not fall below freezing point (Figure 2).

Fig. 1: Accretion process Fig. 2: Collision process Methods of cloud seeding When a cloud seeding is experiment conduct, the foremost problem faced by scientist’s is that they tend to bear less knowledge about the exact mechanism for a successful cloud seeding. Hence, Seeding is generally done generally in one of the two ways, depending on cloud type. 1. Warm cloud seeding – reside at low altitude 2. Cold cloud seeding – reside at high altitude www.aiasa.org.in 14

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Warm Cloud Seeding Warm cloud seeding is generally based on seeding hygroscopic salts i.e. calcium chloride and sodium chloride hygros, burnt at base of a convective cloud where the updraft is commonly 4- 5 m/s, so that the released hygroscopic particles (~0.5 to 1 micron in size) will be taken into the centre of the clouds and the hygroscopic particle attract available water vapour in the cloud through coalescence process. The main challenge faced by this technique is choosing the right embryo size and dispersing them efficiently. Also reducing the required amount of necessary salt mass could be done by using airborne pyrotechnic flares. For warm clouds, whose tops do not extend to freezing level, attempts have been made to release showers by spraying into cumulus clouds with water or aqueous salt solutions. The objective is to introduce large drops of water or a suitable chemical solution at the base of the cloud to initiate and expedite the coalescence mechanism. Disadvantages of this approach are that large quantities of salt are needed and dispersion of the salt over the cloud’s inflow is difficult. In addition, the growth rates of particles to raindrops must be matched well to the updraft profile or their growth will be inefficient. Cold Cloud Seeding The most common chemicals used for cold cloud seeding are Silver iodide or dry ice (frozen Carbon dioxide). Seeding of cold clouds requires super-cooled liquid water colder below 0ºC. Since the discovery of glaciogenic materials more than 40 years ago, both Silver Iodide and dry ice are still the most widely used cold cloud seeding materials in the world. Both materials enhance the ice crystal concentrations in clouds by either nucleating new crystals or freezing cloud droplets. Based on their ice-nucleating capabilities, two seeding concepts have been proposed in the past, namely, the static and dynamic seeding concepts (Braham, 1986). Physio-chemistry changes on clouds Initially a Phase boundary is created between the forming liquid particle and the surrounding gas, called as heterogeneous nucleation. It can be done with pre-existing nanoparticles (condensation nuclei) that could grow from gas into liquid phase. These pre-existing solid particles with condensation molecules offer a large active surface area per unit air volume, acting as favourable sites for imposing water molecules from the gas phase. nucleation occurring without condensation nuclei is called as homogeneous nucleation. Here, mutual dissolution of water with hygroscopic species viz., H2SO4 or HNO3 substantially speeds up aggregation. Homogeneous nucleation is classified as homo-molecular (single species involved) and hetero-molecular (several species involved) and they condense together (Carrasco et al., 2009). Impact within the clouds Seeded clouds grow vertically on an average of 1.6 km more than the normal clouds. The growth is due to release of latent heat from seeded clouds that causes their freezing Figure 5. A numerical model is used to study the growth of the clouds which predicts the rise rate, top height, and cloud properties of both seeded and non-seeded clouds. Ground rules while seeding the clouds owes to a cloud temperature of within -5°C to -20°C during the process. According to Simpson et www.aiasa.org.in 15

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 al. (1967)where the result of 12 seeded clouds was that those cloud grew vertically ranged from 2.2 to 5.3 km being circle in structure, whereas normal clouds were box shaped. Impact on environment and health Apart from the beneficial effect, Silver iodide can cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury to humans and mammals with intense or chronic exposure (NFPA health hazard rating of 2).In 1978 estimation in United States 2,740 tonnes of silver were released into the US environment. This led the US Health Services and EPA to conduct studies regarding the potential effects for environmental and human health hazards related to silver (Klein, 1978). Impact of seeding experiments by these agencies and other state agencies was brought to form Clean Water Act, during 1977 and 1987 with a regulation on this type of pollution usages which helps people escape from causing of anaemia or argyria.Experts warn of secondary air and water pollution as an outcome of the chemicals used in the process. With so much pollution in the air already (eg SO2, NO2), if we make it rain right now, it could lead to acid rains (Huggins, 2009).

Fig. 3: Warm Cloud Seeding Fig. 4: Cold Cloud Seeding Conclusion It is concluded that in artificial rain making, hygroscopic material that has affinity to water is sprinkled on convective clouds. Result of seeding effects can be experienced within 30 minutes, highly depending on the delivery method either direct injection at cloud top, or base seeding (releasing updraft) at bottom. Direct injection method makes immediate rainfall, but involves flying inside the clouds and working at higher altitudes whereas, updraft treatment at cloud base is way easier to accomplish, with condition of seeding agent be transported by cloud’s updraft to become effective, thus taking a little longer. Cloud seeding can greatly improve the living conditions in dry and arid places. The cloud seeding technology is very closely associated with water resource management - which is the need of hourin India.

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Reference • Braham, R. R. (1986). Precipitation enhancement - A scientific challenge. American Meteo. Society, Boston, MA. pp. 1-5. • Breed, D., Pocernich, M., Rasmussen, R., & Bruintjes, R. (2008). Design of the randomized seeding experiment of the WWMPP. In Extended Abstracts, 17th Joint Conf. on Planned and Inadvertent Weather Modification and WMA Annual Meeting. • Carrasco, J., Michaelides, A., Forster, M., Haq, S., Raval, R., & Hodgson, A. (2009). A one-dimensional ice structure built from pentagons. Nature materials, 8(5), 427-431. • French, J. R., Friedrich, K., Tessendorf, S. A., Rauber, R. M., Geerts, B., Rasmussen, R. M., & Blestrud, D. R. (2018). Precipitation formation from orographic cloud seeding. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(6), 1168-1173. • Huggins, A. (2009). Summary of studies that document the effectiveness of cloud seeding for snowfall augmentation. The Journal of Weather Modification, 41(1), 119-126. • Klein, D. A. (1978). Environmental impacts of artificial ice nucleating agents, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, pp 256. • Simpson, J., Brier, G. W., & Simpson, R. H. (1967). Stormfury cumulus seeding experiment 1965: Statistical analysis and main results. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 24(5), 508-521.

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Two Line System of Rice Hybrid Seed Production Ankit Moharana Article ID: 61 Dept. of SST, Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology, Odisha Corresponding author: [email protected]

Chemical induced male sterility This non-genetic method of male fertility involves the use of chemicals called hybridizing agents (CHA's) or Gametocides. These chemicals kill male gametes and keep the plant from rotting. This method is very useful for bisexual flowering plants where it is difficult to get GMS or CGMS. Chemicals tested in rice; Arsenics, GA3, Ethrel, FW450, MH etc. (Table-3). Of these, only Zinc Methyl Arsenate and Sodium Methyl Arsenate are reported to be effective in commercial seed production in China . Hybrids produced by male reproductive organs are also chemically called hybrids with two rows of rice; male genital mutilation chemicals are periodically used because effective and safe male enhancement is not available. Alternatively, active CMS and EGMS programs are available

Chemical Concentration Growth stage for application

Ethrel 800-1000 ppm Prior to anthesis

Monosodium methyl or 0.02 % or 2000 ppm Uni-nucleate pollen stage Arsenate (MGI)

Sodium methyl arsenate 0.02 % or 2000 ppm Five days before heading

Two new compounds, N312 and HAC123 identified in China are able to induce male sterility 90- 100%. Before the implementation of CHA`S, it should be checked that: ü Health risks. ü Do not affect female fertility. ü It has systematic results that do not eliminate all early and late crop failures. ü Have a wide range of performance to withstand the opposing environmental conditions. ü It has minimal effects on plant growth and panicle growth. ü Proper dosage of chemicals. ü Appropriate stage of treatment. Environment Sensitive Genetic Male Sterility (EGMS): www.aiasa.org.in 18

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A new type of male genetic sterility i.e. Environmental Sensitive Genetic Male Sterility has been used to promote commercial hybrid production especially in rice. In this system, the male reproductive system is responsible for genetic interactions with genetic factors such as photoperiod, temperature, or both. In Rice, the two-line system is particularly useful for developing offspring in the Basmati and Japonica species. The Seed production system is simpler and more efficient. EGMS lines are reproduced by sowing these lines in such a way that the critical time is met with a photoperiod / temperature that is suitable for intensification. The size of the reproductive recovery is likely to vary from 30-80%. Hybrid seed production is carried out by sowing these lines in such a way that the weakest stage meets the time of shooting or temperature which corresponds to the fertilization of the male completely. The magnitude of heterosis in two- row offspring increased by 5 to 10% more than threefold in lineage offspring. Major barriers to the development and use of TMGS lines in tropical areas are found in the abundance of stable TGMS germplasm. As PGMS, TGMS and PTGMS are controlled by genes, in which these lines cross the fertile line, the hybrids are fully fertile, regardless of the length of the day and the temperatures present during the growing season. Although attractive and powerful as a tool to exploit heterosis, the EGMS system has its drawbacks. During hybrid seed production, if there is a sudden change in the natural environment, there will be reproductive restoration that can lead to hybrid seed contamination. Possibly, this is one of the key issues of the EGMS program. EGMS has the following three types: 1. TGMS (Temperature sensitive genetic male sterility): The TGMS system can be used in tropical and subtropical countries, where there are significant temperature differences in all regions, regions and seasons in different conditions. It thrives when temperatures exceed 32 ° C / 24 ° C (day / night) and ferment when temperatures are below 24 ° C / 18 ° C (day / night). However, in a few cases, interest is seen at lower temperatures and interest is seen at higher temperatures. Such a type male sterility termed as Reverse TGMS type. 2. PGMS (Photoperiod sensitive genetic male sterility): The PGMS system is useful and can be distributed in countries with temperate climates where the length of the day varies greatly at certain times of the year. The line is sterile when the Photoperiod (daylight) exceeds 14 hours and the same line is fertile when it is below the photoperiod of <13 hrs. 3. PTGMS (Photo-thermo sensitive genetic male sterility): This line is controlled by photoperiod interaction and temperature. PTGMS is almost identical to the TGMS system in every way except the temperature range between CSP and CFP, where photoperiod sensitivity is considered. At lower temperatures, shorter hours of light ensure full reproduction, while at higher temperatures; many short hours of light are used to make it more complete. The critical thermo phase of reproductive conversion in the TGMS area varies from 15–25 days prior to lead or 5–16 days after onset of panicle initiation Seed production of two line hybrids www.aiasa.org.in 19

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Seed production of two-row hybrids is no different than in the three-row hybrids. The most important thing to consider is to accurately determine the place or season that is suitable for full male fertility. Seed yields obtained in two single-row seed production in China ranged from 2.3 to 3.0 t / ha compared to seed yields obtained from three-line seed. Hybrid seed production by EGMS lines consists of two steps: Hybrid seed production through EGMS lines follows two major steps: 1) Repetition of EGMS lines: EGMS lines are repeated in appropriate areas and periods where stable reproductive conditions (Photoperiod / temperature) are active for a period of 30 days. The fruits of the EGMS increase in frequency may vary depending on the key factors of fertility inducing and time. 2) Maintaining the purity of EGMS lines: The basic EGMS seed seeds are used directly to produce hybrid seeds. An important requirement is that the sowing of the EGMS hybrid seed production line should be carried out locally / periodically in such a way that the sensitive phase of EGMS lines (5 to 20 days after planting) occurs between the sterility inducing range (> 13.75 hrs) and the temperature (> 32/24 0C). The preservation of the purity of EGMS lines is critical to the development and use of two line hybrids. When EGMS lines are reproduced from generation to generation, without selection, plants are classified according to critical breeding grounds. EGMS lines are planted with direct line measurement with the male parent. All other processes are similar to the production of three- line generation. All processes are the same as those used to produce three-line generation.

Some important EGMS lines are identified.

Environment Sensitive Genic Male Sterility (EGMS) lines

Photoperiod sensitive GMS Temperature sensitive GMS

Nongken 58 S (China) Annong 810 S (China)

EGMS (USA) Hennong S (China)

201 (USA) 5460 S (China)

CIS 28 – 10 S (China) ATG-1 (India)

Zhenong S (China) Norin PL 12 (Japan)

X 88 (Japan) IR 32364 (IRRI)

Pei-Ai64S (China) IR 68945 (IRRI)

7001 S (China) IR 68949 (IRRI) www.aiasa.org.in 20

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Cultivation of Three Different Edible Mushroom Species in India Anamita Sen Article ID: 62 Department of Plant pathology, College of Agriculture, OUAT, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction The mushrooms comprise a large, heterogeneous group having various shapes, sizes, color, appearance and edibility, majority of which belongs to Basidiomycotina (Morels belongs to subdivision Ascomycotina). These are the fruiting bodies of the fungus comprising reproductive part while mycelium is the vegetative part. Mushrooms also called ‘white vegetables’ or Mushrooms are valuable, healthy foods being low in calories and high in proteins, vitamins and minerals. More than 69,000 different species of mushrooms have been recorded so far, of which about 2000 are edible. In general mushroom fruiting bodies on dry weight basis contain about 39.9 % carbohydrate, 17.5 % protein and 2.9 % fat and rest being the minerals. Spawn production Mushroom spawn is a substance that has been treated with mycelium to grow mushroom. It is the base for growing mushrooms. To prepare spawn, following steps are required to adopt. • Take Clean, healthy cereal grains (wheat mostly used) to prepare mother spawn and wash the grains thoroughly several times in tap water. • Then boil the grains for about 30-35 minutes till they become soft but seed coat remain intact. Spread the boiled grains in clean floor for cooling and also to decant excess water. • Mix 0.2% calcium carbonate with the cooled grains to avoid stickiness as well as to maintain PH. • Then transfer the grains into empty glass bottles (each bottle contain 200g grains) followed by plugging the bottles with non-absorbent cotton neither very tight nor very loose. • Sterilize the bottles containing grains in autoclave in 25 Psi for 1-2 hours. • After sterilization, keep the bottles overnight in room temperature, • Next day, inoculate the grains in aseptic condition with small bit of 15 days old pure culture of the required mushroom.

• After inoculation, incubate at 250C for 15±1 days to observe full growth of white mycelia over the grains.

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• Generally within 15 -20 days complete spawn (colonization of mycelia) is noticed in the grains. It’s known as mother spawn. • From one bottle of mother spawn approximately 6 bottles of spawn can be prepared. Thus multiplication of spawn can be done. Cultivation of Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp) Pleurotus spp. constitute 30 per cent of total mushroom production and ranks third among the cultivated mushrooms grown widely in temperate, sub-tropical and tropical regions of the world. Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.)can be easily cultivated with minimal investment and requirements. Cultivation of several species of Pleurotus is cheapest and easiest to grow compared to other cultivated edible mushrooms as they can grow at temperature ranging from 15-30°C. Unlike other mushroom species, this genus shows much diversity in its adaptation to the varying agro climatic condition. Procedure: 1) Preparation of mother spawn 2) Preparation of mushroom bags (beds) : • Chopping of paddy straw into 1.5-2 inch • Then soak in water containing 500 ppm formaldehyde for 12-14 hours. Spread the wet paddy on cement floor under sun till moisture content remains 65%. • Take a polythene sheet (80cm×40cm) for bed preparation and tie one of the open ends to make it funnel shaped. • Remove spawn from glass bottles with a sterilized glass rod and divided into four parts. • Then transfer some amount of partially dried substrate (paddy straw) to the funnel shaped polythene sheet to make a layer followed by spawning on the periphery of the straw layer. Thus four equal size layers should be made to prepare one bed. • Spawning should be done in the periphery of first 3 layers of substrate where as cover the 4th layer fully by remaining last part of spawn. • Press the polythene bag with hand to make it compact and tie the upper end of the bag. • Make 10-15 small holes in the bags for air circulation. • Then keep the bags in the incubation chamber where temperature humidity are recorded. No ventilation is required in this room for colonization of mycelia on the substrates. • After complete spawn run, remove the polythene bags from compact mass of straw (mushroom beds). Each bag generally contains 2-2.5 kg of paddy straw. 3) Hanging and watering of beds: www.aiasa.org.in 22

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After removing the polythene bags, mushroom beds should be hanged on iron rods or on thick bamboo sticks with ropes. Keep the beds moist by sprinkling water twice daily during morning and afternoon depending upon moisture content of beds. 4) Harvesting of mushrooms: Few days after opening of polythene bags, pin head formation will start. After 5-6 days of pin head formation, the matured mushrooms are ready for harvesting. Matured sporophores are plucked by slight twisting and pulling. Successive flushes (fruiting) will also be noticed on the same bed at 7-8 days intervals. Watering should not be done during or few hours before harvesting to maintain accurate weight of sporophores. Mushroom yield: 1.5 – 2 kg mushrooms from each bed.

Fig. 1: Pleurotus sajorcaju Fig. 2: Pleurotus citrinopileatus Milky mushroom cultivation ( Calocybe indica) Procedure: • Straw is chopped into small pieces (2-4 cm size) and soaked in fresh water for 8-16 hours. • Substrates are filled in polythene bags (80×40 cm) holding 2-3 kg wet substrates and sterilize at 15 psi for 1 hour. • Then dry those sterilized substrates till moisture remains 60-65%. • Then spawning is done ( similar method like oyster mushroom) • Then the mushroom begs are shifted to dark room where 25-35 temp and 80% RH is maintained. • After 20 days, the substrates will be fully colonized by fungus mycelium. • Then casing is done. Casing material i.e. 75% soil + 25% sand with chalk powder is sterilized in autoclave for 1 hour. Casing material is spread in uniform layer of 2-3 cm thickness and spray with solution of carbendazim+formaldehyde. 30-35 temperature is maintained. • Cropping: After 10 days of casing mycelium reach on the top of the casing layer if proper light, temperature and moisture is maintained. • Then after 3-5 days needle shaped mycelia will be formed which matures within a week. • 7-8 cm diameter mushrooms are harvested by twisting the stalk. www.aiasa.org.in 23

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Fig. 3: Calocybe indica Cultivation of paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella spp) It was first cultivated in China. India produces about 10,000 metric tons of straw mushroom annually Contributes to 8 % of the total mushroom production of the country (1, 20, 000 metric tons). Odisha is the leading state with the annual production of 8129 tones contributing to 80 % of the total production of the country. Straw mushroom contributes to 66 % of the total mushroomϖ production of the state (12,334 tones/annum). Procedure: • Prepare a raised platform of about 1 m in length and 0.75 m in breadth with wood and keep it over a support by arranging bricks on all four corners. • Take 18 bundles of paddy straw(1.25-1.5 ft length), 0.5- 1 kg weight of eachand soak in water tank for 12-14 hours. • Then bundles are taken out to drain out excess water. • Take 4 bundles and place those on raised platform side by side to make a layer. • Place a small quantity of spawn on the periphery of first layer followed by spreading of gram flour on the top of the spawn. • Then on the top of the first layer again place four more bundles of paddy straw at right angles to the previous layer to make second layer followed by application of spawn as well as gram flour. • Then take 4 more bundles prepare 3rd by placing those bundles at right angles to the 2nd layer and in this manner also make the final or 4th layer. Spawn as well as gram flour should be added on the periphery of 3rd layer also. • Then on the top of the final layer, spread mixture of spawn as well as gram powder and cover the final layer with remaining 2 bundles of paddy straw. • Thus Cuboidal beds (1.5ʹ x 1.5ʹ×1.5’) is required to prepare. • Press the bed to make it as compact as possible. • Cover it with a transparent polythene sheet till the completion of mycelial growth. • Thereafter, beds are uncovered followed by regular watering. www.aiasa.org.in 24

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• The mushrooms start appearing from all sides in 6-10 days which can be harvested in another 4-5 days. The harvesting is to be done at button stage itself. The success of cultivation depends upon the temperature and moisture in the bed. The optimum temperature is 30-35 to develop buttons. Yield: 1-2 kg mushrooms can be harvested from 10 kg substrates. If the bed size is big (32 bundles) then 4-5 kg mushrooms per bed can be harvested.

Fig. 4: Paddy straw mushroom

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Livestock Waste and Their Traditional Methods of Management J.Subhashini and R.Vinoth Article ID: 63 Institute of Agriculture, Kumulur, Trichy Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction The most common environment concern with animal wastes is that it affects the atmospheric air with offensive odours, release of large quantities of carbon dioxide and ammonia which might contribute to acid rain and the greenhouse effect. It could also pollute water sources and be instrumental in spreading infectious diseases. Thus proper management of livestock waste reduces the harmful ill effects caused by animal wastes. Livestock waste Dung, urine, placenta, still births, post mortem debris, bedding, feed wastage, milk-house wastes or wash, dead animals and birds, slaughter house waste, hair, hoof and horns etc. Proper collection and preservation of dung, urine, left over fodder and other farm wastes is important as they can be converted into valuable manure. Cattle dung is utilised as fuel without realising its manurial value. The cattle urine is a rich source of minerals such as potassium, nitrogen and sulphur. But due to the improper method of collection of urine the urine is not utilised properly. Management of livestock waste Livestock waste management includes collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste together with monitoring and regulation. Waste management is necessary to reduce the microbial load. Dairy farm waste can be disposed directly or indirectly.Some of the traditional methods of management are preparation of farm yard manure, bio gas, panchakavya and vermi compost. Farm yard manure Cattle manure also called as farm yard manure is the decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along with left over feed material and bedding material. The farm yard manure is bulky organic manure and it has long lasting effects on crop production and soil productivity when properly used. There are several advantages of using farm yard manure. FYM contains all essential elements required for crop growth. These nutrients are present in small quantities but they are not easily lost from the soil because they are in organic form. The farm yard manure is cheaper than commercial fertilizers. Applying farm yard manure improves the physical properties of soil such as structure, pore space and water holding capacity. FYM is the major source of food for all the useful microbes present in the soil. Soil is biologically improved because of the application of farm yard manure. www.aiasa.org.in 26

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For the collection of farm yard manure the floor of the animal house is prepared in such a way that the urine is collected at one point because of the slope. The other way of collection of urine by different bedding material like paddy husk, saw dust, groundnut shell and chopped straw etc. The dung, urine and left over feed mainly roughages are collected properly. There are various methods of storage to prepare farm yard manure. They are heap method, pit method and covered pit method. Heap method: In this method, the manure is heaped on ground in an open land that is exposed to sun and rain. In this method, there is heavy loss of nutrients due to leaching. However, this loss can be reduced by heaping beneath the tree’s shade and covering with polythene sheet. Pit method: This method is better than heap method. The bottom and sides of pit are plastered with non absorbants. As there is no direct exposure to sun or rain, the nutrient losses is minimal in this method due to leaching. Covered pit method: In this method, the pit is covered. This is the best method for farm yard manure preparation. Cattle and buffalo manure is available in plenty in country which needs to be utilised properly. Pig manure is a rich source of N and P which should be utilised effectively. Biogas production Biogas is generated through anaerobic digestion of organic wastes mainly cattle dung. A normal Indian farmer owns two or three cattle for basic agricultural operations. The excreta from these animals can be efficiently used. Apart from cow dung, all wastes from pigs, goats, sheep and field waste can be used for preparation of farm yard manure. Panchakavya Panchakavya is a combination of five products of cow. They are dung, urine, milk, curd and ghee. All these ingredients are mixed in proper proportion and then allowed to ferment and used. Panchakavya has beneficial effects on plants, animals and human beings. It acts as growth promoter and immunity booster. It enhances the shelf life of vegetables, fruits and grains but also improves the taste. The ingredients include 4 kg gobar gas slurry, 1 kg fresh cow dung, 3 litres of cow’s urine, 2 litres of cow’s milk, 2 litres of cow’s curd, 1 kg of cow’s ghee, 3 litres of sugarcane juice, 13 ripe bananas, 3 litres of tender coconut water and 2 litres of toddy (if available). This will make about 20 litres of Panchakavya. The preparation is preserved in a wide mouthed earthern pot or concrete tank kept covered with a cotton cloth and placed in an open area. Enormous shade should be provided and the contents should be mixed twice a day both in the morning and in the evening. At about six to seven days, the modified Panchakavya will be ready. Panchakavya is diluted to 3 per cent and sprayed on crops to get the best results. Beneficial effects of Panchakavya Panchakavya has several beneficial effects on animal and fish as well. Panchakavya fed to cows at the rate of 200 ml per day produces milk with high fat content. Panchakavya has also got beneficial effects on fertility rate of cows. When Panchakavya is mixed with poultry feed or drinking water at the rate of 5 ml per bird per day, the birds became disease free and healthy. They www.aiasa.org.in 27

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 laid larger eggs for larger periods. In broilers, the weight gain was impressive and the feed to weight conversion ratio was improved. Vermicompost Vermicompost is the castings of earthworms. Organic waste gets decomposed by micro organisms and it is consumed by earthworms. Vermicompost can be prepared easily. The essentials are space, cow dung, and organic wastes. It is good organic manure as it improves soil quality. The organic wastes that can be included to produce vermi compost are livestock dung, cattle dung, sheep droppings, biogas sludge, husks and corn shells, weeds and wastes from kitchen etc., Harvesting of Vermicompost It involves the manual separation of worms from the castings. For this purpose, the contents of the containers are dumped on the ground in the form of mound and allowed to stand for few hours. The worms move to the bottom of the stackand gets collected at the bottom in the form of ball to avoid sun light. At this stage the vermicompost is removed to get worms. The worms are collected for new culture beds. The vermicompost recovered is rich in macro nutrients, microbes and nitrogen fixers and is used as manure. Benefits of vermicompost • Improved soil pH. • Improves soil aeration, texture, and water retention capacity of soil. • Improves nutrient status of both plant and soil. • Promotes better root growth and nutrient absorption. • It does not have any adverse effect. • Vermicompost is rich in all essential plant nutrients. • It prevents nutrient losses and increases the use efficiency of chemical fertilizers. • Vermicompost is free from harmful microbes, toxic constituents etc. • It also reduces the prevalence of pest and diseases. • It enhances the decomposition of organic matter in soil. Conclusion The traditional method of management of livestock makes the best use of the nutrients in manure. It also protects the environment reducing the offensive odour and reduces the emission of ammonia thus preventing environmental pollution. Management of livestock waste also has beneficial effects in plants and animals. Thus the traditional methods of management can be practised for the efficient utilisation of livestock waste in the current scenario.

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Breeding Objective of Sugarcane Concerned With Yield and Quality Traits C. Deepika1*, M. Karthikeyan2 and V. Nirubana3 Article ID: 64 1Ph. D Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CPBG, TNAU – Coimbatore. 2Ph. D Scholar, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, AC & RI, TNAU – Madurai. 3Senior Research Fellow, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, AC & RI, TNAU – Madurai. Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction Breeding new varieties of sugarcane is expensive because it is a large, perennial plant that requires large areas of land and other resources, and also because the frequency of obtaining good clones in the progeny from a cross between two existing varieties is invariably low. Rojas (1974) observed that it was not surprising that most breeding program yield an average of less than one new and superior variety every year despite the testing of millions of seedlings. Selection must therefore be carried out on as large and efficient scale as possible to help ensure that at least some agriculturally acceptable clones are produced in the breeding programme (Allison, 1985). India's sugar production in the current season is 30 million tonnes with Maharashtra producing 10 million tonnes with the northern sugar bowl of Uttar Pradesh producing 9.3 million tones and Tamil Nadu with 6 - 7 million tones. The first improvements to sugarcane were made by primitive man who selected clones that were sweeter or less fibrous and more suitable for chewing (Stevenson, 1965). Other subsequent improvement was the selection of brightly coloured or striped varieties which were grown in gardens. More recently, sugarcane improvement has become much more sophisticated, and the breeding of improved clones in now the cornerstones of all advanced sugarcane industries. Sugarcane breeding in the principal method for improving productivity in most long-established sugarcane industries. The objective of breeding programs is to develop sugarcane with high productivity, high sucrose content, drought tolerance, and high production of ethanol and biomass, i.e., plants with high fiber content and with cell walls easily broken to favour the production of ethanol from bagasse, efficient plants with low nitrogen fertilizer use, and others, and consequently to reduce environmental impacts (Morais et al., 2015). Breeding for high yield Sugarcane is the main source of sucrose in the world and has also become one of the main sources of renewable energy. The main objectives of breeding programs are improving cane biomass and qualities. The genetics of current sugarcane cultivars (Saccharum spp.) are extremely complex, owing to a high polyploid genome of 10 to 12 homeologous chromosome sets, resulting from the interspecific origin of two polyploid ancestral genomes. A century of breeding efforts www.aiasa.org.in 29

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 based on elite domesticated progenitors improved by wild introgressions has helped build one of the most productive biomass crops. However, in recent decades the percentage increase in annual sugarcane yield has been lower than in other crops. Until now, cultivar improvement has relied on traditional breeding programs that require 12 to 15 years of expensive field evaluations. In the past two decades, efforts have been made to construct genetic maps, study quantitative trait loci (QTL), and start association mapping studies. Today, genomic selection (GS) approaches to select individuals for advancement in the breeding process is believed to be appropriate for complex traits such as yield. GS is particularly attractive in the highly polyploid context of sugarcane, where the nature of yield genetic determinism is presumably highly quantitative. Frequent Genotype x Environment interactions add to the challenges associated with QTL detection. Plant growth modelling could provide sounder ecophysiological parameters for describing the complex biological process underlying yield and sucrose elaboration. Such models could overcome traditional problems caused by G x E interactions and consequently improve both QTL detection and GS approaches. The aim to maintain a productive leaf area for a long period, in order to maximize cane extension and internode growth, thereby maximizing cane yield. The cane height, cane weight, cane thickness, tillering capacity responsible for number of millable canes (NMC) contributed to the high yield. Hence primary selection is always for high vigour of growth and for tall large barreled canes with high tillering capacity. Another aspect to be considered in biomass production is maximization of radiation interception. It is proposed to potentially increase 10-15% production when the cultivar and plant density is combined with the appropriate planting date (either in planted or ratoon crops) (Singelset al., 2005), being key for crop management. Furthermore, as research on second- generation ethanol production is taking off, breeding programs are looking for traits that increase the lignocellulosic biomass. Criteria for the best quality of sugarcane juice

• Should have accumulated peak sucrose content in juice.

• Should have low level of non sugars

• Should have high purity

• Should have optimum fibre content

• Should have negligible amount of unwanted materials (trash, binding materials, dead and dry canes, mud particles, water shoots, etc.)

• Should have higher quantity of juice

• There should not be pith in the cane

Factors affecting the quality of the juice www.aiasa.org.in 30

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Factors like variety, nutrient management practices, stage of maturity, soil condition, growing condition, time and method of harvesting, and time of transport to mill, incidence of pests and diseases etc. have profound influence on the accumulation of sucrose and other non-sugars in cane juice. Among the major nutrients, nitrogen plays a great role in not only increasing the yield but also in influencing juice-quality. Excess application or late application of nitrogen (usually beyond 90-120 days) depress the juice sucrose content and increase the non-sugar component of juice leading to poor recoveries. High tissue nitrogen leads to continued negative growth and thus delays maturity. It produces late tillers and water shoots. It increases sheath moisture and soluble nitrogen content in the juice. Thus low sucrose, high reducing sugar contents and lower purities are common under excess nitrogen. This also leads to higher molasses. In Australia, the standard industry measurement of sugar content is commercial cane sugar (CCS), which is derived from measurements of brix, pol and fibre. CCS and other similar measures used in other countries are designed to estimate commercially recoverable sucrose in a sugar mill, reflecting the effects of impurities (dissolved, non-sucrose substances in cane juice) that cause sugar loss in molasses. However, CCS is also generally highly correlated with and similar to sucrose % on a fresh weight basis (Muchowet al., 1996). Ratooning capacity Ratoons can regrow after each harvest, although with decreased vigor, which allows on average five productive harvests before the necessary renovation of the field. This is a very important trait to take into consideration during the evaluation period of breeding programs, because poor ratooning capacity will compromise the longevity of the established plantation. Breeding for high commercial cane sugar (CCS) CCS is the juiciness of stem, sugar content and its recovery also contributes to yield per hectare. Saccharum spontaneum are slender and pithy with no recoverable sugar. S.officinarumare is high in sugar. Early maturing varieties also attain 16% sucrose and 85% purity at 10 months of crop age. Ratooning ability increases sugarcane production economics by reducing frequency of planting. Breeding for better quality Reducing Sugarcane Fibre Content One of the quality characteristics in the sugarcane crop is the fibre content. The lower the level of impurities and fibre, the higher the CCS (Commercial Cane Sugar) in the sugarcane. Brix and pol levels Two important measurements of sugarcane quality are Brix and Pol Levels. Brix is the content of soluble solids assessed by refractometry tests. The Brix percentage is a measure of the sucrose, or sugar content. One degree Brix is equal to one gram of sucrose in 100 grams of solution. This means that a solution that's 20% Brix is equal to 20% sucrose. Pol (Polarization measurement) is the sucrose content in the juice. Sugar contains about 98% Sucrose or 98 degrees Pol. It is determined by using a polarimeter or a sucrolyser. Purity www.aiasa.org.in 31

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Sugarcane purity is the percentage of sucrose in total solids in the juice. A higher purity is a result of higher sucrose content in the total solids present in juice. Different types of sugarcane can differ greatly in their sucrose levels; sucrose content can vary from 15% Brix to 23% Brix. Sugarcane with a Brix percentage closer to 23% Brix is considered to produce the highest quality of cane sugar. A simple method using Fourier Transform Near-Infrared (FT-NIR) was used to determine quality of sugarcane juice in terms of brix value (total soluble solids), sucrose content (polarization %) and purity. Measurements

• Brix = TSS (Total Soluble Solids)

• Pol% = Sucrose% (<16%)

• Purity Coeff= (Suc%/Brix%)100.

• Cane yield = stalk number*single cane weight.

• CCS (T/ha)= [Yield(t/ha)*S.R.%]/100 where, S.R. (Sugar recovery)=[Suc%-0.4 (Corrected Brix% - Suc%)]0.73 Breeding for quality jaggery and fibre For chewing Saccharum officinarum are preferred as their fibres are soft. For commercial white sugar, high sucrose and moderate fibre contents are preferred. For ethanol production varieties with high total sugars are preferred. Both the quantity and quality along with moisture holding capacity of fibre is important from milling quality. The ideal cane for milling should have moderate fibre content (12-13%) with high tensile strength in the vascular bundle. For cogeneration high fibre varieties are preferred. For jaggery high sucrose and better clearability are preferred. At present high fibre varieties are accepted in mills with improved milling efficiency. Now mills are processing varieites with upto 16% fibre content.X-ray spectrometry together with chemometric methods is an innovative and alternative technique for determining sugar cane quality parameters, specifically sucrose concentration, Pol and fiber content. There was an initial increase in the TSS content of juice extracted from canes stored at 27˚C for the first 3 days of storage and after that it decreased. Chlorophyll contributes to the attractive fresh greenish appearance of juice. The chlorophyll contents of juice extracted from stored canes decreased with increase in storage days (Yusof et al., 2000). Nitrogen increases sugar yield, but has to be balanced. Phosphorus, Potassium and Sulfur are important in providing good juice clarity. Potassium has a key role to play in sugar synthesis and its translocation to the cane. It also improves sugar quality increasing Pol and Brix levels and reducing fiber content. Magnesium supply helps maintain sucrose content in the cane by boosting protein synthesis. Sulfur boosts a range of quality characteristics including Pol and Brix. Conclusion Traditionally, the main focus on sugarcane breeding had been on sugar yield. However, recently, a new sugarcane genotype concept is emerging, focusing on biomass production to enable better explore ethanol or energy production. Within this new concept, breeding programs must be reoriented to strengthen its efforts on the development of new cultivars that fit this new www.aiasa.org.in 32

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 variety profile. For this, it is essential to quickly answer to question related to biometrics (stalk number, diameter, height) and processing (sucrose content, reducing sugars, fiber content). In India the sugar factories are evolving as sugar-fuel-energy complexes producing sugar, ethanol and electricity. The breeding priorities also need to change accordingly and the development of energy canes and dual-purpose canes have been thought of to provide flexibility to the sugar industry to produce the commodities as per demand and pricing (Nair, 2011). Surely, new germplasm resources must be explored by sugarcane breeding programs. The implementation of a parallel introgression program, aiming a broadening the genetic base of sugarcane cultivars for sugar content and/or biomass production, will definitively bring great contributions for increases on yield, ensuring a more sustainable cultivation of sugarcane. Gains on important traits, such as vigo (robustness), will contribute to biomass production and may be found within S. spontaneum accessions and related genera, such as Miscanthus and Erianthus. New resources and tools are constantly been made available for sugarcane such as better understanding of its genome, genetics, physiology, molecular biology, new markers associated with traits of agronomical relevance and new analysis tools. Breeding programs should take advantage of these tools and incorporate in their selection pipelines to generate superior new cultivars that respond to current and future needs of the industry and the hope of the general society. References

• Allison, J.C.S. (1985). Simulation of aspects of sugarcane selection.Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists Association, 59: 207-209. • de Morais, L. K., de Aguiar, M. S., e Silva, P. D. A., Câmara, T. M. M., Cursi, D. E., Júnior, A. R. F., Chapola, R.G., Carneiro, M.S., & BespalhokFilho, J. C. (2015). Breeding of sugarcane.In Industrial Crops (pp. 29-42).Springer, New York, NY. • Muchow, R. C., Robertson, M. J., & Wood, A. W. (1996).Growth of sugarcane under high input conditions in tropical Australia. II. Sucrose accumulation and commercial yield. Field Crops Research, 48(1): 27-36. • Nair, N. V. (2011). Sugarcane varietal development programmes in India: an overview. Sugar Tech, 13(4): 275-280. • Rojas, B.A. (1974). Evaluation of cane breeding plans. Proceedings of International Society of Sugarcane Technology,15: 67-81. • Singels, A., Smit, M.A., Redshaw, K.A. & Donaldson, R.A. (2005).The Effect of Crop Start Date, Crop Class and Cultivar on Sugarcane Canopy Development and Radiation Interception. Field Crops Research, 92(2-3): 249-260. • Stevenson, G.C. (1965). Genetics and Breeding of Sugarcane. Longman, Green and Co, London.284 pp. • Yusof, S., Shian, L. S., & Osman, A. (2000). Changes in quality of sugar-cane juice upon delayed extraction and storage. Food chemistry, 68(4): 395-401.

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Concept of Crop Plants’ Water Use Efficiency Jyoti Prakash Sahoo Article ID: 65 Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, College of Agriculture, OUAT, Bhubaneswar Corresponding author: [email protected]

Improving water use efficiency (WUE) or enhancing agricultural water productivity is a critical response to growing water scarcity, including the need to leave enough water in rivers and lakes to sustain ecosystems and to meet the growing demands of cities and industries. Originally, crop physiologists defined water use efficiency as the amount of carbon assimilated and crop yield per unit of transpiration and then later as the amount of biomass or marketable yield per unit of evapotranspiration. Irrigation scientists and engineers have used the term water (irrigation) use efficiency to describe how effectively water is delivered to crops and to indicate the amount of water wasted at plot, farm, command, or system level and defined it as “the ratio of irrigation water transpired by the crops of an irrigation farm or project during their growth period to the water diverted from a river or other natural source into the farm or project canal or canals during the same period of time. Some scholars have even pointed out that the commonly described relationship between water (input, mm or ML) and agricultural product (output, kg or ton) is an index, and not efficiency. The current focus of water productivity has evolved to include the benefits and costs of water used for agriculture in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. So, agricultural water productivity is the ratio of the net benefits from crop, forestry, fishery, livestock and mixed agricultural systems to the amount of water used to produce those benefits. In its broadest sense, it reflects the objectives of producing more food, income, livelihood and ecological benefits at less social and environmental cost per unit of water consumed. Physical water productivity is defined as the ratio of agricultural output to the amount of water consumed, and economic water productivity is defined as the value derived per unit of water used, and this has also been used to relate water use in agriculture to nutrition, jobs, welfare and the environment. Increasing water productivity is particularly appropriate where water is scarce and one needs to realize the full benefits of other production inputs, viz., fertilizers, high- quality seeds, tillage and land formation, and the labor, energy and machinery. Productive use of water means better food and nutrition for families, more income and productive employment. Targeting high water productivity can reduce cost of cultivation of crops and lower energy requirements for water withdrawal. This also reduces the need for additional land and water resources in irrigated and rain-fed systems. With no gains in water productivity, average annual agricultural evapotranspiration could double in the next 50 years. Better understanding, measurement and improvement of water productivity thus constitute a strategic response to growing water scarcity, optimization of other production inputs, and enhanced farm incomes and livelihoods. Additional reasons to improve agricultural water productivity include, meeting the rising demands for food and changing diet patterns of a growing, wealthier and increasingly www.aiasa.org.in 34

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 urbanized population, responding to pressures to reallocate water from agriculture to cities and industries and ensuring water is available for environmental uses and climate change adaptation and contributing to poverty reduction and economic growth of poor farmers. Crop scientists express and measure water use efficiency as the ratio of total biomass or grain yield to water supply or evapotranspiration or transpiration on a daily or seasonal basis. Biomass yield versus evapotranspiration relations have intercepts on the evapotranspiration axis, which are taken to represent direct evaporation from the soil and yield can be considered a linear function of transpiration, provided water use efficiency does not vary greatly during the season. Linearity of the yield versus evapotranspiration relation denotes that water use efficiency would increase with increase in evapotranspiration as a consequence of increased transpiration/evapotranspiration ratio because the intercept has a constant value. For this reason, water use efficiency also increases with increase in crop water supply up to a certain point. Water supply has also been observed to increase fertilizer use efficiency by increasing the availability of applied nutrients, and water and nutrients exhibit interactions in respect of yield and yield components. The irrigation system perspective of water use efficiency depends upon the water accounting where losses occur at each stage as water moves from the reservoir (storage losses), conveyed and delivered at the farm gate (conveyance losses), applied to the farm (distribution losses), stored in the soil (application losses) and finally consumed by the crops (crop management losses) for crop production. Depending upon the area of interest, it is possible to measure the water conveyance efficiency, application efficiency, water input efficiency, irrigation water use efficiency and crop water use efficiency. Whereas crop water use efficiency compares an output from the system (such as yield or economic return) to crop evapotranspiration the irrigation efficiency often compares an output or amount of water retained in the root zone to an input such as some measure of water applied. WUE can be measured at different scales, ranging from instantaneous measurements on the leaf to more integrative ones at the plant and crop levels. The pros and cons of those different ways to estimate WUE have been discussed elsewhere, and the decision on the most appropriate way depends on the capacity, facilities, and scale of the specific study. Most studies of WUE are performed on the basis of instantaneous measurements of leaf photosynthesis and transpiration, on the assumption that they are representative of whole-plant WUE, although only a few reports have evaluated WUE at the whole-plant level. Comparison between instantaneous and whole-plant values sometimes reveals a clear relationship, but often does not. This lack of correspondence is an important limitation to the applicability of the research conducted in this field. Its causes need to be clarified for scaling from single to whole-plant estimates of WUE. Very low water productivity levels, even under water-scarcity conditions, might indicate that major stresses other than water are at work, such as poor nutrition and diseases. In large rain- fed areas of sub-Saharan Africa, often soil fertility is the limiting factor to increased yields. Achieving synchrony between nutrient supply and crop demand without excess or deficiency under various moisture regimes (including lowland paddy) is the key to optimizing trade-offs amongst yield, profit and environmental protection in both large-scale systems in developed www.aiasa.org.in 35

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 countries and small-scale systems in the developing countries. At large river-basin scales with diverse and interacting uses and users, the water productivity issues become increasingly complex. Options for improving water productivity include reallocation and co-management of the resources among the high-value uses while maintaining a healthy ecosystem. Additional increase in crop production is now achieved with near proportionate increase in water consumption leading to over-exploitation of water resources in the productive areas. Alternatively, dry-spell mitigation and soil-fertility management can potentially more than double the on-farm yields in the vast low- productivity rain-fed areas. Fertilizer-mediated better rooting increases the capacity of the plant to extract water by increasing the size of the water reservoir and extensive canopy with longer- duration increases in plant demand for water. Fertilizer rates (including secondary and micronutrients), over which farmers have better control, need to be adjusted properly in relation to available water supplies.

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An Extension Approach for Agrometeorological Services Kungumaselvan, T*., and Sankar, T. Article ID: 66 Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction All agrometeorological information that can be directly applied to improve and protect the agricultural production may be considered as agrometeorological services. In extension agrometeorology the first and foremost need is make it possible of training material to training extension intermediaries (Stigter, 2010). Extension models or approaches has to outfit for given farming situation that attends to (i) local suffering from weather and climate and persistent ways to diminish it and (ii) windows of opportunity that offers on farm micro climate. For both approaches, a combination of local innovations and scientific understanding must be used, in a participatory approach, lead to the establishment of agrometeorological services and means first and foremost field work with farmers. New educational commitments viz., Climate Field Shops, Climate Field Schools/Classes and Agrometeorological Extension Training are being used by the extension intermediaries across the world to disseminate the weather information effectively. Agricultural policies has to be establishing and supporting a rural response to climate change and institutionalization of that response for sustainable agricultural production. Extension agrometeorology should join hands with other extension fields to mobilize production and protection forces in a multi-functional agricultural production. State Cooperative Extension Services should be lead agencies in this system by designating agricultural meteorology as a programming area and providing leadership for state programs due to demand for weather information varies among different locations in the agriculture value chain. Needs for improvement According to Zwane, et al., (2015), there are some most important needs to achieve better extension activities with related to agrometeorological services that after the development of sufficient and relevant agrometeorological information/advisories/services and their consequences, training of extension intermediaries or extension agents/officers remains the most crucial part of information/advisories transfer and services establishment in farmers’ fields. The training to the extension trainer’s is mainly focused to explore different approaches and proper establishments of extension agrometeorological services which mostly focus on the welfare of the farming community. The purpose of extension agrometeorology is that with help of well-trained intermediaries could articulate the agrometeorological information, advisories and services to the farmers and of the farming community. Zuma-Netshiukhwi and Stigter, (2016) found that only 13 per cent of the extension agents had a good understanding of weather forecasting and climate prediction and their application to agriculture, whereas 87 per cent had very little knowledge on these subjects. www.aiasa.org.in 37

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Innovations in Extension Agrometeorology Agrometeorological extension service model The information provided by the institutions should be more creditable and reliable which helps the farmers. The advisories are for the benefit of both the intermediaries and end-users to make informed decision toward improved agricultural sustainability and productivity. The best model which is proposed by Zuma-Netshiukhwi and Stigter, (2016) is depicted in figure 1.

Fig. 1: Agrometeorological extension service model Community Agro meteorological Participatory Extension Services (CAPES) CAPES was developed in a set up in Zambia with the principle of community agro meteorological participatory engagement to address the community problems, the engagement has to be implemented to get the overall benefits. This would be work through community participation under the guidance and monitoring of the CAPES team. For addressing and testing the suitability of strategies, implementation of CAPES is very important in addressing climate related community problems. Farmers are using the multi-disciplinary climatic knowledge dissemination modes viz., vernacular radio, radio listening clubs, farmer to farmer dissemination, public small and large group meetings, field experiments, field days etc. to obtain the valuable and authorized climatic knowledge and the ultimate result of an improved livelihood. The result could be validated using “mother-baby field trials”, to find their suitability for the cropping season. Baby trials at various locations are being cultivated by the selected or volunteer farmers at their farms whereas, the mother field trial is replicated and is managed by the researchers. Field days held at the mother field for sharing the gained knowledge from these trials. www.aiasa.org.in 38

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Farm and home visits will increase the interaction on climatic knowledge between researchers and farmers where farmers will receive additional advisories regarding climate knowledge and timely on-farm corrections and it will enhance decision making for improved crop productivity. Farmer Led Extension is the most widely used approach to disseminate the climatic knowledge because climatic information shared by their fellow farmers that are credible, other farmers easily accept and adopt climate knowledge (Nanja, 2013). Willingness to pay for scientific weather information Ghana farmers were in the need of location specific meteorological information in their local language. A firm was ready to provide the climatic information in their local language through mobile calls. After a successful implementation of the program, farmers conveyed that they want to have such service and they are willing to pay. The information/advisories provided through mobile phones would help them very much in the work on farm. Farmers were ready to pay money or give some produce to the service provider at the end of the farming season. They were willing to pay either as agricultural commodities or money. The produce quantities proposed by farmers were converted to monetary values using the prevailing 2013 market prices (Mabe et al., 2014) ICT and Weather advisories ICT tools are used to deliver and exchange of effective agrometeorological information’s and thus, successful adaptation to climate change requires transformation of economic and social information through networked governance. In India, weather and climatic information are disseminated primarily by the authority of the India Meteorological Department and they have six Regional Meteorological Centre across the country, providing agro-advisory services, and ICAR runs the All-India Coordinated Project on Agro-Meteorology. These location-specific weather and seasonal climate forecasts and agro-met advisory services are generally disseminate to farmers and general public as well through a wide variety of channels and modes with conventional mass media play the primary role. Using of ICT at the regional and international levels in agriculture and environment related to early warning systems, adaptation to climate change, disaster reduction, bringing weather services to rural community, and in the economics of climate change (Craufurd, and Balaji, 2014). Climatic field schools Climate Field School (CFS) Program started by Indonesian government during 2007 to help the farmers adjust to the adverse impacts of climate change. Apart from being able to help the farmers increase farm production, the CFS program enhances the farmers’ adaptive capacity as well. CFS made awareness among the farmers related to weather information which helps them to monitor the weather changes and adjust their farming practices. Result of using this program was noticed in 2008, had a significant increase in rice production in Indonesia (Golez and Dumangas, 2012). Figure 2 presents a basic structure of two-way information flow to improve the existing weather information and agro-advisory service system.

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Fig. 2: Climatic field schools Model (Source: Golez and Dumangas, 2012). Conclusion The findings of this paper is that agrometeorological concepts should be incorporated in agricultural training and extension activities for improved decision making by the farmers at farm level. The concept of an extension agrometeorology approach possesses great opportunities to train intermediaries and farmers on the application of scientific information. Extension training should start at the institutions that deliver the agrometeorological advisories and services to both the extension intermediaries and farmers. The extension intermediaries who works closest with farmers and deliver advisory services to farmers and farm fields can first be trained by experts Shops until product intermediaries exist with enough experience and training. Reference

• Craufurd, P. Q., & Balaji, V. (2014). Using information and communication technologies to disseminate and exchange agriculture-related climate information in the Indo-Gangetic Plains. • Golez, R., & Dumangas, I. I. (2012). Climate Field School: An Innovative Approach to Agricultural Adaptation. Agriculture and Development Notes, 2, 1-2. • Mabe, F. N., Nketiah, P., & Darko, D. (2014). Farmers’ willingness to pay for weather forecast information in savelugu-nanton municipality of the northern region. Russian Journal of Agricultural and Socio-Economic Sciences, 36(12). • Nanja, D.H. (2013). Applied Agrometeorology. Practical Manual. Jamaica Rural Economy and Ecosystems Adapting to Climate Change (Research) Project. • Stigter, K. (2010). Agrometeorological Services. In Applied Agrometeorology (pp. 101- 261). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. • Zuma-Netshiukhwi, G. N. C., & Stigter, C. J. (2016). An extension approach to close the gap between suppliers and users of agrometeorological services in the South-Western Free State of South Africa. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 44(2), 84-98. www.aiasa.org.in 40

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• Zwane, E. M., Igodan, C., Agunga, R., & Van Niekerk, J. A. (2015). Changing demands of clients of extension: What kind of competency is needed to meet the new demand? South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 43(2), 52-65.

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Hazardous Heavy Metals: A Blind Evil Pragya Shukla Article ID: 67 Department of Botany, Institute of Science, BHU, Varanasi, India CSIR- National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, India Corresponding author: [email protected]

Heavy metals are hazardous pollutants which have spread largely all over the world. Metals with a specific gravity more than 5 coupled with a specific density of more than 5g/cm3 aregenerally referred as hazardous heavy metals. The root causes of heavy metal contamination in different sediments/locality are rapid pace of urbanization and different anthropogenic activities. The diverse and emerging health issues due to these harmful metals have become a global concern, particularly their intricate association with human health. Heavy metals and metalloids are classified as essential (Cu, Fe, Zn, and Cr III etc.) as well as non-essential (As, Pb, Cd, Hg etc.). Essential heavy metals are components of different metabolic processes such as Cr-III is crucial part of cytochromes and enzymes. Nickle (Ni) is an integral part of urease. Although excessive level of these essential metals can cause severe human health risks. Non-essential heavy metals are highly toxic and deleterious in various aspects. These metals do not participate in to metabolic and other biological functions. Hazardous heavy metals may disrupt the metabolic functions in two major ways: • They accumulate and thereby disrupt function in vital organs and glands such as the heart, brain, kidneys, bone, liver, etc. • They displace the vital nutritional minerals from their original place, thereby, hindering their biological functions. Various public health measures have been undertaken to control, prevent and treat metal toxicity occurring at various levels, such as environmental factors, accidents and occupational exposure. Metal toxicity depends upon the absorbed dose, the route of exposure and duration of exposure, i.e. acute or chronic. It is, however, impossible to live in an environment free of heavy metals. There are many waysthrough which these toxins may be introduced into the body such as consumption of foods, beverages, skin exposure, and inhaled air. Hazardous metals and ecosystem: Heavy metal contaminations of different reservoirs continue to be focus of numerous hazardous studies and attract a great deal of attention globally. The spatial distribution of heavy metals illustrated that accumulation of metals may be due to the industrialization, agricultural chemicals and other anthropogenic activities. Municipal solid waste also classified as a hazardous material because it contains high amounts of heavy metals. Spent grain is an abundantly available brewing industrial waste generated in the mashing process. It is a lignocellulosic biomass, which mainly consists of hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. In principle, citric acid can directly interact with the hydroxyl groups of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in spent grain by esterification, which produces an effective adsorbent, which is suitable for www.aiasa.org.in 42

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 adsorption of heavy metal ions that can be utilized as a new low cost adsorbent for heavy metal ions removal. Heavy metal uptake and chemical changes in rhizosphere soils of rooted wetland plants is another way to which significantly effects on the mobility and chemical forms of lead and zinc in rhizosphere under flooded conditions.

Table: Different heavy metals and their effect on human health with their permissible limits:

Pollutant Permissible Effect on human health Major sources limit (mg/l)

Arsenic (Ar) 0.02 Dermatitis, Poisoning Metal smelters, pesticides, Bronchitis fungicides

Lead (Pb) 0.1 Congenital paralysis, mental Automobile emission, retardation, encephalopathy, mining, paint, pesticides chronic or acute damage to the nervous system.

Cadmium (Cd) 0.06 Severe bone defects, increased Cadmium batteries, nuclear blood pressure, lung disease, fission plant, welding, kidney damage. pesticide, welding

Chromium 0.05 Irritability, fatigue, damage to Mineral sources, mines (Cr) the nervous system

Copper (Cu) 0.1 Anaemia, stomach and Chemical industry, metal intestinal irritation, liver and piping, pesticide kidney damage. production, mining

Manganese 0.26 Contact or inhaled Mn cause Ferromanganese (Mn) damage to central nervous production, welding, fuel system addition

Zinc (Zn) 15 Corrosive effect on skin, cause Metal plating, brass damage to nervous membrane. manufacturing, refineries, metal plating.

Mercury (Hg) 0.01 Protoplasm poisoning, Paper industry, batteries, spontaneous abortion, tremors, pesticide industry. gingivitis, erethism.

Consequences of heavy metals on human: More than 30 metals that are of concern for us due to different exposure, out of which 23 are heavy metals viz., arsenic, bismuth, cadmium, antimony, cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, gallium, mercury, nickel, platinum, silver, tellurium, gold, iron, www.aiasa.org.in 43

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 lead, manganese, thallium, tin, uranium, vanadium, and zinc. Several heavy metals are commonly found in the environment and diet. In little amounts they are required for maintaining health but in larger quantity they can become hazardous. Metal toxicity can lower energy levels and damage the functioning of the different organs. Longterm exposure of hazardous metals can lead to gradually progressing physical, muscular and neurological degenerative processes that can cause different disorders of the body such as Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, muscular dystrophy. Long term repeated exposure of heavy metal compounds may lead to cancer. Hence thorough knowledge of heavy metals is rather important to provide proper defensive measures against their excessive contact. Exposure to heavy metals can be decreased by engineering interventions. Monitoring the exposure and probable solutions for reducing additional exposure to heavy metals in the environment and in humans can become a momentous step towards prevention. References: • Rai PK, Lee SS, Zhang M, Tsang YF& Kim KH (2019) Heavy metals in food crops: Health risks, fate, mechanisms, and management Environment International, 125, 365- 385. • Tchounwou, P. B., Yedjou, C. G., Patlolla, A. K.,& Sutton, D. J. (2012) Heavy metals toxicity and the environment. Molecular, clinical and environmental toxicology. Springer, Basel, 101, 133–164.

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Time Domain Analysis and Frequency Domain Analysis for Forecasting the Price Volatility of the Agricultural Crops Sathees Kumar K and Vediyappan V Article ID: 68 Department of Agricultural Statistics, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, West Bengal Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction Price Volatility study gives a scope to the policy makers and farmers in regard to the policy making and investment activity. Price variation leads to income variation of the producers (Farmers). Since commodity price i.e. the product sold in the market does not remain stable over the time. Volatility or Fluctuation always exist in the Agricultural Markets. Fluctuations in commodity prices have always been a major concern of the producers as well as the consumers as they affect their decision and planning process. Price risk is one of the most important components of risk in agriculture as it affects farmers and government policies. Interestingly, many agricultural commodities price data are inherently noisy in nature and are volatile too. So an advanced estimate of price volatility is required by farmers to stabilize their income in one hand and in other hand it helps the policy makers to adopt suitable policy measures to control the instability.Time domain analysis and frequency domain analysis are the two approaches where used for analyzing the financial time series (price volatility). 1. Time domain Analysis A continuous set of observations that are ordered in equally spaced intervals is known as a time series (Stephen, 1998). Traditional approach of analyzing a time series is known as the time domain approach. The time domain is a record of what happens to a parameter of the system versus time or space. Time domain analysis is widely used in that respect but the latter is applied less. In time domain analysis, several methods are available. Following methods are some examples of time domain analysis which is used for forecasting the price volatility. 1.1 ARIMA – Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average It is popularly known as the Box-Jenkins methodology, but technically known as ARIMA methodology. Unlike the regression model in which the Yt is explained by K regressors X1,X2,…,

Xn. The Box-Jenkins type time series model allow Yt to be explained by past or lagged value of Y itself and the stochastic error term. AR - the evolving variable of interest is regressed on its own lagged (i.e., prior) values. I - the data values have been replaced with the difference between their values and the previous values to make the stationary series MA - the regression error is actually a linear combination of error terms whose values occurred contemporaneously and at various times in the past. Following are the various category of ARIMA model. www.aiasa.org.in 45

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• An autoregressive (AR(p)), moving average (MA(q)), or ARMA (p, q) model.

• A model containing multiplicative seasonal components SARIMA (p, d, q) ⨉ (P, D, Q)s.

• A model containing a linear regression component for exogenous covariates (ARIMAX). 1.2 GARCH - Generalized Autoregressive Conditional Heteroscedastic The generalized autoregressive conditional heteroscedastic (GARCH) model is an extension of Engle’s ARCH model for variance heteroscedasticity. If a series exhibits volatility clustering, this suggests that past variances might be predictive of the current variance. The GARCH (P, Q) model is an autoregressive moving average model for conditional variances, with P GARCH coefficients associated with lagged variances, and QARCH coefficients associated with lagged squared innovations. The form of the GARCH (P, Q) model is yt=µ + εt, where, εt=σt zt and

σ2t= κ + γ1σ2t−1+…+γPσ2t−P+α1ε2t−1+…+αQε2t−Q. 1.3 EGARCH The exponential GARCH (EGARCH) model is a GARCH variant that models the logarithm of the conditional variance process. In addition to modeling the logarithm, the EGARCH model has additional leverage terms to capture asymmetry in volatility clustering. The EGARCH (P, Q) model has P GARCH coefficients associated with lagged log variance terms, Q ARCH coefficients associated with the magnitude of lagged standardized innovations, and Q leverage coefficients associated with signed, lagged standardized innovations. The form of the EGARCH (P, Q) model is

Yt = µ + εt, where εt = σtzt and logt2= ω+ i=1Pi logt-i2 + j=1Qj t-jt-j -E {t-j t-j} + j=1Qj t-jt-j 1.4 ANN- Artificial Neural Network ANN is a data-driven, self-adaptive, nonlinear, and nonparametric statistical method. There are various forms of the widely applied ANN model. Its origin can be found in neurological sciences, where external pulses are filtered through hidden layers such that initial signals can be properly analysed by brain cells. ANN is a powerful tool for modeling, especially whenthe underlying data relationship is not known. Its modelling has attracted a new technique for estimation and forecasting in many fields of study including agriculture, economics and statistics. Researchers get attracted to ANN due to its freedom from restrictive assumptions such as linearity that is often needed to make the traditional mathematical model useable. ANNs have become the focus of much attention, largely because of their wide range of applicability and the ease with which they can treat complicated problems. A very important feature of this network is its learning capability. www.aiasa.org.in 46

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The time series data can be modeled using ANN by providing implicit functional representation of time, whereby a static neural network like multilayer perceptron is bestowed with dynamic properties. One simple way of building short-term memory into the structure of a neural network may be through the use of time delay, which can be implemented at the input layer of the neural network. Time-delay neural network (TDNN) is an example of such architecture. Time delay networks are similar to feedforward networks, except that the input weight has a tap delay line associated with it. This allows the network to have a finite dynamic response to time series input data. This network is also similar to the distributed delay neural network. 2. Frequency Domain Analysis An alternative approach for time domain analysis is the frequency domain analysis. In physics, electronics, control systems engineering, and statistics, the frequency domain refers to the analysis of mathematical functions or signals with respect to frequency, rather than time. Put simply, a time-domain graph shows how a signal changes over time, whereas a frequency-domain graph shows how much of the signal lies within each given frequency band over a range of frequencies.Frequency domain analysis was initially established in natural sciences such as physics, engineering, geophysics, oceanography, atmospheric science, astronomy etc. and not much used in the field of economics. Frequency domain approach was less popular in economic time series analysis, due to the complexity. Following methods are some examples of frequency domain analysis which is used for forecasting the price volatility. 2.1 Spectral Analysis or Fourier Analysis Fourier transformation is used to transform the time series of time domain to frequency domain for analysis. yf= -∞yt e-iωt dt Here, y(f) – Frequency domain signal y(t) – Time domain signal ω= 2πfN But, this analysis have some drawbacks. They are

• It is suitable for only stationary signal.

• It has only frequency resolution.

• It is not suitable for studying local behaviour of signal. 2.2 Wavelet Analysis This analysis is for overcome the drawbacks of fourier analysis. It has multiresolution (time resolution and frequency resolution) which is the major advantage of the wavelet analysis. τ,s=1s ψt-τs τ,s∈R, s≠0

τ - Translation parameter www.aiasa.org.in 47

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 s - Scaling parameter Conclusion It here by concluded that price risk is one of the most important components of risk in agriculture as it affects farmers and government policies. So, forecasting of price volatility is indispensable deed for increasing the farmers income. Multifarious analysis are available for forecasting the price volatility. In which, above mentioned methods were used repeatedly and which are more reliable. References: • Anjoy, P. and Paul, R.K., 2019. Comparative performance of wavelet-based neural network approaches. Neural Computing and Applications, 31(8), pp.3443-3453. • Bollerslev, T., 1986. Generalized autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity. Journal of Econometrics, 31:307-327. • Box, G. E. P. and Jenkins, G. M., 1976. Time Series Analysis Forecasting and Control, Second Edition, Holden Day. pp: 88-122. • Konarasinghe, W.G.S.; Abeynayake, N. R. and Gunaratne, L. H. P., 2015. Comparison of Time Domain and Frequency Domain Analysis in Forecasting Sri Lankan Share Market Returns, International Journal of Management and Applied Science, 1: 16-18. • Stephen, A., D., 1998. Forecasting Principles and Applications. First Edition. Irwin McGraw-Hill, USA. • Sundaramoorthy, C.; Girish, K. J.; Suresh, P. and Mathur, V.C., 2014. Market Integration and Volatility in Edible Oil Sector in India. Journal of the Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics,68(1):67-76.

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Impact of Hydrogel Polymer in Water Stress Agriculture P. Ramamoorthy1, M. Karthikeyan2 and V. Nirubana3 Article ID: 69 1 Department of Soil Science & Agrl. Chemistry, TNAU, Madurai 2 Department of Plant breeding and Genetics, TNAU, Madurai 3Department of Plant breeding and Genetics, TNAU, Madurai Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction In India rainfed agro-ecologies contribute 60% of the net sown area, 100% of the forest and 66%of the livestock. About 84–87% of pulses and minor millets, 80% of horticulture, 77% of oilseeds, 66% of cotton and 50% of cereals are cultivated under this region. The area under dryland condition is 85 m ha (60% of total cultivated area), which receives average annual rainfall less than 1150 mm. Also, more than 30% of total geographical area of the country comes under low rainfall (less than 750 mm). India accounts for 2.45% of land area and 4% of water resources of the world, but it has 16% of the world’s population (Moghadam et al., 2013) Table 1: Per capita water availability in India.

Year Per capita water availability (m3/year)

1951 5177

1955 4732

1991 2209

2001 1820

2025 1341

2025 1140

So, there is a strong need for plant growth media with increased water holding capacity and from past few years researchers are developing water-saving technologies to sustain present food self-sufficiency and to meet future food requirements. Hydrogel Hydrogel (super absorbents) is one of the most popular, having also been used to reduce water runoff and increase infiltration rates in field agriculture, in addition to increasing water holding capacity for agricultural applications. The use of hydrophilic polymers, to improve soil water retention properties and thus, crop productivity is attracting considerable interest. Hydrogel absorbs water after rain or applied irrigation from soil and water which it releases back to the soil www.aiasa.org.in 49

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 as and when the plant demands it. This function is particularly important during dry seasons as the hydrogel will hold soil moisture in water limited areas and feed the necessary water into the root system of the plant. The efficiency of the technology is highly suited for farmers growing crops under rainfed and limited water availability areas. Hydrogels having the capacity to absorb water 20 times more than their weight is considered as superabsorbent. But due to development of more cross-linked polymer with high water holding capacity (400 times & even up to 2000 times of their weight) and comparatively low cost has rejuvenated interest on the use of polymer in agriculture. Both water soluble and insoluble polymers have been marketed for agricultural use. Water-soluble polymers do not form gels and are used as soil conditioners. These include polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol, polyacrylates and polyacrylamides. Water soluble polymers were developed primarily to aggregate and stabilize soils, combat erosion and improve percolation and improve crop yield on drought and structure less soil. Depending on type of polymer and the condition during synthesis, water absorbent polymer has the ability to absorb up to 1,000 times or more of their weight in

pure water and form gels. Because of its tremendous water absorbing and gel forming ability, they are referred as super absorbents or hydrogels. There are three main groups of hydrogels (i) Starch-graft co-polymers (ii) Polyacrylates (iii) Acrylamide-acrylate co-polymers. Working of hydrogel Hydrogels are characterized by negative (anionic), positive (cationic) or neutral charge. These charge classes are found in both linear and cross-linked polyacryamide hydrogels. The charge determines how they will react with soils and solutes. Briefly, clay components of soil have a negative charge; heavy metals have a positive charge, and other commonly found minerals in soil and water possess either a positive or a negative charge. Therefore, cationic hydrogels generally bind to clay components and act as flocculants, anionic hydrogel cannot directly bind to clay and may act as dispersants. However, anionic hydrogel can bind to clay and other negatively charged particles in the presence of ionic bridges, such as calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+). However, in any given situation hydrogels will act in which manner is hard to predict, as the chemical interactions, and dissolved substances are complex and occur simultaneously. Electrical www.aiasa.org.in 50

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 charges, hydration levels, vander Waals forces, and hydrogen bonding all modify the affinity of the gel for other compounds. The polyacrylamide polymer contains a complex array of positively charged, negatively charged and neutral chain segments, all with varying affinities for other molecules. The stronger the attraction between the gel and surrounding solutes and the soil particles, the greater the ability of the gel to absorb water, create aggregates, and stabilize soil structure. Agricultural hydrogels Agricultural hydrogels are natural polymers containing a cellulose backbone. They can also perform well at high temperatures (40–500C) and hence are suitable for semi-arid and arid regions. They can absorb a minimum of 400 times of their dry weight of pure water and gradually release it according to the needs of the crop plant. Hydrogels are found to improve the physical properties of soils (viz. porosity, bulk density, water holding capacity, soil permeability, infiltration rate, etc.). Increase in porosity results in improvement in seed germination and rate of seedling emergence, root growth and density, and reduced soil erosion due to reduction in soil compaction. It also increases biological/microbial activities in the soil, which increase oxygen/air availability in root zone of the plant. Hydrogels help plants with- stand extended moisture stress by delaying the onset of permanent wilting point and reducing irrigation requirements of crops due to reduced water loss through evapo- ration. The water held in root zone of the crop and leaching of nutrients in the soil are also reduced. Agricultural hydrogel can be used for all crops and all soil types. Application and availability Available in dry powder the gel should be mixed with approximately 10 times the quantity of the farm soil and basal dose of fertilizers. Seeds to be sown are also mixed with it. The mixture is then applied uniformly in the rows with the help of plough or seed drill. Care must be taken to ensure precision application of the product around or below the seed. Agricultural hydrogel can be used for all crops and all soil types. Its benefits are most easily noticed in nurseries and seedling beds, crops sensitive to moisture stress, crops requiring large quantities of water , and container gardens–pot cultures. Rate of application of agricultural hydrogel depends upon the texture of soil–for clay soil: 2.5 kg/ha (at the soil depth of 6–8 inches). For sandy soil: up to 5.0 kg/ha (at the soil depth of 4 inches). For field crops: Prepare mixture of hydrogel and fine dry soil in 1 : 10 ratio and apply along with the seeds/fertilizers or in the opened furrows before sowing. For best results, hydrogel should be close to seeds. 2 • In nursery bed for transplants: Apply 2 g/m (or according to recommended rate) of nursery bed mix of hydrogel uniformly in the top 2 inches of the nursery bed. In pot culture, mix 3–5 g/kg of soil before planting (Yazdani et al., 2007)

• While transplanting: Thoroughly mix 2 g (or according to recommended rate) of hydrogel per litre of water to prepare a free-flowing solution; allow it to settle for half an hour. Dip the roots of the plant in the solution and then transplant in the field. www.aiasa.org.in 51

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Effect of Hydrogel on Yield And Yield Attributes

• Maize yield increased slightly following superabsorbent polymer application by 11.2% under low and 18.8% under medium dose, but significantly at high and very high doses by 29.2 and 27.8% with only half amount (150 kg ha-1) of fertilizer as compared to control, which received conventional standard fertilizer dose (300 kg ha-1).

• The results obtained from farmers field demonstration conducted by ICAR at different locations in Uttar Pradesh evidenced that soil application of hydrogel @ 5 kg/ha along with three irrigations in different wheat varieties is able to produce grain yield equivalent to irrigating wheat crop with five times without hydrogel application (Table 2). Table 2: Demonstrations in farmers’ fields conducted by ICAR

Zone Three irrigation without Five irrigation without Five irrigation + 5 LSD hydrogel hydrogel kg/ha hydrogel 5%

Hathras 5 3.65 4.20 0.28

Hardoi 2 3.75 4.38 0.33

Gonda 2 3.95 4.80 0.39

Lucknow 1 4.05 4.75 0.22

Effect of Hydrogel on Soil Water Content and Water Use Efficiency

• Application of superabsorbent polymer could be an effective management practice for maize cultivation in soils characterized by low water holding capacity where rain or irrigation water and fertilizer often leach below the root zone within a short period of time leading to poor water use efficiency by crop.

• The application of high levels of hydrogel addition @ 2, 4, 6 and 8g/kg enhanced available water content approximately 1.8, 2.2 and 3.2 fold in sandy loam, loamy and clay soils respectively as compared to that of the control

• Hydrogels increase the water holding capacity for agricultural applications. they further reported that application of 0.6% hydrogel concentration prolonged the time of water loss from the soil by about 66% and the seedlings grown in 0.6% hydrogel mixed soil survived three times as long as those grown in the control soil, however, was statistically at par with 0.4 % hydrogel concentration(Shahid and Hari. 2016)

• Hydrogels applied to sandy loam soils increased the amount of available moisture in the root zone and water holding capacity resulting in longer intervals between irrigations. The water holding capacity (33.75, 27.10, 23.05 and 20.15%) and available moisture (12.47, 10.62, 7.70 and 4.82 %) were recorded when hydrogel was applied @ 4, 3, 2 and 0 g hydrogel/plant pit respectively. www.aiasa.org.in 52

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Table 3: Interactive effect of irrigation and hydrogel on WUE (kg grain/ha/mm) of wheat

Hydrogel rates Irrigation levels

No Two Three Four Mean

No Hydrogel 13.0 11.4 11.7 10.4 11.6

2.5 kg/ ha Hydrogel 14.7 13.3 12.1 11.0 12.8

3.0 kg/ ha Hydrogel 15.6 14.8 12.9 11.4 13.7

Mean 14.4 13.1 12.2 10.9

Conclusion Water conservation is a key step to attain sustainable agriculture growth, development and productivity. The problem of optimal capitalization and recovery of water from any source should be seen as a major goal of scientific research. Water will become the “cornerstone” of sustainability and the future of humanity. Water absorbing materials have been reported to be effective tools in increasing water holding capacity. Hydrogel application increases productivity in almost all the test crops (cereals, vegetables, oilseeds, flowers, spices etc.) in terms of crop yield. Hence hydrogels may become a practically convenient and economically feasible option in water-stressed areas for increasing agricultural productivity with environmental sustainability. Reference • Moghadam, T., Shirani-Rad, H. R., Mohammadi, A. H. N, Habibi, G, Modarres-S, Mashhadi S A M and Dolatabadian M A (2013). Response of six oilseed rape genotypes to water stress and hydrogel application. Pesquisa Agro Tropical 39 : 243-50. • Shahid B. D and Hari Ram. (2016). Grain yield, nutrient uptake and water-use efficiency of wheat (Triticum aestivum) under different moisture regimes, nutrient and hydrogel levels. Indian Journal of Agronomy 61:58-61 • Yazdani, F.; Allahdadi, I and Akbari, G.A. (2007). Impact of superabsorbent polymer on yield and growth analysis of soybean (Glycine max l.) under drought stress condition. Pakistan Journal Of Biological Science, 10: 4190-4196.

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Medicinal Uses of Insects K. Elakkiya, R. Muthu and M. M. Mawtham Article ID: 70 Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu-641003 Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction Insects are not always meant as pests of crops. Apart from this destructive nature of insects as pest there are several economically valuable resources associated with insects like silk, honey, lac, biocontrol agents, etc. In addition to this, several insects of different families are also being used as medicine in ancient cultures and now scientists are trying to rediscover the medicinal properties associated with insects that are used since ancient times.

Table 1: Lists of insects and their medicinal properties

Order Insect Medicinal uses

Consumed as a whole to reduce the cholesterol level, Desert locust protect cardiovascular, anti – inflammatory, anti-cancer, Schistocerca gregaria and immune regulatory effects.

Schistocerca piceifrons Taken as a whole Stop hiccups Orthoptera Gryllus gryllotalpa and Heals wound G. africana

Achaeta domesticus Treat asthma and act as diuretic substance

Placed in a match box and are smelled by kids for 3 Black cockroaches times a day to treat asthma

Hodotermes To treat child malnutrition mossambicus Blattodea Macotermes bellicosus Helps to heal wounds and M. nigeriensis

Nasititermes Used for treating asthma, bronchitis, sore throat and macrocephalus, tonsillitis www.aiasa.org.in 54

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M. corniger

Tonic prepared from the nymphs used as blood purifier Acisoma panorpoides Odonota

Aeschna petalura Tonic - taken orally to treat anemia

Rhynchophorus palmarum, Rhinostomus Treat fever, headache and boils barbirostris, Rhina barbirostris

Cantharidin: For abdominal masses, rabies, abortifacient Blister beetles as well as anti-cancer agent

Larvae can reduce the degree of hepatocellular damage Holotrichia diomphalia and become a promising antifibrotic agent for liver (black chafer) fibrosis/cirrhosis

The ethanolic extract and water extract contain H. parallela antioxidant activities

Tenebrionid beetle An alternative medicine in the treatment of asthma, Coleoptera Ulomoides diabetes, arthritis, HIV and specially cancer dermestoides

For the treatment of epilepsy adult and their larvae are utilized for earache, stroke, swelling, wounds, Leaf beetle seborrheic dermatitis, inflammation and thrombosis treatment.

Dung beetle Catharsius The paste made using this beetle is taken orally for the sp. treatment of diarrhoea

The insect is powdered and added in tea for the Megaphanaeus sp. treatment of asthma and stroke

For the treatment of malaria, leaves of Leucas aspera, Ocimum sanctum and the beetles are boiled to prepare Black beetles decoction and the decoction is either orally administered or applied throughout the body.

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The ash of silkworm cocoon is used as styptic, tonic and Silkworm astringent to check profuse menstruation, leucorrhoea, chronic diarrhoea, eye infection and catarrh

The freshly laid eggs is used to treat dog bites either by Diacrisia obliqua direct application or by consumption Lepidoptera Larvae are used either as powder or as tonic to treat Helicoverpa armigera fever, eosinophilia, asthma and to improve hair growth.

Semilooper Pericyma Pupa of semilooper Pericyma cruegri is taken after cruegri cooking to cure stomach disorder.

The immature furuncles are treated either by placing the crushed houseflies or by placing the mixture of manioc Houseflies flour and crushed flies head while larvae are used to cure osteomyelitis, decubital necrosis, lip boil, ecthyma Diptera and malnutrition.

Maggots that are reared under septic conditions are Lucilia sericata placed over the healing area to treat wounds

Gaint water bug Lohita Living adult is crushed and applied on fresh wound to grandis stop bleeding.

Decoction prepared from brood is consumed to treat Coccus cacti wooping cough

Shell is utilized for the treatment of diarrhoea and Lac Kerria lacca indigestion

Freshly prepared paste is externally applied for hair Bed bug Cimex Hemiptera growth and taken internally for urinary disorder and also lecturalis to treat constipation, arthritis epilepsy and snake bite.

Crushed and applied as a paste to stop bleeding and to Green leaf hopper heal asthma, as well as inhale smoke of adults for treat Nephotetix nigropictus to asthma.

Powder of a toasted cicada applied in the eye to treat Cicada glaucoma

The cochineal insect, Apply whole body of which is used for nasal congestion www.aiasa.org.in 56

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Dactylopius coccus and ear pain in holistic Mexican medicine.

Eaten raw or fried to treat tuberculosis and for the Leaf cutting ant Atta treatment of asthma and the powdered ant is taken along sp. with tea

Ant soaked oil is used to treat rheumatism, stomach Oecophylla infection, gout, joint pain and fumes obtained by smaragdina rubbing ants used to get rid of cold symptoms

The dried ant is powdered and used as nerve tonic and Velvet ant as antispasmodic while honey and mixed ant powder is given to patient suffering from paralysis.

For wasp bite, the paste made from wasp nest with water Wasp is applied topically over the affected area.

(i) The propolis possess antibacterial and antifungal properties used in the therapy of vulvovaginal candidiasis. Hymenoptera (ii) Bee venom is used to treat inflammatory disorders like arthritis, bursitis, tendinities, joint disease, dissolving scar tissue osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, gout, multiple sclerosis and lyme disease and other immune disorders like sclerodema and asthma. (iii) Bee pollen is widely used as antifungal, antimicrobial, antiaging, anti-inflammatory, Honey bee immunostimulating, anti-oxidant, anti-radiation, hepatoprotective, chemoprotective and chemopreventive agents and widely used in burn wound treatment and ulcerations of different etiology (iv) Bee wax has anti-microbial property and are used in cosmetics as they improves the elasticity of skin and also used as a main product of thermotherapy (v) Honey has antimicrobial and wound healing properties and also use for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, decrease the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD).

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Nature has provided many sources of medicine other than plants. The negative cultural attitude regarding the arthropods, limited their usage as medicine. Hence, the present document focused on the use of insect as a natural product having potential source as a medicine that is useful in curing as well as giving protection from the diseases. References: • Basa, B., Belay, W., Tilahun, A., & Teshale, A. (2016). Review on medicinal value of honeybee products: Apitherapy. Advances in Biological Research, 10(4), 236-247. • Crespo, R., Villaverde, M. L., Girotti, J. R., Güerci, A., Juárez, M. P., & de Bravo, M. G. (2011). Cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of defence secretion of Ulomoides dermestoides on A549 cells. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 136(1), 204-209. • de Figueirêdo, R. E. C. R., Vasconcellos, A., Policarpo, I. S., & Alves, R. R. N. (2015). Edible and medicinal termites: a global overview. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 11(1), 29. • Khalil, M. L., & Sulaiman, S. A. (2010). The potential role of honey and its polyphenols in preventing heart disease: a review. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, 7(4).

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Spine Gourd (Momordica Dioica Roxb. Ex Willd.): A Potential Crop By Value But Not Commercial in Production Jyothi Motapalukula1, Mallesh Sanganamoni2 and Ankit Panchbhaiya3 Article ID: 71 1College of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, VNMKV, Parbhani, Maharashtra 2College of Horticulture, Rajendranagar, SKLTSHU, Telangana 3Sectional Officer (Horticulture), DDA, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, 110016 Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction Spine gourd (Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd.) is a minor cucurbitaceous vegetable crop. It is mostly grown as wild form but there is gradual expansion of cultivated area due to its enormous potential as vegetable by supplying plenty of nutrients as well as medicinal compounds for maintaining healthy diet. Though, the spine gourd crop is already under cultivation, it is confined to lesser extent, as there are multiple drawbacks for cultivation of this crop at farmer level. Those drawbacks start from varietal availability up to the marketing. These limitations are responsible for not commercializing the spine gourd even it has huge consumer acceptance in the market. Because of this low availability in the market, price of the spine gourd fruits always fetches more throughout the season. Constraints with possible solutions for commercialization of spine gourd in India 1. Sex expression Spine gourd is basically a dioecious crop “having male and female flowers on different plants”. So, the both female and male plant itself is different. If we want to get fruits by pollination and fertilization, it is must to maintain both male and female plants population in the same field close to each other making increased production cost of the crop. Besides this issue, dioecy is also creating certain problems like difficulty in breeding new varieties and hybrids with homogeneity, as there is a problem in bringing the parents into homozygous condition through self pollination. Because of the unisexuality of the plants, self pollination is not possible in spine gourd, unless there is induction of male and female flowers with the help of growth regulators or certain chemical compounds. For this purpose, gibberellic acid at lower concentration, ethylene, auxins and brassinosteroids are generally employed for induction of female flowers on male plants and the compounds like gibberellic acid at higher concentration, silver nitrate and silver thiosuphate are used for induction of male flowers on female plants. 2. Propagation Spine gourd can be multiplied with both sexual (seed) as well as asexual (vegetative) propagation methods. Neither method is having commercial acceptability due to their own drawbacks. Problems with seed (sexual) propagation www.aiasa.org.in 59

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• Unexpected segregation of male and female population, which is not possible to identify at seed or seedling stage. It makes increased seed rate because of thinning of male plants by retaining required percentage (10%) for pollination done at flowering stage. This operation adds additional cost of production and also wastage of resources. This problem can be rectified with the help of molecular marker technology at early stage of the crop development but it is very difficult to operate at farmer level. • There is a problem with germination of the seeds due to its hard seed coat, which makes poor germination percentage of the seeds. It can be overcome by soaking the seeds over night in the water or by treating the seed with chemicals like sulfuric acid. • Seeds take more time for germination and to reach bearing stage, as compared with other methods of propagation. • Lesser seed viability is also an issue in spine gourd cultivation. Problems with vegetative (asexual) propagation Tuber and tuber cuttings Whole tuber or part of the tuber is used for planting to raise the crop. Though it is convenient method for planting, it is not becoming commercial due to more number of tubers requirement but not possible to procure them in large quantities. Problem in tuber availability is because; individual plant produces only one mother tuber but no more tuberlets in this crop. It increases the cost of cultivation of spine gourd. Vine cuttings/ stem cuttings Propagation through vine cuttings is not so common method due to low rate of success and also requires hormonal treatment. In general 15-20cm vine cuttings with 5-6 nodes from matured vine are used for multiplication. In vitro propagation/micro-propagation This micro-propagation procedure could be useful for raising genetically uniform planting material of known sex for commercial cultivation or build-up of plant material of a specific sex- type. For this purpose enhanced axillary shoot proliferation from nodal segments are generally used as explants. Most of the time MS media is used for root and shoot proliferation with varied concentrations of growth substances like auxins and cytokinins. As compared with other propagation methods, micro-propagation is most important in this crop for raising true to type plants selected line. But this is quite expensive and need to develop a protocol for better success of regeneration. 3. Production constraints i. Seasonality and dormancy Along with common production problems of handling cucurbits as they are creeping in growth habit requires support to the vine for getting higher yields with better quality produce, spine gourd is having specific issues. Spine gourd is a seasonal crop, yields only once in the year, after harvesting the fruits, vines will undergo senescence and tubers reach to dormancy up to the www.aiasa.org.in 60

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 next year. Because of this reason the land area devoted for growing this crop is remain fallow for following two seasons. Due to which, it is well recommended in the areas where the land is not so intensified like rain fed agency tracts of the country and also the forest lands. ii. Varietal unavailability The availability of improved varieties in this crop is very scarce due to the problems of breeding new varieties in this crop. Maximum area under cultivation of spine gourd is occupied by wild lines which are not uniform in morphological traits. Lack of uniformity is making problems with respect to crop handling and management resulting in lower yields with lesser quality produce. High yielding varieties with uniformity in morphology can handle properly for getting quality produce, which makes easy in marketing and also earning higher profits by the farmers. iii. Pollination problem In spine gourd female and male flowers are situated in different plants makes the difficulty in pollination, if they are placed in higher isolation. To avoid this problem of pollination, a minimum of 10 per cent male plants with higher pollen activity are planted randomly in between the female plant rows. This makes the additional cost for production but solves the problem up to certain extent. iv. Pest and disease problems As spine gourd is underutilized vegetable crop, much effort was not made to develop perfect strategies to cope up major issues of pests and diseases. Insect pests like fruit flies, green bug, painted bug, epilachna beetle, red pumpkin beetle, grasshopper, cotton grey weevil, tobacco caterpillar and leaf eating caterpillar are usually causing the damage. Downy mildew, anthracnose, powdery mildew, mosaic and angular leaf spot are common diseases along with nematodes. To manage these problems, need to follow the regular plant protection measures in integrated manner. 4. Post harvest and marketing constraints The immature and well developed fruits are the economic part of the plant. These fruits having low keeping quality as like other cucurbitaceous vegetables. So, there is a need to develop particular strategies to improve post harvest life as well as converting into value added products. Peoples in some parts of the country are not much familiar about this vegetable. There is need to popularize this vegetable among the consumers, as it is having huge nutritional and medicinal benefits. Achievements Improved varieties

Arka Neelachal : High yield, good appearance, high market preference Shree

Arka Neelachal : The variety exhibits plant and flower morphology more similar to teasel gourd Shanti (Hybrid) while its fruit morphology is more close to spine gourd. www.aiasa.org.in 61

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: It is resistant to major pest and diseases. The plants start yielding after 75-80 days from seeds in the first year and 35-40 days from tubers from second year Indira Kankoda onwards up to six years. The green fruits are very attractive, dark green with I (RMF 37) long shelf life and single fruit weight is about 14 gram. The average green fruit (Hybrid) yield is about 8-10 q/ha in the first year, 10-15 q/ha in the second year and 15- 20 q/ha in the third year.

Conclusion Spine gourd is still considered as under exploited vegetable only, but it is well deserved crop to increase its production by increasing cultivated area. Though there are few varieties available for cultivation of this crop, they are not sufficient to meet the varied demands of the consumers. So there is plenty of space is available to bring improved varieties under cultivation. As it is having so many constraints with respect to pollination, production and marketing, those constraints should be viewed for addressing with possible solutions. It can be possible to introduce this crop as a common vegetable crop among the farmers for earning better profits and also for addressing the nutritional security of the country.

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Soil Borne Diseases - A Threatening to Crop Production P.Mahalakshmi Article ID: 72 Institute of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute, Kumulur Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction Soil harbors a variety of disease causing organisms for both plants and animals. These include microorganisms (fungi, bacteria, actinomyces, phytoplasmas, protozoa and viruses), and larger soil organisms such as nematodes as well as insects (e.g. ants, aphids) and small animals (e.g. slugs, snails, rodents).Plant pathogens may also be spread from plant to plant via insect vectors or by soil animals such as nematodes. Soil borne diseases are considered a major limitation to crop production. Soil borne pathogens such as Rhizoctonia spp., Fusarium spp.,Verticilliumspp., Sclerotinia spp., Pythiumspp and Phytophthora spp. can cause 50%–75% yield loss for many crops such as wheat, cotton, maize, vegetables, fruit and ornamentals as reported to date (Mihajlovic et al., 2017). In worldwide, soil borne plant pathogens are responsible for about 90% of the 2000 major diseases of the principal crops. They often survive for long periods in host plant debris, soil organic matter, free-living organisms or resistant structures like microsclerotia, sclerotia, chlamydospore or oospores (Mokhtar, et al., 2014). The most important soil borne disease is Fusarium wilt is widespread and can infect a range of host crops. Many species are considered weak pathogens and can only infect wounded or stressed host plants. Fusarium wilt Fusarium wilt, wide spread plant disease caused by many forms of the soil- inhabiting fungus Fusarium oxysporum. Several hundred plant species are susceptible, including economically important food crops such as sweet potatoes, tomatoes, legumes, melons, and bananas (in which the infection is known as Panama disease) Fusarium wilt disease is a fungal organism which spreads to plants by entering younger more vulnerable roots. This disease has the ability to survive for years in the soil, and is easily spread by insects, gardening tools, and even by water. Hot weather, dry soil, and rising soil temperatures all contribute to the growth of this disease. Once inside the root system, Fusarium oxysporum grows into and follows the water conducting vessels of the roots; it eventually grows into the stem and the plants’ extremities. Host range Tomato, egg plant and pepper. Can also survive on weeds such as pigweed, mallow, and crabgrass.Worldwide, Fusarium oxysporum has become a major problem for many crops, farmers, gardens, and most notably the banana industry (more on this later). Other crops threatened by this www.aiasa.org.in 63

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 invasive and damaging disease are: Tomato, Pepper, Peas, Potato, Basil, Beans, Watermelon, Carnation, Strawberry, Palm. Pathogen Fusarium oxysporum Schlechtend.:Fr. f. sp. phaseoli J. B. Kendrick and W. C. Snyder. Fungal structures: chlamydospores, macroconidia, and microconidia. Teleomorph: unknown. The pathogen typically has septate, hyaline mycelium, nonseptate chlamydospores (2-4 x 6-15 um). Macroconidia are elongate, crescent-shaped, slightly curved and measure 3-6 x 25-35 um. Damage symptoms Fusarium fungi cause vascular wilt, root rot, foot and stem rot, leaf lesions, fruit rot, head blight in cereals and post-harvest decay.Fusarium oxysporum is the species causing vascular wilt. First the leaves turn yellow and wilt, mostly on one side of the plant. Finally, the whole plant wilts. Other symptoms are brown discolouration of the xylem vessels which can be seen when the stems are cut. In banana, whole plantations may die and the soil may not be suitable for planting for many years to come.

Mode of spread and survival Fusarium wilt can survive for years in the soil and is spread by water, insects and garden equipment. F. oxysporum is a common soil saprophyte that infects a wide host range of plant species around the world. It has the ability to survive in most soil arctic, tropical, desert, cultivated and non-cultivated Favourable conditions Fusarium oxysporum may be found in many places and environments, development of the disease is favored by high temperatures and warm moist soils. The optimum temperature for growth on artificial media is between 25-30 °C, and the optimum soil temperature for root infection is 30 °C or above.[11] However, infection through the seed can occur at temperatures as low as 14 °C.(Synder and Hansen,1940) Biology and disease cycle www.aiasa.org.in 64

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• The fungus can survive as chlamydospores (fungal resting structure) for many years in the soil or in plant debris. • Can be seed borne, but rare in commercial seed. • The fungus can be introduced on infected transplants or spread on equipment contaminated with infested soil. • Long distance dispersal by air borne spores only occurs very rarely. • The pathogen most often enters through root wounds caused by cultivation or by nematode feeding. • The pathogen moves up the plant through the vascular system. • Only one infection cycle occurs each growing season; once a plant is infected, it usually will not spread to another plant in the same growing season. When infested soil attached to tools, tires, shoes, organic or plant material is transferred from one location to another, Fusarium wilt is given the opportunity to spread and thrive.Furthermore, spores can be transported by surface run-off waters, thus enabling contaminated irrigation and reserve water reservoirs. Due to this “ease of transmission and contamination”, the pathogenic strains of Fusarium oxysporum have spread globally. Plants and trees are not the only ones susceptible, grass is too. Management Fusarium wilt is a worldwide problem that can be controlled but not eradicated. It is important to understand that not all fungi are harmful. In fact, decades of research have shown that the mycelia of certain fungi interact with roots and form mycorrhizal associations between trees, plants, and shrubs. These associations promote the strengthening of the chemical defense system, and the transfer of needed carbon and nutrients from one specimen to another.Dealing with an invasive fungal organism such as Fusarium wilt requires fast action and diligence. The following steps will help to control the spread of the fungus: Cultural control: • Purchase disease free seed and transplants from a reliable supplier. • Clean soil and plant debris off all equipment prior to moving to a new field. • Completely remove infected plants. Burn or bury plants in an area that will not be used for solanaceous crops. • Rotation away from susceptible crops for 3-5+ years will reduce disease, but careful weed management must be done during this period. • Avoid excessive nitrogen as it will encourage disease. • Use of calcium nitrate fertilizer instead of ammonium nitrate can reduce Fusarium disease severity in some soils. • In acidic soils, raising the soil pH to 7 can help to control disease. • Pruning, cutting, and digging equipment should always be cleaned after use. However, when dealing with infected plant or fungal growth, all equipment should be washed in a solution of bleach and water (with a ratio of 1 part bleach to 4 parts water). • Disposable gloves should be used to avoid recontamination of the equipment. www.aiasa.org.in 65

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Biological Fungicides The use of biological fungicides (or biofungicides) is an effective way to control pathogenic fungi like F. oxysporum.Biofungicides are measured in cfu/g (colony forming unit per gram), and composed of mycelium and spores of non-pathogenic fungal strains. They work by depriving pathogenic fungi of both space and nourishment by: • Colonizing plant, shrub, and tree roots. • Acting as a hyperparasite (a hyperparasite’s host is itself a parasite). By doing this, biofungicides disrupt the cell walls of pathogens, while producing metabolites which effectively stop plant pathogens. Chemical Control Chemical pesticides are generally used to protect plant surfaces from infection or to eradicate a pathogen that has already infected a plant. A few chemical treatments, however, are aimed at eradicating or greatly reducing the inoculum before it comes in contact with the plant. They include soil treatments (such as fumigation), disinfestation of warehouses, sanitation of handling equipment, and control of insect vectors of pathogens(Singh ,2001). Soil Treatment with Chemicals certain fungicides are applied to the soil as dusts, liquid drenches, or granules to control damping-off, seedling blights, crown and root rots, and other diseases. In fields where irrigation is possible, the fungicide is sometimes applied with the irrigation water, particularly in sprinkler irrigation. Fungicides used for soil treatments include metalaxyl, diazoben, pentachloronitrobenzene(PCNB), captan, and chloroneb, although the last two are used primarily as seed treatments. Most soil treatments, however, are aimed at controlling nematodes, and the materials used are volatile gases or produce volatile gases (fumigants) that penetrate the soil throughout (fumigate). Some nematicides, however, are not volatile but, instead, dissolve in soil water and are then distributed through the soil. References • Mihajlovic´, M.; Rekanovic´, E.; Hrustic´, J.; Tanovic´, B. Methods for management of soilborne plant pathogens. Pestic. Fitomedicina 2017, 32, 9–24. • Mokhtar, M.M.; El-Mougy, N.S. Biocompost application for controlling soilborne plant pathogens–A review. Int. J. Eng. Innov. Technol. 2014, 4, 61–68. • Singh RS. 2001. Disease management- The Practices. Introduction to Principles of Plant Pathology.O xford& IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. pp. 310. • Snyder, W.C. and Hansen, H.N. 1940. The species concept in Fusarium. Am. J. Bot. 27:64-67.

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Insects as Biological Sniffers 1 S. Lekha Priyanka, 2 S. Jeyarani and 3 Khaviya Bala Article ID: 73 1, 2 Department of Agricultural Entomology, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore – 641 003. 3 Department of Agricultural Entomology, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai – 625 104. Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction Illegal drugs and explosives lead to global social challenges such as drug addiction, mental health issues and violent crime. Police and customs officials rely on specially trained sniffer dogs, which act as sensitive biological detectors to find concealed illegal drugs. Training dogs to detect illegal drugs is time consuming. However, honey bees having very acute sense of smell, are quick to train, inexpensive to keep and do not occupy more space. They have the capability to detect extremely low concentrations of volatile compounds (Schott et al., 2013). This makes them ideal to detect illicit drugs, explosives and landmines. Bees naturally exhibit a Proboscis Extension Reflex (PER) when they are presented with food and can be conditioned to show a PER when confronted with other very specific stimuli (Touhara and Vosshall, 2009). This PER has formed the basis for further improvement in establishing technologies to sense illicit volatiles by insects. The emerging technologies used in detecting explosives and illicit drugs includes CYBORG insects (transmitting electrodes to control locomotory movement), LIDAR (LIght Detection And Ranging) technology to locate landmines and Inscentinel‘s VASOR (Volatile Analysis by Specific Odour Recognition) based on olfaction and associative learning in insects. Basic principle that makes insects as natural sniffers Olfaction and Associative learning are the two basic senses of insects which make them to be employed as biological sniffers. (A) Olfaction in Insects When a stimulus molecule comes into contact with the olfactory sensilla localized on the antenna, legs and maxillary palps of the insect, it will be adsorbed and the molecule diffuses through the cuticular pores to the hair lumen. The odorants are taken up by the odorant – binding proteins (OBP) and are transported through the aqueous sensillum lymph and reach a receptor molecule of the outer dendritic membrane. Odorant fixation on the receptor molecule results in activation and transduction of the chemical signals (Stengl et al., 1999). Then, the electrical signal is sent through the axon to the primary education processing center of the central nervous system. From CNS the information reaches the antennal lobe and transmitted to the protocerebrum of the brain where they will be integrated and memorized to produce a behavioral reaction (Brossut, 1996).

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Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of olfaction in insects (B) Associative learning Associative learning is the ability of animals to change the behavioral response according to the changing ecological conditions (Stephens, 1993). To condition insects, two techniques of learning are used. 1. Operant conditioning or instrumental learning is a form of associative learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior (Skipper, 1938). Through operant conditioning, an association is made between behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour. There are two types of operant conditioning: a. Positive Reinforcement: A particular behaviour is strengthened by the consequence of experiencing a positive condition (Bernstein and Nasch, 2008). b. Negative Reinforcement: A particular behaviour is strengthened by the consequence of stopping or avoiding a negative condition (Bernstein and Nasch, 2008). For example, dolphins get a fish for doing a trick. Because the dolphin wants to gain that good thing again, it will repeat the behaviour that seems to cause that consequence (Bernstein and Nasch, 2008). 2. Classical conditioning or Pavlovian or respondent conditioning presentations of a conditioned stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance (Unconditioned stimulus). The neutral or conditioned stimulus could be any event that does not result in a behavioural response. Presentation of the significant or unconditioned stimulus necessarily evokes an www.aiasa.org.in 68

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innate response. If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the insect begins to produce a behavioural response to the conditioned or neutral stimulus also (Pavlov and Anrep, 1960). Insects as Biological Sniffers Honeybees and few other insects are natural – born sniffers with antennae able to sense pollen in the wind and track it down to specific flowers, so bees are now being trained to recognize the scents of bomb ingredients. When the bees pick up a suspicious odour with their antennae, they flick their proboscis or some other indication gestures are made by the insects (Rueppell, 2006). PER (Proboscis Extension Reflex) Proboscis Extension Reflex (PER) is the extension of proboscis (sticking out of tongue) as a reflex to antennal stimulation and this behavior is being exploited to train insects as biological sniffers. In general, PER is expressed when the antenna is stimulated by touching with sugar solution (Eg: Honey bees) (Michel, 2014) and (A field trial was conducted by Ms. Khaviya Bala, II Ph. D. (Entomology) to test the feasibility of Proboscis Extension Reflex).

PER by Honey bees There are two steps in a PER experiment. The first step trains the bees to associate a conditioned stimulus (CS), such as an odour with an unconditioned stimulus (US) such as a sugar. For example, the bee is presented with an odour (CS). It reflexively extends her proboscis and is immediately fed with sugar (US) to reinforce the response. After some number of pairings of the CS and US, the second step in the PER paradigm, tests whether or not the association has been learned. The odour (CS) is presented to the bee in the absence of the sugar solution (US), and the association is confirmed if the bee extends her proboscis to this CS alone (Smith and Burden, 2009). Steps followed on PER Protocol: Ø Collecting, Restraining & Feeding Bees Ø Conditioning Ø Delivering the Unconditioned Stimulus Ø Testing & Recording Response Ø Results: PER after Conditioning www.aiasa.org.in 69

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Emerging Technologies Ø LIDAR Ø CYBORG Ø VASOR Ø WASP HOUND LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) When sniffer bees were released over a test mine field, they hovered longer over spots that emitted vapours of explosives. By scanning the field with Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR), the researchers created a bee density map. The areas of high bee density matched the spots where chemical measurements indicated that landmines were buried (Shaw et al., 2005).

LIDAR Cyborg Locusts Engineers of Washington University, St Louis are working to develop a system of heat – generating ― tattoos that would turn locusts into remote controlled explosive detectors. The team intends to monitor neural activity from the insect brain while they are freely moving and decode the odourants present in their environment. The team also plans to use locusts as a biorobotic system to collect samples using remote control. A laser beam could then be used like a remote control, steering the locust towards or away from targets by heating up its wings. Singamaneni, an expert in multifunctional nanomaterials has developed a plasmonic― tattoo made of a biocompatible silk to apply to the locust wings that will generate mild heat and steer locusts to move towards particular locations by remote control. In addition, the tattoos, studded with plasmonic nanostructures, also can collect samples of volatile organic compounds in their proximity, which would allow the researchers to conduct secondary analysis of the chemical makeup of the compounds (Beth, 2016).

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Cyborg Locust VASOR (Volatile Analysis by Specific Odour Recognition): In practice, a honey bee bomb – detection unit would look like a simple box stationed outside airport security or a train platform. Inside the box, bees would be strapped into tubes and exposed to puffs of air of the chemical to be detected. A video camera linked to pattern recognition software would alert authorities when the bees started waving their proboscis. Inscentinel’s VASOR are using European honeybees, officially known as the Apis mellifera, because they are one of the most commonly found species of bees and can be easily trained. After being used by airports the clients would then return the bees to Inscentinel. When the bees return from duty, the company intends to let them return to a normal life.

VASOR Wasp Hound A hand held chemical detector powered by trained wasps called the wasp hound is a prototype tool that houses wasps that are trained to react to the smells to illegal drugs. The fan www.aiasa.org.in 71

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 inside the tube draws air into the chamber through a pin hole in the cap. If the smell for what these wasps are trained is sensed then they crowd around the pin hole. The web camera snaps the picture of the wasp‘s reaction to the scent and displays the image on the computer monitor. The software graphs the degree of crowding around the pin hole and determines the smell being sought. The results are displayed in 30seconds.

Wasp Hound Conclusion Scientists with innovatory thoughts are turning insects as a substitute for other biological sniffers like dogs. The sensing mechanisms of many more insects are yet to be explored to employ insects as biological sniffers to detect illicit drugs, landmines and explosives. References • Bernstein, D.A. & Nash, P.W. (2008). Essentials of psychology. 4th ed. Boston, MA, USA: Wadsworth Publishing. • Beth, M. (2016). Engineers to use cyborg insects as biorobotic sensing machines. Science and technology. • Brossut, R. (1996). Pheromones : Paris : CNRS Editions. • Michel, R. (2014). Pheromones and General Odor Perception in Insects. In: Mucignat – Caretta, editor. Neurobiology of Chemical Communication: CRC Press, 23 – 56. • Pavlov, I. & Anrep, G.V. (1960). Conditioned reflexes: an investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex. New York, USA: Dover Publications. • Rueppell (2006). The genetic architecture of sucrose responsiveness in the honeybee (Apis mellifera L.). Genetics, 172, 243 – 251. • Schott, M., Wehrenfennig, C., Gasch, T., During, R. A. & Vilcinskas, A. (2013). A portable gas chromatograph with simultaneous detection by mass spectrometry and electroantennography for the highly sensitive in situ measurement of volatiles. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 405 www.aiasa.org.in 72

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• Shaw, J., Seldomridge, N., Dunkle, D., Nugent, P., Spangler, L., Bromenshenk, J., Henderson, C., Churnside, J. & Wilson, J. (2005). Polarization lidar measurements of honey bees in flight for locating land mines. Opt Express, 13, 5853 – 5863. • Skipper, B.F. (1938). Behavior of organisms: experimental analysis. New York, USA: D. Appleton – Century Company, Inc. • Smith, B.H. & Burden, C.M. (2009). A Proboscis Extension Response Protocol for Investigating Behavioral Plasticity in Insects: Application to Basic, Biomedical, and Agricultural Research. Journal of Visualized Experiments, (91), e51057. doi: 10.3791/51057. • Stengl, M., Ziegelberger, G., Boekhoff, I. & Krieger, J. (1999). Perireceptor events and transduction mechanisms in insect olfaction. In: Hansson B.S., ed. Insect olfaction. Berlin, Germany; Heidelberg, Germany: Springer – Verlag, 49 – 66. • Stephens, D.W. (1993). Learning and behavioural ecology: incomplete information and environmental predictability. In: Papaj D.R. and Lewis A.C., eds. Insect learning: ecological and evolutionary perspectives. New York, USA: Chapman and Hall, 195 – 218. • Touhara, K. & Vosshall, L.B. (2009). Sensing odourants and pheromones with chemosensoryreceptors. Annual Review of Physiology, 71, 307– 332.

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Floral Biology of Tamarind and Its Medicinal Importance R. Vinoth*, S. Vijay, J. Mary Lisha and J.Subhashini Article ID: 74 Institute of Agriculture, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Tamil Nadu-621712 Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction The Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is evergreen tree of the pea family (Fabaceae), native to tropical Africa. It was introduced eons ago to India. Indians adopted it so well that it became (almost) indigenous to their country. The name originates from a Persian word called tamar-I- hind (which means ‘Indian date’). It is known as ‘ambli,’ ‘imli, Puli, ‘chinch,’ or tamarind in India. It is a large evergreen tree with an exceptionally beautiful spreading crown, and is cultivated throughout the whole of India, except in the Himalayas and western dry regions. Tamarind is a multipurpose plant. The tamarind has long been naturalized in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Philippines, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Islands. Thailand has the largest plantations of the ASEAN nations, followed by Indonesia, Myanmar, and the Philippines. In parts of Southeast Asia, tamarind is called asam. It is cultivated all over India, especially in Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.It is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible fruit, the sweet and sour pulp of which is extensively used in foods, beverages, and traditional medicines. The plant is especially popular in the Indian subcontinent and in Central America and Mexico and is a common ingredient in the cuisine of those regions. The tree is also grown as an ornamental, and the wood is used in carpentry. Flower Biology: The evergreen leaves are alternately arranged and pinnately lobed. The leaflets are bright green, elliptic-ovular, pinnately veined, and less than 5 cm (2 in) in length. The branches droop from a single, central trunk as the tree matures, and are often pruned in agriculture to optimize tree density and ease of fruit harvest. At night, the leaflets close up. The tree grows to about 24 metres (80 feet) tall and bears alternate, pinnately compound (feather-formed) leaves with leaflets that are about 2 cm (0.75 inch) long. The yellow flowers are borne in small clusters. The fruit is a plump legume 7.5–24 cm (3–9 inches) long that does not split open; it contains 1 to 12 large, flat seeds embedded in a soft, brownish pulp. Flowers Flowers are borne in lax racemes which are few to several flowered (up to 18), borne at the ends of branches and are shorter than the leaves, the lateral flowers are drooping (Fig.1). Flowers are irregular 1.5 cm long and 2-2.5 cm in diameter each with a pedicel about (5-)6(-10) www.aiasa.org.in 74

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 mm long, nodose and jointed at the apex. Bracts are ovate-oblong, and early caducous, each bract almost as long as the flower bud. There are 2 bracteoles, boat shaped, 8 mm long and reddish. The calyx is (8-)10(-15) mm long with a narrow tube (turbinate) and 4 sepals, unequal, ovate, imbricate, membranous and coloured cream, pale yellow or pink. Corolla of 5 petals, the 2 anterior reduced to bristles hidden at the base of the staminal tube. The 3 upper ones are a little longer than the sepals, 1 posterior and 2 lateral, these 3 obovate to oblong, imbricate, coloured pale yellow, cream, pink or white, streaked with red (Fig.2). Flowers are bisexual. The colour of the flowers is the same on each tree; they are not mixed. Stamens are 3(-5) fertile and 4 minute sterile ones. Filaments of fertile stamens are connate and alternate with 6 brittle-like staminodes. Stamens are united below into a sheath open on the upper side and inserted on the anterior part of the mouth of the calyx tube. Anthers are transverse, reddish brown and dehisce longitudinally.

Fig. 1: Flowers are drooping Fig. 2: Flower The ovary is superior with few to many (up to 18) ovules. The ovary is borne on a sheath adnate to the posterior part of the calyx tube. It is stipitate, curving upwards and is green with a long hooked style with a terminal subcapitate stigma. Flowers are protogynous, entomophilous and largely cross-pollinated. Flowers are nectiferous, nectar being produced by hairs at the ovary base. Some self-pollination also occurs A full-grown tamarind tree is reported to yield about 180–225 kg of fruits per season. In India, the average production of tamarind pods per tree is 175 kg and of processed pulp is 70 kg/tree. Periyakulam 1 (PKM1), an improved cultivar in Tamil Nadu, yields about 263 kg/tree. Fruit 1 The fruit is an indehiscent legume, sometimes called a pod, 12 to 15 cm (4 ⁄2 to 6 in) in length, with a hard, brown shell.( Fig. 3) The fruit has a fleshy, juicy, acidic pulp. It is mature www.aiasa.org.in 75

Agri Mirror: Future India ISSN: 2582-6980 Vol 1 Issue 5: September 2020 when the flesh is coloured brown or reddish brown. The tamarinds of Asia have longer pods (containing six to 12 seeds), whereas African and West Indian varieties have shorter pods (containing one to six seeds). The seeds are somewhat flattened, and a glossy brown. The fruit is best described as sweet and sour in taste, and is high in tartaric acid, sugar, B vitamins, and, unusually for a fruit, calcium. The fruit is harvested by pulling the pod from its stalk. A mature tree may be capable of producing up to 175 kg (386 lb) of fruit per year. Veneer grafting, shield (T or inverted T) budding, and air layering may be used to propagate desirable cultivars. Such trees will usually fruit within three to four years if provided optimum growing conditions.

Fig. 3: Tamarind fruit Importance Tamarind Pulp Tamarind is used in India mainly in the form of pulp. The fruit pulp is the chief agent for souring curries, sauces, chutneys and certain beverages throughout the greater part of India. In India, the immature green pods are often eaten by children and adults dipped in salt as a snack. It is also used in India to make ‘tamarind fish’, a seafood pickle, which is considered a great delicacy. Immature tender pods are used as seasoning for cooked rice, meat and fish and delicious sauces for duck, waterfowl and geese. The fruit pulp is edible. The hard green pulp of a young fruit is considered by many to be too sour, but is often used as a component of savory dishes, as a pickling agent or as a means of making certain poisonous yams in Ghana safe for human consumption (Fig. 4).As the fruit matures it becomes sweeter and less sour (acidic) and the ripened fruit is considered more palatable. The sourness varies between cultivars and some sweet tamarind ones have almost no acidity when ripe. In Western cuisine, tamarind pulp is found in Worcestershire Sauce and HP Sauce.

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Fig. 4: Tamarind pulp Tamarind paste has many culinary uses including a flavoring for chutnies, curries, and the traditional sharbat syrup drink. Tamarind sweet chutney is popular in India and Pakistan as a dressing for many snacks. Tamarind pulp is a key ingredient in flavoring curries and rice in south Indian cuisine, in the Chigali lollipop, and in certain varieties of Masala Chai tea. Across the Middle East, from the Levant to Iran, tamarind is used in savory dishes, notably meat-based stews, and often combined with dried fruits to achieve a sweet-sour tang. In the Philippines, the whole fruit is used as an ingredient in the traditional dish called sinigang to add a unique sour taste, unlike that of dishes that use vinegar instead. Indonesia also has a similarly sour, tamarind- based soup dish called sayurasem. In Mexico and the Caribbean, the pulp is diluted with water and sugared to make an aguafresca drink. Tamarind seed oil is the oil made from the kernel of tamarind seeds. Isolation of the kernel without the thin but tough shell (or testa) is difficult. Tamarind kernel powder is used as sizing material for textile and jute processing, and in the manufacture of industrial gums and adhesives. It is de-oiled to stabilize its colour and odor on storage. Tamarind fruits and other extracts from the tree have a number of reported miscel- laneous applications which are still in widespread use. Tamarind pulp mixed with sea salt has been reported to polish brass, copper and silver in Sri Lanka, India, West Africa, South Africa and Somalia. In West Africa, an infusion of the whole pod is added to the dye when colouring goat hides. The fruit pulp is used as a fixative with turmeric (Curcuma longa) and annatto (Bixa orellana) in dyeing, and it also serves to coagulate rubber latex and is used for ethanol production. The treatment of salted dried fish by TKP was found to be the best in preserving the quality of salted fish.

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Medicinal uses of tamarind Tamarind products are commonly used as health remedies throughout Asia, Africa and the Americas. Tamarind products, leaves, fruits and seeds have been extensively used in Indian Ayurvedic medicine and tra-ditional African medicine. The medicinal value of tamarind is mentioned in ancient Sanskrit literature. Tamarind fruits were well known in Europe for their medicinal properties, having been introduced by Arab traders from India. Tamarind fruit is commonly used throughout Southeast Asia as a poultice applied to foreheads of fever sufferers. In traditional Thai medicine, the fruit of the tamarind is used as a digestive aid, carminative, laxative, expectorant and blood tonic. The laxative properties of the pulp and the diuretic properties of the leaf sap have been confirmed by modern medical science. Tamarind has been used in the treatment of a number of ailments, including alleviation of sunstroke, Datura poisoning and the intoxicating effects of alcohol and ‘ganja’. It is used as a gargle for sore throats, dressing of wounds. The ‘Irula’ tribals in Tamil Nadu, India, use tamarind root bark for abortion and for prevention of pregnancies (Lakshmanan and Narayanan, 1990). In some countries, the bark is reported to be prescribed in asthma, amenorrhoea and as a tonic and febrifuge. Antioxidant activity Several reports of antioxidant activity in tamarind indicate that fruits contain biologically important mineral elements and have high antioxidant capacity associated with high phenolic content that can be considered beneficial to human health. Conclusion: Flowers are protogynous, entomophilous and largely cross-pollinated. Flowers are nectiferous, nectar being produced by hairs at the ovary base. Some self-pollination also occurs. Immature tender pods are used as seasoning for cooked rice, meat and fish and delicious sauces for duck, waterfowl and geese. The fruit pulp is the chief agent for souring curries, sauces, chutneys and certain beverages throughout the greater part of India.The fruit of the tamarind is used as a digestive aid, carminative, laxative, expectorant and blood tonic. References: • Doughari, J. H. (2006). Antimicrobial Activity of Tamarindus indica. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 5 (2): 597–603. • El-Siddig, K. (2006). Tamarind: Tamarindus indica L. ISBN 9780854328598. • Havinga, Reinout M.; Hartl, Anna; Putscher, Johanna; Prehsler, Sarah; Buchmann, Christine; Vogl, Christian R. (February 2010). "Tamarindus Indica L. (Fabaceae): Patterns of Use in Traditional African Medicine". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 127 (3): 573–588. www.aiasa.org.in 78

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• ICFRE (1993) Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.), Technical bulletin. Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, 16. • Lakshminarayana S and Hernandez-Urzon H Y (1983) Post harvest physiological and chemi-cal changes in tamarind fruit (Tamarindus indica L.), Tecnologma de Alimentos (Mexico), 18(6): 22–7 • Lakshmanan K K and Narayanan A S S (1990) Antifertility herbals used by the tribals in Anaikkatty Hills, Coimbatore Dist., Tamil Nadu, India, J. Econ. Taxon. Bot., 14(1): 171– 3. • Umar C S and Bhattacharya S (2008) Tamarind seed: properties, processing and utilization, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr., 48(1): 1–20.

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Root Knot Nematode : An emerging threat to Kiwi Plantation Vijay Joshi Article ID: 75 Department of Plant Pathology, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Uttarakhand 263145 Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction Kiwifruit or Chinese gooseberry, is the edible berry of a woody vine of genus Actinidia. The most common cultivar group of kiwifruit is Actinidia deliciosa. It is oval 5-8cm in length and 4.5-5.5 cm diameter. It has thin, hair like, fibrous, sour, edible light brown skin and light green or golden flesh with rows of tiny, black, edible seeds. The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to the 12th century. Kiwi fruit can be grown in most temperate climates with adequate summer heat. Kiwi fruits are dioecious, the male plants have flowers that produce pollen, the female receives the pollen to fertilise their ovules and grow fruit. For a good yield of fruit, one male vine is considered adequate. According to FAOSTAT of the UN in 2017, global production of kiwifruit was 4.04 million tonnes. A 100 gram amount of green kiwifruit provides 61 calorie, 83% water and 15% carbohydrates, with negligible protein and fat. It is particularly rich in Vitamin C (112% DV) and Vitamin K (38% DV) has a moderate content of Vitamin E (10% DV) with other micronutrients like Calcium, Copper, Iron, Magnesium, Manganese, Phosphorus, Potassium, Selenium, Sodium and Zinc (USDA Nutrient Database). Being a nutritious fruit it has emerged with a boom as a leading cash crop in the hilly regions of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, J&K, Darjeeling (West Bengal), Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nilgiri Hills (Tamil Nadu) that can revitalize hilly villages burdened by out migration and urbanization. But due to lack of awareness regarding pest problems in Kiwi specially Root Knot Nematode they are unable to diagnose and manage the loss imposed by the nematodes, as most of the farmers cannot diagnose the nematode infections which later impose threat of secondary infection from opportunistic soil borne pathogen. RKN being a voracious pest has a wide host range and infects Kiwi plantation if orchard is established in a field with prior infection of RKN. Major species of RKN infecting Kiwi plants are Meloidogyne hapla, M. incognita, M. arenaria and M. ethiopica. Damage Symptoms • Formation of galls/knots on host root system is the primary symptom.

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• In severely infected plants the root system is reduced and the rootlets are almost completely absent. • The roots are seriously hampered in their function of uptake and transport of water and nutrients showing nutrient deficiency symptoms like chlorosis. • Plants wilt during the hot part of day, especially under dry conditions and are often stunted. • Nematode infection predisposes plant roots to opportunistic fungal and bacterial soil borne pathogens breaking primary defence barrier causing disease complexes. Survival and spread • Primary Infection: Egg masses in infected root debris and soil or in collateral and other hosts of Solanaceae, Malvaceae, Gramineae and Leguminaceae plants which act as sources of inoculums. • Secondary Infection: Autonomous, second stage juveniles (J2) released after completing one cycle within 30-40 days, that can also be dispersed through water. • Favourable conditions: Moist light sandy loam soils and temperature ranging between 25- 34° C. Biology • RKN have a relatively simple life cycle consisting of the egg, four larval stages and the adult male & female. • Development of the first stage larvae (J1) occurs within the egg where the first molt occurs. Stylet develop in the second stage larvae (J2) which helps them to hatch out from eggs and findfeeder roots of host plants for infection. • Under suitable environmental conditions and availability of host, the eggs hatch and new larvae emerge to complete the life cycle within 4 to 6 weeks depending on temperature. • Mode of reproduction is usually through Parthenogenesis or Amphimixis in the genus Meloidogyne. • Nematode development is generally most rapid within an optimal soil temperature range of 70 to 80°F. • Eggs are deposited in the gelatinous matrix by the females to protect them from unfavourable condition and longer survival which are 200-250 in number. Management 1. Cultural – www.aiasa.org.in 81

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• Ensure the inoculum free field by soil testing before planting, and testing should be repeated periodically every year. • Use infection free plants from a certified nursery. • Soil solarization in hot summers before planting so that the inoculum dessicates. • Irrigate with greater frequency to avoid plant stress. • Avoid planting cover crops susceptible to RKN. 2. Biological – • Soil amendment of Field/ Plants with any one of Trichoderma harzianum, Paecilomyces lilacinus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pasteuria penetrans or Pochonia chlamydosporia enriched compost @ 20kg/ha can be done before and after planting. • Biopesticides like Castor oil and Neem oil have been found effective in managing RKN. 3. Chemical – • Soil drench upto 15-20 cm depth with Velam Prime (Bayer) @0.625 l/ha mixed in 200-300 litres of water before planting or after fruit harvesting. • Broadcast Nimitz (Adama) 7-8 kg/ha for effective management once a year after fruit harvesting.

Fig.1: Kiwi roots infected from RKN Fig.2: Infected plants in Kiwi Orchard www.aiasa.org.in 82

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References: • Carneiro R. M. D. G., Randing O., Almeida M. R. A., & Gomes A. C. M. M. (2004). Additional information on Meloidogyne ethiopica Whitehead, 1968 (Tylenchida: Meloidogynidae), a root-knot nematode parasitizing kiwi fruit and grapevine from Brazil and Chile. Nematology, 6, 109-123. • Kepenekci I., Dura O., & Dura S. (2017). Determination of Nematicidal Effects of Some Biopesticides against Root-Knot Nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) on Kiwifruit. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, 7, 546-551. • Saucer S. B., Ghelder C. V., Abad P., Duval H., & Esmenjaud D. (2016). Resistance to root-knot nematodes Meloidogyne spp. in woody plants. New Phytologist, 211, 41-56. • Verdejo-Lucas S. (1992). Seasonal population fluctuations of Meloidogyne spp. and the Pasteuria penetrans group in kiwi orchards. Plant Disease, 76, 1275-1279.

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Conservation Tillage and Its Impact on Soil Quality Varsha Pandey Article ID: 76 Department of Soil Science, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction The increasing population has put major stress on food security for efficient utilization of the present resources, maintenance of soil fertility and minimum harm to the soil and environment. Conservation agriculture (CA) is a resource saving agricultural crop production method of managing agro ecosystems that ensures efficient use of the natural resources, improved and sustained production level, ensures food security, enhances the natural and biological processes operating above and below the ground and at the same time conserves the environment. Need of conservation agriculture The basic philosophy of CA is that soil does not need tillage for effective crop production. Over the years, conventional agriculture techniques have led to - • degradation of soil structure • reduction of soil organic matter content • maximization of soil erosion risks and increase in runoff • soil compaction leading to reduction in water infiltration • increase in fluctuations in soil aeration and temperature • Inefficient use of resources leading to high production costs. • decline in soil biodiversity • degradation of soil quality • Removal or burning of the crop residues has caused depletion of soil fertility and environmental pollution. Therefore, there is a need of CA for soil surface management and efficient utilization of the natural resource base. Three pillars of CA www.aiasa.org.in 84

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CA is characterized by three interlinked principles (Fig.1) i.e. • Minimum mechanical soil disturbance - it enhances the soil biological diversity as well as soil air and water movement, • Permanent residue cover – retention of crop residues protects the soil from direct impact of raindrops. • Crop rotation or crop diversification. Conservation tillage forms an essential and important pillar of conservation agriculture. It is defined as the method of seedbed preparation and soil surface management that includes retention of crop residues on the surface to increase surface roughness with minimal negative impact on the soil and the environment.

Fig.1: Principles of conservation agriculture Types of conservation tillage practices It includes • Zero tillage • Minimum tillage or reduced tillage • Ridge tillage • Mulch tillage • Contour tillage In case of zero tillage method, there is no or very little soil surface disturbance which is during planting. This method efficiently locks carbon in the soil rather than breaking it down but gives comparatively less yield. Minimum tillage means reduced level of soil disturbance using primary tillage implements. In ridge tillage, crops are planted either on the top of ridges or on the sides of ridges only. In mulch tillage crop residues are retained on the soil surface and in contour tillage, tillage is at right angles to the direction of the slope. www.aiasa.org.in 85

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Impact of conservation tillage on soil quality Soil quality is defined as the “ability of a specific kind of soil to function within its natural ecosystem boundaries to support plant and animal productivity, maintain or enhance water or air quality, and provide support to human health and habitation”. Conservation tillage affects physical, chemical and biological properties of soil in different ways. Different researchers have studied it but sometimes have found contrary results. The generalized effect of conservation tillage on the soil quality is summarized in the Fig. 2.

Impact of conservation tillage on soil quality

Soil physical properties Soil chemical properties Soil biological properties v Imp rovement in aggregate v Effect of tillage to soil v Decrease in activity of stability and pore size chemical properties depends tillage increases the activity distribution in the upper on prevailing climatic of surface feeding surface layers. conditions, soil types, earthworms. v Increase in storage pores cropping system and v The burrowing activity of and transmission pores. As management practices. insects leads to a result increase in micro v No tillage over a improvement in water considerable period of time infiltration, hydraulic porosity and ultimately enhancement of available increases soil organic carbon conductivity, uptake of plant water for plants. content in the top soil nutrients and soil aeration. v Crop residue retention because of decrease in v As a result of increase in

moderates soil evaporation mineralization rate. soil organic carbon content, losses because of lower v Reduced total nitrogen loss. there is abundance of surface temperature. v Lower phosphorus fixation substrate availability for

v Reduced soil compaction due to reduced mixing of the biological activity which and surface crusting. fertilizer with the soil, forms an important part in v No tillage improves leading to higher P soil fertility dynamics. saturated and unsaturated availability. v Larger microbial diversity hydraulic conductivity of v Ca, Mg and K content is suppresses soil borne soil due to continuity of considerably higher due to pathogens. pores. less soil disturbance and prevention of rapid leaching v Minimizes erosion losses. of nutrients.

Fig.2: Impact of conservation agriculture techniques on soil quality

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Conclusion Because of the various problems associated with the conventional tillage methods. There is an urgent need to shift to conservation agriculture practices. Conservation tillage methods have also been suggested as one of the methods to reduce green house gases emission and it helps in carbon dioxide mitigation. Besidesenhancing the soil quality attributes, it is an important management strategy which can help in carbon sequestration as well. Therefore, conservation agriculture practices have now become important for sustainable agriculture development as it is environmental friendly and also provides social and economic benefit to agriculture. References • Naresh, R.K., Dwivedi, A., Gupta, R.K., Rathore, R.S. , Dhaliwal, , S.S. , Singh, S.P. , Kumar, P., Kumar , R., Singh, V. and Singh, O. 2016. Influence of Conservation Agriculture Practices on Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties of Soil and Soil Organic Carbon Dynamics in the Subtropical Climatic Conditions: A Review. Journal Of Pure And Applied Microbiology, 10(2): 1061-1080. • Verhulst, N., Govaerts, B., Verachtert, E., Castellanos-Navarrete, A., Mezzalama, M., Wall, P., Deckers, J., Sayre, K.D., 2010. Conservation Agriculture, Improving Soil Quality for Sustainable Production Systems? In: Lal, R., Stewart, B.A. (Eds.), Advances in Soil Science: Food Security and Soil Quality. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp. 137-208.

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